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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamerkop
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Hamerkop
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The hamerkop (Scopus umbretta), is a medium-sized wading bird. It is the only living species in the genus Scopus and the family Scopidae. The species and family was long thought to sit with the Ciconiiformes but is now placed with the Pelecaniformes, and its closest relatives are thought to be the pelicans and the w. The shape of its head with a long bill and crest at the back is reminiscent of a hammer, which has given this species its name after the Afrikaans word for hammerhead. It is a medium-sized waterbird with brown plumage. It is found in Africa, Madagascar and Arabia, living in a wide variety of wetlands, including estuaries, lakesides, fish ponds, riverbanks, and rocky coasts. The hamerkop is a sedentary bird that often shows local movements.
The hamerkop takes a wide range of prey, mostly fish and amphibians, but shrimps, insects and rodents are taken too. Prey is usually hunted in shallow water, either by sight or touch, but the species is adaptable and will take any prey it can. The species is renowned for its enormous nests, several of which are built during the breeding season. Unusually for a wading bird the nest has an internal nesting chamber where the eggs are laid. Both parents incubate the eggs, and raise the chicks.
The species is not globally threatened and is locally abundant in Africa and Madagascar, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed it as being of least concern.
Taxonomy and systematics
The hamerkop was first described by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 in his landmark Ornithologia, published two years after the tenth edition of Carl Linnaeus' Systema Naturae. Brisson's work was later incorporated by Linnaeus into the 12th edition of the Systema Naturae. Brisson's names for bird genera were widely adopted by the ornithological community despite the fact that he did not use Linnaeus' binomial system. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ruled in 1911 that Brisson's genera were available under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, so Brisson is considered to be the genus authority for the hamerkop. The specific name umbretta was given to the hamerkop in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin. The generic name, Scopus, is derived from the Ancient Greek skia for shadow. The specific name umbretta is modified from the Latin for umber or dark brown.
The hamerkop is sufficiently distinct to be placed in its own family, although the relationships of this species to other families has been a longstanding mystery. The hamerkop was usually included in the Ciconiiformes, but is now thought to be closer to the Pelecaniformes. Recent studies have found that its closest relatives are the pelicans and shoebill.
The hamerkop is the only living member of its family, but one extinct species is known from the fossil record. Scopus xenopus was described by ornithologist Storrs Olson in 1984 based on two bones found in Pliocene deposits from South Africa. Scopus xenopus was slightly larger than the hamerkop and Olson speculated based on the shape of the tarsus that the species may have been more aquatic.
The hamerkop is also known as the hammerkop, hammerkopf, hammerhead, hammerhead stork, umbrette, umber bird, tufted umber, or anvilhead.
Subspecies
Two subspecies are recognized - the widespread nominate race S. u. umbretta and the smaller of West African S. u. minor, described by George Latimer Bates in 1931. Two other subspecies have been proposed. S. u. bannermani of south west Kenya is usually lumped with the nominate race. Birds in Madagascar have been suggested to be distinct, in which case they would be placed in the subspecies S. u. tenuirostris. That proposed subspecies was described by Austin L. Rand in 1936. It has also been suggested that birds near the Kavango River in Namibia may be distinct, but no formal description has been made.
Description
The hamerkop is a medium-sized waterbird, standing high and weighing , although the subspecies S. u. minor is smaller. Its plumage is a drab brown with purple iridescence on the back; S. u. minor is darker. The tail is faintly barred with darker brown. The sexes are alike and fledglings resembled adults. The bill is long, , and slightly hooked at the end. It resembles the bill of a shoebill, and is quite compressed and thin, particularly at the lower half of the mandible. The bill is brown in young birds, but becomes black by the time a bird fledges.
The neck and legs are proportionately shorter than those of similar looking Pelecaniformes. The bare parts of the legs are black and the legs are feathered only to the upper part of the tibia. The hamerkop has, for unknown reasons, partially webbed feet. The middle toe is comb-like (pectinated) like a heron's. Its tail is short and its wings are big, wide, and round-tipped; it soars well, although it does so less than the shoebill or storks. When it does so, it stretches its neck forward like a stork or ibis, but when it flaps, it coils its neck back something like a heron. Its gait when walking is jerky and rapid, with its head and neck moving back and forth with each step. It may hold its wings out when running for extra stability.
Distribution and habitat
The hamerkop occurs in Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, and coastal south-west Arabia. It requires shallow water in which to forage, and is found in all wetland habitats, including rivers, streams, seasonal pools, estuaries, reservoirs, marshes, mangroves, irrigated land such as rice paddies, savannahs, and forests. In Tanzania, it has also recently begun to feed on rocky shores. In Arabia, it is found in rocky wadis with running water and trees. Most are sedentary within their territories, which are held by pairs, but some migrate into suitable habitat during the wet season only. The species is very tolerant of humans and readily feeds and breeds in villages and other human-created habitats.
Behaviour and ecology
The hamerkop is mostly active during the day, often resting at noon during the heat of the day. They can be somewhat crepuscular, being active around dusk, but are not nocturnal as has sometimes been reported.
Social behaviour and calls
The hamerkop is mostly silent when alone, but is fairly vocal when in pairs or in groups. The only call it usually makes when alone is a flight-call, a shrill “nyip” or “kek”. In groups, vocalisations include a range of calls including cackles and nasal rattles. One highly social call is the "yip-purr" call. This call is only made in a social context, when at least three birds, but up to 20 are gathered in a flock. Birds start by giving a number of "yip" calls, eventually giving way to purring notes. This call is made with the neck extended and sometimes accompanied by wing flapping, and becomes more vigorous when larger numbers of birds are present.
Another common social behaviour is "false mounting", in which one bird stands on top of another and appears to mount it, but they do not copulate. This behaviour has been noted between both mated pairs and unmated birds, and even between members of the same sex and in reversed mountings, where females mount males. Because of this, the behaviour is thought to be social and not related to the pair bond. Dominant birds may signal to subordinates by opening their bills slightly and erecting their crests, but the species is not very aggressive in general towards others of its species. Birds in groups also engage in social allopreening when in groups. One bird presents its face of back of the head to the other to be preened.
Food and feeding
This species normally feeds alone or in pairs, but also feeds in large flocks sometimes. It is a generalist, although amphibians and fish form the larger part of its diet. The diet also includes shrimp, insects, and rodents. The type of food they take seems to vary by location, with clawed frogs and tadpoles being important parts of the diet in East and Southern Africa and small fish being almost the only prey taken in Mali. Because it is willing to take a wide range of food items and also take very small prey, it is not resource-limited and only feeds for part of the day.
The usual method of hunting is to walk in shallow water looking for prey. Prey is located differently depending on circumstances; if the water is clear, it may hunt by sight, but if the water is very muddy, it probes its open bill into water or mud and shuts it. It may shuffle one foot at a time on the bottom or suddenly open its wings to flush prey out of hiding. Prey caught in mud is shaken before swallowing to clean it, or if available, taken to clearer water to do so. The species also feeds while in flight. A bird flies slowly low over the water with legs dangling and head looking down, then dipping feet down and hovering momentarily when prey is sighted. The prey is then snatched with the bill and swallowed in flight. This method of hunting can be very successful, with one birds catching prey on 27 of 33 attempts during one 45-minute session. It is also opportunistic, and feeds on swarming termites when they conduct their nuptial flights, snatching as many as 47 alates (flying termites) in five minutes.
This species has been recorded foraging for insects flushed by grazing cattle and buffalo, in a manner similar cattle egrets, and has been observed fishing off the backs of hippopotamuses. It has also been recorded feeding in association with banded mongooses; when a band of mongooses began hunting frogs in dried mud at the side of a pool of water a pair of hamerkops attended the feeding group, catching frogs that escaped the mongooses.
Breeding
The strangest aspect of hamerkop behaviour is the huge nest, sometimes more than across, and strong enough to support a man's weight. When possible, it is built in the fork of a tree, often over water, but if necessary, it is built on a bank, a cliff, a human-built wall or dam, or on the ground. A pair starts by making a platform of sticks held together with mud, then builds walls and a domed roof. A mud-plastered entrance wide in the bottom leads through a tunnel up to long to a nesting chamber big enough for the parents and young. Nests have been recorded to take between 10 and 14 weeks to build, and one researcher estimated that they would require around 8000 sticks or bunches of grass to complete. Nesting material may still be added by the pair after the nest has been completed and eggs have been laid. Much of the nesting material added after completion is not sticks, but an odd collection of random items including bones, hide, and human waste.
Pairs of hamerkop are compulsive nest builders, constructing three to five nests per year whether they are breeding or not. Both members of the pair build the nest, and the building of nests may have a function in creating or maintaining the pair bond between them. Barn owls and eagle owls may force them out and take over the nests, but when the owls leave, the pair may reuse the nest. Owls may also use abandoned nests, as may snakes, small mammals such as genets, and various birds, and weaver birds, starlings, and pigeons may attach their nests to the outside. A few reports exist of hamerkops nesting close together, including in Uganda, where 639 nests were seen in an area of ; even if each pair had made seven nests, this would mean 80 pairs were nesting in that area. The species is not treated as colonial, as it does not habitually nest close together, but is not thought to be highly territorial, either. Even where pairs have home ranges that are more spread out those home ranges overlap and are the boundaries are poorly defined.
Breeding happens year-round in East Africa, and in the rest of its range, it peaks at different times, with a slight bias towards the dry season. Pairs engage in a breeding display, then copulate on the nest or on the ground nearby. The clutch consists of three to seven eggs which start chalky white, but soon become stained. The eggs measure on average, and weight around , but considerable variation is seen. Egg size varies by season, by the overall size of the clutch, and from bird to bird. Both sexes incubate the eggs, but the female seems to do the most of the work. Incubation takes around 30 days from the first egg being laid to hatching, eggs are laid with intervals of one to three days, and they hatch asynchronously.
Both parents feed the young, often leaving them alone for long times. This habit, which is unusual for wading birds, may be made possible because of the thick nest walls. The young hatch covered with grey down. By 17 days after hatching, their head and crest plumage is developed, and in a month, their body plumage. They first leave the nest around 44 to 50 days after hatching, but continue to use the nest for roosting at night until they are two months old.
Relationship with humans
Many legends exist about the hamerkop. In some regions, people state that other birds help it build its nest. The ǀXam informants of Wilhelm Bleek said that when a hamerkop flew and called over their camp, they knew that someone close to them had died.
It is known in some cultures as the lightning bird, and the Kalahari Bushmen believe or believed that being hit by lightning resulted from trying to rob a hamerkop's nest. They also believe that the inimical god Khauna would not like anyone to kill a hamerkop. According to an old Malagasy belief, anyone who destroys its nest will get leprosy, and a Malagasy poem calls it an "evil bird". Such beliefs have given the bird some protection. A south African name Njaka meaning "rain doctor" is derived from its habit of calling loudly prior to rain.
In Kenya it is linked to witchcraft and considered a bird of ill-omen; harming them will also bring on misfortune.
Scopus, a database of abstracts and citations for scholarly journal articles, received its name in honour of this bird, as did the journal of the East African Natural History Society, Scopus.
References
External links
Hamerkop videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Hamerkop - The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
Pelecaniformes
Birds described in 1789
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Birds of East Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taunus
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Taunus
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The Taunus is a mountain range in Hesse, Germany, located north of Frankfurt. The tallest peak in the range is Großer Feldberg at 878 m; other notable peaks are Kleiner Feldberg (825 m) and Altkönig (798 m).
The Taunus range spans the districts of Hochtaunuskreis, Main-Taunus, Rheingau-Taunus, Limburg-Weilburg, and Rhein-Lahn. The range is known for its geothermal springs and mineral waters that formerly attracted members of the European aristocracy to its spa towns. The car line Ford Taunus is named after it.
Description
It is a relatively low range, with smooth, rounded mountains covered with forest. The Taunus is bounded by the valleys of the Rhine, Main, and Lahn rivers and it is part of the Rhenish Slate Mountains.
On the opposite side of the Rhine, The Taunus range is continued by the Hunsrück.
For geographical, ecological and geological purposes the Taunus is divided in three parts:
Anterior Taunus (Vortaunus or Vordertaunus) in the south, next to the cities of Frankfurt am Main and Wiesbaden. This section is mainly made up of old sedimentary rocks with phyllite, greenschist and muscovite. The rocks are often given a greenish hue by the presence of epidote and chlorites.
High Taunus (Hoher Taunus). The central region of the range where the highest peaks are found. Its geological composition includes slates, quartzite, and sandstones.
Farther Taunus (Hintertaunus) at its northern end is the biggest section by area. The geological materials that compose it include graywacke, claystones, and siltstones.
The Taunus range originated during the Devonian period. The geological composition of the mountains was formed in a region covered by an ancient sea that was a few hundred kilometers wide. The mountains are mainly made up of phyllite, greenschist, gneiss, slates, and sandstone.
Summits
Großer Feldberg (878 m), Hochtaunuskreis (Kreis = district). Being the highest point in the range, it provides the scenario for the Feldbergrennen hillclimbing and rallying contests. It should not be confused with the Feldberg in the Black Forest
Kleiner Feldberg (825 m), Hochtaunuskreis. It has an observatory on the summit.
Altkönig (798 m), Hochtaunuskreis. It has the remains of a late Iron Age hill fort (La-Tène A, ca. 400 BC) near the summit.
Weilsberg (701 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Glaskopf (685 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Pferdskopf (663 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Kolbenberg (684 m; telecommunication facility), Hochtaunuskreis
Klingenkopf (683 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Sängelberg (665 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Pferdskopf (663 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Weißeberg (660 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Fauleberg (633 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Großer Eichwald (633 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Roßkopf (632 m; telecommunication facility), Hochtaunuskreis
Kalte Herberge (619 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
Hohe Wurzel (618 m; telecommunication facility), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
Hohe Kanzel (592 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
Herzberg (591m), Hochtaunuskreis
Hallgarter Zange (580 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
Erbacher Kopf (580 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
Steinkopf (Hochtaunuskreis) (570 m), Hochtaunuskreis
Kuhbett (526 m), Kreis Limburg-Weilburg at Weilrod-Hasselbach
Steinkopf (Wetteraukreis) (518 m), Wetteraukreis
History
The Roman Limes was built across the Taunus. The Saalburg, a restored Roman castellum, now houses a museum.
After the fall of the Limes (in 259/260 AD), the Alamanni settled in the range and for this reason there are some Alemannic cemeteries in the southern foothills of the Taunus (Eschborn). This area of the Taunus became part of the Frankish confederation of Germanic tribes after the Battle of Tolbiac around 500 AD.
In past centuries the Taunus became famous among aristocrats for its therapeutic hot springs.
Certain towns in the area, such as Bad Homburg vor der Höhe with its Kurpark, have geothermal spas that were formerly renowned. Other spa towns in the Taunus range are Bad Schwalbach (formerly Langenschwalbach) mentioned in documents dating back to the 16th century, Bad Ems, one of the most reputed therapeutic spas in Germany since the 17th century, as well as Bad Weilbach, where a spring reached wide fame for some time. By the 19th century the most famous spa towns in the area were Wiesbaden, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Bad Nauheim, and Bad Soden am Taunus.
Gallery
References
External links
Umweltatlas Hessen: → Natur und Landschaft → Die Naturräume Hessens bzw. Naturräumliche Gliederung – Naturraum-Haupteinheit 30 (Taunus), auf atlas.umwelt.hessen.de
Fremdenverkehrsinformationen, Taunus Tourist Service at taunus.info
Webcams at taunus.info
Taunus Nature Park at naturpark-taunus.de
Feldberg Roman Fort circular path, at feldbergkastell.de
Summits in the Taunus by isolation and prominence, at thehighrisepages.de
Wehrheim, das Tor zur Bronzezeit im Usinger Land, Infos zu archäologischen Funden in Wehrheim, auf geschichtsverein-usingen.de
Das Vortaunusmuseum at vortaunusmuseum.de
of the Taunus with boundaries, rivers and all important summits (Google Earth), at geographie.giersbeck.de#Taunus Placemarks
Regions of Hesse
Regions of Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhineland
Rhenish Massif
Mountain ranges of Hesse
Mountain ranges of Rhineland-Palatinate
Natural regions of the Central Uplands
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Gong%20%28computer%20scientist%29
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Li Gong (computer scientist)
|
Gong Li (), also known in English as Li Gong, is CEO of Linaro Ltd, a British company headquartered in Cambridge, U.K., developing systems software for the Arm ecosystem. He was previously the Founder and CEO of Acadine Technologies, a systems software company specializing in mobile operating systems for mobile, wearable, and IoT devices. Acadine’s core product H5OS was a web-centric operating system that was primarily based on the open web standard HTML5. It was derived from Firefox OS, whose development Li had overseen as President of Mozilla Corporation.
Education
Born and raised in Beijing, Gong obtained B.S./M.S. at Tsinghua University, Beijing, and a PhD at the University of Cambridge, UK, all in computer science.
Academic achievements
Li Gong has 22 issued US patents and co-authored three books (published by Addison Wesley and O'Reilly), many technical articles, and 8 general articles in the science journal Nature. He won the Best Paper Award at the 1989 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, and received the 1994 Leonard G. Abraham Prize given by the IEEE Communications Society for "the most significant contribution to technical literature in the field of interest of the IEEE."
Career
Li Gong started his career as a researcher, primarily in the fields of computer systems, networking, and information security. He served as both Program Chair and General Conference Chair for ACM CCS, IEEE S&P, and IEEE CSFW. He was Associate Editor of ACM TISSEC and Associate Editor-in-Chief of IEEE Internet Computing. Before going into the industry, he first worked at Odyssey Research in Ithaca, New York, and later at the Computer Science Laboratory at SRI International in Menlo Park, California. He held visiting positions at Cornell and Stanford and was a Guest Chair Professor at Tsinghua University, Beijing.
In 1996, he joined the JavaSoft division at Sun Microsystems (in Cupertino, California) as Chief Java Security Architect and designed the security architecture of the Java platform. He became a Distinguished Engineer and later headed engineering for Java Embedded Server and JXTA, and was the founding Chair of the Java Expert Group at the international standard organization OSGi and led the OSGi 1.0 specification.
In 2001, he founded the Sun Microsystems Engineering and Research Institute (ERI) in China, where he served as general manager and led the team working on Solaris system, browser, OpenOffice and related desktop software research and development.
In 2005, he joined Microsoft as general manager to lead MSN in China and served as vice president of the Microsoft China R&D Group. He led Beijing and Shanghai teams working in many areas across all the services MSN offered — including Messenger, Hotmail, Spaces, Safety, Mobile, Search, Ads platform, and Virtual Earth.
In 2007, Gong joined Mozilla Corporation to found its China subsidiary Mozilla Online Ltd where he served as chairman and CEO. Four years later, he founded Mozilla Taiwan and served as CEO. Later, he served in a number of executive roles at Mozilla’s headquarters, including Senior Vice President of mobile devices, President of Asia operations, chief operating officer, and President.
He left Mozilla in April 2015, and started Acadine Technologies, initially under the name "Gone Fishing". It was announced on July 15, 2015 that Acadine Technologies received $100M of first-round funding from Tsinghua Unigroup International, a Hong Kong entity controlled by Tsinghua University and the Chinese government. In the same year, Li Gong stated that the company was already seeking a second round of funding from international investors, a main rationale being "to dispel very early the incorrect perception that we are somehow a China-backed company. We are really a pure Silicon Valley-style startup".
Li participated (as co-founder, investor, and advisor) in a number of startups in the Silicon Valley and in China. He was venture partner and head of the China office for the US venture capital firm Bessemer Venture Partners from 2007 to 2009.
Awards
Li was named one of the 2003 China New Economy People by China Internet Weekly and Sina.com, and received the China Open Source Movement Leadership Award in 2003 given by the China Software Industry Association. In 2013 he was named a "China Outstanding Open Source Contributor" by the China Open Source Software Promotion Union, and one of the top 100 managers in China by the Chinese management magazine Manager Today.
He is a long-serving member on the board of directors of the Tsinghua University Alumni Association and co-founded Tsinghua Entrepreneur and Executive Club (TEEC) and served as the founding Chairman of Beijing chapter of TEEC in 2008.
References
External links
Acadine Official Website
American technology chief executives
American computer businesspeople
American computer scientists
Living people
Scientists from Beijing
Mozilla people
Tsinghua University alumni
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
1963 births
American businesspeople of Chinese descent
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205383
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masuccio%20Salernitano
|
Masuccio Salernitano
|
Masuccio Salernitano (1410–1475), born Tommaso Guardati, was an Italian poet.
Born in Salerno or Sorrento, he is best known today for Il Novellino, a collection of 50 "novelle" or short stories, each prefaced by a letter of dedication to a famous person and with an epilogue containing the "moral" of the story.
The stories have a strongly anti-clerical bent, which caused Il Novellino to be included in the first Index of Prohibited Books in 1557.
The 33rd of these stories is the story of Mariotto and Ganozza, which was apparently adapted by Luigi da Porto (1485–1529) first as Giulietta e Romeo and later as Historia novellamente ritrovata di due nobili amanti ("Newly retrieved story of two noble lovers"). These three stories, plus another later version by Matteo Bandello and the English translation by Arthur Brooke in the poem Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Juliet (1562) appear to be the sources for Shakespeare's famous play Romeo and Juliet.
References
"Shakespeare in Love"—The Italian Connection by Nicholas A. Patricca
1410 births
1475 deaths
People from Salerno
15th-century Italian poets
15th-century Italian writers
Italian male poets
Italian novelists
Romeo and Juliet
|
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205384
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%20%28franchise%29
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V (franchise)
|
V is a science fiction franchise created by American writer, producer and director Kenneth Johnson about a genocidal invading alien race known as the "Visitors"—reptilian humanoids disguised as human beings—trying to take over Earth, and the human reaction to this, including the Resistance group attempting to stop them, while others collaborate with the aliens for power and personal wealth.
The two-part television miniseries V aired in 1983, written and directed by Johnson. It had cost US$13 million to produce. It was followed in 1984 by a three-part miniseries, V: The Final Battle, and a nineteen-episode weekly television series, V (sometimes referred to as V: The Series) during the 1984–85 television season. ABC ran a remake series, produced by Warner Bros. Television, which ran for two seasons of 22 episodes from November 3, 2009, to March 15, 2011.
In the original series the title refers to the "V for Victory" sign. In the 1983 V miniseries, a group of children are shown spray painting generic graffiti over the Visitors' propaganda posters, but are then shown how to spray the V over the posters by Abraham Bernstein, a Holocaust survivor, who explains the meaning of the sign to them as he defaces the first poster. In the 2009 reboot of the series, however, V is used within the show as an abbreviation for the Visitors.
A number of novels, comic books, video games and other media have been spun off from the franchise. Johnson's novel V: The Second Generation, an alternative sequel to the first miniseries which disregards V: The Final Battle and V: The Series because of his non-involvement with them, was released on February 5, 2008. Johnson stated he was in negotiations for a TV adaptation of his sequel novel, but Warner Bros. opted to do the 2009 remake series instead.
Television
V miniseries (1983)
V: The Final Battle sequel miniseries (1984)
V series (1984–1985)
V reboot series (2009–2011)
The original miniseries debuted in the United States on NBC on May 1, 1983. Series creator Kenneth Johnson has said that the story was inspired by the 1935 novel It Can't Happen Here by Sinclair Lewis. In a commentary track on the DVD release of the first miniseries, Johnson reveals that V was originally intended as a straightforward political thriller, charting the rise of a fascist movement in the United States. NBC was interested in a sci-fi hit, to capitalize on the success of films such as the Star Wars trilogy.
The miniseries was successful enough to spawn a sequel, V: The Final Battle, which was meant to conclude the story, and also a television series in 1984–1985 that continued it. Johnson left the franchise during production of The Final Battle. The cancellation of the TV series in the spring of 1985 meant that the season ends with a cliffhanger. The TV series' single season was released on Region 1 DVD in 2004. The series was remade in 2009.
Film
On February 6, 2018, the reincarnated Desilu Studios announced that it would be producing a feature film of V. The film would be written and directed by Kenneth Johnson, and produced by John Hermansen, Barry Opper, and Johnson. Johnson added "We are delighted to team up with Desilu to bring the timeless—and timely—story of resistance against tyranny into the 21st Century ... V will be the first of a cinematic trilogy which will tell the full epic tale in the manner I always envisioned." Johnson later updated his site to say that Desilu's option has expired, and referred to allegations that the individual helming the new Desilu was defrauding investors.
Novels
Original series
V spun off a series of original novels. Five were originally planned but the range soon extended beyond these. The first was a novelization of the first two miniseries combined into one story, originally planned as 2 books, Pinnacle later changed their minds during its writing, and decreed that it should be one book (The publishers were then left with the option of another book, this became East Coast Crisis) Because the Writers guide was not ready in time for the authors to consult, most of the original novels that followed did not feature characters or continuing storylines from the TV series, but rather focused on battles against the alien invaders in other parts of the world, some were also set during the "unrecorded year" between the end of "The Final Battle" and "Liberation day" to get around this problem.
While the series was on the air, new novels were published once a month by Pinnacle Paperbacks, and in the U.K. every 2 months by New English Library. In 1987–88, the remaining 5 books, left unpublished with the demise of Pinnacle books, were published by Tor. No U.K. publisher was found for these.
The Second Generation
Kenneth Johnson—V's original creator—had been trying to bring the series back to television as a sequel to the original miniseries that would ignore the second miniseries and all the other subsequent fiction. When Warner Bros. decided to go with a complete reboot instead, Johnson wrote his story as a new novel.
Factual books
A number of factual books, covering all aspects of the saga including interviews, articles and episode guides, have been published, most notably the 6 volumes of The V Files, written By James Van Hise and Ed Gross, published by New Media Books/Psi Fi movie Press in the mid 1980s, and the two French books, V: l'autre guerre des mondes (V: The Other War of the Worlds) by Francis Valery, first published in paperback in 1993 by DLM editions (and reissued in 1995), covering the entire original saga up to and including, the unfilmed episode #20 "The Attack", and V: les miroirs du passe (V: The Mirrors of the Past), by Didier Liardet, published by Yris Editions in 2011, this paperback features a full episode guide to both the 1980s original and the modern reboot, details the history of the show, and also includes photos of merchandise from the series over the years.
In 2017, a book by Dan Copp entitled Fascist Lizards from Outer Space: The Politics, Literary Influences and Cultural Impact of Kenneth Johnson's V was published by McFarland & Company.
Also of note is John L. Flynn's Future Threads: Costume Design for the Science Fiction World, published in 1985 by New Media books, which has instructions and patterns for creating several different Visitor costumes, among others.
Comics
DC Comics published an 18-issue V comic book series from February 1985 – July 1986, with stories set to be concurrent with the events of V: The Series. The editor of the comic reported at one point in the letter (fan mail) column that DC was working to acquire permission to continue the storyline of the television series should it not be renewed for a second season. In the end, either such permission was denied or DC decided not to pursue the matter further. The cover of the 18th issue did state "Final Issue", but actually featured (with issue 17) a flashback story featuring Elias Taylor. (Issue 16 led into the opening scene of the final television episode.)
In Japan, Go Nagai wrote a manga adaptation of the series with art by Tatsuya Yasuda.
Computer game
V is a video game based on the TV series of the same name. It was developed by Ocean Software. The programmer was Grant Harrison.
In the role of Mike Donovan, the player must infiltrate an alien mother-ship, destroy the craft, and escape alive. The opening scene is a docking bay, and the player's objectives are to spread the red dust to take out the alien visitors and to set 5 bombs in strategic locations to blow up the mother-ship. The player must solve many puzzles in order to progress and complete the game.
References
External links
Kenneth Johnson's Official Site
Science fiction franchises
Television franchises
Dystopian fiction
Dystopian television
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisticola
|
Cisticola
|
Cisticolas (pronounced sis-TIC-olas) are a genus of very small insectivorous birds formerly classified in the Old World warbler family Sylviidae, but now usually considered to be in the separate family Cisticolidae, along with other southern warbler genera. They are believed to be quite closely related to the swallows and martins, the bulbuls and the white-eyes. The genus contains about 50 species, of which only two are not found in Africa: one in Madagascar and the other from Asia to Australasia. They are also sometimes called fantail-warblers due to their habit of conspicuously flicking their tails, or tailor-birds because of their nests.
The genus was erected by the German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1829. The name Cisticola is from Ancient Greek kisthos, "rock-rose", and Latin colere, "to dwell".
Range and habitat
Cisticolas are widespread through the Old World's tropical and sub-tropical regions. Africa, which is home to almost all species, is the most likely ancestral home of the group. Cisticolas are usually non-migratory with most species attached to and often distinguishable by their habitats.
A variety of open habitats are occupied. These include wetlands, moist or drier grasslands, open or rocky mountain slopes, and human-modified habitats such as road verges, cultivation, weedy areas or pasture. The species preferring wetlands can be found at the edges of mangrove, or in papyrus, common reed, or typha swamps. Cisticolas are generally quite common within what remains of their preferred habitats.
The zitting cisticola (or fan-tailed warbler) is widespread throughout the tropics and even breeds in southern Europe. It has occurred on a few occasions as a vagrant to England.
Description
Because of their small size (about 10 cm) and brown plumage, they are more easily heard than seen. The similar plumage of many species can make them hard to identify, particularly in winter when they seldom emerge from their grasses. Many African species, in particular, are difficult to distinguish other than by their calls. Thirteen species are named for their calls, from "singing" and "chirping" to "bubbling" and "siffling".
Behaviour
Male cisticolas are polygamous. The female builds a discreet nest deep in the grasses, often binding living leaves into the soft fabric of felted plant down, cobweb, and grass: a cup shape for the zitting cisticola with a canopy of tied-together leaves or grasses overhead for camouflage, a full dome for the golden-headed cisticola. The average clutch is about 4 eggs, which take about 2 weeks to hatch. The parasitic weaver is a specialist parasite of cisticolas and prinias.
In summer, male cisticolas of smaller species make spectacular display flights while larger species perch in prominent places to sing lustily. Despite his size and well-camouflaged, brown-streaked plumage, the male golden-headed cisticola of Australia and southern Asia produces a small, brilliant splash of golden-yellow colour in the dappled sunlight of a reed bed.
List of species
The genus contains 50 species:
Red-faced cisticola, Cisticola erythrops
Singing cisticola, Cisticola cantans
Whistling cisticola, Cisticola lateralis
Chattering cisticola, Cisticola anonymus
Trilling cisticola, Cisticola woosnami
Bubbling cisticola, Cisticola bulliens
Chubb's cisticola, Cisticola chubbi
Kilombero cisticola, Cisticola bakerorum
Hunter's cisticola, Cisticola hunteri
Black-lored cisticola, Cisticola nigriloris
Rock-loving cisticola, Cisticola aberrans
Boran cisticola, Cisticola bodessa
Rattling cisticola, Cisticola chiniana
Ashy cisticola, Cisticola cinereolus
Red-pate cisticola, Cisticola ruficeps
Dorst's cisticola, Cisticola guinea - formerly C. dorsti or included in C. ruficeps
Tinkling cisticola, Cisticola rufilatus
Red-headed cisticola, Cisticola subruficappila (formerly Grey-backed cisticola)
Wailing cisticola, Cisticola lais
Lynes's cisticola, Cisticola distinctus (sometimes considered as a subspecies of the wailing cistocola)
Tana River cisticola, Cisticola restrictus
Churring cisticola, Cisticola njombe
Winding cisticola, Cisticola marginatus
Ethiopian cisticola, Cisticola lugubris
Coastal cisticola, Cisticola haematocephalus
White-tailed cisticola, Cisticola anderseni
Luapula cisticola, Cisticola luapula
Rufous-winged cisticola, Cisticola galactotes
Chirping cisticola, Cisticola pipiens
Carruthers's cisticola, Cisticola carruthersi
Levaillant's cisticola, Cisticola tinniens
Stout cisticola, Cisticola robustus
Croaking cisticola, Cisticola natalensis
Piping cisticola, Cisticola fulvicapilla (formerly Neddicky cisticola)
Aberdare cisticola, Cisticola aberdare
Tabora cisticola, Cisticola angustacauda (formerly Long-tailed cisticola)
Slender-tailed cisticola, Cisticola melanurus (formerly Black-tailed cisticola)
Siffling cisticola, Cisticola brachypterus (formerly Short-winged)
Rufous cisticola, Cisticola rufus
Foxy cisticola, Cisticola troglodytes
Tiny cisticola, Cisticola nana
Zitting cisticola, Cisticola juncidis
Socotra cisticola, Cisticola haesitatus
Madagascar cisticola, Cisticola cherina
Desert cisticola, Cisticola aridulus
Cloud cisticola, Cisticola textrix
Black-backed cisticola, Cisticola eximius
Cloud-scraping cisticola, Cisticola dambo (formerly Dambo cisticola)
Pectoral-patch cisticola, Cisticola brunnescens
Pale-crowned cisticola, Cisticola cinnamomeus
Wing-snapping cisticola, Cisticola ayresii
Golden-headed cisticola, Cisticola exilis
References
Further reading
Nguembock B.; Fjeldsa J.; Tillier A.; Pasquet E. (2007): A phylogeny for the Cisticolidae (Aves: Passeriformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data, and a re-interpretation of a unique nest-building specialization. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 42: 272–286.
Ryan, Peter (2006). Family Cisticolidae (Cisticolas and allies). Pp. 378–492 in del Hoyo J., Elliott A. & Christie D.A. (2006) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 11. Old World Flycatchers to Old World Warblers'' Lynx Edicions, Barcelona
External links
Cisticola videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Cisticolidae
Bird genera
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] |
205391
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Maine%20%28SSBN-741%29
|
USS Maine (SSBN-741)
|
USS Maine (SSBN-741) is a United States Navy ballistic missile submarine in commission since 1995. She is the fourth U.S. Navy ship authorized, and the third commissioned, to be named in honor of the state of Maine. She has the capability to carry 24 nuclear armed Trident ballistic missiles.
Construction and commissioning
The contract to build Maine was awarded to the Electric Boat Division of the General Dynamics Corporation, Groton, Connecticut, on 5 October 1988, and her keel was laid there on 3 July 1990. Maine was launched on 16 July 1994, delivered to the U.S. Navy on 23 June 1995, and commissioned on 29 July 1995 at the Portsmouth Navy Yard, on the shore of its namesake state.
Service history
Maine has been homeported at Naval Base Kitsap, Bangor, Washington since December 2005. Prior to this, she was homeported at Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay from August 1995 until December 2005.
Maine in fiction
Maine plays a major role in Tom Clancy's novel The Sum of All Fears.
References
External links
Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
Ohio-class submarines
Nuclear submarines of the United States Navy
United States Navy Maine-related ships
1994 ships
Submarines of the United States
|
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205392
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task%20Force%2011
|
Task Force 11
|
Task Force 11 (TF 11 or alternately Commander Task Force 11, CTF 11) is a designation that has been used by the United States armed forces for two separate units.
World War II
During World War II, Task Force 11 was a United States Navy aircraft carrier task force in the Pacific theater. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Destroyer Squadron 1 was attached to the task force, which was under the command of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown, made up of the aircraft carrier and the heavy cruisers , , and . On 14 December 1941, after delays due to bad weather, the task force cleared Pearl Harbor, [[Hawaii, as a diversion for an expedition under [[Rear admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher in the aircraft carrier to relieve Wake Island.
Originally formed around Lexington, TF 11 then was formed around her sister ship Saratoga until Saratoga was torpedoed and disabled by the Imperial Japanese Navy submarine on 11 January 1942. It then was formed around Lexington again for the Battle of the Coral Sea in which Lexington was sunk in early May 1942, then again around Saratoga after her repairs were completed.
TF 11 – as part of Task Force 61 along with Task Force 16 – was involved in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in late August 1942, but Saratoga was again crippled by a submarine, and the task force shrank to just the carrier and some destroyers.
In September 1943, TF 11 was reorganized around the light aircraft carriers and under Rear Admiral Willis A. Lee and supported landings on Baker Island and Howland Island. In early 1944, its task groups TG 11.1 and 11.2, now consisting of escort carriers, supported operations in the Marshall Islands.
War on Terrorism
Task Force 11 was also the first designation given to the United States special operations forces composite grouping which has pursued terrorist high-value targets in Afghanistan and Iraq since October 2001. The grouping has been redesignated multiple times to avoid information leakages. Task Force 11 (seemingly in reference to 11 September) was only the first title used. It also used the title 'Task Force Sword' at the same time.
Initially it operated under the United States Joint Special Operations Command in Afghanistan searching for senior Taliban and al-Qaeda leaders. The unit included elements from Canada's JTF2 as well. JSOC frequently changed the name of the task force, and it has been designated Task Force 6-26, Task Force 121, and Task Force 145 with one of its most recently recorded names being Task Force 88.
References
Further reading
External links
Joint Special Operations Command at Globalsecurity.org
United States Navy task forces
Special forces task forces of the United States
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20classification
|
Binary classification
|
Binary classification is the task of classifying the elements of a set into two groups on the basis of a classification rule. Typical binary classification problems include:
Medical testing to determine if a patient has certain disease or not;
Quality control in industry, deciding whether a specification has been met;
In information retrieval, deciding whether a page should be in the result set of a search or not.
Binary classification is dichotomization applied to a practical situation. In many practical binary classification problems, the two groups are not symmetric, and rather than overall accuracy, the relative proportion of different types of errors is of interest. For example, in medical testing, detecting a disease when it is not present (a false positive) is considered differently from not detecting a disease when it is present (a false negative).
Statistical binary classification
Statistical classification is a problem studied in machine learning. It is a type of supervised learning, a method of machine learning where the categories are predefined, and is used to categorize new probabilistic observations into said categories. When there are only two categories the problem is known as statistical binary classification.
Some of the methods commonly used for binary classification are:
Decision trees
Random forests
Bayesian networks
Support vector machines
Neural networks
Logistic regression
Probit model
Each classifier is best in only a select domain based upon the number of observations, the dimensionality of the feature vector, the noise in the data and many other factors. For example, random forests perform better than SVM classifiers for 3D point clouds.
Evaluation of binary classifiers
There are many metrics that can be used to measure the performance of a classifier or predictor; different fields have different preferences for specific metrics due to different goals. In medicine sensitivity and specificity are often used, while in information retrieval precision and recall are preferred. An important distinction is between metrics that are independent of how often each category occurs in the population (the prevalence), and metrics that depend on the prevalence – both types are useful, but they have very different properties.
Given a classification of a specific data set, there are four basic combinations of actual data category and assigned category: true positives TP (correct positive assignments), true negatives TN (correct negative assignments), false positives FP (incorrect positive assignments), and false negatives FN (incorrect negative assignments).
These can be arranged into a 2×2 contingency table, with columns corresponding to actual value – condition positive or condition negative – and rows corresponding to classification value – test outcome positive or test outcome negative.
The eight basic ratios
There are eight basic ratios that one can compute from this table, which come in four complementary pairs (each pair summing to 1). These are obtained by dividing each of the four numbers by the sum of its row or column, yielding eight numbers, which can be referred to generically in the form "true positive row ratio" or "false negative column ratio".
There are thus two pairs of column ratios and two pairs of row ratios, and one can summarize these with four numbers by choosing one ratio from each pair – the other four numbers are the complements.
The column ratios are:
true positive rate (TPR) = (TP/(TP+FN)), aka sensitivity or recall. These are the proportion of the population with the condition for which the test is correct.
with complement the false negative rate (FNR) = (FN/(TP+FN))
true negative rate (TNR) = (TN/(TN+FP), aka specificity (SPC),
with complement false positive rate (FPR) = (FP/(TN+FP)), also called independent of prevalence
The row ratios are:
positive predictive value (PPV, aka precision) (TP/(TP+FP)). These are the proportion of the population with a given test result for which the test is correct.
with complement the false discovery rate (FDR) (FP/(TP+FP))
negative predictive value (NPV) (TN/(TN+FN))
with complement the false omission rate (FOR) (FN/(TN+FN)), also called dependence on prevalence.
In diagnostic testing, the main ratios used are the true column ratios – true positive rate and true negative rate – where they are known as sensitivity and specificity. In informational retrieval, the main ratios are the true positive ratios (row and column) – positive predictive value and true positive rate – where they are known as precision and recall.
One can take ratios of a complementary pair of ratios, yielding four likelihood ratios (two column ratio of ratios, two row ratio of ratios). This is primarily done for the column (condition) ratios, yielding likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing. Taking the ratio of one of these groups of ratios yields a final ratio, the diagnostic odds ratio (DOR). This can also be defined directly as (TP×TN)/(FP×FN) = (TP/FN)/(FP/TN); this has a useful interpretation – as an odds ratio – and is prevalence-independent.
There are a number of other metrics, most simply the accuracy or Fraction Correct (FC), which measures the fraction of all instances that are correctly categorized; the complement is the Fraction Incorrect (FiC). The F-score combines precision and recall into one number via a choice of weighing, most simply equal weighing, as the balanced F-score (F1 score). Some metrics come from regression coefficients: the markedness and the informedness, and their geometric mean, the Matthews correlation coefficient. Other metrics include Youden's J statistic, the uncertainty coefficient, the phi coefficient, and Cohen's kappa.
Converting continuous values to binary
Tests whose results are of continuous values, such as most blood values, can artificially be made binary by defining a cutoff value, with test results being designated as positive or negative depending on whether the resultant value is higher or lower than the cutoff.
However, such conversion causes a loss of information, as the resultant binary classification does not tell how much above or below the cutoff a value is. As a result, when converting a continuous value that is close to the cutoff to a binary one, the resultant positive or negative predictive value is generally higher than the predictive value given directly from the continuous value. In such cases, the designation of the test of being either positive or negative gives the appearance of an inappropriately high certainty, while the value is in fact in an interval of uncertainty. For example, with the urine concentration of hCG as a continuous value, a urine pregnancy test that measured 52 mIU/ml of hCG may show as "positive" with 50 mIU/ml as cutoff, but is in fact in an interval of uncertainty, which may be apparent only by knowing the original continuous value. On the other hand, a test result very far from the cutoff generally has a resultant positive or negative predictive value that is lower than the predictive value given from the continuous value. For example, a urine hCG value of 200,000 mIU/ml confers a very high probability of pregnancy, but conversion to binary values results in that it shows just as "positive" as the one of 52 mIU/ml.
See also
Examples of Bayesian inference
Classification rule
Confusion matrix
Detection theory
Kernel methods
Multiclass classification
Multi-label classification
One-class classification
Prosecutor's fallacy
Receiver operating characteristic
Thresholding (image processing)
Uncertainty coefficient, aka proficiency
Qualitative property
References
Bibliography
Nello Cristianini and John Shawe-Taylor. An Introduction to Support Vector Machines and other kernel-based learning methods. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ( SVM Book)
John Shawe-Taylor and Nello Cristianini. Kernel Methods for Pattern Analysis. Cambridge University Press, 2004. (Website for the book)
Bernhard Schölkopf and A. J. Smola: Learning with Kernels. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2002.
Statistical classification
Machine learning
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task%20force
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Task force
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A task force (TF) is a unit or formation established to work on a single defined task or activity. Originally introduced by the United States Navy, the term has now caught on for general usage and is a standard part of NATO terminology. Many non-military organizations now create "task forces" or task groups for temporary activities that might have once been performed by ad hoc (designated purpose) committees.
Naval
The concept of a naval task force is as old as navies, and prior to that time the assembly of ships for naval operations was referred to as fleets, divisions, or on the smaller scale, squadrons, and flotillas.
Before World War II ships were collected into divisions derived from the Royal Navy's "division" of the line of battle in which one squadron usually remained under the direct command of the Admiral of the Fleet, one squadron was commanded by a Vice Admiral, and one by a Rear Admiral, each of the three squadrons flying different coloured flags, hence the terms flagship and flag officer. The flag of the Fleet Admiral's squadron was red, the Vice Admiral's was white and the Rear Admiral's blue. (The names "Vice" (possibly from advanced) and "Rear" might have derived from sailing positions within the line at the moment of engagement.) In the late 19th century ships were collected in numbered squadrons, which were assigned to named (such as the Asiatic Fleet) and later numbered fleets.
A task force can be assembled using ships from different divisions and squadrons, without requiring a formal and permanent fleet reorganization, and can be easily dissolved following completion of the operational task. The task force concept worked very well, and by the end of World War II about 100 task forces had been created in the U.S. Navy alone.
United States Navy
In the United States Navy, task forces are generally temporary organizations composed of particular ships, aircraft, submarines, military land forces, or shore service units, assigned to fulfill certain missions. The emphasis is placed on the individual commander of the unit, and references to "Commander, Task Force" ("CTF") are common.
History
In the U.S. Navy, task forces as part of numbered fleets have been assigned a two-digit number since March 1943, when Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet, Admiral Ernest J. King assigned odd fleets to those in the Pacific, and even fleets to those in the Atlantic.
The Second Fleet was assigned the Atlantic Fleet, with the Fourth Fleet being assigned to the South Atlantic Force, the Eighth Fleet being assigned to Naval Forces, Northwest African waters, and the Twelfth Fleet assigned to the Naval Forces, Europe.
The United States Navy has used numbered task forces in the same way since 1945. The U.S. Department of Defense often forms a Joint Task Force if the force includes units from other services. Joint Task Force 1 was the atomic bomb test force during the post–World War II Operation Crossroads.
In naval terms, the multinational (Australia, United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand) Combined Communications Electronics Board mandates through Allied Communications Publication 113 (ACP 113) the present system, which allocated numbers from 1 to 834. For example, the Royal Navy's Illustrious battle group in 2000 for Exercise Linked Seas, subsequently deployed to Operation Palliser, was Task Group 342.1. The French Navy is allocated the series TF 470–474, and Task Force 473 has been used recently for an Enduring Freedom task force deployment built around the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91). Task Force 142 is the U.S. Navy's Operational Test and Evaluation Force.
Designation
The first digit of a task force designation is that of its parent fleet while the second is sequential. A task force may be made up of groups, each made up of units. Task groups within a force are numbered by an additional digit separated from the TF number by a decimal point. Task units within a group are indicated by an additional decimal. For example, "the third task unit of the fifth task group of the second task force of the Sixth Fleet would be numbered 62.5.3." This system extends further to task elements, individual ships in a task group. This arrangement was typically abbreviated, so references like TF 11 are commonly seen. Task units are sometimes nicknamed "Taffy", as in "Taffy 3" of Task Force 77, formally Task Unit 77.4.3. There is no requirement for uniqueness over time (e.g., the United States Seventh Fleet used TF 76 in World War II, and off Vietnam, and continued to use TF 70–79 numberings throughout the rest of the twentieth century, and up to 2012).
List
Task Force 1 in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. Used as Army/Navy Joint Task Force 1 during Operation Crossroads and then as Task Force 1 during Operation Sea Orbit (solely U.S. Navy).
Task Forces 2–10 in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet.
Task Force 11
Task Force 16
Task Force 17
Task Force 18
Task Force 19, the reinforcement of Iceland, in July 1941.
Task Force 31
Task Force 34
Task Force 37, a Carrier Battle Group of the British Pacific Fleet redesignated from Task Force 57 in May 1945 conducting operations in the South China Sea, Ryukyu Islands and Japanese Inland Sea during World War II
Task Force 38, a Carrier Battle Group of the US Navy which served in the Central Pacific during World War II
Task Force 44, a combined USN and RAN force formed as a part of the South West Pacific Area (command) following the disbandment of the ANZAC Squadron.
Task Force 57, a Carrier Battle Group of the British Pacific Fleet established in March 1945 as detailed above
Task Force 58, a Carrier Battle Group of the US Navy which served in the Central Pacific during World War II
Task Force 61
Task Force 77—including "Taffy 3", or Task Unit 77.4.3, which gained significant fame during the Battle off Samar during the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Task Force 77 continued in existence, and was deployed to the Sea of Japan during the Korean War, and in the Gulf of Tonkin during the Vietnam War.
Task Force 80
Task Force 88
Task Force 129, during the Bombardment of Cherbourg, 1944
United States Marine Corps
See Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF) for a description of the three standard combined arms task force organizations employed by the USMC.
Royal Navy
Earlier in the Second World War, the British Royal Navy had already devised its own system of Forces, they mainly assigned a letter occasionally a number some of the task forces are listed below .
Lettered task forces
Force A
Originally stationed at Malta took part in the Battle of Calabria in 1940 it transferred Trincomalee and was a component of the (fast force) of the Eastern Fleet during the Indian Ocean raid April to May 1942.
Force B
Originally stationed at Malta, took part in the Battle of Calabria on 9 July 1940, took part in the Battle of Cape Spartivento, 27 November 1940, was involved in the First Battle of Sirte, 17 December 1941 it then moved to Trincomalee in March 1942 was a component (slow force) of the Eastern Fleet during the Indian Ocean raid April to May 1942.
Force H
Formed as part of a number of hunting task groups on 5 October 1939 as a prelude to Battle of the River Plate, 13 December 1939 and part of the South America Division after which it was stationed at, Gibraltar, took part in Operation Catapult, 3 July 1940, took part in Operation Rheinübung 19 May - 15 June 1941.
Force K
Part of a number of hunting task groups on 5 October 1939 as a prelude to Battle of the River Plate, 13 December 1939 based in Freetown it was then stationed at, Malta, took part in the Battle of the Tarigo Convoy, 16 April 1941, was involved in the First Battle of Sirte, 17 December 1941 then moved to Freetown in December 1941.
Force Z, was stationed at Singapore, known for the destruction of its two capital ships in the Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse.
Numbered task forces
Force 1
Formed to deal with the Tirpitz Sortie against convoys PQ 12 and QP8, 6–13 March 1942.
Force 62
Formed 13 May 1945 and took part in the Battle off Penang - the Battle of the Malacca Strait.
Task Force 57, later renamed Task Force 37 (USN-allocated names for a Carrier Battle Group of the British Pacific Fleet in 1945).
Post-World War II
During Operation Corporate of the Falklands War in 1982 Royal Navy forces assembled as Task Force 317, often referred to in general use as "The Task Force", to achieve sea and air supremacy in the Falklands Total Exclusion Zone, before the amphibious forces arrived.
French Navy
The French Navy uses the name Task Force 473 to designate any power projection by the sea. This Task Force can be composed of a carrier battle group articulated around the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, or it can be composed of an amphibious group articulated around a Mistral-class amphibious assault ship.
Other
In Argentina, Navy Task Units of Task Group (Grupo de Tareas) were responsible for thousands of instances of forced disappearance, torture and illegal execution of Argentine civilians, many of whom were incarcerated in the Higher School of Mechanics of the Navy detention center during the 1976–1983 military dictatorship.
During the Falklands War in 1982 the Argentine Navy formed three smaller Grupos de Tareas (Task Groups) for pincer movements against the Royal Navy.
Army
In the U.S. Army, a task force is a battalion-sized (usually, although there are variations in size) ad hoc unit formed by attaching smaller elements of other units. A company-sized unit with an armored or mechanized infantry unit attached is called a company team. A similar unit at the brigade level is called a brigade combat team (BCT), and there is also a similar Regimental combat team (RCT).
In the British Army and the armies of other Commonwealth countries, such units are traditionally known as battlegroups.
The 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) was a brigade-sized formation which commanded Australian and New Zealand Army units deployed to South Vietnam between 1966 and 1972. More recently, Australian task forces have been designated to cover temporary support elements such the battalion-sized force which operated in Urozgan Province, Afghanistan from 2006 to 2013, and the Northern Territory Emergency Response Task Force.
Government
In government or business a task force is a temporary organization created to solve a particular problem. It is considered to be a more formal ad hoc committee.
A taskforce, or more commonly, task force, is a special committee, usually of experts, formed expressly for the purpose of studying a particular problem. The task force usually performs some sort of an audit to assess the current situation, then draws up a list of all the current problems present and evaluates which ones merit fixing and which ones are actually fixable. The task force would then formulate a set of solutions to the problems and pick the "best" solution to each problem, as determined by some set of standards. For example, a task force set up to eliminate excessive government spending might consider a "best" solution to be one that saves the most money. Normally, the task force then presents its findings and proposed solutions to the institution that called for its formation; it is then up to the institution itself to actually act upon the task force's recommendations.
Business
In business, task forces are initiated similar to military situations to form an ad hoc group of persons that focus on a specific subject, which needs urgent addressing, resolutions or results. Subject-specific task forces are very common. NASA lessons contain information from different task forces. This can be seen specifically in the COVID-19 crisis, but in many normal project contexts as well, where a dedicated group of experts investigates or takes on a specific request or problem and develops or translates it into results as quick as possible. It is important to know that a task force in project context should stick to certain rules, which have to be coordinated and controlled by a assigned task force leader or by the project manager. Good leadership is a key element of the task force leader, as it is usually asking an extra effort from all resources involved.
Other data regarding US task forces
Some task forces are named after their commander, such as Dunsterforce.
Task Force Tarawa, the name given the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade during the 2003 invasion of Iraq Operation Iraqi Freedom. They were a Marine Air-Ground Task Force commanded by Brigadier General Richard Natonski, attached to the I Marine Expeditionary Force.
Task Force Leatherneck is the name given the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade during their 2009 operations in Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. They are a Marine Air-Ground Task Force commanded by Brigadier General Larry Nicholson, assigned to work under the International Security Assistance Force.
US Army Task Force Lethal is the name for 2-12 Infantry battalion out of Fort Carson, Colorado. Part of the Army's 4th Infantry Division, 4th Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Battalion, 12th Infantry Regiment Task Force Lethal. Some of the heaviest firefights US troops were engaged in were in the Kunar province by teams of Task Force Lethal, there to replace members of the 173rd Airborne units and their outpost Restrepo. Task Force Lethal is assigned to work as part of the International Security Assistance Force. Task Force Lethal prides itself as one of the Army's premier multi-task light Infantry units that has trained at home in the mountainous regions of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and excels at high altitude warfare. The commandos of Task Force Lethal have remained one of the US Army's most elite task forces in the global War on Terror since the start in 2003.
Task Force 1-41 Infantry was a U.S. Army heavy battalion task force which took part in the Gulf War of January–March 1991. Task Force 1-41 Infantry was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment, all being part of the 2nd Armored Division (Forward), based at Lucius D. Clay Kaserne, 24 kilometres (15 mi) north of Bremen, in the Federal Republic of Germany.
See also
Internet Engineering Task Force
Joint Task Force
Kampfgruppe
Space Task Group
Task management
References
Further reading
Timothy M. Bonds, Myron Hura, Thomas-Durrell Young (2010). Enhancing Army Joint Force Headquarters Capabilities. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
Military units and formations by size
Problem solving
|
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205399
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Xaver%20Messerschmidt
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Franz Xaver Messerschmidt
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Franz Xaver Messerschmidt (February 6, 1736 – August 19, 1783) was a German-Austrian sculptor most famous for his "character heads", a collection of busts with faces contorted in extreme facial expressions.
Early years
Born February 6th 1736 in the southwestern town of Wiesensteig, located in the region of the Baden-Württemberg in Germany. Messerschmidt grew up in the Munich home of his uncle, the sculptor Johann Baptist Straub, who became his first master. He spent two years in Graz, in the workshop of his other maternal uncle, the sculptor Philipp Jakob Straub. At the end of 1755 he matriculated at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, and became a pupil of Jacob Schletterer. Graduated, he got work at the imperial arms collection. Here, in the building's salon in 1760-63 he made his first known works of art, the bronze busts of the imperial couple and reliefs representing the heir of the crown and his wife. With these works he joined the Late Baroque art of courtly representation, which was under the determining influence of Balthasar Ferdinand Moll. To this trend belong two other, larger than lifesize tin statues representing the imperial couple, commissioned by Maria Theresa of Austria and executed between 1764 and 1766. Besides some other portraits he also made works with a religious subject. A number of statues commissioned by the Princess of Savoy have survived as well.
Maturity
The Baroque period of his oeuvre ended in 1769 with a bust of the court physician Gerard van Swieten, commissioned by the Empress. At the same time his first early Neo-Classic works appeared, made—characteristically—for the Academy. To these and later works he applied many experiences gained in 1765 during a study trip to Rome. One of these early, severe heads from the years 1769-70, influenced by Roman republican portraits, represents the well-known doctor Franz Anton Mesmer. At about the same time, in 1770-72 Messerschmidt began to work on his so-called character heads, which it has been argued (notably by Ernst Kris) were connected with certain paranoid ideas and hallucinations from which, at the beginning of the seventies, the master began to suffer. Messerschmidt found himself increasingly at odds with his milieu. His situation worsened to such an extent, that in 1774, when he applied for the newly-vacant office of a leading professor at the Academy, where he had been teaching since 1769, instead of getting it he was expelled from teaching. In a letter to the Empress, Count Kaunitz praised Messerschmidt's abilities, but suggested that the nature of his illness (referred to as a "confusion in the head") would make such an appointment detrimental to the institution.
Later years
Bitter, he left Vienna, moved to his native village, Wiesensteig, and from there in the same year, following an invitation, to Munich. Here he waited two years for a promised commission and for a permanent employment at the Court. In 1777 he went to Pressburg (now Bratislava) where his brother, Johann Adam worked as a sculptor. Here he spent the last six years of his life almost in retirement, on the outskirts of the town. He dedicated himself primarily to his character heads.
Character heads (Charakterköpfe )
In 1781, German author Friedrich Nicolai visited Messerschmidt at his studio in Pressburg and subsequently published a transcript of their conversation. Nicolai's account of the meeting is a valuable resource, as it is the only contemporary document that details Messerschmidt's reasoning behind the execution of his character heads. Messerschmidt devised a series of pinches he administered to his right lower rib. Observing the resulting facial expressions in a mirror, Messerschmidt then set about recording them in marble and bronze. His intention, he told Nicolai, was to represent the 64 "canonical grimaces" of the human face using himself as a template.
During the course of the discussion, Messerschmidt went on to explain his interest in necromancy and the arcane, and how this also inspired his character heads. Messerschmidt was a keen disciple of Hermes Trismegistus (Nicolai noted that among the few possessions that littered Messerschmidt's workshop was a copy of an illustration featuring Trismegistus) and abided by his teachings regarding the pursuit of "universal balance": a forerunner to the principles of the Golden ratio. As a result, Messerschmidt claimed that his character heads had aroused the anger of "the Spirit of Proportion", an ancient being who safe-guarded this knowledge. The spirit visited him at night, and forced him to endure humiliating tortures. One of Messerschmidt's most famous heads (The Beaked) was apparently inspired by one of these encounters.
Sources
Michael Krapf, Almut Krapf-Weiler, Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, Hatje Cantz Publishers, , 2003.
Maria Pötzl-Malíková. "Messerschmidt, Franz Xaver." In Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online, (accessed January 10, 2012; subscription required).
Maria Pötzl Malikova, Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, Jugend and Volk Publishing Company, 1982. . Translation into English: Herb Ranharter, 2006
Theodor Schmid, 49 Köpfe, Theodor Schmid Verlag, , 2004.
Franz Xaver Messerschmidt 1736-1783. From Neoclassicism to Expressionism, edited by Maria Pötzl Malikova and Guilhem Scherf, Officina Libraria/Neue Galerie/Musée du Louvre, , 2010.
Eric R. Kandel,The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present, Random House Publishing Group, , 2012.
Michael Yonan, Messerschmidt's Character Heads: Maddening Sculpture and the Writing of Art History, Routledge, , 2018
External links
Entry for Franz Xaver Messerschmidt on the Union List of Artist Names
Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, A Documentary Film by Hakan Topal
Collection of busts held in Slovak national gallery
Biography of Franz Xaver Messerschmidt from the Web Gallery of Art
Website concerning Messerschmidt with extended bibliography
Forbes article on Messerschmidt at the Getty Museum
Information on the 2010-11 exhibition of Messerschmidt's work at the Neue Galerie and the Louvre
1736 births
1783 deaths
18th-century German sculptors
German male sculptors
18th-century Austrian people
18th-century Hungarian people
Austrian sculptors
Austrian male sculptors
Austrian people of German descent
Hungarian people of German descent
People from Göppingen (district)
Artists from Bratislava
People with schizophrenia
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna alumni
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205400
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubilee%20%281978%20film%29
|
Jubilee (1978 film)
|
Jubilee is a 1978 cult film directed by Derek Jarman. It stars Jenny Runacre, Ian Charleson and a host of punk rockers. The title refers to the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 1977.
Numerous punk icons appear in the film including Adam Ant, Toyah, Jordan (a Malcolm McLaren protégé), Nell Campbell, Hermine Demoriane and Wayne County. It features performances by Wayne County and Adam and the Ants. There are also cameo appearances by the Slits and Siouxsie and the Banshees. The film was scored by Brian Eno.
Plot
Queen Elizabeth I is transported forward in time to the film's present day by the occultist John Dee, who commands the spirit guide Ariel (a character from William Shakespeare's The Tempest) to bring them there. Elizabeth arrives in the shattered Britain of the 1970s and moves through the social and physical decay of the city, observing the sporadic activities of a group of aimless nihilists - mostly young women, including Amyl Nitrate, Bod, Chaos, Crabs and Mad.
An early scene, set in a squat, introduces the audience to this group of characters and also to Sphinx and Angel, two incestuous bisexual brothers. Amyl Nitrate instructs a group of young women about history — in so doing, valorising the violent criminal activity of Myra Hindley — before reminiscing about her time as a ballet dancer. Bod, a sex-hating anarchist, has just strangled and killed Queen Elizabeth II, stealing her crown in an arbitrary street robbery.
From there the group move on to a café, where Crabs picks up a young musician named the Kid, Mad tears up some postcards, and Bod attacks a waitress with a bottle of ketchup. Bod contacts impresario Borgia Ginz. On meeting Ginz, however, she is surprised to find Amyl performing a pastiche of "Rule Britannia". Sphinx and Angel establish a relationship with Viv, a young former artist, whom they take to meet Max, an ex-soldier. In exchange for sexual favours, Crabs takes the Kid to see Ginz, who auditions the Kid's band and signs them up under the name "Scum". Sphinx and Angel try to talk the Kid out of this, but he just laughs at their lecturing. Ginz is branching out into property management and has purchased "abandoned" properties such as Westminster Cathedral and Buckingham Palace, which are transformed into musical venues.
Meanwhile, Mad, Bod and Crabs asphyxiate Happy Days, one of Crabs' one-night stands, with red plastic sheeting. They proceed to break into the flat of androgynous rock star Lounge Lizard, whom Bod throttles to death. A fight breaks out between Kid and a policeman, at a disco session in Westminster Cathedral. After the gang all watch Kid's TV debut together, Viv and the three males pay a visit to Max's bingo hall, where violent police activity causes the death of Sphinx, Angel and the Kid. Two revenge attacks on the police officers responsible follow. One of them is castrated to death by Mad and Amyl; the other, who has just started an affair with Crabs, is blown up on his doorstep with a petrol bomb by Bod. Finally, Ginz takes the four women off to Dorset and signs a recording contract with them. Interspersed with these displays of contemporary anarchic violence, Dee, Ariel and Elizabeth try to interpret the signs of anarchic modernity around them, before they undertake a pastoral and nostalgic return to the sixteenth century at the film's end.
Cast
Jenny Runacre – Queen Elizabeth I / Bod
Little Nell – Crabs
Toyah Willcox – Mad
Jordan – Amyl Nitrate
Hermine Demoriane – Chaos
Ian Charleson – Angel
Karl Johnson – Sphinx
Linda Spurrier – Viv
Orlando – Borgia Ginz
Wayne County – Lounge Lizard
Richard O'Brien – John Dee
Adam Ant – Kid
Helen Wellington-Lloyd – Lady-in-waiting
Claire Davenport – First Customs Lady
Barney James – Policeman
Lindsay Kemp – Cabaret performer
Gene October – Happy Days
David Haughton - Ariel
Siouxsie Sioux – herself
Steven Severin – himself
Influences
The film is heavily influenced by the 1970s punk aesthetic in its style and presentation. Shot in grainy colour, it is largely plotless and episodic. Location filming took advantage of London neighbourhoods that were economically depressed and/or still contained large amounts of rubble from the London Blitz.
Reaction
The film had many critics in British punk circles. Fashion designer Vivienne Westwood manufactured a T-shirt on which was printed an "open letter" to Jarman denouncing the film and his misrepresentations of punk. Jarman, according to biographer Tony Peake, was critical of punk's fascination with fascism, while mocking its stupidity and petty violence.
Jubilee is now considered a cult classic, and was released by the Criterion Collection.
Adaptations
In November 2017, the film was adapted by Chris Goode as a play at Manchester Royal Exchange Theatre. Toyah Willcox, who played the role of Mad in the original film, performed the parts of Queen Elizabeth and Bod in this stage revival.
References
External links
Julian Upton: Anarchy in the UK. Derek Jarman's 'Jubilee' revisited Bright Lights Film Journal, Issue 30, October 2000
Jubilee an essay by Tony Peake at the Criterion Collection
Jubilee: No Known Address . . . or . . . Don’t Look Down . . . an essay by Tilda Swinton at the Criterion Collection
1978 films
1978 LGBT-related films
British films
British fantasy films
English-language films
Punk films
British avant-garde and experimental films
1970s avant-garde and experimental films
Films set in London
Films directed by Derek Jarman
|
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205406
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microgram
|
Microgram
|
In the metric system, a microgram or microgramme is a unit of mass equal to one millionth () of a gram. The unit symbol is μg according to the International System of Units; the recommended symbol in the United States and United Kingdom when communicating medical information is mcg. In μg the prefix symbol for micro- is the Greek letter μ (Mu).
Abbreviation and symbol confusion
When the Greek lowercase "μ" (Mu) in the symbol μg is typographically unavailable, it is occasionally — although not properly — replaced by the Latin lowercase "u".
The United States-based Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommend that the symbol μg should not be used when communicating medical information due to the risk that the prefix μ (micro-) might be misread as the prefix m (milli-), resulting in a thousandfold overdose. The ISMP recommends the non-SI symbol mcg instead. However, the abbreviation mcg is also the symbol for an obsolete CGS unit of measure known as millicentigram, which is equal to 10 μg.
Gamma (symbol: γ) is a deprecated non-SI unit of mass equal to 1 μg.
A fullwidth version of the "microgram" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point for use in CJK contexts. In other contexts, a sequence of the Greek letter mu (U+03BC) and Latin letter g (U+0067) should be used.
See also
List of SI prefixes
Orders of magnitude (mass), listing a few items that have a mass of around 1 μg.
References
SI derived units
Units of mass
|
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205408
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro
|
Avogadro
|
Avogadro is an Italian surname, derived from avogaro, a Venetian term for a diocese official (equivalent to avvocato, advocatus, "advocate"). In 1389, bishop Nicolò Beruti, made the office of avogaro hereditary, and a number of noble families with the name Avogaro or Avogadro developed over the following centuries, in Brescia, Vercelli and Treviso.
Albert Avogadro (d. 1214), canon lawyer and Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), chemist. Named after him are:
Avogadro constant
Avogadro's law, an ideal gas law
Avogadro project, a project to base the standard kilogram mass on the Avogadro constant, rather than an arbitrary block of metal
Avogadro (crater), lunar crater
Avogadro (software), molecular editor
Lucia Albani Avogadro (1534-1568), poetess
Oscar Avogadro (1951–2010), lyricist
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] |
205419
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20L%C3%BCtzen
|
Battle of Lützen
|
Battle of Lützen may refer to:
Battle of Lützen (1632), part of the Thirty Years' War
Battle of Lützen (1813), part of the War of the Sixth Coalition
|
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205422
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred
|
Fred
|
Fred may refer to:
People
Fred (name), including a list of people and characters with the name
Mononym
Fred (cartoonist) (1931–2013), pen name of Fred Othon Aristidès, French
Fred (footballer, born 1949), Frederico Rodrigues de Oliveira, Brazilian
Fred (footballer, born 1979), Helbert Frederico Carreiro da Silva, Brazilian
Fred (footballer, born 1983), Frederico Chaves Guedes, Brazilian
Fred (footballer, born 1986), Frederico Burgel Xavier, Brazilian
Fred (footballer, born 1993), Frederico Rodrigues de Paula Santos, Brazilian
Fred again (born 1993), British songwriter known as FRED
Television and movies
Fred Claus, a 2007 Christmas film
Fred (2014 film), a 2014 documentary film
Fred Figglehorn, a YouTube character created by Lucas Cruikshank
Fred (franchise), a Nickelodeon media franchise
Fred: The Movie, a 2010 independent comedy film
Fred the Caveman, French Teletoon production from 2002
Fred Flintstone, of the 1966 TV cartoon The Flintstones
Animals
Fred (baboon), a notorious car raider from Cape Town, South Africa
Fred the Undercover Kitty, an undercover cat working for the New York Police Department
Fred la marmotte, official groundhog of Quebec, Canada
Fred, also known as Monster Pig, a giant pig that was shot in 2007 by an 11-year-old boy
Music
Fred (band), an Irish alternative band
Fred Records, a record label
Songs
"Fred", by James Gang from Yer' Album
"Fred", by Zager & Evans from 2525 (Exordium & Terminus)
Companies
Fred (restaurant), Rotterdam, Netherlands
Fred's, a chain of American retail stores
Fred's Frozen Foods, US
Fred. Olsen & Co., a Norwegian shipping company
Places
Fred, Louisiana, US
Fred, Texas, US
Other uses
Fred (XM), channel 44 on XM Satellite Radio prior to 2008
Fred (chatterbot), an acronym for Functional Response Emulation Device
Fred Defence, a chess gambit
Fred the Computer, at the Middlesex News, a U.S. newspaper on the Internet
Fred the Red, the Manchester United F.C. mascot since 1994
Tropical Storm Fred (disambiguation)
See also
FRED (disambiguation)
Freddy (disambiguation)
|
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205427
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azumah%20Nelson
|
Azumah Nelson
|
Azumah Nelson (born 19 July 1958) is a Ghanaian former professional boxer who competed from 1979 to 2008. He was a two-weight world champion, having held the WBC featherweight title from 1984 to 1987 and the WBC super-featherweight title twice between 1988 and 1997. He also challenged once for the unified WBC and IBF lightweight titles in 1990. At regional level he held the ABU, and Commonwealth featherweight titles between 1980 and 1982. Widely considered one of the greatest African boxers of all time, he is currently ranked as the 31st greatest pound for pound boxer of all time by BoxRec.
Amateur career
Nelson competed at the 1978 All-Africa Games and 1978 Commonwealth Games, winning gold medals in the featherweight class at both events. He was awarded Amateur Boxer of the year by the Sports Writers Association of Ghana (SWAG) that same year.
Professional career
Despite all his early achievements and being undefeated in 13 fights, Nelson was virtually unknown outside Ghana. Because of this, he was a decisive underdog when, on short notice, he challenged WBC featherweight champion Salvador Sánchez on 21 July 1982 at the Madison Square Garden in New York. Nelson lost the fight by fifteenth-round knockout.
World featherweight champion
Nelson won all four of his fights in 1983, and he began 1984 by beating Hector Cortez by decision on 9 March in Las Vegas. Then, on 8 December of that year, he became boxing royalty by knocking out Wilfredo Gómez in round 11 to win the WBC featherweight championship. Behind on the three judges' scorecards, Nelson rallied in that last round to become champion in Puerto Rico.
Super featherweight
Nelson began 1988 by defeating Mario Martinez by a split decision over 12 rounds in Los Angeles to win the vacant WBC super featherweight title. Nelson was dropped in the 10th round of their encounter and the decision was not well received.
On 1 December 1995, defeated world champion Gabriel Ruelas in the fifth round to claim the title.
His first defense took place almost a year later, when he and Leija had their third bout. Nelson retained the title with a six-round knockout. As had become his common practice, that was the only time Nelson fought in 1996.
In 1997, Nelson lost the Lineal & WBC titles to Genaro Hernandez when beaten on points in twelve rounds.
Professional boxing record
Legacy
The Azumah Nelson Sports Complex at Kaneshie in Accra was named after him.
Biography
In 2014 the biography of Azumah Nelson was published. Written by Ashley Morrison it was titled "The Professor - The Life Story of Azumah Nelson" () was published by Strategic Book Publishing.
Personal life
Nelson has a son, Azumah Nelson Junior, whom Nelson is training as a boxer.
In July 2018, Azumah organized a fight night to celebrate his 60th birthday at the Bukom Boxing Arena. This event brought together fighters from highly rated gyms in the country to fight contenders in their divisions. Some dignitaries including Nii Lante Vanderpuiye and Nii Amarkai Amarteifio who are two former sports ministers, Ian Walker the British High Commissioner to Ghana and Peter Zwennes the president of the Ghana Boxing Authority, graced the occasion. In all there were five bouts, three of which were won by knockout.
See also
List of featherweight boxing champions
List of super featherweight boxing champions
List of WBA world champions
List of WBC world champions
References
External links
Azumah Nelson - CBZ Profile
|-
|-
|-
|-
1958 births
Boxers at the 1978 Commonwealth Games
Featherweight boxers
Super-featherweight boxers
Lightweight boxers
Living people
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
World boxing champions
World Boxing Council champions
African Boxing Union champions
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Ghana
Sportspeople from Accra
Ga-Adangbe people
Ghanaian male boxers
Commonwealth Games medallists in boxing
African Games gold medalists for Ghana
African Games medalists in boxing
Competitors at the 1978 All-Africa Games
|
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205431
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel%20Strickland
|
Mabel Strickland
|
Mabel Edeline Strickland, (8 January 1899 – 29 November 1988), was an Anglo-Maltese journalist, newspaper proprietor and politician.
Family and personal life
Strickland was the daughter of Sir Gerald Strickland, later the 4th Prime Minister of Malta, and Lady Edeline Sackville. Her mother was the eldest daughter of Reginald Sackville, 7th Earl De La Warr of Knole, Kent. Mabel never married, leaving the bulk of her estate to her sole heir Robert Hornyold-Strickland. Despite Mabel set up the Strickland Foundation "for herself and her heirs in perpetuity" in 1979. However some of her key assets including the majority shareholding of Allied Newspapers Ltd together with her family home and all of her personal, legal and administrative papers were diverted by her executors away from Mabel's heir. This has resulted in two significant court cases taken out against the Foundation and Allied Newspapers Ltd by her heir.
Residences
Mabel Strickland lived the most of her life at Villa Parisio in Lija, Malta. Prior to this she lived in her family home of Villa Bologna, in Attard, Malta - home of her father Lord Strickland.
Career
Strickland founded a newspaper group in Malta with her father and her stepmother, Lady Strickland, DBE (Margaret, daughter of Edward Hulton). In 1935 she became editor of The Times of Malta and "Il Berqa" before taking over as Managing Director of the Group on the death of her father in 1940. The paper never missed an issue throughout the Siege of Malta in World War Two, despite taking direct hits on several occasions. She formed and led the Progressive Constitutionalist Party during the 1950s and was one of the principal political leaders of the 1950s, participating in the integration talks in 1956-57 as well as opposing independence in 1964. She was elected to the Maltese Parliament in 1962. She always fought passionately for a free and independent press and to maintain Malta's ties with Britain and the Commonwealth. On her retirement she established the Strickland Foundation in the name of her family.
Death
Mabel Strickland died on 29 November 1988, and is buried in the Strickland family crypt in St. Paul's Cathedral, Mdina.
Having never married or had children of her own, Mabel Strickland's chosen sole heir was her great-nephew Robert Hornyold-Strickland. However upon Strickland's death after Robert Hornyold-Strickland was out of Malta, Mabel, as an old lady, was persuaded to change her will by the lawyer who was to become one of her two Executors. Despite the revised will, her great nephew always remained her sole heir. But a result of the revised and very unclear will, her estate has become the subject of a legal conflict between Hornyold-Strickland and the Strickland Foundation. Mabel Strickland set up this foundation "for herself and her heirs in perpetuity". As soon as Robert Hornyold-Strickland took legal action against the executors in 2010, having tried to find an amicable settlement for decades, the aging Executors saw fit to transfer the majority shareholding in Allied Newspapers Ltd (Times of Malta) that had been held in their own names (as executors of the estate), directly to The Strickland Foundation in a highly irregular manner. This is because The Strickland Foundation is registered as a legal person, being as it is a "body corporate", and is, anyway ineligible to be a shareholder both under Maltese Company Law and also under the terms of Allied Newspapers Ltd own Articles of Associate which disallows any "body corporate" from being a shareholder. This irregular transfer, where no instrument of transfer has ever been produced by the executors, is now also the issue of another court case taken out by Robert Hornyold-Strickland and is still in the courts.
See also
Villa Parisio
References
https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2021-04-07/local-news/It-is-for-the-courts-to-decide-whether-my-claims-are-justified-Robert-Hornyold-Strickland-6736232383
https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2021-04-12/local-news/Strickland-Foundation-hijacked-Mabel-s-legacy-for-their-own-political-ends-Robert-Strickland-6736232531
https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/108808/strickland_heir_on_allied_board_insists_hillman_promotion_was_fait_accompli#.YIRl8pAzZPY
Maltese journalists
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Place of birth missing
1899 births
1988 deaths
Members of the House of Representatives of Malta
Progressive Constitutionalist Party (Malta) politicians
20th-century women writers
Maltese women journalists
20th-century Maltese women politicians
20th-century Maltese politicians
Leaders of political parties in Malta
Maltese people of British descent
20th-century Maltese writers
20th-century Maltese women writers
20th-century journalists
English-language writers from Malta
|
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205438
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant%20Allen
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Grant Allen
|
Charles Grant Blairfindie Allen (February 24, 1848 – October 25, 1899) was a Canadian science writer and novelist, educated in England. He was a public promoter of evolution in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Biography
Early life and education
Allen was born on Wolfe Island near Kingston, Canada West (known as Ontario after Confederation), the second son of Catharine Ann Grant and the Rev. Joseph Antisell Allen, a Protestant minister from Dublin, Ireland. His mother was a daughter of the fifth Baron de Longueuil. Allen was educated at home until, at age 13, he and his parents moved to the United States, then to France, and finally to the United Kingdom. He was educated at King Edward's School in Birmingham and at Merton College in Oxford, both in the United Kingdom.
After graduation, Allen studied in France, taught at Brighton College in 1870–71, and in his mid-twenties became a professor at Queen's College, a black college in Jamaica. Despite being the son of a minister, Allen became an atheist and a socialist.
Writing career
After leaving his professorship, in 1876 he returned to England, where he turned his talents to writing, gaining a reputation for his essays on science and for literary works. A 2007 book by Oliver Sacks cites with approval one of Allen's early articles, "Note-Deafness" (a description of what became known as amusia, published in 1878 in the learned journal Mind).
Allen's first books dealt with scientific subjects, and include Physiological Æsthetics (1877) and Flowers and Their Pedigrees (1886) He was first influenced by associationist psychology as expounded by Alexander Bain and by Herbert Spencer, the latter who especially espoused the transition from associationist psychology to Darwinian functionalism. In Allen's many articles on flowers and on perception in insects, Darwinian arguments replaced the old Spencerian terms, leading to a radically new vision of plant life that influenced H.G. Wells and helped transform later botanical research.
On a personal level, a long friendship that started when Allen met Spencer on his return from Jamaica grew uneasy over the years. Allen wrote a critical and revealing biographical article on Spencer that was published after Spencer's death.
After assisting Sir W. W. Hunter with his Gazetteer of India in the early 1880s, Allen turned his attention to fiction, and between 1884 and 1899 produced about 30 novels. In 1895, his scandalous book titled The Woman Who Did, promulgating certain startling views on marriage and kindred questions, became a bestseller. The book told the story of an independent woman who has a child out of wedlock. Owing to his concern with these subjects, Allen was associated with Thomas Hardy, whose novel Jude the Obscure (1895) was published the same year as The Woman Who Did.
In his career, Allen wrote two novels under female pseudonyms. One of these, the short novel The Type-writer Girl, he wrote under the name Olive Pratt Rayner.
Another work, The Evolution of the Idea of God (1897), propounds a theory of religion on heterodox lines comparable to Herbert Spencer's "ghost theory". Allen's theory became well known and brief references to it appear in a review by Marcel Mauss, Durkheim's nephew, in the articles of William James and in the works of Sigmund Freud. The young G. K. Chesterton wrote on what he considered the flawed premise of the idea, arguing that the idea of God preceded human mythologies, rather than developing from them. Chesterton said of Allen's book on the evolution of the idea of God: "it would be much more interesting if God wrote a book on the evolution of the idea of Grant Allen".
Allen also became a pioneer in science fiction, with the novel The British Barbarians (1895) This book, published about the same time as H. G. Wells's The Time Machine (which appeared in January–May 1895, and which includes a mention of Allen), also described time travel, although the plot is quite different. Allen's short story The Thames Valley Catastrophe (published December 1897 in The Strand Magazine) describes the destruction of London by a sudden and massive volcanic eruption.
Ancestry
Personal life
Allen married twice, first to Caroline Ann Bootheway (1846–1871) and secondly to Ellen Jerrard (b, 1853) with whom he had one son, Jerrard Grant Allen (1878–1946), a theatrical agent/manager who in 1913 married the actress and singer Violet Englefield. They had a son, Reginald "Reggie" Grant Allen (1910-1985).
Grant Allen's nephew, Grant Richards, was a writer and publisher who founded the Grant Richards publishing house. Allen encouraged his nephew's interest in books and publishing and helped him obtain his first positions in the book trade. Richards was later to publish a number of books written by his uncle, including The Evolution of the Idea of God and those in the book series Grant Allen's Historical Guides.
Allen's nieces by marriage, novelist Netta Syrett, and artists Mabel Syrett and Nellie Syrret all contributed work to The Yellow Book.
In 1893 Allen left London for the hills around the Devil's Punch Bowl, enthusing on the advantages of the change of scene: "Up here on the free hills, the sharp air blows in upon us, limpid and clear from a thousand leagues of open ocean; down there in the stagnant town, it stagnates and ferments."
Death and posthumous publication
Grant Allen died of liver cancer at his home on Hindhead, Haslemere, Surrey, England, on October 25, 1899. He died before finishing Hilda Wade. The novel's final episode, which he dictated to his friend, doctor and neighbor Sir Arthur Conan Doyle from his bed, appeared under the appropriate title, "The Episode of the Dead Man Who Spoke" in the Strand Magazine in 1900.
Legacy
Many histories of detective fiction mention Allen as an innovator. The illustrious Colonel Clay is a precursor of other gentleman rogue characters; he notably bears a strong resemblance to Maurice Leblanc's Arsène Lupin, introduced some years later, and both Miss Cayley's Adventures and Hilda Wade feature early female detectives.
The Scene of the Crime Festival, an annual festival celebrating Canadian mystery fiction, takes place annually on Wolfe Island, Ontario, near Kingston, Allen's birthplace and honors Allen.
A metal arch commemorating Allen, was designed by Lucy Quinnell and installed at the entrance to Allen Court in Dorking, Surrey in 2013.
Partial bibliography
Books
(1877) Physiological Esthetics
(1879) The Colour-Sense: Its Origin and Development
(1881) Evolutionist at Large
(1881) Vignettes from Nature
(1882) The Colours of Flowers
(1883) Colin Clout's Calendar
(1883) Flowers and Their Pedigrees
(1884) Philistia. Allen's FIRST NOVEL
(1884) Strange Stories. Short Stories
(1885) Babylon. A novel in 3 volumes
(1885) Charles Darwin. (English Worthies)
(1886) For Mamie's Sake
(1886) In All Shades
(1887) The Beckoning Hand and Other Stories. Short Stories
(1888) This Mortal Coil: A Novel
(1888) Force and Energy
(1888) The Devil's Die
(1888) The White Man's Foot
(1889) Falling in Love
(1889) The Tents of Shem
(1890) Wednesday the Tenth
(1890) The Great Taboo
(1891) Dumaresq's Daughter
(1891) What's Bred in the Bone
(1892) Pallinghurst Barrow. Short Story.
(1892) The Duchess of Powysland
(1893) The Scallywag
(1893) Michael's Crag
(1894) The Lower Slopes
(1894) Post-Prandial Philosophy
(1895) The British Barbarians
(1895) At Market Value
(1895) The Story of the Plants
(1895) The Desire of the Eyes
(1895) The Woman Who Did
(1896) The Jaws of Death
(1896) A Bride from the Desert
(1896) Under Sealed Orders
(1896) Moorland Idylls
(1897) Kalee's Shrine
(1897) An African Millionaire: Episodes in the Life of the Illustrious Colonel Clay
(1897) The Evolution of the Idea of God
(1897) Paris (Grant Allen's Historical Guides)
(1897) Florence (Grant Allen's Historical Guides)
(1897) Cities of Belgium (Grant Allen's Historical Guides)
(1897) The Type-writer Girl (as Olive Pratt Rayner)
(1897) Tom, Unlimited (as Martin Leach Warborough)
(1898)
(1898) The Incidental Bishop
(1898) Venice. (Grant Allen's Historical Guides)
(1899) The European Tour
(1899) A Splendid Sin
(1899) Miss Cayley's Adventures. Detective novel
(1899) Twelve Tales: With a Headpiece, a Tailpiece, and an Intermezzo
(1900) Hilda Wade. Detective novel finished by Arthur Conan Doyle
(1900) Linnet
(1901) The Backslider
(1901) In Nature's Workshop
(1908) Evolution in Italian Art
(1909) The Hand of God
(1909) The Plants
Selected articles
(1878) "Hellas and Civilization," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLIII, pp. 156–170
(1878) "Nation-making: A Theory of National Characters," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLIII, pp. 580–591
(1880) "Why Keep India?," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 544–556
(1880) "The Growth of Sculpture," The Cornhill Magazine, Vol. XLII, pp. 273–293
(1880) "The English Chronicle," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLVI, pp. 543–559
(1880) "The Venerable Bede," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLIX, pp. 84–100
(1880) "The Dog's Universe," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLIX, pp. 287–301
(1880) "Evolution and Geological Time," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLIX, pp. 563–579
(1881) "The Story of Wulfgeat," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLI, pp. 551–561
(1882) "An English Shire," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLII, pp. 49–70
(1882) "The Welsh in the West Country," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLIII, pp. 179–197
(1882) "The Colours of Flowers," The Cornhill Magazine, Vol. XLV, pp. 19–34
(1882) "An English Weed," The Cornhill Magazine, Vol. XLV, pp. 542–554
(1883) "Honeysuckle," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLV, pp. 313–322
(1884) "The Garden Snail," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLVI, pp. 25–34
(1884) "Our Debt to Insects," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLVI, pp. 452–469
(1886) "A Thinking Machine," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLX, pp. 30–41
(1889) "From Africa," Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLXVII, pp. 547–557
(1890) "The Girl of the Future," Universal Review, Vol. VII, p. 57
(1891) "Democracy and Diamonds," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LIX, pp. 669–677
Further reading
Allen, Grant (1894) "Physiological Aesthetics' and 'Philistia'." In: My First Book. With an Introduction by Jerome K. Jerome. London: Chatto & Windus.
Bleiler, Everett (1948) The Checklist of Fantastic Literature. Chicago: Shasta Publishers, p. 104.
Chislett, William (1967) "Grant Allen, Naturalist and Novelist." In: Moderns and Near-moderns. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, pp. 198–211.
Clodd, Edward (1900) Grant Allen: A Memoir. London: Grant Richards.
Jackson, Holbrook (1913) The Eighteen Nineties. London: Grant Richards Ltd.
Le Gallienne, Richard (1910) "Grant Allen." In: Attitudes and Avowals. New York: John Lane Company.
Melchiori, Barbara Arnett (2000) Grant Allen: The Downward Path which Leads to Fiction. Rome: Bulzoni Editore
Morton, Peter (2005) "The Busiest Man in England": Grant Allen and the Writing Trade, 1875–1900. London: Palgrave.
Tompkins, Herbert W. (1904) "Grant Allen," The Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXCVIII, pp. 134–149.
Sources
Includes Grant Allen.
References
External links
The Grant Allen Website
1848 births
1899 deaths
Canadian agnostics
Canadian science writers
Canadian male novelists
Canadian non-fiction writers
Writers from Kingston, Ontario
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Irish descent
Charles Darwin biographers
Male feminists
Pre-Confederation Ontario people
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
19th-century Canadian novelists
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Deaths from liver cancer
19th-century male writers
Canadian socialist feminists
Male non-fiction writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhoda%20Broughton
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Rhoda Broughton
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Rhoda Broughton (29 November 1840 – 5 June 1920) was a Welsh novelist and short story writer. Her early novels earned a reputation for sensationalism, so that her later, stronger work tended to be neglected by critics, although she was called a queen of the circulating libraries. Her novel Dear Faustina (1897) has been noted for its homoeroticism. Her novel Lavinia (1902) depicts a seemingly "unmanly" young man, who wishes he had been born as a woman. Broughton descended from the Broughton baronets, as a granddaughter of the 8th baronet. She was a niece of Sheridan le Fanu, who helped her to start her literary career. She was a long-time friend of fellow writer Henry James and was noted for her adversarial relationship with both Lewis Carroll and Oscar Wilde.
Life
Rhoda Broughton was born in Denbigh in North Wales on 29 November 1840, the daughter of the Rev. Delves Broughton, youngest son of the Rev. Sir Henry Delves-Broughton, 8th baronet, and Jane Bennett, daughter of a leading Irish barrister, George Bennett. Her aunt, Susanna Bennett, married the fiction writer Sheridan le Fanu.
Rhoda Broughton developed a taste for literature as a young girl, especially poetry. She was influenced by William Shakespeare, as frequent quotations and allusions throughout her works show. Presumably after reading The Story of Elizabeth by Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie, she had the idea of trying her own talent. She produced her first work within six weeks. Parts of this novel she took with her on a visit to her uncle Sheridan le Fanu, himself a successful author, who was highly pleased with it and assisted her in having it published – her first two novels appeared in 1867 in his Dublin University Magazine. Le Fanu also introduced her to the publisher Richard Bentley, who refused her first novel on the grounds of it being improper material, but accepted the second. Broughton in turn introduced Mary Cholmondeley to her publishers in about 1887. Broughton's writing style was to influence other writers like Mary Cecil Hay, who is thought to have a similar style of dialogue.
Bentley also published a novel of hers which he had initially rejected. She made an effort to employ the popular three-decker form and adapt it to the assumed taste of Bentley's readers. Their professional relationship lasted until the Bentley publishing house was taken over by Macmillan in the late 1890s. By then Broughton had published 14 novels over a period of 30 years. Ten of these were in the three-volume form, which she found hard to comply with. After the commercial failure of Alas!, for which she received her highest ever payment at the height of her career, she decided to write one-volume novels instead. This was the form for her finest works. However, she never shed her early reputation for creating fast heroines with easy morals, as in her early novels, and was still dismissed as merely slight and sensational.
After the take-over, Bentley remained with Macmillan and published another six novels there, but by then her popularity was declining. In a review published in The New York Times of 12 May 1906, a certain K. Clark complained that her latest novel was hard to procure and wondered why such a fine writer was so little appreciated.
After 1910 she moved to Stanley, Paul & Co, which published three novels of hers. Her last, A Fool in Her Folly (1920), was printed posthumously with an introduction by a long-time friend and fellow writer, Marie Belloc Lowndes. This work can be seen as partially autobiographical and may have been written at an earlier time, but suppressed for personal reasons. It deals with the experiences of a young writer and reflects her own, as does her previous novel A Beginner. The manuscript is in her own handwriting, which is unusual, as some previous work had been dictated to an assistant.
Broughton's final years were spent at Headington Hill, near Oxford where she died on 5 June 1920, aged 79. A blue plaque was unveiled on her home there on 22 October 2020.
Works
Somerset Maugham, in his short story "The Round Dozen" (1924, also known as "The Ardent Bigamist") observes: "I remember Miss Broughton telling me once that when she was young people said her books were fast and when she was old they said they were slow, and it was very hard since she had written exactly the same sort of book for forty years."
Rhoda Broughton never married, and some critics assume that a disappointed attachment was the impulse that made her try her pen instead of some other literary work like that of Mrs Thackeray Ritchie. Much of her life she spent with her sister, Eleanor Newcome, until the latter's death in Richmond in 1895. In this she followed the tradition of great lady novelists like Maria Edgeworth, Jane Austen or Susan Ferrier. But there are other merits that cause her to be placed in such high company. In his article on her Richard C. Tobias calls her "the leading woman novelist in England between the death of George Eliot and the beginning of Virginia Woolf's career". He compares her work with other novelists of the time and concludes that hers reaches a much higher quality.
The Game and the Candle (1899) is like Jane Austen's Persuasion (1818) rewritten: this time the heroine has married for rational reasons and is freed in the beginning for her true love, which reason forbade her to marry years before. Her dying husband's last will obliges her to decide between love and fortune. However, a renewed encounter with her former lover forces her to see it was actually a good thing she had not married him. His love turns to be too shallow for her happiness. The novel is one written by a mature and wise woman, who has seen the world.
In A Beginner (1894) Broughton devises a young writer who has her work secretly published and then later torn apart by unknowing people right in front of her face. The novel deals with the moral issues of writing and whether it is appropriate for a young woman to write romantic or even erotic fiction. Scylla or Charybdis? (1895) has a mother hiding her infamous past from her son and obsessing about his love even to the extent of being jealous of other women, a plot to some extent anticipating Lawrence's Sons and Lovers (1913). The novel questions social conventions in revealing how destructive they can be to quiet people who might have once stepped aside from the proper path. In a different way the same criticism is being made in Foes in Law (1900), where the main question is which lifestyle is the one productive of the highest degree of happiness: the conventional one or one that accords with private needs.
Her next novel, Dear Faustina (1897), deals with a heroine drawn to a girl of the New Woman type. This New Woman Faustina cares nothing for social conventions and dedicates her time to fighting social injustice. Or so it seems at first sight, but the reader gets the feeling that Faustina is more interested in getting to know and impressing other young women, which can also be interpreted as criticism of the New Woman as a type. The homoerotic touch reappears in Lavinia (1902), but this time it is a young man who is frequently made to appear unmanly and even utter the wish to have been born a woman. That novel also concerns itself with Britain's craze for war heroes. Very subtly it questions dominant notions of masculinity.
Always an important feature in all her novels is criticism of woman's role and position in society. Very often Broughton's women are strong characters and with them she manages to subvert traditional images of femininity. This culminates in A Waif's Progress (1905), in which Broughton creates a married couple who turn everything traditional upside down, with the wife fulfilling the stereotype of an older, rich husband.
Broughton's collection Tales for Christmas Eve (1873, also known as Twilight Stories) was a collection of five
ghost stories. Robert S. Hadji describes her "short ghost fiction as not as terrifying as her uncle's, but it is skilfully wrought." Hadji also describes Broughton's story "Nothing But the Truth" (1868, vt. "The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing but the Truth") as "one of her cleverest stories".
During her lifetime, Broughton was one of the queens of the circulating libraries. Her fame and success was such that some found it worthwhile to satirise her in works like "Groweth Down Like A Toadstool" or "Gone Wrong" by "Miss Rody Dendron". It is a pity we do not know how she took such things. Perhaps she stood up to them as she did to people like Oscar Wilde or Lewis Carroll, who bore her no love. The latter is said to have declined an invitation because Broughton would be present. The former found a match in her when it came to ironical comments in Oxford society, where she was not liked much, either, due to her ridicule of that set in her novel Belinda (1883). Nevertheless, she also had many friends in literary circles, the most prominent of them being Henry James, with whom she stayed friends until his death in 1916. According to Helen C. Black, James visited Broughton every evening, when they were both in London.
Cultural allusion
"Black Sheep retreated to the nursery and read Cometh up as a Flower with deep and uncomprehending interest. He had been forbidden to open it on account of its 'sinfulness'..." From Rudyard Kipling's short story, Baa Baa Black Sheep, published 1888.
Partial bibliography
Short stories
"The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing But the Truth". By the author of "Cometh Up as a Flower". 1868 February, Temple Bar, Vol. 22, pp. 340–348
"The Man with the Nose". By Rhoda Broughton, author of "Cometh Up as a Flower." 1872 October, Temple Bar, Vol. 36, pp. 328–342
"Behold, it was a Dream!" Unsigned. 1872 November, Temple Bar, Vol. 36, pp. 503–516
"Poor Pretty Bobby". By Rhoda Broughton. 1872 December, Temple Bar, Vol. 37, pp. 61–78
"Under the Cloak". By Rhoda Broughton. 1873 January, Temple Bar, Vol. 37, pp. 205–212
Tales of Christmas Eve. 1873 Bentley; Twilight Stories. 1879 Bentley
The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing But the Truth (1868)
The Man with the Nose (1872)
Behold, it was a Dream! (1872)
Poor Pretty Bobby (1872)
Under the Cloak (1873)
"What it Meant". By Rhoda Broughton. 1881 September, Temple Bar, Vol. 63, pp. 82–94
Betty's Visions. By Rhoda Broughton, author of "Nancy," "Red as a Rose is She," &c. 1883 December 15, 22, 29, The Bristol Mercury and Daily Post, p. 6
Mrs. Smith of Longmains. By Rhoda Broughton, author of "Cometh Up as a Flower," "Good-Bye Sweetheart," "Not Wisely, But Too Well," "Nancy," "Red as a Rose is She," &c., &c. 31 October, 7 November 1885, Sheffield and Rotherham Independent, Supplement pp. 2–3, p. 3
Betty's Visions and Mrs. Smith of Longmains. 1886, Routledge Paperback; 1889, Blackett
"Betty's Visions" (1883)
"Mrs. Smith of Longmains" (1885)
"Was She Mad?" By Rhoda Broughton. 1888 December 26, The Belfast News-Letter, p. 3
"A Home of Rest". By Rhoda Broughton [article]. 1891 September, Temple Bar, Vol. 93, pp. 68–72
Across the Threshold. By Rhoda Broughton, author of "Red as a Rose is She," "Nancy," &c. 1892 June 11, The Penny Illustrated Paper Vol. 62, pp. 372–373
His Serene Highness. Signed Rhoda Broughton. 1893 May, in The Pall Mall Magazine Vol.1, pp. 8–19
"Rent Day". By Rhoda Broughton, author of "Good-Bye Sweetheart", etc. 1893 June, Temple Bar, Vol. 98, pp. 228–248
"A Christmas Outing" 1895, The Lady's Pictorial Christmas Number
"A Stone's Throw" 1897 May, The Lady's Realm Vol. 2, pp. 11–17
"In Five Acts". By Rhoda Broughton. 1897 July 10, The Scranton Republican, p. 10. 1901 February, The Ludgate Series 2, Vol. 11, pp. 340–351
References
External links
Jack Mooney collection of Rhoda Broughton at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books and Special Collections
Literary Heritage – West Midlands – profile and e-texts of five of her novels
Works at the Victorian Women Writers Project
Victorian Secrets: Rhoda Broughton
1840 births
1920 deaths
19th-century British short story writers
19th-century Welsh novelists
20th-century Welsh novelists
19th-century Welsh women writers
20th-century Welsh women writers
Welsh women novelists
Victorian novelists
Victorian women writers
Welsh horror writers
Ghost story writers
Women horror writers
People from Denbigh
Welsh short story writers
British women short story writers
|
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205451
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split%20horizon%20route%20advertisement
|
Split horizon route advertisement
|
In computer networking, split-horizon route advertisement is a method of preventing routing loops in distance-vector routing protocols by prohibiting a router from advertising a route back onto the interface from which it was learned.
The concept was suggested in 1974 by Torsten Cegrell, and originally implemented in the ARPANET inspired Swedish network TIDAS.
Example
In this example, network node A routes packets to node B in order to reach node C. The links between the nodes are distinct point-to-point links.
According to the split-horizon rule, node A does not advertise its route for C (namely A to B to C) back to B. On the surface, this seems redundant since B will never route via node A because the route costs more than the direct route from B to C. However, if the link between B and C goes down, and B had received a route from A to C, B could end up using that route via A. A would send the packet right back to B, creating a loop. This is the Count to Infinity Problem. With the split-horizon rule in place, this particular loop scenario cannot happen, improving convergence time in complex, highly-redundant environments.
Split-horizon routing with poison reverse is a variant of split-horizon route advertising in which a router actively advertises routes as unreachable over the interface over which they were learned by setting the route metric to infinite (16 for RIP). The effect of such an announcement is to immediately remove most looping routes before they can propagate through the network.
The main disadvantage of poison reverse is that it can significantly increase the size of routing announcements in certain fairly common network topologies, but it allows for the improvement of the overall efficiency of the network in case of faults.
Split horizon states that if a neighboring router sends a route to a router, the receiving router will not propagate this route back to the advertising router on the same interface.
With route poisoning, when a router detects that one of its connected routes has failed, the router will poison the route by assigning an infinite metric to it and advertising it to neighbors. When a router advertises a poisoned route to its neighbors, its neighbors break the rule of split horizon and send back to the originator the same poisoned route, called a poison reverse.
In order to give the router enough time to propagate the poisoned route and to ensure that no routing loops occur while propagation occurs, the routers implement a hold-down mechanism.
Poison Reverse
Poison Reverse is an implemented algorithm that is often used within distance-vector routing. The use of poison reverse is to solve the count-to-infinity problem. Practically, poison reverse can be thought of as the reverse of split horizon. With poison reverse, route advertisements that would be suppressed by split horizon are instead advertised with a distance of infinity.
The basic idea of poison reverse is to make sure that a path does not turn back into the same node if a cost has changed within the network. An example of this would be: Node Z routes via node Y to destination X. If the cost between Z and Y increases, the count to infinity problem will occur and here we implement the use of poison reverse. As long as Z routes via node Y to get to X, Z will broadcast an infinite cost to the destination X, to the node which Z routes via (Y).
the numbers between nodes is the cost of the links.
Following this topology and we assume this distance vector table of Z:
As Z routes via Y to get to X and because of that have the cost 3.
The poison reverse kicks in when we broadcast our distance vector to our neighbors:
The distance tables we broadcast is:
To Y:
[0, 1, ∞]
To X:
[0, 1, 3]
As we see in the distance vector that is broadcast to node Y the end destination X has an infinity value. This solves the count-to-infinity problem since if the link between Y and Z will not bounce between each other and instead directly try another path.
Poison reverse doesn't always work. For example:
If the link between C and D would fail node C can still try to go through A to get to the destination. This will cause B to route through A and from there we have a loop we can not solve with poison reverse.
This can though be completed with an implementation of a distance vector protocol called RIP.
Implementations
The split-horizon method is effective and simple to implement, and is therefore used by most distance-vector protocols. It is notably used by:
RIP
IGRP
EIGRP
VPLS, which uses the split horizon technique to avoid loops in the forwarding plane
Babel, which applies split-horizon to wired links only
See also
Split-horizon DNS, a similar concept in DNS performing selective publishing of information
Route poisoning
References
External links
"Split Horizon" and "Split Horizon with Poison Reverse" in Convergence in RIP Internetworks, from Microsoft TechNet.
Routing protocols
Internet Standards
Internet protocols
|
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205454
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task%20Force%2016
|
Task Force 16
|
Task Force 16 (TF16) was one of the most storied task forces in the United States Navy, a major participant in a number of the most important battles of the Pacific War.
It was formed in mid-February 1942 around Enterprise (CV-6), with Vice Admiral William F. Halsey in command of the force, and supported by cruisers Salt Lake City (CA-25) and Northampton (CA-26), along with a half-dozen destroyers.
The task force's first mission was to shell Wake Island and Marcus Island, then, joined by Hornet (CV-8) and the rest of Task Force 18 (TF18), in April the force conducted the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo. In May Halsey was ordered to join Task Force 17 (TF17) in the Coral Sea, but the Battle of the Coral Sea was over before TF 16 could join in.
Halsey was then hospitalized with a skin disease, so Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance took over TF 16 and along with TF 17, led it to victory in the Battle of Midway.
In August, the task force supported the landings on Guadalcanal, then fought in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, followed by the great Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands in October, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November, and covered the retreat of TF 18 after the Battle of Rennell Island.
In March 1943, TG 16.6 fought the Battle of the Komandorski Islands, then bombarded Attu in April, and the whole force supported the recapture of the Aleutians in the Battle of Attu.
In 1944 and 1945, the task force was a refueling unit consisting of destroyer escorts and oilers.
References
Books
Web
United States Navy task forces
Battle of Midway
|
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205460
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Oxenstierna
|
Johan Oxenstierna
|
Johan Axelsson Oxenstierna af Södermöre (24 June 1611 – 5 December 1657) was a Count and a Swedish statesman.
Biography
The son of Lord High Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, he was born in Stockholm. He completed his studies at Uppsala in 1633, and was sent by his father on a grand tour through France, the Netherlands and Great Britain. He served under his brother-in-law Count Gustav Horn af Björneborg in the Thirty Years' War from 1632, and was subsequently employed by his father in various diplomatic missions, though his instructions were always so precise and minute that he was little more than the executor of the Chancellor's wishes. He was one of the commissioners who signed the truce of 1635 with Poland (Armistice of Stuhmsdorf or Treaty of Sztumska Wieś), and in 1639, much against his father's will, was made a Privy Councillor.
Along with Salvius he represented Sweden at the great peace congress of Osnabrück, but as he received his instructions direct from his father, whereas Salvius was in the confidence of Queen Christina, the two "legates" were constantly at variance. From 1650 to 1652 he was Governor General of Swedish Pomerania. King Charles X Gustav made him Marshal of the Realm.
See also
Polish-Swedish War
Notes
External links
1611 births
1657 deaths
Politicians from Stockholm
Johan
Marshals of the Realm
Swedish diplomats
Uppsala University alumni
17th-century Swedish politicians
|
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205461
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Gustafsson%20Oxenstierna
|
Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna
|
Baron Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna (15 June 1587 – 27 November 1640) was a Swedish statesman.
Born either in Tyresö, Sweden, or in Reval (modern Tallinn, Estonia), he was the son of Privy Councillor Gustaf Gabrielsson Oxenstierna and Barbro Axelsdotter Bielke. As such he was brother of, among others, Lord High Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna.
Career
Oxenstierna began studying in Uppsala. He continued to study abroad, in German towns Rostock, Wittenberg and Jena. After his return to Sweden, he was in the service of King Charles IX from 1604. From 1612 he was chancellor and chief adviser of Duke John, son of former King John III. Also in 1612, Oxenstierna was appointed governor of Estonia. In 1617 he became a Privy Councillor and a marshal of the court of King Gustavus Adolphus.
Being a close confidant of older brother Axel Oxenstierna (Lord High Chancellor 1612–1654) as well as of the king, Gabriel Oxenstierna was used as a diplomatic representative on numerous occasions. He was sent as a legate to Denmark both in 1622 and 1625, and during the latter year he also visited Lübeck, Hamburg, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, the Netherlands and England.
After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, Oxenstierna travelled to Germany to meet his brother Axel. Gabriel then became responsible to transport the body of the king back to Sweden. In 1634, he became Lord High Steward (riksdrots), making him head of Svea Court of Appeal (Svea Hovrätt) and as such supervisor of justice in Sweden.
Family life
In 1611, Oxenstierna married Märta Bielke, daughter of Privy Councillor Ture Bielke and Margareta Sture. Märta gave birth to seven children, two of which died at an early age. In 1620, Märta died. Two years later, in November 1620, Oxenstierna married again, this time with Margareta Bielke, daughter of Claes Nilsson Bielke and Elin Fleming. Margareta died in 1629 and two years later, Oxenstierna married for the third time, now with Brita De la Gardie, daughter of Pontus De la Gardie and, as such, sister to Lord High Constable Jacob De la Gardie. Oxenstierna's two last marriages were both childless.
Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna died in Von der Linderska Palace, Stockholm on 27 November 1640.
Legacy
Oxenstierna has been described as "reasonable, honest, jovial and outspoken, loved by high and low". Because of his service and loyalty to his home country, his children and grandchildren were created counts, under the name Oxenstierna of Croneberg.
After inheriting Tyresö in the 1620s, Oxenstierna ordered a reconstruction of Tyresö Palace as well as the building Tyresö Church. The church was inaugurated with his own burial in 1641.
References
External links
1587 births
1640 deaths
Politicians from Tallinn
Gabriel Gustafsson
Swedish nobility
Swedish politicians
17th-century Finnish people
17th-century Swedish politicians
|
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205463
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengt%20Gabrielsson%20Oxenstierna
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Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna
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Count Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna (1623–1702) was a Swedish soldier and statesman, who served as Foreign Minister from 1680 to 1697. During this period, he ensured Sweden remained neutral and moved away from its traditional French alliance.
Life
Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna was born in Stockholm, Sweden on 16 July 1623, eldest surviving son of Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna (1586–1656), and Anna Gustafsdotter Banér (1585-1656). He had eleven brothers and sisters.
He was married twice, to Eva Juliana Wachtmeister (1639-1666), then Magdalena Stenbock (1649-1727); the two marriages produced over 20 children in all. His marriage to Eva connected Oxenstierna to Hans and Axel Wachtmeister, senior Swedish nobles who were both anti-French.
His second wife Magdalena came from one of the leading families in Sweden; she was an intelligent and influential individual in her own right and often acted as his political colleague.
Career
After being educated abroad, he began his diplomatic career at the discussions which led to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War. During this time, he became a trusted confidant of the future Charles X of Sweden. Two years after Charles became king in 1652, Oxenstierna represented Sweden at the Kreistag of Lower Saxony.
When the Second Northern War began in 1655, he took part in the Swedish invasion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and became Governor of the newly-conquered Duchy of Lithuania. In July 1658, he commanded the garrison of Thorn, now Toruń when it was besieged by an Imperial-Polish force, surrendering in December; he later helped negotiate the peace of Oliva that ended the war.
Oxenstierna generally supported closer relations between Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire, placing him in opposition to the pro-French faction headed by Magnus de la Gardie. When Charles X died in 1660, his son Charles XI of Sweden was four years old and ruled through a Regency; Oxenstierna was sidelined by de la Gardie and served as Governor-general of Livonia from 1662 to 1666.
He recovered some of his influence when Charles XI attained his majority in 1672 and was Ambassador to Vienna, 1674 to 1676. While there, he presented a 'Memorial' or paper to Emperor Leopold titled The case of the persecuted and oppressed Protestants in some parts of Germany and Hungary, which was later published in London. During the 1675 to 1679 Scanian War, most of Swedish Pomerania was captured by Brandenburg-Prussia and Denmark-Norway. Oxenstierna helped negotiate the 1679 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which restored most of these losses.
When his chief minister Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna died in 1680, Charles appointed Oxenstierna President of the Court of Chancery, a position that traditionally controlled foreign policy. A contemporary observed their personalities were very different, describing Oxenstierna as 'sluggish and formal', but that both shared a passion for horses. They also shared a belief Sweden needed peace to restore its economy and society, a guiding principle followed for the 17 years.
Oxenstierna moved Sweden away from its traditional pro-French alliance, instead following a policy of friendship with England, the Dutch Republic and the Holy Roman Empire. This culminated in the 1681 Treaty of the Hague between Sweden, the Dutch Republic and Emperor Leopold, although he ensured Sweden remained neutral in the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years War.
As President of the Court of Chancery, he was also de facto Minister of Culture, approving all publications; author and military engineer Erik Dahlbergh, (1625-1703), dedicated a number of books to him.
When Charles XI died in 1697, Oxenstierna was one of the regents during the minority of his son Charles XII of Sweden, a talented soldier of great energy and ambition. Charles launched the Great Northern War in 1700 and Oxenstierna retired from office; he died in July 1702 and was buried in Uppsala Cathedral, where his grave monument can still be seen.
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica describes him as "a shrewd and subtle little man, of gentle disposition, but remarkable for his firmness and tenacity of character."
References
Sources
External links
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Bengt
1623 births
1702 deaths
17th-century Swedish politicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20microbiome
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Human microbiome
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The human microbiome is the aggregate of all microbiota that reside on or within human tissues and biofluids along with the corresponding anatomical sites in which they reside, including the skin, mammary glands, seminal fluid, uterus, ovarian follicles, lung, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, biliary tract, and gastrointestinal tract. Types of human microbiota include bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists and viruses. Though micro-animals can also live on the human body, they are typically excluded from this definition. In the context of genomics, the term human microbiome is sometimes used to refer to the collective genomes of resident microorganisms; however, the term human metagenome has the same meaning.
Humans are colonized by many microorganisms, with approximately the same order of magnitude of non-human cells as human cells. Some microorganisms that colonize humans are commensal, meaning they co-exist without harming humans; others have a mutualistic relationship with their human hosts. Conversely, some non-pathogenic microorganisms can harm human hosts via the metabolites they produce, like trimethylamine, which the human body converts to trimethylamine N-oxide via FMO3-mediated oxidation. Certain microorganisms perform tasks that are known to be useful to the human host, but the role of most of them is not well understood. Those that are expected to be present, and that under normal circumstances do not cause disease, are sometimes deemed normal flora or normal microbiota.
The Human Microbiome Project (HMP) took on the project of sequencing the genome of the human microbiota, focusing particularly on the microbiota that normally inhabit the skin, mouth, nose, digestive tract, and vagina. It reached a milestone in 2012 when it published its initial results.
Terminology
Though widely known as flora or microflora, this is a misnomer in technical terms, since the word root flora pertains to plants, and biota refers to the total collection of organisms in a particular ecosystem. Recently, the more appropriate term microbiota is applied, though its use has not eclipsed the entrenched use and recognition of flora with regard to bacteria and other microorganisms. Both terms are being used in different literature.
Relative numbers
As of 2014, it was reported in popular media and in the scientific literature that there are about 10 times as many microbial cells in the human body as there are human cells; this figure was based on estimates that the human microbiome includes around 100 trillion bacterial cells and that an adult human typically has around 10 trillion human cells. In 2014, the American Academy of Microbiology published a FAQ that emphasized that the number of microbial cells and the number of human cells are both estimates, and noted that recent research had arrived at a new estimate of the number of human cellsapproximately 37.2 trillion, meaning that the ratio of microbial-to-human cells, if the original estimate of 100 trillion bacterial cells is correct, is closer to 3:1. In 2016, another group published a new estimate of the ratio being roughly 1:1 (1.3:1, with "an uncertainty of 25% and a variation of 53% over the population of standard 70-kg [] males").
A more recent estimate is a ratio of 1.3:1 bacterial cells for every human cell, whereas the number of phages and viruses outnumber bacterial cells by at least a order of magnitude more. The number of bacterial genes (assuming 1000 bacterial species in the gut with 2000 genes per species) is estimated to be 2,000,000 genes, 100 times the number of approximately 20,000 human genes.
Study
The problem of elucidating the human microbiome is essentially identifying the members of a microbial community, which includes bacteria, eukaryotes, and viruses. This is done primarily using deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based studies, though ribonucleic acid (RNA), protein and metabolite based studies are also performed. DNA-based microbiome studies typically can be categorized as either targeted amplicon studies or, more recently, shotgun metagenomic studies. The former focuses on specific known marker genes and is primarily informative taxonomically, while the latter is an entire metagenomic approach which can also be used to study the functional potential of the community. One of the challenges that is present in human microbiome studies, but not in other metagenomic studies, is to avoid including the host DNA in the study.
Aside from simply elucidating the composition of the human microbiome, one of the major questions involving the human microbiome is whether there is a "core", that is, whether there is a subset of the community that is shared among most humans. If there is a core, then it would be possible to associate certain community compositions with disease states, which is one of the goals of the HMP. It is known that the human microbiome (such as the gut microbiota) is highly variable both within a single subject and among different individuals, a phenomenon which is also observed in mice.
On 13 June 2012, a major milestone of the HMP was announced by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) director Francis Collins. The announcement was accompanied with a series of coordinated articles published in Nature and several journals in the Public Library of Science (PLoS) on the same day. By mapping the normal microbial make-up of healthy humans using genome sequencing techniques, the researchers of the HMP have created a reference database and the boundaries of normal microbial variation in humans. From 242 healthy U.S. volunteers, more than 5,000 samples were collected from tissues from 15 (men) to 18 (women) body sites such as mouth, nose, skin, lower intestine (stool), and vagina. All the DNA, human and microbial, were analyzed with DNA sequencing machines. The microbial genome data were extracted by identifying the bacterial specific ribosomal RNA, 16S rRNA. The researchers calculated that more than 10,000 microbial species occupy the human ecosystem, and they have identified 81–99% of the genera.
Analysis after the processing
The statistical analysis is essential to validate the obtained results (ANOVA can be used to size the differences between the groups); if it is paired with graphical tools, the outcome is easily visualized and understood.
Once a metagenome is assembled, it is possible to infer the functional potential of the microbiome. The computational challenges for this type of analysis are greater than for single genomes, because usually metagenomes assemblers have poorer quality, and many recovered genes are non-complete or fragmented. After the gene identification step, the data can be used to carry out a functional annotation by means of multiple alignment of the target genes against orthologs databases.
Marker gene analysis
It is a technique that exploits primers to target a specific genetic region and enables to determine the microbial phylogenies. The genetic region is characterized by a highly variable region which can confer detailed identification; it is delimited by conserved regions, which function as binding sites for primers used in PCR. The main gene used to characterize bacteria and archaea is 16S rRNA gene, while fungi identification is based on Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS). The technique is fast and not so expensive and enables to obtain a low-resolution classification of a microbial sample; it is optimal for samples that may be contaminated by host DNA. Primer affinity varies among all DNA sequences, which may result in biases during the amplification reaction; indeed, low-abundance samples are susceptible to overamplification errors, since the other contaminating microorganisms result to be over-represented in case of increasing the PCR cycles. Therefore, the optimization of primer selection can help to decrease such errors, although it requires complete knowledge of the microorganisms present in the sample, and their relative abundances.
Marker gene analysis can be influenced by the primer choice; in this kind of analysis it's desirable to use a well-validated protocol (such as the one used in the Earth Microbiome Project). The first thing to do in a marker gene amplicon analysis is to remove sequencing errors; a lot of sequencing platforms are very reliable, but most of the apparent sequence diversity is still due to errors during the sequencing process. To reduce this phenomenon a first approach is to cluster sequences into Operational taxonomic unit (OTUs): this process consolidates similar sequences (a 97% similarity threshold is usually adopted) into a single feature that can be used in further analysis steps; this method however would discard SNPs because they would get clustered into a single OTU. Another approach is Oligotyping, which includes position-specific information from 16s rRNA sequencing to detect small nucleotide variations and from discriminating between closely related distinct taxa. These methods give as an output a table of DNA sequences and counts of the different sequences per sample rather than OTU.
Another important step in the analysis is to assign a taxonomic name to microbial sequences in the data. This can be done using machine learning approaches that can reach an accuracy at genus-level of about 80%. Other popular analysis packages provide support for taxonomic classification using exact matches to reference databases and should provide greater specificity, but poor sensitivity. Unclassified microorganism should be further checked for organelle sequences.
Phylogenetic analysis
Many methods that exploit phylogenetic inference use the 16SRNA gene for Archea and Bacteria and the 18SRNA gene for Eukaryotes. Phylogenetic comparative methods (PCS) are based on the comparison of multiple traits among microorganisms; the principle is: the closely they are related, the higher number of traits they share. Usually PCS are coupled with phylogenetic generalized least square (PGLS) or other statistical analysis to get more significant results. Ancestral state reconstruction is used in microbiome studies to impute trait values for taxa whose traits are unknown. This is commonly performed with PICRUSt, which relies on available databases. Phylogenetic variables are chosen by researchers according to the type of study: through the selection of some variables with significant biological informations, it is possible to reduce the dimension of the data to analyse.
Phylogenetic aware distance is usually performed with UniFrac or similar tools, such as Soresen's index or Rao's D, to quantify the differences between the different communities. All this methods are negatively affected by horizontal gene transmission (HGT), since it can generate errors and lead to the correlation of distant species. There are different ways to reduce the negative impact of HGT: the use of multiple genes or computational tools to assess the probability of putative HGT events.
Types
Bacteria
Populations of microbes (such as bacteria and yeasts) inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. Their role forms part of normal, healthy human physiology, however if microbe numbers grow beyond their typical ranges (often due to a compromised immune system) or if microbes populate (such as through poor hygiene or injury) areas of the body normally not colonized or sterile (such as the blood, or the lower respiratory tract, or the abdominal cavity), disease can result (causing, respectively, bacteremia/sepsis, pneumonia, and peritonitis).
The Human Microbiome Project found that individuals host thousands of bacterial types, different body sites having their own distinctive communities. Skin and vaginal sites showed smaller diversity than the mouth and gut, these showing the greatest richness. The bacterial makeup for a given site on a body varies from person to person, not only in type, but also in abundance. Bacteria of the same species found throughout the mouth are of multiple subtypes, preferring to inhabit distinctly different locations in the mouth. Even the enterotypes in the human gut, previously thought to be well understood, are from a broad spectrum of communities with blurred taxon boundaries.
It is estimated that 500 to 1,000 species of bacteria live in the human gut but belong to just a few phyla: Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes dominate but there are also Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, Actinobacteria, Fusobacteria and Cyanobacteria.
A number of types of bacteria, such as Actinomyces viscosus and A. naeslundii, live in the mouth, where they are part of a sticky substance called plaque. If this is not removed by brushing, it hardens into calculus (also called tartar). The same bacteria also secrete acids that dissolve tooth enamel, causing tooth decay.
The vaginal microflora consist mostly of various lactobacillus species. It was long thought that the most common of these species was Lactobacillus acidophilus, but it has later been shown that L. iners is in fact most common, followed by L. crispatus. Other lactobacilli found in the vagina are L. jensenii, L. delbruekii and L. gasseri. Disturbance of the vaginal flora can lead to infections such as bacterial vaginosis or candidiasis ("yeast infection").
Archaea
Archaea are present in the human gut, but, in contrast to the enormous variety of bacteria in this organ, the numbers of archaeal species are much more limited. The dominant group are the methanogens, particularly Methanobrevibacter smithii and Methanosphaera stadtmanae. However, colonization by methanogens is variable, and only about 50% of humans have easily detectable populations of these organisms.
As of 2007, no clear examples of archaeal pathogens were known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some methanogens and human periodontal disease.
Fungi
Fungi, in particular yeasts, are present in the human gut. The best-studied of these are Candida species due to their ability to become pathogenic in immunocompromised and even in healthy hosts. Yeasts are also present on the skin, such as Malassezia species, where they consume oils secreted from the sebaceous glands.
Viruses
Viruses, especially bacterial viruses (bacteriophages), colonize various body sites. These colonized sites include the skin, gut, lungs, and oral cavity. Virus communities have been associated with some diseases, and do not simply reflect the bacterial communities.
Anatomical areas
Skin
A study of 20 skin sites on each of ten healthy humans found 205 identified genera in 19 bacterial phyla, with most sequences assigned to four phyla: Actinobacteria (51.8%), Firmicutes (24.4%), Proteobacteria (16.5%), and Bacteroidetes (6.3%). A large number of fungal genera are present on healthy human skin, with some variability by region of the body; however, during pathological conditions, certain genera tend to dominate in the affected region. For example, Malassezia is dominant in atopic dermatitis and Acremonium is dominant on dandruff-afflicted scalps.
The skin acts as a barrier to deter the invasion of pathogenic microbes. The human skin contains microbes that reside either in or on the skin and can be residential or transient. Resident microorganism types vary in relation to skin type on the human body. A majority of microbes reside on superficial cells on the skin or prefer to associate with glands. These glands such as oil or sweat glands provide the microbes with water, amino acids, and fatty acids. In addition, resident bacteria that associated with oil glands are often Gram-positive and can be pathogenic.
Conjunctiva
A small number of bacteria and fungi are normally present in the conjunctiva. Classes of bacteria include Gram-positive cocci (e.g., Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) and Gram-negative rods and cocci (e.g., Haemophilus and Neisseria) are present. Fungal genera include Candida, Aspergillus, and Penicillium. The lachrymal glands continuously secrete, keeping the conjunctiva moist, while intermittent blinking lubricates the conjunctiva and washes away foreign material. Tears contain bactericides such as lysozyme, so that microorganisms have difficulty in surviving the lysozyme and settling on the epithelial surfaces.
Gastrointestinal tract
In humans, the composition of the gastrointestinal microbiome is established during birth. Birth by Cesarean section or vaginal delivery also influences the gut's microbial composition. Babies born through the vaginal canal have non-pathogenic, beneficial gut microbiota similar to those found in the mother. However, the gut microbiota of babies delivered by C-section harbors more pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus and it takes longer to develop non-pathogenic, beneficial gut microbiota.
The relationship between some gut microbiota and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather a mutualistic relationship. Some human gut microorganisms benefit the host by fermenting dietary fiber into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetic acid and butyric acid, which are then absorbed by the host. Intestinal bacteria also play a role in synthesizing vitamin B and vitamin K as well as metabolizing bile acids, sterols, and xenobiotics. The systemic importance of the SCFAs and other compounds they produce are like hormones and the gut flora itself appears to function like an endocrine organ, and dysregulation of the gut flora has been correlated with a host of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.
The composition of human gut microbiota changes over time, when the diet changes, and as overall health changes. A systematic review of 15 human randomized controlled trials from July 2016 found that certain commercially available strains of probiotic bacteria from the Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus genera (B. longum, B. breve, B. infantis, L. helveticus, L. rhamnosus, L. plantarum, and L. casei), when taken by mouth in daily doses of 109–1010 colony forming units (CFU) for 1–2 months, possess treatment efficacy (i.e., improves behavioral outcomes) in certain central nervous system disorders – including anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder – and improves certain aspects of memory. However, changes in the composition of gut microbiota has also been found to be correlated with harmful effects on health. In an article published by Musso et al., it was found that the gut microbiota of obese invidividuals had more Firmicutes and less Bacteroidetes than healthy individuals. It's believed this change in microbe ratio may contribute to an increase in bacteria more efficient at extracting energy from food. Researchers used shotgun sequencing to compare microbiota of obese mice with lean mice. They found that obese mice genomes consisted of an abundance of genes encoding for enzymes capable of breaking down polysaccharides that are indigestible by the human body alone.
Furthermore, a study done by Gordon et al., confirmed that it was the composition of the microbiota that causes obesity rather than the other way around. This was done by transplanting the gut microbiota from diet-induced obese(DIO) mice or lean control mice into lean germ-free mice that do not have a microbiome. They found that the mice transplanted with DIO mouse gut microbiota had significantly higher total body fat than the mice transplanted with lean mouse microbiota when fed with the same diet.
A separate study, completed by Ridaura et al. in 2013, performed the first transplant of human fecal matter into germ-free mice. The human feces collected originated from adult female twins with markedly different body fat percentages. The researchers were able to essentially transfer the obesity phenotype and lean phenotype to mice, while both being on low-fat mouse feed. The mice with the feces derived from the obese twin increased total body and fat mass, while the mice with feces derived from the leaner twin did not develop obese-like traits or symptoms.
Urethra and bladder
The genitourinary system appears to have a microbiota, which is an unexpected finding in light of the long-standing use of standard clinical microbiological culture methods to detect bacteria in urine when people show signs of a urinary tract infection; it is common for these tests to show no bacteria present. It appears that common culture methods do not detect many kinds of bacteria and other microorganisms that are normally present. As of 2017, sequencing methods were used to identify these microorganisms to determine if there are differences in microbiota between people with urinary tract problems and those who are healthy. To properly assess the microbiome of the bladder as opposed to the genitourinary system, the urine specimen should be collected directly from the bladder, which is often done with a catheter.
Vagina
Vaginal microbiota refers to those species and genera that colonize the vagina. These organisms play an important role in protecting against infections and maintaining vaginal health. The most abundant vaginal microorganisms found in premenopausal women are from the genus Lactobacillus, which suppress pathogens by producing hydrogen peroxide and lactic acid. Bacterial species composition and ratios vary depending on the stage of the menstrual cycle. Ethnicity also influences vaginal flora. The occurrence of hydrogen peroxide-producing lactobacilli is lower in African American women and vaginal pH is higher. Other influential factors such as sexual intercourse and antibiotics have been linked to the loss of lactobacilli. Moreover, studies have found that sexual intercourse with a condom does appear to change lactobacilli levels, and does increase the level of Escherichia coli within the vaginal flora. Changes in the normal, healthy vaginal microbiota is an indication of infections, such as candidiasis or bacterial vaginosis. Candida albicans inhibits the growth of Lactobacillus species, while Lactobacillus species which produce hydrogen peroxide inhibit the growth and virulence of Candida albicans in both the vagina and the gut.
Fungal genera that have been detected in the vagina include Candida, Pichia, Eurotium, Alternaria, Rhodotorula, and Cladosporium, among others.
Placenta
Until recently the placenta was considered to be a sterile organ but commensal, nonpathogenic bacterial species and genera have been identified that reside in the placental tissue. However, the existence of a microbiome in the placenta is controversial as criticized in several researches. So called "placental microbiome" is likely derived from contamination of regents because low-biomass samples are easily contaminated.
Uterus
Until recently, the upper reproductive tract of women was considered to be a sterile environment. A variety of microorganisms inhabit the uterus of healthy, asymptomatic women of reproductive age. The microbiome of the uterus differs significantly from that of the vagina and gastrointestinal tract.
Oral cavity
The environment present in the human mouth allows the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature. Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.
Anaerobic bacteria in the oral cavity include: Actinomyces, Arachnia, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Fusobacterium, Lactobacillus, Leptotrichia, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Propionibacterium, Selenomonas, Treponema, and Veillonella. Genera of fungi that are frequently found in the mouth include Candida, Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Glomus, Alternaria, Penicillium, and Cryptococcus, among others.
Bacteria accumulate on both the hard and soft oral tissues in biofilm allowing them to adhere and strive in the oral environment while protected from the environmental factors and antimicrobial agents. Saliva plays a key biofilm homeostatic role allowing recolonization of bacteria for formation and controlling growth by detaching biofilm buildup. It also provides a means of nutrients and temperature regulation. The location of the biofilm determines the type of exposed nutrients it receives.
Oral bacteria have evolved mechanisms to sense their environment and evade or modify the host. However, a highly efficient innate host defense system constantly monitors the bacterial colonization and prevents bacterial invasion of local tissues. A dynamic equilibrium exists between dental plaque bacteria and the innate host defense system.
This dynamic between host oral cavity and oral microbes plays a key role in health and disease as it provides entry into the body.
A healthy equilibrium presents a symbiotic relationship where oral microbes limit growth and adherence of pathogens while the host provides an environment for them to flourish. Ecological changes such as change of immune status, shift of resident microbes and nutrient availability shift from a mutual to parasitic relationship resulting in the host being prone to oral and systemic disease. Systemic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases has been correlated to poor oral health. Of particular interest is the role of oral microorganisms in the two major dental diseases: dental caries and periodontal disease. Pathogen colonization at the periodontium cause an excessive immune response resulting in a periodontal pocket- a deepened space between the tooth and gingiva. This acts as a protected blood-rich reservoir with nutrients for anaerobic pathogens. Systemic disease at various sites of the body can result from oral microbes entering the blood bypassing periodontal pockets and oral membranes.
Persistent proper oral hygiene is the primary method for preventing oral and systemic disease. It reduces the density of biofilm and overgrowth of potential pathogenic bacteria resulting in disease. However, proper oral hygiene may not be enough as the oral microbiome, genetics, and changes to immune response play a factor in developing chronic infections. Use of antibiotics could treat already spreading infection but ineffective against bacteria within biofilms.
Nasal cavity
The healthy nasal microbiome is dominated by Corynebacterium, and Staphylococcus. The mucosal microbiome plays a critical role in modulating viral infection.
Lung
Much like the oral cavity, the upper and lower respiratory system possess mechanical deterrents to remove microbes. Goblet cells produce mucous which traps microbes and moves them out of the respiratory system via continuously moving ciliated epithelial cells. In addition, a bactericidal effect is generated by nasal mucus which contains the enzyme lysozyme. The upper and lower respiratory tract appears to have its own set of microbiota. Pulmonary bacterial microbiota belong to 9 major bacterial genera: Prevotella, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Fusobacterium, Megasphaera, Veillonella, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus. Some of the bacteria considered "normal biota" in the respiratory tract can cause serious disease especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include Streptococcus pyogenes, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Staphylococcus aureus. Fungal genera that compose the pulmonary mycobiome include Candida, Malassezia, Neosartorya, Saccharomyces, and Aspergillus, among others.
Unusual distributions of bacterial and fungal genera in the respiratory tract is observed in people with cystic fibrosis. Their bacterial flora often contains antibiotic-resistant and slow-growing bacteria, and the frequency of these pathogens changes in relation to age.
Biliary tract
Traditionally the biliary tract has been considered to be normally sterile, and the presence of microorganisms in bile is a marker of pathological process. This assumption was confirmed by failure in allocation of bacterial strains from the normal bile duct. Papers began emerging in 2013 showing that the normal biliary microbiota is a separate functional layer which protects a biliary tract from colonization by exogenous microorganisms.
Disease and death
Human bodies rely on the innumerable bacterial genes as the source of essential nutrients. Both metagenomic and epidemiological studies indicate vital roles for the human microbiome in preventing a wide range of diseases, from type 2 diabetes and obesity to inflammatory bowel disease, Parkinson's disease, and even mental health conditions like depression. A symbiotic relationship between the gut microbiota and different bacteria may influence an individual's immune response. Although in its infancy, microbiome-based treatment is also showing promise, most notably for treating drug-resistant C. difficile infection and in diabetes treatment.
Clostridioides difficile infection
An overwhelming presence of the bacteria, C. difficile, leads to an infection of the gastrointestinal tract, normally associated to dysbiosis with the microbiota believed to have been caused by the administration of antibiotics. Use of antibiotics eradicates the beneficial gut flora within the gastrointestinal tract, which normally prevents pathogenic bacteria from establishing dominance. Traditional treatment for C. difficile infections includes an additional regime of antibiotics, however, efficacy rates average between 20-30%. Recognizing the importance of healthy gut bacteria, researchers turned to a procedure known as fecal microbiota transplant, where patients experiencing gastrointestinal diseases, such as C. difficile infection, receive fecal content from a healthy individual in hopes of restoring a normal functioning intestinal microbiota. Fecal microbiota transplant is approximately 85–90% effective in people with CDI for whom antibiotics have not worked or in whom the disease recurs following antibiotics. Most people with CDI recover with one FMT treatment.
Cancer
Although cancer is generally a disease of host genetics and environmental factors, microorganisms are implicated in some 20% of human cancers. Particularly for potential factors in colon cancer, bacterial density is one million times higher than in the small intestine, and approximately 12-fold more cancers occur in the colon compared to the small intestine, possibly establishing a pathogenic role for microbiota in colon and rectal cancers. Microbial density may be used as a prognostic tool in assessment of colorectal cancers.
The microbiota may affect carcinogenesis in three broad ways: (i) altering the balance of tumor cell proliferation and death, (ii) regulating immune system function, and (iii) influencing metabolism of host-produced factors, foods and pharmaceuticals. Tumors arising at boundary surfaces, such as the skin, oropharynx and respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts, harbor a microbiota. Substantial microbe presence at a tumor site does not establish association or causal links. Instead, microbes may find tumor oxygen tension or nutrient profile supportive. Decreased populations of specific microbes or induced oxidative stress may also increase risks. Of the around 1030 microbes on earth, ten are designated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as human carcinogens. Microbes may secrete proteins or other factors directly drive cell proliferation in the host, or may up- or down-regulate the host immune system including driving acute or chronic inflammation in ways that contribute to carcinogenesis.
Concerning the relationship of immune function and development of inflammation, mucosal surface barriers are subject to environmental risks and must rapidly repair to maintain homeostasis. Compromised host or microbiota resiliency also reduce resistance to malignancy, possibly inducing inflammation and cancer. Once barriers are breached, microbes can elicit proinflammatory or immunosuppressive programs through various pathways. For example, cancer-associated microbes appear to activate NF-κΒ signaling within the tumor microenviroment. Other pattern recognition receptors, such as nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain–like receptor (NLR) family members NOD-2, NLRP3, NLRP6 and NLRP12, may play a role in mediating colorectal cancer. Likewise Helicobacter pylori appears to increase the risk of gastric cancer, due to its driving a chronic inflammatory response in the stomach.
Inflammatory bowel disease
Inflammatory bowel disease consists of two different diseases: ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease and both of these diseases present with disruptions in the gut microbiota (also known as dysbiosis). This dysbiosis presents itself in the form of decreased microbial diversity in the gut, and is correlated to defects in host genes that changes the innate immune response in individuals.
Human immunodeficiency virus
The HIV disease progression influences the composition and function of the gut microbiota, with notable differences between HIV-negative, HIV-positive, and post-ART HIV-positive populations. HIV decreases the integrity of the gut epithelial barrier function by affecting tight junctions. This breakdown allows for translocation across the gut epithelium, which is thought to contribute to increases in inflammation seen in people with HIV.
Vaginal microbiota plays a role in the infectivity of HIV, with an increased risk of infection and transmission when the woman has bacterial vaginosis, a condition characterized by an abnormal balance of vaginal bacteria. The enhanced infectivity is seen with the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines and CCR5 + CD4+ cells in the vagina. However, a decrease in infectivity is seen with increased levels of vaginal Lactobacillus, which promotes an anti-inflammatory condition.
Death
With death, the microbiome of the living body collapses and a different composition of microorganisms named necrobiome establishes itself as an important active constituent of the complex physical decomposition process. Its predictable changes over time are thought to be useful to help determine the time of death.
Environmental health
Studies in 2009 questioned whether the decline in biota (including microfauna) as a result of human intervention might impede human health, hospital safety procedures, food product design, and treatments of disease.
Migration
Preliminary research indicates that immediate changes in the microbiota may occur when a person migrates from one country to another, such as when Thai immigrants settled in the United States or when Latin Americans immigrated into the United States. Losses of microbiota diversity were greater in obese individuals and children of immigrants.
See also
Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules
Drug resistance
Human Microbiome Project
Human milk microbiome
Human virome
Initial acquisition of microbiota
List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota
Microbiome
Microbiome Immunity Project
Microorganism
uBiome
Bibliography
Ed Yong. I Contain Multitudes: The Microbes Within Us and a Grander View of Life. 368 pages, Published 9 August 2016 by Ecco, .
References
External links
The Secret World Inside You Exhibit 2015–2016, American Museum of Natural History
FAQ: Human Microbiome, January 2014 American Society For Microbiology
Bacteriology
Bacteria and humans
Microbiology
Microbiomes
Environmental microbiology
Human genome projects
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxenstierna
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Oxenstierna
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Oxenstierna ( , ) is a Swedish noble family, originally from Småland in southern Sweden which can be traced up to the middle of the 14th century. The Oxenstierna family held vast estates in Södermanland and Uppland during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. In the 15th century, the family at times held the position of Regent of Sweden during the turbulent civil wars of the Kalmar Union. The family began to adopt its armorial designation of Oxenstierna as a personal surname towards the end of the 16th century. In the case of earlier members of the family, the surname has been retroactively applied by historians.
Notable Oxenstierna family members
Several members of the family, most notably the influential Lord High Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, rose to prominence, high political office and titles during the age of the Swedish Empire in the 17th century.
The family's most notable members include the following (in chronological order):
Jöns Bengtsson (Oxenstierna) the Elder, (?–1399), knight.
Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna, (1390s–1450), statesman, Privy Councillor and Lawspeaker of Uppland, Co-regent of Sweden.
Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna, (1390s–1450s), statesman and Privy Councillor, Co-regent of Sweden, brother of Bengt Jönsson.
Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, (1417–1467), Archbishop of Uppsala, Privy Councillor, canon law scholar and statesman, Lord Regent of Sweden, son of Bengt Jönsson.
Kristiern Bengtsson (Oxenstierna) the Younger, (c. 1475–1520), Privy Councillor, executed during the Stockholm Bloodbath.
Gabriel Kristiernsson Oxenstierna (c. 1500–1585), Baron, Privy Councillor, Admiral and Lord Lieutenant of Estonia.
Gustaf Gabrielsson (Oxenstierna) (1551–1597), Privy Councillor, Lord Lieutenant of Estonia, father of Axel Gustafsson.
Axel Gustafsson Oxenstierna, 1st Count of Södermöre (1583–1654), influential statesman and Lord High Chancellor during the age of the Swedish Empire, head of the regency council and de facto regent during Queen Christina's minority.
Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna, (1587–1640), statesman and Lord High Steward of Sweden, brother of Axel Gustafsson.
Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna, 1st Count of Korsholm and Vasa (1586–1656), Lord High Admiral and Lord High Treasurer, 1st cousin of Axel Gustafsson.
Bengt Bengtsson Oxenstierna, Baron of Eka and Lindö (1591–1643), diplomat and Privy Councillor, Governor-General of Ingria and Livonia.
Beata Oxenstierna (1591–1652), Mistress of the Robes to Queen Christina of Sweden.
Johan Axelsson Oxenstierna, Count of Södermöre, (1611–1657), diplomat, Governor-General of Swedish Pomerania, Marshal of the Realm, son of Axel Gustafsson.
Erik Axelsson Oxenstierna, Count of Södermöre (1624–1656), Lord High Chancellor of Sweden, Governor-General of Prussia, son of Axel Gustafsson.
Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna, Count of Korsholm and Vasa (1623–1702), President of the Royal Swedish Chancellery, Military Governor of Warsaw.
Christiana Oxenstierna af Korsholm och Vasa (1661–1701), teacher and noblewoman, famous for marrying a non-noble vicar.
Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna (1750–1818), poet, statesman, and diplomat, member of the Swedish Academy.
Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna (1899–1995), naval officer and pentathlete, Olympic gold medalist in modern pentathlon 1932.
Connection to European royal houses
Kings Christian IX of Denmark, Haakon VII of Norway, and Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden were all descended from branches of the Oxenstierna family. All three monarchs descended from the Oxenstierna family through their common ancestor, Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. His paternal grandmother was Countess Charlotte of Dohna-Schlobitten, great-great-granddaughter of Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna, 1st Count of Korsholma and Vaasa, father of Bengt Gabrielsson and first cousin of Axel and Bengt Gustafssöner, as well as great-great-great-great-grandson of regent Bengt Jönsson. Oxenstierna was also a distant relative of Charles VIII of Sweden, Frederick VIII of Denmark, Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom, George I of Greece, and Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia.
References
External links
A listing of members of the Oxenstierna family
Link to the Oxenstierna Family Website
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical%20semantics
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Lexical semantics
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Lexical semantics (also known as lexicosemantics), as a subfield of linguistic semantics, is the study of word meanings. It includes the study of how words structure their meaning, how they act in grammar and compositionality, and the relationships between the distinct senses and uses of a word.
The units of analysis in lexical semantics are lexical units which include not only words but also sub-words or sub-units such as affixes and even compound words and phrases. Lexical units include the catalogue of words in a language, the lexicon. Lexical semantics looks at how the meaning of the lexical units correlates with the structure of the language or syntax. This is referred to as syntax-semantics interface.
The study of lexical semantics looks at:
the classification and decomposition of lexical items
the differences and similarities in lexical semantic structure cross-linguistically
the relationship of lexical meaning to sentence meaning and syntax.
Lexical units, also referred to as syntactic atoms, can stand alone such as in the case of root words or parts of compound words or they necessarily attach to other units such as prefixes and suffixes do. The former are called free morphemes and the latter bound morphemes. They fall into a narrow range of meanings (semantic fields) and can combine with each other to generate new denotations.
Cognitive semantics is the linguistic paradigm/framework that since the 1980s has generated the most studies in lexical semantics, introducing innovations like prototype theory, conceptual metaphors, and frame semantics.
Lexical relations: how meanings relate to each other
Lexical items contain information about category (lexical and syntactic), form and meaning. The semantics related to these categories then relate to each lexical item in the lexicon. Lexical items can also be semantically classified based on whether their meanings are derived from single lexical units or from their surrounding environment.
Lexical items participate in regular patterns of association with each other. Some relations between lexical items include hyponymy, hypernymy, synonymy, and antonymy, as well as homonymy.
Hyponymy and hypernymy
Hyponymy and hypernymy refers to a relationship between a general term and the more specific terms that fall under the category of the general term.
For example, the colors red, green, blue and yellow are hyponyms. They fall under the general term of color, which is the hypernym.
Hyponyms and hypernyms can be described by using a taxonomy, as seen in the example.
Synonymy
Synonymy refers to words that are pronounced and spelled differently but contain the same meaning.
Antonymy
Antonymy refers to words that are related by having the opposite meanings to each other.
There are three types of antonyms: graded antonyms, complementary antonyms, and relational antonyms.
Homonymy
Homonymy refers to the relationship between words that are spelled or pronounced the same way but hold different meanings.
Polysemy
Polysemy refers to a word having two or more related meanings.
Semantic networks
Lexical semantics also explores whether the meaning of a lexical unit is established by looking at its neighbourhood in the semantic net, (words it occurs with in natural sentences), or whether the meaning is already locally contained in the lexical unit.
In English, WordNet is an example of a semantic network. It contains English words that are grouped into synsets. Some semantic relations between these synsets are meronymy, hyponymy, synonymy, and antonymy.
Semantic fields
How lexical items map onto concepts
First proposed by Trier in the 1930s, semantic field theory proposes that a group of words with interrelated meanings can be categorized under a larger conceptual domain. This entire entity is thereby known as a semantic field. The words boil, bake, fry, and roast, for example, would fall under the larger semantic category of cooking. Semantic field theory asserts that lexical meaning cannot be fully understood by looking at a word in isolation, but by looking at a group of semantically related words. Semantic relations can refer to any relationship in meaning between lexemes, including synonymy (big and large), antonymy (big and small), hypernymy and hyponymy (rose and flower), converseness (buy and sell), and incompatibility. Semantic field theory does not have concrete guidelines that determine the extent of semantic relations between lexemes. The abstract validity of the theory is a subject of debate.
Knowing the meaning of a lexical item therefore means knowing the semantic entailments the word brings with it. However, it is also possible to understand only one word of a semantic field without understanding other related words. Take, for example, a taxonomy of plants and animals: it is possible to understand the words rose and rabbit without knowing what a marigold or a muskrat is. This is applicable to colors as well, such as understanding the word red without knowing the meaning of scarlet, but understanding scarlet without knowing the meaning of red may be less likely. A semantic field can thus be very large or very small, depending on the level of contrast being made between lexical items. While cat and dog both fall under the larger semantic field of animal, including the breed of dog, like German shepherd, would require contrasts between other breeds of dog (e.g. corgi, or poodle), thus expanding the semantic field further.
How lexical items map onto events
Event structure is defined as the semantic relation of a verb and its syntactic properties.
Event structure has three primary components:
primitive event type of the lexical item
event composition rules
mapping rules to lexical structure
Verbs can belong to one of three types: states, processes, or transitions.
(1a) defines the state of the door being closed; there is no opposition in this predicate. (1b) and (1c) both have predicates showing transitions of the door going from being implicitly open to closed. (1b) gives the intransitive use of the verb close, with no explicit mention of the causer, but (1c) makes explicit mention of the agent involved in the action.
Syntactic basis of event structure: a brief history
Generative semantics in the 1960s
The analysis of these different lexical units had a decisive role in the field of "generative linguistics" during the 1960s. The term generative was proposed by Noam Chomsky in his book Syntactic Structures published in 1957. The term generative linguistics was based on Chomsky's generative grammar, a linguistic theory that states systematic sets of rules (X' theory) can predict grammatical phrases within a natural language. Generative Linguistics is also known as Government-Binding Theory.
Generative linguists of the 1960s, including Noam Chomsky and Ernst von Glasersfeld, believed semantic relations between transitive verbs and intransitive verbs were tied to their independent syntactic organization. This meant that they saw a simple verb phrase as encompassing a more complex syntactic structure.
Lexicalist theories in the 1980s
Lexicalist theories became popular during the 1980s, and emphasized that a word's internal structure was a question of morphology and not of syntax. Lexicalist theories emphasized that complex words (resulting from compounding and derivation of affixes) have lexical entries that are derived from morphology, rather than resulting from overlapping syntactic and phonological properties, as Generative Linguistics predicts. The distinction between Generative Linguistics and Lexicalist theories can be illustrated by considering the transformation of the word destroy to destruction:
Generative Linguistics theory: states the transformation of destroy → destruction as the nominal, nom + destroy, combined with phonological rules that produce the output destruction. Views this transformation as independent of the morphology.
Lexicalist theory: sees destroy and destruction as having idiosyncratic lexical entries based on their differences in morphology. Argues that each morpheme contributes specific meaning. States that the formation of the complex word destruction is accounted for by a set of Lexical Rules, which are different and independent from syntactic rules.
A lexical entry lists the basic properties of either the whole word, or the individual properties of the morphemes that make up the word itself. The properties of lexical items include their category selection c-selection, selectional properties s-selection, (also known as semantic selection), phonological properties, and features. The properties of lexical items are idiosyncratic, unpredictable, and contain specific information about the lexical items that they describe.
The following is an example of a lexical entry for the verb put:
Lexicalist theories state that a word's meaning is derived from its morphology or a speaker's lexicon, and not its syntax. The degree of morphology's influence on overall grammar remains controversial. Currently, the linguists that perceive one engine driving both morphological items and syntactic items are in the majority.
Micro-syntactic theories: 1990s to the present
By the early 1990s, Chomsky's minimalist framework on language structure led to sophisticated probing techniques for investigating languages. These probing techniques analyzed negative data over prescriptive grammars, and because of Chomsky's proposed Extended Projection Principle in 1986, probing techniques showed where specifiers of a sentence had moved to in order to fulfill the EPP. This allowed syntacticians to hypothesize that lexical items with complex syntactic features (such as ditransitive, inchoative, and causative verbs), could select their own specifier element within a syntax tree construction. (For more on probing techniques, see Suci, G., Gammon, P., & Gamlin, P. (1979)).
This brought the focus back on the syntax-lexical semantics interface; however, syntacticians still sought to understand the relationship between complex verbs and their related syntactic structure, and to what degree the syntax was projected from the lexicon, as the Lexicalist theories argued.
In the mid 1990s, linguists Heidi Harley, Samuel Jay Keyser, and Kenneth Hale addressed some of the implications posed by complex verbs and a lexically-derived syntax. Their proposals indicated that the predicates CAUSE and BECOME, referred to as subunits within a Verb Phrase, acted as a lexical semantic template. Predicates are verbs and state or affirm something about the subject of the sentence or the argument of the sentence. For example, the predicates went and is here below affirm the argument of the subject and the state of the subject respectively.
The subunits of Verb Phrases led to the Argument Structure Hypothesis and Verb Phrase Hypothesis, both outlined below. The recursion found under the "umbrella" Verb Phrase, the VP Shell, accommodated binary-branching theory; another critical topic during the 1990s. Current theory recognizes the predicate in Specifier position of a tree in inchoative/anticausative verbs (intransitive), or causative verbs (transitive) is what selects the theta role conjoined with a particular verb.
Hale & Keyser 1990
Kenneth Hale and Samuel Jay Keyser introduced their thesis on lexical argument structure during the early 1990s.
They argue that a predicate's argument structure is represented in the syntax, and that the syntactic representation of the predicate is a lexical projection of its arguments. Thus, the structure of a predicate is strictly a lexical representation, where each phrasal head projects its argument onto a phrasal level within the syntax tree. The selection of this phrasal head is based on Chomsky's Empty Category Principle. This lexical projection of the predicate's argument onto the syntactic structure is the foundation for the Argument Structure Hypothesis. This idea coincides with Chomsky's Projection Principle, because it forces a VP to be selected locally and be selected by a Tense Phrase (TP).
Based on the interaction between lexical properties, locality, and the properties of the EPP (where a phrasal head selects another phrasal element locally), Hale and Keyser make the claim that the Specifier position or a complement are the only two semantic relations that project a predicate's argument. In 2003, Hale and Keyser put forward this hypothesis and argued that a lexical unit must have one or the other, Specifier or Complement, but cannot have both.
Halle & Marantz 1993
Morris Halle and Alec Marantz introduced the notion of distributed morphology in 1993. This theory views the syntactic structure of words as a result of morphology and semantics, instead of the morpho-semantic interface being predicted by the syntax. Essentially, the idea that under the Extended Projection Principle there is a local boundary under which a special meaning occurs. This meaning can only occur if a head-projecting morpheme is present within the local domain of the syntactic structure. The following is an example of the tree structure proposed by distributed morphology for the sentence "John's destroying the city". Destroy is the root, V-1 represents verbalization, and D represents nominalization.
Ramchand 2008
In her 2008 book, Verb Meaning and The Lexicon: A First-Phase Syntax, linguist Gillian Ramchand acknowledges the roles of lexical entries in the selection of complex verbs and their arguments. 'First-Phase' syntax proposes that event structure and event participants are directly represented in the syntax by means of binary branching. This branching ensures that the Specifier is the consistently subject, even when investigating the projection of a complex verb's lexical entry and its corresponding syntactic construction. This generalization is also present in Ramchand's theory that the complement of a head for a complex verb phrase must co-describe the verb's event.
Ramchand also introduced the concept of Homomorphic Unity, which refers to the structural synchronization between the head of a complex verb phrase and its complement. According to Ramchand, Homomorphic Unity is "when two event descriptors are syntactically Merged, the structure of the complement must unify with the structure of the head."
Classification of event types
Intransitive verbs: unaccusative versus unergative
The unaccusative hypothesis was put forward by David Perlmutter in 1987, and describes how two classes of intransitive verbs have two different syntactic structures. These are unaccusative verbs and unergative verbs. These classes of verbs are defined by Perlmutter only in syntactic terms. They have the following structures underlyingly:
unaccusative verb: __ [VP V NP]
unergative verb: NP [VP V]
The following is an example from English:
In (2a) the verb underlyingly takes a direct object, while in (2b) the verb underlyingly takes a subject.
Transitivity alternations: the inchoative/causative alternation
The change-of-state property of Verb Phrases (VP) is a significant observation for the syntax of lexical semantics because it provides evidence that subunits are embedded in the VP structure, and that the meaning of the entire VP is influenced by this internal grammatical structure. (For example, the VP the vase broke carries a change-of-state meaning of the vase becoming broken, and thus has a silent BECOME subunit within its underlying structure.) There are two types of change-of-state predicates: inchoative and causative.
Inchoative verbs are intransitive, meaning that they occur without a direct object, and these verbs express that their subject has undergone a certain change of state. Inchoative verbs are also known as anticausative verbs. Causative verbs are transitive, meaning that they occur with a direct object, and they express that the subject causes a change of state in the object.
Linguist Martin Haspelmath classifies inchoative/causative verb pairs under three main categories: causative, anticausative, and non-directed alternations. Non-directed alternations are further subdivided into labile, equipollent, and suppletive alternations.
English tends to favour labile alternations, meaning that the same verb is used in the inchoative and causative forms. This can be seen in the following example: broke is an intransitive inchoative verb in (3a) and a transitive causative verb in (3b).
As seen in the underlying tree structure for (3a), the silent subunit BECOME is embedded within the Verb Phrase (VP), resulting in the inchoative change-of-state meaning (y become z). In the underlying tree structure for (3b), the silent subunits CAUS and BECOME are both embedded within the VP, resulting in the causative change-of-state meaning (x cause y become z).
English change of state verbs are often de-adjectival, meaning that they are derived from adjectives. We can see this in the following example:
In example (4a) we start with a stative intransitive adjective, and derive (4b) where we see an intransitive inchoative verb. In (4c) we see a transitive causative verb.
Marked inchoatives
Some languages (e.g., German, Italian, and French), have multiple morphological classes of inchoative verbs. Generally speaking, these languages separate their inchoative verbs into three classes: verbs that are obligatorily unmarked (they are not marked with a reflexive pronoun, clitic, or affix), verbs that are optionally marked, and verbs that are obligatorily marked. The causative verbs in these languages remain unmarked. Haspelmath refers to this as the anticausative alternation.
For example, inchoative verbs in German are classified into three morphological classes. Class A verbs necessarily form inchoatives with the reflexive pronoun , Class B verbs form inchoatives necessarily without the reflexive pronoun, and Class C verbs form inchoatives optionally with or without the reflexive pronoun. In example (5), the verb is an unmarked inchoative verb from Class B, which also remains unmarked in its causative form.
In contrast, the verb öffnete is a Class A verb which necessarily takes the reflexive pronoun sich in its inchoative form, but remains unmarked in its causative form.
There has been some debate as to whether the different classes of inchoative verbs are purely based in morphology, or whether the differentiation is derived from the lexical-semantic properties of each individual verb. While this debate is still unresolved in languages such as Italian, French, and Greek, it has been suggested by linguist Florian Schäfer that there are semantic differences between marked and unmarked inchoatives in German. Specifically, that only unmarked inchoative verbs allow an unintentional causer reading (meaning that they can take on an "x unintentionally caused y" reading).
Marked causatives
Causative morphemes are present in the verbs of many languages (e.g., Tagalog, Malagasy, Turkish, etc.), usually appearing in the form of an affix on the verb. This can be seen in the following examples from Tagalog, where the causative prefix pag- (realized here as nag) attaches to the verb tumba to derive a causative transitive verb in (7b), but the prefix does not appear in the inchoative intransitive verb in (7a). Haspelmath refers to this as the causative alternation.
Ditransitive verbs
Kayne's 1981 unambiguous path analysis
Richard Kayne proposed the idea of unambiguous paths as an alternative to c-commanding relationships, which is the type of structure seen in examples (8). The idea of unambiguous paths stated that an antecedent and an anaphor should be connected via an unambiguous path. This means that the line connecting an antecedent and an anaphor cannot be broken by another argument. When applied to ditransitive verbs, this hypothesis introduces the structure in diagram (8a). In this tree structure it can be seen that the same path can be traced from either DP to the verb. Tree diagram (7b) illustrates this structure with an example from English. This analysis was a step toward binary branching trees, which was a theoretical change that was furthered by Larson's VP-shell analysis.
Larson's 1988 "VP-shell" analysis
Larson posited his Single Complement Hypothesis in which he stated that every complement is introduced with one verb. The Double Object Construction presented in 1988 gave clear evidence of a hierarchical structure using asymmetrical binary branching. Sentences with double objects occur with ditransitive verbs, as we can see in the following example:
It appears as if the verb send has two objects, or complements (arguments): both Mary, the recipient and parcel, the theme. The argument structure of ditransitive verb phrases is complex and has undergone different structural hypothesis.
The original structural hypothesis was that of ternary branching seen in (9a) and (9b), but following from Kayne's 1981 analysis, Larson maintained that each complement is introduced by a verb.
Their hypothesis shows that there is a lower verb embedded within a VP shell that combines with an upper verb (can be invisible), thus creating a VP shell (as seen in the tree diagram to the right). Most current theories no longer allow the ternary tree structure of (9a) and (9b), so the theme and the goal/recipient are seen in a hierarchical relationship within a binary branching structure.
Following are examples of Larson's tests to show that the hierarchical (superior) order of any two objects aligns with a linear order, so that the second is governed (c-commanded) by the first. This is in keeping with X'Bar Theory of Phrase Structure Grammar, with Larson's tree structure using the empty Verb to which the V is raised.
Reflexives and reciprocals (anaphors) show this relationship in which they must be c-commanded by their antecedents, such that the (10a) is grammatical but (10b) is not:
A pronoun must have a quantifier as its antecedent:
Question words follow this order:
The effect of negative polarity means that "any" must have a negative quantifier as an antecedent:
These tests with ditransitive verbs that confirm c-command also confirm the presence of underlying or invisible causative verbs. In ditransitive verbs such as give someone something, send someone something, show someone something etc. there is an underlying causative meaning that is represented in the underlying structure. As seen in example in (9a) above, John sent Mary a package, there is the underlying meaning that 'John "caused" Mary to have a package'.
Larson proposed that both sentences in (9a) and (9b) share the same underlying structure and the difference on the surface lies in that the double object construction "John sent Mary a package" is derived by transformation from a NP plus PP construction "John sent a package to Mary".
Beck & Johnson's 2004 double object construction
Beck and Johnson, however, give evidence that the two underlying structures are not the same. In so doing, they also give further evidence of the presence of two VPs where the verb attaches to a causative verb. In examples (14a) and (b), each of the double object constructions are alternated with NP + PP constructions.
Beck and Johnson show that the object in (15a) has a different relation to the motion verb as it is not able to carry the meaning of HAVING which the possessor (9a) and (15a) can. In (15a), Satoshi is an animate possessor and so is caused to HAVE kisimen. The PP for Satoshi in (15b) is of a benefactive nature and does not necessarily carry this meaning of HAVE either.
The underlying structures are therefore not the same. The differences lie in the semantics and the syntax of the sentences, in contrast to the transformational theory of Larson. Further evidence for the structural existence of VP shells with an invisible verbal unit is given in the application of the adjunct or modifier "again". Sentence (16) is ambiguous and looking into the two different meanings reveals a difference in structure.
However, in (17a), it is clear that it was Sally who repeated the action of opening the door. In (17b), the event is in the door being opened and Sally may or may not have opened it previously. To render these two different meanings, "again" attaches to VPs in two different places, and thus describes two events with a purely structural change.
See also
Content word
Lexical chain
Lexical markup framework
Lexical verb
Minimal recursion semantics
Ontology
Polysemy
Semantic primes
Semantic satiation
SemEval
Thematic role
Troponymy
Word sense
Word sense disambiguation
References
External links
Semantics (linguistics)
Formal semantics (natural language)
Syntax–semantics interface
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20international%20call%20prefixes
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List of international call prefixes
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An international call prefix or dial out code is a trunk prefix used to select an international telephone circuit for placing an international call. It is now called an IDD prefix (international direct dialing) – a country will typically have an NDD prefix as well (national direct dialing). The international dialing prefix must be dialed before the country calling code and the destination telephone number. It is synonymous with international access code or exit code. The international call prefix is part of the telephone numbering plan of a country for calls to another country.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) recommends the sequence 00 as a standard for an international call prefix, and this has been implemented by most countries, but not all of them. Some countries use the 00 prefix which is followed by the international carrier code.
When phone numbers are published for use abroad, they typically show a plus sign (+2290) prefix in place of any international call prefix, to signify that the caller should use the prefix code appropriate for their country. Many phones allow the plus sign to be entered in their saved number lists, often by holding down the zero (0) key (most GSM mobile phones) or with two consecutive presses of the star (*) key. When making a call, the system then automatically converts the plus sign to the correct international prefix, depending on where the phone is being used, which enables callers to use the same stored number when calling from either their own country or any other.
Example
Calling the Dunedin City Council in New Zealand (+64 3 477 4000):
Variations
Some telecommunications service providers or mobile network operators (wireless carriers) have different international call prefix codes which callers or subscribers can use to route calls through specific networks, sometimes with special pricing arrangements.
Many countries also provide alternative dialling arrangements for calls to neighbouring countries.
Some of these variations from the generic codes are shown in the list below (but may be out of date).
Countries by international prefix
Countries using optional carrier selection code
The following is a non-exhaustive list of countries that allow for optional carrier selection in addition to using the standard prefix.
01x, where x is the international carrier selection code consisting of one or more digits:
Israel, in addition to the standard prefix 00 for default carrier (see Telephone numbering in Israel)
012–012 Smile
013–013 NetVision
014 – Bezeq International
015 – Hallo 015
016 – Golan Telecom
017 – Hot Mobile
018 – Xfone
019 – Telzar
10x, where x is the international carrier selection code consisting of two digits:
Georgia, in addition to the standard prefix 00 for default carrier
1000 – default carrier
1007 – Caucasus Online
1010 – MagtiCom
1011 – SystemNet
1012 – SystemNet
1013 – MacroCom
1015 – SakTelComPlus
1016 – Silknet
1017 – SystemNet
1018 – Global Erty
1019 – Akhtel
1027 – CallCenter
1040 – IntelPhone
1041 – V-TEL Georgia
1050 – MagtiCom
1051 – Caucasus Online
1052 – Alex Development Georgia
1053 – Sky Service
1054 – Lagi
1057 – NewCom
1060 – GeoNet
1061 – Silknet
1062 – Geocell
1063 – Black Sea Telecom
1064 – Central Communication Company of Georgia
1065 – New Net
1067 – GeoTel
1069 – Service
1072 – TelMax
1075 – Wi-MAX Georgia
1076 – Silknet
1094 – Warid Telecom Georgia
99x, where x is the international carrier selection code consisting of one or more digits:
Finland, in addition to the standard prefix 00 for default carrier (see Telephone numbering in Finland)
990 – Telia Finland Oyj
991 – Elisa Oyj
99511 – Nettia Oy
99533 – DNA Oy
99555 – DNA Oy
99559 – Elisa Oyj
99577 – DNA Oy
99588 – Globetel
99599 – Nettia Oy
999 – Elisa Oyj
Historic international prefixes
See also
List of country calling codes
List of mobile telephone prefixes by country
List of North American Numbering Plan area codes
Public switched telephone network
Notes
References
External links
Standards and recommendations
Call Prefixes
Telephone numbers
Telecommunications lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banbury
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Banbury
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Banbury is a historic market town on the River Cherwell in Oxfordshire, England. It had a population of 46,853 at the 2011 census.
Banbury is a significant commercial and retail centre for the surrounding area of north Oxfordshire and southern parts of Warwickshire and Northamptonshire which are predominantly rural. Banbury's main industries are motorsport, car components, electrical goods, plastics, food processing, and printing. Banbury is home to the world's largest coffee-processing facility (Jacobs Douwe Egberts), built in 1964. The town is famed for Banbury cakes, a spiced sweet pastry dish.
Banbury is northwest of London, southeast of Birmingham, southeast of Coventry and northwest of Oxford.
History
Toponymy
The name Banbury may derive from "Banna", a Saxon chieftain said to have built a stockade there in the 6th century (or possibly a byname from meaning felon, murderer), and / meaning settlement. In Anglo Saxon it was called (dative ). The name appears as Banesberie in the Domesday Book. Another known spelling was Banesebury in Medieval times.
General history
During excavations for the construction of an office building in Hennef Way in 2002, the remains of a British Iron Age settlement with circular buildings dating back to 200 BC were found. The site contained around 150 pieces of pottery and stone. Later there was a Roman villa at nearby Wykham Park.
The area was settled by the Saxons around the late 5th century. In about 556 Banbury was the scene of a battle between the local Anglo-Saxons of Cynric and Ceawlin, and the local Romano-British. It was a local centre for Anglo-Saxon settlement by the mid-6th century. Banbury developed in the Anglo-Saxon period under Danish influence, starting in the late 6th century. It was assessed at 50 hides in the Domesday survey and was then held by the Bishop of Lincoln.
The Saxons built Banbury on the west bank of the River Cherwell. On the opposite bank they built Grimsbury, which was formerly part of Northamptonshire. Another district, Neithrop, is one of the oldest areas in Banbury, having first been recorded as a hamlet in the 13th century. Both Grimsbury and Neithrop were formally incorporated into the borough of Banbury in 1889.
Banbury stands at the junction of two ancient roads: Salt Way (used as a bridle path to the west and south of the town), its primary use being transport of salt; and Banbury Lane, which began near Northampton and is closely followed by the modern road. It continued through what is now Banbury's High Street and towards the Fosse Way at Stow-on-the-Wold. Banbury's medieval prosperity was based on wool.
Banbury Castle was built from 1135 by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, and survived into the Civil War, when it was besieged. Due to its proximity to Oxford, the King's capital, Banbury was at one stage a Royalist town, but the inhabitants were known to be strongly Puritan. The castle was demolished after the war.
Banbury played an important part in the English Civil War as a base of operations for Oliver Cromwell, who is reputed to have planned the Battle of Edge Hill in the back room (which can still be visited) of a local inn, the Reindeer Inn as it was then known (today's Ye Olde Reine Deer Inn). The town was pro-Parliamentarian, but the castle was manned by a Royalist garrison who supported King Charles I. In 1645 during the Civil War, Parliamentary troops were billeted in nearby Hanwell for nine weeks and villagers petitioned the Warwickshire Committee of Accounts to pay for feeding them.
The opening of the Oxford Canal from Hawkesbury Junction to Banbury on 30 March 1778 gave the town a cheap and reliable supply of Warwickshire coal. In 1787 the Oxford Canal was extended southwards, finally opening to Oxford on 1 January 1790. The canal's main boat yard was the original outlay of today's Tooley's Boatyard.
People's Park was set up as a private park in 1890 and opened in 1910, along with the adjacent bowling green.
The land south of the Foscote Private Hospital in Calthorpe and Easington Farm were mostly open farmland until the early 1960s as shown by the Ordnance Survey maps of 1964, 1955 and 1947. It had only a few farmsteads, the odd house, an allotment field (now under the Sainsbury's store), the Municipal Borough of Banbury council's small reservoir just south of Easington Farm and a water spring lay to the south of it. The Ruscote estate, which now has a notable South Asian community, was expanded in the 1950s because of the growth of the town due to the London overspill and further grew in the mid-1960s.
British Railways closed Merton Street railway station and the Buckingham to Banbury line to passenger traffic at the end of 1960. Merton Street goods depot continued to handle livestock traffic for Banbury's cattle market until 1966, when this too was discontinued and the railway dismantled. In March 1962 Sir John Betjeman celebrated the line from Culworth Junction in his poem Great Central Railway, Sheffield Victoria to Banbury. British Railways closed this line too in 1966.
The main railway station, previously called Banbury General but now called simply Banbury, is now served by trains running from London Paddington via Reading and Oxford, from London Marylebone via High Wycombe and Bicester onwards to Birmingham and Kidderminster and by Cross Country Trains from Bournemouth to Birmingham and Manchester.
Banbury used to have a cattle market. Situated on Merton Street in Grimsbury, for many decades, cattle and other farm animals were driven there on the hoof from as far as Scotland to be sold to feed the growing population of London and other towns. Since its closure in June 1998, a new housing development has been built on its site which includes Dashwood Primary School. The estate, which lies between Banbury and Hanwell, was built on the grounds of Hanwell Farm during 2005 and 2006.
Banburyshire
Banburyshire is an informal area centred on Banbury, claimed to include parts of Northamptonshire and Warwickshire as well as north Oxfordshire. Use of the term dates from the early to mid 19th century. It was common in the 19th century for market towns in England to describe their hinterland by tacking "shire" onto the town's name. "Stones Map of Banburyshire" held by the Centre of Banbury Studies was published in the 1870s or 1880s and it asserted that the term originated in the 1830s but no source is given for that assertion. In the 1850s magazine articles used "Banburyshire" or the hyphenated term "Banbury-shire". The Banburyshire Natural History Society was formed in 1881.
In the 20th century a number of books used the term "Banburyshire" in their titles, dating from the early 1960s.
The county of Oxfordshire has two main commercial centres, the city of Oxford itself that serves most of the south of the county, and Banbury that serves the north (such as Adderbury, Deddington, Wroxton, Great Bourton and Bloxham) plus parts of the neighbouring counties of Northamptonshire and Warwickshire.
The villages of King's Sutton and Middleton Cheney, and possibly also Aynho, Fenny Compton, Charlton and Croughton could be considered part of Banburyshire, as well as Upper and Lower Brailes. The settlements of Bicester, Hinton-in-the-Hedges, Chipping Norton and Hook Norton are on the border of Banburyshire's area.
Local development plans
There was a plan in the late 2000s to expand the Bretch Hill estate westwards into local farmland, but this has now been suspended due to the credit crunch and local hostility to the plan, including the southern expansion towards Bodicote.
The Hanwell Fields Estate was built in the north between 2001 and 2009. It was intended to provide affordable social housing to the west and north of Banbury, and more upmarket housing in the Hanwell fields area.
Local government
In January 1554 Banbury was granted a royal charter that established the town as a borough to be governed by the aldermen of the town. The same charter created the position of High Steward of Banbury. Banbury was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Reform Act 1835. It retained a borough council until 1974, when under the Local Government Act 1972 it became part of the traditionally Conservative-ruled Cherwell District Council, an unparished area with Charter Trustees. A civil parish with a town council was set up in 2000.
Mayor of Banbury
The post of the mayor of Banbury was created in 1607. The first mayor was Thomas Webb. A number of roads are named after former mayors of the town, including Mascord Road, Mold Crescent and Fairfax Close. Another former mayor, Angela Billingham, went into national politics.
Geography
Banbury is in the Cherwell Valley with many hills in and around the town. Apart from the town centre, much of Banbury is on a slope and each entry into the town is downhill. Estates such as Bretch Hill and Hardwick are built on top of a hill and much of the town can be seen from both. Other notable hills include the suburban, Crouch Hill and the more central Pinn Hill, and Strawberry Hill on the outskirts of Easington. Mine Hill and Rye Hill lie, along with many others, to the northeast, southeast and west of Banbury.
Banbury is located at the bank of the River Cherwell which sweeps through the town, going just east of the town centre with Grimsbury being the only estate east of the river. Banbury is at the northern extreme of the UK's South East England region, less than from the boundary with the East Midlands, and from that with the West Midlands. As such it has close cultural links with neighbouring Midlands towns and cities such as Stratford-Upon-Avon, Leamington Spa, Coventry, Warwick and Birmingham.
In 1998 and 2007, Banbury was subject to heavy flooding due to its location by the River Cherwell. Heavy clay and Ironstone deposits surround Banbury.
Industry and commerce
The Domesday Book in 1086 listed three mills, with a total fiscal value of 45 shillings, on the Bishop of Lincoln's demesne lands, and a fourth which was leased to Robert son of Waukelin by the Bishop. Among Banbury's four Medieval mills was probably a forerunner of Banbury Mill, first referred to by this name in 1695. In the year 1279, Laurence of Hardwick was also paying 3 marks (equivalent to 40 shillings) in annual rent to the Bishop for a mill in the then Hardwick hamlet. The forerunners of Butchers Row were probably long standing butchers' stalls which were known to be in situ by 1438.
The Northern Aluminium Co. Ltd. or Alcan Industries Ltd. pig and rolled aluminium factory was opened in 1931 on land acquired in 1929 on the east of the Southam road, in the then hamlet of Hardwick. The various Alcan facilities on the 53-acre site closed between 2006 and 2007. The factory was demolished between 2008 and 2009. The laboratory was also closed in 2004 and is now used as offices for numerous companies. Another major employer is Jacobs Douwe Egberts, which produces instant coffee. The facility moved to Banbury from Birmingham in 1965.
In the central area were built many large shops, a bus station, and a large car park north of Castle Street. In 1969 proposals for the redevelopment of the central area were in hand, leading to the creation of the Castle shopping centre in 1977 (the centre was later combined into the Castle Quay centre). The 1977 plans to build a multi-storey car park on what is now the open air car park behind Matalan and Poundland were scrapped in 1978 and another one was built to the rear of the Castle Shopping Centre in 1978.
The former Hunt Edmunds brewery premises became Crest Hotels headquarters, but closed in the late 1970s and was abandoned in the late 1980s, while the Crown Hotel and the Foremost Tyres/Excel Exhausts shops found new owners after they closed in 1976 due to falling sales. Hella Manufacturing, a vehicle Electronics firm, closed its factory on the Southam Road in the mid-2000s. The ironmonger, Hoods, opened in the mid-1960s and closed in 2007, with the shop becoming part of the then enlarged Marks and Spencer.
Motorsport
Owing to the surrounding area's notable links with world motorsport, the town is home to many well known organisations within the industry. Prodrive, one of the world's largest motorsport and automotive technology specialists, is based in the town as are a host of race teams involved in competition across many different disciplines and countries.
Within Formula One, two teams have had their base of operations in Banbury. The Simtek team which competed in the 1994 and 1995 F1 World Championships was based on the Wildmere Industrial Estate. The Marussia F1 team had its manufacturing and production facility sited on Thorpe Way Industrial Estate using the building formerly owned by Ascari Cars, a luxury sports car manufacturer. Both Simtek and Marussia F1 had been brought to Banbury by Nick Wirth who owned the Simtek team and was the former Technical Director at Marussia. After Marussia F1 went into administration in 2014, their base was purchased by the United States-based Haas F1 Team to service their cars during the European races.
Until 2017, when the team went into administration and subsequently folded, Manor Racing (the successor to Marussia) was based in the town.
Arden Motorsport, a British multi-formula motorsports team (founded by Red Bull Racing boss Christian Horner), is also based in the town.
Employment
Banbury has one of the UK's lowest unemployment rates, as of April 2016 it stood at 0.7%. Once Poland joined the European Union in 2004, a number of Banbury-based employment agencies began advertising for staff in major Polish newspapers. In 2006 one estimate placed between 5,000 and 6,000 Poles in the town. With the influx of the largely Roman Catholic Poles, one local church was offering a Mass said partially in Polish and specialist Polish food shops had opened.
Companies and charities
Jacobs Douwe Egberts, in the Ruscote ward of Banbury, is a large food and coffee producing factory.
It was built in 1964 and has gone through a number of ownership changes since. It is still sometimes known by its previous names of Bird's, Kraft and General Foods or GF.
Westminster Group
Norbar
Arrival
Waste & Resources Action Programme
Dogs for Good
Warburtons
Cattle market
Banbury was once home to Western Europe's largest cattle market, on Merton Street in Grimsbury. The market was a key feature of Victorian life in the town and county. It was formally closed in June 1998, after being abandoned several years earlier and was replaced with a new housing development and Dashwood Primary School.
Transport and infrastructure
The Oxford Canal is a popular place for pleasure trips and tourism. The canal's main boatyard is now the listed site Tooley's Boatyard. Banbury station is served by Chiltern Railways services to and Birmingham, both running to London Marylebone via the Chiltern Main Line, and by services run by Great Western Railway to , and London Paddington. Services to other parts of the country are provided by CrossCountry south to Reading, Southampton and Basingstoke, and north to Manchester Piccadilly and Newcastle.
Banbury has Stagecoach in Oxfordshire bus services both within the town and linking it with Brackley, Chipping Norton, Oxford and places further afield including Daventry, Leamington Spa and Stratford-upon-Avon. National Express coaches serve Banbury with regular services to and from major UK towns and cities. Hennef Way (A422) was upgraded to a dual carriageway easing traffic on the heavily congested road and providing north Banbury and the town centre with higher-capacity links to the M40 motorway.
Local newspapers
The Banbury Guardian is published weekly on Thursdays by Johnston Press, is priced for sale and is a tabloid. The Banbury Cake was formerly a free newspaper but is now online only.
Places of interest
Banbury Cross
At one time Banbury had many crosses (the High Cross, the Bread Cross and the White Cross), but these were destroyed by Puritans in 1600. Banbury remained without a cross for more than 250 years until the current Banbury Cross was erected in 1859 at the centre of the town to commemorate the marriage of Victoria, Princess Royal (eldest child of Queen Victoria) to Prince Frederick of Prussia. The current Banbury Cross is a stone, spire-shaped monument decorated in Gothic form. Statues of Queen Victoria, Edward VII and George V were added in 1914 to commemorate the coronation of George V. The cross is high, and topped by a gilt cross. Towns with crosses in England before the reformation were places of Christian pilgrimage.
The English nursery rhyme "Ride a cock horse to Banbury Cross", in its several forms, may refer to one of the crosses destroyed by Puritans in 1600. In April 2005, Princess Anne unveiled a large bronze statue depicting the Fine Lady upon a White Horse of the nursery rhyme. It stands on the corner of West Bar and South Bar, just yards from the present Banbury Cross.
Banbury Museum
Banbury has a museum in the town centre near Spiceball Park, replacing the old museum near Banbury Cross. It is accessible over a bridge from the Castle Quay Shopping Centre or via Spiceball Park Road. Admission to the museum is free. The town's tourist information centre is located in the museum entrance in the Castle Quay Shopping Centre.
Tooley's Boatyard
Tooley's Boatyard was built in 1790 and is a historic site with a 200-year-old blacksmiths' shop.
Spiceball Centre and Park
Spiceball Park is the largest park in Banbury. It is east of the Oxford Canal, mainly west of the River Cherwell, north of Castle Quay and south of Hennef Way. It includes three large fields, a children's play area and a skateboard park. Across the road from the main park there is the sports centre, which includes a swimming pool, courts, café and gym facilities. The sports centre began to be re-developed in late 2009, for a new centre and café, which was completed by mid 2010.
Other recreational areas and parks
Neithrop is home to the People's Park which opened in 1910, and has a bird house, tennis courts, a large field and a children's play area. The park is often used in the summer to hold small festivals. The park is also one of the town's biggest in terms of the area covered and one of the few major ones not to be built on a steep hill. Easington Recreation Ground is another principal park and recreational area.
Notable place names
Since 1999 bridge 164 on the Oxford Canal in Banbury has borne Tom Rolt's name in commemoration of his book Narrow Boat (as does the Tom Rolt Centre at the Ellesmere Port section of the National Waterways Museum). A blue plaque commemorating Rolt was unveiled at Tooley's Boatyard, Banbury on 7 August 2010 as part of the centenary celebrations of his birth.
Concorde Avenue was named in a 1995 street naming contest in honour of the 50 years' peace (1945–1995) in Europe since the Second World War.
Claypits Close was built in about 2007 and named after the old clay pit on which it was built. There were many small, Victorian clay pits and kilns in the south west of Banbury, but they had closed by the 1920s.
Gillett Road was named after either Joseph Ashby Gillett, who ran Banbury's branch of 18th century Britain's New Bank, or his descendant Sarah Beatrice Gillett, who was mayor in 1926.
Education
One of the campuses of Activate Learning, Banbury and Bicester College, as well as one of the international campuses of Fairleigh Dickinson University at Wroxton Abbey are situated in Banbury. The town also has four secondary schools – North Oxfordshire Academy, Wykham Park Academy, Space Studio Banbury and Blessed George Napier Roman Catholic School – and a number of primary schools. Independent schools in Banbury include Tudor Hall and Al-Madina School.
Religion
In 1377 a pardon was given to a Welshman, who was wanted for killing another Welshman, after the accused person had taken sanctuary in St Mary's parish church. The Neithrop district of Banbury was the scene of rioting in 1589 after Neithrop's maypole was destroyed by Puritans.
Reverend William Whateley (1583–1639), whose father was several times bailiff or mayor of Banbury, was a notable Banbury vicar, who was instituted in 1610 but had already been a 'lecturer' there for some years. In 1626 Whateley refused communion to his own brother, who had been presented for religious incompetence. A report by the church wardens in 1619 said he was a well liked and tolerant priest. The Quaker meeting house by the town centre lane called 'The Leys' was built between 1748 and 1750.
Sport
Banbury has several sporting clubs, most notably Banbury United football club. There are also rugby, canoeing, golf, running, triathlon and cricket clubs. These clubs represent a variety of age groups, and play at varying levels, from amateur to national. Banbury United F.C. was first formed as Spencer Villa in 1931 and their home matches played at Middleton Road. At this time it was essentially a works club. In 1934, they changed their name to Banbury Spencer and moved to the Spencer Stadium.
Banbury and District Golf Club (now defunct) was founded in 1904. The club disappeared in the mid-1920s. A greyhound racing track was opened during the summer of 1951, north of Banbury town centre on the east side of Southam Road. The racing was independent (not affiliated to the sports governing body the National Greyhound Racing Club) known as a flapping track, which was the nickname given to independent tracks. The racing lasted until the latter part of 1954.
Twinning
Banbury is twinned with:
Ermont in France, since 1982.
Hennef in Germany, since 1981.
Twinning in Banbury began on 26 October 1978, at a public meeting held at the Post-Graduate Education Centre, and called on the initiative of the late Councillor Ron Smith, the then Town Mayor of Banbury. Initial visits between Banbury and Ermont in 1979, and for a long time after there was a period of informal relationship before a formal agreement was signed in 1982. Contact was first made with Hennef about a possible agreement in October 1980 and within a year the formal agreement was signed. As a consequence of this, two roads in Banbury (Hennef Way and Ermont Way) have been named after the two towns. Likewise a former Railway station square in Hennef has been named Banburyplatz.
Notable people
John Brooke-Little was a former officer of arms who lived in Banbury at the end of his life.
Novelist Anthony Burgess taught at Banbury Grammar School (now Wykham Park Academy) for several years during the 1950s.
Television presenter John Craven lives in the Banbury area and has often presented BBC Countryfile stories and features from around the area.
Thomas Franklin, grandfather of Benjamin Franklin, is buried in Banbury. According to Benjamin's autobiography, his grandfather was born in 1598 and he visited Banbury to see his gravestone in 1758.
Benjamin Geen was born in Banbury and employed as a staff nurse at the Horton General Hospital. During December 2003 and January 2004, Geen poisoned 17 patients for the thrill of trying to resuscitate them. He was found guilty of two murders and 15 charges of grievous bodily harm in April 2006.
Gary Glitter, born in Banbury as Paul Francis Gadd; glam rock singer and convicted child sex offender.
Larry Grayson, comedian and television presenter, was born in Banbury, but grew up in Nuneaton.
Thomas Butler Gunn was a Banbury born illustrator, writer and war correspondent.
Richie Hawtin, electronic musician and DJ, was born in Banbury.
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, British physiologist and biophysicist and Nobel Prize winner, was born in Banbury
Lancelot Holland, the admiral who was killed aboard in 1941 commanding the fleet that engaged the , grew up in the Banbury area.
Television hypnotist and hypnotherapist Chris Hughes was born in Banbury, but grew up in Ardley.
Actress Jo Joyner grew up in Bloxham and studied at the Warriner School. She is best known as Tanya Branning in EastEnders.
William Knollys, 1st Earl of Banbury, Lord High Admiral and First Lord of the Admiralty of England 1646–1660.
Former Prime Minister Lord North was MP for Banbury.
Javad Nurbakhsh, former Master of the Ni'matullāhī Sufi order, lived, died and was buried near Banbury.
Tim Plester, actor, playwright and film maker, was born and grew up in Banbury
Chef and Hell's Kitchen star Gordon Ramsay moved to Banbury at the age of 16.
Rodney Gould is a British former Grand Prix motorcycle road racer and UK short circuit specialist, who was born in Banbury. He was the 250cc world champion in 1970.
See also
Banbury cheese – a former cheese produced in Banbury that was once one of the town's most prestigious exports, its production went into decline by the 18th century, and it was eventually forgotten.
Banbury Lido
Banbury Rural District
National Filling Factory, Banbury
Crouch Hill, Banbury
References
Further reading
External links
Banbury town council
Market towns in Oxfordshire
Civil parishes in Oxfordshire
Market crosses in England
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205479
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20George%27s%20Cross
|
Saint George's Cross
|
In heraldry, Saint George's Cross, also called the Cross of Saint George, is a red cross on a white background, which from the Late Middle Ages became associated with Saint George, the military saint, often depicted as a crusader.
Associated with the crusades, the red-on-white cross has its origins in the 10th century. It was used as the ensign of the Republic of Genoa perhaps as early as during the 10th century.
The red-on-white cross used extensively across Northern Italy as the symbol of Bologna, Padua, Reggio Emilia, Mantua, Vercelli, and Alessandria, is instead derived from another flag, called the "Cross of Saint Ambrose", adopted by the Commune of Milan in 1045.
The symbol was adopted by the Swabian League in the pre-Reformation Holy Roman Empire. Saint George became associated as patron saint of England after the English reformation. Since the early modern period, his flag came to be identified as the national flag of England. Saint George is the patron saint of Catalonia and also of Georgia. The national flag of Georgia (2004) displays a combination of Saint George's cross and the Jerusalem cross.
Origins and medieval use
Saint George became widely venerated as a warrior saint during the Third Crusade. There was a legend that he had miraculously assisted Godfrey of Bouillon; also that Richard the Lionheart had placed himself under his protection.
According to legend, the crusaders received miraculous help at the siege of Antioch on 28 June 1098 from a great army on white horses, clothed in white and bearing white banners, led by St George, St Demetrius, and St Mercurius. However, there was no association of the red cross with St George before the end of the crusades.
The red cross in particular was associated with the Knights Templar, from the time of the Second Crusade (1145),
but in 1188 red and white crosses were chosen to identify the French and English troops in the "Kings' Crusade" of Philip II of France and Henry II of England, respectively.
Together with the Jerusalem Cross, the plain red-on-white became a recognizable symbol of the crusader from about 1190, and in the 13th century it came to be used as a standard or emblem by numerous leaders or polities who wanted to associate themselves with the crusades.
The red-on-white combination was chosen by the Kingdom of Aragon, among others.
Saint George was depicted as a crusader knight during this time, but the red cross had no particular association with him. A crusader-era fresco in the crypt of Trani cathedral shows Saint George wearing a white cross on a red surcoat. The white-on-red version was chosen as the Reichsbanner ("imperial banner") by the German crusaders in the 12th century, and Emperor Frederick II used it in his European campaigns of the 1250s after he had returned from the crusades. It continued to be used as the Reichssturmfahne ("imperial war flag") of the Holy Roman Empire, eventually giving rise to the flag of Savoy and the present-day flags of Switzerland and Denmark.
A vexillum beati Georgii is mentioned in the Genovese annals for the year 1198, referring to a red flag with a depiction of St George and the dragon. An illumination of this flag is shown in the annals for the year 1227. The Genoese flag with the red cross was used alongside this "George's flag", from at least 1218, and was known as the insignia cruxata comunis Janue ("cross ensign of the commune of Janua"). The flag showing the saint himself was the city's principal war flag, but the flag showing the plain cross was used alongside it in the 1240s.
The cross ceased to be a symbol directly associated with the "taking of the cross", the resolve to fight in a crusade, after the failure of the crusades in the 14th century. With the development of systematic heraldry, there was great demand for variations of the cross symbol and associated terminology. Juliana Berners reports that there were Crossis innumerabull born dayli. The term "St George's cross" was at first associated with any plain Greek cross touching the edges of the field (not necessarily red on white). Thomas Fuller in 1647 wrote of "the plain or George's cross" as "the mother of all the others" (that is, the other heraldic crosses).
Early representations of Saint George as a crusader knight with bearing a red-on-white cross still date to the late 13th century, and become widespread as the saint's attributed arms in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Edward III of England chose Saint George as the patron saint of his Order of the Garter in 1348, and also took to using a red-on-white cross in the hoist of his Royal Standard.
England
Origin
There was a historiographical tradition claiming that Richard the Lionheart himself adopted both the flag and the patron saint from Genoa at some point during his crusade. This idea can be traced to the Victorian era, Perrin (1922) refers to it as a "common belief", and it is still popularly repeated today even though it cannot be substantiated as historical.
On the origins of the flag and its connection to the Genoese flag the Duke of Kent remarked in 1992:
The St. George's flag, a red cross on a white field, was adopted by England and the City of London in 1190 for their ships entering the Mediterranean to benefit from the protection of the Genoese fleet. The English Monarch paid an annual tribute to the Doge of Genoa for this privilege.
The red cross was introduced to England by the late 13th century, but not as a flag, and not at the time associated with Saint George. It was worn by English soldiers as an identification from the early years of the reign of Edward I (1270s), and perhaps originated a few years earlier, in the Second Barons' War (specifically in the Battle of Evesham of 1265, during which, according to chronicler William Rishanger, Simon de Montford observed that the king had taken from him the idea of having his soldiers marked with a cross).
Saint George rose to the position of "patron saint of England" in a process beginning in 1348 with the foundation of the Order of the Garter and culminating with the abolition of all saint's banners except for the St George's banner in 1552. From 1348 and throughout the 15th century, the Saint George's Cross was shown in the hoist of the Royal Standards of the Plantagenet kings of England.
Flag
A combined British flag was created in 1606 (after the dynastic union of England and Scotland in 1603, the so-called "Union of the Crowns") by combining Saint George's Cross with the Saint Andrew's Cross (the flag of Scotland). The flag was initially for maritime display, later restricted to the King's ships. Afterwards, the Saint George flag remained the flag of England for other purposes until the Acts of Union 1707. At the union, the first Union Flag became official for all purposes in the new Kingdom of Great Britain.
From this time, the Saint George's Cross came to be seen as a symbol of England and Wales when used alongside symbols for Scotland or Ireland; so in the flags of the Commonwealth of England during 1649 to 1660.
The flag of Saint George is also the rank flag of an Admiral in the Royal Navy, and civilian craft are forbidden to fly it. However, surviving little ships of Dunkirk, which participated in the Dunkirk evacuation during World War II, are allowed to fly it as a jack. This is normally done in the defaced form of the Dunkirk jack.
Churches belonging to the Church of England may fly the Saint George's Cross (unless another flag is flown by custom for special reasons). The correct way for the church to fly the Saint George's cross (since an order from the Earl Marshal in 1938) is with the arms of the diocese in the upper left-hand corner of the flag.
The flag of St George has enjoyed a resurgence in popularity since the late 20th century, partly due to football-inspired nationalism, and also in response to the devolution movements in Scotland and Wales.
During the 2010 World Cup, UK Prime Minister David Cameron told Parliament that the flag would fly above his official residence at "no extra cost to the tax payer" while England played in the contest.
Derived usage
The flag of the City of London use the St George's Cross on a white background, with a red sword in the canton. The sword is believed to represent the sword that beheaded Saint Paul who is the patron saint of the city.
Guernsey was permitted to use the Saint George's Cross as its state flag between 1936 and 1985.
Three Canadian provinces and one territory use the Saint George's Cross on their coats of arms: Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario and Yukon, reflecting England's influence in Canada.
The state badge of the Australian state of New South Wales features Saint George's cross with a golden lion passant guardant in the centre of the cross and a golden eight pointed star on each of the cross limbs.
The flag used by the British Royal Navy (the White Ensign) is consisting of the Saint George's cross and a Union Flag in the canton. In addition, several countries also have variants of the White Ensign with their own national flags in the canton, such as Indian Naval Ensign.
Georgia
Saint George is the patron saint of the nation of Georgia, and the Saint George flag was supposedly used in the 5th century by Georgian king Vakhtang Gorgasali. In the 13th century, Queen Tamar of Georgia used the Saint George flag during her campaign against Seljuk Turks. The four Jerusalem crosses were later added by King George V of Georgia, who drove out the Mongols from Georgia in 1334.
The flag fell out during the Russian annexation of Georgia and abolition of the Georgian monarchy. However, the flag was revived by the Georgian patriotic movement in the 1990s. A majority of Georgians supported the restoration of the medieval flag of Georgia, including the influential Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia Ilia II of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The flag was finally adopted by the Georgian parliament on January 14, 2004. It was formally endorsed by a presidential decree signed by Mikheil Saakashvili on January 25, following his election as President of Georgia.
Other
The flag of Barcelona combines the cross of Saint George, the patron saint of the city, with the traditional red and yellow bars of the Senyera, the ancient symbol of the Crown of Aragon (here, the bars are vertical, though the modern flag of Catalonia has horizontal stripes).
Both the flag of Sardinia and the flag of Corsica are derived from the Four Moors flag, also known as the "Cross of Alcoraz". This consists of a red cross of Saint George on a white background with a maure (moor's head) in each quarter. This is also found in the flag of Aragon, (Spain), and is based on a war flag of the Reconquista following the Battle of Alcoraz in 1096.
The flag and arms of Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany, consist of a St George's Cross, as St George is one of the city's patron saints.
In Sweden, the term "Saint George's cross" sometimes refers to the Cross pattée used by Swedish Freemasons. For example, the cross of the Swedish Order of Freemasons was defined by the King of Sweden in 1928 to be a "red St George's cross with triangular arms".
In Finland, the Cross pattée is called Yrjön risti, "George's cross", while the red cross on a white background is called Pyhän Yrjön risti, "Saint George's cross".
Naval flags of Latvia, contain a St George's Cross coloured in the Latvian national colours.
Notes
External links
Flag of England at FOTW
Banners of English saints at FOTW
12th-century introductions
Cross symbols
Catalan symbols
Saint George (martyr)
Saint George
Flags of saints
Flags with crosses
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Price
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Richard Price
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Richard Price (23 February 1723 – 19 April 1791) was a Welsh moral philosopher, Nonconformist minister and mathematician. He was also a political reformer, pamphleteer, active in radical, republican, and liberal causes such as the French and American Revolutions. He was well-connected and fostered communication between many people, including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, George Washington, Mirabeau and the Marquis de Condorcet. According to the historian John Davies, Price was "the greatest Welsh thinker of all time".
Born in Llangeinor, near Bridgend, Wales, Price spent most of his adult life as minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church, on the then outskirts of London, England. He edited, published and developed the Bayes–Price theorem and the field of actuarial science. He also wrote on issues of demography and finance, and was a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Early life
Born on 23 February 1723, Richard Price was the son of Rhys Price, a dissenting minister. His mother was Catherine Richards, his father's second wife. Richard was born at Tyn Ton, a farmhouse in the village of Llangeinor, Glamorgan, Wales. He was educated privately, then at Neath and Pen-twyn. He studied under Vavasor Griffiths at Chancefield, Talgarth, Powys, Mid Wales.
He then left Wales for England, where he spent the rest of his life. He studied with John Eames and the dissenting academy in Moorfields, London. Leaving the academy in 1744, Price became chaplain and companion to George Streatfield at Stoke Newington, then a village just north of London. He also held the lectureship at Old Jewry, where Samuel Chandler was minister. Streatfield's death and that of an uncle in 1757 improved his circumstances, and on 16 June 1757 he married Sarah Blundell, originally of Belgrave in Leicestershire.
Newington Green congregation
In 1758 Price moved to Newington Green, and took up residence in No. 54 the Green, in the middle of a terrace even then a hundred years old. (The building still survives as London's oldest brick terrace, dated 1658.) Price became minister to the Newington Green meeting-house, a church that continues today as Newington Green Unitarian Church. Among the congregation were Samuel Vaughan and his family. Price had Thomas Amory as preaching colleague from 1770.
When, in 1770, Price became morning preacher at the Gravel Pit Chapel in Hackney, he continued his afternoon sermons at Newington Green. He also accepted duties at the meeting house in Old Jewry.
Friends and associates
Newington Green neighbours
A close friend of Price was Thomas Rogers, father of Samuel Rogers, a merchant turned banker who had married into a long-established Dissenting family and lived at No. 56 the Green. More than once, Price and the elder Rogers rode on horseback to Wales. Another was the Rev. James Burgh, author of The Dignity of Human Nature and Thoughts on Education, who opened his Dissenting Academy on the green in 1750 and sent his pupils to Price's sermons. Price, Rogers, and Burgh formed a dining club, eating at each other's houses in rotation. Price and Rogers joined the Society for Constitutional Information.
Bowood circle
The "Bowood circle" was a group of liberal intellectuals around Lord Shelburne, and named after Bowood House, his seat in Wiltshire. Price met Shelburne in or shortly after 1767, or was introduced by his wife Elizabeth Montagu, a leader of the Blue Stocking intellectual women, after the publication of his Four Dissertations in that year.
In 1771 Price had Shelburne employ Thomas Jervis. Another member of the circle was Benjamin Vaughan. In 1772 Price recruited Joseph Priestley, who came to work for Shelburne as librarian from 1773.
"Club of Honest Whigs"
The group that Benjamin Franklin christened the "Club of Honest Whigs" was an informal dining group around John Canton. It met originally in St Paul's Churchyard, at the London Coffee House; in 1771 it moved to Ludgate Hill. Price and Sir John Pringle were members, as were Priestley and Benjamin Vaughan.
Visitors
At home, or at his church itself, Price was visited by Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine; other American politicians such as Ambassador John Adams, who later became the second president of the United States, and his wife Abigail; and British politicians such as Lord Lyttleton, Earl Stanhope (known as "Citizen Stanhope"), and William Pitt the Elder. He knew also the philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith. Among activists, the prison reformer John Howard counted Price as a close friend; also there were John Horne Tooke, and John and Ann Jebb.
Theologians
Others acknowledged their debt to Price, such as the Unitarian theologians William Ellery Channing and Theophilus Lindsey. When Lindsey resigned his living and moved to London to create an avowedly Unitarian congregation Price played a role in finding and securing the premises for what became Essex Street Chapel. At the end of the 1770s Price and Lindsey were concerned about the contraction of dissent, at least in the London area. With Andrew Kippis and others, they established the Society for Promoting Knowledge of the Scriptures in 1783.
Price and Priestley took diverging views on morals and metaphysics. In 1778 appeared a published correspondence, A Free Discussion on the Doctrines of Materialism and Philosophical Necessity. Price maintained, in opposition to Priestley, the free agency of man and the unity and immateriality of the human soul. Price's opinions were Arian, Priestley's were Socinian.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft moved her fledgling school for girls from Islington to Newington Green in 1784, with patron Mrs Burgh, widow of Price's friend James Burgh. Wollstonecraft, originally an Anglican, attended Price's services, where believers of all kinds were welcomed. The Rational Dissenters appealed to Wollstonecraft: they were hard-working, humane, critical but uncynical, and respectful towards women, and proved kinder to her than her own family. Price is believed to have helped her with money to go to Lisbon to see her close friend Fanny Blood.
Wollstonecraft was then unpublished: through Price she met the radical publisher Joseph Johnson. The ideas Wollstonecraft ingested from the sermons at Newington Green pushed her towards a political awakening. She later published A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790), a response to Burke's denunciation of the French Revolution and attack on Price; and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), extending Price's arguments about equality to women: Tomalin argues that just as the Dissenters were "excluded as a class from education and civil rights by a lazy-minded majority", so too were women, and the "character defects of both groups" could be attributed to this discrimination. Price appears 14 times in the diary of William Godwin, Wollstonecraft's later husband.
American Revolution
The support Price gave to the colonies of British North America in the American War of Independence made him famous. In early 1776 he published Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, the Principles of Government, and the Justice and Policy of the War with America. Sixty thousand copies of this pamphlet were sold within days; and a cheap edition was issued which sold twice as many copies. It commended Shelburne's proposals for the colonies, and attacked the Declaratory Act. Amongst its critics were Adam Ferguson, William Markham, John Wesley, and Edmund Burke; and Price rapidly became one of the best known men in England. He was presented with the freedom of the city of London, and it is said that his pamphlet had a part in determining the Americans to declare their independence. A second pamphlet on the war with America and the debts of Great Britain, followed in the spring of 1777. Price was a consistent critic of war in general and the corrupting effects of growing government debt.
Price's name became identified with the cause of American independence. Franklin was a close friend; Price corresponded with Turgot; and in the winter of 1778 he was invited by the Continental Congress to go to America and assist in the financial administration of the states, an offer he turned down. In 1781 he, solely with George Washington, received the degree of Doctor of Laws from Yale College. He preached to crowded congregations, and, when Lord Shelburne became Prime Minister in 1782, he was offered the post of his private secretary. The same year he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1785, Price was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society.
Price wrote also Observations on the importance of the American Revolution and the means of rendering it a benefit to the World (1784). Well received by Americans, it suggested that the greatest problem facing Congress was its lack of central powers.
French Revolution controversy
Both Price and Priestley, who were millennialists, saw the French Revolution of 1789 as fulfilment of prophecy. On the 101st anniversary of the Glorious Revolution, 4 November 1789, Price preached a sermon entitled A Discourse on the Love of Our Country, and ignited the pamphlet war known as the Revolution Controversy, on the political issues raised by the French Revolution. Price drew a bold parallel between the Glorious Revolution of 1688 (the one celebrated by the London Revolution Society dinner) and the French Revolution of 1789, arguing that the former had spread enlightened ideas and paved the way for the second one. Price exhorted the public to divest themselves of national prejudices and embrace "universal benevolence", a concept of cosmopolitanism that entailed support for the French Revolution and the progress of "enlightened" ideas. It has been called "one of the great political debates in British history". At the dinner of the London Revolution Society that followed, Price also suggested that the Society should send an address to the National Assembly in Paris. This was the start of a correspondence with many Jacobin clubs in Paris and elsewhere in France. Though the London Revolution Society and the Jacobin clubs agreed on basic tenets, their correspondence displayed a sense of growing misunderstanding as the French Jacobins grew more radical and their British correspondents, including Price, were not prepared to condone political violence. The Society's Committee of Correspondence, which included Michael Dodson, took up the contact that was made with French Jacobins, though Price himself withdrew. At the same time, the Revolution Society joined with the Society for Constitutional Information in December 1789, at Price's insistence, in condemning the Test Act and Corporation Act as defacing the British polity, with their restrictions on Dissenters.
Burke's rebuttal in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) attacked Price, whose friends Paine and Wollstonecraft leapt into the fray to defend their mentor; William Coxe was another opponent, disagreeing with Price on interpretation of "our country". In 1792 Christopher Wyvill published Defence of Dr. Price and the Reformers of England, a plea for reform and moderation.
Later life
In 1767 Price received the honorary degree of D.D. from the University of Aberdeen, and in 1769 another from the University of Glasgow. In 1786 Sarah Price died, and there had been no children by the marriage.
In the same year Price with other Dissenters founded Hackney New College. On 19 April 1791 Price died. He was buried at Bunhill Fields, where his funeral sermon was preached by Joseph Priestley.
His extended family included William Morgan, the actuary, and his brother George Cadogan Morgan (1754–1798), dissenting minister and scientist, both sons of Richard Price's sister Sarah by William Morgan, a surgeon of Bridgend, Glamorganshire.
Publications
In 1744 Price published a volume of sermons. It was, however, as a writer on financial and political questions that Price became widely known. Price rejected traditional Christian notions of original sin and moral punishment, preaching the perfectibility of human nature, and he wrote on theological questions. He also wrote on finance, economics, probability, and life insurance.
Thomas Bayes
Price was asked to become literary executor of Thomas Bayes the mathematician. He edited Bayes's major work An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances (1763), which appeared in Philosophical Transactions, and contains Bayes' Theorem, one of the fundamental results of probability theory. Price wrote an introduction to the paper which provides some of the philosophical basis of Bayesian statistics. In 1765 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in recognition of his work on the legacy of Bayes.
Demographer
From about 1766 Price worked with the Society for Equitable Assurances. In 1769, in a letter to Benjamin Franklin, he made some observations on life expectancy, and the population of London, which were published in the Philosophical Transactions of that year. Price's views included the detrimental effects of large cities, and the need for some constraints on commerce and movement of population.
In particular Price took an interest in the figures of Franklin and Ezra Stiles on the colonial population in America, thought in some places to be doubling every 22 years. A debate on the British population had begun in the 1750s (William Brakenridge, Richard Forster, Robert Wallace who pointed to manufacturing and smallpox as factors reducing population, William Bell), but was inconclusive in the face of a lack of sound figures. The issue was of interest to European writers generally. The quantitative form of Price's theory on the contrasting depopulation in England and Wales amounted to an approximate drop in population of 25% since 1688. It was disputed numerically by Arthur Young in his Political Arithmetic (1774), which took in also criticism of the physiocrats.
In May 1770 Price presented to the Royal Society a paper on the proper method of calculating the values of contingent reversions. His book Observations on Reversionary Payments (1771) became a classic, in use for about a century, and providing the basis for financial calculations of insurance and benefit societies, of which many had recently been formed. The "Northampton table", a life table compiled by Price with data from Northampton, became standard for about a century in actuarial work. It, too, overestimated mortality. In consequence, it was good for the insurance business, and adverse for those purchasing annuities. Price's nephew William Morgan was an actuary, and became manager of the Equitable in 1775. He later wrote a memoir of Price's life.
Price wrote a further Essay on the Population of England (2nd ed., 1780) which influenced Thomas Robert Malthus. His continuing claim in it on British depopulation was challenged by John Howlett in 1781. Investigation of actual causes of ill-health began at this period, in a group of radical physicians around Priestley, including Price but centred on the Midlands and north-west: with John Aikin, Matthew Dobson, John Haygarth and Thomas Percival. Of these Haygarth and Percival supplied Price with figures, to supplement those he had collected himself in Northampton parishes.
Public finance
In 1771 Price published his Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt (ed. 1772 and 1774). This pamphlet excited considerable controversy, and is supposed to have influenced William Pitt the Younger in re-establishing the sinking fund for the extinction of the national debt, created by Robert Walpole in 1716 and abolished in 1733. The means proposed for the extinction of the debt are described by Lord Overstone as "a sort of hocus-pocus machinery," supposed to work "without loss to any one," and consequently unsound. Price's views were attacked by John Brand in 1776. When Brand returned to finance and fiscal matters, Alteration of the Constitution of the House of Commons and the Inequality of the Land Tax (1793), he used work of Price, among others.
Moral philosophy
The Review of the Principal Questions in Morals (1758, 3rd ed. revised 1787) contains Price's theory of ethics. The work is supposedly a refutation of Francis Hutcheson. Price represented a different tradition, deontological ethics rather than the virtue ethics of Hutcheson, going back to Samuel Clarke and John Balguy. The book is divided into ten chapters, the first of which gives his main ethical theory, allied to that of Ralph Cudworth. Other chapters show his relation to Joseph Butler and Immanuel Kant. Philosophically and politically Price had something in common with Thomas Reid. As a moralist Price is now regarded as a precursor to the rational intuitionism of the 20th century. He drew, among other sources, on Cicero and Panaetius, and has been labelled a "British Platonist".
J. G. A. Pocock comments that Price was a moralist first, putting morality well ahead of democratic attachments. He was widely criticised for that and an absence of interest in civil society. As well as Burke, John Adams, Adam Ferguson and Josiah Tucker wrote against him. James Mackintosh wrote that Price was attempting to revive moral obligation. Théodore Simon Jouffroy preferred Price to Cudworth, Reid and Dugald Stewart. See also William Whewell's History of Moral Philosophy in England; Alexander Bain's Mental and Moral Sciences; and Thomas Fowler's monograph on Shaftesbury and Hutcheson.
For Price, right and wrong belong to actions in themselves, and he rejects consequentialism. This ethical value is perceived by reason or understanding, which intuitively recognizes fitness or congruity between actions, agents and total circumstances. Arguing that ethical judgment is an act of discrimination, he endeavours to invalidate moral sense theory. He admits that right actions must be "grateful" to us; that, in fact, moral approbation includes both an act of the understanding and an emotion of the heart. Still it remains true that reason alone, in its highest development, would be a sufficient guide. In this conclusion he is in close agreement with Kant; reason is the arbiter, and right is
not a matter of the emotions and
no relative to imperfect human nature.
Price's main point of difference with Cudworth is that while Cudworth regards the moral criterion as a νόημα or modification of the mind, existing in germ and developed by circumstances, Price regards it as acquired from the contemplation of actions, but acquired necessarily, immediately intuitively. In his view of disinterested action (ch. iii.) he follows Butler. Happiness he regards as the only end, conceivable by us, of divine Providence, but it is a happiness wholly dependent on rectitude. Virtue tends always to happiness, and in the end must produce it in its perfect form.
Other works
Price also wrote Fast-day Sermons, published respectively in 1779 and 1781. Throughout the American War, Price preached sermons on fast-days and took the opportunity to attack Britain's coercive policies toward the colonies. A complete list of his works was given as an appendix to Priestley's Funeral Sermon.
See also
Liberalism
Contributions to liberal theory
Notes
Attribution
References
Further reading
Allardyce, Alex (2008). The Village that Changed the World: A History of Newington Green London N16. Newington Green Action Group. .
Cone, Carl B (1952). Torchbearer of Freedom: The Influence of Richard Price on 18th Century Thought. University of Kentucky.
Gordon, Lyndall (2005). Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. Little, Brown. .
Jacobs, Diane (2001). Her Own Woman: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. Simon & Schuster. .
Taylor, Barbara (2003). Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination. Cambridge University Press. .
Thorncroft, Michael (1958). Trust in Freedom: The Story of Newington Green Unitarian Church, 1708–1958. Trustees of the Unitarian Church.
Tomalin, Claire (1974). The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. .
External links
Royal Society certificate of election
Readable version of Price's Review of the Principal Questions of Morals
Price's Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America
Price's Observations on reversionary payments on schemes for providing annuities for widows, and for persons in old age; on the method of calculating the values of assurances on lives; and on the national debt : to which are added four essays ... also an appendix ..., published in 1771.
1723 births
1791 deaths
Anti-monarchists
Welsh actuaries
Welsh statisticians
Burials at Bunhill Fields
English philosophers
English Unitarians
Enlightenment philosophers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Moral philosophers
People from Bridgend County Borough
Welsh philosophers
Welsh Unitarians
18th-century British philosophers
18th-century Unitarian clergy
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
18th-century Welsh writers
18th-century English male writers
18th-century Welsh educators
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre%20Serre
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Jean-Pierre Serre
|
Jean-Pierre Serre (; born 15 September 1926) is a French mathematician who has made contributions to algebraic topology, algebraic geometry, and algebraic number theory. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1954, the Wolf Prize in 2000 and the inaugural Abel Prize in 2003.
Biography
Personal life
Born in Bages, Pyrénées-Orientales, France, to pharmacist parents, Serre was educated at the Lycée de Nîmes and then from 1945 to 1948 at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. He was awarded his doctorate from the Sorbonne in 1951. From 1948 to 1954 he held positions at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in Paris. In 1956 he was elected professor at the Collège de France, a position he held until his retirement in 1994. His wife, Professor Josiane Heulot-Serre, was a chemist; she also was the director of the Ecole Normale Supérieure de Jeunes Filles. Their daughter is the former French diplomat, historian and writer Claudine Monteil. The French mathematician Denis Serre is his nephew. He practices skiing, table tennis, and rock climbing (in Fontainebleau).
Career
From a very young age he was an outstanding figure in the school of Henri Cartan, working on algebraic topology, several complex variables and then commutative algebra and algebraic geometry, where he introduced sheaf theory and homological algebra techniques. Serre's thesis concerned the Leray–Serre spectral sequence associated to a fibration. Together with Cartan, Serre established the technique of using Eilenberg–MacLane spaces for computing homotopy groups of spheres, which at that time was one of the major problems in topology.
In his speech at the Fields Medal award ceremony in 1954, Hermann Weyl gave high praise to Serre, and also made the point that the award was for the first time awarded to a non-analyst. Serre subsequently changed his research focus.
Algebraic geometry
In the 1950s and 1960s, a fruitful collaboration between Serre and the two-years-younger Alexander Grothendieck led to important foundational work, much of it motivated by the Weil conjectures. Two major foundational papers by Serre were Faisceaux Algébriques Cohérents (FAC, 1955), on coherent cohomology, and Géométrie Algébrique et Géométrie Analytique (GAGA, 1956).
Even at an early stage in his work Serre had perceived a need to construct more general and refined cohomology theories to tackle the Weil conjectures. The problem was that the cohomology of a coherent sheaf over a finite field could not capture as much topology as singular cohomology with integer coefficients. Amongst Serre's early candidate theories of 1954–55 was one based on Witt vector coefficients.
Around 1958 Serre suggested that isotrivial principal bundles on algebraic varieties – those that become trivial after pullback by a finite étale map – are important. This acted as one important source of inspiration for Grothendieck to develop the étale topology and the corresponding theory of étale cohomology. These tools, developed in full by Grothendieck and collaborators in Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA) 4 and SGA 5, provided the tools for the eventual proof of the Weil conjectures by Pierre Deligne.
Other work
From 1959 onward Serre's interests turned towards group theory, number theory, in particular Galois representations and modular forms.
Amongst his most original contributions were: his "Conjecture II" (still open) on Galois cohomology; his use of group actions on trees (with Hyman Bass); the Borel–Serre compactification; results on the number of points of curves over finite fields; Galois representations in ℓ-adic cohomology and the proof that these representations have often a "large" image; the concept of p-adic modular form; and the Serre conjecture (now a theorem) on mod-p representations that made Fermat's Last Theorem a connected part of mainstream arithmetic geometry.
In his paper FAC, Serre asked whether a finitely generated projective module over a polynomial ring is free. This question led to a great deal of activity in commutative algebra, and was finally answered in the affirmative by Daniel Quillen and Andrei Suslin independently in 1976. This result is now known as the Quillen–Suslin theorem.
Honors and awards
Serre, at twenty-seven in 1954, was and still is the youngest person ever to have been awarded the Fields Medal. He went on to win the Balzan Prize in 1985, the Steele Prize in 1995, the Wolf Prize in Mathematics in 2000, and was the first recipient of the Abel Prize in 2003. He has been awarded other prizes, such as the Gold Medal of the French National Scientific Research Centre (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, CNRS).
He is a foreign member of several scientific Academies (France, US, Norway, Sweden, Russia, the Royal Society, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1978), American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society) and has received many honorary degrees (from Cambridge, Oxford, Harvard, Oslo and others). In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
Serre has been awarded the highest honors in France as Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (Grand Croix de la Légion d'Honneur) and Grand Cross of the Legion of Merit (Grand Croix de l'Ordre National du Mérite).
See also
List of things named after Jean-Pierre Serre
GAGA
Homotopy groups of spheres
Multiplicity (mathematics)
Nicolas Bourbaki
p-adic modular form
Bibliography
Groupes Algébriques et Corps de Classes (1959), Hermann , translated into English as
Corps Locaux (1962), Hermann , as
Cohomologie Galoisienne (1964) Collège de France course 1962–63, as
Algèbre Locale, Multiplicités (1965) Collège de France course 1957–58, as
Algèbres de Lie Semi-simples Complexes (1966), as
Abelian ℓ-Adic Representations and Elliptic Curves (1968), reissue,
Cours d'arithmétique (1970), PUF, as
Représentations linéaires des groupes finis (1971), Hermann, as
Arbres, amalgames, SL2 (1977), SMF, as
Oeuvres/Collected Papers in four volumes (1986) Vol. IV in 2000, Springer-Verlag
Exposés de séminaires 1950–1999 (2001), SMF, ,
Correspondance Serre-Tate (2015), edited with Pierre Colmez, SMF,
Finite Groups: an Introduction (2016), Higher Education Press & International Press,
Rational Points on Curves over Finite Fields (2020), with contributions by E. Howe, J. Oesterlé, C. Ritzenthaler, SMF,
A list of corrections, and updating, of these books can be found on his home page at Collège de France.
Notes
External links
Jean-Pierre Serre, Collège de France, biography and publications.
Jean-Pierre Serre at the French Academy of Sciences, in French.
Interview with Jean-Pierre Serre in Notices of the American Mathematical Society.
An Interview with Jean-Pierre Serre by C.T. Chong and Y.K. Leong, National University of Singapore.
How to write mathematics badly a public lecture by Jean-Pierre Serre on writing mathematics.
Biographical page (in French)
1926 births
Living people
People from Pyrénées-Orientales
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
20th-century French mathematicians
Abel Prize laureates
Algebraic geometers
Algebraists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
École Normale Supérieure faculty
Nicolas Bourbaki
Fields Medalists
Collège de France faculty
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Number theorists
Topologists
University of Paris alumni
Wolf Prize in Mathematics laureates
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
Members of the American Philosophical Society
|
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] |
205487
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Duritz
|
Adam Duritz
|
Adam Fredric Duritz (born August 1, 1964) is an American musician, songwriter, record producer, and film producer. He is known as the frontman for the rock band Counting Crows, of which he is a founding member and principal composer. Since its founding in 1991, Counting Crows has sold over 20 million records, released seven studio albums that have been certified gold or platinum, and been nominated for two Grammy Awards and an Academy Award.
Duritz has recorded solo material of his own and has collaborated with other musical acts. He has also founded two record labels, E Pluribus Unum and Tyrannosaurus Records. His work scoring music for film has been recognized by the music industry, notably with an award from BMI for co-writing the song "Accidentally in Love" for the movie Shrek 2.
Music career
Duritz and producer/guitarist David Bryson formed Counting Crows in San Francisco in 1991. When Gary Gersh of Geffen Records heard the band's demo tape, he was "blown away". A bidding war between nine different record labels broke out in February 1992. In April, the band—which, by that time, included other members—"signed a deal with Gersh and Geffen believed to be so lucrative that industry wags dubbed them Accounting Crows".
The band's first album, August and Everything After, charted within the top five of the Billboard 200, and the single "Mr. Jones" (1993) was a number-one hit in Canada. After the band performed as the music guest on Saturday Night Live, "Mr. Jones" jumped 40 spots in the charts. The album has been certified 7× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. Six of the band's albums have charted on the Billboard 200 and four have been certified gold or platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. Counting Crows was nominated for two Grammy Awards in 1994. The band also received a 2004 Academy Award nomination for the song "Accidentally in Love", which was included in the film Shrek 2.
Duritz has collaborated with The Wallflowers (led by Jakob Dylan) on the album Bringing Down the Horse on the track "6th Avenue Heartache"; with Ryan Adams on Gold and the song "Butterfly in Reverse" from Hard Candy; with Peter Stuart on Propeller and Daisy; with Live on V;, with Dashboard Confessional on the track "So Long, So Long" from Dusk and Summer and with Maria Taylor on the song "Waiting In Line."
Duritz also contributed the songs "Spin Around," "You Don't See Me," and "You're a Star" to the Josie and the Pussycats soundtrack that was performed by the film's fictional title band. Along with bandmates Dan Vickrey, Bryson, and Immerglück, Duritz co-wrote the song "Accidentally in Love" for the soundtrack of the movie Shrek 2, winning them each an award from BMI.
Duritz's lyrics have been described as "morose" and "tortured" and as "wordy introspection", while his vocals have been called "expressive".
In October 2018, Duritz co-founded the Underwater Sunshine Music Festival.
Record labels
Duritz co-founded E Pluribus Unum in 1997. Before the label was purchased by new ownership, Duritz had signed Joe 90, Gigolo Aunts, and Neilson Hubbard.
In 2007, Duritz launched a record label called Tyrannosaurus Records. Debut artists on the label included Notar and Blacktop Mourning. , the label was defunct.
Film career
Duritz was executive producer for the film The Locusts and produced the ensemble comedy film Freeloaders.
He appeared in the 2007 mockumentary film Farce of the Penguins.
Personal life
Duritz grew up in Baltimore, Maryland; Boston, Massachusetts; El Paso, Texas; and Berkeley, California. He is the son of Gilbert and Linda Duritz, both physicians. Duritz has a younger sister, Nicole. Duritz attended the prestigious Taft School, and graduated from the Head-Royce School in Oakland, California. He has Russian Jewish ancestry. Duritz attended University of California, Berkeley, but left college two credits short of a degree.
Duritz suffers from a dissociative mental health issue. He disclosed this mental health issue publicly in 2008.
In August 2019, Duritz—who had "rocked voluminous dreadlocks" since Counting Crows was formed—revealed that he had shaved his head.
References
External links
1964 births
Taft School alumni
American male bloggers
American bloggers
American male singers
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American rock pianists
American male pianists
American rock singers
Capitol Records artists
Counting Crows members
Living people
Singers from California
Alternative rock singers
American alternative rock musicians
Musicians from Baltimore
Singers from Maryland
Jewish rock musicians
Songwriters from Maryland
20th-century American singers
20th-century American pianists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Whewell
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William Whewell
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William Whewell ( ; 24 May 17946 March 1866) was an English polymath, scientist, Anglican priest, philosopher, theologian, and historian of science. He was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. In his time as a student there, he achieved distinction in both poetry and mathematics.
What is most often remarked about Whewell is the breadth of his endeavors. In a time of increasing specialization, Whewell appears a throwback to an earlier era when natural philosophers dabbled in a bit of everything. He published work in the disciplines of mechanics, physics, geology, astronomy, and economics, while also finding the time to compose poetry, author a Bridgewater Treatise, translate the works of Goethe, and write sermons and theological tracts. In mathematics, Whewell introduced what is now called the Whewell equation, an equation defining the shape of a curve without reference to an arbitrarily chosen coordinate system. He also organized thousands of volunteers internationally to study ocean tides, in what is now considered one of the first citizen science projects. He received the Royal Medal for this work in 1837.
One of Whewell's greatest gifts to science was his wordsmithing. He often corresponded with many in his field and helped them come up with new terms for their discoveries. Whewell coined the terms scientist, physicist, linguistics, consilience, catastrophism, uniformitarianism, and astigmatism amongst others; Whewell suggested the terms electrode, ion, dielectric, anode, and cathode to Michael Faraday.
Whewell died in Cambridge in 1866 as a result of a fall from his horse.
Early life, education and marriages
Whewell was born in Lancaster, the son of John Whewell and his wife, Elizabeth Bennison.
His father was a master carpenter, and wished him to follow his trade, but William's success in mathematics at Lancaster Royal Grammar School and Heversham grammar school won him an exhibition (a type of scholarship) at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1812. He was the eldest of seven children having three brothers and three sisters born after him. Two brothers died as infants; the third died in 1812. Two of his sisters married; he corresponded with them in his career as a student and then a professor. His mother died in 1807, when Whewell was 11 years old. His father died in 1816, the year Whewell received his bachelor degree at Trinity College, but before his most significant professional accomplishments.
Whewell married, firstly, in 1841, Cordelia Marshall, daughter of John Marshall. Within days of his marriage, Whewell was recommended to be master of Trinity College in Cambridge, following Christopher Wordsworth. Cordelia died in 1855. In 1858 he married again, to Everina Frances (née Ellis), widow of Sir Gilbert Affleck, 5th Baronet who had died in 1854. He had no children.
Career
In 1814 he was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry. He was Second Wrangler in 1816, President of the Cambridge Union Society in 1817, became fellow and tutor of his college.
He was professor of mineralogy from 1828 to 1832 and Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy (then called "moral theology and casuistical divinity") from 1838 to 1855. During the years as professor of philosophy, in 1841, Whewell succeeded Christopher Wordsworth as master.
Death and legacy
Whewell died in Cambridge in 1866 as a result of a fall from his horse. He was buried in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge, whilst his wives are buried together in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge. A window dedicated to Lady Affleck, his second wife, was installed in her memory in the chancel of All Saints' Church, Cambridge and made by Morris & Co.
A list of his writings was prepared after his death by Isaac Todhunter in two volumes, the first being an index of the names of persons with whom Whewell corresponded. Another book was published five years later, as a biography of Whewell’s life interspersed with his letters to his father, his sisters, and other correspondence, written and compiled by his niece by marriage, Janet Mary Douglas, called Mrs Stair Douglas on the book’s title page. These books are available online in their entirety as part of the Internet Archive.
Endeavours
History and development of science
In 1826 and 1828, Whewell was engaged with George Airy in conducting experiments in Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, in order to determine the density of the earth. Their united labours were unsuccessful, and Whewell did little more in the way of experimental science. He was the author, however, of an Essay on Mineralogical Classification, published in 1828, and carried out extensive work on the tides.
When Whewell started his work on tides, there was a theory explaining the forces causing the tides, based on the work of Newton, Bernouilli, and Laplace. But this explained the forces, not how tides actually propagated in oceans bounded by continents. There was a series of tidal observations for a few ports, such as London and Liverpool, which allowed tide tables to be produced for these ports. However the methods used to create such tables, and in some cases the observations, were closely guarded trade secrets. John Lubbock, a former student of Whewell's, had analysed the available historic data (covering up to 25 years) for several ports to allow tables to be generated on a theoretical basis, publishing the methodology. This work was supported by Francis Beaufort, Hydrographer of the Navy, and contributed to the publication of the Admiralty Tide Tables starting in 1833.
Whewell built on Lubbock's work to develop an understanding of tidal patterns around the world that could be used to generate predictions for many locations without the need for long series of tidal observations at each port. This required extensive new observations, initially obtained through an informal network, and later through formal projects enabled by Beaufort at the Admiralty. In the first of these, in June 1834, every Coast Guard station in the United Kingdom recorded the tides every fifteen minutes for two weeks. The second, in June 1835, was an international collaboration, involving Admiralty Surveyors, other Royal Navy and British observers, as well as those from the United States, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, and the Netherlands. Islands, such as the Channel Islands, were particularly interesting, adding important detail of the progress of the tides through the ocean. The Admiralty also provided the resources for data analysis, and J.F. Dessiou, an expert calculator on the Admiralty staff, was in charge of the calculations.
Whewell made extensive use of graphical methods, and these became not just ways of displaying results, but tools in the analysis of data. He published a number of maps showing cotidal lines (a term coined by Lubbock) - lines joining points where high tide occurred at the same time. These allowed a graphical representation of the progression of tidal waves through the ocean. From this, Whewell predicted that there should be a place where there was no tidal rise or fall in the southern part of the North Sea. Such a "no-tide zone" is now called an amphidromic point. In 1840, the naval surveyor William Hewett confirmed Whewell's prediction. This involved anchoring his ship, HMS Fairy, and taking repeated soundings at the same location with lead and line, precautions being needed to allow for irregularities in the sea bed, and the effects of tidal flow. The data showed a rise of no more than .
Whewell published about 20 papers over a period of 20 years on his tidal researches. This was his major scientific achievement, and was an important source for his understanding of the process of scientific enquiry, the subject of one of his major works Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences.
His best-known works are two voluminous books that attempt to systematize the development of the sciences, History of the Inductive Sciences (1837) and The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon Their History (1840, 1847, 1858–60). While the History traced how each branch of the sciences had evolved since antiquity, Whewell viewed the Philosophy as the "Moral" of the previous work as it sought to extract a universal theory of knowledge through history.
In the latter, he attempted to follow Francis Bacon's plan for discovery. He examined ideas ("explication of conceptions") and by the "colligation of facts" endeavored to unite these ideas with the facts and so construct science. This colligation is an "act of thought", a mental operation consisting of bringing together a number of empirical facts by "superinducing" upon them a conception which unites the facts and renders them capable of being expressed in general laws. Whewell refers to as an example Kepler and the discovery of the elliptical orbit: the orbit's points were colligated by the conception of the ellipse, not by the discovery of new facts. These conceptions are not "innate" (as in Kant), but being the fruits of the "progress of scientific thought (history) are unfolded in clearness and distinctness".
Whewell's three steps of induction
Whewell analyzed inductive reasoning into three steps:
The selection of the (fundamental) idea, such as space, number, cause, or likeness (resemblance);
The formation of the conception, or more special modification of those ideas, as a circle, a uniform force, etc.; and,
The determination of magnitudes.
Upon these follow special methods of induction applicable to quantity: the method of curves, the method of means, the method of least squares and the method of residues, and special methods depending on resemblance (to which the transition is made through the law of continuity), such as the method of gradation and the method of natural classification. In Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Whewell was the first to use the term "consilience" to discuss the unification of knowledge between the different branches of learning.
Opponent of English empiricism
Here, as in his ethical doctrine, Whewell was moved by opposition to contemporary English empiricism. Following Immanuel Kant, he asserted against John Stuart Mill the a priori nature of necessary truth, and by his rules for the construction of conceptions he dispensed with the inductive methods of Mill. Yet, according to Laura J. Snyder, "surprisingly, the received view of Whewell's methodology in the 20th century has tended to describe him as an anti-inductivist in the Popperian mold, that is it is claimed that Whewell endorses a 'conjectures and refutations' view of scientific discovery. Whewell explicitly rejects the hypothetico-deductive claim that hypotheses discovered by non-rational guesswork can be confirmed by consequentialist testing. Whewell explained that new hypotheses are 'collected from the facts' (Philosophy of Inductive Sciences, 1849, 17)". In sum, the scientific discovery is a partly empirical and partly rational process; the "discovery of the conceptions is neither guesswork nor merely a matter of observations", we infer more than we see.
Whewell's neologisms
One of Whewell's greatest gifts to science was his wordsmithing. He often corresponded with many in his field and helped them come up with new terms for their discoveries. In fact, Whewell came up with the term scientist itself in 1833, and it was first published in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in the Quarterly Review. (They had previously been known as "natural philosophers" or "men of science").
Work in college administration
Whewell was prominent not only in scientific research and philosophy but also in university and college administration. His first work, An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics (1819), cooperated with those of George Peacock and John Herschel in reforming the Cambridge method of mathematical teaching. His work and publications also helped influence the recognition of the moral and natural sciences as an integral part of the Cambridge curriculum.
In general, however, especially in later years, he opposed reform: he defended the tutorial system, and in a controversy with Connop Thirlwall (1834), opposed the admission of Dissenters; he upheld the clerical fellowship system, the privileged class of "fellow-commoners," and the authority of heads of colleges in university affairs.
He opposed the appointment of the University Commission (1850) and wrote two pamphlets (Remarks) against the reform of the university (1855). He stood against the scheme of entrusting elections to the members of the senate and instead, advocated the use of college funds and the subvention of scientific and professorial work.
He was elected Master of Trinity College, Cambridge in 1841, and retained that position until his death in 1866.
The Whewell Professorship of International Law and the Whewell Scholarships were established through the provisions of his will.
Whewell's interests in architecture
Aside from Science, Whewell was also interested in the history of architecture throughout his life. He is best known for his writings on Gothic architecture, specifically his book, Architectural Notes on German Churches (first published in 1830). In this work, Whewell established a strict nomenclature for German Gothic churches and came up with a theory of stylistic development. His work is associated with the "scientific trend" of architectural writers, along with Thomas Rickman and Robert Willis.
He paid from his own resources for the construction of two new courts of rooms at Trinity College, Cambridge, built in a Gothic style. The two courts were completed in 1860 and (posthumously) in 1868, and are now collectively named Whewell's Court (in the singular).
Whewell's works in philosophy and morals
Between 1835 and 1861 Whewell produced various works on the philosophy of morals and politics, the chief of which, Elements of Morality, including Polity, was published in 1845. The peculiarity of this work—written from what is known as the intuitional point of view—is its fivefold division of the springs of action and of their objects, of the primary and universal rights of man (personal security, property, contract, family rights, and government), and of the cardinal virtues (benevolence, justice, truth, purity and order).
Among Whewell's other works—too numerous to mention—were popular writings such as:
the third Bridgewater Treatise, Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology (1833),
the two volumes treatise The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History (1840),
the essay Of the Plurality of Worlds (1853), in which he argued against the probability of life on other planets,
the Platonic Dialogues for English Readers (1850–1861),
the Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England (1852),
the essay, Of a Liberal Education in General, with particular reference to the Leading Studies of the University of Cambridge (1845),
the important edition and abridged translation of Hugo Grotius, De jure belli ac pacis (1853), and
the edition of the Mathematical Works of Isaac Barrow (1860).
Whewell was one of the Cambridge dons whom Charles Darwin met during his education there, and when Darwin returned from the Beagle voyage he was directly influenced by Whewell, who persuaded Darwin to become secretary of the Geological Society of London. The title pages of On the Origin of Species open with a quotation from Whewell's Bridgewater Treatise about science founded on a natural theology of a creator establishing laws:
But with regard to the material world, we can at least go so far as this—we can perceive that events are brought about not by insulated interpositions of Divine power, exerted in each particular case, but by the establishment of general laws.
Though Darwin used the concepts of Whewell as he made and tested his hypotheses regarding the theory of evolution, Whewell did not support Darwin's theory itself.
“Whewell also famously opposed the idea of evolution. First he published a new book, Indications of the Creator, 1845, composed of extracts from his earlier works to counteract the popular anonymous evolutionary work Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Later Whewell opposed Darwin's theories of evolution.”
Works by Whewell
(1830) New edition 1835. Third edition 1842.
(1831)
(1833) Astronomy and general physics considered with reference to Natural Theology (Bridgewater Treatise). Cambridge.
(1836) Elementary Treatise on Mechanics, 5th edition, first edition 1819.
(1837) History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Times. 3 vols, London. Volume 1, volume 2, volume 3. 2nd ed 1847 (2 vols). 3rd ed 1857 (2 vols). 1st German ed 1840–41.
(1837) On the Principles of English University Education. London, 1837.
(1840) The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, founded upon their history. 2 vols, London. 2nd ed 1847. Volume 1. Volume 2.
(1845) The Elements of Morality, including polity. 2 vols, London. Volume 1 Volume 2.
(1846) Lectures on systematic Morality. London.
(1849) Of Induction, with especial reference to Mr. J. Stuart Mill's System of Logic. London.
(1850) Mathematical exposition of some doctrines of political economy: a second memoir. Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 9:128–49.
(1852) Lectures on the history of Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(1853) Hugonis Grotii de jure belli et pacis libri tres : accompanied by an abridged translation by William Whewell, London: John W. Parker, volume 1, volume 2, volume 3.
(1853) Of the Plurality of Worlds. London.
(1857) Spedding's complete edition of the works of Bacon. Edinburgh Review 106:287–322.
(1858a) The history of scientific ideas. 2 vols, London.
(1858b) Novum Organon renovatum, London.
(1860a) On the philosophy of discovery: chapters historical and critical. London.
(1861) Plato's Republic (translation). Cambridge.
(1862) Six Lectures on Political Economy, Cambridge.
(1862) Additional Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy, Cambridge.
(1866) Comte and Positivism. Macmillan's Magazine 13:353–62.
Honors and recognitions
Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1847)
The debating society at Lancaster Royal Grammar School is named the Whewell Society in honor of Whewell being an Old Lancastrian.
The crater Whewell on the Moon
The Gothic buildings known as Whewell's Court in Trinity College, Cambridge
The Whewell Mineral Gallery in the Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, Cambridge
The mineral whewellite
In fiction
In the 1857 novel Barchester Towers Charlotte Stanhope uses the topic of the theological arguments, concerning the possibility of intelligent life on other planets, between Whewell and David Brewster in an attempt to start up a conversation between her impecunious brother and the wealthy young widow Eleanor Bold.
See also
Catastrophism
Uniformitarianism
Earl of Bridgewater for other Bridgewater Treatise
Law of three stages for Whewell's opposition to Auguste Comte's positivism
Michael Faraday
References
Further reading
Fisch, M. (1991), William Whewell Philosopher of Science, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fisch, M. and Schaffer S. J. (eds.) (1991), William Whewell: A Composite Portrait, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
. Includes an extensive bibliography.
.
Whewell, W., Astronomy and General Physics Considered with Reference to Natural Theology; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1833 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Whewell, W., Of the Plurality of Worlds. An Essay; J. W. Parker and son, 1853 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
Yeo, R. (1991), Defining Science: William Whewell, Natural Knowledge and Public Debate in Early Victorian Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zamecki, Stefan, Komentarze do naukoznawczych poglądów Williama Whewella (1794–1866): studium historyczno-metodologiczne [Commentaries to the Logological Views of William Whewell (1794–1866): A Historical-Methodological Study], Warsaw, Wydawnictwa IHN PAN, 2012, , English-language summary: pp. 741–43.
External links
The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text
William Whewell (1794-1866) by Menachem Fisch, from The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
William Whewell by Laura J. Snyder, from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Six Lectures from Archive for the History of Economic Thought – papers on mathematical economics as well as a set of introductory lectures
William Whewell from History of Economic Thought
Papers of William Whewell
The Master of Trinity at Trinity College, Cambridge
"William Whewell" at The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inex
|
Inex
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The inex is an eclipse cycle of 10,571.95 days (about 29 years minus 20 days). The cycle was first described in modern times by Crommelin in 1901, but was named by George van den Bergh who studied it in detail half a century later. It has been suggested that the cycle was known to Hipparchos. One inex after an eclipse of a particular saros series there will be an eclipse in the next saros series, unless the latter saros series has come to an end.
It corresponds to:
358 lunations (synodic months)
388.50011 draconitic months
30.50011 eclipse years (61 eclipse seasons)
383.67351 anomalistic months.
8 eclipse sets
The 30.5 eclipse years means that if there is a solar eclipse (or lunar eclipse), then after one inex a New Moon (resp. Full Moon) will take place at the opposite node of the orbit of the Moon, and under these circumstances another eclipse can occur.
Unlike the saros, the inex is not close to an integer number of anomalistic months so successive eclipses are not very similar in their appearance and characteristics. From the remainder of 0.67351, being near , every third eclipse will have a similar position in the moon's elliptical orbit and apparent diameter, so the quality of the solar eclipse (total versus annular) will repeat in these groupings of 3 cycles (87 years minus 2 months), called triads.
Inex series last much longer than saros series. For example, inex series 30 started in saros series −245 in 9435 BC and will continue well beyond 15,000 AD. But inex series are not unbroken: at the beginning and end of a series, eclipses may fail to occur. However once settled down, inex series are very stable and run for many thousands of years. For example, series 30 has produced eclipses every 29 years since saros series −197 in 8045 BC, including most recently the solar eclipse of February 5, 2000.
An inex also is close to an integer number of days (10,571.95) so solar eclipses on average take place at about the same geographical longitude at successive events, although variations of the moon's speed at different points of its orbit mask this relation. In addition sequential events occur at opposite geographical latitudes because the eclipses occur at opposite nodes. This is in contrast to the better known saros, which has a period of about days, so successive solar eclipses tend to take place about 120° in longitude apart on the globe (although at the same node and hence at about the same geographical latitude).
The significance of the inex cycle is not in the prediction, but in the organization of eclipses: any eclipse cycle, and indeed the interval between any two eclipses, can be expressed as a combination of saros and inex intervals.
An example partial inex solar eclipse series
The following fourteen eclipses from part of inex series 52, which has been yielding eclipses every 29 years since saros series −115 in 5275 BC and will continue to do so beyond 15,000 AD.
Saros series 130: Solar eclipse of November 9, 1817
Saros series 131: Solar eclipse of October 20, 1846
Saros series 132: Solar eclipse of September 29, 1875
Saros series 133: Solar eclipse of September 9, 1904
Saros series 134: Solar eclipse of August 21, 1933
Saros series 135: Solar eclipse of July 31, 1962
Saros series 136: Solar eclipse of July 11, 1991
Saros series 137: Solar eclipse of June 21, 2020
Saros series 138: Solar eclipse of May 31, 2049
Saros series 139: Solar eclipse of May 11, 2078
Saros series 140: Solar eclipse of April 23, 2107
Saros series 141: Solar eclipse of April 1, 2136
Saros series 142: Solar eclipse of March 12, 2165
Saros series 143: Solar eclipse of February 21, 2194
An example partial inex lunar eclipse series
These eclipses are part of Lunar Inex Series 40.
Lunar Saros 123: Total Lunar Eclipse of 1826 Nov 14 (Micro Full Moon)
Lunar Saros 124: Total Lunar Eclipse of 1855 Oct 25
Lunar Saros 125: Total Lunar Eclipse of 1884 Oct 04
Lunar Saros 126: Total Lunar Eclipse of 1913 Sep 15 (Micro Full Moon)
Lunar Saros 127: Total Lunar Eclipse of 1942 Aug 26
Lunar Saros 128: Total Lunar Eclipse of 1971 Aug 06
Lunar Saros 129: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2000 Jul 16 (Micro Full Moon)
Lunar Saros 130: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2029 Jun 26
Lunar Saros 131: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2058 Jun 06
Lunar Saros 132: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2087 May 17
Lunar Saros 133: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2116 Apr 27
Lunar Saros 134: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2145 Apr 07
Lunar Saros 135: Total Lunar Eclipse of 2174 Mar 18
Solar Saros-Inex panorama
A saros-inex panorama has been produced by Luca Quaglia and John Tilley. It shows 61775 solar eclipses from −11000 (11001 BC) to +15000.
Each column of the graph is a complete Saros series which progresses smoothly from partial eclipses into total or annular eclipses and back into partials. Each graph row represents an inex series.
The lifetime of each inex series is not simple due to long-term period variations in the synodic and draconic month lengths. One can see from the data file that in the future (around saros series 300) the graph is horizontal (meaning that after an interval of an inex the moon will be at the same latitude), whereas at the beginning of the panorama around 11,000 BC for the moon to come back to the same latitude at another eclipse required about one saros for every ten inex. This implies that back then 3580+223 or 3803 synodic months equaled 3885+242 or 4127 draconic months. So a synodic month was about 1.0851959 draconic months, as compared to about 1.0851958 today. This decrease by about 0.1 ppm can be compared to the decrease in the length of a tropical year by about 1 ppm in the last 10,000 years (see Tropical year). (Note that if the length of a sidereal month were constant, then a decrease in the length of a year would cause an increase in the length of a synodic month.) One source states that the draconic month is increasing by about 0.4 seconds (ca 0.16 ppm) per millennium whereas the synodic month is increasing by about 0.2 seconds (ca 0.08 ppm) per millennium, but doesn't explain why the draconic month is increasing faster.
From the data file we can see that eclipses recur with a period of a combination of 15 inex and 1 saros (5593 synodic months, 165164.58 days, or 452.2 tropical years) throughout the whole panorama (26,000 years), for example from the eclipse of saros series −290, inex series 2 (slightly off the panorama to the left) to the eclipse of saros series 580, inex series 60 on the right-side edge of the panorama. Similar cycles with more or less than 15 inex per saros also cover the whole panorama.
Lunar Saros-Inex panorama
Lunar eclipses can also be plotted in a similar diagram, this diagram covering 1000 AD to 2500 AD. The yellow diagonal band represents all the eclipses from 1900 to 2100. This graph immediately illuminates that this 1900–2100 period contains an above average number of total lunar eclipses compared to other adjacent centuries.
See also
June 2058 lunar eclipse § Inex_series, an example
References
Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin (1901), "The 29-Year Eclipse-Cycle", The Observatory, 24 (1901), 379–382 online link.
George van den Bergh (1954), Eclipses in the Second Millennium B.C. (–l600 to –1207): And how to Compute them in a Few Minutes Tjeenk Willink & Zn NV, Haarlem 1954.
George van den Bergh (1955), Periodicity and Variation of Solar (and Lunar) Eclipses, 2 vols. Tjeenk Willink & Zn NV, Haarlem 1955.
Jean Meeus (1997), Mathematical Astronomy Morsels Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond 1997 (Chapter 9 [pp. 49–55], "Solar eclipses: some periodicities").
Notes
Eclipses
|
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205490
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeligmos
|
Exeligmos
|
An exeligmos ( — turning of the wheel) is a period of 54 years, 33 days that can be used to predict successive eclipses with similar properties and location. For a solar eclipse, after every exeligmos a solar eclipse of similar characteristics will occur in a location close to the eclipse before it. For a lunar eclipse the same part of the earth will view an eclipse that is very similar to the one that occurred one exeligmos before it (see main text for visual examples). The exeligmos is an eclipse cycle that is a triple saros, three saroses (or saroi) long, with the advantage that it has nearly an integer number of days so the next eclipse will be visible at locations and times near the eclipse that occurred one exeligmos earlier. In contrast, each saros, an eclipse occurs about eight hours later in the day or about 120° to the west of the eclipse that occurred one saros earlier.
It corresponds to:
669 synodic months
725.996 draconic months
56.996 eclipse years (114 eclipse seasons)
716.976 anomalistic months
The 57 eclipse years means that if there is a solar eclipse (or lunar eclipse), then after one exeligmos a New Moon (resp. Full Moon) will take place at the same node of the orbit of the Moon, and under these circumstances another eclipse can occur.
Details
The Greeks had knowledge of the exeligmos by at latest 100 BC. A Greek astronomical clock called the Antikythera mechanism used epicyclic gearing to predict the dates of consecutive exeligmoses.
The exeligmos is 669 synodic months (every eclipse cycle must be an integer number of synodic months), almost exactly 726 draconic months (which ensures the sun and moon are in alignment during the new moon), and also almost exactly 717 anomalistic months (ensuring the moon is at the same point of its elliptic orbit). It also corresponds to 114 eclipse seasons. The first two factors make this a long-lasting eclipse series. The latter factor is what makes all the eclipses in an exeligmos so similar. The near-integer number of anomalistic months ensures that the apparent diameter of the moon will be nearly the same with each successive eclipse. The fact that it is very nearly a whole integer of days ensures each successive eclipse in the series occurs very close to the previous eclipse in the series.
For each successive eclipse in an exeligmos series the longitude and latitude can change significantly because an exeligmos is over a month longer than a calendar year, and the gamma increases/decreases because an exeligmos is about three hours shorter than a draconic month. The sun's apparent diameter also changes significantly in one month, affecting the length and width of a solar eclipse.
Solar exeligmos example
Here is a comparison of two annular solar eclipses one exeligmos apart:
Lunar exeligmos example
Here is a comparison of two total lunar eclipses one exeligmos apart:
Sample series of solar exeligmos
Exeligmos table of solar saros 136. Each eclipse occurs at roughly the same longitude but moves about 5-15 degrees in latitude with each successive cycle.
Solar Exeligmos Animation
Here is an animation of an exeligmos series. Note the similar paths of each total eclipse, and how they fall close to the same longitude of the earth.
Solar Saros Animation (for comparison)
This next animation is from the entire saros series of the exeligmos above. Notice how each eclipse falls on a different side of the earth (120 degrees apart).
See also
Eclipse cycle
Saros
Full moon cycle
References
Eclipses
Time in astronomy
Ancient Greek astronomy
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Rorty
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Richard Rorty
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Richard McKay Rorty (October 4, 1931 – June 8, 2007) was an American philosopher. Educated at the University of Chicago and Yale University, he had strong interests and training in both the history of philosophy and contemporary analytic philosophy, the latter of which came to constitute the main focus of his work at Princeton University in the 1960s. He subsequently came to reject the tradition of philosophy according to which knowledge involves correct representation (a "mirror of nature") of a world whose existence remains wholly independent of that representation.
Rorty had a long and diverse academic career, including positions as Stuart Professor of Philosophy at Princeton University, Kenan Professor of Humanities at the University of Virginia, and Professor of Comparative literature at Stanford University. Among his most influential books are Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979), Consequences of Pragmatism (1982), and Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (1989).
Rorty saw the idea of knowledge as a "mirror of nature" as pervasive throughout the history of western philosophy. Against this approach, Rorty advocated for a novel form of American pragmatism (sometimes called neopragmatism) in which scientific and philosophical methods form merely a set of contingent "vocabularies" which people abandon or adopt over time according to social conventions and usefulness. Rorty believed abandoning representationalist accounts of knowledge and language would lead to a state of mind he referred to as "ironism", in which people become completely aware of the contingency of their placement in history and of their philosophical vocabulary. Rorty tied this brand of philosophy to the notion of "social hope"; he believed that without the representationalist accounts, and without metaphors between the mind and the world, human society would behave more peacefully. He also emphasized the reasons why the interpretation of culture as conversation (Bernstein 1971) constitutes the crucial concept of a "postphilosophical" culture determined to abandon representationalist accounts of traditional epistemology, incorporating American pragmatism with metaphysical naturalism.
Biography
Richard Rorty was born on October 4, 1931, in New York City. His parents, James and Winifred Rorty, were activists, writers and social democrats. His maternal grandfather, Walter Rauschenbusch, was a central figure in the Social Gospel movement of the early 20th century.
His father experienced two nervous breakdowns in his later life. The second breakdown, which he had in the early 1960s, was more serious and "included claims to divine prescience." Consequently, Richard Rorty fell into depression as a teenager and in 1962 began a six-year psychiatric analysis for obsessional neurosis. Rorty wrote about the beauty of rural New Jersey orchids in his short autobiography, "Trotsky and the Wild Orchids," and his desire to combine aesthetic beauty and social justice. His colleague Jürgen Habermas's obituary for Rorty points out that Rorty's contrasting childhood experiences, such as beautiful orchids versus reading a book in his parents' house that defended Leon Trotsky against Stalin, created an early interest in philosophy. He describes Rorty as an ironist:
Nothing is sacred to Rorty the ironist. Asked at the end of his life about the 'holy', the strict atheist answered with words reminiscent of the young Hegel: 'My sense of the holy is bound up with the hope that some day my remote descendants will live in a global civilization in which love is pretty much the only law.'
Rorty enrolled at the University of Chicago shortly before turning 15, where he received a bachelor's and a master's degree in philosophy (studying under Richard McKeon), continuing at Yale University for a PhD in philosophy (1952–1956). He married another academic, Amélie Oksenberg (Harvard University professor), with whom he had a son, Jay Rorty, in 1954. After two years in the United States Army, he taught at Wellesley College for three years until 1961. Rorty divorced his wife and then married Stanford University bioethicist Mary Varney in 1972. They had two children, Kevin and Patricia. While Richard Rorty was a "strict atheist" (Habermas), Mary Varney Rorty was a practicing Mormon.
Rorty was a professor of philosophy at Princeton University for 21 years. In 1981, he was a recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship, commonly known as the "Genius Award", in its first year of awarding, and in 1982 he became Kenan Professor of the Humanities at the University of Virginia, working closely with colleagues and students in multiple departments, especially in English. In 1998 Rorty became professor of comparative literature (and philosophy, by courtesy), at Stanford University, where he spent the remainder of his academic career. During this period he was especially popular, and once quipped that he had been assigned to the position of "transitory professor of trendy studies."
Rorty's doctoral dissertation, The Concept of Potentiality was a historical study of the concept, completed under the supervision of Paul Weiss, but his first book (as editor), The Linguistic Turn (1967), was firmly in the prevailing analytic mode, collecting classic essays on the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy. However, he gradually became acquainted with the American philosophical movement known as pragmatism, particularly the writings of John Dewey. The noteworthy work being done by analytic philosophers such as Willard Van Orman Quine and Wilfrid Sellars caused significant shifts in his thinking, which were reflected in his next book, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979).
Pragmatists generally hold that the meaning of a proposition is determined by its use in linguistic practice. Rorty combined pragmatism about truth and other matters with a later Wittgensteinian philosophy of language which declares that meaning is a social-linguistic product, and sentences do not 'link up' with the world in a correspondence relation. Rorty wrote in his Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (1989):
Truth cannot be out there—cannot exist independently of the human mind—because sentences cannot so exist, or be out there. The world is out there, but descriptions of the world are not. Only descriptions of the world can be true or false. The world on its own unaided by the describing activities of humans cannot."(5)
Views like this led Rorty to question many of philosophy's most basic assumptions—and have also led to him being apprehended as a postmodern/deconstructionist philosopher. Indeed, from the late 1980s through the 1990s, Rorty focused on the continental philosophical tradition, examining the works of Friederich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard and Jacques Derrida. His work from this period included: Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (1989); Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers II (1991); and Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers III (1998). The latter two works attempt to bridge the dichotomy between analytic and continental philosophy by claiming that the two traditions complement rather than oppose each other.
According to Rorty, analytic philosophy may not have lived up to its pretensions and may not have solved the puzzles it thought it had. Yet such philosophy, in the process of finding reasons for putting those pretensions and puzzles aside, helped earn itself an important place in the history of ideas. By giving up on the quest for apodicticity and finality that Edmund Husserl shared with Rudolf Carnap and Bertrand Russell, and by finding new reasons for thinking that such quest will never succeed, analytic philosophy cleared a path that leads past scientism, just as the German idealists cleared a path that led around empiricism.
In the last fifteen years of his life, Rorty continued to publish his writings, including Philosophy as Cultural Politics (Philosophical Papers IV), and Achieving Our Country (1998), a political manifesto partly based on readings of Dewey and Walt Whitman in which he defended the idea of a progressive, pragmatic left against what he feels are defeatist, anti-liberal, anti-humanist positions espoused by the critical left and continental school. Rorty felt these anti-humanist positions were personified by figures like Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Foucault. Such theorists were also guilty of an "inverted Platonism" in which they attempted to craft overarching, metaphysical, "sublime" philosophies—which in fact contradicted their core claims to be ironist and contingent. Rorty's last works, after his move to Stanford University concerned the place of religion in contemporary life, liberal communities, comparative literature and philosophy as "cultural politics".
Shortly before his death, he wrote a piece called "The Fire of Life", (published in the November 2007 issue of Poetry magazine), in which he meditates on his diagnosis and the comfort of poetry. He concludes, "I now wish that I had spent somewhat more of my life with verse. This is not because I fear having missed out on truths that are incapable of statement in prose. There are no such truths; there is nothing about death that Swinburne and Landor knew but Epicurus and Heidegger failed to grasp. Rather, it is because I would have lived more fully if I had been able to rattle off more old chestnuts—just as I would have if I had made more close friends. Cultures with richer vocabularies are more fully human—farther removed from the beasts—than those with poorer ones; individual men and women are more fully human when their memories are amply stocked with verses."
On June 8, 2007, Rorty died in his home from pancreatic cancer.
Major works
Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature
In Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979) Rorty argues that the central problems of modern epistemology depend upon a picture of the mind as trying to faithfully represent (or "mirror") a mind-independent, external reality. When we give up this metaphor, the entire enterprise of foundationalist epistemology simply dissolves.
An epistemological foundationalist believes that in order to avoid the regress inherent in claiming that all beliefs are justified by other beliefs, some beliefs must be self-justifying and form the foundations to all knowledge. Rorty however criticized both the idea that arguments can be based upon self-evident premises (within language) and the idea that arguments can be based upon noninferential sensations (outside language).
The first critique draws on Quine's work on sentences thought to be analytically true – that is, sentences thought to be true solely by virtue of what they mean and independently of fact. Quine argues that the problem with analytically true sentences is the attempt to convert identity-based but empty analytical truths like "no unmarried man is married" to synonymity-based analytical truths like "no bachelor is married". When trying to do so, one must first prove that "unmarried man" and "bachelor" means exactly the same, and that is not possible without considering facts – that is, looking towards the domain of synthetic truths. When doing so, one will notice that the two concepts actually differ; "bachelor" sometimes mean "bachelor of arts" for instance. Quine therefore argue that «a boundary between analytic and synthetic statements simply has not been drawn», and concludes that this boundary or distinction «[...] is an unempirical dogma of empiricists, a metaphysical article of faith.»
The second critique draws on Sellars's work on the empiricist idea that there is a non-linguistic but epistemologically relevant "given" available in sensory perception. Sellars argue that only language can work as a foundation for arguments; non-linguistic sensory perceptions are incompatible with language and are therefore irrelevant. In Sellars' view, the claim that there is an epistemologically relevant "given" in sensory perception is a myth; a fact is not something that is given to us, it is something that we as language-users actively take. Only after we have learned a language is it possible for us to construe as "empirical data" the particulars and arrays of particulars we have come to be able to observe.
Each critique, taken alone, provides a problem for a conception of how philosophy ought to proceed, yet leaves enough of the tradition intact to proceed with its former aspirations. Combined, Rorty claimed, the two critiques are devastating. With no privileged realm of truth or meaning that can work as a self-evident foundation for our arguments, we have, instead, only truth defined as beliefs that pay their way, in other words beliefs that are useful to us somehow. The only worthwhile description of the actual process of inquiry, Rorty claimed, was a Kuhnian account of the standard phases of the progress of disciplines, oscillating through normal and abnormal periods, between routine problem-solving and intellectual crises.
After rejecting foundationalism, Rorty argues that one of the few roles left for a philosopher is to act as an intellectual gadfly, attempting to induce a revolutionary break with previous practice, a role that Rorty was happy to take on himself. Rorty suggests that each generation tries to subject all disciplines to the model that the most successful discipline of the day employs. In Rorty's view, the success of modern science has led academics in philosophy and the humanities to mistakenly imitate scientific methods.
Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity
In Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (1989), Rorty argues that there is no worthwhile theory of truth, aside from the non-epistemic semantic theory Donald Davidson developed (based on the work of Alfred Tarski). Rorty also suggests that there are two kinds of philosophers; philosophers occupied with private or public matters. Private philosophers, who provide one with greater abilities to (re)create oneself (a view adapted from Nietzsche and which Rorty also identifies with the novels of Marcel Proust and Vladimir Nabokov) should not be expected to help with public problems. For a public philosophy, one might instead turn to philosophers like Rawls or Habermas.
This book also marks his first attempt to specifically articulate a political vision consistent with his philosophy, the vision of a diverse community bound together by opposition to cruelty, and not by abstract ideas such as 'justice' or 'common humanity.' Consistent with his anti-foundationalism, Rorty states that there is "[...] no noncircular theoretical backup for the belief that cruelty is horrible."
Rorty also introduces the terminology of ironism, which he uses to describe his mindset and his philosophy. Rorty describes the ironist as a person who "[...] worries that the process of socialization which turned her into a human being by giving her a language may have given her the wrong language, and so turned her into the wrong kind of human being. But she cannot give a criterion of wrongness."
Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth
Amongst the essays in Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1 (1990), is "The Priority of Democracy to Philosophy," in which Rorty defends Rawls against communitarian critics. Rorty argues that liberalism can "get along without philosophical presuppositions," while at the same time conceding to communitarians that "a conception of the self that makes the community constitutive of the self does comport well with liberal democracy." For Rorty, social institutions ought to be thought of as "experiments in cooperation rather than as attempts to embody a universal and ahistorical order."
Essays on Heidegger and Others
In this text, Rorty focuses primarily on the continental philosophers Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. He argues that these European "post-Nietzscheans" share much with American pragmatists, in that they critique metaphysics and reject the correspondence theory of truth. When discussing Derrida, Rorty claims that Derrida is most useful when viewed as a funny writer who attempted to circumvent the Western philosophical tradition, rather than the inventor of a philosophical (or literary) "method". In this vein, Rorty criticizes Derrida's followers like Paul de Man for taking deconstructive literary theory too seriously.
Achieving Our Country
In Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America (1997), Rorty differentiates between what he sees as the two sides of the Left, a cultural Left and a progressive Left. He criticizes the cultural Left, which is exemplified by post-structuralists such as Foucault and postmodernists such as Lyotard, for offering critiques of society, but no alternatives (or alternatives that are so vague and general as to be abdications). Although these intellectuals make insightful claims about the ills of society, Rorty suggests that they provide no alternatives and even occasionally deny the possibility of progress. On the other hand, the progressive Left, exemplified for Rorty by the pragmatist Dewey, Whitman and James Baldwin, makes hope for a better future its priority. Without hope, Rorty argues, change is spiritually inconceivable and the cultural Left has begun to breed cynicism. Rorty sees the progressive Left as acting in the philosophical spirit of pragmatism.
On human rights
Rorty's notion of human rights is grounded on the notion of sentimentality. He contended that throughout history humans have devised various means of construing certain groups of individuals as inhuman or subhuman. Thinking in rationalist (foundationalist) terms will not solve this problem, he claimed. Rorty advocated the creation of a culture of global human rights in order to stop violations from happening through a sentimental education. He argued that we should create a sense of empathy or teach empathy to others so as to understand others' suffering.
Reception and criticism
Rorty is among the most widely discussed and controversial contemporary philosophers, and his works have provoked thoughtful responses from many other well-respected figures in the field. In Robert Brandom's anthology Rorty and His Critics, for example, Rorty's philosophy is discussed by Donald Davidson, Jürgen Habermas, Hilary Putnam, John McDowell, Jacques Bouveresse, and Daniel Dennett, among others. In 2007, Roger Scruton wrote, "Rorty was paramount among those thinkers who advance their own opinion as immune to criticism, by pretending that it is not truth but consensus that counts, while defining the consensus in terms of people like themselves." Ralph Marvin Tumaob concludes that Rorty was really influenced by Jean-François Lyotard's metanarratives, and added that "postmodernism was influenced further by the works of Rorty".
McDowell is strongly influenced by Rorty, particularly Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979). In continental philosophy, authors such as Jürgen Habermas, Gianni Vattimo, Jacques Derrida, Albrecht Wellmer, Hans Joas, Chantal Mouffe, Simon Critchley, Esa Saarinen, and Mike Sandbothe are influenced in different ways by Rorty's thinking. American novelist David Foster Wallace titled a short story in his collection Oblivion: Stories "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature", and critics have identified Rorty's influence in some of Wallace's writings on irony.
Susan Haack has been a fierce critic of Rorty's neopragmatism. Haack criticises Rorty's claim to be a pragmatist at all and wrote a short play called We Pragmatists, where Rorty and Charles Sanders Peirce have a fictional conversation using only accurate quotes from their own writing. For Haack, the only link between Rorty's neopragmatism and Peirce's pragmatism is the name. Haack believes Rorty's neopragmatism is anti-philosophical and anti-intellectual, and exposes people further to rhetorical manipulation.
Although Rorty was an avowed liberal, his political and moral philosophies have been attacked by commentators from the Left, some of whom believe them to be insufficient frameworks for social justice. Rorty was also criticized for his rejection of the idea that science can depict the world. One criticism, especially of Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, is that Rorty's philosophical hero, the ironist, is an elitist figure. Rorty argues that most people would be "commonsensically nominalist and historicist" but not ironist. They would combine an ongoing attention to the particular as opposed to the transcendent (nominalism) with an awareness of their place in a continuum of contingent lived experience alongside other individuals (historicist), without necessarily having continual doubts about the resulting worldview as the ironist does. An ironist is someone who "has radical and continuing doubts about their final vocabulary"; "realizes that argument phrased in their vocabulary can neither underwrite nor dissolve these doubts"; and "does not think their vocabulary is closer to reality than others" (all 73, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity). On the other hand, the Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo and the Spanish philosopher Santiago Zabala in their 2011 book Hermeneutic Communism: from Heidegger to Marx affirm that together with Richard Rorty we also consider it a flaw that "the main thing contemporary academic Marxists inherit from Marx and Engels is the conviction that the quest for the cooperative commonwealth should be scientific rather than utopian, knowing rather than romantic." As we will show hermeneutics contains all the utopian and romantic features that Rorty refers to because, contrary to the knowledge of science, it does not claim modern universality but rather postmodern particularism.
Rorty often draws on a broad range of other philosophers to support his views, and his interpretation of their work has been contested. Since he is working from a tradition of reinterpretation, he is not interested in "accurately" portraying other thinkers, but rather in using it in the same way a literary critic might use a novel. His essay "The Historiography of Philosophy: Four Genres" is a thorough description of how he treats the greats in the history of philosophy. In Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, Rorty attempts to disarm those who criticize his writings by arguing that their philosophical criticisms are made using axioms that are explicitly rejected within Rorty's own philosophy. For instance, he defines allegations of irrationality as affirmations of vernacular "otherness", and so—Rorty argues—accusations of irrationality can be expected during any argument and must simply be brushed aside.
Awards and honors
1973: Guggenheim Fellowship
1981: MacArthur Fellowship
1983: Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
2005: Elected to the American Philosophical Society
2007: The Thomas Jefferson Medal, awarded by the American Philosophical Society
Select bibliography
As author
Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.
Consequences of Pragmatism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Philosophical Papers vols. I–IV:
Objectivity, Relativism and Truth: Philosophical Papers I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Philosophy as Cultural Politics: Philosophical Papers IV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Mind, Language, and Metaphilosophy: Early Philosophical Papers Eds. S. Leach and J. Tartaglia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. .
Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth Century America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
Philosophy and Social Hope. New York: Penguin, 2000.
Against Bosses, Against Oligarchies: A Conversation with Richard Rorty. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2002.
The Future of Religion with Gianni Vattimo Ed. Santiago Zabala. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
An Ethics for Today: Finding Common Ground Between Philosophy and Religion. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
What's the Use of Truth with Pascal Engel, transl. by William McCuaig, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007
On Philosophy and Philosophers: Unpublished papers 1960-2000, Ed. by W. P. Małecki and Chris Vopa, CUPress 2020
Pragmatism as Anti-Authoritarianism, Ed. E. Mendieta, foreword by Robert B. Brandom, Harvard UP 2021,
As editor
The Linguistic Turn, Essays in Philosophical Method, (1967), ed. by Richard M. Rorty, University of Chicago press, 1992, (an introduction and two retrospective essays)
Philosophy in History. ed. by R. Rorty, J. B. Schneewind and Quentin Skinner, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985 (an essay by R. Rorty, "Historiography of philosophy", pp. 29–76)
See also
Instrumentalism
List of American philosophers
List of liberal theorists
List of thinkers influenced by deconstruction
Notes
Further reading
Ulf Schulenberg, Romanticism and Pragmatism: Richard Rorty and the Idea of a Poeticized Culture, 2015
Marianne Janack, What We Mean By Experience, 2012
Marianne Janack, editor, Feminist Interpretations of Richard Rorty, 2010
James Tartaglia, Richard Rorty: Critical Assessments, 4 vols., 2009
Neil Gross, Richard Rorty: The Making of an American Philosopher, 2008
Rorty's Politics of Redescription / Gideon Calder, 2007
Rorty and the Mirror of Nature / James Tartaglia, 2007
Richard Rorty: Pragmatism and Political Liberalism / Michael Bacon, 2007
Richard Rorty: politics and vision / Christopher Voparil, 2006
Richard Rorty: his philosophy under discussion / Andreas Vieth, 2005
Richard Rorty / Charles B Guignon., 2003
Rorty / Gideon Calder, 2003
Richard Rorty's American faith / Taub, Gad Shmuel, 2003
The ethical ironist: Kierkegaard, Rorty, and the educational quest / Rohrer, Patricia Jean, 2003
Doing philosophy as a way to individuation: Reading Rorty and Cavell / Kwak, Duck-Joo, 2003
Richard Rorty / Alan R Malachowski, 2002
Richard Rorty: critical dialogues / Matthew Festenstein, 2001
Richard Rorty: education, philosophy, and politics / Michael Peters, 2001
Rorty and his critics / Robert Brandom, 2000
On Rorty / Richard Rumana, 2000
Philosophy and freedom: Derrida, Rorty, Habermas, Foucault / John McCumber, 2000
A pragmatist's progress?: Richard Rorty and American intellectual history / John Pettegrew, 2000
Problems of the modern self: Reflections on Rorty, Taylor, Nietzsche, and Foucault / Dudrick, David Francis, 2000
The last conceptual revolution: a critique of Richard Rorty's political philosophy / Eric Gander, 1999
Richard Rorty's politics: liberalism at the end of the American century / Markar Melkonian, 1999
The work of friendship: Rorty, his critics, and the project of solidarity / Dianne Rothleder, 1999
For the love of perfection: Richard Rorty and liberal education / René Vincente Arcilla, 1995
Rorty & pragmatism: the philosopher responds to his critics / Herman J Saatkamp, 1995
Richard Rorty: prophet and poet of the new pragmatism / David L Hall, 1994
Reading Rorty: critical responses to Philosophy and the mirror of nature (and beyond) / Alan R Malachowski, 1990
Rorty's humanistic pragmatism: philosophy democratized / Konstantin Kolenda, 1990
External links
UCIspace @ the Libraries digital collection: Richard Rorty born digital files, 1988–2003
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Rorty audio, "Dewey and Posner on Pragmatism and Moral Progress," University of Chicago Law School, April 14, 2006.
PhilWeb's entry for Richard Rorty An exhaustive compilation of on-line links and off-line sources.
Rorty essays published in Dissent (magazine)
Rorty audio, informative interview by Prof. Robert P. Harrison, Nov. 22, 2005.
Rorty interview, "Against Bosses, Against Oligarchies," conducted by Derek Nystrom & Kent Puckett, Prickly Paradigm Press, Sept. 1998.
Rorty interview, The Atlantic Monthly, April 23, 1998.
Rorty Memorial Lecture by Jürgen Habermas, Stanford University, Nov. 2, 2007.
Rorty eulogized by Richard Posner, Brian Eno, Mark Edmundson, Jürgen Habermas, Daniel Dennett, Stanley Fish, David Bromwich, Simon Blackburn, Morris Dickstein & others, Slate Magazine, June 18, 2007.
"The Inspiring Power of the Shy Thinker: Richard Rorty" by Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, TELOS, June 13, 2007.
Richard Rorty at Princeton: Personal Recollections by Raymond Geuss in Arion, Winter 2008
Rereading Rorty by Albrecht Wellmer in Krisis, 2008.
1931 births
2007 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century American writers
American atheists
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American social democrats
Critical theorists
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Epistemologists
Heidegger scholars
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Humor researchers
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MacArthur Fellows
Metaphilosophers
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Ontologists
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Philosophers of education
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Princeton University faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Biddell%20Airy
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George Biddell Airy
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Sir George Biddell Airy (; 27 July 18012 January 1892) was an English mathematician and astronomer, and the seventh Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include work on planetary orbits, measuring the mean density of the Earth, a method of solution of two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics and, in his role as Astronomer Royal, establishing Greenwich as the location of the prime meridian.
Biography
Airy was born at Alnwick, one of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland, in the 14th century. The branch to which he belonged, having suffered in the English Civil War, moved to Lincolnshire and became farmers. Airy was educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards at Colchester Royal Grammar School. An introverted child, Airy gained popularity with his schoolmates through his great skill in the construction of peashooters.
From the age of 13, Airy stayed frequently with his uncle, Arthur Biddell at Playford, Suffolk. Biddell introduced Airy to his friend Thomas Clarkson, the slave trade abolitionist who lived at Playford Hall. Clarkson had an MA in mathematics from Cambridge, and examined Airy in classics and then subsequently arranged for him to be examined by a Fellow from Trinity College, Cambridge on his knowledge of mathematics. As a result, he entered Trinity in 1819, as a sizar, meaning that he paid a reduced fee but essentially worked as a servant to make good the fee reduction. Here he had a brilliant career, and seems to have been almost immediately recognised as the leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wrangler and obtained first Smith's Prize. On 1 October 1824 he was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more than a year, being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy and director of the new Cambridge Observatory. In 1836 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1840, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1859 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Research
Some idea of his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects during these early years may be gathered from the fact that previous to this appointment he had contributed three important memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. At the Cambridge Observatory Airy soon showed his power of organisation. The only telescope in the establishment when he took charge was the transit instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduction, he was able to keep his observations up to date, and published them annually with a punctuality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a mural circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with it in 1833. In the same year the Duke of Northumberland presented the Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of 12-inch aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs and under his superintendence, although construction was not completed until after he moved to Greenwich in 1835.
Airy's writings during this time are divided between mathematical physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part concerned with questions relating to the theory of light arising out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially mentioned his paper On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with Circular Aperture, and his enunciation of the complete theory of the rainbow. In 1831 the Copley Medal of the Royal Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astronomical writings during this period the most important are his investigation of the mass of Jupiter, his report to the British Association on the progress of astronomy during the 19th century, and his work On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of the Earth and Venus.
One of the sections of his able and instructive report was devoted to "A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in England with that in other Countries", very much to the disadvantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a great extent removed by his own labours.
Mean density of the Earth
One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his determination of the mean density of the Earth. In 1826, the idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep mine. His first attempt, made in the same year, at the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the pendulums. A second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the Harton pit near South Shields in northern England in 1854. Their immediate result was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded that at the top by 1/19286 of its amount, the depth being 383 m (1,256 ft). From this he was led to the final value of Earth's specific density of 6.566. This value, although considerably in excess of that previously found by different methods, was held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the observations were carried out and discussed, to be "entitled to compete with the others on, at least, equal terms." The currently accepted value for Earth's density is 5.5153 g/cm3.
Reference geoid
In 1830, Airy calculated the lengths of the polar radius and equatorial radius of the earth using measurements taken in the UK. Although his measurements were superseded by more accurate radius figures (such as those used for GRS 80 and WGS84) his Airy geoid (strictly a reference ellipsoid, OSGB36) is still used by Great Britain's Ordnance Survey for mapping of England, Scotland and Wales because it better fits the local sea level (about 80 cm below world average).
Planetary inequalities
Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus and the Earth is in some respects his most remarkable achievement. In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their constructor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain; thirteen times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to eight times that of Earth that the difference amounts to only a small fraction of Earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the term depending on this difference, although very small in itself, receives in the integration of the differential equations a multiplier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans. cxxii. 67). The investigation was probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the establishment of the theory of gravity. In recognition of this work the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to him in 1833 (he would win it again in 1846).
Airy disk
The resolution of optical devices is limited by diffraction. So even the most perfect lens can't quite generate a point image at its focus, but instead there is a bright central pattern now called the Airy disk, surrounded by concentric rings comprising an Airy pattern. The size of the Airy disk depends on the light wavelength and the size of the aperture. John Herschel had previously described the phenomenon, but Airy was the first to explain it theoretically.
This was a key argument in refuting one of the last remaining arguments for absolute geocentrism: the giant star argument. Tycho Brahe and Giovanni Battista Riccioli pointed out that the lack of stellar parallax detectable at the time entailed that stars were a huge distance away. But the naked eye and the early telescopes with small apertures seemed to show that stars were disks of a certain size. This would imply that the stars were many times larger than our sun (they were not aware of supergiant or hypergiant stars, but some were calculated to be even larger than the size of the whole universe estimated at the time). However, the disk appearances of the stars were spurious: they were not actually seeing stellar images, but Airy disks. With modern telescopes, even with those having the largest magnification, the images of almost all stars correctly appear as mere points of light.
Astronomer Royal
In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succession to John Pond, and began his long career at the national observatory which constitutes his chief title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his appointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first Lord of the Admiralty, considered that "it ought to be cleared out," while Airy admitted that "it was in a queer state." With his usual energy he set to work at once to reorganise the whole management. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the library on a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks) equatorial and organised a new magnetic observatory. In 1847 an altazimuth was erected, designed by Airy to enable observations of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but whenever it might be visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed. At the end of 1850 the great transit circle of 203 mm (8 inch) aperture and 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) focal length was erected, and is still the principal instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1859 of an equatorial of 330 mm (13 inch) aperture evoked the comment in his journal for that year, "There is not now a single person employed or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr Pond's time"; and the transformation was completed by the inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photographic registration of sunspots in 1873.
The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under the direction, successively, of James Bradley, Nathaniel Bliss, Nevil Maskelyne and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of money was allotted by the Treasury. As a result, no fewer than 8,000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were, in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that they could be used directly for comparison with the theory and for the improvement of the tables of the moon's motion.
For this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal Astronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by Peter Andreas Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion. After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before engaging in any theoretical investigation in connection with them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to the death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute Amirauté de sa Majesté la Reine de la Grande Bretagne et d'Irlande.
In 1851 Airy established a new Prime Meridian at Greenwich. This line, the fourth "Greenwich Meridian", became the definitive internationally recognised line in 1884.
Search for Neptune
In June 1846, Airy started corresponding with French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier over the latter's prediction that irregularities in the motion of Uranus were due to a so-far unobserved body. Aware that Cambridge Astronomer John Couch Adams had suggested that he had made similar predictions, on 9 July Airy urged James Challis to undertake a systematic search in the hope of securing the triumph of discovery for Britain. Ultimately, a rival search in Berlin by Johann Gottfried Galle, instigated by Le Verrier, won the race for priority. Though Airy was "abused most savagely both by English and French" for his failure to act on Adams's suggestions more promptly, there have also been claims that Adams's communications had been vague and dilatory and further that the search for a new planet was not the responsibility of the Astronomer Royal.
Ether drag test
Using a water-filled telescope, in 1871 Airy looked for a change in stellar aberration through the refracting water due to the aether drag hypothesis. Like all other attempts to detect aether drift or drag, Airy obtained a negative result.
Lunar theory
In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description of his method will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv, No. 3. It consisted essentially in the adoption of Charles-Eugène Delaunay's final numerical expressions for longitude, latitude, and parallax, with a symbolic term attached to each number, the value of which was to be determined by substitution in the equations of motion.
In this mode of treating the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it might be entrusted to "a mere computer".
The work was published in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powers were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps, and pathetically adds, "My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never heartily proceeded with it since."
Engineering mechanics
Stress function method
In 1862, Airy presented a new technique to determine the strain and stress field within a beam. This technique, sometimes called the Airy stress function method, can be used to find solutions to many two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics (see Wikiversity). For example, it was used by H. M. Westergaard to determine the stress and strain field around a crack tip and thereby this method contributed to the development of fracture mechanics.
Tay Bridge disaster
Airy was consulted about wind speeds and pressures likely to be encountered on the proposed Forth suspension bridge being designed by Thomas Bouch for the North British Railway in the late 1870s. He thought that pressures no greater than about could be expected, a comment Bouch took to mean also applied to the first Tay railway bridge then being built. Much greater pressures, however, can be expected in severe storms. Airy was called to give evidence before the Official Inquiry into the Tay Bridge disaster, and was criticised for his advice. However, little was known about the problems of wind resistance of large structures, and a Royal Commission on Wind Pressure was asked to conduct research into the problem.
Controversy
Airy was described in his obituary published by the Royal Society as being "a tough adversary" and stories of various disagreements and conflicts with other scientists survive. Francis Ronalds discovered Airy to be his foe while he was inaugural Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, which Airy considered to be a competitor to Greenwich. Other well documented conflicts were with Charles Babbage and Sir James South.
Private life
In July 1824, Airy met Richarda Smith (1804–1875), "a great beauty", on a walking tour of Derbyshire. He later wrote, "Our eyes met ... and my fate was sealed ... I felt irresistibly that we must be united," and Airy proposed two days later. Richarda's father, the Revd Richard Smith, felt that Airy lacked the financial resources to marry his daughter. Only in 1830, with Airy established in his Cambridge position, was permission for the marriage granted.
The Airys had nine children, the first three of whom died young.
Elizabeth Airy (born 1833) died of consumption (tuberculosis) in 1852.
The eldest child to survive to adulthood was Wilfrid (1836–1925), who designed and engineered "Colonel" George Tomline's Orwell Park Observatory. Wilfrid's daughter was the artist Anna Airy. Anna's mother died shortly after she was born and she was raised by her maiden aunts Christabel and Annot (see below).
George Airy's son Hubert Airy (1838–1903) was a doctor, and a pioneer in the study of migraine. Airy himself suffered from this condition.
The Airys' eldest daughter, Hilda (1840–1916), married the mathematician Edward Routh in 1864.
Christabel (1842–1917) died unmarried, as did the next sister Annot (1843–1924).
The Airys youngest child was Osmund (1845–1929).
Airy was knighted on 17 June 1872.
Airy retired in 1881, living with his two unmarried daughters at Croom's Hill near Greenwich. In 1891, he suffered a fall and an internal injury. He survived the consequential surgery only a few days. His wealth at death was £27,713. Airy and his wife and three pre-deceased children are buried at St. Mary's Church in Playford, Suffolk. A cottage owned by Airy still stands, adjacent to the church and now in private hands.
Sir Patrick Moore asserted in his autobiography that the ghost of Airy has been seen haunting the Royal Greenwich Observatory after nightfall. (page 178)
Legacy and honours
Elected president of the Royal Astronomical Society four times, for a total of seven years (1835–37, 1849–51, 1853–55, 1863–64). No other person has been president more than four times (a record he shares with Francis Baily).
Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1832)
The Martian crater Airy is named for him. Within that crater lies another smaller crater called Airy-0 whose location defines the prime meridian of that planet, as does the location of Airy's 1850 telescope for Earth.
winner of the Lalande Prize for astronomy from the French Academy of Sciences, 1834
Elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1879.
There is also a lunar crater Airy named in his honour.
Airy wave theory is the linear theory for the propagation of gravity waves on the surface of a fluid.
The Airy functions Ai(x) and Bi(x) and the differential equation they arise from are named in his honour, as well as the Airy disc and Airy points.
Honorary Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology.
Bibliography
By Airy
For a list of works by George Biddell Airy (with digital copies) see Wikisource.
A complete list of Airy's 518 printed papers is in Airy (1896). Among the most important are:
(1826) Mathematical Tracts on Physical Astronomy
(1828) On the Lunar Theory, The Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were added tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory of Light
(1834) Gravitation: an Elementary Explanation of the Principal Perturbations in the Solar System (Full text at Internet Archive)
(1839) Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpose of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produced-by the Iron of the Ships
(1848 [1881, 10th edition]) Popular Astronomy: A Series of Lectures Delivered at Ipswich (Full text at Wikisource)
(1855) A Treatise on Trigonometry (Full text at Google Books)
(1861) On the Algebraic and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations and the Combination of Observations.
(1866) An Elementary Treatise on Partial Differential Equations (Full text at Internet Archive)
(1868) On Sound and Atmospheric Vibrations with the Mathematical Elements of Music (Full text at MPIWG)
(1870) A Treatise on Magnetism (Full text at Google Books)
About Airy
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Obituaries
E. J. R., Proceedings of the Royal Society, 51 (1892), i–xii
The Times, 5 January 1892
East Anglian Daily Times, 11 January 1892
Suffolk Chronicle, 9 January 1892
Daily Times, 5 January 1892
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 108 (1891–92), 391–394
Astronomical Journal 11 (1892) 96
Astronomische Nachrichten 129 (1892) 33/34
The Observatory 15 (1892) 73
Obituary in:
External links
Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1833: MNRAS 2 (1833) 159
Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS 7 (1846) 64
Mathematical Tracts on the Lunar and Planetary Theories 4th edition (London, McMillan, 1858)
Full texts of some of the papers by Airy are available at Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque nationale de France
1801 births
1892 deaths
19th-century British astronomers
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Astronomers Royal
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Lucasian Professors of Mathematics
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
Members of the Royal Irish Academy
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
People educated at Colchester Royal Grammar School
People from Alnwick
People from Suffolk Coastal (district)
Presidents of the Royal Astronomical Society
Presidents of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Recipients of the Lalande Prize
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Royal Medal winners
Senior Wranglers
George Biddell
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205500
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack-o%27-lantern
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Jack-o'-lantern
|
A jack-o'-lantern (or jack o'lantern) is a carved turnip, pumpkin or other root vegetable lantern, commonly associated with the Halloween holiday. Its name comes from the reported phenomenon of strange lights flickering over peat bogs, called will-o'-the-wisps or jack-o'-lanterns. The name is also tied to the Irish legend of Stingy Jack, a drunkard who bargains with Satan and is doomed to roam the Earth with only a hollowed turnip to light his way.
Jack-o'-lanterns carved from pumpkins are a yearly Halloween tradition that developed in the United States when Irish immigrants brought their root vegetable carving tradition with them.
In a jack-o'-lantern, the top of the pumpkin or turnip is cut off to form a lid, the inside flesh is scooped out, and an image—usually a scary or funny face—is carved out of the rind to expose the hollow interior. To create the lantern effect, a light source, traditionally a flame such as a candle or tealight, is placed within before the lid is closed. However, artificial jack-o'-lanterns with electric lights are also marketed. It is common to see jack-o'-lanterns used as external and internal decorations prior to and on Halloween.
Etymology
The term jack-o'-lantern was originally used to describe the visual phenomenon ignis fatuus (lit., "foolish fire") known as a will-o'-the-wisp in English folklore. Used especially in East England, its earliest known use dates to the 1660s. The term "will-o'-the-wisp" uses "wisp" (a bundle of sticks or paper sometimes used as a torch) and the proper name "Will": thus, "Will-of-the-torch." The term jack o'lantern is of the same construction: "Jack of [the] lantern."
History
Origin
The carving of vegetables has been a common practice in many parts of the world. It is believed that the custom of making jack-o'-lanterns at Halloween time began in Ireland.evidence required
In the 19th century, "turnips or mangel wurzels, hollowed out to act as lanterns and often carved with grotesque faces," were used on Halloween in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. In these Gaelic-speaking regions, Halloween was also the festival of Samhain and was seen as a time when supernatural beings (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, walked the earth. Jack-o'-lanterns were also made at Halloween time in Somerset, England (see Punkie Night) during the 19th century.
By those who made them, the lanterns were said to represent either spirits or supernatural beings, or were used to ward off evil spirits. For example, sometimes they were used by Halloween participants to frighten people, and sometimes they were set on windowsills to keep harmful spirits out of one's home. It has also been suggested that the jack-o'-lanterns originally represented Christian souls in purgatory, as Halloween is the eve of All Saints' Day (1 November)/All Souls' Day (2 November).
On January 16 in 1836, the Dublin Penny Journal published a long story on the legend of "Jack-o'-the-Lantern", although this does not mention the lantern being carved from a vegetable. In 1837, the Limerick Chronicle refers to a local pub holding a carved gourd competition and presenting a prize to "the best crown of Jack McLantern". The term "McLantern" also appears in an 1841 publication of the same paper.
There is also evidence that turnips were used to carve what was called a "Hoberdy's Lantern" in Worcestershire, England, at the end of the 18th century. The folklorist Jabez Allies outlines other derivations of the name, "Hobany's", which is most likely derived from "Hob and his", with other variations including "Hob-o'-Lantern", "Hobbedy's Lantern" and "Hobbady-lantern".
In North America
Adaptations of Washington Irving's short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820) often show the Headless Horseman with a pumpkin or jack-o'-lantern in place of his severed head. (In the original story, a shattered pumpkin is discovered next to Ichabod Crane's abandoned hat on the morning after Crane's supposed encounter with the Horseman.)
The application of the term to carved pumpkins in American English is first seen in 1834. The carved pumpkin lantern's association with Halloween is recorded in the 1 November 1866 edition of the Daily News (Kingston, Ontario):
James Fenimore Cooper wrote a nautical novel titled The Jack O'lantern (le Feu-Follet), Or the Privateer (1842). The Jack O'lantern was the name of the ship.
The poet John Greenleaf Whittier, who was born in Massachusetts in 1807, wrote the poem "The Pumpkin" (1850):
Oh!—fruit loved of boyhood!—the old days recalling,
When wood-grapes were purpling and brown nuts were falling!
When wild, ugly faces we carved in its skin,
Glaring out through the dark with a candle within!
Agnes Carr Sage, in the article, "Halloween Sports and Customs" (Harper's Young People (1885):
In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became a symbol of Halloween. In 1895, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.
Folklore
The story of the jack-o'-lantern comes in many forms and is similar to the story of Will-o'-the-wisp retold in different forms across Western Europe, including, Italy, Norway, Spain and Sweden. In Switzerland, children will leave bowls of milk or cream out for mythical house spirits called Jack o' the bowl.
An old Irish folk tale from the mid-18th century tells of Stingy Jack, a lazy yet shrewd blacksmith who uses a cross to trap Satan.
One story says that Jack tricked Satan into climbing an apple tree, and once he was up there, Jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or carved a cross into the bark, so that Satan couldn't get down.
Another version of the story says that Jack was getting chased by some villagers from whom he had stolen. He then met Satan, who claimed it was time for him to die. However, the thief stalled his death by tempting Satan with a chance to bedevil the church-going villagers chasing him. Jack told Satan to turn into a coin with which he would pay for the stolen goods (Satan could take on any shape he wanted); later, when the coin (Satan) disappeared, the Christian villagers would fight over who had stolen it. The Devil agreed to this plan. He turned himself into a silver coin and jumped into Jack's wallet, only to find himself next to a cross Jack had also picked up in the village. Jack closed the wallet tight, and the cross stripped the Devil of his powers; and so he was trapped.
In both folktales, Jack lets Satan go only after he agrees to never take his soul. Many years later, the thief died, as all living things do. Of course, Jack's life had been too sinful for him to go to Heaven; however, Satan had promised not to take his soul, and so he was barred from Hell as well. Jack now had nowhere to go. He asked how he would see where to go, as he had no light, and Satan mockingly tossed him a burning coal, to light his way. Jack carved out one of his turnips (which were his favorite food), put the coal inside it, and began endlessly wandering the Earth for a resting place. He became known as "Jack of the Lantern", or jack o'lantern.
Cornish folklorist Dr. Thomas Quiller Couch (d. 1884) recorded the use of the term in a rhyme used in Polperro, Cornwall, in conjunction with Joan the Wad, the Cornish version of Will-o'-the-wisp. The people of Polperro regarded them both as pixies. The rhyme goes:
Jack o' the lantern! Joan the wad,
Who tickled the maid and made her mad
Light me home, the weather's bad.
Jack-o-lanterns were also a way of protecting one's home against the undead. Superstitious people used them specifically to ward off vampires. They thought this because it was said that the jack-o-lantern's light was a way of identifying vampires who, once their identity was known, would give up their hunt for you.
Pumpkin craft
Sections of the pumpkin or turnip are cut out to make holes, often depicting a face, which may be either cheerful, scary, or comical.
World records
Most jack-o'-lanterns carved and lit in one place
For a long time, Keene, New Hampshire, held the world record for most jack-o'-lanterns carved and lit in one place. The Life is Good Company teamed up with Camp Sunshine, a camp for children with life-threatening illnesses and their families, to break the record. A record was set on October 21, 2006, when 30,128 jack-o'-lanterns were simultaneously lit on Boston Common in downtown Boston, Massachusetts. Highwood, Illinois, tried to set the record on October 31, 2011, with an unofficial count of 30,919 but did not follow the Guinness regulations, so the achievement did not count.
On October 19, 2013, Keene, New Hampshire, broke the Boston record and reclaimed the world record for most lit jack-o'-lanterns on display (30,581). Keene has now broken the record eight times since the original attempt.
See also
Apotropaic magic
Cuco
The Great Pumpkin
References
External links
https://www.history.com/topics/halloween/jack-olantern-history
https://www.boston.com/news/history/2014/10/29/the-history-of-the-jack-o-lantern-how-it-all-began-with-a-turnip
http://mentalfloss.com/article/12865/whats-origin-jack-o-lanterns
Fruit and vegetable characters
Halloween practices
Food and drink decorations
Articles containing video clips
Squashes and pumpkins
Irish culture
American culture
Objects believed to protect from evil
|
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205501
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Andreas%20Hansen
|
Peter Andreas Hansen
|
Peter Andreas Hansen (born 8 December 1795, Tønder, Schleswig, Denmark; died 28 March 1874, Gotha, Thuringia, Germany) was a Danish-born German astronomer.
Biography
The son of a goldsmith, Hansen learned the trade of a watchmaker at Flensburg, and exercised it at Berlin and Tønder, 1818–1820. He had, however, long been a student of science; and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at Tønder, prevailed with his father to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, where he won the patronage of H.C. Schumacher and attracted the personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was then in progress, and he acted as Schumacher's assistant in work connected with it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona, from 1821–1825.
Thence he passed on to Gotha as director of the Gotha Observatory; nor could he be tempted to relinquish the post by successive invitations to replace F.G.W. Struve at Dorpat in 1829, Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander at Helsinki in 1837, and F.W. Bessel at Königsberg in 1847. The problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of Hansen's attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin Academy in 1830, and a memoir on cometary disturbances was crowned by the Paris Academy in 1850.
In 1838 he published a revision of the lunar theory, entitled Fundamenta nova investigationis, &c., and the improved Tables of the Moon ("Hansen's Lunar Tables") based upon it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British government, their merit being further recognized by a grant of £1000, and by their adoption in the Nautical Almanac as from the issue for the year 1862, and other Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances embodied in them (long familiarly known to lunar experts as the Darlegung) appeared in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in 1862–1864. At the time of publication of Hansen's Tables of the Moon in 1857, astronomers generally believed that the lunar theory was at last complete; but within about a decade, it was noticed, and shown by Simon Newcomb, that the optimism had been unfounded: deviations between computed and observed positions began to grow at a rate showing that further refinement was necessary. For some years Hansen's theory continued to be used with Newcomb's corrections (from the Nautical Almanac'''s issue for 1883), but it was eventually (as from 1923) superseded by E W Brown's theory.
Hansen twice visited Britain and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) the recipient of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. He communicated to that society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period lunar inequality (Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society, xvi. 465), and in 1854 one on the Moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its deformation by a huge elevation directed towards the Earth (ib. xxiv. 29). He was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1850, and his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of Christian Olufsen, appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the first intimation that the accepted distance of the sun was too great by some millions of miles (Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. xv. 9), the error of J.F. Encke's result having been rendered evident through his investigation of a lunar inequality. In 1865, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
He died on 28 March 1874, at the new observatory in the town of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857.
Minor planet 4775 Hansen is named after him.
See also
Hansen's problem
References
Further reading
Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft, x. 133;
Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxxv. 168;
Proc. Roy. Society, xxv. p. V.;
R Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 526;
Wochenschrift für Astronomie'', xvi. 207 (account of early years by E Heis);
External links
Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1842: MNRAS 5 (1842) 158
Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1860: MNRAS 20 (1860) 154
Portraits of Peter Andreas Hansen from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections
Obituaries
AN 83 (1874) 225/226
MNRAS 35 (1875) 168
1795 births
1874 deaths
19th-century Danish astronomers
19th-century German astronomers
19th-century Danish mathematicians
German people of Danish descent
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Recipients of the Copley Medal
People from the Duchy of Schleswig
People from Tønder Municipality
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
|
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205504
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ventriloquists
|
List of ventriloquists
|
This is a list of notable ventriloquists and their best known characters. It is ordered by nationality or country in which they were notable in an alphabetical order, and then by alphabetical order of surname. It does not include voice-over artists who did not perform with a figure, or "dummy" as it is usually called.
Australia
Showko Showfukutei – "Ninja Ken", "Sushi Master", "Herro Kitty"
France
Jeff Panacloc – "Jean-Marc"
India
Y. K. Padhye (192? - 1967)
Indushree Raveendra- "Dinku" ,"Grandpa" ,"Nerd"
Mimicry Srinivos – "Old Man", "Little Boy", "Caesar Chimp"″micey″
Italy
Pietro Ghislandi – "Sergio"
Spain
Señor Wences (1896 - 1999) – "Johnny", "Pedro", "Cecilia Chicken"
Sweden
Zillah & Totte
United Kingdom
Ray Alan (1930 - 2010) – "Mickey the Martian", "Lord Charles", "Tich and Quackers"
Peter Brough (1916 - 1999) – "Archie Andrews"
Nina Conti – "Monkey", "Granny", "Nina", "Killer", "Great Uncle John"
Roger De Courcey – "Nookie Bear"
Terry Hall (1926 - 2007) – "Lenny the Lion"
Keith Harris (1947 - 2015) – "Orville the Duck", "Cuddles the Monkey"
Steve Hewlett – "Arthur Lager", "Pongo", "Chii Chii"
Sandy Powell (1900 - 1982)
Terri Rogers (1937 - 1999) – "Shorty Harris"
Fred Russell (1862 - 1957) – "Coster Joe"
Saveen (1914 - 1994) – "Daisy May"
Ian Saville
Dennis Spicer (1935 - 1964) – "James Green"
Arthur Worsley (1920 - 2001) – "Charlie Brown"
Paul Zerdin – "Sam", "Baby", "Albert", "Alasdair Rimmer"
United States
Jim Barber – "Barber & Seville", "Diva", "Chico Pete", "Baby", "Ventriloquist Karaoke", "Strum the Guitar", "JR"
Matt Bennett – "Rex Powers" (Victorious)
Edgar Bergen (1903 - 1978) – "Charlie McCarthy", "Mortimer Snerd", "Effie Klinker"
Shirley Dinsdale (1926 - 1999) – "Judy Splinters"
Jeff Dunham – "Peanut", "Walter", "Jose Jalapeño", "Bubba J", "Achmed the Dead Terrorist"
Alyse Eady – "Rosie", "Molly", "Crazy Bird", "Rocky"
Terry Fator – "Emma Taylor", "Winston the Impersonating Turtle", "Walter T. Airdale"
Wayne Federman – "Beuford"
Jay Johnson – "Squeaky", "Bob", "Grits", "Darwin"
Kevin Johnson – "Clyde", "Matilda"
Mallory Lewis – "Lamb Chop"
Shari Lewis (1933 - 1998) – "Lamb Chop", "Charlie Horse", "Hush Puppy"
Ronn Lucas – "Buffalo Billy", "Chuck Roast", "Scorch", "Tillie the Troll"
Darci Lynne – "Petunia", "Oscar", "Edna Doorknocker", "Katie", "Ivan"
Taylor Mason – "Paco the Pig", "Romeo", "Juliet", "Sumo", "Robert the Sheep", "Barack Obama", "Colonel", "Paquito"
Meghan Miller – "Kat", "Abner Smooch", "Shannon", "Lexi", "Baby"
Jimmy Nelson (1928 - 2019) – "Danny O'Day", "Farfel the Dog"
Otto Petersen (1960 - 2014) – "George"
Carla Rhodes – "Cecil Sinclaire"
David Strassman – "Chuck Wood", "Ted E. Bare"
Max Terhune (1891 - 1973) – "Elmer"
Willie Tyler – "Lester"
Jules Vernon (1867 - 1937) – "Old Maid", "George", "Nettie", "Sailor Joe", "Happy"
Mark Wade – "Grits", "Karl the Alligator"
Kenny Warren – "Joey O'Leary", "Leroy Cool"
Lisa Whelchel – "Arthur" (The Mickey Mouse Club)
Paul Winchell (1922 - 2005) – "Jerry Mahoney", "Knucklehead Smiff"
Ventriloquists
|
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205505
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Christian%20Schumacher
|
Heinrich Christian Schumacher
|
Prof Heinrich Christian Schumacher FRS(For) FRSE (3 September 1780 – 28 December 1850) was a German-Danish astronomer and mathematician.
Biography
Schumacher was born at Bramstedt, in Holstein, near the German/Danish border. He was educated at Altona Gymnasium on the outskirts of Hamburg. He studied in Germany at Kiel, Jena, and Göttingen Universities as well as Copenhagen. He received a doctorate from Dorpat University in Russian Empire in 1807.
From 1808, he was adjunct professor of astronomy in Copenhagen. He directed the Mannheim observatory from 1813 to 1815, and then in 1815 was appointed Professor of Astronomy in Copenhagen and Director of the Observatory.
From 1817 he directed the triangulation of Holstein, to which a few years later was added a complete geodetic survey of Denmark (finished after his death). For the sake of the survey, Schumacher established the Altona Observatory at Altona, and resided there permanently.
He was elected a Foreign Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1821, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1822.
Schumacher was chiefly occupied with the publication of Ephemerides (11 parts, 1822–1832) and of the journal Astronomische Nachrichten (founded by himself in 1821 and still being published), of which he edited thirty-one volumes. In 1827 he was elected member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1829 he won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. Schumacher was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1823 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1834. His portrait now hangs in the Development Office of the Royal Society.
He died in Altona on 28 December 1850. He was buried in the Heilig Geist Kirchhof (Holy Ghost Church) in Altona. The site is now marked by a stone memorial.
Family
In 1812 he married Christine Madelaine Schoon.
Their son, Richard Schumacher (1827–1902), was his assistant from 1844 to 1850 at the conservatory at Altona. Having become assistant to Carlos Guillermo Moesta (1825–1884), director of the observatory at Santiago de Chile, in 1859, he was associated with the Chilean geodesic survey in 1864. Returning in 1869, he was appointed assistant astronomer at Altona in 1873, and afterwards at Kiel.
Schumacher's nephew, Christian Andreas Schumacher (1810–1854), was associated with the geodetic survey of Denmark from 1833 to 1838, and afterwards (1844–1845) improved the observatory at Pulkowa.
Recognition
In 1935 the moon crater Schumacher was named in his honour.
Notes
References
1780 births
1850 deaths
People from Bad Bramstedt
People from the Duchy of Holstein
19th-century German astronomers
19th-century Danish astronomers
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Foreign Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%20Cooder
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Ry Cooder
|
Ryland Peter "Ry" Cooder (born March 15, 1947) is an American musician, songwriter, film score composer, record producer, and writer. He is a multi-instrumentalist but is best known for his slide guitar work, his interest in traditional music, and his collaborations with traditional musicians from many countries.
Cooder's solo work draws upon many genres. He has played with John Lee Hooker, Captain Beefheart, Gordon Lightfoot, Ali Farka Touré, Eric Clapton, The Rolling Stones, Van Morrison, Neil Young, Randy Newman, Linda Ronstadt, Vishwa Mohan Bhatt, David Lindley, The Chieftains, The Doobie Brothers, and Carla Olson and The Textones (on record and film). He formed the band Little Village, and produced the album Buena Vista Social Club (1997), which became a worldwide hit; Wim Wenders directed the documentary film of the same name (1999), which was nominated for an Academy Award in 2000.
Cooder was ranked at No. 8 on Rolling Stone magazine's 2003 list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time", while a 2010 list by Gibson Guitar Corporation placed him at No. 32. In 2011, he published a collection of short stories called Los Angeles Stories.
Early life
Ryland Peter Cooder was born in Los Angeles on March 15, 1947, the son of Emma Casaroli and Bill Cooder. His mother was of Italian descent. He grew up in Santa Monica, California, and graduated from Santa Monica High School in 1964. During the 1960s, he briefly attended Reed College in Portland, Oregon. He began playing the guitar when he was three years old. At the age of four, he accidentally stuck a knife in his left eye and has sported a glass eye ever since.
Career
1960s
Cooder performed as part of a pickup trio with Bill Monroe and Doc Watson, in which he played banjo. The trio was not a success; reflecting his early exposure to the instrument, Cooder has applied banjo tunings and the three-finger roll to guitar.
Cooder first attracted attention playing with Captain Beefheart and his Magic Band, notably on the 1967 album Safe As Milk, after previously having worked with Taj Mahal and Ed Cassidy in the Rising Sons.
At a vital "warm-up" performance at the Mt. Tamalpais Festival (1967-06-10/11) shortly before the scheduled Monterey Pop Festival (1967-06-16/18), the band began to play "Electricity" and Don Van Vliet froze, straightened his tie, then walked off the stage and landed on manager Bob Krasnow. He later claimed he had seen a girl in the audience turn into a fish, with bubbles coming from her mouth.
This aborted any opportunity of breakthrough success at Monterey, as Cooder immediately decided he could no longer work with Van Vliet,
effectively quitting both the event and the band on the spot. Cooder also played with Randy Newman, including on 12 Songs.
Van Dyke Parks worked with Newman and Cooder during the 1960s. Parks arranged Cooder's "One Meatball" according to Parks' 1984 interview by Bob Claster.
Cooder was a session musician on various recording sessions with The Rolling Stones in 1968 and 1969, and his contributions appear on the albums Let It Bleed (Yank Rachell-style mandolin on "Love in Vain"), and Sticky Fingers, on which he contributed the slide guitar on "Sister Morphine". During this period, Cooder joined with Mick Jagger, Charlie Watts, Bill Wyman, and longtime Rolling Stones sideman Nicky Hopkins to record Jamming with Edward!. Cooder also played slide guitar for the 1970 film soundtrack Performance, which contained Jagger's first solo single, "Memo from Turner". The 1975 compilation album Metamorphosis features an uncredited Cooder contribution on Bill Wyman's "Downtown Suzie".
Cooder also collaborated with Lowell George of Little Feat, playing bottleneck guitar on the original version of "Willin'".
1970s
Throughout the 1970s, Cooder released a series of Warner Bros. Records albums that showcased his guitar work, initially on the Reprise Records label, before being reassigned to the main Warners label along with many of Reprise's artists when the company retired the imprint. Cooder explored bygone musical genres and found old-time recordings which he then personalized and updated. Thus, on his breakthrough album, Into the Purple Valley, he chose unusual instrumentations and arrangements of blues, gospel, calypso, and country songs (giving a tempo change to the cowboy ballad "Billy the Kid"). The album opened with the song "How Can You Keep on Moving (Unless You Migrate Too)" by Agnes "Sis" Cunningham about the Okies who were not welcomed when they migrated west to escape the Dust Bowl in the 1930s – to which Cooder gave a rousing-yet-satirical march accompaniment. In 1970 he collaborated with Ron Nagle and performed on his Bad Rice album released on Warner Brothers. His later 1970s albums (with the exception of Jazz, which explored ragtime/vaudeville) do not fall under a single genre description, but his self-titled first album could be described as blues; Into the Purple Valley, Boomer's Story, and Paradise and Lunch as folk and blues; Chicken Skin Music and Showtime as a mix of Tex-Mex and Hawaiian; Bop Till You Drop as 1950s R&B; and Borderline and Get Rhythm as rock-based. His 1979 album Bop Till You Drop was the first popular music album released that was recorded digitally, using the early 3M digital mastering recorder. It yielded his biggest hit, an R&B cover version of Elvis Presley's 1960s recording "Little Sister".
Cooder is credited on Van Morrison's 1979 album, Into the Music, for slide guitar on the song "Full Force Gale". He also played guitar on Judy Collins' 1970 concert tour, and is featured on Living, the 1971 live album recorded during that tour. He also learned from and performed with Gabby Pahinui and "Atta" Isaacs in Hawaii during the Hawaiian Renaissance of the early 1970s. He is also credited for guitars on several 1971 recordings by Nancy Sinatra that were produced by Andy Wickman and Lenny Waronker – "Is Anybody Goin' To San Antone", "Hook & Ladder", and "Glory Road". Cooder is credited as a mandolin player on Gordon Lightfoot's Don Quixote album in 1972.
1980s
Cooder has worked as a studio musician and has also scored many film soundtracks including the Wim Wenders film Paris, Texas (1984). Cooder based this soundtrack and title song "Paris, Texas" on Blind Willie Johnson's "Dark Was the Night (Cold Was the Ground)", which he described as "the most soulful, transcendent piece in all American music". Musician Dave Grohl has declared Cooder's score for Paris, Texas one of his favorite albums. In 2018 Cooder told BBC Radio 4 listeners: “[Wenders] did a very good job at capturing the ambience out there in the desert, just letting the microphones and the nagra machine roll and get tones and sound from the desert itself, which I discovered was E♭, was in the key of E♭ – that’s the wind, you know, was nice. So we tuned everything to E♭."
"Dark Was the Night (Cold Was the Ground)" was also the basis for Cooder's song "Powis Square" for the movie Performance. His other film work includes Walter Hill's The Long Riders (1980), Southern Comfort (1981), Streets of Fire (1984), Brewster's Millions (1985), Johnny Handsome, Last Man Standing (1996), Hill's Trespass (1992) and Mike Nichols' Primary Colors (1998). Cooder along with Arlen Roth dubbed all slide and regular blues guitar parts in the 1986 film Crossroads, a take on blues legend Robert Johnson. In 1988, Cooder produced the album by his longtime backing vocalists Bobby King and Terry Evans on Rounder Records titled Live and Let Live. He contributed his slide guitar work to every track. He also plays extensively on their 1990 self-produced Rounder release Rhythm, Blues, Soul & Grooves. Cooder's music also appeared on two episodes of the television program Tales From the Crypt; "The Man Who Was Death" and "The Thing From the Grave".<ref>Review of Tales From the Crypt by Steven McDonald, AllMusic.com</ref>
In 1984, Cooder played on two songs on the debut album by Carla Olson & the Textones, Midnight Mission – "Carla's Number One is to Survive" and the previously unreleased Bob Dylan song "Clean Cut Kid". Shortly thereafter he was writing and recording the music for the film Blue City and asked the band to appear in the film performing. (He took them in the studio and produced "You Can Run" which he also played on.)
In 1985, Cooder was a guest artist on the song "Rough Edges" from Kim Carnes' album Barking at Airplanes. Kim named her son Ry as a tribute to Ry Cooder. He played electric slide guitar on The Beach Boys' 1988 hit "Kokomo".
Also in 1988, Cooder produced and featured in the Les Blank-directed concert documentary film Ry Cooder & The Moula Banda Rhythm Aces: Let's Have a Ball where he plays in collaboration with a selection of musicians famous in their various musical fields. The following year, he played a janitor in the Jim Henson series The Ghost of Faffner Hall, in the episode "Music Is More Than Technique".
1990s
In the early 1990s Cooder collaborated on two world music "crossover" albums, which blended the traditional American musical genres that Cooder has championed throughout his career with the contemporary improvised music of India and Africa. For A Meeting by the River (1993), which also featured his son Joachim Cooder on percussion, he teamed with Hindustani classical musician V.M. Bhatt, a virtuoso of the Mohan Veena (a modified 20-string archtop guitar of Bhatt's own invention) and Sukhvinder Singh Namdhari also known as Pinky Tabla Player.
In 1993 he teamed up with Malian multi-instrumentalist Ali Farka Toure to record the album Talking Timbuktu, which he also produced. The album, released in 1994, also featured longtime Cooder collaborator Jim Keltner on drums, veteran blues guitarist Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown, jazz bassist John Patitucci and African percussionists and musicians including Hamma Sankare and Oumar Toure. Both albums won the Grammy Award for 'Best World Music Album' in 1994 and 1995 respectively. Cooder also worked with Tuvan throat singers for the score to the 1993 film Geronimo: An American Legend.
In 1995 he performed in The Wizard of Oz in Concert: Dreams Come True, a musical performance of the popular story at the Lincoln Center in New York to benefit the Children's Defense Fund. The performance was originally broadcast on both TBS and TNT. It was issued on CD and video in 1996.
In the late 1990s Cooder played a significant role in the increased appreciation of traditional Cuban music, due to his collaboration as producer of the Buena Vista Social Club (1997) recording, which became a worldwide hit and revived the careers of some of the greatest surviving exponents of 20th century Cuban music. Wim Wenders, who had previously directed 1984's Paris, Texas, directed a documentary film of the musicians involved, Buena Vista Social Club (1999), which was nominated for an Academy Award in 2000. The enterprise cost him a $25,000 fine for violating the United States embargo against Cuba.
2000s
Cooder's 2005 album Chávez Ravine was touted by his record label as being "a post-World War II-era American narrative of 'cool cats', radios, UFO sightings, J. Edgar Hoover, red scares, and baseball". The record is a tribute to the long-gone Los Angeles Latino enclave known as Chávez Ravine. Using real and imagined historical characters, Cooder and friends created an album that recollects various aspects of the poor but vibrant hillside Chicano community which no longer exists. Cooder says, "Here is some music for a place you don't know, up a road you don’t go. Chávez Ravine, where the sidewalk ends." Drawing from the various musical strains of Los Angeles, including conjunto, R&B, Latin pop, and jazz, Cooder and friends conjure the ghosts of Chávez Ravine and Los Angeles at mid-century. On this fifteen-track album, sung in Spanish and English, Cooder is joined by East L.A. legends like Chicano music patriarch Lalo Guerrero, Pachuco boogie king Don Tosti, Thee Midniters front man Little Willie G, and Ersi Arvizu, of The Sisters and El Chicano.
Cooder's next record was released in 2007. Entitled My Name Is Buddy, it tells the story of Buddy Red Cat, who travels and sees the world in the company of his like-minded friends, Lefty Mouse and Rev. Tom Toad. The entire recording is a parable of the working class progressivism of the first half of the American twentieth century, and even has a song featuring executed unionist Joe Hill. My Name Is Buddy was accompanied by a booklet featuring a story and illustration (by Vincent Valdez) for each track, providing additional context to Buddy's adventures.
Cooder produced and performed on an album for Mavis Staples entitled We'll Never Turn Back, which was released on April 24, 2007. The concept album focused on Gospel songs of the civil rights movement and also included two new original songs by Cooder.
Cooder's album I, Flathead was released on June 24, 2008. It is the completion of his California trilogy. Based on the drag racing culture of the early 1960s, the album is set on the desert salt flats in southern California. The disc was also released as a deluxe edition with stories written by Cooder to accompany the music.
In late 2009, Cooder toured Japan, New Zealand and Australia with Nick Lowe, performing some of Lowe's songs and a selection of Cooder's own material, mainly from the 1970s. Joaquim Cooder (Ry's son) provided percussion, and Juliette Commagere and Alex Lilly contributed backing vocals.
The song "Diaraby", which Cooder recorded with Ali Farka Touré, is used as the theme to The World's Geo Quiz. The World is a radio show distributed by Public Radio International.
In 2009, Cooder performed in The People Speak, a documentary feature film that uses dramatic and musical performances of the letters, diaries, and speeches of everyday Americans, based on historian Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States. Cooder performed with Bob Dylan and Van Dyke Parks on the documentary broadcast on December 13, 2009 on the History Channel. They played "Do Re Mi" and reportedly a couple of other Guthrie songs that were excluded from the final edit. He also traveled with the band Los Tigres del Norte and recorded the 2010 album San Patricio with the Chieftains, Lila Downs, Liam Neeson, Linda Ronstadt, Van Dyke Parks, Los Cenzontles, and Los Tigres.
2010s
In June 2010, responding to the passage of Arizona SB 1070, he released the single "Quicksand", which tells the story of Mexicans attempting to emigrate to Arizona through the desert.
Cooder's critically acclaimed new album Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down, released on August 30, 2011, contains politically charged songs such as "No Banker Left Behind" which was inspired by a Robert Scheer column.
In 2011, he published a collection of short stories called Los Angeles Stories, written about people living in Los Angeles in the 1940s and 1950s. The book's characters are mostly talented or skilled, clever or hardworking people living in humble circumstances. With story titles such as "La vida es un sueño" and "Kill me, por favor", the collection's stories often have a Hispanic theme, and the book deals partially with Latinos living in Los Angeles during this time.
An American Songwriter article in 2012 suggested that Cooder's recent string of solo albums have often taken on an allegorical, sociopolitical bent. Music journalist Evan Schlansky said that "Cooder's latest effort, Election Special (released August 21, 2012, on Nonesuch/Perro Verde) doesn't mince words. It's designed to send a message to the 'deacons in the High Church of the Next Dollar'". The album was composed in support of the Democratic Party and President Barack Obama in the 2012 election.
On September 10, 2013, Cooder released Live in San Francisco, featuring the Corridos Famosos band, including Joachim Cooder on drums; Robert Francis on bass; vocalists Terry Evans, Arnold McCuller, and Juliette Commagere; Flaco Jiménez on accordion; and the Mexican brass band La Banda Juvenil. The album was recorded during a two-night run at Great American Music Hall in San Francisco, August 31 and September 1, 2011. It is Cooder's first official live recording since Show Time in 1977 (which had also been recorded at Great American Music Hall).
In 2015, Cooder toured with Ricky Skaggs, Sharon White and other members of The Whites with their “Music for The Good People” show. The tour continued through into 2016.
On May 11, 2018, Cooder released his first solo album in six years entitled The Prodigal Son. The subsequent tour featured opening performances by his son, Joachim, who also accompanied Cooder on drums.
Awards
1988 Grammy Award (Best Recording for Children) – Pecos Bill, producer (Rabbit Ears Productions)
1993 Grammy Award (Best World Music Album) – A Meeting by the River (with Pt. Vishwa Mohan Bhatt)
1994 Grammy Award (Best World Music Album) – Talking Timbuktu with Ali Farka Toure 1997 Grammy Award (Best Tropical Latin Performance) – Buena Vista Social Club 2003 Grammy Award (Best Pop Instrumental Album) – Mambo Sinuendo with Manuel Galbán
2003 Grammy Award (Best Traditional Tropical Latin Album) – Buenos Hermanos, producer (Ibrahim Ferrer, artist)
2000 – Honorary doctorate from Queen's University, Canada
2001 – Honorary doctorate from the California Institute of the Arts
2017 – BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards – Lifetime Achievement Award
2018 – Montreal International Jazz Festival – Spirit Award
Discography
Solo albums
Ry Cooder (December 1970)
Into the Purple Valley (February 1972)
Boomer's Story (November 1972)
Paradise and Lunch (May 1974)
Chicken Skin Music (October 1976)
Show Time (January 1977)
Jazz (June 1978)
Bop till You Drop (August 1979)
Borderline (October 1980)
The Slide Area (April 1982)
Get Rhythm (November 1987)
Chávez Ravine (May 2005)
My Name Is Buddy (March 2007)
I, Flathead (June 2008)
Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down (August 2011)
Election Special (August 2012)
The Prodigal Son (May 2018)
Compilations
Why Don't You Try Me Tonight (1986)
River Rescue – The Very Best of Ry Cooder (1994)
Music by Ry Cooder (1995) (two-disc set of film music)
The Ry Cooder Anthology: The UFO Has Landed (October 2008)
Singles
"He'll Have to Go/The Bourgeouis Blues" (1977; Reprise Records)
"Little Sister" (1979; Warner Records)
"Crazy 'Bout an Automobile (Every Woman I Know)" Recorded live, October 25, 1980 at Victoria Apollo, London / "If Walls Could Talk" Recorded live, February 26, 1981 at Old Waldorf, San Francisco, California / "The Very Thing That Makes You Rich (Makes Me Poor)" Recorded live, February 26, 1981 at Old Waldorf, San Francisco, California/ "Look at Granny Run Run" Recorded live, February 26, 1981 at Old Waldorf, San Francisco, California (1981; Warner Records)
"Gypsy Woman"/ "Alimony" (1982; Nonesuch Records)
"Get Rhythm"/ "Get Your Lies Straight"/ "Down in Hollywood" (1988)
"Come Down" / "Get Rhythm" / "Little Sister" (1994)
"Quicksand" (June 2010)
Collaborations
Tanyet (1967) (with The Ceyleib People)Jamming with Edward! (Let It Bleed sessions, 1969, with Nicky Hopkins, Mick Jagger, Bill Wyman, Charlie Watts) (1972)
Ry Cooder and the Moula Banda Rhythm Aces: Let's Have a Ball (1988)
Rising Sons featuring Taj Mahal and Ry Cooder with Rising Sons (recorded 1965/66, released 1992)
Little Village (1992)
A Meeting by the River (1993) (with Vishwa Mohan Bhatt)
Talking Timbuktu (1994) (with Ali Farka Touré)
Ry Cooder/Lindley Family: Live At The Vienna Opera House (1995) with Joachim Cooder, David Lindley and Rosanne Lindley
The Long Black Veil (1995) (with The Chieftains)
Buena Vista Social Club (September 1997)
Buena Vista Social Club Presents Ibrahim Ferrer (1999) (with Ibrahim Ferrer)
Hollow Bamboo with Jon Hassell and Ronu Majumdar (bansuri) (2000)
Mambo Sinuendo (January 2003) (with Manuel Galbán)
Buenos Hermanos (2003) (with Ibrahim Ferrer)
Mi Sueño (2007) (with Ibrahim Ferrer, production of 'Melodía del río' only)
Buena Vista Social Club at Carnegie Hall (2008) (with Buena Vista Social Club)
San Patricio (March 2010) (with The Chieftains)
Live in San Francisco (September 2013) (with Corridos Famosos)
Lost and Found (March 2015) (with Buena Vista Social Club, production of 'Macusa' and 'Lágrimas Negras' only)
Soundtracks
Performance (1970, three of 13 tracks)
The Long Riders (June 1980)
Southern Comfort (1981)
The Border (1982)
Streets of Fire (1984)
Paris, Texas (February 1985)
Alamo Bay (August 1985)
Blue City (July 1986)
Crossroads (July 1986)
Cocktail (1988, one track: "All Shook Up")
Johnny Handsome (October 1989)
Trespass (January 1993)
Geronimo: An American Legend (1993)
Last Man Standing (1996)
The End of Violence (1997)
Primary Colors (1998)
My Blueberry Nights (2007)
As guest musician
Safe as Milk (1967) with Captain Beefheart
Taj Mahal (1968) with Taj Mahal
Gentle Soul (1968) with The Gentle Soul
Neil Young (1968) with Neil Young
Head (1968) with The Monkees
Hard 'N' Heavy (With Marshmallow) (1969) Paul Revere & the Raiders
Border Town (1969) with Fusion
Longbranch Pennywhistle (1969) with Longbranch Pennywhistle
Let It Bleed (1969) with The Rolling Stones
"Something Better / Sister Morphine" (1969) with Marianne Faithfull
Running Down the Road (1969) with Arlo Guthrie
12 Songs (1970) with Randy Newman
The Candlestickmaker (1970) with Ron Elliott
Washington County (1970) with Arlo Guthrie
Stained Glass Morning (1970) with Scott McKenzie
Sit Down Young Stranger (1970) with Gordon Lightfoot
Crazy Horse (1971) with Crazy Horse (band) – slide guitar on "I Don't Want to Talk About It", "Dirty, Dirty" and "Crow Jane Lady"
Stories (1971) with David Blue
Sticky Fingers (1971) with The Rolling Stones
Little Feat (1971) with Little Feat
She Used to Wanna Be a Ballerina (1971) with Buffy Sainte-Marie
Living (1971) with Judy Collins
Rita Coolidge (1971) with Rita Coolidge
Petaluma (1972) with Norman Greenbaum
Salty (1972) with Alex Richman
Sail Away (1972) with Randy Newman
Stories We Could Tell (1972) with The Everly Brothers
Don Quixote (1972) with Gordon Lightfoot
Hobo's Lullaby (1972) with Arlo Guthrie
Rod Taylor (1973) with Rod Taylor
Last of the Brooklyn Cowboys (1973) with Arlo Guthrie
Maria Muldaur (1973) with Maria Muldaur
Good Old Boys (1974) with Randy Newman
Arlo Guthrie (1974) with Arlo Guthrie
Stampede (1975) with the Doobie Brothers – slide guitar on "Rainy Day Crossroad Blues"
Little Criminals (1977) with Randy Newman
Blue Collar (1978) with Captain Beefheart and Jack Nitzsche (soundtrack)
Into the Music (1979) with Van Morrison
No Nukes: The Muse Concerts for a Non-Nuclear Future (1979)
Money and Cigarettes (1983) with Eric Clapton
Midnight Mission (1984) Carla Olson & The Textones (featured on two songs)
Bring the Family (1987) with John Hiatt
Trio (1987) with Dolly Parton, Linda Ronstadt and Emmylou Harris
Live and Let Live (1988) with Bobby King & Terry Evans
Mr. Lucky (1991) with John Lee Hooker
Warm Your Heart (1991) Aaron Neville
Peace to the Neighborhood (1992) Pops Staples
Father Father (1994) Pops Staples
King Cake Party (1994) with The Zydeco Party Band
The Tractors (1994) with The Tractors
A Toda Cuba le Gusta (1997) with the Afro-Cuban All Stars
Good Dog, Happy Man (1999) with Bill Frisell
Sublime Ilusión (1999) with Eliades Ochoa
Chanchullo (2000) with Rubén González
October Road (2002) with James Taylor (slide guitar on the title track)
The Wind (2003) with Warren Zevon (slide guitar on two tracks: "Dirty Life and Times" and "Prison Grove")
Enjoy Every Sandwich: The Songs of Warren Zevon (2004) with David Lindley ( on "Monkey Wash, Donkey Rinse")Delta Time (2012) with Hans Theessink & Terry EvansFuchsia Machu Picchu (2018) with Joachim Cooder
Films
Ry Cooder and the Moula Banda Rhythm Aces: at The Catalyst, Santa Cruz, California; March 25, 1987 (1987), Director: Les Blank, Producer: Ry Cooder, Flower Films and Warner Brothers. Records.
Written works
Los Angeles Stories'', City Lights Publishers (2011)
References
External links
Ry Cooder (Nonesuch Records)
Los Angeles Stories Book Description
Discography at Discogs
1947 births
American film score composers
American male film score composers
American blues guitarists
American blues mandolinists
American blues singers
American folk guitarists
American male guitarists
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American male singers
American mandolinists
American multi-instrumentalists
American people with disabilities
American session musicians
American people of Italian descent
Buena Vista Social Club
Captain Beefheart
Contemporary blues musicians
Fingerstyle guitarists
Grammy Award winners
Georges Delerue Award winners
Lead guitarists
Living people
The Magic Band members
Nonesuch Records artists
Reed College alumni
Reprise Records artists
Slide guitarists
Warner Records artists
Guitarists from Los Angeles
20th-century American guitarists
|
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205508
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincy%20Jones
|
Quincy Jones
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Quincy Delight Jones Jr. (born March 14, 1933) is an American record producer, musician, songwriter, composer, arranger, and film and television producer. His career spans 70 years in the entertainment industry with a record of 80 Grammy Award nominations, 28 Grammys, and a Grammy Legend Award in 1992.
Jones came to prominence in the 1950s as a jazz arranger and conductor before working on pop music and film scores. In 1968, Jones became the first African American to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for "The Eyes of Love" from the film Banning. Jones was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Score for his work on the 1967 film In Cold Blood, making him the first African American to be nominated twice in the same year. Jones produced three of Michael Jackson's most successful albums: Off the Wall (1979), Thriller (1982), and Bad (1987). In 1985, Jones produced and conducted the charity song "We Are the World", which raised funds for victims of famine in Ethiopia.
In 1971, he became the first African American to be the musical director and conductor of the Academy Awards. In 1995, he was the first African American to receive the Academy's Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award. He is tied with sound designer Willie D. Burton as the second most Oscar-nominated African American, with seven nominations each. In 2013, Jones was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame as the winner, alongside Lou Adler, of the Ahmet Ertegun Award. He was named one of the most influential jazz musicians of the 20th century by Time.
Early life
Quincy Delight Jones Jr. was born in the South Side of Chicago, Illinois on March 14, 1933, the son of Sarah Frances (died 1999), a bank officer and apartment complex manager, and Quincy Delight Jones, a semi-professional baseball player and carpenter from Kentucky. Jones' paternal grandmother was an ex-slave from Louisville, and Jones later discovered that his paternal grandfather was Welsh. With the help of author Alex Haley in 1972 and Latter-day Saint researchers in Salt Lake City, Jones discovered that one of his mother's ancestors included James Lanier, a relative of poet Sidney Lanier. Jones said, "He had a baby with my great-grandmother [a slave], and my grandmother was born there [on a plantation in Kentucky]. We traced this all the way back to the Laniers, the same family as Tennessee Williams." Learning that the Lanier immigrant ancestors were French Huguenots who had court musicians among their ancestors, Jones attributed some of his musicianship to them.
For the 2006 PBS television program African American Lives, Jones had his DNA tested, and genealogists researched his family history again. His DNA revealed he is mostly African, but also has 34% European ancestry on both sides of his family. Research showed that he has English, French, Italian, and Welsh ancestry through his father. His mother's side is of West and Central African descent, specifically the Tikar people of Cameroon. His mother also had European ancestry, including Lanier male ancestors who fought for the Confederacy, making him eligible for membership in the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Among his ancestors is Betty Washington Lewis, a sister of president George Washington.
Jones' family moved to Chicago during the Great Migration. Jones had a younger brother, Lloyd, who was an engineer for the Seattle television station KOMO-TV until his death in 1998. Jones was introduced to music by his mother, who always sang religious songs, and next-door neighbor Lucy Jackson. When Jones was five or six, Jackson played stride piano next door, and he would listen through the walls. Jackson recalled that after he heard her one day, she could not get him off her piano.
When Jones was young, his mother had a schizophrenic breakdown and was sent to a mental institution. His father divorced his mother and married Elvera Jones, who already had three children of her own named Waymond, Theresa, and Katherine. Elvera and Quincy Sr. later had three children together: Jeanette, Margie, and Richard. In 1943, Jones and his family moved to Bremerton, Washington, where his father got a wartime job at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. After the war, the family moved to Seattle, where Jones attended Garfield High School. In high school, he developed his skills as a trumpeter and arranger. His classmates included Charles Taylor, who played saxophone and whose mother, Evelyn Bundy, was one of Seattle's first society jazz bandleaders. Jones and Taylor began playing music together, and at the age of fourteen, they played with a National Reserve band. Jones said he got much more experience with music growing up in a smaller city because he otherwise would have faced too much competition.
At age 14, Jones introduced himself to 16-year-old Ray Charles after watching him play at the Black Elks Club. Jones cites Charles as an early inspiration for his own music career, noting that Charles overcame a disability (blindness) to achieve his musical goals. He credited his father's sturdy work ethic with giving him the means to proceed and his loving strength with holding the family together. Jones said his father had a rhyming motto: "Once a task is just begun, never leave until it's done. Be the labor great or small, do it well or not at all." In 1951, Jones earned a scholarship to Seattle University, where a young Clint Eastwoodalso a music majorwatched him play in the college band. After one semester, Jones transferred to what is now the Berklee College of Music in Boston on another scholarship. While studying at Berklee, he played at Izzy Ort's Bar & Grille with Bunny Campbell and Preston Sandiford, whom he cited as important musical influences. He left his studies after receiving an offer to tour as a trumpeter, arranger, and pianist with bandleader Lionel Hampton and embarked on his professional career. On the road with Hampton, he displayed a gift for arranging songs. He moved to New York City, where he received freelance commissions writing arrangements for Sarah Vaughan, Dinah Washington, Count Basie, Duke Ellington, Gene Krupa, and Ray Charles, who was by then a close friend.
Music career
In 1953, at age 20, Jones traveled with jazz bandleader Lionel Hampton for a European tour of the Hampton orchestra. He said the tour changed his view of racism in the United States:
In early 1956, Jones accepted a temporary job at the CBS Stage Show hosted by Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey that was broadcast live from the Studio 50 in New York City. On January 28, February 4, 11, and 18, as well as on March 17 and 24, Jones played second trumpet in the studio band that supported 21-year-old Elvis Presley in his first six television appearances. Presley sang "Heartbreak Hotel", which became his first No. 1 record and the Billboard magazine Pop Record of the year. Soon after, as a trumpeter and musical director for Dizzy Gillespie, Jones went on tour of the Middle East and South America sponsored by the United States Information Agency. After returning, he signed a contract with ABC-Paramount and started his recording career as the leader of his band. In 1957, he settled in Paris, where he studied composition and theory with Nadia Boulanger and Olivier Messiaen and performed at the Paris Olympia. He became music director at Barclay, a French record company and the licensee for Mercury in France.
During the 1950s, Jones toured Europe with several jazz orchestras. As musical director of Harold Arlen's jazz musical Free and Easy, he took to the road again. A European tour closed in Paris in February 1960. With musicians from the Arlen show, he formed his big band the Jones Boys with eighteen musicians. The band included double bass player Eddie Jones and trumpeter Reunald Jones (none of the three were related). The band toured North America and Europe, and the concerts met enthusiastic audiences and sparkling reviews, but the earnings failed to support a band of this size. Poor budget planning resulted in an economic disaster; the band dissolved, leaving Jones in a financial crisis.
"We had the best jazz band on the planet, and yet we were literally starving. That's when I discovered that there was music, and there was the music business. If I were to survive, I would have to learn the difference between the two."
Irving Green, head of Mercury, helped Jones with a personal loan and a job as musical director of the company's New York division. He worked with Doug Moody, founder of Mystic Records.
Breakthrough and rise
In 1961, Jones was promoted as the vice-president of Mercury, becoming the first African American to hold the position. During the same year, at the invitation of director Sidney Lumet, he composed music for The Pawnbroker (1964). It was the first of his nearly 40 major motion picture scores. Following the success of The Pawnbroker, Jones left Mercury and moved to Los Angeles. After composing film scores for Mirage and The Slender Thread in 1965, he was in constant demand as a composer. His film credits over the next seven years included Walk, Don't Run, The Deadly Affair, In Cold Blood, In the Heat of the Night, Mackenna's Gold, The Italian Job, Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice, Cactus Flower, The Out-Of-Towners, They Call Me Mister Tibbs!, The Anderson Tapes, $ (Dollars), and The Getaway. In addition, he composed "The Streetbeater", which became the theme music for the television sitcom Sanford and Son, starring his close friend Redd Foxx, and the themes for other TV shows, including Ironside, Rebop, Banacek, The Bill Cosby Show, the opening episode of Roots, Mad TV, and the game show Now You See It.
In the 1960s, Jones worked as an arranger for Billy Eckstine, Ella Fitzgerald, Shirley Horn, Peggy Lee, Nana Mouskouri, Frank Sinatra, Sarah Vaughan, and Dinah Washington. His solo recordings included Walking in Space, Gula Matari, Smackwater Jack, You've Got It Bad Girl, Body Heat, Mellow Madness, and I Heard That!!
Jones's 1962 tune "Soul Bossa Nova", which originated on the Big Band Bossa Nova album, was used as the theme for the 1997 spy comedy Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery.
Jones produced all four million-selling singles for Lesley Gore during the early and mid-sixties, including "It's My Party" (UK No. 8; US No. 1), its sequel "Judy's Turn to Cry" (US No. 5), "She's a Fool" (also a US No. 5) in 1963, and "You Don't Own Me" (US No. 2 for four weeks in 1964). He continued to produce for Gore until 1966, including the Greenwich/Barry hits "Look of Love" (US No. 27 in 1965) and "Maybe I Know" (UK No. 20; US No. 14 in 1964).
In 1975, he founded Qwest Productions, for which he arranged and produced successful albums by Frank Sinatra and others. In 1978, he produced the soundtrack for The Wiz, the musical adaptation of The Wizard of Oz, which starred Michael Jackson and Diana Ross. In 1982, he produced Jackson's Thriller, the bestselling album in history of the music industry.
His 1981 album The Dude yielded the hits "Ai No Corrida" (a remake of a song by Chaz Jankel), "Just Once", and "One Hundred Ways", both sung by James Ingram.
Marking Jones' debut as a film producer, 1985's The Color Purple received 11 Oscar nominations that year, including one for Jones' score. Jones, Thomas Newman, and Alan Silvestri are the only composers besides John Williams to have written scores for a Steven Spielberg-directed theatrical feature film. Additionally, through this picture, Jones is credited with introducing Whoopi Goldberg and Oprah Winfrey to film audiences around the world.
After the 1985 American Music Awards ceremony, Jones used his influence to draw most of the major American recording artists of the day into a studio to record the song "We Are the World" to raise money for the victims of famine in Ethiopia. When people marveled at his ability to make the collaboration work, Jones explained that he had taped a sign on the entrance reading "Check Your Ego at the Door". He was also quoted as saying, "We don't want to make a hunger record in tuxedos", requiring all participants to wear casual clothing in the studio. In 1986, he started off Qwest Entertainment to produce theatrical feature films, through Qwest Film and Television, and launched a home video label, Qwest Home Video, in order to manage their home video titles that was made by the studio, and Qwest Entertainment would continue to operate their pre-existing subsidiaries like Qwest Records, Quincy Jones Productions and Qwest Music Publishing.
In 1990, Quincy Jones Productions joined with Time Warner to create Quincy Jones Entertainment. The company signed a 10-picture deal with Warner Bros. and a two-series deal with NBC Productions (now Universal Television). The television show The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air was completed in 1990, but producers of In the House (from UPN) rejected its early concept stages. Jones produced the successful The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (discovering Will Smith), UPN's In the House, First-Run Syndication's The Jenny Jones Show (in association with Telepictures Productions, 1994–1997 only) and FOX's Madtvwhich ran for 14 seasons. In the early 1990s, he started a huge, ongoing project called "The Evolution of Black Music". QJE started a weekly talk show with Jones's friend, Reverend Jesse Jackson, as the host.
Beginning in the late 1970s, Jones tried to convince Miles Davis to revive the music he recorded on several classic albums of the 1950s, which was arranged by Gil Evans. Davis always refused, citing a desire to avoid revisiting the past. But in 1991, Davis relented. Despite having pneumonia, he agreed to perform the music at the Montreux Jazz Festival. The recording, Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux, was his last album; he died several months afterward.
In 1993, Jones collaborated with David Salzman to produce the concert An American Reunion, a celebration of Bill Clinton's inauguration as President of the United States. During the same year, he and Salzman renamed his company to Quincy Jones/David Salzman Entertainment.
In 2001, Jones published his autobiography Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones. On July 31, 2007, he partnered with Wizzard Media to start the Quincy Jones Video Podcast. In each episode, he shares his knowledge and experience in the music industry. The first episode features him in the studio producing "I Knew I Loved You" for Celine Dion. This is included on the Ennio Morricone tribute album We All Love Ennio Morricone.
Jones helped produce Anita Hall's 2009 album Send Love. In 2013, he produced Emily Bear's album Diversity. After that, he produced albums for Grace, Justin Kauflin, Alfredo Rodríguez, Andreas Varady, and Nikki Yanofsky. He also became a mentor to Jacob Collier.
In 2017, Jones and French producer Reza Ackbaraly started Qwest TV, the world's first subscription video-on-demand (SVOD) service for jazz and eclectic music from around the world. The platform features a handpicked selection of ad-free concerts, interviews, documentaries, and exclusive, original content, all in HD or 4K.
In 2010, Jones, along with brand strategist Chris Vance, co-founded Playground Sessions, a NY City-based developer of subscription software that teaches people to play the piano using interactive videos. Pianists Harry Connick Jr. and David Sides are among the company's video instructors. Jones worked with Vance and Sides to develop the video lessons and incorporate techniques to modernize the instruction format.
Work with Frank Sinatra
Quincy Jones first worked with Frank Sinatra in 1958 when invited by Princess Grace to arrange a benefit concert at the Monaco Sporting Club. Six years later, Sinatra hired him to arrange and conduct Sinatra's second album with Count Basie, It Might as Well Be Swing (1964). Jones conducted and arranged Sinatra's live album with the Basie Band, Sinatra at the Sands (1966). Jones was also the arranger/conductor when Sinatra, Sammy Davis Jr., Dean Martin, and Johnny Carson performed with the Basie orchestra in June 1965 in St. Louis, Missouri, in a benefit for Dismas House. The fund-raiser was broadcast to movie theaters around the country and eventually released on VHS. Later that year, Jones was the arranger/conductor when Sinatra and Basie appeared on The Hollywood Palace TV show on October 16, 1965. Nineteen years later, Sinatra and Jones teamed up for 1984's L.A. Is My Lady. Jones said,
Work with Michael Jackson
While working on the film The Wiz, Michael Jackson asked Jones to recommend some producers for his upcoming solo album. Jones offered some names but eventually offered to produce the record himself. Jackson accepted and the resulting record, Off the Wall, sold about 20 million copies. This made Jones the most powerful record producer in the industry at that time. Jones and Jackson's next collaboration, Thriller, sold 65 million copies and became the highest-selling album of all time. The rise of MTV and the advent of music videos as promotional tools also contributed to Thriller's sales. Jones worked on Jackson's album Bad, which sold 45 million copies, and was the last time they worked with each other. Audio interviews with Jones are included in the 2001 special editions of Off the Wall, Thriller, and Bad.
In a 2002 interview, when asked if he would work with Jones again, Jackson suggested he might. But in 2007, when Jones was asked by NME, he said, "Man, please! We already did that. I have talked to him about working with him again but I've got too much to do. I've got 900 products, I'm 74 years old."
Following Jackson's death on June 25, 2009, Jones said:
In October 2013, the BBC and The Hollywood Reporter said Jones planned to sue Michael Jackson's estate for $10 million. Jones said that MJJ Productions, a song company managed by Jackson's estate and Sony Music Entertainment, improperly re-edited songs to deprive him of royalties and production fees and breached an agreement giving him the right to remix master recordings for albums released after Jackson's death. The songs Jones produced for Jackson were used in the film This Is It. Jones was reported to be filing the suits against the Michael Jackson Cirque du Soleil shows and the 25th-anniversary edition of the Bad album. He believed he should have received a producer credit in the film.
Brazilian culture
The Brazilian singer Simone, whom Jones cites as "one of the world's greatest singers"; Brazilian musicians Ivan Lins and Milton Nascimento; and percussionist Paulinho da Costa, who Jones called "one of the best in the business", have become close friends and partners in his recent works.
Media appearances
Jones had a brief appearance in the 1990 video for the Time song "Jerk Out", and was a guest actor on an episode of The Boondocks. He appeared with Ray Charles in the music video of their song "One Mint Julep" and also with Ray Charles and Chaka Khan in the music video of their song "I'll Be Good to You". Jones hosted an episode of the long-running NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live on February 10, 1990 (during SNL's 15th season). The episode was notable for having 10 musical guests (the most any SNL episode has had in its 40 plus years on the air): Tevin Campbell, Andrae Crouch, Sandra Crouch, rappers Kool Moe Dee and Big Daddy Kane, Melle Mel, Quincy D III, Siedah Garrett, Al Jarreau, and Take 6, and for a performance of Dizzy Gillespie's "Manteca" by the SNL Band (conducted by Quincy Jones). Jones impersonated Marion Barry, the former mayor of Washington, D.C., in the recurring sketch The Bob Waltman Special. He later produced his own sketch comedy show, FOX's MADtv, which ran from 1995 to 2009.
Jones appeared in the 1999 Walt Disney Pictures animated film Fantasia 2000, introducing the set piece of George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue. Two years later, he made a cameo appearance as himself in the film Austin Powers in Goldmember. On February 10, 2008, Jones joined Usher in presenting the Grammy Award for Album of the Year to Herbie Hancock. On January 6, 2009, he appeared on NBC's Last Call with Carson Daly to discuss his career. Daly informally floated the idea that Jones should become the first minister of culture for the United States, pending the inauguration of Barack Obama as president. Daly noted that only the US and Germany, among leading world countries, did not have a cabinet-level position for this role. Commentators on NPR and in the Chronicle of Higher Education have also discussed the topic of a minister of culture.
In February 2014, Jones appeared in Keep on Keepin' On, a documentary about his friend, jazz trumpeter and flugelhorn player Clark Terry. In the film, Terry introduces Jones to his protege Justin Kauflin, whom Jones then signs to his band and label. In July 2014, Jones starred in a documentary film called The Distortion of Sound. In September 2015, he was a guest on Dr. Dre's The Pharmacy on Beats 1 Radio. He was also featured on Jacob Collier's YouTube cover of Michael Jackson's "PYT (Pretty Young Thing)". On February 28, 2016, he and Pharrell Williams presented Ennio Morricone with the Oscar for best film score. and in August 2016, he and his music were featured at BBC Proms in Royal Albert Hall, London.
On March 20, 2020, Jones guest starred on a music video by Travis Scott and Young Thug for the song "Out West". Jones makes and consumes a sandwich during the course of the video.
In January 2022, Jones appeared on the album Dawn FM by Canadian singer the Weeknd, performing a monologue in the sixth track, "A Tale by Quincy". The Weeknd has cited Michael Jackson as his biggest inspiration.
Activism
Jones' social activism began in the 1960s with his support of Martin Luther King Jr. Jones is one of the founders of the Institute for Black American Music (IBAM), whose events aim to raise enough funds for the creation of a national library of African-American art and music. Jones is also one of the founders of the Black Arts Festival in his hometown of Chicago. In the 1970s, Jones formed the Quincy Jones Workshops. Meeting at the Los Angeles Landmark Variety Arts Center, the workshops educated and honed the skills of inner-city youth in musicianship, acting, and songwriting. Among its alumni were Alton McClain, who had a hit song with Alton McClain and Destiny, and Mark Wilkins, who co-wrote the hit song "Havin' a Love Attack" with Mandrill and became National Promotion Director for Mystic Records.
For many years, Jones has worked closely with Bono of U2 on a number of philanthropic causes. He is the founder of the Quincy Jones Listen Up Foundation, a nonprofit organization that built more than 100 homes in South Africa and which aims to connect youths with technology, education, culture, and music. One of the organization's programs is an intercultural exchange between underprivileged youths from Los Angeles and South Africa. In 2004, Jones helped launch the We Are the Future (WAF) project, which gives children in poor and conflict-ridden areas a chance to live their childhoods and develop a sense of hope. The program is the result of a strategic partnership between the Global Forum, the Quincy Jones Listen Up Foundation, and Hani Masri, with the support of the World Bank, UN agencies, and major companies. The project was launched with a concert in Rome, Italy, in front of an audience of half a million people.
Jones supports a number of other charities, including the NAACP, GLAAD, Peace Games, AmfAR, and the Maybach Foundation. He serves on the advisory board of HealthCorps. On July 26, 2007, he announced his endorsement of Hillary Clinton for president. But with the election of Barack Obama, Quincy Jones said that his next conversation "with President Obama [will be] to beg for a secretary of arts." This prompted the circulation of a petition on the internet asking Obama to create such a Cabinet-level position in his administration. In 2001, Jones became an honorary member of the board of directors of the Jazz Foundation of America. He worked with the foundation to save the homes and lives of America's elderly jazz and blues musicians, including those who survived Hurricane Katrina. Jones is a spokesperson for the Global Down Syndrome Foundation, co-founded by his friend John Sie, which annually awards the Quincy Jones Exceptional Advocacy Award.
Personal life
Jones never learned to drive, citing his involvement in a car crash at age 14 as the reason.
Jones revealed that Ray Charles introduced him to heroin at 15, but he quit using the drug after he fell down five flights of stairs. He is a believer in astrology. In regard to religion, he stated in February 2018 that he believes in a God that opposes the love of money but dismisses the notion of an afterlife; he holds a negative opinion of the Catholic Church, believing it is built upon the notions of money and "fear, smoke, and murder". Jones claimed to have knowledge of the truth of the Kennedy assassination, stating his belief that mobster Sam Giancana was responsible, as well as outing sexual relationships Marlon Brando had with James Baldwin, Richard Pryor, and Marvin Gaye. In the same interview, Jones stated he dated Ivanka Trump despite expressing disdain for her father. He later apologized for the interview after a family intervention with his six daughters, blaming the things he said on "word vomit".
In 1974, Jones suffered a life-threatening brain aneurysm, leading to a decision to reduce his workload to spend time with his friends and family. Since his family and friends believed Jones' life was coming to an end, they started to plan a memorial service for him. He attended his own service with his neurologist by his side, in case the excitement overwhelmed him. Some of the entertainers at his service were Richard Pryor, Marvin Gaye, Sarah Vaughan, and Sidney Poitier.
Marriages and children
Jones has been married three times and has seven children with five different women. He was married to Jeri Caldwell from 1957 to 1966, and they had a daughter named Jolie. He had a brief affair with Carol Reynolds, and they had a daughter named Rachel. He was later married to Swedish actress Ulla Andersson from 1967 to 1974, and they had a daughter named Martina and a son named Quincy, who also became a music producer. The day after his divorce from Andersson, Jones married American actress Peggy Lipton. They had two daughters, Kidada (who was born before they were married) and Rashida, both of whom became actors. Jones and Lipton divorced in 1989. He later dated and lived with German actress Nastassja Kinski from 1991 to 1995, and they had a daughter named Kenya, who became a fashion model.
In 1994, rapper Tupac Shakur criticized Jones for having relationships with white women, prompting Jones' daughter Rashida to pen a scathing open letter in response, which was published in The Source. Rashida's sister Kidada developed a romantic relationship with Shakur and was living with him for four months at the time of his death.
Awards and honors
Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music (1983)
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Ray Charles in 1984.
Grammy Legend Award in 1992 (one of only 15 people ever to receive it).
Second in the list of all-time Grammy award wins.
Garfield High School in Seattle named a performing arts center after him.
Quincy Jones Elementary School, located in South Central Los Angeles, is named after him.
Humanitarian Award at the BET Awards in 2008.
John F. Kennedy Center Honors in 2001.
National Medal of Arts from President Barack Obama on March 2, 2011.
Los Angeles Press Club Visionary Award in 2014.
Honorary doctorate from the Royal Academy of Music, London, in 2015.
Ahmet Ertegun Award into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2013.
In 2021, Jones was inducted into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame as a "foundational inductee".
Discography
Film scores and soundtracks
The Pawnbroker (Mercury, 1965)
Mirage (Mercury, 1965)
The Slender Thread (Mercury, 1965)
Walk, Don't Run (Mainstream, 1966)
The Deadly Affair (Verve, 1967)
Enter Laughing (Liberty, 1967)
Banning (1967)
In the Heat of the Night (United Artists, 1967)
In Cold Blood (Colgems, 1967)
A Dandy in Aspic (1968)
The Counterfeit Killer (1968)
Jigsaw (1968)
For Love of Ivy (ABC, 1968)
The Hell with Heroes (1968)
The Split (1968)
Mackenna's Gold (RCA Victor, 1969)
The Italian Job (Paramount, 1969)
The Lost Man (Uni, 1969)
Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice (Bell, 1969)
John and Mary (A&M, 1969)
Cactus Flower (Bell, 1969)
Last of the Mobile Hot Shots (1970)
The Out-of-Towners (1970)
They Call Me Mister Tibbs! (United Artists, 1970)
Brother John (1971)
The Anderson Tapes (1971)
Honky (1971)
Sanford and Son Theme (1972)
$ (Reprise, 1972)
The Hot Rock (Prophesy, 1972)
The New Centurions (1972)
The Getaway (1972)
Roots (A&M, 1977)
The Wiz (1978)
The Color Purple (Quest, 1985)
Filmography
Fantasia 2000 (1999) – Himself (segment "Rhapsody in Blue")
Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002) – Himself
Sandy Wexler (2017) – Himself
Quincy (2018) – Himself
The Black Godfather (2019) – Himself
Jay Sebring....Cutting to the Truth (2020) – Himself
References
Further reading
Video interview.
(26 mins, airdate May 25, 2013)
External links
1933 births
Living people
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American composers
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century jazz composers
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21st-century American male musicians
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American people of Cameroonian descent
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Businesspeople from Chicago
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205510
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Georg%20Wilhelm%20von%20Struve
|
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve
|
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve (, trans. Vasily Yakovlevich Struve; 15 April 1793 – ) was a Baltic German astronomer and geodesist from the famous Struve family. He is best known for studying double stars and for initiating a triangulation survey later named Struve Geodetic Arc in his honor.
Life
He was born at Altona, Duchy of Holstein (then a part of the Denmark–Norway kingdoms), the son of Jacob Struve (1755–1841). Struve's father moved the family away from the French occupation to Dorpat (nowadays Tartu) in Imperial Russia to avoid military service, equipped with Danish passports.
In 1808 he entered the Imperial University of Dorpat, where he first studied philology, but soon turned his attention to astronomy. From 1813 to 1820, he taught at the university and collected data at the Dorpat Observatory, and in 1820 became a full professor and director of the observatory. His teachings have had a strong effect that is still felt at the university.
Struve was occupied with research on double stars and geodesy in Dorpat until 1839, when he founded and became director of the new Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg. Among other honors, he won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1826. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1827 and was awarded their Royal Medal the same year. Struve was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1833, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1834. In 1843 he formally adopted Russian nationality. He retired in 1862 due to failing health.
The asteroid 768 Struveana was named jointly in his honour and that of Otto Wilhelm and Karl Hermann Struve and a lunar crater was named for another 3 astronomers of the Struve family: Friedrich Georg Wilhelm, Otto Wilhelm and Otto.
Works
Struve's name is best known for his observations of double stars, which he carried on for many years. Although double stars had been studied earlier by William Herschel and John Herschel and Sir James South, Struve outdid any previous efforts. He discovered a very large number of double stars and in 1827 published his double star catalogue Catalogus novus stellarum duplicium. Stars of his catalogue are sometimes indicated by the Greek letter sigma, Σ. Thus, 61 Cygni is also designated as Σ2758.
Since most double stars are true binary stars rather than mere optical doubles (as William Herschel had been the first to discover), they orbit around their common barycenter and slowly change position over the years. Thus Struve made micrometric measurements of 2714 double stars from 1824 to 1837 and published these in his work Stellarum duplicium et multiplicium mensurae micrometricae.
Struve carefully measured the "constant of aberration" in 1843. He was also the first to measure the parallax of the star Vega, although Friedrich Bessel had been the first to measure the parallax of a star (61 Cygni).
In an 1847 work, Etudes d'Astronomie Stellaire: Sur la voie lactee et sur la distance des etoiles fixes, Struve was one of the first astronomers to identify the effects of interstellar extinction (though he provided no mechanism to explain the effect). His estimate of the average rate of visual extinction, 1 mag per kpc, is remarkably close to modern estimates (0.7–1.0 mag per kpc).
He was also interested in geodetic surveying, and in 1831 published Beschreibung der Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands. He initiated the Struve Geodetic Arc, which was a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries and over 2,820 km, to establish the exact size and shape of the earth. UNESCO listed the chain on its List of World Heritage Sites in Europe in 2005.
In 1853, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
Family
Struve was the second of a dynasty of astronomers through five generations. He was the great-grandfather of Otto Struve and the father of Otto Wilhelm von Struve. He was also the grandfather of Hermann von Struve, who was Otto Struve's uncle.
In 1815 he married Emilie Wall (1796–1834) in Altona, who bore 12 children, 8 of which survived early childhood. In addition to Otto Wilhelm von Struve, other children were Heinrich Wilhelm von Struve (1822–1908), a prominent chemist, and (1827–1889), who served as a government official in Siberia and later as governor of Astrakhan and Perm.
After his first wife died, he remarried to Johanna Henriette Francisca Bartels (1807–1867), a daughter of the mathematician Martin Bartels, who bore him six more children. The most well-known was Karl de Struve (1835–1907), who served successively as Russian ambassador to Japan, the United States, and the Netherlands.
Bernhard's son Pyotr Berngardovich Struve (1870–1944) is probably the best known member of the family in mainland Russia (his other descendants mainly resided in the Baltic region and subsequently Germany). He was one of the first Russian marxists and penned the Manifesto of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party upon its creation in 1898. Even before the party split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, Struve left it for the Constitutional Democratic party, which promoted ideas of liberalism. He represented this party at all the pre-revolutionary State Dumas. After the Russian Revolution, he published several striking articles on its causes and joined the White movement. In the governments of Pyotr Wrangel and Denikin he was one of the ministers. During the following three decades, Pyotr lived in Paris, while his children were prominent in the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia.
See also
List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists
References
External links
Portraits of Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections
Estonian souvenir sheet and first day cover dedicated to Struve and Struve Geodetic Arc (2011)
1793 births
1864 deaths
People from Altona, Hamburg
19th-century German astronomers
Astronomers of the Russian Empire
Scientists of the Russian Empire
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
University of Tartu alumni
University of Tartu faculty
Royal Medal winners
Russian people of German descent
Baltic-German people
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm
Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Founding members of the Russian Geographical Society
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
German geodesists
Geodesists of the Russian Empire
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty%20Python%27s%20The%20Meaning%20of%20Life
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Monty Python's The Meaning of Life
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Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, also known simply as The Meaning of Life, is a 1983 British musical sketch comedy film written and performed by the Monty Python troupe, directed by Terry Jones. The Meaning of Life was the last feature film to star all six Python members before the death of Graham Chapman in 1989.
Unlike Holy Grail and Life of Brian, the film's two predecessors, which each told a single, more-or-less coherent story, The Meaning of Life returned to the sketch format of the troupe's original television series and their first film from twelve years earlier, And Now for Something Completely Different, loosely structured as a series of comic sketches about the various stages of life. It was accompanied by the short film The Crimson Permanent Assurance.
Released on 23 June 1983 in the United Kingdom, The Meaning of Life was not as acclaimed as its predecessors, but was still well received critically and was a minor box office success; the film grossed almost $43 million against a $9 million budget. It was screened at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Grand Prix. The film appears in a 2010 list of the top 20 cult films published by The Boston Globe.
Plot
Six male fishes in a posh restaurant's tank swim together casually and say good morning to each other, then see their friend Howard being eaten outside. This leads them to question the meaning of life. The question is explored in the first sketch, "The Miracle of Birth", which features a woman in labour being ignored by the doctors in favour of impressing the hospital's medically-clueless administrator. In Yorkshire, a Roman Catholic man loses his job and informs his numerous children that he must sell them off for scientific experiments due to the Catholic church's opposition to contraception ("Every Sperm Is Sacred"). A Protestant man looks on disapprovingly, and proudly remarks that Protestants can use contraception and have sex for pleasure (though his wife points out that they never do).
In "Growth and Learning", a class of boys learn school etiquette before partaking in a sex education lesson, which involves watching their teacher have sex with his wife. One boy laughs and is forced into a violent rugby match pitting pupils against the school masters as punishment. "Fighting Each Other" focuses on three scenes concerning the British military: first, a World War I officer tries to rally his men during an attack, but they instead present him with various going-away gifts; second, a modern army RSM bullies his platoon to say what they'd rather be doing than drill practice, then dismisses each soldier in turn. Lastly, in 1879, during the Battle of Isandlwana in the Anglo-Zulu War, a soldier finds his leg has been bitten off. Suspecting a tiger, the soldiers hunt for it and find two men suspiciously wearing two halves of a tiger costume.
The prior sequences end abruptly with a host introducing "The Middle of the Film". In a segment called "Find the Fish", bizarre characters ask the audience to find a hidden fish. "Middle Age" involves an American couple visiting a Hawaiian restaurant with a Medieval torture theme, where, to the interest of the fish, the waiter offers a conversation about philosophy and the meaning of life. The customers are unable to make sense of it and move on to a discussion of "live organ transplants". In "Live Organ Transplants", two paramedics visit a card-carrying organ donor and remove his liver while he is still alive. His wife is initially reluctant to donate her own liver while alive, but she relents after a man steps out of a fridge and reminds her of humanity's insignificance in the universe ("Galaxy Song"). Executives of an American conglomerate debate the meaning of life before a raid by The Crimson Permanent Assurance briefly interrupts them.
"The Autumn Years" starts off with a musician in a French restaurant singing about the joys of having a penis. When the song is finished, everyone applauds the musician, but the applause is interrupted when the horrible, gluttonous and grotesquely obese customer Mr Creosote visits the restaurant, much to the horror of everyone including the fishes. He vomits continuously and devours an enormous meal. After the maître d'hôtel persuades him to eat an after-dinner mint, Creosote's gut explodes, splattering the other diners. Two staff members clean up the whole restaurant while arguing and discussing about the meaning of life in "The Meaning Of Life". A third waiter leads the audience to the house where he was born, spouts some weak philosophy, and then angrily dismisses them after his point trails off.
"Death" features a condemned man choosing the manner of his own execution: being chased off the Cliffs of Dover by topless women in sports gear and falling into his own grave below. In a short animated sequence, several despondent leaves commit suicide by throwing themselves from the branches of their tree. The Grim Reaper enters an isolated country house and convinces the hosts and dinner guests, with difficulty, that they are all dead. They accompany the Grim Reaper to Heaven, revealed to be the Hawaiian restaurant from earlier. They enter a Las Vegas-style hotel where it's always Christmas and meet the characters from the previous sketches ("Christmas in Heaven").
The song is cut off abruptly for "The End of the Film". The host from "The Middle of the Film" opens an envelope and blandly reveals the meaning of life: "Try and be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try and live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations".
Cast
Graham Chapman as Chairman / Fish No. 1 / Doctor / Harry Blackitt / Wymer / Hordern / General / Coles / Narrator No. 2 / Dr Livingstone / Transvestite / Eric / Guest No. 1 / Arthur Jarrett / Geoffrey / Tony Bennett-esque singer
John Cleese as Fish No. 2 / Dr Spencer / Humphrey Williams / Sturridge / Ainsworth / Waiter / Eric's assistant / Maître D' / Grim Reaper
Terry Gilliam as Window Washer / Fish No. 4 / Walters / Middle of the Film announcer / M'Lady Joeline / Mr Brown / Howard Katzenberg
Eric Idle as Gunther / Fish No. 3 / 'Meaning of Life' singer / Mr Moore / Mrs Blackitt / Watson / Blackitt / Atkinson / Perkins / Victim #3 / Man in Front / Mrs Hendy / Man in Pink / Noël Coward / Gaston / Angela
Terry Jones as Bert / Fish No. 6 / Mum / Priest / Biggs / Sergeant / Man with Bendy Arms / Mrs. Brown / Mr Creosote / Maria / Leaf Father / Fiona Portland-Smythe
Michael Palin as Window Washer / Harry / Fish No. 5 / Mr Pycroft / Dad / Narrator No. 1 / Chaplain / Carter / Spadger / Regimental Seargeant Major / Pakenham-Walsh / Man in Rear End / Female TV Presenter / Mr Marvin Hendy / Governor / Padre / Leaf Son / Debbie Katzenberg
The main company of Monty Python members, who appeared in multiple roles in nearly every section of the film, was supported by featured cast mates:
Carol Cleveland
Simon Jones
Patricia Quinn
Judy Loe
Andrew Bicknell
Mark Holmes
Valerie Whittington
Matt Frewer
John Scott Martin
Additionally Michael Caine makes an uncredited appearance as a soldier in a reference to his role in Zulu.
Production
According to Palin, "the writing process was quite cumbersome. An awful lot of material didn't get used. Holy Grail had a structure, a loose one: the search for the grail. Same with Life of Brian. With this, it wasn't so clear. In the end, we just said: 'Well, what the heck. We have got lots of good material, let's give it the loosest structure, which will be the meaning of life'".
After the film's title was chosen, Douglas Adams called Jones to tell him he had just finished a new book, to be called The Meaning of Liff; Jones was initially concerned about the similarity in titles, which led to the scene in the title sequence of a tombstone which, when hit by a flash of lightning, changes from "The Meaning of Liff" to "The Meaning of Life".
Principal photography began on 12 July 1982 and was completed about two months later, on 11 September. A wide variety of locations were used, such as Porchester Hall in Queensway for the Mr Creosote sketch, where hundreds of pounds of fake vomit had to be cleaned up on the last day due to a wedding being scheduled hours later. The Malham Moors were chosen for the Grim Reaper segment; the countryside near Strathblane was used for the Zulu War; and "Every Sperm Is Sacred" was shot in Colne, Lancashire, with interiors done at Elstree Studios.
The film was produced on a budget of less than US$10 million, which was still bigger than that of the earlier films. This allowed for large-scale choreography and crowd sequences, a more lavishly produced soundtrack that included new original songs, and much more time able to be spent on each sketch, especially The Crimson Permanent Assurance. Palin later said that the larger budget, and not making the film for the BBC (i.e., television), allowed the film to be more daring and dark.
The idea for the hospital sketch came from Chapman, himself a doctor, who had noticed that hospitals were changing, with "lots and lots of machinery". According to Palin, the organ transplant scene harked back to Python's love of bureaucracy, and sketches with lots of people coming round from the council with different bits of paper.
During the filming of the scene where Palin's character explains Catholicism to his children, his line was "that rubber thing at the end of my sock", which was later overdubbed with cock.
The Crimson Permanent Assurance
The short film The Crimson Permanent Assurance introduces the feature. It is about a group of elderly office clerks working in a small accounting firm. They rebel against yuppie corporate masters, transform their office building into a pirate ship, and raid a large financial district. One of the boardrooms raided reappears later in the film, from shortly before the attack begins until the narrator apologises and a skyscraper falls and crushes the marauders.
The short was intended as an animated sequence in the feature, for placement at the end of Part V. Gilliam convinced the other members of Monty Python to allow him to produce and direct it as a live action piece instead.
Release
The original tagline read "It took God six days to create the Heavens and the Earth, and Monty Python just 90 minutes to screw it up" (the length of The Meaning of Life proper is 90 minutes, but becomes 107 minutes as released with the "Short Subject Presentation", The Crimson Permanent Assurance). In an April 2012 re-release held by the American Film Institute, the tagline is altered to read "It took God six days to create the Heavens and the Earth, and Monty Python just 1 hour and 48 minutes to screw it up".
Ireland banned the film on its original release as it had previously done with Monty Python's Life of Brian, but later rated it 15 when it was released on video. In the United Kingdom the film was rated 18 when released in the cinema and on its first release on video, but was re-rated 15 in 2000. In the United States the film is rated R.
Reception
Box office
The film opened in the United States on 31 March 1983. At 257 cinemas it ranked number six at the US box office, grossing US$1,987,853 ($7,734 per screen) in its opening weekend. It played at 554 cinemas at its widest point, and its total gross in the United States and Canada was $14,929,552. Internationally it grossed $27.8 million for a worldwide total of $42.7 million.
Critical reception
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, calling it a "a barbed, uncompromising attack on generally observed community standards". In The New York Times, Vincent Canby declared it "the Ben Hur of sketch films, which is to say that it's a tiny bit out of proportion", concluding it was amusing, but he wished it were consistently amusing. Variety staff assessed it as disgusting, ridiculous, tactless, but above all, amusing. Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune awarded 3 stars out of 4, calling it "fresh and original and delightfully offensive. What more can you ask of a comedy?" Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film was full of "raunchy talk, blasphemy (well, sacrilege) and one example of what kids call a totally gnarly, gross-out scene. The problem for the reviewer (to be specific, this reviewer) is when you are laughing this much it makes logging all the fast-flying offenses almost impossible." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post was negative, writing that "The strongest impressions left by this picture have less to do with its largely tedious attempts to burlesque human weakness and pomposity than with the group's failure to evolve a coherent satiric outlook." A review by Steve Jenkins in The Monthly Film Bulletin was also negative, writing that the return to a sketch format constituted a "great leap backwards" for the troupe and that the film's outrageous moments "cannot disguise the overall air of déjà vu and playing it safe."
In 2004, ‘’Irish Examiner’’s Acclaimed director Quentin Tarantino once stated "The only time I've ever had to look away, because I couldn't bear to watch, was The Meaning Of Life, when that fat b***ard keeps being sick.
"I felt really nauseous - it was just too much. I was looking around and I thought, 'If anyone here is sick and I have to smell vomit, I'm going to hurl'."I just about held onto my lunch in the end, but I still can't think about that scene without retching."
In 2007, Empires Ian Nathan rated it three of five stars, describing it as "too piecemeal and unfocused, but it possesses some of their most iconic musings and inspired madness". In 2014, The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five. In his 2015 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin awarded it three stars, calling it "A barrel of bellylaughs", identifying the Mr. Creosote and "Every Sperm Is Sacred" sketches as the most memorable. Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane states: “I view Monty Python as the great originator of that combination [provocative humour and high-quality original music]. The Meaning of Life in particular comes to mind, and my favorite example is "Every Sperm Is Sacred." It's so beautifully written, it's musically and lyrically legit, the orchestrations are fantastic, the choreography and the presentation are very, very complex – it's treated seriously." The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 86% based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.30/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Monty Python's the Meaning of Life is rude, ribald, and unafraid to take comedic risks -- which is to say it should more than satisfy fans of the titular troupe."
Accolades
The Meaning of Life was awarded the Grand Jury Prize at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival. While the Cannes jury, led by William Styron, were fiercely split on their opinions on several films in competition, The Meaning of Life had general support, securing it the second-highest honour after the Palme d'Or for The Ballad of Narayama.
At the 37th British Academy Film Awards, Andre Jacquemin, Dave Howman, Michael Palin and Terry Jones were also nominated for Original Song for "Every Sperm is Sacred." The award went to "Up Where We Belong" in An Officer and a Gentleman.
Home media
A two-disc DVD release in 2003 features a documentary on production and a director's cut, which adds deleted scenes into the film, making it 116 minutes. The first is The Adventures of Martin Luther, inserted after the scene with the Protestant couple talking about condoms. The second is a promotional video about the British army, which comes between the marching around the square scene and the Zulu army scene. The third and last is an extension of the American characters performed by Idle and Palin; they are shown their room and talk about tampons. In Region 1, it was released on Blu-ray to mark its 30th anniversary.
In May 2020, it was released on Netflix in the United Kingdom.
References
External links
Monty Python films
Films with atheism-related themes
1983 films
1980s musical films
1980s satirical films
British films
British musical comedy films
British satirical films
British political satire films
Religious satire films
Self-reflexive films
English-language films
God in fiction
Films directed by Terry Jones
Films scored by John Du Prez
Films with screenplays by Graham Chapman
Films with screenplays by John Cleese
Films with screenplays by Terry Gilliam
Films with screenplays by Eric Idle
Films with screenplays by Terry Jones
Films with screenplays by Michael Palin
British anthology films
Films shot in Buckinghamshire
Films shot in Cambridgeshire
Films shot in England
Films shot in Hertfordshire
Films shot in London
Films shot in Scotland
Films shot at EMI-Elstree Studios
Films set in England
Films set in South Africa
Universal Pictures films
Heaven in popular culture
Personifications of death in fiction
Works about meaning of life
Sketch comedy films
Cannes Grand Prix winners
|
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205513
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Peacock
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George Peacock
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George Peacock FRS (9 April 1791 – 8 November 1858) was an English mathematician and Anglican cleric. He founded what has been called the British algebra of logic.
Early life
Peacock was born on 9 April 1791 at Thornton Hall, Denton, near Darlington, County Durham. His father, Thomas Peacock, was a priest of the Church of England, incumbent and for 50 years curate of the parish of Denton, where he also kept a school. In early life Peacock did not show any precocity of genius, and was more remarkable for daring feats of climbing than for any special attachment to study. Initially, he received his elementary education from his father and then at Sedbergh School, and at 17 years of age, he was sent to Richmond School under James Tate, a graduate of Cambridge University. At this school he distinguished himself greatly both in classics and in the rather elementary mathematics then required for entrance at Cambridge. In 1809 he became a student of Trinity College, Cambridge.
In 1812 Peacock took the rank of Second Wrangler, and the second Smith's prize, the senior wrangler being John Herschel. Two years later he became a candidate for a fellowship in his college and won it immediately, partly by means of his extensive and accurate knowledge of the classics. A fellowship then meant about 200 pounds a year, tenable for seven years provided the Fellow did not marry meanwhile, and capable of being extended after the seven years provided the Fellow took clerical orders, which Peacock did in 1819.
Mathematical career
The year after taking a Fellowship, Peacock was appointed a tutor and lecturer of his college, which position he continued to hold for many years. Peacock, in common with many other students of his own standing, was profoundly impressed with the need of reforming Cambridge's position ignoring the differential notation for calculus, and while still an undergraduate formed a league with Babbage and Herschel to adopt measures to bring it about. In 1815 they formed what they called the Analytical Society, the object of which was stated to be to advocate the d 'ism of the Continent versus the dot-age of the University.
The first movement on the part of the Analytical Society was to translate from the French the smaller work of Lacroix on the differential and integral calculus; it was published in 1816. At that time the French language had the best manuals, as well as the greatest works on mathematics. Peacock followed up the translation with a volume containing a copious Collection of Examples of the Application of the Differential and Integral Calculus, which was published in 1820. The sale of both books was rapid, and contributed materially to further the object of the Society. In that time, high wranglers of one year became the examiners of the mathematical tripos three or four years afterwards. Peacock was appointed an examiner in 1817, and he did not fail to make use of the position as a powerful lever to advance the cause of reform. In his questions set for the examination the differential notation was for the first time officially employed in Cambridge. The innovation did not escape censure, but he wrote to a friend as follows: "I assure you that I shall never cease to exert myself to the utmost in the cause of reform, and that I will never decline any office which may increase my power to effect it. I am nearly certain of being nominated to the office of Moderator in the year 1818-1819, and as I am an examiner in virtue of my office, for the next year I shall pursue a course even more decided than hitherto, since I shall feel that men have been prepared for the change, and will then be enabled to have acquired a better system by the publication of improved elementary books. I have considerable influence as a lecturer, and I will not neglect it. It is by silent perseverance only, that we can hope to reduce the many-headed monster of prejudice and make the University answer her character as the loving mother of good learning and science." These few sentences give an insight into the character of Peacock: he was an ardent reformer and a few years brought success to the cause of the Analytical Society.
Another reform at which Peacock labored was the teaching of algebra. In 1830 he published A Treatise on Algebra which had for its object the placing of algebra on a true scientific basis, adequate for the development which it had received at the hands of the Continental mathematicians. To elevate astronomical science the Astronomical Society of London was founded, and the three reformers Peacock, Babbage and Herschel were again prime movers in the undertaking. Peacock was one of the most zealous promoters of an astronomical observatory at Cambridge, and one of the founders of the Philosophical Society of Cambridge.
In 1831 the British Association for the Advancement of Science (prototype of the American, French and Australasian Associations) held its first meeting in the ancient city of York. One of the first resolutions adopted was to procure reports on the state and progress of particular sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons for the information of the annual meetings, and the first to be placed on the list was a report on the progress of mathematical science. Whewell, the mathematician and philosopher, was a Vice-president of the meeting: he was instructed to select the reporter. He first asked William Rowan Hamilton, who declined; he then asked Peacock, who accepted. Peacock had his report ready for the third meeting of the Association, which was held in Cambridge in 1833; although limited to Algebra, Trigonometry, and the Arithmetic of Sines, it is one of the best of the long series of valuable reports which have been prepared for and printed by the Association.
In 1837 Peacock was appointed Lowndean Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge, the chair afterwards occupied by Adams, the co-discoverer of Neptune, and later occupied by Robert Ball, celebrated for his Theory of Screws. An object of reform was the statutes of the University; he worked hard at it and was made a member of a commission appointed by the Government for the purpose.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in January 1818.
In 1842, Peacock was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
Clerical career
He was ordained as a deacon in 1819, a priest in 1822 and appointed Vicar of Wymeswold in Leicestershire in 1826 (until 1835).
In 1839 he was appointed Dean of Ely cathedral, Cambridgeshire, a position he held for the rest of his life, some 20 years. Together with the architect George Gilbert Scott he undertook a major restoration of the cathedral building. This included the installation of the boarded ceiling.
While holding this position he wrote a text book on algebra, A Treatise on Algebra (1830). Later, a second edition appeared in two volumes, the one called Arithmetical Algebra (1842) and the other On Symbolical Algebra and its Applications to the Geometry of Position (1845).
Symbolical algebra
Peacock's main contribution to mathematical analysis is his attempt to place algebra on a strictly logical basis. He founded what has been called the British algebra of logic; to which Gregory, De Morgan and Boole belonged. His answer to Maseres and Frend was that the science of algebra consisted of two parts—arithmetical algebra and symbolical algebra—and that they erred in restricting the science to the arithmetical part. His view of arithmetical algebra is as follows: "In arithmetical algebra we consider symbols as representing numbers, and the operations to which they are submitted as included in the same definitions as in common arithmetic; the signs and denote the operations of addition and subtraction in their ordinary meaning only, and those operations are considered as impossible in all cases where the symbols subjected to them possess values which would render them so in case they were replaced by digital numbers; thus in expressions such as we must suppose and to be quantities of the same kind; in others, like , we must suppose greater than and therefore homogeneous with it; in products and quotients, like and we must suppose the multiplier and divisor to be abstract numbers; all results whatsoever, including negative quantities, which are not strictly deducible as legitimate conclusions from the definitions of the several operations must be rejected as impossible, or as foreign to the science."
Peacock's principle may be stated thus: the elementary symbol of arithmetical algebra denotes a digital, i.e., an integer number; and every combination of elementary symbols must reduce to a digital number, otherwise it is impossible or foreign to the science. If and are numbers, then is always a number; but is a number only when is less than . Again, under the same conditions, is always a number, but is really a number only when is an exact divisor of . Hence the following dilemma: Either must be held to be an impossible expression in general, or else the meaning of the fundamental symbol of algebra must be extended so as to include rational fractions. If the former horn of the dilemma is chosen, arithmetical algebra becomes a mere shadow; if the latter horn is chosen, the operations of algebra cannot be defined on the supposition that the elementary symbol is an integer number. Peacock attempts to get out of the difficulty by supposing that a symbol which is used as a multiplier is always an integer number, but that a symbol in the place of the multiplicand may be a fraction. For instance, in , can denote only an integer number, but may denote a rational fraction. Now there is no more fundamental principle in arithmetical algebra than that ; which would be illegitimate on Peacock's principle.
One of the earliest English writers on arithmetic is Robert Recorde, who dedicated his work to King Edward VI. The author gives his treatise the form of a dialogue between master and scholar. The scholar battles long over this difficulty—that multiplying a thing could make it less. The master attempts to explain the anomaly by reference to proportion; that the product due to a fraction bears the same proportion to the thing multiplied that the fraction bears to unity. But the scholar is not satisfied and the master goes on to say: "If I multiply by more than one, the thing is increased; if I take it but once, it is not changed, and if I take it less than once, it cannot be so much as it was before. Then seeing that a fraction is less than one, if I multiply by a fraction, it follows that I do take it less than once." Whereupon the scholar replies, "Sir, I do thank you much for this reason, – and I trust that I do perceive the thing."
The fact is that even in arithmetic the two processes of multiplication and division are generalized into a common multiplication; and the difficulty consists in passing from the original idea of multiplication to the generalized idea of a tensor, which idea includes compressing the magnitude as well as stretching it. Let denote an integer number; the next step is to gain the idea of the reciprocal of , not as but simply as . When and are compounded we get the idea of a rational fraction; for in general will not reduce to a number nor to the reciprocal of a number.
Suppose, however, that we pass over this objection; how does Peacock lay the foundation for general algebra? He calls it symbolical algebra, and he passes from arithmetical algebra to symbolical algebra in the following manner: "Symbolical algebra adopts the rules of arithmetical algebra but removes altogether their restrictions; thus symbolical subtraction differs from the same operation in arithmetical algebra in being possible for all relations of value of the symbols or expressions employed. All the results of arithmetical algebra which are deduced by the application of its rules, and which are general in form though particular in value, are results likewise of symbolical algebra where they are general in value as well as in form; thus the product of and which is when and are whole numbers and therefore general in form though particular in value, will be their product likewise when and are general in value as well as in form; the series for determined by the principles of arithmetical algebra when is any whole number, if it be exhibited in a general form, without reference to a final term, may be shown upon the same principle to the equivalent series for when is general both in form and value."
The principle here indicated by means of examples was named by Peacock the "principle of the permanence of equivalent forms," and at page 59 of the Symbolical Algebra it is thus enunciated: "Whatever algebraic forms are equivalent when the symbols are general in form, but specific in value, will be equivalent likewise when the symbols are general in value as well as in form."
For example, let , , , denote any integer numbers, but subject to the restrictions that is less than , and less than ; it may then be shown arithmetically that . Peacock's principle says that the form on the left side is equivalent to the form on the right side, not only when the said restrictions of being less are removed, but when , , , denote the most general algebraic symbol. It means that , , , may be rational fractions, or surds, or imaginary quantities, or indeed operators such as . The equivalence is not established by means of the nature of the quantity denoted; the equivalence is assumed to be true, and then it is attempted to find the different interpretations which may be put on the symbol.
It is not difficult to see that the problem before us involves the fundamental problem of a rational logic or theory of knowledge; namely, how are we able to ascend from particular truths to more general truths. If , , , denote integer numbers, of which is less than and less than , then .
It is first seen that the above restrictions may be removed, and still the above equation holds. But the antecedent is still too narrow; the true scientific problem consists in specifying the meaning of the symbols, which, and only which, will admit of the forms being equal. It is not to find "some meanings", but the "most general meaning", which allows the equivalence to be true. Let us examine some other cases; we shall find that Peacock's principle is not a solution of the difficulty; the great logical process of generalization cannot be reduced to any such easy and arbitrary procedure. When , , denote integer numbers, it can be shown that .
According to Peacock the form on the left is always to be equal to the form on the right, and the meanings of , , are to be found by interpretation. Suppose that takes the form of the incommensurate quantity , the base of the natural system of logarithms. A number is a degraded form of a complex quantity and a complex quantity is a degraded form of a quaternion; consequently one meaning which may be assigned to and is that of quaternion. Peacock's principle would lead us to suppose that , and denoting quaternions; but that is just what William Rowan Hamilton, the inventor of the quaternion generalization, denies. There are reasons for believing that he was mistaken, and that the forms remain equivalent even under that extreme generalization of and ; but the point is this: it is not a question of conventional definition and formal truth; it is a question of objective definition and real truth. Let the symbols have the prescribed meaning, does or does not the equivalence still hold? And if it does not hold, what is the higher or more complex form which the equivalence assumes? Or does such equivalence form even exist?
Private life
Politically he was a Whig.
His last public act was to attend a meeting of the university reform commission. He died in Ely on 8 November 1858 in the 68th year of his age and was buried in Ely cemetery. He had married Frances Elizabeth, the daughter of William Selwyn, but had no children.
Bibliography
A Treatise on Algebra (J. & J. J. Deighton, 1830).
A Treatise on Algebra (2nd ed., Scripta Mathematica, 1842–1845).
Vol. 1: Arithmetical Algebra (1842).
Vol. 2: On Symbolical Algebra and its Applications to the Geometry of Position (1845)
References
Sources
(complete text at Project Gutenberg)
External links
Biography of Peacock
1791 births
1858 deaths
People from the Borough of Darlington
19th-century English mathematicians
Mathematical analysts
Fellows of the Royal Society
Second Wranglers
Lowndean Professors of Astronomy and Geometry
Deans of Ely
|
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] |
205514
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Franz%20Encke
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Johann Franz Encke
|
Johann Franz Encke (; 23 September 179126 August 1865) was a German astronomer. Among his activities, he worked on the calculation of the periods of comets and asteroids, measured the distance from the Earth to the Sun, and made observations of the planet Saturn.
Biography
Encke was born in Hamburg, where his father was the Pastor at St. James' Church, Hamburg. He was the youngest of eight children, and at the time his father died, when he was four years old, the family was in straitened circumstances. Thanks to the financial assistance of a teacher, he was able to be educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums. He studied mathematics and astronomy from 1811 at the University of Göttingen under Carl Friedrich Gauss, but he enlisted in the Hanseatic Legion for the campaign of 1813–1814, serving as a sergeant in the artillery of the Prussian army, in Holstein and Mecklenburg. In 1814 he resumed his studies at the University, but after Napoleon's escape from Elba he returned to the military, serving until 1815 by which time he had become a lieutenant.
Having returned to Göttingen in 1816, he was at once appointed by Bernhardt von Lindenau as his assistant in the observatory of Seeberg near Gotha (he had become acquainted with von Lindenau during his military service). There he completed his investigation of the comet of 1680, for which the Cotta prize was awarded to him in 1817 by judges Gauss and Olbers. He correctly assigned a period of 71 years to the comet of 1812, now known as 12P/Pons-Brooks.
Following a suggestion by Jean-Louis Pons, who suspected one of the three comets discovered in 1818 to be the same one already discovered by him in 1805, Encke began to calculate the orbital elements of this comet. At this time, all the known comets had an orbital period of seventy years and more, with an aphelion far beyond the orbit of Uranus. The most famous comet of this family was Comet Halley with its period of seventy-six years. Therefore the orbit of the comet discovered by Pons was a sensation, because his orbit was found to have a period of 3.3 years, so that the aphelion had to be within the orbit of Jupiter. Encke predicted its return for 1822; this return was observable only from the southern hemisphere and was seen by Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker in Australia. The comet was also identified with the one seen by Pierre Méchain in 1786 and by Caroline Herschel in 1795.
Encke sent his calculations as a note to Gauss, Olbers, and Bessel. His former mathematics professor published this note and Encke became famous as the discoverer of the short periodic comets. The first object of this family, the Encke comet, was named after him and so it is one of the few comets not named after the discoverer, but after the one who calculated the orbit. Later this comet was identified as the origin of the Taurids meteor showers.
The importance of the predicted return based on the calculation by Encke was rewarded by the Royal Astronomical Society in London by presenting their Gold Medal to him in 1824. In this year Encke married Amalie Becker (1787–1879), daughter of author, bookseller and publisher Rudolph Zacharias Becker, the publisher of works from the Seeberg Observatory. They had three sons and two daughters. In 1825 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Eight masterly treatises on the comet's movements were published by him in the Berliner Abhandlungen (1829–1859). From a fresh discussion of the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 he deduced a solar parallax of 8.57 arcsecond. This and the corresponding distance to the sun were long accepted as authoritative. His results were published in two separate tracts, entitled Die Entfernung der Sonne (The distance to the sun, 1822–1824).
In 1822 he became director of the Seeberg observatory, and in 1825 was promoted to a corresponding position at Berlin, where a new observatory, built under his superintendence and with the support of Alexander von Humboldt and King Frederick William III of Prussia, was inaugurated in 1835. Mostly on the recommendation of Bessel, Encke became director of the new observatory and secretary of the Academy of Sciences.
He directed the preparation of the star maps of the Academy (1830–1859); beginning in 1830, he edited and greatly improved the Astronomisches Jahrbuch; and he issued four volumes of the Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Berlin (Observations of the Berlin observatory, 1840–1857). Thereafter Encke was involved in the discovery and orbital parameter determination of other short periodic comets and asteroids.
In 1837, Encke described a broad variation in the brightness of the A Ring of Saturn. The Encke Gap was later named in honour of his observations of Saturn's rings.
In 1844, Encke became professor of astronomy at the University of Berlin. Much labour was bestowed by him upon facilitating the computation of the movements of the asteroids. With this end in view he expounded to the Berlin Academy in 1849 a mode of determining an elliptic orbit from three observations, and communicated to that body in 1851 a new method of calculating planetary perturbations by means of rectangular coordinates (republished in W. Ostwald's Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften, No. 141, 1903).
Encke visited England in 1840. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1836, a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1839, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849. Incipient brain-disease compelled him to withdraw from official life in November 1863. He still was director of the Berlin observatory until his death on 26 August 1865 in Spandau. His successor was Wilhelm Julius Foerster.
He contributed extensively to the periodical literature of astronomy.
Encke's grave is preserved at a cemetery in the Kreuzberg section of Berlin, the Friedhof II der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde (Cemetery No. II of the congregations of Jerusalem's Church and New Church) (entrance: opposite to 58–60, Zossener Str.; 61, Baruther Str. only for vehicles of the cemetery). His grave is close to that of the mathematician Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.
Honors
Twice, in 1824 and 1830, the recipient of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.
The crater Encke on the Moon is named after him.
Asteroid 9134 Encke is named in his honour.
The Encke gap of Saturn's rings is named after him.
Comet Encke is named after him for his calculation of its orbit.
Notes
References
External links
Obituary of "John Francis Encke"
1791 births
1865 deaths
Scientists from Hamburg
19th-century German astronomers
Prussian Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
University of Göttingen alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Royal Medal winners
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
People educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums
Recipients of the Lalande Prize
|
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] |
205517
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Mackintosh
|
James Mackintosh
|
Sir James Mackintosh FRS FRSE (24 October 1765 – 30 May 1832) was a Scottish jurist, Whig politician and Whig historian. His studies and sympathies embraced many interests. He was trained as a doctor and barrister, and worked also as a journalist, judge, administrator, professor, philosopher and politician.
Early life
Mackintosh was born at Aldourie, 7 miles from Inverness, the son of Captain John Mackintosh of Kellachie (Kyllachy, near Tomatin in Inverness-shire). His mother was Marjory MacGillivray, a daughter of Alexander MacGillivray and his wife Anne Fraser, who was a sister to Brigadier-General Simon Fraser of Balnain. Both his parents were from old Highland families. His mother died while he was a child, and his father was frequently abroad, so he was brought up by his grandmother, and then schooled at Fortrose Seminary academy. At age thirteen he proclaimed himself a Whig, and during playtime he persuaded his friends to join him in debates modelled on those of the House of Commons.
He went in 1780 to King's College, University of Aberdeen, where he made a lifelong friend of Robert Hall, later a famous preacher. In 1784 he began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. He participated to the full in the intellectual ferment, became friendly with Benjamin Constant, but did not quite neglect his medical studies, and took his degree in 1787.
In 1788 Mackintosh moved to London, then agitated by the trial of Warren Hastings and the first lapse into insanity of George III. He was much more interested in these and other political events than in his professional prospects. He was also a founder member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (later the RSPCA).
French Revolution
Mackintosh was soon absorbed in the question of the time, the French Revolution. In April 1791, after long meditation, he published his Vindiciae Gallicae: A Defence of the French Revolution and its English Admirers, a reply to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. It placed the author in the front rank of European publicists, and won him the friendship of some of the most distinguished men of the time. The success of the Vindiciae finally decided him to give up the medical for the legal profession. He was called to the bar in 1795 and gained a considerable reputation there as well as a tolerable practice.
Vindiciae Gallicae was the verdict of a philosophic liberal on the development of the French Revolution up to the spring of 1791. The excesses of the revolutionaries compelled him a few years later to oppose them and agree with Burke, but his earlier defence of the rights of man is a valuable statement of the cultured Whig's point of view at the time. Mackintosh was the first to see Burke's Reflections as "the manifesto of a counter revolution".
Charles James Fox singled out Mackintosh's book as that which did most justice to the French Revolution, and he preferred it over Burke and Thomas Paine. After Paine's Rights of Man, Mackintosh's book was the most successful reply to Burke and Burke's biographer F. P. Lock considers it "one of the best of the replies to Burke, in some respects superior to Rights of Man".
The poet Thomas Campbell claimed that had it not been for Mackintosh's book, Burke's anti-revolutionary opinions would have become universal amongst the educated classes and that he ensured that he became "the apostle of liberalism".
Mackintosh wrote to Burke on 22 December 1796, saying that "From the earliest moments of reflexion your writings were my chief study and delight...The enthusiasm with which I then embraced them is now ripened into solid Conviction by the experience and meditation of more mature age. For a time indeed seduced by the love of what I thought liberty I ventured to oppose your Opinions without ever ceasing to venerate your character...I cannot say...that I can even now assent to all your opinions on the present politics of Europe. But I can with truth affirm that I subscribe to your general Principles; that I consider them as the only solid foundation both of political Science and of political prudence". Burke replied that "As it is on all hands allowed that you were the most able advocate for the cause which you supported, your sacrifice to truth and mature reflexion, adds much to your glory". However, in private Burke was sceptical of what he considered Mackintosh's "supposed conversion". Burke invited Mackintosh to spend Christmas with him at his home in Beaconsfield, where he was struck by Burke's "astonishing effusions of his mind in conversation. Perfectly free from all taint of affectation...Minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, with respect to every fact relative to the French Revolution".
When Mackintosh visited Paris in 1802 during the Peace of Amiens, he responded to compliments from French admirers of his defence of their revolution by saying: "Messieurs, vous m’avez si bien refuté".
Lawyer
As a lawyer his greatest public efforts were his lectures (1799) at Lincoln's Inn on the law of nature and nations, of which the introductory discourse was published and ran to several editions; the resulting fame helped open doors for him later in life. Mackintosh was also famed for his speech in 1803 defending Jean Gabriel Peltier, a French refugee, against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul (military dictator) of France. Peltier had argued that Napoleon should be killed at a time when Britain and France were at peace. In front of an audience of ambassadors, it took only one minute for the jury to convict Jean-Gabriel, but the sentence was never applied, it was decidedly a political trial. J-G Peltier was no more satisfied with the judgment than Napoleon. The newspapers of France received the defense of praising the pleading under pain of suppression ! The speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël, who became a friend of Mackintosh's. In 1803 he was knighted.
Judge of Bombay
He was appointed Recorder (chief judge) of Bombay, taking up the post in 1804. Within a few months he had established the Bombay Literary Society at his home, where a circle of intellectuals and friends would meet to discuss the history, geography, zoology and botany of the sub-continent as well as its peoples and languages, customs and religions. The group would later evolve into the Asiatic Society of Mumbai.
He was however not at home in India, where he became ill, was disappointed by his literary progress with the mooted History of England, and was glad to leave for England in November 1811.
Member of Parliament
Mackintosh declined the offer of Spencer Perceval to resume political life under the wing of the dominant Tory party, despite prospects of office. He entered Parliament in July 1813 as a Whig. He was the member for Nairn until 1818, and afterwards for Knaresborough, till his death. In London society, and in Paris during his occasional visits, he was a recognized favourite. On Madame de Staël's visit to London he was able to keep up in talk with her. A close friend was Richard Sharp MP, known as "Conversation Sharp". and both men belonged to the Whig social group, the King of Clubs. Mackintosh's parliamentary career was marked by his liberalism: he opposed reactionary measures of the Tory government; he supported and later succeeded Samuel Romilly in his efforts to reform the criminal code; and took a leading part both in Catholic emancipation and in the Reform Bill. He was, however, too diffuse and elaborate to be a telling speaker in parliament.
Professor
From 1818 to 1824 he was professor of law and general politics in the East India Company's College at Haileybury. While there, on 12 August 1823, Mackintosh wrote a two-sheet letter from Cadogan Place, London to James Savage asking for source material for Savage's edition of The History of Taunton by Joshua Toulmin.
In the midst of the attractions of London society and of his parliamentary avocations Mackintosh felt that the real work of his life was being neglected. His great ambition was to write a history of England; he also cherished the idea of making some worthy contribution to philosophy. It was not till 1828 that he set about the first task of his literary ambition. This was his Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, prefixed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The dissertation, written mostly in ill-health and in snatches of time taken from his parliamentary engagements, was published in 1831. It was severely attacked in 1835 by James Mill in his Fragment on Mackintosh. About the same time he wrote for the Cabinet Cyclopaedia a History of England from the Earliest Times to the Final Establishment of the Reformation.
A privy councillor since 1828, Mackintosh was appointed Commissioner for the affairs of India under the Whig administration of 1830.
History of the Revolution in England in 1688
His history of the Glorious Revolution, for which he had done considerable research and collected a large amount of material, was not published till after his death. Mackintosh only completed it to the time of James II's abdication. However his voluminous notes on the Glorious Revolution came into the possession of Thomas Babington Macaulay, who used them for his own History of the Revolution. Mackintosh's notes stopped in the year of 1701, where Macaulay's History also ends.
Mackintosh's work was published in 1834 and in his review of it, Macaulay said that he had "no hesitation" in proclaiming the book as "decidedly the best history now extant of the reign of James the Second" but lamented that "there is perhaps too much disquisition and too little narrative". He went on to praise Mackintosh: "We find in it the diligence, the accuracy, and the judgment of Hallam, united to the vivacity and the colouring of Southey. A history of England, written throughout in this manner, would be the most fascinating book in the language. It would be more in request at the circulating libraries than the last novel".
Freemasonry
He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in Lodge Holyrood House (St. Luke's), No.44, (Edinburgh) on 28 November 1785.
Death
Sir James Mackintosh died at home, 15 Langham Place, London at the age of 66. A chicken bone became stuck in his throat, causing a traumatic choking episode. The bone was removed, but he died a month later on 30 May 1832. He was buried in Hampstead on 4 June.
Legacy
A Life, by his son R. J. Mackintosh, was published in 1836. An edition of his works, in three volumes, (apart from the History of England) was published in 1846, containing his ethical and historical dissertations, a number of essays on political and literary topics, reviews, and other contributions to periodical publications, and speeches on a variety of subjects delivered at the bar and in parliament.
The Mackintosh River in Tasmania was named in his honour, by Henry Hellyer in November 1828.
Works
Arguments Concerning the Constitutional right of Parliament to Appoint a Regent (1788).
Vindiciæ Gallicæ: A Defence of the French Revolution and its English admirers against the accusations of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, including some strictures on the late production of Mons de Calonne (1791).
A Letter to the Right Honourable William Pitt (1792).
A Letter from Earl Moira to Colonel McMahon (1798).
The Trial of Jean Peltier for Libel against Napoleon Buonaparte (1803).
Proceedings at a General Meeting of the Loyal North Britons (1803).
Plan of a Comparative Vocabulary of Indian Languages (1806).
Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (1830, online (archive.org))
The Life of Sir Thomas More (1830).
The History of England (1830–1832, 3 vols.).
History of the Revolution in England in 1688, prefaced by a notice of the Life, Writings and Speeches of Sir James Mackintosh (1834).
Memoirs (edited by Robert James Mackintosh, 1835, 2 vols.: Vol. I, Vol. II)
Inaugural Address (edited by J. B. Hay, 1839).
Speeches, 1787–1831 (1840).
Family
In 1789 Mackintosh married Catherine Stuart, whose brother Daniel later edited the Morning Post. His wife's prudence counteracted Mackintosh's own unpractical temperament, and his efforts in journalism became fairly profitable. They had a son, who died in infancy, and three daughters:
Mary Mackintosh (1789–1876) married Claudius James Rich
Maitland Mackintosh (1792–1861), married William Erskine
Catherine Mackintosh (1795-18??) married Sir William Wiseman, 7th Baronet (1794–1845), and was the mother of Sir William Wiseman, 8th Baronet.
In 1797 Catherine died, and next year Mackintosh married Catherine Allen (died 6 May 1830), sister-in-law of Josiah II and John Wedgwood, through whom he introduced Samuel Taylor Coleridge to the Morning Post. They had two sons, one of whom died in infancy, and two daughters:
Frances Emma Elizabeth Mackintosh (Fanny) (1800–1889), married Hensleigh Wedgwood.
Robert Mackintosh (1803), died in infancy.
Bessy Mackintosh (1804–1823)
Robert James Mackintosh (1806–1864), colonial governor.
Notes
References
Further reading
J. G. A. Pocock, 'The Varieties of Whiggism from Exclusion to Reform: A History of Ideology and Discourse', Virtue, Commerce and History (1985).
R. B. Sher, Church and University in the Scottish Enlightenment: The Moderate Literati of Edinburgh (1985).
Donald Winch, Riches and Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750–1834 (1996).
Tugdual de Langlais, L'armateur préféré de Beaumarchais Jean Peltier Dudoyer, de Nantes à l'Isle de France, Éd. Coiffard, 2015, 340 p. ().
Hélène Maspéro-Clerc, Un journaliste contre-révolutionnairre Jean-Gabriel PELTIER (1760–1825), Paris, Sté des Études Robespierriestes, 1973.
External links
Grand Lodge of Scotland
1765 births
1832 deaths
Scottish essayists
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society
Rectors of the University of Glasgow
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
People from Inverness
People from Aberdeenshire
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People from Nairnshire
|
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] |
205521
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20Cold%20Blood
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In Cold Blood
|
In Cold Blood is a non-fiction novel by American author Truman Capote, first published in 1966. It details the 1959 murders of four members of the Clutter family in the small farming community of Holcomb, Kansas.
Capote learned of the quadruple murder before the killers were captured, and he traveled to Kansas to write about the crime. He was accompanied by his childhood friend and fellow author Harper Lee, and they interviewed residents and investigators assigned to the case and took thousands of pages of notes. Killers Richard Hickock and Perry Smith were arrested six weeks after the murders and later executed by the state of Kansas. Capote ultimately spent six years working on the book.
In Cold Blood was an instant success and is the second-best-selling true crime book in history, behind Vincent Bugliosi's Helter Skelter (1974) about the Charles Manson murders. Some critics consider Capote's work the original non-fiction novel, although other writers had already explored the genre, such as Rodolfo Walsh in Operación Masacre (1957). In Cold Blood has been lauded for its eloquent prose, extensive detail, and triple narrative which describes the lives of the murderers, the victims, and other members of the rural community in alternating sequences. The psychologies and backgrounds of Hickock and Smith are given special attention, as is the pair's complex relationship during and after the murders. In Cold Blood is regarded by critics as a pioneering work in the true crime genre, although Capote was disappointed that the book failed to win the Pulitzer Prize. Parts of the book differ from the real events, including important details.
Crime
Herbert "Herb" Clutter was a prosperous farmer in western Kansas. He employed as many as 18 farmhands, who admired and respected him for his fair treatment and good wages. His two elder daughters, Eveanna and Beverly, had moved out and started their adult lives; his two younger children, daughter Nancy, 16, and son Kenyon, 15, were in high school. Clutter's wife Bonnie had reportedly been incapacitated by clinical depression and physical ailments since the births of her children, although this was later disputed by her brother and other family members, who maintained that Bonnie's depression was not as debilitating as portrayed in the book.
Two ex-convicts recently paroled from the Kansas State Penitentiary, Richard Eugene "Dick" Hickock and Perry Edward Smith, robbed and murdered Herb, Bonnie, Nancy, and Kenyon in the early morning hours of November 15, 1959. A former cellmate of Hickock's, Floyd Wells, had worked for Herb Clutter and told Hickock that Clutter kept large amounts of cash in a safe. Hickock soon hatched the idea to steal the safe and start a new life in Mexico. According to Capote, Hickock described his plan as "a cinch, the perfect score." Hickock later contacted Smith, another former cellmate, about committing the robbery with him. In fact, Herb Clutter had no safe and transacted essentially all of his business by check.
After driving more than 400 miles across the state of Kansas on the evening of November 14, Hickock and Smith arrived in Holcomb, located the Clutter home, and entered through an unlocked door while the family slept. Upon rousing the Clutters and discovering there was no safe, they bound and gagged the family, and continued to search for money, but found little of value in the house. Still determined to leave no witnesses, the pair briefly debated what to do; Smith, notoriously unstable and prone to violent acts in fits of rage, slit Herb Clutter's throat and then shot him in the head. Capote writes that Smith recounted later, "I didn't want to harm the man. I thought he was a very nice gentleman. Soft-spoken. I thought so right up to the moment I cut his throat." Kenyon, Nancy, and then Mrs. Clutter were also murdered, each by a single shotgun blast to the head. Hickock and Smith left the crime scene with a small portable radio, a pair of binoculars, and less than $50 in cash.
Smith later claimed in his oral confession that Hickock murdered the two women. When asked to sign his confession, however, Smith refused. According to Capote, he wanted to accept responsibility for all four killings because, he said, he was "sorry for Dick's mother." Smith added, "She's a real sweet person." Hickock always maintained that Smith committed all four killings.
Investigation and trial
On the basis of a tip from Wells, who contacted the prison warden after hearing of the murders, Hickock and Smith were identified as suspects and arrested in Las Vegas on December 30, 1959. Both men eventually confessed after interrogations by detectives of the Kansas Bureau of Investigation.
They were brought back to Kansas, where they were tried together at the Finney County courthouse in Garden City, Kansas, from March 22 to 29, 1960. They both pleaded temporary insanity at the trial, but local general practitioners evaluated the accused and pronounced them sane.
Hickock and Smith are also suspected of involvement in the Walker family murders, which notion is mentioned in the book, although this connection has not been proven. A defense motion that Smith and Hickock undergo comprehensive psychological testing was denied; instead, three local general practitioners were appointed to examine them to determine whether they were sane at the time of the crime.
After only a short interview the doctors determined the defendants were not insane and were capable of being tried under M'Naghten rules. Defense lawyers sought the opinion of an experienced psychiatrist from the state’s local mental hospital, who diagnosed definite signs of mental illness in Smith and felt that previous injuries to Hickock’s head could have affected his behavior. This opinion was not admitted in the trial, however, because under Kansas law the psychiatrist could only opine on the defendant's sanity at the time of the crime.
The jury deliberated for only 45 minutes before finding both Hickock and Smith guilty of murder. Their convictions carried a mandatory death sentence at the time. On appeal, Smith and Hickock contested the determinations that they were sane, and asserted that media coverage of the crime and trial had biased the jury, and that they had received inadequate assistance from their attorneys. Aspects of these appeals were submitted three times to the United States Supreme Court, which refused to hear the case.
After five years on death row at the Kansas State Penitentiary, Smith and Hickock were executed by hanging on April 14, 1965. Hickock was executed first and was pronounced dead at 12:41 a.m. after hanging for nearly 20 minutes. Smith followed shortly afterward and was pronounced dead at 1:19 a.m.
Coverage and public discussion
During the first few months of their trial and afterward, Hickock and Smith's murder case went unnoticed by most Americans. It was not until months before their executions that they became “two of the most famous murderers in history.” On 18 January 1960, Time magazine published "Kansas: The Killers", a story about the murders. Inspired by that article, Truman Capote wrote, in 1965 serialized in The New Yorker, and in 1966 published as a "non-fiction novel", titled In Cold Blood, a true-crime book that detailed the murders and trial. Due to the brutality and severity of the crimes, the trial was covered nationwide, and even received some coverage internationally.
The notoriety of the murders and subsequent trial brought lasting effects to the small Kansas town, and Capote became so famous and related to trials that he was called to help the Senate in an examination of the court case. The trial also brought into the national spotlight a discussion about the death penalty and mental illness. Capote expressed that after completing the book and interviewing Hickock and Smith, he opposed the death penalty.
This trial has also been cited as an example of “the limitations of the M'Naghten rules (also called M'Naghten test)." The M’Naghten rules are used to determine whether or not a criminal was insane at the time of their crime and therefore incapable of being tried fairly. Authors such as Karl Menninger strongly criticized the M'Naghten test, calling it absurd. Many "lawyers, judges, and psychiatrists" have sought to “get around" the M'Naghten rules. In Intention - Law and Society, James Marshall further criticizes the M'Naghten rules, calling into question the psychological principles upon which the rules are based. He stated that "the M'Naghten rules... are founded on an erroneous hypothesis that behavior is based exclusively on intellectual activity and capacity."
In 2009, 50 years after the Clutter murders, the Huffington Post asked Kansas citizens about the effects of the trial, and their opinions of the book and subsequent movie and television series about the events. Many respondents said they had begun to lose their trust in others, "doors were locked. Strangers eyed with suspicion." Many still felt greatly affected and believed Capote had in a way taken advantage of their "great tragedy." An article in The New York Times states that in the small Holcomb, Kansas community, "neighborliness evaporated. The natural order seemed suspended. Chaos poised to rush in."
Capote's research
Capote became interested in the murders after reading about them in The New York Times.
He brought his childhood friend Nelle Harper Lee (who would later win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her novel To Kill a Mockingbird) to help gain the confidence of the locals in Kansas.
Capote did copious research for the book, ultimately compiling 8,000 pages of notes. His research also included letters from Smith's Army buddy, Don Cullivan, who was present during the trial.
After the criminals were found, tried, and convicted, Capote conducted personal interviews with both Smith and Hickock. Smith especially fascinated Capote; in the book he is portrayed as the more sensitive of the two killers. The book was not completed until after Smith and Hickock were executed.
An alternate explanation for Capote's interest holds that The New Yorker presented the Clutter story to him as one of two choices for a story; the other was to follow a Manhattan cleaning woman on her rounds. Capote supposedly chose the Clutter story, believing it would be the easier assignment. Capote later wrote a piece about following a cleaning woman, which he entitled "A Day's Work" and included in his book Music for Chameleons.
Capote's novel was unconventional for its time. New Journalism, as a genre and style of writing, developed during the time in which In Cold Blood was written and Capote became a pioneer in showing how it can be used effectively to create a unique non-fiction story. New Journalism is a style of writing where the author writes the non-fiction novel or story while it is developing in real life. This is exactly what Capote did as he followed the court trials and interviewed those close to the Clutter family to create this story while it was unfolding in the real world. As a result, he simultaneously researched and wrote the story we now know as In Cold Blood.
Veracity
In Cold Blood brought Capote much praise from the literary community. Yet critics have questioned its veracity, arguing that Capote changed facts to suit the story, added scenes that never took place, and manufactured dialogue. Phillip K. Tompkins noted factual discrepancies in Esquire in 1966 after he traveled to Kansas and talked to some of the people whom Capote had interviewed. Josephine Meier was the wife of Finney County Undersheriff Wendle Meier, and she denied that she heard Smith cry or that she held his hand, as described by Capote. In Cold Blood indicates that Meier and Smith became close, yet she told Tompkins that she spent little time with Smith and did not talk much with him. Tompkins concluded:
True crime writer Jack Olsen also commented on the fabrications:
His criticisms were quoted in Esquire, to which Capote replied, "Jack Olsen is just jealous."
The prosecutor in the case was Duane West, and he claims that the story lacks veracity because Capote failed to get the true hero right. Richard Rohlader took the photo showing that two culprits were involved, and West suggests that Rohlader was the one deserving the greatest praise. Without that picture, West believes, the crime might not have been solved. West had been a friend of Capote's for a while during the writing of the book, including being Capote's guest in New York City for Hello, Dolly! and meeting Carol Channing after the show. Their relationship soured when Capote's publisher attempted to get West to sign a non-compete agreement to prevent him from writing his own book about the murders. Despite a series of malicious rumors, Capote himself was never considered a suspect in the killings.
Alvin Dewey was the lead investigator portrayed in In Cold Blood, and he said that the scene in which he visits the Clutters' graves was Capote's invention. Other Kansas residents whom Capote interviewed have claimed that they or their relatives were mischaracterized or misquoted. Dewey said that the rest of the book was factually accurate, but further evidence indicates that it is not as "immaculately factual" as Capote had always claimed it to be. The book depicts Dewey as being the brilliant investigator who cracks the Clutter murder case, but files recovered from the Kansas Bureau of Investigation show that Floyd Wells came forward to name Hickock and Smith as likely suspects, but Dewey did not immediately act on the information, as the book portrays him doing, because he still held to his belief that the murders were committed by locals who "had a grudge against Herb Clutter".
Ronald Nye is the son of Kansas Bureau of Investigation Director Harold R. Nye, and he collaborated with author Gary McAvoy in disclosing parts of his father’s personal investigative notebooks to challenge the veracity of In Cold Blood. Their book And Every Word is True lays out previously unknown facts of the investigation suggesting that Herbert Clutter’s death may have been a murder-for-hire plot.
Publication
In Cold Blood was first published as a four-part serial in The New Yorker, beginning with the September 25, 1965, issue. The piece was an immediate sensation, particularly in Kansas, where the usual number of New Yorker copies sold out immediately. In Cold Blood was first published in book form by Random House on January 17, 1966. The book, however, was copyrighted in 1965, and this date appears on the title page of most printings of the book and even in some library indices as the original publication date. The Library of Congress lists 1966 as the publication date and 1965 as the copyright date.
The cover, which was designed by S. Neil Fujita, shows a hatpin with what appeared originally as a red drop of blood at its top end. After Capote first saw the design, he requested that the drop be made a deeper shade of red to represent the passage of time since the incident. A black border was added to the ominous image.
Reviews and impact
Writing for The New York Times, Conrad Knickerbocker praised Capote's talent for detail throughout the novel and declared the book a "masterpiece" — an "agonizing, terrible, possessed, proof that the times, so surfeited with disasters, are still capable of tragedy."
In a controversial review of the novel, published in 1966 for The New Republic, Stanley Kauffmann, criticising Capote's writing style throughout the novel, states that Capote "demonstrates on almost every page that he is the most outrageously overrated stylist of our time" and later asserts that "the depth in this book is no deeper than its mine-shaft of factual detail; its height is rarely higher than that of good journalism and often falls below it."
Tom Wolfe wrote in his essay "Pornoviolence": "The book is neither a who-done-it nor a will-they-be-caught, since the answers to both questions are known from the outset... Instead, the book's suspense is based largely on a totally new idea in detective stories: the promise of gory details, and the withholding of them until the end."
In The Independent's Book of a Lifetime series, reviewer Kate Colquhoun asserts that "the book – for which he made a reputed 8000 pages of research notes – is plotted and structured with taut writerly flair. Its characters pulse with recognisable life; its places are palpable. Careful prose binds the reader to his unfolding story. Put simply, the book was conceived of journalism and born of a novelist."
Adaptations
Three film adaptations have been produced based upon the book. The first focuses on the details of the book, whereas the later two explore Capote's fascination with researching the novel. In Cold Blood (1967) was directed by Richard Brooks and stars Robert Blake as Perry Smith and Scott Wilson as Richard Hickock. It features John Forsythe as investigator Alvin Dewey from the Kansas Bureau of Investigation who apprehended the killers. It was nominated for Best Director, Best Original Score, Best Cinematography, and Best Adapted Screenplay.
The second and third films focus on Capote's experiences in writing the story and his subsequent fascination with the murders. Capote (2005) stars Philip Seymour Hoffman, who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Truman Capote, Clifton Collins Jr. as Perry Smith, and Catherine Keener as Harper Lee. The film was critically acclaimed, won at the 78th Academy Awards for Best Actor (Hoffman), and was nominated for Best Picture, Best Supporting Actress (Keener), Best Director (Bennett Miller), and Best Adapted Screenplay (Dan Futterman).
J. T. Hunter's novel In Colder Blood (2016) discusses Hickock and Smith's possible involvement in the Walker family murders. Oni Press published Ande Parks and Chris Samnee's graphic novel Capote in Kansas (2005). Capote's book was adapted by Benedict Fitzgerald into the two-part television miniseries In Cold Blood (1996), starring Anthony Edwards as Dick Hickock, Eric Roberts as Perry Smith, and Sam Neill as Alvin Dewey.
See also
George York and James Latham
Lowell Lee Andrews
Capital punishment in Kansas
New Journalism
Trial movies
References
General references
Inline citations
External links
In Cold Blood, Part I: "The Last to See Them Alive" in The New Yorker (September 25, 1965); the three subsequent installments are available in synopsis only:
Part II: "Persons Unknown" (Abstract) (October 2, 1965)
Part III: "Answers" (Abstract) (October 9, 1965)
Part IV: "The Corner" (Abstract) (October 16, 1965)
In Cold Blood, a Legacy in Photos
Photos of the first edition of In Cold Blood
1966 American novels
American non-fiction books
American novels adapted into films
Books by Truman Capote
Edgar Award-winning works
Mass murder in 1959
Mass murder in the United States
The New Yorker articles
Non-fiction novels about murders in the United States
Non-fiction novels of investigative journalism
Non-fiction novels
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in Kansas
Random House books
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205522
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann%20Coulter
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Ann Coulter
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Ann Hart Coulter (; born December 8, 1961) is an American conservative media pundit, author, syndicated columnist, and lawyer.
She became known as a media pundit in the late 1990s, appearing in print and on cable news as an outspoken critic of the Clinton administration. Her first book concerned the impeachment of Bill Clinton and sprang from her experience writing legal briefs for Paula Jones's attorneys, as well as columns she wrote about the cases.
Coulter's syndicated column for Universal Press Syndicate appears in newspapers and is featured on conservative websites. Coulter has also written 13 books.
Early life
Ann Hart Coulter was born on December 8, 1961, in New York City, to John Vincent Coulter (1926–2008), an FBI agent from a working class Catholic Irish American and German American family in Albany, New York, and Nell Husbands Coulter (née Martin; 1928–2009), who was born in Paducah, Kentucky.
Coulter's mother's ancestry has been traced back on both sides of her family to a group of Puritan settlers in Plymouth Colony, British America arriving on the Griffin with Thomas Hooker in 1633, and her father's family were Catholic Irish and German immigrants who arrived in America in the 19th century. Her father's Irish ancestors emigrated during the famine—and became ship laborers, tilemakers, brickmakers, carpenters and flagmen. Coulter's father attended college on the GI Bill, and would later idolize Joseph McCarthy.
She has two older brothers: James, an accountant, and John, an attorney. Her family later moved to New Canaan, Connecticut, where Coulter and her two older brothers, James and John, were raised. Coulter graduated from New Canaan High School in 1980.
While attending Cornell University, Coulter helped found The Cornell Review, and was a member of the Delta Gamma national sorority. She graduated cum laude from Cornell in 1984 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and received her Juris Doctor from the University of Michigan Law School in 1988, where she was an editor of the Michigan Law Review. At Michigan, Coulter was president of the local chapter of the Federalist Society and was trained at the National Journalism Center.
Coulter's age was disputed in 2002. While she argued that she was not yet 40, The Washington Post columnist Lloyd Grove cited a birthdate of December 8, 1961, which Coulter provided when registering to vote in New Canaan, Connecticut, prior to the 1980 Presidential election, for which she had to be 18 years old to register. A driver's license issued several years later purportedly listed her birthdate as December 8, 1963. Coulter will not confirm either date, citing privacy concerns.
Career
After law school, Coulter served as a law clerk, in Kansas City, for Judge Pasco Bowman II of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit. After a short time working in New York City in private practice, where she specialized in corporate law, Coulter left to work for the United States Senate Judiciary Committee after the Republican Party took control of Congress in 1994. She handled crime and immigration issues for Senator Spencer Abraham of Michigan and helped craft legislation designed to expedite the deportation of aliens convicted of felonies. She later became a litigator with the Center for Individual Rights.
Coulter has written 12 books, and also publishes a syndicated newspaper column. She is particularly known for her polemical style, and describes herself as someone who likes to "stir up the pot. I don't pretend to be impartial or balanced, as broadcasters do".
She idolized Clare Boothe Luce for her satirical style. She also makes numerous public appearances, speaking on television and radio talk shows, as well as on college campuses, receiving both praise and protest. Coulter typically spends 6–12 weeks of the year on speaking engagement tours, and more when she has a book coming out.
In 2010, she made an estimated $500,000 on the speaking circuit, giving speeches on topics of modern conservatism, gay marriage, and what she describes as the hypocrisy of modern American liberalism. During one appearance at the University of Arizona, a pie was thrown at her. Coulter has, on occasion, in defense of her ideas, responded with inflammatory remarks toward hecklers and protestors who attend her speeches.
Books
Coulter is the author of twelve books, including many that have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list, with a combined 3 million copies sold .
Coulter's first book, High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Case Against Bill Clinton, was published by Regnery Publishing in 1998 and made The New York Times Bestseller list. It details Coulter's case for the impeachment of President Bill Clinton.
Her second book, Slander: Liberal Lies About the American Right, published by Crown Forum in 2002, reached the number one spot on The New York Times non-fiction best seller list. In Slander, Coulter argues that President George W. Bush was given unfair negative media coverage. The factual accuracy of Slander was called into question by then-comedian and author, later Democratic U.S. Senator from Minnesota, Al Franken; he also accused her of citing passages out of context. Others investigated these charges, and also raised questions about the book's accuracy and presentation of facts. Coulter responded to criticisms in a column called "Answering My Critics".
In her third book, Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism, also published by Crown Forum, she reexamines the 60-year history of the Cold War—including the career of Senator Joseph McCarthy, the Whittaker Chambers-Alger Hiss affair, and Ronald Reagan's challenge to Mikhail Gorbachev to "tear down this wall"—and argues that liberals were wrong in their Cold War political analyses and policy decisions, and that McCarthy was correct about Soviet agents working for the U.S. government.
She also argues that the correct identification of Annie Lee Moss, among others, as communists was misreported by the liberal media.
Treason was published in 2003, and spent 13 weeks on the Best Seller list.
Crown Forum published a collection of Coulter's columns in 2004 as her fourth book, How to Talk to a Liberal (If You Must): The World According to Ann Coulter.
Coulter's fifth book, published by Crown Forum in 2006, is Godless: The Church of Liberalism.
In it, she argues, first, that American liberalism rejects the idea of God and reviles people of faith, and second, that it bears all the attributes of a religion itself.
Godless debuted at number one on the New York Times Best Seller list. Some passages in the book match portions of others' writings published at an earlier time (including newspaper articles and a Planned Parenthood document), leading John Barrie of iThenticate to assert that Coulter had engaged in "textbook plagiarism".
Coulter's If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans (Crown Forum), published in October 2007, and Guilty: Liberal "Victims" and Their Assault on America (Crown Forum), published on January 6, 2009, both also achieved best-seller status.
On June 7, 2011, Crown Forum published her eighth book Demonic: How the Liberal Mob Is Endangering America.
Her ninth book, published September 25, 2012, was Mugged: Racial Demagoguery from the Seventies to Obama. It argues that liberals, and Democrats in particular, have taken undue credit for racial civil rights in America.
Coulter's tenth book, Never Trust a Liberal Over 3 – Especially a Republican, was released October 14, 2013. It is her second collection of columns and her first published by Regnery since her first book, High Crimes and Misdemeanors. Coulter published her eleventh book, Adios, America: The Left's Plan to Turn Our Country Into a Third World Hellhole on June 1, 2015. The book addresses illegal immigration, amnesty programs, and border security in the United States.
Columns
In the late 1990s, Coulter's weekly (biweekly from 1999 to 2000) syndicated column for Universal Press Syndicate began appearing. Her column is featured on six conservative websites: Human Events Online, WorldNetDaily, Townhall.com, VDARE, FrontPage Magazine, Jewish World Review and her own website. Her syndicator says, "Ann's client newspapers stick with her because she has a loyal fan base of conservative readers who look forward to reading her columns in their local newspapers".
In 1999, Coulter worked as a columnist for George magazine. Coulter also wrote weekly columns for the conservative magazine Human Events between 1998 and 2003, with occasional columns thereafter. In her columns, she discussed judicial rulings, constitutional issues, and legal matters affecting Congress and the executive branch.
In 2001, as a contributing editor and syndicated columnist for National Review Online (NRO), Coulter was asked by editors to make changes to a piece written after the September 11 attacks. On the show Politically Incorrect, Coulter accused NRO of censorship and said she was paid $5 per article. NRO dropped her column and terminated her editorship. Editor-at-large of NRO, Jonah Goldberg said: "We did not 'fire' Ann for what she wrote... we ended the relationship because she behaved with a total lack of professionalism, friendship, and loyalty [concerning the editing disagreement]."
In August 2005, the Arizona Daily Star dropped Coulter's syndicated column, citing reader complaints: "Many readers find her shrill, bombastic, and mean-spirited. And those are the words used by readers who identified themselves as conservatives".
In July 2006, some newspapers replaced Coulter's column with those of other conservative columnists following the publication of her fourth book, Godless: The Church of Liberalism. After The Augusta Chronicle dropped her column, newspaper editor Michael Ryan said: "it came to the point where she was the issue rather than what she was writing about." Ryan added that he continued himself "to be an Ann Coulter fan" as "her logic is devastating and her viewpoint is right most of the time."
Television and radio
Coulter made her first national media appearance in 1996 after she was hired by the then-fledgling network MSNBC as a legal correspondent. She later appeared on CNN and Fox News. Coulter went on to make frequent guest appearances on many television and radio talk shows.
Films
Coulter appeared in three films released during 2004. The first was Feeding the Beast, a made-for-television documentary on the "24-Hour News Revolution". The other two films were FahrenHYPE 9/11, a direct-to-video documentary rebuttal of Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 911, and Is It True What They Say About Ann?, a documentary on Coulter containing clips of interviews and speeches. In 2015, Coulter had a cameo as the Vice President in the made-for-TV movie Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!
Views
Coulter is a Christian and belongs to the Presbyterian denomination. She is a conservative columnist and in 2003, described herself as a "typical, immodest-dressing, swarthy male-loving, friend-to-homosexuals, ultra-conservative." She is a registered Republican and former member of the advisory council of GOProud since August 9, 2011.
She supports the display of the Confederate flag. When her friend, Milo Yiannopoulos, initially defended pederasty, Coulter commented, "Well, Milo learned HIS lesson. Pederasty acceptable only for refugees and illegals. Then libs will support you."
Abortion
Coulter believes Roe v. Wade should be overturned and left to the states. She is anti-abortion, but believes there should be an exception if a woman is raped. However, in 2015, she prioritized the issue of immigration, stating: "I don't care if [Trump] wants to perform abortions in the White House after this immigration policy paper".
Christianity
Coulter was raised by a Catholic father and Protestant mother. At one public lecture she said: "I don't care about anything else; Christ died for my sins, and nothing else matters." She summarized her view of Christianity in a 2004 column, saying, "Jesus' distinctive message was: People are sinful and need to be redeemed, and this is your lucky day, because I'm here to redeem you even though you don't deserve it, and I have to get the crap kicked out of me to do it." She then mocked "the message of Jesus... according to liberals", summarizing it as "something along the lines of 'be nice to people, which, in turn, she said "is, in fact, one of the incidental tenets of Christianity."
Confronting some critics' views that her content and style of writing is unchristian, Coulter said that she is "a Christian first and a mean-spirited, bigoted conservative second, and don't you ever forget it." Six years later, in 2011, she also said: "Christianity fuels everything I write. Being a Christian means that I am called upon to do battle against lies, injustice, cruelty, hypocrisy—you know, all the virtues in the church of liberalism". In Godless: The Church of Liberalism, Coulter characterized the theory of evolution as bogus science, and contrasted her beliefs to what she called the left's "obsession with Darwinism and the Darwinian view of the world, which replaces sanctification of life with sanctification of sex and death". Coulter advocates intelligent design, a pseudoscientific antievolution ideology.
Civil liberties
Coulter endorsed the NSA's Terrorist Surveillance Program directed at Al-Qaeda. During a 2011 appearance on Stossel, she said "PATRIOT Act, fantastic, Gitmo, fantastic, waterboarding, not bad, though torture would've been better." She criticized Rand Paul for "this anti-drone stuff".
Hate crimes
Coulter opposes hate crime laws, calling them "unconstitutional". She also stated that "Hate-crime provisions seem vaguely directed at capturing a sense of cold-bloodedness, but the law can do that without elevating some victims over others."
Immigration
Coulter has criticized former president George W. Bush's immigration proposals, saying they led to "amnesty". In a 2007 column, she claimed that the current immigration system was set up to deliberately reduce the percentage of whites in the population. In it, she said:
Coulter strongly opposes the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. Regarding illegal immigration, she strongly opposed amnesty for undocumented immigrants, and at the 2013 CPAC said she has now become "a single-issue voter against amnesty".
In June 2018, during the controversy caused by the Trump administration family separation policy, Coulter dismissed immigrant children as "child actors weeping and crying" and urged Trump not to "fall for it".
LGBT rights
Coulter opposes same-sex marriage, opposes Obergefell v. Hodges, and supports, after previously saying she did not, a federal U.S. constitutional amendment defining marriage as a union of one man and one woman. She insists that her opposition to same-sex marriage "wasn't an anti-gay thing" and that "It's genuinely a pro-marriage position to oppose gay marriage". Coulter argues that same-sex marriage would "ruin gay culture", because "gays value promiscuous sex over monogamy". In an April 1, 2015, column, Coulter declared that liberals had "won the war on gay marriage (by judicial fiat)".
Coulter also opposes civil unions and privatizing marriage. When addressed with the issue of rights granted by marriage, she said, "Gays already can visit loved ones in hospitals. They can also visit neighbors, random acquaintances, and total strangers in hospitals—just like everyone else. Gays can also pass on property to whomever they would like". She also stated that same-sex sexual intercourse was already protected under the Fourth Amendment, which prevents police from going into your home without a search warrant or court order.
In regard to Romer v. Evans, in which the United Supreme Court overturned Article II, Section 30b of the Colorado Constitution, which prohibited the "State of Colorado, through any of its branches or departments, nor any of its agencies, political subdivisions, municipalities or school districts, shall enact, adopt or enforce any statute, regulation, ordinance or policy whereby homosexual, lesbian or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships shall constitute or otherwise be the basis of or entitle any person or class of persons to have or claim any minority status, quota preferences, protected status or claim of discrimination.", Coulter described the ruling as "they couldn't refuse to give affirmative action benefits to people who have sodomy". She also disagreed with repealing Don't Ask Don't Tell, stating that it is not an "anti-gay position; it is a pro-military position" because "sexual bonds are disruptive to the military bond". She also stated that there is "no proof that all the discharges for homosexuality involve actual homosexuals." On April 1, 2015, in a column, she expressed support for Indiana's Religious Freedom Restoration Act and said it was an "apocryphal" assertion to claim the Religious Freedom Restoration Act would be used to discriminate against LGBT people. She expressed her support for the Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission ruling.
Coulter has expressed her opposition to treatment of LGBT people in the countries of Cuba, People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia. Coulter opposes publicly funded sex reassignment surgery. She supports the Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act and opposes transgender individuals using bathrooms corresponding to their gender identity. She says her opposition to bathroom usage corresponding to gender identity has nothing to do with transgender people, but cisgendered "child molesters" who "now has the right to go into that bathroom." She supports banning transgender military service personnel from the United States military.
Since the 1990s, Coulter has had many acquaintances in the LGBT community. She considers herself "the Judy Garland of the Right", reflecting Garland's large fan base from the gay community. In the last few years, she has attracted LGBT fans, namely gay men and drag queens.
At the 2007 CPAC, Coulter said, "I do want to point out one thing that has been driving me crazy with the media—how they keep describing Mitt Romney's position as being pro-gays, and that's going to upset the right wingers", and "Well, you know, screw you! I'm not anti-gay. We're against gay marriage. I don't want gays to be discriminated against." She added, "I don't know why all gays aren't Republican. I think we have the pro-gay positions, which is anti-crime and for tax cuts. Gays make a lot of money and they're victims of crime. No, they are! They should be with us."
In Coulter's 2007 book If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans, in the chapter "Gays: No Gay Left Behind!", she argued that Republican policies were more pro-gay than Democratic policies. Coulter attended the 2010 HomoCon of GOProud, where she gave a speech about why gays should oppose same-sex marriage. On February 9, 2011, in a column, she described the national Log Cabin Republicans as "ridiculous" and "not conservative at all". She did, however, describe the Texas branch of Log Cabin Republicans, for whom she has been signing books for years, as " real conservatives".
At the 2011 CPAC, during her question-and-answer segment, Coulter was asked about GOProud and the controversy over their inclusion at the 2011 CPAC. She boasted how she talked GOProud into dropping its support for same-sex marriage in the party's platform, saying, "The left is trying to co-opt gays, and I don't think we should let them. I think they should be on our side", and "Gays are natural conservatives". Later that year, she joined advisory board for GOProud. On Logos The A-List: Dallas she told gay Republican Taylor Garrett that "The gays have got to be pro-life", and "As soon as they find the gay gene, guess who the liberal yuppies are gonna start aborting?"
War on Drugs
Coulter strongly supports continuing the War on Drugs. However, she has said that, if there were not a welfare state, she "wouldn't care" if drugs were legal. She spoke about drugs as a guest on Piers Morgan Live, when she said that marijuana users "can't perform daily functions".
White genocide
Coulter is an advocate of the white genocide conspiracy theory. She has compared non-white immigration into the United States with genocide, and claiming that "a genocide" is occurring against South African farmers, she has said that the Boers are the "only real refugees" in South Africa. Regarding domestic politics, Vox labelled Coulter as one of many providing a voice for "the 'white genocide' myth", and the SPLC covered Coulter's remarks that if the demographic changes occurring in the U.S. were being "legally imposed on any group other than white Americans, it would be called genocide".
Bernie Sanders
In April 2019, Coulter said of Senator Bernie Sanders she would vote and perhaps even work for him in the 2020 U.S. presidential election if he stuck to his "original position" on U.S. border policy. "If he went back to his original position, which is the pro blue-collar position—I mean, it totally makes sense with him," and "If he went back to that position, I'd vote for him, I might work for him. I don't care about the rest of the socialist stuff. Just, can we do something for ordinary Americans?"
Political activities and commentary
Ann Coulter has described herself as a "polemicist" who likes to "stir up the pot" and does not "pretend to be impartial or balanced, as broadcasters do". While her political activities in the past have included advising a plaintiff suing President Bill Clinton as well as considering a run for Congress, she mostly serves as a political pundit, sometimes creating controversy ranging from rowdy uprisings at some of the colleges where she speaks to protracted discussions in the media.
Time magazine's John Cloud once observed that Coulter "likes to shock reporters by wondering aloud whether America might be better off if women lost the right to vote". This was in reference to her statement that "it would be a much better country if women did not vote. That is simply a fact. In fact, in every presidential election since 1950—except Goldwater in '64—the Republican would have won, if only the men had voted." Similarly, in an October 2007 interview with The New York Observer, Coulter said:
In addition to questioning whether women's right to vote is a good thing, Coulter has also appeared on Fox News and advocated for a poll tax and a literacy test for voters (this was in 1999, and she reiterated her support of a literacy test in 2015). This is not a viewpoint widely shared by members of the Republican Party.
Paula Jones – Bill Clinton case
Coulter first became a public figure shortly before becoming an unpaid legal adviser for the attorneys representing Paula Jones in her sexual harassment suit against President Bill Clinton. Coulter's friend George Conway had been asked to assist Jones' attorneys, and shortly afterward Coulter, who wrote a column about the Paula Jones case for Human Events, was also asked to help, and she began writing legal briefs for the case.
Coulter later stated that she would come to mistrust the motives of Jones' head lawyer, Joseph Cammaratta, who by August or September 1997 was advising Jones that her case was weak and to settle, if a favorable settlement could be negotiated. From the outset, Jones had sought an apology from Clinton at least as eagerly as she sought a settlement. However, in a later interview Coulter recounted that she herself had believed that the case was strong, that Jones was telling the truth, that Clinton should be held publicly accountable for his misconduct, and that a settlement would give the impression that Jones was merely interested in extorting money from the President.
David Daley, who wrote the interview piece for The Hartford Courant recounted what followed:
In his book, Isikoff also reported Coulter as saying: "We were terrified that Jones would settle. It was contrary to our purpose of bringing down the President." After the book came out, Coulter clarified her stated motives, saying:
The case went to court after Jones broke with Coulter and her original legal team, and it was dismissed via summary judgment. The judge ruled that even if her allegations proved true, Jones did not show that she had suffered any damages, stating, "... plaintiff has not demonstrated any tangible job detriment or adverse employment action for her refusal to submit to the governor's alleged advances. The president is therefore entitled to summary judgment on plaintiff's claim of quid pro quo sexual harassment." The ruling was appealed by Jones' lawyers. During the pendency of the appeal, Clinton settled with Jones for $850,000 ($151,000 after legal fees) in November 1998, in exchange for Jones' dismissal of the appeal. By then, the Jones lawsuit had given way to the Monica Lewinsky sex scandal.
In October 2000, Jones revealed that she would pose for nude pictures in an adult magazine, saying she wanted to use the money to pay taxes and support her grade-school-aged children, in particular saying, "I'm wanting to put them through college and maybe set up a college fund." Coulter publicly denounced Jones, calling her "the trailer-park trash they said she was" (Coulter had earlier chastened Clinton supporters for calling Jones this name), after Clinton's former campaign strategist James Carville had made the widely reported remark, "Drag a $100 bill through a trailer park, and you'll never know what you'll find", and called Jones a "fraud, at least to the extent of pretending to be an honorable and moral person".
Coulter wrote:
Jones claimed not to have been offered any help with a book deal of her own or any other additional financial help after the lawsuit.
2013 CPAC Conference
In March 2013, Coulter was one of the keynote speakers at the Conservative Political Action Conference, where she made references to New Jersey Governor Chris Christie's weight ("CPAC had to cut back on its speakers this year about 300 pounds") and progressive activist Sandra Fluke's hairdo. (Coulter quipped that Fluke didn't need birth control pills because "that haircut is birth control enough".) Coulter advocated against a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants because such new citizens would never vote for Republican candidates: "If amnesty goes through, America becomes California and no Republican will ever win another election."
VDARE
Since 2013, Coulter has been a contributor to VDARE, a far-right website and blog founded by anti-immigration activist and paleo-conservative Peter Brimelow. Michael Malice has said that "Coulter and VDARE can be considered the furthest edge of the Overton Window" as any political position further to the right would be too heretical to find mainstream success. VDARE is controversial because of its alleged white supremacist rhetoric and support of scientific racism and white nationalism.
Candidate endorsements
Coulter initially supported George W. Bush's presidency, but later criticized its approach to immigration. She endorsed Duncan Hunter and later Mitt Romney in the 2008 Republican presidential primaries and the 2012 Republican presidential primary and presidential run. In the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries, she endorsed Donald Trump. Coulter later distanced herself from Trump following arguments over immigration policies; she called for his impeachment in September 2017, saying "Put a fork in Trump, he's dead". She described herself in 2018 as a "former Trumper"; in a 2020 speech to a Turning Point USA event, she said, "The Trump agenda without Trump would be a lot easier. Our new motto should be 'Going on with Trumpism without Trump.' That's a winning strategy." Coulter blamed Trump's son-in-law and advisor Jared Kushner for Trump's 2020 election loss, and said that Trump had failed to deliver for the white working class.
Other candidates Coulter has endorsed include Greg Brannon (2014 Republican primary candidate for North Carolina Senator), Paul Nehlen (2016 Republican primary candidate for Wisconsin's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives), Mo Brooks (2017 Republican primary candidate for Alabama Senator), and Roy Moore (2017 Republican candidate for Alabama Senator).
Controversies
Comments on Islam, Arabs, and terrorism
Coulter's September 14, 2001 column eulogized her friend Barbara Olson, killed three days earlier in the September 11 attacks, and ended with a call for war:
These comments resulted in Coulter's being fired as a columnist by National Review, which she subsequently referred to as "squeamish girly-boys". Responding to this comment, Ibrahim Hooper of the Council on American-Islamic Relations remarked in the Chicago Sun-Times that before September 11, Coulter "would have faced swift repudiation from her colleagues", but "now it's accepted as legitimate commentary".
One day after the attacks (when death toll estimates were higher than later), Coulter asserted that only Muslims could have been behind them:
Coulter was highly critical in 2002 of the U.S. Department of Transportation and especially its then-secretary Norman Mineta. Her many criticisms include their refusal to use racial profiling as a component of airport screening. After a group of Muslims was expelled from a US Airways flight when other passengers expressed concern, sparking a call for Muslims to boycott the airline because of the ejection from a flight of six imams, Coulter wrote:
Coulter also cited the 2002 Senate testimony of FBI whistleblower Coleen Rowley, who was acclaimed for condemning her superiors for refusing to authorize a search warrant for 9-11 conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui when he refused to consent to a search of his computer. They knew that he was a Muslim in flight school who had overstayed his visa, and the French Intelligence Service had confirmed his affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups. Coulter said she agreed that probable cause existed in the case, but that refusing consent, being in flight school and overstaying a visa should not constitute grounds for a search. Citing a poll which found that 98 percent of Muslims between the ages of 20 and 45 said they would not fight for Britain in the war in Afghanistan, and that 48 percent said they would fight for Osama bin Laden she asserted "any Muslim who has attended a mosque in Europe—certainly in England, where Moussaoui lived—has had 'affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups,'" so that she parsed Rowley's position as meaning that probable cause' existed to search Moussaoui's computer because he was a Muslim who had lived in England". Coulter says the poll was "by The Daily Telegraph", actually it was by Sunrise, an "Asian" (therefore an Indian subcontinent-oriented) radio station, canvassing the opinions of 500 Muslims in Greater London (not Britain as a whole), mainly of Pakistani origin and aged between 20 and 45. Because "FBI headquarters ... refused to engage in racial profiling", they failed to uncover the 9-11 plot, Coulter asserted. "The FBI allowed thousands of Americans to be slaughtered on the altar of political correctness. What more do liberals want?"
Coulter wrote in another column that she had reviewed the civil rights lawsuits against certain airlines to determine which of them had subjected Arabs to the most "egregious discrimination" so that she could fly only that airline. She also said that the airline should be bragging instead of denying any of the charges of discrimination brought against them. In an interview with The Guardian she said, "I think airlines ought to start advertising: 'We have the most civil rights lawsuits brought against us by Arabs.'" When the interviewer, Jonathan Freedland, replied by asking what Muslims would do for travel, she responded, "They could use flying carpets."
In the wake of the Boston Marathon bombing, Coulter told Hannity host Sean Hannity that the wife of bombing suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev should be jailed for wearing a hijab. Coulter continued by saying "Assimilating immigrants into our culture isn't really working. They're assimilating us into their culture." (Tsarnaev's wife was American-born.)
Anti-semitism accusations
Coulter was accused of anti-semitism in an October 8, 2007, interview with Donny Deutsch on The Big Idea. During the interview, Coulter stated that the United States is a Christian nation, and said that she wants "Jews to be perfected, as they say" (referring to them being converted to Christianity). Deutsch, a practicing Jew, implied that this was an anti-semitic remark, but Coulter said she did not consider it to be a hateful comment. Coulter's comments on the show were condemned by the Anti-Defamation League, American Jewish Committee and Bradley Burston, and the National Jewish Democratic Council asked media outlets to cease inviting Coulter as a guest commentator. Talk show host Dennis Prager, while disagreeing with her comments, said that they were not "anti-semitic", noting, "There is nothing in what Ann Coulter said to a Jewish interviewer on CNBC that indicates she hates Jews or wishes them ill, or does damage to the Jewish people or the Jewish state. And if none of those criteria is present, how can someone be labeled anti-Semitic?" Conservative activist David Horowitz also defended Coulter against the allegation.
Coulter in September 2015 tweeted in response to multiple Republican candidates' references to Israel during a Presidential debate, "How many f—ing Jews do these people think there are in the United States?" The Anti-Defamation League referred to the tweets as "ugly, spiteful and anti-Semitic". In response to accusations of anti-Semitism, she tweeted "I like the Jews, I like fetuses, I like Reagan. Didn't need to hear applause lines about them all night."
Plagiarism accusations
In October 2001, Coulter was accused of plagiarism for her 1998 book High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Case Against Bill Clinton by Michael Chapman, a columnist for the journal Human Events who claims that passages were taken from a supplement he wrote for the journal in 1997 titled "A Case for Impeachment".
On the July 5, 2006, episode of Countdown with Keith Olbermann on MSNBC, guest John Barrie, the CEO of iParadigms, offered his professional opinion that Coulter plagiarized in her book Godless as well as in her columns over the previous year. Barrie ran "Godless" through iThenticate, his company's machine which is able to scan works and compare them to existing texts. He found a 25 word section of the text that was "virtually word-for-word" matched a Planned Parenthood pamphlet and a 33 word section almost duplicating a 1999 article from the Portland Press as some examples of evidence. Barrie also said that it was "very, very difficult to try to determine whether Ann Coulter was citing that material or whether she was just trying to pass it off".
Left wing activist group Media Matters for America has appealed to Random House publishing to further investigate Coulter's work. The syndicator of her columns cleared her of the plagiarism charges. Universal Press Syndicate and Crown Books also defended Coulter against the charges.
Columnist Bill Nemitz from the Portland Press Herald accused Coulter of plagiarizing a very specific sentence from his newspaper in her book Godless, but he also acknowledged that one sentence is insufficient grounds for filing suit.
Public perception
Coulter rejects "the academic convention of euphemism and circumlocution", and is claimed to play to misogyny in order to further her goals; she "dominates without threatening (at least not straight men)". Feminist critics also reject Coulter's opinion that the gains made by women have gone so far as to create an anti-male society and her call for women to be rejected from the military because they are more vicious than men. Like the late anti-feminist Phyllis Schlafly, Coulter uses traditionally masculine rhetoric as reasoning for the need for traditional gender roles, and she carries this idea of feminized dependency into her governmental policies, according to feminist critics.
Coulter was played by Cobie Smulders in Impeachment: American Crime Story.
Personal life
Coulter has been engaged several times, but she has never married and has no children. She has dated Spin founder and publisher Bob Guccione Jr. and conservative writer Dinesh D'Souza. In October 2007, she began dating Andrew Stein, the former president of the New York City Council, a liberal Democrat. When asked about the relationship, Stein told the New York Post, "She's attacked a lot of my friends, but what can I say, opposites attract!" On January 7, 2008, however, Stein told the New York Post that the relationship was over, citing irreconcilable differences. Kellyanne Conway, who refers to Coulter as a friend, told New York magazine in 2017 that Coulter "started dating her security guard probably ten years ago because she couldn't see anybody else".
Coulter owns a house, bought in 2005, in Palm Beach, Florida, a condominium in Manhattan, and an apartment in Los Angeles. She votes in Palm Beach and is not registered to do so in New York or California.
Bibliography
References
External links
In Depth interview with Coulter, August 7, 2011
Column archives
Ann Coulter column archive for Human Events articles at BNet Find Articles with advanced search (1998–2007)
Ann Coulter column archive at Human Events (2002–present)(use search feature)
Ann Coulter column archive at National Review (2000–2001)
Ann Coulter column archive at uExpress.com (1999–present) [select headline archive]
Year of birth uncertain
Living people
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century Presbyterians
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century Presbyterians
American anti–illegal immigration activists
Right-wing politics in the United States
American women columnists
American critics of Islam
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American political commentators
American political writers
American Presbyterians
American nationalists
American social commentators
American women activists
California Republicans
Clinton–Lewinsky scandal
Connecticut Republicans
Cornell University alumni
Critics of atheism
Christian critics of Islam
Critics of multiculturalism
Federalist Society members
Female critics of feminism
Florida Republicans
Human Events people
Intelligent design advocates
Lawyers from New York City
National Review people
New York (state) Republicans
People from New Canaan, Connecticut
People from New York City
University of Michigan Law School alumni
Writers from California
Writers from Connecticut
Writers from Florida
Writers from New York City
American women non-fiction writers
1961 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Brown%20%28writer%29
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Eric Brown (writer)
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Eric Brown (born 24 May 1960) is a British science fiction author.
Biography
Eric Brown was born in Haworth, Yorkshire, in May 1960, and began writing in 1975. In the 1980s he travelled extensively throughout Greece and Asia (some of his novels are set in India). His first publication was in 1982, when his play for children Noel's Ark appeared.
His career took off in the late 1980s with a succession of short stories in the magazine Interzone and other publications. His story "The Time-Lapsed Man" won the Interzone readers' poll for the most admired story of 1988, and an Eastercon short text award in 1995. He was voted the Best New European SF writer of the Year in the early 1990s and has subsequently won the British Science Fiction Award twice (for the short stories "Hunting the Slarque" in 1999 and "Children of Winter" in 2001).
He has publicly admired the science fiction writing of Michael G. Coney, Robert Silverberg, Richard Paul Russo and Robert Charles Wilson, amongst others.
Bibliography
Novels
Meridian Days. London: Pan, 1992 (paper).
Engineman. London: Pan, 1994 (paper).
Penumbra. London: Millennium, 1999 (paper).
the Virex trilogy
New York Nights. London: Gollancz, 2000.
New York Blues. London: Gollancz, 2001.
New York Dreams. London: Gollancz, 2004 (paper).
Bengal Station. Waterville, ME: Five Star Books, 2004.
Helix. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2007 (paper).
Kéthani. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2008 (paper).
Bengal Station
Necropath. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2009 (paper).
Xenopath. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2010 (paper).
Cosmopath. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2010 (paper).
Engineman. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2010 (paper).
Guardians of the Phoenix. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2010 (paper).
The Kings of Eternity. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2011 (paper).
Weird Space: The Devil's Nebula. Abaddon, 2012 (paper).
Helix Wars. Nottingham: Solaris Books, 2012 (paper).
Serene Invasion. Abaddon, 2013 (paper).
Weird Space: Satan's Reach. Abaddon, 2013 (paper).
Weird Space: The Baba Yaga. Abaddon, 2015 (paper).
Novellas
A Writer's Life. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2001.
Approaching Omega. Tolworth, Surrey: Telos Publishing, 2005.
The Extraordinary Voyage of Jules Verne. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2005.
Gilbert and Edgar on Mars. Hornsea: PS Publishing, 2009.
Starship
Starship Summer. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2007.
Starship Fall. Harrogate: NewCon Press, 2009.
Starship Winter. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2012.
Starship Spring. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2012.
Starship Coda. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2016.
The Telemass Quartet
Famadihana on Fomalhaut IV. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2014.
Sacrifice on Spica III. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2014.
Reunion on Alpha Reticuli II. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2016.
Exalted on Bellatrix 1. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2017.
Telemass Coda. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2019.
The Kon-tiki Quartet, with Keith Brooke
Dislocations. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2018.
Parasites. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2018.
Insights. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2019.
Collections
The Time-Lapsed Man and Other Stories. London: Pan, 1990 (paper).
Blue Shifting. London: Pan, 1995 (paper).
Parallax View, with Keith Brooke. Mountain Ash, Wales: Sarob Press, 2000.
Deep Future. Canton, OH: Cosmos Books, 2001.
The Fall of Tartarus. London: Gollancz, 2005 (paper).
Threshold Shift. Urbana, IL: Golden Gryphon Press, 2006.
Parallax View, with Keith Brooke. Stafford: Immanion Press, 2007 (paper).
Salvage. Infinity Plus Books, 2013 (paper).
Starship Seasons. Harrogate: PS Publishing, 2013. - A collection of the first four Starship novellas.
Children's Books
The Web
Untouchable. London: Dolphin, 1997 (paper).
Walkabout. London: Dolphin, 1999 (paper).
Twocking. Edinburgh: Barrington Stoke, 2002 (paper).
Firebug. Edinburgh: Barrington Stoke, 2003 (paper).
British Front. Edinburgh: Barrington Stoke, 2005 (paper).
Space Ace. Edinburgh: Barrington Stoke, 2005 (paper).
Crazy Love. Edinburgh: Barrington Stoke, 2006 (paper).
Revenge (Most Wanted). Edinburgh: Barrington Stoke, 2007 (paper).
References
External resources
Official website
Eric Brown's online fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online
Infinity Plus has a short profile of Eric Brown, as well as an interview conducted by Keith Brooke and an earlier conversation between the two, and Brooke's introduction to Brown's collection Deep Future.
Fantastic Fiction page on Eric Brown
Ghostwriting review
Serene Invasion review
Eric Brown : Story behind The Serene Invasion - Online Essay at Upcoming4.me
Eric Brown : Story behind Satan's Reach - Online Essay at Upcoming4.me
Eric Brown : Story behind Salvage - Online Essay at Upcoming4.me
Eric Brown : Story behind Murder by the Book - Online Essay at Upcoming4.me
The story behind Jani and the Greater Game - Essay by Eric Brown at Upcoming4.me
English science fiction writers
1960 births
Living people
People from Haworth
English male novelists
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205531
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editorial%20cartoonist
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Editorial cartoonist
|
An editorial cartoonist, also known as a political cartoonist, is an artist who draws editorial cartoons that contain some level of political or social commentary. Their cartoons are used to convey and question an aspect of daily news or current affairs in a national or international context. Political cartoonists generally adopt a caricaturist style of drawing, to capture the likeness of a politician or subject. They may also employ humor or satire to ridicule an individual or group, emphasize their point of view or comment on a particular event.
Media trends
The traditional and most common outlet for political cartoonists is the pocket cartoon, which usually appears in the editorial page or the front news page of a newspaper, in the front news section of a newspaper. Editorial cartoons are not usually found in the dedicated comics section, although certain cartoons or comic strips have achieved crossover status.
Historically, these are quick, hand-drawn ink drawings, scanned and reproduced in black and white and published in print newspapers. The introduction of color came later, and more recently the use of digital drawing tools are a popular and efficient way to produce work quickly for newspaper deadlines.
Editorial cartoonists may reflect the political opinion expressed in the editorial page, or a newspaper in general, but they can also express opposing views, or opt for more populist humor that often reflects the conventional wisdom of the readers.
Historically, these artists have roots in ancient art forms, such as prehistoric cave paintings, or the hieroglyphs of Egypt, in terms of their role in informing society. Cartoonists in many ways take on the role of a court jester, who though employed by a king or other ruler, would often mimic and ridicule him and his regime in his performances, to entertain the court, or 'the common man'.
In recent years, the internet has become a popular means for distributing this kind of short format media, humor, and minority political opinions, leading to a large growth in the popularity of online and alternative editorial cartoons.
The rise of comics journalism online, which combines the longer comic strip format as a means to relay a story in more depth, is very effective in a vertical web format. As visual journalists, they can tell a story in a visual way, with words and images.
Because an editorial cartoonist expresses an idea visually, with little or no text or words, it can be understood across many languages and countries. A strong tradition of editorial cartooning can be found throughout the world, in all political environments, including Cuba, Australia, Malaysia, Pakistan, India, Iran, France, Denmark, Canada and the United States.
In the United States, there are more than a hundred published editorial cartoonists, from both sides of the Republican-Democrat divide.
In India, the most common and popular form of political commentary is the pocket cartoon. R. K. Laxman, Sudhir Dar, Mario Miranda, E. P. Unny, Shekhar Gurera, Ajit Ninan are some of the popular editorial cartoonists, through their daily pocket cartoons.
A political cartoonist's aim is often to encourage debate; they can also fuel controversy. Their work can expose corrupt or abusive regimes, governments or political groups, and therefore often put themselves and their publishers at risk.
In 2005, Danish cartoonist Kurt Westergaard received numerous death threats and was attacked in his home by man with an axe .
In 2015, the French satirical magazine Charlie Hebdos offices were attacked by two Islamist gunmen in reaction to publishing cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad. Twelve employees were killed, including staff cartoonists Charb, Cabu, Honoré, Tignous and Wolinski.
Awards
The Cartoonists Rights Network International awards the annual Courage in Editorial Cartooning Award to political cartoonists who show bravery and risk their own safety to publish their work. In 2015, this accolade was awarded to Atena Farghadani of Iran, who was jailed for more than 12 years for publishing a cartoon of Iran's parliament with heads of various animals.
There is a Pulitzer Prize awarded every year for America's top editorial cartoonist — as decided by a panel of senior media industry professionals and media academics (see Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning). Other major awards given each year to editorial cartoonists include the Sigma Delta Chi Award from the Society of Professional Journalists, the Thomas Nast Award from the Overseas Press Club, and the Herblock Prize.
Organizations
Association of American Editorial Cartoonists, (AAEC) : The largest organization of political cartoonists, have over 300 members worldwide.
National Cartoonists Society : welcomes editorial cartoonists in the United States.
Cartoonists Rights Network International : It helps cartoonists who are exiled, jailed or in danger of persecution.
Indian Institute of Cartoonists, (IIC) : The only organisation in India dedicated to the art of cartooning and regularly exhibit cartoons of various cartoonists
Books
There are several North American books that have collected together the majority of cartoonists being published at the time. Attack of the Political Cartoonists, written by J. P. Trostle, was published in 2004 and includes profiles of 150 mainstream American and Canadian cartoonists. Attack was an effort to update the 1962 tome Today's Cartoon, by New Orleans States-Item cartoonist John Chase, which included most of the editorial cartoonists working in the U.S. at the height of the Cold War. The 3-volume Attitude series includes some of the political cartoonists who have appeared in alternative newspapers and online — see Attitude: The New Subversive Cartoonists.
There are also a number of North American annual collections published each year, including Best Editorial Cartoons of the Year from Pelican Publishing, Best Political Cartoons of the Year from Daryl Cagle, and Portfolio, which showcases the best Canadian cartoons of the year.
See also
List of editorial cartoonists
Indian Institute of Cartoonists
Center for the Study of Political Graphics
Animated political cartoons
Graphics
References
External links
Cartoons Magazine
Cartoonists Rights Network International
Association of American Editorial Cartoonists
The Nib - an American online publisher of political cartoons and comic journalism
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall%20Caine
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Hall Caine
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Sir Thomas Henry Hall Caine (14 May 1853 – 31 August 1931), usually known as Hall Caine, was a British novelist, dramatist, short story writer, poet and critic of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Caine's popularity during his lifetime was unprecedented. He wrote fifteen novels on subjects of adultery, divorce, domestic violence, illegitimacy, infanticide, religious bigotry and women's rights, became an international literary celebrity, and sold a total of ten million books. Caine was the most highly paid novelist of his day. The Eternal City is the first novel to have sold over a million copies worldwide. In addition to his books, Caine is the author of more than a dozen plays and was one of the most commercially successful dramatists of his time; many were West End and Broadway productions. Caine adapted seven of his novels for the stage. He collaborated with leading actors and managers, including Wilson Barrett, Viola Allen, Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Louis Napoleon Parker, Mrs Patrick Campbell, George Alexander, and Arthur Collins. Most of Caine's novels were adapted into silent black and white films. A. E. Coleby's 1923 18,454 feet, nineteen-reel film The Prodigal Son became the longest commercially made British film. Alfred Hitchcock's 1929 film The Manxman, is Hitchcock's last silent film.
Born in Runcorn to a Manx father and Cumbrian mother, Caine was raised in Liverpool. After spending four years in school, Caine was trained as an architectural draughtsman. While growing up he spent childhood holidays with relatives in the Isle of Man. At seventeen he spent a year there as schoolmaster in Maughold. Afterwards he returned to Liverpool and began a career in journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the Liverpool Mercury. As a lecturer and theatre critic he developed a circle of eminent literary friends by whom he was influenced. Caine moved to London at Dante Gabriel Rossetti's suggestion and lived with the poet, acting as secretary and companion during the last years of Rossetti's life. Following the publication of his Recollections of Rossetti in 1882 Caine began his career as a writer spanning four decades.
Caine established his residency in the Isle of Man in 1895, where he sat from 1901 to 1908 in the Manx House of Keys, the lower house of its legislature. Caine was elected President of the Manx National Reform League in 1903 and chair of the Keys' Committee that prepared the 1907 petition for constitutional reform. In 1929
Caine was granted the Freedom of the Borough of Douglas, Isle of Man. Caine visited Russia in 1892 on behalf of the persecuted Jews. In 1895 Caine travelled in the United States and Canada, where he represented the Society of Authors conducting successful negotiations and obtaining important international copyright concessions from the Dominion Parliament.
During the Great War (1914–1918) Caine wrote many patriotic articles and edited King Albert's Book, the proceeds of which went to help Belgian refugees. In 1917, Caine was created an Officer of the Order of Leopold by King Albert I of Belgium. Caine cancelled many literary contracts in America to devote all his time and energy to the British war effort. On the recommendation of the Prime Minister Lloyd George for services as an Allied propagandist in the United States, King George V made him a Knight of the British Empire in 1918 and a Companion of Honour in 1922. Aged 78 Caine died in his home at Greeba Castle on the Isle of Man.
Early life and influences
Early days
Thomas Henry Hall Caine was born on 14 May 1853 at 29 Bridgewater Street, Runcorn, Cheshire, England, the eldest of six children of John Caine (1825–1904) and his wife Sarah Caine (née Hall, (1828–1912)). Sarah was born in Whitehaven, Cumberland, and descended from an old Quaker family of Ralph Halls, china manufacturer. After living for many years in Cumberland the Hall family moved to Liverpool where Sarah, a seamstress, met and married John. As her husband was a member of the Anglican Church and not a Quaker she lost her connection with the Society of Friends. Throughout her life she retained the Quaker simplicity of life and dress. John Caine, a blacksmith, came from the Isle of Man. In the absence of work he emigrated to Liverpool, where he trained as a shipsmith. At the time of Caine's birth, he was working temporarily in Runcorn docks. Within a few months the family were back in Liverpool, where Caine spent his childhood and youth. They rented rooms at 14 Rhyl Street, Toxteth, convenient for Liverpool Docks and within a small Manx expat community. By 1858 they had moved to number 21. Early in 1862 they moved to 5 Brougham Street where Caine attended Windsor Street Wesleyan School, and in January 1865 the family moved round the corner to 2 Coburg Street.
During his childhood Caine was occasionally sent to stay with his grandmother, Isabella, and uncle, William, a butcher-farmer, in their thatched cottage at Ballaugh on the Isle of Man. His grandmother nicknamed him 'Hommy-Beg', Manx for 'Little Tommy'. The island has a long history of folklore and superstition, passed from generation to generation. Continuing this tradition Grandmother Caine passed on her knowledge of local myths and legends to her grandson, telling him countless stories of fairies, witches, witch-doctors and the evil eye while they were sat by the fire.
When Caine was nine he lost two of his young sisters within a year. Five year old Sarah developed hydrocephaly after a fever. Fourteen month old Emma died in convulsions brought on by whooping cough she caught from him and his brother John. Caine was to be sent to the Isle of Man to recover from his illness and grief. He was put on a boat to Ramsey by his father, with a label pinned on his coat and assurances that his uncle would meet him. A fierce storm occurred preventing the ferry from reaching land. Caine was rescued by a large rowing boat. He later drew on this experience when writing the scene in The Bondman in which Stephen Orry is cast ashore there.
The Caine family belonged to the Baptist Church in Myrtle Street, Liverpool, presided over by the charismatic Hugh Stowell Brown, a Manxman and brother of poet Thomas Edward Brown. Brown's public lectures and work among the poor made him a household name in Liverpool. Caine participated in the literary and debating society Brown had established. While Caine was very young he became well known and highly regarded by the people of south Liverpool. There he was in great demand as a speaker, having the ability to engage an audience from his first word. Through studying the works of the Lake School of Poets, and the best writers of the eighteenth century, Caine combined this knowledge with his own ideas of perfection, and went on to develop his level of eloquence to oratory.
From the age of ten Caine was educated at Hope Street Unitarian Higher Grade School in Caledonia Street, Liverpool, becoming head boy in his last year there. Prior to this he attended St. James's School and for several years afterwards continued his education attending evening classes at Queen's College, Liverpool Institute. He spent many hours on his own avidly reading books, notably at Liverpool's Free Library. Caine also experienced what he described as the 'scribbling itch' for writing. He produced essays, poems, novels and overview histories with little thought of them being published.
In common with all 19th century towns Liverpool was unsanitary. In 1832 there had been a cholera epidemic. As panic and fear of this new and misunderstood disease spread, eight major riots had broken out on the streets along with several smaller uprisings. In 1849 a second epidemic occurred. When Caine was thirteen the third outbreak of cholera occurred in July 1866. Memories of that time were to stay with him, the deaths, the large volume of funerals and prayer meetings in open spaces that were happening all around him.
Apprentice and schoolmaster
At fifteen, after leaving school, he was apprenticed to John Murray, an architect and surveyor in Lord Street, Liverpool. Murray was a distant relative of William Ewart Gladstone. On 10 December 1868, the day of the general election when Gladstone was to be elected as Prime Minister, Caine was running to offices in Union Court, belonging to Gladstone's brother, with telegrams announcing the results of the contests all over the country. Caine was breaking the news of great majorities before Gladstone had time to open his telegrams. Caine was to meet Gladstone on another occasion when he was on Gladstone's estate at Seaforth House. The surveyor-in-chief had not appeared one morning and a fifteen year old Caine took his place. Caine had left a lasting impression on Gladstone, as two years later Caine had a letter from Gladstone's brother saying the Prime Minister wished to appoint him steward of the Lancashire Gladstone estates. Caine declined the offer.
Caine's maternal grandparents had lived with the rest of his family while they were growing up in Liverpool. His grandfather, Ralph Hall, died in January 1870, when Caine was seventeen. In the same year of his life Caine was reunited with William Tirebuck, a friend from his school days, when the business of their masters brought them together. United in their interest in literature, they made a juvenile attempt to establish a monthly manuscript magazine, assisted by Tirebuck's sister. Tirebuck was editor, printer, publisher and postman; Caine was principal author. One of the magazine's contributors inherited a small fortune which he invested. About ten thousand copies were printed, followed by a delayed issue no.2. After this venture Tirebuck returned to his position as junior clerk in a merchant's office.
Suffering from what he described as "the first hint of one of the nervous attacks which even then beset me", and later as "the first serious manifestation of the nervous attacks which have pursued me through my life", Caine quit his job with Murray and, arriving unannounced, went to live with his uncle and aunt, James and Catherine Teare in Maughold on the Isle of Man.
Teare was the local schoolmaster, and as Caine was to learn, ill with tuberculosis. Caine became his assistant teaching in the schoolhouse. Finding their accommodation in part of the schoolhouse was crowded Caine camped in a nearby tholtan, a half-ruined cottage. Using his stonemason skills, taught to him by his grandfather Hall, he restored and lived in the cottage. On the stone lintel above the door he carved the name Phoenix Cottage and the date 8 January 1871.
Encouraged by Teare, after he had written to reassure Caine's parents that he might one day be able to make a living as a writer, Caine wrote anonymous articles for a local newspaper on a wide range of religious and economic questions.
John Ruskin had started his Guild of St George and began expressing his ideas in his new monthly series, Fors Clavigera, written as a result of his feelings regarding the acute poverty and misery in Great Britain at the time. Rumours of undergraduates, following Ruskin's ideas, digging the ground outside Oxford, reached Caine. He was inspired by Ruskin to begin writing denunciations of the social system and of the accepted interpretation of the Christian faith. Caine was to become 'an eager pupil and admirer' of Ruskin. He later became a frequent visitor to Ruskin's Coniston home, Brantwood.
Following the death of James Teare in December 1871, Caine carved a headstone for the grave. After officially taking his place as schoolmaster, he also performed the extra unpaid services his uncle had provided, "such as the making of wills for farmers round about, the drafting of agreement and leases, the writing of messages to banks protesting against crushing interest, and occasionally the inditing of love letters for young farm hands to their girls in service on farms that were far away". Later he drew on this material to use in his writing.
In March 1872, he had a letter from Murray his master, the architect, which said "Why are you wasting your life over there? Come back to your proper work at once." Caine was on his way back to Liverpool within a week.
Journalist and theatre critic
In April 1872, at the age of eighteen, Caine was back home in Liverpool where he set about applying his knowledge, gained working in the drawing office, into articles on architectural subjects, and subsequently published in The Builder and The Building News. These were Caine's first works published for a national audience. The articles caught Ruskin's attention and he wrote words of encouragement to Caine.
Seeking to be published, he offered his services, without payment, as a theatre critic to a number of Liverpool newspapers, which were accepted. He used the pseudonym 'Julian'. Before Henry Irving played Hamlet, his intention to play the part differently to any other actor was known to Caine and he contributed many articles on the subject to various papers. The study of Shakespeare and the Bible from his earliest years were his 'chief mental food'. As he had become more absorbed by literary studies he was not content with reading Shakespeare's plays, so he was reading all of the most notable playwrights of the Elizabethan age and "he began to make acquaintance with the dramatists". In the summer of 1872 Caine wrote his first play. The Charter was an adaptation of Charles Kingsley's novel Alton Locke, but as an unknown writer he could not get it staged. "Partly from the failure of faith in myself as a draughtsman and partly from a desire to be moving on" Caine left his employment with Murray and joined the office of Richard Owen and later Wainwright and Son. For a few years he was general assistant to a builder, James Bromley who became his friend.
Together with William Tirebuck and George Rose, his friends from school days, Caine applied himself to establishing Liverpool branches of the Shakespeare Society, and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. They called their own organisation Notes and Queries Society and held their meetings at the prominent Royal Institution, Colquitt Street. Caine was president of the society and their meetings were reported in the Liverpool newspapers. The 'Notes' were often provided by John Ruskin, William Morris and Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
On 16 October 1874 Henry Irving wrote to Caine agreeing to his request to use his portrait in Stray Leaves a new monthly magazine he was launching. In his capacity as critic of the Liverpool Town Crier, Caine attended the first night of Hamlet at the Lyceum Theatre, London, on 31 October 1874, with Irving in the title role. Caine was enthralled by Irving's performance and after his enthusiastic review was published in the newspaper, he was asked to reprint it as a broad-sheet pamphlet, as it was of such a high quality.
Caine's first short story Max Wieland was published in the Liverpool Critic around 1874. A year later Caine became dramatic critic of the Spectator. Caine's long narrative poem, Geraldine, appeared in print in March 1876. It was a completion of Coleridge's unfinished poem Christabel.
The Caine family had moved into a larger house in 1873, at 59 South Chester Street, Toxteth, where Caine shared a bedroom with his younger brother John, a shipping clerk. John contracted tuberculosis which he passed to his brother. By 1875 Caine had permanent lodgings in New Brighton, spending weekends there "for the sake of his health". Caine became increasingly unwell from the beginning of January 1877. In April the same year John, died from tuberculosis, aged 21. Dangerously ill, Caine was terrified of suffering the same fate. He recovered, but the disease left him with permanent lung damage, and throughout his life he had attacks of bronchitis. In his 1913 novel The Woman Thou Gavest Me, he describes Mary O’Neil dying of tuberculosis.
Manchester Corporation had covertly been buying land for building the proposed Thirlmere Aqueduct, intended to supply water to the city. When discovered, it outraged the local community. Thirlmere, close to the centre of the Lake District, in an area, not only celebrated in the poetry of early conservationist William Wordsworth and fellow Lake poets, but also used as a summer residence by writers, amongst others. In opposition to damming the lake at Thirlmere to form a reservoir, the first environmental group, Thirlmere Defence Association was formed in 1877. It was supported by the national press, Wordsworth's son and John Ruskin. Caine, incensed at what he perceived as a threat to his beloved Cumbria, joined the movement, initiating a Parliamentary petition. Thirlmere was to be the setting for his novel The Shadow of a Crime.
In response to his lecture The Supernatural in Shakespeare, given in July 1878, in a meeting chaired by Professor Edward Dowden, Matthew Arnold wrote him a long letter of praise. He was also praised by Keats's biographer, Lord Houghton. The lecture appeared in Colburn's New Monthly Magazine in August 1879,
Irving presided at a meeting of the Liverpool Notes and Queries Society in September 1878. At Irving's invitation, he travelled to London to attend Irving's first night at the Lyceum Theatre under his own management, presenting his new production of Hamlet with Ellen Terry as Ophelia on 30 December. It was at this time that Caine was introduced to Irving's business manager, Bram Stoker, who was to become one of his closest friends. Stoker was subsequently to dedicate his famous novel Dracula to Caine, under the nickname 'Hommy-Beg'.
In 1879 Caine edited a booklet of the papers presented to the Notes and Queries Society by William Morris, Samuel Huggins and John J. Stevenson on the progress of public and professional thought on the treatment of ancient buildings which was described as "'well worth reading". At the 1879 Social Science Congress held in Manchester Town Hall, Caine read his paper A New Phase of the Question of Architectural Restoration. He spoke of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, its purpose, actions and achievements. Caine had joined the society the previous year and remained a member for the rest of his life. One of the society's founders was William Morris.
Friendship with Francis Tumblety
As a young man of 21 Caine encountered the self-proclaimed 'Great American Doctor', Francis Tumblety, aged 43, after he set up at 177 Duke Street, Liverpool, offering herbal cure-all elixirs and Patent medicines to the public, which he claimed were secrets of the American Indians. Tumblety posed at various times in his life as a surgeon, an officer in the federal army, and a gentleman. He always followed his name with "M.D." and used the title 'Doctor', without the supporting qualifications for which he was fined in Saint John, New Brunswick in 1860.
From September 1874, Tumblety was announcing his arrival in Liverpool by advertising in local newspapers, later including testimonials. Following the death of Edward Hanratty in January 1875, the same night he took a spoon of medicine supplied by Tumblety, and action taken by William Carroll to sue Tumblety for £200 after allegedly publishing a false testimonial, Tumblety fled to London. Many newspapers reported the stories and in the wake of this adverse publicity, Tumblety recruited Caine to edit his biography. Late January Tumblety wrote requesting Caine to obtain a quote for printing ten thousand copies in Liverpool, telling of being betrayed by a supposed friend, and praising Caine for his genuine friendship. After Caine forwarded his letters, he wrote on 1 February discussing the upcoming biography and enclosed a letter supposedly originating from the Isle of Wight, by Napoleon III. The following day the first advert for the upcoming pamphlet appeared in the Liverpool Mercury. Tumblety changed lodgings, initially missing an urgent telegram from Caine indicating there was a problem with the publication. His response was to tell Caine to stop until he saw the proofs. Tumblety offered to pay for Caine to visit him in London to discuss the pamphlet, his letter dated 16 February indicating Caine had taken up the offer. He told a friend that his visit to Tumblety was "arduous". A spate of correspondence relating to the publication ensued, Tumblety supplying Caine with names of notable people to be included in the pamphlet, along with money for printing and advertising. Tumblety later wrote of disputes with the printer. Claiming to be too ill to send money, he sent Caine a printer's bill for payment. Tumblety had hired an assistant who read the proofs to him. The pamphlet entitled Passages from the Life of Dr Francis Tumblety, and the fourth of Tumblety's biographies, was published in March 1875.
Tumblety wrote to Caine in April 1875 that he was contemplating manufacturing his pills in London, and required a partner to share the profits, telling Caine to approach Liverpool chemists as proposed outlets. Caine had declined a further invitation to London, but Tumblety persisted with his invites to join him in London, later made by telegram, additionally inviting him on a planned trip to America. Around the time Alfred Thomas Heap was hanged in Kirkdale Gaol, Liverpool, for an abortion-related death, Tumblety, who had been arrested in 1857 for selling abortion drugs, disappeared. Caine made enquiries as to his whereabouts. Briefly Tumblety set up offices in Union Passage, Birmingham. His correspondence turned menacing, demanding money from Caine. Tumblety left London for New York City in August 1876. Failing to entice Caine to join him, he followed months later with a pleading letter from San Francisco, after which there is no record of any further contact.
Rossetti years
Caine delivered a series of three lectures on Dante Gabriel Rossetti's work and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood movement at Liverpool Library between November 1878 and March 1879. The January lecture entitled The Poetry of Dante Rossetti was printed in Colburn's New Monthly Magazine in July 1879. Caine sent a copy of the magazine to the poet Rossetti, who by that time had become a virtual recluse and was "ravaged by years of addiction to chloral and too much whisky".
Rossetti wrote his first letter to Caine on 29 July 1879. This letter was the first of nearly two hundred in quick succession.
Around this time Caine's father was badly injured in an accident at work and Caine took responsibility for supporting his parents and siblings. Early in 1880 he wrote Stones Crying Out, a short book on the restoration of old buildings. Two of the chapters were papers he had read at the Social Science Congress and Liverpool Library. Rossetti introduced Caine to Ford Madox Brown, who was at the time working on The Manchester Murals. Following his visit to write an article on Brown's frescoes in July 1880 they became friends. On a later visit Caine accepted Brown's invitation to sit for one of the figures while he was working on The Expulsion of the Danes from Manchester, the third fresco. On another visit he modelled for Crabtree watching the Transit of Venus A.D. 1639, the fifth fresco to be painted. Caine and Rossetti eventually met in September 1880 when Caine visited Rossetti in his home at 16 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, London, where he lived "in shabby splendour".
The strain of overworking was affecting Caine's health and in 1881, deciding to focus on his literary career, he left his job at Bromley & Son and went to St John's in the Vale, Cumbria. Before long Rossetti wrote that he too was ill and asked Caine to go to London planning to return to Cumbria with him. By the time Caine arrived in London Rossetti had changed his mind and instead Caine became Rossetti's housemate. Early in September, persuaded by friends and family Rossetti spent a month with Caine at St John's in the Vale, accompanied by Fanny Cornforth. Whilst there, Caine recited a local myth to Rossetti. The myth was to become the inspiration for his first novel The Shadow of a Crime. He was also delivering weekly lectures in Liverpool.
Caine negotiated the acquisition of Rossetti's largest painting Dante's Dream of the Death of Beatrice by Liverpool's Walker Art Gallery, representing the painter at its installation in November 1881. In January 1882 Caine's anthology Sonnets of Three Centuries was published.
After Rossetti "had an attack of paralysis on one side", his medical adviser, Mr John Marshall, recommended a change of air. Architect John Seddon offered Rossetti the use of Westcliffe Bungalow at Birchington, Kent. Caine eventually persuaded Rossetti to make the trip to Birchington, and they both arrived on 4 February 1882, accompanied by Caine's sister and Rossetti's nurse. Caine stayed with Rossetti until Rossetti's death on Easter Sunday, 1882.
Start of literary career
From 1882 Caine was employed as a leader-writer on the Liverpool Mercury and was given free rein as to the subject and number of articles he wrote. This gave him the opportunity to attend and review numerous first nights at the London theatres. One review angered actor-playwright Wilson Barrett and he demanded a meeting with Caine. Barrett concluding his complaint added "I think you could write a play, and if someday you should hit on a subject suitable to me, I shall be glad if you will let me hear of it".
Caine's Cobwebs of Criticism: A Review of the First Reviewers of the Lake, Satanic and Cockney Schools was published in 1883. It began as a series of Liverpool lectures exposing unjustified reviews of poets Byron, Coleridge, Hunt, Keats, Shelley, Southey and Wordsworth that were written during their lifetimes
Returning to London after Rossetti's death, Caine moved into 18 Clement's Inn in July 1882, sharing rooms with his academic friend Eric Robertson, where they often hosted intellectual gatherings. They frequently had their evening meals delivered from a nearby coffee shop in Clare Market, which were brought by two young women; one was the 19-year-old Mary Chandler who was to eventually marry Caine.
Mary was the fourth of seven children. She was born 23 April 1863, the daughter of Mary and William Chandler, a General Dealer, and grew up in Bethnal Green. William died in 1873 and her mother married John Ward, a Poulterer, in Shoreditch. The family moved to the City of London where John became a Hawker.
Months after Mary had first met Caine, John Ward and the other girl's father confronted Caine and Robertson demanding marriage, claiming the young women had been 'ruined'. According to Caine's biographer, nothing more than 'a bit of flirting' had taken place. Refusing to marry, Caine went to Liverpool to deliver lectures, returning to London in early December 1882. Upon Caine's return Mary's stepfather abandoned her at Clement's Inn. Mary went to Sevenoaks for six months to be educated, financed by Caine; she had received little education as a child.
At the end of October 1883, with enough money to last about four months Caine, accompanied by Mary, went to the Isle of Wight where he rented Vectis Cottage, close to the cliffs and sea near Sandown. There he set to work writing his first novel The Shadow of a Crime. Inspired by his Cumbrian heritage the plot was based on one of the oldest legends of the Lake District, told to him by his grandfather, Ralph Hall. In it he uses the Cumbrian dialect that he had listened to and spoke during his childhood. When he had finished he moved back to London. Living in rooms on the fourth floor of New Court, in Lincoln's Inn, he re-wrote it. After running as a serial in the Liverpool Weekly Mercury, Caine's novel was published in February 1885, by Chatto & Windus, and serialised in several newspapers. His reputation was immediately established, along with a foremost place among the novelists of the day. He was later invited to write the story of writing The Shadow of a Crime, which after its appearance in the Idler was published in 1894 in My First Book. After the publication of Caine's first novel, Mary created a series of scrapbooks containing items relating to his public life.
Mary and Caine's son, Ralph Hall, was born in their rented house Yarra, Worseley Road, Hampstead on 15 August 1884. The following month they moved to live in Aberleigh Lodge, Red House Lane, Bexleyheath, next door to William Morris' Red House, where they remained until 1889.
Caine had many friends in London's elite artistic and intellectual circles. As a friend of Stoker and Irving for many years he became a regular at Irving's Beefsteak Room gatherings at the Lyceum, presided over by Ellen Terry, where he became acquainted with the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII). At one supper, where the only other guest was composer Alexander Mackenzie, Caine breaking the rules, brought his son Ralph with him.
In order to make essential money and acquire exposure in America, disregarding the advice of his friends, Caine's short novel She's All The World To Me, was published in New York, in 1885 by Harper & Brothers. She's All The World To Me was the first of his novels to be set on the Isle of Man. Under American copyright laws the book's copyright was forfeited to Harper and Brothers, a situation unforeseen by Caine, he was incensed. Caine recycled much of the material from the book in his later works, particularly in The Deemster. She's All The World To Me was serialised in the Liverpool Weekly Mercury between 21 March and 4 April 1885 immediately following The Shadow of a Crime.
Set in the contrasting locations of the Vale of Newlands in the Lake District and Victorian London, A Son of Hagar, Caine's third novel was written in 1885–86 and published in 1886 by Chatto and Windus. Begun in collaboration with Robert Buchanan, their partnership was discontinued early on after discovering they did not work well together. Dealing with the theme of illegitimacy, Caine has written a story close to his own life. The opening scene is set in Victorian London police court where a girl is charged with attempted suicide after she and her illegitimate baby had been dragged from the Thames, a scene he could well have witnessed while working as reporter. Later Caine attempted to suppress A Son of Hagar from both of the Collected Editions of his novels. Licensed to Thomas Nelson in 1907 by Chatto, the novel was printed in the Nelson Library.
In 1886 Mary and Caine travelled to Scotland to watch Irving when he was on tour in Edinburgh where they covertly married on 3 September under Scottish law by declaration before witnesses. Mary became a devoted wife, reading all his work, advising and criticising when appropriate and was his first secretary.
Two of Caine's sonnets, Where Lies the Land! and After Sunset, were included in William Sharp's 1886 anthology Sonnets of this Century. Publisher Walter Scott engaged Eric Robertson, Caine's former roommate, to edit a series entitled Great Writers. Aware of the study Caine had already made of Coleridge, Robertson asked Caine to contribute a brief biography of the poet to the series. In three weeks Caine wrote Life of Coleridge, published in 1887. November the same year The Deemster was published in three volumes by Chatto & Windus. It was set in 18th century Isle of Man, where the title of Deemster is given to the Island's judges. The plot includes the story of a fatal fight, with the body being taken out to sea only to float back to land the next day. It ran to more than fifty English editions and was translated into every major European language. Caine sent a copy of the novel to Wilson Barrett as he suited the main character, then set to work adapting his novel into a stage version called Ben-my-Chree, Manx for 'Girl of my Heart'. Irving, after reading the book, saw potential in it, himself playing the Bishop. The play opened at the Princess Theatre on 17 May 1888 and ran for a profitable nine weeks. It was a popular staple on Barratt's provincial and international tours for several years afterwards and was successfully produced by others to whom he licensed the rights. An appreciative Caine acknowledged Barratt's substantial contribution by naming him co-writer.
Middle years
First visit to Iceland
The first title published by Heinemann was Caine's 1890 three-volume novel The Bondman, a plot of revenge and romance set in the late 18th century Isle of Man and Iceland. It commences with the story of a seaman who marries the daughter of Iceland's Governor-General, abandoning her before the birth of their child. Between June and November 1889 it was serialised in the Isle of Man Times, General Advertiser and several provincial newspapers. Accompanied by Mary, Caine made a research visit to Iceland in August 1889, during which he made a seventy-mile round day trip from Reykjavik to Krysuvik. William Heinemann was so pleased with initial sales, eventually selling almost half a million copies, that he named his company's telegraphic address after the novel's main character, "Sunlocks".
Cumbria
Caine leased Castlerigg Cottage in Keswick in 1888. The following year Caine bought Hawthorns out of part of his earnings from Ben-my-Chree. Hawthorns was a small square-built stone house on the Penrith Road, a mile outside Keswick, overlooking Bassenthwaite Lake and Derwentwater. Caine also rented a Pied-à-terre at Albert Mansions, Victoria Street, London. Hawthorns was close to Chesnut Cottage that Shelley had rented in 1811 and Greta Hall home of the poets Coleridge and Southey. The house had ten acres of land where Caine kept two ponies he had transported from Iceland. Mary learned to make butter and cheese. The Caines lived at Hawthorns for four years.
In 1890 Bram Stoker began his notes for his Dracula novel. Caine published a magazine serial in 1895 called Unto the Third and Fourth Generation. Stoker and Caine were lifetime literary friends. They shared an interest in mesmerism. Prior to being published in book form the story was renamed Drink: A Love Story on a Great Question. Drink contains a number of similarities to Stoker's novel. In 1906 Drink was published by George Newnes, and illustrated by expatriate Italian American illustrator and painter Cyrus Cuneo. It was described in the Manchester Guardian as 'a rather gruesome love story'. The story is of a girl who inherits a taste for alcohol from her father and is put on the road to recovery by hypnotic influence. Two hundred thousand copies of the book had been sold in England by the time the American edition was published by Appleton in 1907.
Banning of Mahomet
Caine's Mahomet is a four-act historical drama based on the life of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, written in 1890 for the actor-manager Henry Irving. In Autumn 1889 Irving presented a copy of Henri de Bornier's new play Mahomet to Caine, translated into English by Bram Stoker's wife, Florence. Irving had been granted the English rights by Jules Claretie, director of France's Théâtre Français and he asked Caine to revise it for staging at the Lyceum. The French government stopped Bornier's play on 22 March 1890, partly due to the intervention of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Caine called the play's plot "false to history, untrue to character, Western in thought and Parisian in sentiment". He continued with his own version that concentrated on Muhammad's flight from Mecca and his triumphant return from Medina years later. Scenes were handwritten by Caine and subsequently reviewed by Irving after Stoker had them typed. Reviewed pages were returned with Irving's edits and often Stoker's suggestions. On 20 June a piece appeared in the French Journal des débats soon followed by a longer piece in The Pall Mall Gazette connecting Bornier's Mahomet with Irving's English production. William Henry (Abdullah) Quilliam orchestrated protests. In common with Caine he was of Manx descent, raised in Liverpool and had visited Morocco. Converting to Islam, Quilliam set up Britain's first mosque and was made Sheikh al-Islam for the British Isles by Abdul Hamid II. Rumour that the play would be produced in London caused unrest in Britain's Muslim communities, threatened British rule in parts of India and strained the nation's relations with the Ottoman Empire. It was banned by the Lord Chamberlain, Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, 1st Earl of Lathom in his capacity as licencer of stage plays. Lathom's intervention was unusual, illustrating the high level of concern by the British government. Caine's completed play was accepted by Edward Smith Willard for production in America. Influenced by Renan's Life of Christ he spent the remainder of 1890 hastily writing his own version. Dissatisfied with the result he refused to publish the book, despite being offered three thousand pounds for it in 1894.
Morocco
Caine travelled to Tangier, Morocco, for three weeks in March 1890, researching Muslim and Jewish life. Disregarding the advice of British consular officials Caine explored the Kasbah alone on foot at all hours of the day and night. Returning to Tangier in Spring 1891 to pick up local colour for his next novel The Scapegoat, he suffered an attack of malarial fever. Caine became the house-guest of Ion Perdicaris, who arranged Caine's nursing until he was sufficiently recovered to return to England. In July of the same year The Little Manx Nation was published. It was originally delivered in the form of three lectures on the history of the Isle of Man which were given at the Royal Institution, London on 22 and 29 January and 4 February 1891. The book is dedicated to Manx poet Thomas Edward Brown, who supplied Caine with information on Manx legends and ballads.
The Scapegoat was written at Hawthorns immediately after Caine returned home from Morocco, while he was still impeded by malaria. First serialised in The Illustrated London News between July and October 1891, and then in The Penny Illustrated Paper between October 1891 January 1892. In the story, little Naomi is deaf and dumb and blind. Her mother is dead. She lives with her father, in Israel's house. As Israel changes his ways to become a better person Naomi starts to regain her lost senses. The novel was published in two volumes in September 1891 by William Heinemann, and simultaneously in Europe, America and Canada. Set in Morocco in the last years of the Sultan Abd er-Rahman, it exposed anti-Semitic persecution and was described as a 'scathing indictment of Moroccan tyranny'. The book was praised by 'the most intelligent and influential members of the respectable Jewish community in London'. Caine's Connections with the British Jewish community extended back to Caine's youth. Novelist Israel Zangwill, enlisted Caine in the Zionist movement. The Scapegoat brought Caine a considerable correspondence, mainly because of its pro-Jewish stance. At this time Caine and Mary's second son, Derwent was born on 12 September 1891.
Mission to Russia
Following the publication of The Scapegoat, Caine was approached by Hermann Adler, the Chief Rabbi and chairman of the Russo-Jewish Committee. Jews were fleeing Russia due to the pogroms and resulting atrocities happening there. Adler, certain no Jew would be allowed entry, requested Caine go to Russia and Poland on behalf of the committee. Caine's plans to depart for Russia after Christmas 1891 were delayed until 15 June 1892 due to famine and riots there. Caine funded the trip himself, refusing subsidies offered by the committee. He carried Adler's letter, in Hebrew, to present to the rabbis in the various towns on his journey, which "secured him everywhere a most hospitable reception" and for protection against the Russian authorities Caine carried a letter from Lord Salisbury, then Prime Minister. Caine managed to visit several Jewish communities in the Pale of Settlement but got no further than the frontier towns as many were dying due to a cholera outbreak. Fearing he was to suffer the same fate he returned to London, in time to attend Lord Alfred Tennyson's funeral in October 1892. Caine remained in London after the funeral working on three novellas Cap'n Davey's Honeymoon, The Last Confession and The Blind Mother, published in 1893 as one volume entitled Cap'n Davey's Honeymoon. The book was edited by and dedicated to Stoker. At his suggestion, the last part of the title story was rewritten and The Last Confession was added. Set in Morocco, The Last Confession is based on Rossetti's blank-verse poem of the same name.
Isle of Man
For the purpose of writing The Manxman Caine rented Greeba Castle for six months, a castellated house in the Isle of Man overlooking the Douglas to Peel road. It was this book, published as one volume in August 1894 by Heinemann, that ended the system of three-volume novels. It is the story of Pete, a fisherman, considered by Kate's father as too poor to marry her. Pete leaves to make his fortune, and is reported dead. Kate falls in love with Philip, Pete's cousin and friend. Pete returns, creating a dilemma. The character of Pete was based on the Peel fishermen Caine mixed with and Joseph Mylchreest, a Manxman who made his fortune diamond mining in South Africa. Caine took full advantage of the subsequent Press attention. He was photographed and interviewed for the monthly magazines. The British sales of The Manxman totalled nearly 400,000. It was translated into twelve languages, selling over half a million copies by 1913. While in London in June and July 1984, Caine wrote a dramatic version of The Manxman, with Philip as the main character. Caine offered it to Herbert Beerbohm Tree, who refused it as being unlikely to appeal to the Haymarket Theatre audiences. On 22 August 1894, three weeks after the book was published, Wilson Barrett's adaptation opened at the Grand Theatre, Leeds. Caine bought the Greeba Castle estate in 1896 with part of his earnings from The Manxman. His rented London home, 48 Ashley Gardens, in one of five red-brick Victorian mansion blocks adjacent to Westminster Cathedral, was changed to 2 Whitehall Court between Whitehall and the Victoria Embankment.
Caine wrote a guidebook entitled The Little Man Island: Scenes and Specimen Days in the Isle of Man for the 1894 tourist season. Published by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company it comprises a mixture of descriptions, pictures and advertising. At the end of the 19th century the Isle of Man was a popular tourist destination, a result of the Wakes Weeks, when Lancashire mills and factories closed for holidays. To meet growing demand the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company purchased new steamers to bring many thousands of tourists to Douglas from Liverpool. The Isle of Man Advertising Committee was set up in 1894 under the Advertising Rate Act. A group of bankers, local businessmen and developers built new hotels, boarding houses and entertainment venues. They formed a Committee publicising the Isle of Man as a holiday resort, opening an office in London with Caine's brother in charge. When Caine wrote the Deemster in six weeks at a boarding house on the Douglas esplanade he saw these developments. He believed that the Island's economic prosperity lay in developing this trade. The success of Caine's novels set in the Isle of Man boosted the tourist trade. Tynwald Day, the island's national day, became better known both in England and America because of his novels. Caine and Greeba Castle became a visitor attraction. Cruising around Great Britain aboard the Royal yacht, King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra visited the Isle of Man, in August 1902. They were the first British monarchs to set foot on Manx soil. The King had read most of Caine's works and through reading them he wanted to visit the island. The Queen enjoyed Caine's Manx novels and was interested to see where his characters lived. The royal party enjoyed Caine's hospitality. He was invited to join the royal couple on their yacht and to accompany them on their tour of the island the following day.
Canadian copyright
At a time copyrights in Canada were governed by British laws and legal framework the Canadian Government was attempting to enact their 1889 Copyright Bill. Canadian publishers sought to exclude competition from the United States. Collection of duty on imported foreign reprints of British copyright books was to be stopped after 27 March 1895. This situation, named the Canadian copyright question, caused concern to the British Government and they involved both the Copyright Association and the Society of Authors, asking them to comment. During the ongoing discussions Caine maintained high profile, his interventions changing the course of the debate. Publishers in American recognised the threat of their market being flooded with cheap Canadian reprints on which no copyright fees would be paid. Proposed by Caine, the Society of Authors passed a unanimous vote, on 25 February 1895, against the Canadian Copyright Act. Caine suggested "all authors should bind together to oppose the passing of the Act". The Society sent a petition to the Marquess of Rippon, signed by over 1500 mainly authors and publishers, requesting Queen Victoria withhold assent of the Canadian Copyright Bill. If passed, there would be nothing preventing other colonies asking for the same, threatening authors with the loss of the whole Colonial market. The Society of Authors invited Caine to act as their representative in Canada and to negotiate with the Canadian Government on the 1889 Canadian Act. Similarly Frederick Richard Daldy represented the Copyright Association. Edmund Newcome, the Canadian Deputy Minister of Justice, eventually visited England in August 1895 to address the Canadian copyright problem, after his plans to visit had been postponed multiple times. Newcombe, instructed only to meet with the government, met with Joseph Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, in London to begin work on a new draft copyright bill. The Copyright Association and the Society of Authors were kept informed of proceedings.
First visit to the United States and Canada
Caine arrived in New York 25 September 1895, accompanied by his wife Mary and eldest son Ralph, where they were met by his New York publisher William Appleton, an active in the struggle for an international copyright. He carried with him a letter of introduction to the Government of Canada from Chamberlain. On the street he was mobbed by fans. The following month Caine reached Canada, where he met with leading members of the publishing trade. He had long discussions with the Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie Bowell and the Canadian Minister of Justice Charles Tupper in Ottawa. At the request of the Canadian Copyright Association Caine went to Toronto where he had talks with the Toronto publishers. Caine resolved the dispute between the Canadian publishers, the Canadian Copyright Association and English authors. The proposed solution, that Canadian publishers would have the right to republish copyright works that had not been published in Canada within sixty days of publication elsewhere, was incorporated into the draft copyright bill. On 25 November 1895 Caine presented the draft bill at the Ottawa copyright conference where all parties agreed to it. The Canadian authorities and publishers were satisfied with the proposal put forward from England as were the American authors and publishers. The bill never became law, the 1889 Act was abandoned and a more flexible solution was found by 1900.
Peak years
Second visit to the United States
Taking two years to write, Caine's novel The Christian was published by Heinemann in 1897. It is the first novel in Britain to have sold over a million copies The book was inspired by Rossetti's verses Mary Magdalene at the Door of Simon The Pharisee, written for his painting, depicting a man trying to pluck back a woman about to enter the gates of heaven. Caine followed it with a lecture tour of Scotland, a one-man dramatic performance of his novelette Home Sweet Home. The Christian was serialised in Britain in the Windsor Magazine between December 1896 and November 1897 and in the United States in Munsey's Magazine between November 1896 and January 1898. Mainly set in Victorian London, it is the story of Glory Quayle, a young woman living an independent life who becomes an actress, and John Storm, who enters the priesthood. It was the first time that Caine had taken up the Woman Question. The character of John Storm is drawn from a composite of the Hon. and Rev. James Adderley, an Anglican priest of Berkley Chapel, Mayfair, London, and Father Stanton, who became an Anglican bishop. Caine dramatised the book in 1896. His play was so popular with the public that the Daily Mail published it in a thick-paper, illustrated edition. He directed the play, travelling to New York where he went on to deliver a series of lectures and readings there. Viola Allen produced the play for the first time on the stage at Albany, New York on 25 September 1898. It opened at the Knickerbocker Theatre on 10 October 1898, running for twenty-one weeks in New York. Almost one thousand clergymen attended a matinee on 15 November 1898. George C. Tyler, reportedly made one million dollars from the Broadway production of The Christian. On his return to London after being on tour, Wilson Barratt gave Caine half of an advance payment received from an Australian manager for Barratt's stage adaptation of The Christian. Caine rejected both the money and the play. Barratt unsuccessfully sued Caine on the grounds that they had an agreement to collaborate on the dramatisation. The Christian was first produced in England at the Duke of York's Theatre in October 1899. It failed after two months. Caine authorised a touring production with his sister Lily playing Glory Quayle and managed by her husband George Day which in 1907 was still continuously performed by up to three companies. After Finnish politician and writer Aino Malmberg sought aid from Caine on her country's behalf, he offered the Finnish rights to the Finnish National Theatre. Finland belonged to the Russian Empire and was actively seeking Independence. Malmberg translated Caine's works into Finnish.
Rome
Caine and his wife, Mary, spent four winters in Rome, renting a house, 18 Trinità de' Monti, near the Spanish Steps. On their visit between January and April 1901 Caine finished The Eternal City, his greatest commercial success. It is Caine's only novel to be first conceived as a play. The story begins in Rome in 1900 at the fictional Pope Pius X's jubilee celebrations, at the height of the dispute between the Vatican and the Italian state on the temporal power of the Church. David Rossi, a socialist and republican is accused of conspiring to assassinate the Italian king. He opposes Baron Bonelli, a corrupt prime minister. Bonelli tries to prevent the culmination of the love story between his mistress Donna Roma Volonna and Rossi. The Eternal City was serialised in Britain in 1901 in The Lady's Magazine and in the United States in Collier's Weekly, between February and August 1901. Immediately afterwards it was published in book form by Heinemann, with an initial print run of 100,000, running to twenty-six editions, selling more than a million copies in English alone and translated into thirteen languages. The stage adaptation opened at His Majesty's Theatre, London on 2 October 1902, produced by actor-manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree, with incidental music by Italian composer Pietro Mascagni. A week after the play opened in London, Caine republished the novel, cutting all the political parts and following the story of the play making it into a 'theatre edition'. The American production of The Eternal City premiered on 17 November, at the Victoria Theatre, New York City, with Viola Allen as Roma, Frederic De Belleville as Bonelli, and Edward J. Morgan as Rossi. Caine supervised rehearsals. Towards the end of 1903 six companies were performing The Eternal City, in England, USA, Australia and South Africa.
Household Words
In 1901 Caine bought Household Words, the literary magazine founded by Charles Dickens in 1850. He appointed his son Ralph as editor, and it was sold in 1904. The Eternal City appeared as two instalments in the Christmas 1901 and January 1902 editions. He made many contributions including articles about Pope Leo XIII, whom he had a private audience with, the story A Maid of Mona and a serialisation of The Manxman. His writings on Roman Catholicism caused serious offence to his fellow members of the National Club of London, founded as a Protestant club.
Between 1902 and 1904 the Caine's rented a large early Victorian house in London on Wimbledon Common, The Hermitage. It had been the last home of Scottish novelist Margaret Oliphant.
Second visit to Iceland
To obtain local colour for his novel The Prodigal Son Caine visited Iceland in 1903. On one of two exploration trips that started from Reykjavik Caine discovered a cave about 200 feet long in the valley of Thingvellir, afterwards named "Hall's Hellin" (Hall's cave). On 26 August Caine was at the close of the Iceland Althing where he was a guest of Magnús Stephensen, the island's Governor. At the Parliamentary dinner which followed, Caine was introduced "as a distinguished "skald" (bard), whose writings were widely known and greatly admired in Iceland". The Prodigal Son was published in November 1904 by Heinemann and translated into thirteen languages. It is set in a sheep-rearing community in rural Iceland, with scenes in London and the French Riviera. In The Prodigal Son Magnus learns on his wedding day that his bride, Thora, is in love with his brother Oscar, a composer. She marries Oscar after Magnus releases her from the engagement. When Thora dies, a distraught Oscar places the only copies of his compositions in her coffin. Later he has her grave opened and his music retrieved. Caine's use of a similar event to Rossetti's exhumation of Elizabeth Siddal, where Rossetti recovered his poems that he had buried with her, caused a lasting rift between Caine and the Rossetti family. The Prodigal Son was simultaneously dramatised, the copyright performance held at the Grand Theatre, Douglas. American and British productions opened days apart in 1905, at the National Theatre in Washington, D. C. on 28 August, the New Amsterdam Theatre in New York City on 4 September and at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London on 7 September, with George Alexander playing Oscar and Caine's sister Lilian playing Thora. After a long run at Drury Lane it was revived in 1907.
In September 1906 Caine's dramatised version of The Bondman was produced in London's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, with Mrs Patrick Campbell playing a leading role and Caine's son, Derwent (aged sixteen), making a stage début. A copyright performance had taken place at the Theatre Royal, Bolton in November 1982. Caine revised the play for Arthur Collins, moving part of the story to Sicily and creating a happy ending. The highlight of the show was the sulphur mine explosion and volcano eruption. In April 1906 Collins and Caine had gone on a research trip where they spent a day with Leone Testa, the inspector-general of Sicily's sulphur mines and while visiting Naples they witnessed Mount Vesuvius erupt. The show ran for eleven weeks followed by eight weeks at the Adelphi Theatre and a revival of The Prodigal Son. The production went on tour in the UK and America.
Japanese actor and a founder of Japanese modern theatre Otojirō Kawakami staged the play in Japan in 1909, changing the setting to Japan and the Philippines and included the volcanic eruption. When Kawakami's new western style theatre Teikoku-za opened in Osaka in March 1910 the first production was The Bondman.
1908 saw the publication of My Story, described by Bram Stoker as "autobiographical rather than an autobiography and gives insight to the life and character of his many friends and their influence on his life and work, and of the gradual growth of his mind and of his importance in the world as the success of each book gave him further opportunities."
Egyptian nationalism
On 13 June 1906 British officers shot pigeons for sport in Denshawai, an Egyptian village whose inhabitants were pigeon farmers, resulting in a clash between the officers and several villagers. One villager, falsely accused of murder was killed on the spot. Four villagers were hanged and others punished by jail sentences, hard labour and lashings. The Denshawai Incident proved a turning point in the history of the British occupation of Egypt, starting a fierce political debate both in Egypt and Britain in which intellectuals and men of letters participated, eventually causing the resignation of Lord Cromer, the redoubtable British Consul General and de facto ruler of Egypt since 1882. Crucially poet Wilfred Scawen Blunt exposed the facts in his pamphlet Atrocities of Justice Under British Rule in Egypt, provoking a public outcry in Britain. George Bernard Shaw drafted a petition published in The New Age with the main purpose of gaining the release of the Egyptian prisoners. Shaw denounces the "Denshawai horror" in his Preface to Politicians that introduces his John Bull's Other Island. Caine's literary response to the debate is his controversial novel The White Prophet. Shaw reviews The White Prophet and opposes literary censorship in Bernard Shaw on Shams of Rule and of Religion. Set in Egypt at the start of the twentieth century, twenty years into the British occupation and opening with a ceremonial re-enactment of the Battle of Omdurman, The White Prophet is the story of Colonel Charles George Lord, a British officer who joins the crusade of Ishmael Ameer, a Muslim prophet against selfishness and sedition. Lord compares him with Christ and John the Baptist. Ameer plans a coup against the British in Sudan, after developing political ambitions. The White Prophet is Caine's only book never to have been reprinted; its sympathies for Egyptian nationalism rendered it a commercial failure. Caine used material from Mahomet and The Mahdi in the novel. Accompanied by his wife, he made three research visits to Egypt, March to May 1907, then January to May in 1908 and similarly in 1909 when he was joined by actor manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree. Cromer failed to meet Caine during his visit to Egypt in 1907, instead Caine wrote urging him to grant the Egyptians wish "for a speedy fulfilment of England's promise to get out of Egypt as soon as it was safe to do so" and to "yield to legitimate claims to national independence". Originally entitled The White Christ, it was serialised in the British and US editions of The Strand Magazine between December 1908 and November 1909, and subsequently translated into seven languages. The Arabic translation was serialised in Cairo-based newspaper al-Minbar. Douglas Sladen read the first two instalments of The White Prophet and had the idea of writing a counterblast, the novel The Tragedy of the Pyramids: A Romance of Army Life in Egypt. Closing the preface he writes "I felt bound to challenge the false light in which he presents the British Army of Occupation in Egypt to the public". A copyright performance was performed at the Garrick Theatre, London on 27 November 1908. Beerbohm Tree's plans to produce a dramatised version at His Majesty's Theatre, London, which he was to direct and star in, were abandoned following threats to lobby the Lord Chamberlain against granting a licence for the play, banning it. Cromer is reported to have protested to the Lord Chamberlain's Department that "the state of the Nationalist agitation in Egypt made a dramatic representation of some of its features injudicious". The character of John Lord is widely believed to be Cromer. Promoting the publication of The White Prophet by Heinemann on 12 August 1909, Caine published a series of eight articles Aspects of the East in The Daily Telegraph. Heinemann published Shaw's The Critics of The White Prophet as a pamphlet, endorsing the novel's political viewpoint. It was to have been the preface for the second edition.
On 15 August 1910, Caine's new stage adaptation of The Deemster entitled The Bishop's Son opened at the Grand Theatre, Douglas, Isle of Man, with Caine's son, Derwent, playing Dan. It went on to open at London's Garrick Theatre on 28 September 1910 with Bransby Williams as Dan, which ran for seven performances.
Controversy of The Woman Thou Gavest Me
Caine's novel The Woman Thou Gavest Me: Being the Story of Mary O'Neill, published by Heinemann in 1913, "caused the biggest furore of any of his novels". Translated into nine languages, worldwide advance orders for the book exceeded 200,000. From October 1912 it was serialised in Britain in Nash's Magazine and concurrently in the United States in Hearst's Magazine. The following month serialisation began in The Australian Women's Weekly. Circulating libraries divided new books into three categories: satisfactory, doubtful and objectionable.
They attempted to boycott The Woman Thou Gavest Me along with Compton Mackenzie's Sinister Street and W. B. Maxwell's The Devil's Garden, for failing their criteria. The authors directed a publicity campaign opposing the boycott. The Woman Thou Gavest Me, the second of Caine's novels to address the Woman Question, "arraigns the divorce laws" of the time. Father Bernard Vaughan, known for his sermons on The Sins of Society, denounced Caine's book saying "it showed startling ignorance of Roman Catholic doctrine and practice". The novel was one of several books the Catholic Federation in Auckland, New Zealand wanted removed from sale. In Wyndham, Western Australia the committee of Little River Mechanics Institute Free Library ordered the book banned and burnt. American newspapers reported of a Methodist preacher's daughter that eloped and married the son of a prominent family, who later divorced her and took away her child. She was arrested on the street for Immorality. After three days in jail Eugene V. Debs, five times Socialist candidate for President of the United States sheltered her in his home. It was Debs' "challenge to the Christianity of Terre Haute", Indiana. Parallels were drawn between the problem that Debs handled in real life and Caine's fictional story of Mary O'Neill, who marries unhappily and ends up on the street without shelter, with the whole world turned against her. The Woman Thou Gavest Me was reprinted five times before the end of 1913 when nearly half a million copies had been sold. The Times Literary Supplement listed it as the most popular novel of that year. New York's Bookman, listed it as the fifth best-seller of October 1913.
English fiction was represented in Europe by Hall Caine, as French fiction was by Anatole France, Italian by Gabriele D'Annunzio, and German by Hermann Sudermann. "Among English novelists who have made from fifty to sixty cents for every word in a long novel are Hall Caine and Marie Corelli. Compared with such money earners as these, Dickens, Thackeray, and George Eliot were poorly paid for their labor".
Politics
On 24 October 1901 Caine was elected a Member of the House of Keys in a by-election as a Liberal for the constituency of Ramsey, Isle of Man, by a majority of 267 votes. Caine sought election to the Keys after the collapse of Dumbell's Banking Company on Friday 2 February 1900. The crash resulted in a number of resignations and retirements, resulting in eleven by-elections. The Bank had held most of the island's cash deposits and left businesses and residents without money. At the General election in 1903 Caine was re-elected for another five years.
During Caine's election campaign he supported dominion status for the Island with a Manxman as Lieutenant-Governor, a directly elected Legislative Council and departmental officials appointed by and responsible to Tynwald. A pamphlet entitled Hall Caine's Letters and Speeches on Manx Politics was published in 1903, containing his election speech and articles he wrote for the Daily Mail and Black and White, describing his experiences and aspirations. In recognition of his single election speech Caine was appointed vice-president of the Land Nationalisation Society of Great Britain.
The Manx National Reform League made constitutional and social reform the central issues in the general election of 1903, after an extra-parliamentary initiative by journalist and printer Samuel Norris. It was influenced by Liberal demands for political change in the United Kingdom. In 1903 Caine was elected the first president of the Manx National Reform League. In 1904 the new House of Keys established a committee on constitutional reform, chaired by Caine, that prepared the 1907 petition for constitutional reform.
Caine retired from active politics in 1908. Due to the other pressures on his time he seldom spoke in the Keys. He also had little time to offer to politics on a larger scale. Prior to the Ramsey by-election, Caine was invited by Lloyd George to stand for the British parliament but he refused.
The Great War
Caine was aged 61 at the outbreak of the Great War. The British secretly set up the War Propaganda Bureau under MP Charles Masterman. Caine was one of twenty-five leading authors Masterman invited to the Bureau's London headquarters, Wellington House on 2 September 1914 with the purpose of best promoting Britain's interests during the war. Shortly after, Caine was one of fifty-three of the leading authors in Britain to sign the 'Authors' Declaration', a manifesto drafted by Masterman stating that Britain "could not without dishonour have refused to take part in the present war." Issued on 17 September the document was sent by special cable to the New York Times. Caine abandoned literary contracts in America valued at 150,000 dollars in order to devote all his energies to the British war effort.
Following the Rape of Belgium Caine edited King Albert's Book in support of the exiled King Albert of Belgium. It was Caine's idea and was published at Christmas 1914 by The Daily Telegraph. The proceeds from the book, £20,000, went to the Daily Telegraph Belgium Fund, a fund created to support British efforts to receive and maintain Belgian refugees in Britain. In previous years Caine had edited several of these volumes already, the most recent for Queen Alexandra's charities in 1905 and 1908. Caine invited authors, artists, composers, statesmen and many notable people to present their view of events in Belgium. King Albert‘s Book contains contributions from two hundred and fifty of the most famous people of the time. Among the contributors are British Prime Minister Asquith and then Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, painters Claude Monet and John Collier and composer Claude Debussy.
King Albert of Belgium made Caine an Officer of the Order of Leopold of Belgium for his humanitarian aid to the Belgian refugees in 1918. Caine's portrait by the Belgian painter, Alfred Jonniaux, was presented to him by the Fine Art Department of the Belgian Government.
Caine wrote extensively in the English, American and Italian newspapers. He claimed that by this work and his personal influence with Italian statesmen he greatly helped bring Italy into the war on the side of the allies. President Woodrow Wilson had declared the United States neutral and his policy of neutrality was enormously popular with the American people.
Caine urged America to join the war by writing articles, mainly for The New York Times and in 1915 he gave a series of lectures in the United States but these were not well received. In September 1915, at the conclusion of the first year of war, a series of articles featuring royalty, countries and events which included Archduke Ferdinand, the Kaiser and the Sinking of the RMS Lusitania that Caine had contributed to The Daily Telegraph were published as a book entitled The Drama of 365 Days: Scenes in the Great War. Caine attended Nurse Edith Cavell's memorial service in St Paul's Cathedral, London, on 29 October 1915; the World War I British nurse who is celebrated for saving the lives of soldiers in Brussels from all sides without distinction. His account was published in The Daily Telegraph on 30 October and extensively in other newspapers. In 1916 he was invited to work with Lord Robert Cecil at the Foreign Office towards the creation of the League of Nations after the end of the war. Our Girls: Their Work for the War, is the title of Caine's Christmas book published by Messrs Hutchinson early in December 1916, consisting of a series of Caine's articles written for the Ministry of Munitions, together with additional stories of women's working lives in the factories and in the hospitals. It was designed to be a gift for munitions girls to send to their men at the front.
The National War Aims Committee was set up in 1917 to focus on domestic propaganda. Caine was recruited for the committee by the Prime Minister David Lloyd George to write the screenplay for the propaganda film Victory and Peace, designed to show what would happen in a German invasion. Most of the negative of the newly finished film was destroyed in a fire at the offices of the London Film Company in June 1918. It was re-filmed over four-months, just as the war ended and was never released.
Towards the end of 1917 Caine was offered a baronetcy in recognition of the contribution he made to the war effort as an allied propagandist and his position as a leading man of letters. Caine declined the hereditary peerage and accepted a knighthood instead. He was made Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire(KBE), insisting on being called, not 'Sir Thomas' but 'Sir Hall'.
After the war
Begun in 1914 Caine's The Master of Man: The Story of a Sin had been set aside for the duration of the Great War and resumed on the day after armistice in 1918. It is the story of Bessie Collister who has an illegitimate child. The baby's father Victor Stowell, as judge, has to try Bessie for the murder of their child. Heinmann published the novel in July 1921. Of the initial one hundred thousand copies printed seventy thousand were advance orders. Due to his age and health Caine announced it was to be his last novel. Sales of The Eternal City in English had reached one million and fifty-two English editions of The Deemster had been published.
A Collected Edition of Caine's novels followed, also published by Heinmann, issued not in order of publication but in the order of public demand.
The following year Caine acquired the Sunday Illustrated newspaper which had been founded by Horatio Bottomley.
Caine's last novel The Woman of Knockaloe was brought out in 1923, this time published by Cassell's. Caine's strong anti-German feeling had turned to advocacy of reconciliation and pacifism. In the editorial note Newman Flower explains that the story was never intended to be published, but Flower happened to see the manuscript and persuaded Caine to publish it immediately. The book deals with the harm caused by racial hatred after Mona Craine, a British woman, falls in love with Oskar Heine, a German prisoner of war. The scene of the story is Knockaloe, a farm on the west coast of the Isle of Man, turned into an internment camp 1914–1918 for alien civilians. Caine was former part owner of the farm and suggested the establishment of the camp to the government. The camp was the first and largest of its kind in Europe, containing about twenty-five thousand aliens and two thousand British guard. The site was overlooked by Greeba Castle, Caine's Manx house, four miles away. That year he sold the Sunday Illustrated. On Armistice Day 1923 Caine's first radio broadcast, A Counsel of Peace, was made to the nation from the British Broadcasting Corporation in London.
Caine's last published work in his lifetime was a revised version of Recollections of Rossetti, with a shortened title, to coincide with the 1928 centenary of Rossetti's birth.
During the last eight years of his life Caine devoted himself to his life's work a Life of Christ, which he had begun in 1893. On at least three occasions Caine visited Palestine and Transjordania, the last in 1929; consulting the best-known theologians of the time, and reading every book he could obtain on the subject. His health broke down under the strain and the book remained unfinished. In the statement he prepared for his obituary was written, "one-fifth of the book is in a form fit for publication, the remainder not being in a condition which renders it possible that another author should complete it". The statement was disregarded by his sons and after extensive editing the book was published posthumously by his sons in 1938. The handwritten manuscript, including text and words, contained three million words, much of it indecipherable, to the extent that Caine's former secretaries were called in to transcribe it. An editor, journalist Robert Leighton was employed to cut it down to half-a-million words. "It was severely criticised by the reviewers and the sales were not large".
Along with Winston Churchill, Caine received the Order of the Companions of Honour in October 1922 for his services to literature and was granted the Freedom of Douglas in 1929 for promoting the Isle of Man through his writings.
Films
1910s
Most of Caine's novels have been made into black-and-white silent films. The first film adaptation is The Christian (1911), by West's Pictures in Australia. The twenty-eight-minute unauthorised film is the first directed by Franklyn Barrett. The Christian features the cast of the stage production by William Anderson's Company. An unauthorised film of The Bondman (1916) was made by Fox Film Corporation in the United States and is the first film they released under their De Luxe brand. All of Fox's 110 musicians accompanied The Bondman screenings. The music is composed by Max Steiner, Fox's musical director. A financial and critical success it was re-released in 1918 as one of Fox's Big Six. A further film version of The Bondman was released as The Red Samson (1917) in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The director was Michael Curtiz, who had by 1916 become one of Hungary's most important directors.
The first authorised film of a Caine novel is The Christian (1914) released in the United States by the Vitagraph Liebler Company. The first eight reel film they made. Vitagraph leased the Harris Theatre on West 42nd Street, for the purpose of exclusively showing their own films, opening with The Christian starring Earle Williams and Edith Storey. Caine wrote the film scenario, the first time ever that a famous author undertook a film scenario of their own work. Vitagraph staff writer Eugene Mullins followed Caine's own scenario.
Adapted and directed by established American screenwriter and director George Loane Tucker, The Christian (1915) was made by the London Film Company. The 9,000 feet film stars Caine's son Derwent Hall Caine as John Storm. The Manxman (1916), also produced by the London Film Company and directed by Tucker, was filmed on the Isle of Man and, when released drew huge crowds in Britain and America. It was one of the few British films distributed in the United States that went on to become a financial and critical success. Starring Derwent Hall Caine and Marian Swayne The Deemster (1917), made in the United States, is the first special feature film Arrow Film Corporation made. Shot on location on Block Island, Rhode Island, the film was originally entitled The Bishop’s Son after Caine's 1910 stage adaptation of The Deemster in which Derwent had also played Dan Mylrea and on which the film is based. Caine remained closely involved with the production; based in England, Caine reviewed the scenario and produced drawings of the character of the buildings to be used.
Adolph Zukor's Famous Players Film Company produced the first version of The Eternal City (1915). The $100,000 epic film features stage star Pauline Frederick. Made on location in London and Italy in 1914 the production was interrupted by the start of the Great War and was completed in New York. For distribution of initially The Eternal City and other prestigious feature-length films Famous Players created the Select Booking Agency. Caine cabled the producers after attending the British premiere at Marble Arch Pavilion, in London congratulating them. The film was re-released in 1918 as part of the Paramount "Success Series".
Prime Minister David Lloyd George recruited Caine in 1917 to write the screenplay for the propaganda film Victory and Peace (1918), made in Britain and directed by Herbert Brenon. Caine was appointed as chief adviser to the film campaign department of the National War Aims Committee. Lloyd George chose Caine due to his experience in the field of cinema and his "reputation as a man of letters". On 20 September 1917, in Ithaca, New York, Brenon's representative obtained the film rights of The Woman Thou Gavest Me from Derwent Hall Caine, Caine's American agent, intending to start work in November 1917. The film was advertised but it was never made by Brenon. Adapted for the screen by Beulah Marie Dix, The Woman Thou Gavest Me (1919) was made by Famous Players-Lasky. Katherine MacDonald, stars in the film as Mary MacNeil. Immediately after completing The Woman Thou Gavest Me she set up her own production company.
1920s
Caine wrote the screenplay of Darby and Joan (1920). Made by Master Films the film was directed by Percy Nash featuring Derwent Hall Caine and Ivy Close. Many of the scenes were shot in the Isle of Man.
The fourth film adaptation of The Christian (1923) was by Goldwyn Pictures and directed by the celebrated Maurice Tourneur. Along with some of the cast, Tourneur travelled to the Isle of Man for location shooting where they were joined by Caine who co-operated in the filming of his work and held daily conferences with Tourneur. After the film was completed in the United States a print was sent to Caine in London where he wrote the intertitles.
Adapted and directed by A.E. Coleby The Prodigal Son (1923) was made by Stoll Pictures, the largest British film company of the early 1920s, as the centrepiece of their 1923 releases. Costing £37,000 it was at the time the most expensive British production made. The film's length at 18,454 feet made it the longest commercially made British film. The 4-hour 40-minute picture was released in two parts; part two titled The Return of the Prodigal.
Benito Mussolini featured in The Eternal City (1923) by the Samuel Goldwyn Company. Directed by George Fitzmaurice and shot on location in Rome less than a year after the March on Rome resulted in Mussolini's National Fascist Party rising to power in Italy. The film portrays Mussolini as a leader saving his people from communism. Caine disapproved of the adaptation and attempted to withdraw his name from it.
The first American made film by noted Swedish actor-director Victor Sjöström for Goldwyn Pictures was adapted from The Master of Man. The title was changed to "The Judge and the Woman" before settling on Name the Man (1924). Samuel Goldwyn began negotiating the film rights before the novel was finished.
The Woman of Knockaloe was filmed by Paramount Pictures in 1927 as Barbed Wire and is the second American made film by German director Erich Pommer. It deals with a phase of WWI where German prisoners of war suffer the hatred of the French women and yet find romance. Then Alfred Hitchcock arrived on the Isle of Man to film The Manxman (1929) but he and Caine did not get on well and the rest of the film was shot in Cornwall. The Manxman was Hitchcock's last silent film. Caine was not happy with it.
The British silent film The Bondman (1929) was directed by Herbert Wilcox.
1930s
After retiring from the army in 1922, Colonel Hanna joined the British Board of Film Censors and held the position of vice-president and chief censor throughout the 1930s. Gaumont British's plan to film The White Prophet was abandoned after objections by Colonel Hanna as he thought it contained scenes with "a tendency to bring the British army into contempt and ridicule" and that "no scene of cavalry charging the mob and causing 100 deaths….would be permissible on the screen".
Shortly before Caine's death in 1931, Metro Goldwyn Mayer purchased the screen rights of The Christian with the intention of making a talking picture. The rights were reported as selling for £8000.
Personal and domestic
In appearance Caine was a short man who tended to dress in a striking fashion. His eyes were dark brown and slightly protuberant, giving him an intense stare. He had red-gold hair and a dark red beard which he trimmed to appear like the Stratford bust of Shakespeare; indeed if people did not notice the likeness he was inclined to point it out to them. He was also preoccupied throughout his life with the state of his health. This was often the result of overwork or other stresses in his life and he sometimes used nervous exhaustion as an excuse to escape from his problems.
In 1912, Derwent Hall Caine had an illegitimate daughter, Elin, and she was brought up as Caine and Mary's child. By 1914 Mary at last had her own London house – Heath Brow which overlooked Hampstead Heath. After the Great War this house had become too big and Mary moved into Heath End House, again overlooking Hampstead Heath. By 1922 they informally separated; Caine could not live with Mary, nor could he break with her completely. From that time, both suffered from various ailments.
On 31 August 1931, aged 78 Caine slipped into a coma and died at his home, Greeba Castle, Isle of Man. On his death certificate is the diagnosis of "cardiac syncope". Following his death messages of condolence were received from the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, King George V and Queen Mary.
At Caine's funeral on Friday 4 September 1931 representatives of all branches of public life in the Isle of Man followed the coffin. Sixty thousand Manx people and holiday makers paid tribute on the 25-mile journey. At Douglas great crowds lined the route and the majority of businesses closed. An address was made by the Bishop of Man. Caine was buried in Kirk Maughold churchyard.
A memorial service was held at St Martin-in-the-Fields, London on 9 September 1931. Rev. R. J. Campbell gave the address. The Prime Minister was represented by Charles Patrick Duff, and Albert James Sylvester represented Lloyd George.
In March 1932, six months after her husband's death, Mary Hall Caine died from pneumonia. She was buried alongside her husband.
An Irish limestone obelisk depicting six characters from Caine's novels and a likeness of Mary was erected over their grave. The design is based on the ancient Maughold Parish Cross that is preserved in the churchyard. The memorial is the work of artist Archibald Knox.
A statue of Hall Caine stands in Douglas, financed by money from the estate of Derwent Hall Caine.
Postscript
Caine's legacy
Hall Caine was an enormously popular and best-selling author in his time. Crowds would gather outside his houses hoping to get a glimpse of him. He was "accorded the adulation reserved now for pop stars and footballers", and yet he is now virtually unknown.
Allen suggests two reasons for this. First that, in comparison with Dickens, his characters are not clearly drawn, they are "frequently fuzzy at the edges" while Dickens' characters are "diamond-clear"; and Caine's characters also tend to be much the same as each other. Something similar could also be said about his plots. Possibly the main drawback is that although Caine's books can be romantic and emotionally moving, they lack humour; they are deadly earnest and serious.
Critical appraisals
Despite his proving the wealthiest of Victorian novelists, Caine has been largely dismissed as a mere melodramatist by subsequent criticism.
G. K. Chesterton said in "A Defence of Penny Dreadfuls" that "it is quite clear that this objection, the objection brought by magistrates, has nothing to do with literary merit. Bad story writing is not a crime. Mr. Hall Caine walks the streets openly, and cannot be put in prison for an anticlimax."
Thomas Hardy criticised Caine for his excessive egotism.
Hall Caine Airport
Hall Caine Airport was an airfield on the Isle of Man which was located near Ramsey. It was named after the author by his sons Gordon Hall Caine and Derwent Hall Caine, who were the project initiators and Hall Caine Airport flourished for a short period prior to the outbreak of the Second World War. From 1935 to 1937 it handled domestic scheduled passenger flights to English, Scottish and Irish airports. By 1937 it had fallen into disuse, primarily due to its location. Both Gordon Hall Caine and Derwent Hall Caine were particularly keen on the development of an aerodrome as they saw it as another bit of the island as being associated with their late father. They were said to be extremely interested in the progress of the Isle of Man and in particular its transport infrastructure. They also wished to include Ramsey's municipal authority in the project, as they were both of the opinion that the aerodrome would bring immense benefit to the town.
The final commercial flight from Hall Caine Airport departed at 16:15hrs on Saturday 2 October 1937.
Bibliography
Prose fiction
Plays
Films
Non-fiction
Caine wrote countless articles and stories of which an account has never been kept.
Filmography
1911 – The Christian, based on the play. Directed by Franklyn Barrett in Australia. 28 minutes
1914 – The Christian, based on the play and the novel. Directed by Frederick A. Thomson in USA.
1915 – The Eternal City, based on the play and the novel. Directed by Hugh Ford and Edwin S. Porter in USA. 120 minutes
1915 – The Christian, based on the novel. Directed by George Loane Tucker in UK. 120 minutes
1916 – The Bondman, based on the novel. Directed by Edgar Lewis in USA.
1916 – The Manxman, based on the novel. Directed by George Loane Tucker in UK. 90 minutes
1917 – The Deemster, based on the novel (also known as The Bishop's Son). Directed by Howell Hansel in USA.
1917 – The Red Samson, based on the novel The Bondman. Directed by Michael Curtiz in Hungary. 90 minutes
1918 – Victory and Peace. Directed by Herbert Brenon in UK.
1919 – The Woman Thou Gavest Me, based on the novel. Directed by Hugh Ford in USA. 60 minutes
1920 – Darby and Joan, based on the novella. Directed by Percy Nash in GB. 180 minutes
1923 – The Christian, based on the play and the novel. Directed by Maurice Tourneur in USA. 80 minutes
1923 – The Prodigal Son, based on the novel. Directed by A. E. Coleby in UK and Iceland. 280 minutes
1923 – The Eternal City, based on the novel. Directed by George Fitzmaurice in USA. 80 minutes
1924 – Name the Man, based on the novel The Master of Man: the Story of a Sin. Directed by Victor Sjöström in USA. 80 minutes
1927 – Barbed Wire, based on the novel The Woman of Knockaloe, a Parable. Directed by Rowland V. Lee in USA. 67 minutes
1929 – The Bondman, based on the novel. Directed by Herbert Wilcox in UK.
1929 – The Manxman, based on the novel. Directed by Alfred Hitchcock in UK. 90 minutes.
Footnotes
References
Sources
External links
Hall Caine's page on the Manx Literature website
Portraits in the National Portrait Gallery
Objects relating to Hall Caine Victoria and Albert Museum
The Sir Hall Caine Papers (Woodson Research Center, Fondren Library, Rice University, Houston, Texas, USA)
Film footage of Hall Caine and son, Derwent, in the middle of the film, The King's Ride in the Isle of Man (1902), from the BFI
Film footage of Hall Caine, Last Interview at Isle of Ulan with Sir Hall Caine (1931), from ITN Source
Poems by Hall Caine on the PoemHunter website
Plays by Hall Caine on the Great War Theatre website
1853 births
1931 deaths
Recipients of the Order of Leopold II
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
People from Runcorn
19th-century English novelists
20th-century English novelists
19th-century British journalists
English male journalists
People associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Manx people
Manx writers
Manx politicians
Manx culture
English male novelists
19th-century male writers
Manx dramatists and playwrights
19th-century British dramatists and playwrights
20th-century British dramatists and playwrights
English dramatists and playwrights
English male dramatists and playwrights
Victorian novelists
19th-century Manx writers
20th-century Manx writers
Silent film people
British male screenwriters
19th-century British writers
20th-century British writers
19th-century English non-fiction writers
20th-century English non-fiction writers
20th-century British screenwriters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20cartoon
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Political cartoon
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A political cartoon, a type of editorial cartoon, is a cartoon graphic with caricatures of public figures, expressing the artist's opinion. An artist who writes and draws such images is known as an editorial cartoonist. They typically combine artistic skill, hyperbole and satire in order to question authority and draw attention to corruption, political violence and other social ills.
Developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century, the political cartoon was pioneered by James Gillray, although his and others in the flourishing English industry were sold as individual prints in print shops. Founded in 1841, the British periodical Punch appropriated the term cartoon to refer to its political cartoons, which led to the term's widespread use.
History
Origins
The pictorial satire has been credited as the precursor to the political cartoons in England: John J. Richetti, in The Cambridge history of English literature, 1660–1780, states that "English graphic satire really begins with Hogarth's Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme". William Hogarth's pictures combined social criticism with sequential artistic scenes. A frequent target of his satire was the corruption of early 18th century British politics. An early satirical work was an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (c.1721), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720 known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money.
His art often had a strong moralizing element to it, such as in his masterpiece of 1732–33, A Rake's Progress, engraved in 1734. It consisted of eight pictures that depicted the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends all of his money on luxurious living, services from sex workers, and gambling—the character's life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital.
However, his work was only tangentially politicized and was primarily regarded on its artistic merits. George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s.
Development
The medium began to develop in England in the latter part of the 18th century—especially around the time of the French Revolution—under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. Calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account, many of Gillray's satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of Revolutionary France and Napoleon. The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable to the growth of a great school of caricature. Party warfare was carried on with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and personalities were freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray's incomparable wit and humour, knowledge of life, fertility of resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, and beauty of execution, at once gave him the first place among caricaturists.
George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray (1820s–40s). His early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians and was bribed in 1820 "not to caricature His Majesty" (George IV) "in any immoral situation". His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as Gillray and Rowlandson.
Cartoonist's magazines
The art of the editorial cartoon was further developed with the publication of the British periodical Punch in 1841, founded by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells (an earlier magazine that published cartoons was Monthly Sheet of Caricatures, printed from 1830 and an important influence on Punch). It was bought by Bradbury and Evans in 1842, who capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies to turn the magazine into a preeminent national institution. The term "cartoon" to refer to comic drawings was coined by the magazine in 1843; the Houses of Parliament were to be decorated with murals, and "carttons" for the mural were displayed for the public; the term "cartoon" then meant a finished preliminary sketch on a large piece of cardboard, or in Italian. Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the term's widespread use.
Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and Charles Keene. This group became known as "The Punch Brotherhood", which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists also contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week (est.1859), created in response to Dickens' departure from Household Words.
The most prolific and influential cartoonist of the 1850s and 60s was John Tenniel, chief cartoon artist for Punch, who perfected the art of physical caricature and representation to a point that has changed little up to the present day. For over five decades he was a steadfast social witness to the sweeping national changes that occurred during this period alongside his fellow cartoonist John Leech. The magazine loyally captured the general public mood; in 1857, following the Indian Rebellion and the public outrage that followed, Punch published vengeful illustrations such as Tenniel's Justice and The British Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger.
Maturation
By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many countries featured cartoons designed to express the publisher's opinion on the politics of the day. One of the most successful was Thomas Nast in New York City, who imported realistic German drawing techniques to major political issues in the era of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Nast was most famous for his 160 editorial cartoons attacking the criminal characteristics of Boss Tweed's political machine in New York City. Albert Boime argues that:
As a political cartoonist, Thomas Nast wielded more influence than any other artist of the 19th century. He not only enthralled a vast audience with boldness and wit, but swayed it time and again to his personal position on the strength of his visual imagination. Both Lincoln and Grant acknowledged his effectiveness in their behalf, and as a crusading civil reformer he helped destroy the corrupt Tweed Ring that swindled New York City of millions of dollars. Indeed, his impact on American public life was formidable enough to profoundly affect the outcome of every presidential election during the period 1864 to 1884.
Notable editorial cartoons include Benjamin Franklin's Join, or Die (1754), on the need for unity in the American colonies; The Thinkers Club (1819), a response to the surveillance and censorship of universities in Germany under the Carlsbad Decrees; and E. H. Shepard's The Goose-Step (1936), on the rearmament of Germany under Hitler. The Goose-Step is one of a number of notable cartoons first published in the British Punch magazine.
Recognition
Institutions which archive and document editorial cartoons include the Center for the Study of Political Graphics in the United States, and the British Cartoon Archive in the United Kingdom.
Editorial cartoons and editorial cartoonists are recognised by a number of awards, for example the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning (for US cartoonists, since 1922) and the British Press Awards' "Cartoonist of the Year".
Modern political cartoons
Political cartoons can usually be found on the editorial page of many newspapers, although a few (such as Garry Trudeau's Doonesbury) are sometimes placed on the regular comic strip page. Most cartoonists use visual metaphors and caricatures to address complicated political situations, and thus sum up a current event with a humorous or emotional picture.
Yaakov Kirschen, creator of the Israeli comic strip Dry Bones, says his cartoons are designed to make people laugh, which makes them drop their guard and see things the way he does. In an interview, he defined his objective as a cartoonist as an attempt to "seduce rather than to offend."
Modern political cartooning can be built around traditional visual metaphors and symbols such as Uncle Sam, the Democratic donkey and the Republican elephant. One alternative approach is to emphasize the text or the story line, as seen in Doonesbury which tells a linear story in comic strip format.
Cartoons have a great potential to political communication capable of enhancing political comprehension and reconceptualization of events, through specific frames of understanding. Mateus' analysis "seems to indicate that the double standard thesis can be actually applied to trans-national contexts. This means that the framing of politics and business may not be limited to one country but may reflect a political world-view occurring in contemporary societies. From the double standard standpoint, there are no fundamental differences in the way Canadian political cartoonists and Portuguese political cartoons assess politics and business life". The paper does not tell that all political cartoons are based on this kind of double standard, but suggests that the double standard thesis in Political Cartoons may be a frequent frame among possible others.
A political cartoon commonly draws on two unrelated events and brings them together incongruously for humorous effect. The humour can reduce people's political anger and so serves a useful purpose. Such a cartoon also reflects real life and politics, where a deal is often done on unrelated proposals beyond public scrutiny.
Pocket cartoons
A pocket cartoon is a form of cartoon which generally consists of a topical political gag/joke and appears as a single-panel single-column drawing. It was introduced by Osbert Lancaster in 1939 at the Daily Express. A 2005 obituary by The Guardian of its pocket cartoonist David Austin said "Newspaper readers instinctively look to the pocket cartoon to reassure them that the disasters and afflictions besetting them each morning are not final. By taking a sideways look at the news and bringing out the absurd in it, the pocket cartoonist provides, if not exactly a silver lining, then at least a ray of hope."
Controversies related to cartoons
Editorial cartoons sometimes cause controversies. Examples include the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and Charlie Hebdo shooting (stemming from the publication of cartoons related to Islam) and the 2007 Bangladesh cartoon controversy.
Libel lawsuits have been rare. In Britain, the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century came in 1921 when J.H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of "Black Friday"—when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners' Federation. Thomas won his lawsuit, and restored his reputation.
See also
Attitude: The New Subversive Cartoonists
Graphics
List of editorial cartoonists
Internet memes
References
Further reading
Adler, John, and Hill, Draper. Doomed by Cartoon: How Cartoonist Thomas Nast and the New York Times Brought Down Boss Tweed and His Ring of Thieves (2008)
Gocek, Fatma Muge. Political Cartoons in the Middle East: Cultural Representations in the Middle East (Princeton series on the Middle East) (1998)
Hess, Stephen, and Sandy Northrop. American Political Cartoons, 1754–2010: The Evolution of a National Identity (2010)
Keller, Morton. The Art and Politics of Thomas Nast (1975)
Krauss, Jerelle. All the Art That’s Fit to Print (And Some That Wasn’t): Inside The New York Times Op-Ed Page (2009). excerpt
Mateus, Samuel. ""Political Cartoons as communicative weapons – the hypothesis of the 'Double Standard Thesis' in three Portuguese cartoons", Communication Studies, nº23, pp. 195–221 (2016)
McKenna, Kevin J. All the Views Fit to Print: Changing Images of the U.S. in 'Pravda' Political Cartoons, 1917–1991 (2001)
Morris, Frankie. Artist of Wonderland: The Life, Political Cartoons, and Illustrations of Tenniel (Victorian Literature and Culture Series) (2005)
Nevins, Allan. A Century of Political Cartoons: Caricature in the United States from 1800 to 1900 (1944)
Press, Charles. The Political Cartoon (1981)
External links
History of Cartoon History of Cartoon from Toons Mag
American Association of Editorial Cartoonists Political cartoons by the members of the American Association of Editorial Cartoonists
TED Talk: The power of cartoons
About.com: Political Cartoons Comprehensive guide to political editorial cartoons on the Web
Globe Cartoon: archived editorial cartoons, searchable by themes and keywords
Using editorial cartoons in the classroom Sources, analysis, interpretation (mostly English with some German)
Gettysburg College Civil War Era Digital Collection Contains over 300 Civil War Era political cartoons
The Role of Puck's Cartoons in Gilded Age Politics from American Studies at the University of Virginia
CartoonMovement.com: Political Cartoons and Comics Journalism from around the world
"Cartoons in American History" guide to websites
John Tinney McCutcheon Editorial Cartoon Collection at the University of Missouri
Caricature Maps of World War I by Dr. Gayle Olson-Raymer
See the 1885 caricature of German chancelor Bismarck dividing Africa among the colonial powers in the Deutsche Welle article 130 years ago: carving up Africa in Berlin
Caricature
Propaganda
Propaganda cartoons
Political terminology
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] |
205537
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Stanley%20%28Elizabethan%29
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William Stanley (Elizabethan)
|
Sir William Stanley (1548 – 3 March 1630), son of Sir Rowland Stanley of Hooton (died 1612), was a member of the Stanley family, Earls of Derby. He was an officer and a recusant, who served under Elizabeth I of England and is most noted for his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587.
Early career
Stanley was educated with Dr. Standish at Lathom and was brought up in the Catholic faith. After school, he entered the service of his kinsman, Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby (c.1508–1572), and then served in the Netherlands as a volunteer under the Duke of Alba from 1567 to 1570. In 1570 he was sent on service to Ireland.
Ireland
On the outbreak of the Second Desmond Rebellion in 1579, Stanley was promoted to captain under Sir William Drury, lord justice of Ireland, who knighted him at Waterford for his service in penetrating Limerick in pursuit of the followers of Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond. He fought in the battle of Monasternenagh and defended the town of Adare. In 1580, he enlisted troops in England and led them to the rebellious province of Munster; but the new lord deputy, Lord Grey, quickly recalled him to the Pale to help put down the rebellion that had broken out in the vicinity of Dublin.
In 1581, he campaigned against the clans of Kavanagh and O'Toole, and on 30 August 1581 was commissioned to follow the lord deputy in the government's campaign against Fiach McHugh O'Byrne, a rebel leader whose fastness lay in the Wicklow mountains. During that campaign he was engaged at the Battle of Glenmalure in charge of the rear guard, and covered the retreat of Grey's forces after they had been routed from the glens. At the end of the year his troops were discharged, and he went to England to seek further employment from the queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley.
At the beginning of 1583, Stanley was sent back to Ireland to deal with the rebel Geraldines of Desmond, and was appointed by the Earl of Ormond as commander of the garrison at Lismore; he was also constable of Castlemaine, which he intended to "make a town of English". During this tour of duty he assisted in the pursuit of the earl of Desmond and James Fitzedmund Fitzgerald, the seneschal of Imokilly, and in the final subjugation of Munster at the end of the rebellion.
The defeat of the rebels presented many opportunities for advancement to the New English, those adventurers and administrators who had taken advantage of crown policy in Ireland to establish fortunes for themselves outside of their restricted circumstances at home. Stanley became ambitious and sought the presidency of the province of Connacht by petitioning Sir Francis Walsingham and Burghley, but this was denied. Instead, he was made sheriff of Cork in August 1583, and then assumed the government of Munster in the absence of Sir John Norris. He boasted of having hanged 300 rebels and of leaving the rest so terrified that, "a man might now travel the whole country and none molest him".
At the end of 1584, the new lord deputy, Sir John Perrot, sent Stanley north in the company of Sir Henry Bagenal to act against the Ulster chieftains and the Scots led by Sorley Boy MacDonnell. During this campaign he received severe wounds and was laid up for several months. He had marched with two companies to Ballycastle to join up with a troop of cavalry stationed in Bunamargey Abbey (the burial place of the MacDonnells), after Bagenal was forced to take refuge in Carrickfergus. On 1 January 1585, the enemy took him completely by surprise in camp beside the abbey, when half a dozen horsemen at the head of the Scots foot set the thatched roof of the church on fire. Stanley was forced to fight in his shirt, having had no time to don armour, and was wounded in the thigh, the arm and side, and in the back (he claimed he had turned to his men to urge them on). Some of the horse were burned in the abbey, and the enemy fell away without pursuit, and soon after twenty four oared galleys of the Scots rowed across Ballycastle Bay while Stanley's ships remained at anchor in flat calm conditions. Although he subsequently almost defeated Sorley Boy's nephew, reinforcements arrived from Scotland and there was little more to be achieved. Stanley returned to England in October, where his service in Ireland was considered to have been brilliant.
Leicester's expedition
At the start of the Anglo-Spanish War, Stanley accompanied Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester in the 1585 expedition to the Netherlands, and was then sent to Ireland for the recruitment of troops. He expressed his enthusiasm for Irish soldiers, considering those who had fought under the Geraldine John of Desmond as resolute as any in Europe; in 1579 he had commented that the only difference between English and Irish soldiers lay in the superior discipline of the former.
Having raised 1,400 troops – most of them Irish – Stanley set out for the continent. En route he stayed at London, where it was reported that he had been in the confidence of Jesuits and privy to part of the Babington Plot, and that he had corresponded with the Spanish ambassador, Mendoza, and with the Tower-bound Earl of Arundel. When ordered to carry on to the Netherlands, he tarried in England, supposedly in the expectation of an attempt on Elizabeth's life or the arrival of a Spanish fleet. Eventually he was obliged to sail, but anticipated joining with the Duke of Parma.
In August 1586, Stanley joined Leicester and, with John Norris, took Doesborg in a violent assault. Following his service at Zutphen, where Sir Philip Sidney was fatally wounded, Leicester deemed him "worth his weight in pearl"; in October, with Sir William Pelham he took Deventer, where he was appointed governor of the city in command of a garrison of his own – mostly Irish – troops, numbering 1,200.
The quarrel between Leicester and Norris resulted in a commission for Stanley to act independently of the latter, who had taken over command of the English forces on Leicester's departure, an arrangement that prompted dissent from the States General of the Netherlands. Stanley promptly communicated with the Spanish governor of Zutphen, and Deventer was surrendered by him to the Spanish in January 1587, whereupon he and 600 of his men entered the service of King Philip II. 300 remained loyal to Elizabeth. This occurred the day after the fort of Zutphen had similarly been betrayed by the English commander Rowland York (28 January).
Cardinal William Allen published a letter at Antwerp justifying Stanley's actions and setting out the case for the assassination of Elizabeth I as a heretic, citing Pope Pius V's 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis. At the time, the queen had been considering Stanley for honours and titles, including his appointment as viceroy of Ireland; but he was almost certainly in complete sympathy with the Jesuits, which order his brother had joined and whose members sang his praises. Thereafter he plotted an invasion of England – the troops to disembark at Milford-Haven and in Ireland, where bases for the larger operation might be established – but he was disappointed at the countenance he received from the Spanish authorities, although they did award him a crown pension, in the 1580s amounting to 300 escudos per month (the arrears of which he had to pursue in later years).
Later career
In 1588, the year of the Spanish Armada, Stanley was at the head of 700 men in the Netherlands, ready to embark with the invasion fleet. After the failure of the Armada, Sir William Fitzwilliam, lord deputy of Ireland, speculated that Stanley might be chosen to lead the Spanish army in any further attempt to invade England. In any event, he maintained his regiment in the Netherlands while travelling often to Spain to urge action against Elizabeth. Stanley drew up plans for the conquest of Alderney in the late 1580s, but these too were cast aside by the Duke of Parma. Philip II remained obstinate in his refusal to deploy the English regiment outside the Low Countries.
In the early 1590s he fostered numerous attempts to assassinate the Queen, but all of them were poorly planned and easily detected. Patrick O'Collun, an Irish fencing master, and his accomplice John Annias, who had both served under Stanley, were executed at Tyburn in 1594 for having agreed at Stanley's instigation to murder the Queen, as were Richard Williams and Edmund York the following year. Stanley is said to have been greatly under the influence of his former army lieutenant Jacques de Francisco (Captain Jacques), a somewhat shadowy individual, and the Jesuit William Holt, both of whom believed sincerely that the killing of Elizabeth was a meritorious act.
By 1595 Stanley was desperate and suffered a reproof from the Spanish governor of the Netherlands for his violent language against Elizabeth. In December 1596 he helped deliver a renegade Scottish courtier John Wemyss of Logie to the Count of Fuentes. He continued in military service for the Spanish and was opposed to King James I on his accession in 1603, but he soon sued for a pardon and seemed desirous of returning to England. Sir Robert Cecil exonerated him from complicity in the Gunpowder Plot, but he never gained permission to visit England and spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity. He maintained a close association with the Jesuits, and when he had fallen out with them, with the English Carthusians.
Stanley died at Ghent on 3 March 1630, aged eighty years old.
Legacy
In 1560, he had married Anne Dutton, a bride of ten, but the marriage was dissolved in 1565. His second marriage was to Elizabeth Egerton (d. 1614). He had two sons and three daughters; one of his sons, James Stanley, was an associate of the Earl of Arundel in the 17th century, as they plotted to overthrow the Jamestown Colony.
References
Further reading
Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors 3 vols. (London, 1885–1890)
John O'Donovan (ed.) Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (1851).
Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS. 6 vols (London, 1867–1873).
Calendar of State Papers: Ireland (London)
Nicholas Canny The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland (Dublin, 1976); Kingdom and Colony (2002).
Steven G. Ellis Tudor Ireland (London, 1985) .
Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996) .
Mattingley, Garret The Defeat of the Spanish Armada
1548 births
1630 deaths
16th-century English soldiers
17th-century English soldiers
People of Elizabethan Ireland
Recusants
Spanish military personnel
William Stanley, Elizabethan
Traitors in history
People of the Second Desmond Rebellion
|
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205539
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922%20in%20sports
|
1922 in sports
|
1922 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
American football
NFL championship
Canton Bulldogs wins the APFA (NFL) title with a record of 10 wins, 0 losses and 2 ties.
College championship
Cornell Big Red – college football national championship
Events
24 June — the American Professional Football Association renames itself as the National Football League.
Association football
England
The Football League – Liverpool 57 points, Tottenham Hotspur 51, Burnley 49, Cardiff City 48, Aston Villa 47, Bolton Wanderers 47
FA Cup Final – Huddersfield Town 1–0 Preston North End at Stamford Bridge, London
Germany
National Championship – no decision after Hamburger SV and 1. FC Nürnberg played two drawn games
Russia
Spartak Moscow, as known well for former Soviet Union, officially founded on April 18.
Athletics
Monaco
second Women's Olympiad in Monte Carlo
France
the first Women's World Games, Paris
Australian rules football
VFL Premiership
14 October – Fitzroy wins the 26th VFL Premiership, defeating Collingwood 11.13 (79) to 9.14 (68) at Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) in the 1922 VFL Grand Final.
South Australian Football League
30 September – Norwood 9.7 (61) defeat West Adelaide 2.16 (28) to win their fifteenth SAFL premiership.
Magarey Medal won by Robert Barnes (West Adelaide)
West Australian Football League
23 September – East Perth 7.13 (55) beat West Perth 5.9 (39) to win their fourth successive premiership
Sandover Medal won by Harold Boyd (West Perth)
Bandy
Sweden
Championship final – IK Sirius 3-2 Västerås SK
Baseball
World Series
4–8 October — New York Giants (NL) defeats New York Yankees (AL) to win the 1922 World Series by 4 games to 0 with one tie
Negro leagues
The Chicago American Giants win their third consecutive Negro National League pennant.
Boxing
Events
10 July — Joe Lynch regains the World Bantamweight Championship when he defeats Johnny Buff with a 14th-round technical knockout in New York
24 September — Battling Siki captures the World Light Heavyweight Championship when he knocks out Georges Carpentier in the 6th round in Paris.
1 November — Mickey Walker, one of the greatest boxing champions, wins his first world title when he defeats World Welterweight Champion Jack Britton over 15 rounds in New York
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – Jack Dempsey
World Light Heavyweight Championship – Georges Carpentier → Battling Siki
World Middleweight Championship – Johnny Wilson
World Welterweight Championship – Jack Britton → Mickey Walker
World Lightweight Championship – Benny Leonard
World Featherweight Championship – Johnny Kilbane
World Bantamweight Championship – Johnny Buff → Joe Lynch
World Flyweight Championship – Jimmy Wilde
Canadian football
Grey Cup
10th Grey Cup in the Canadian Football League – Queen's University 13–1 Edmonton Elks
Cricket
Events
Yorkshire recovers the County Championship to begin a run of four successive titles.
England
County Championship – Yorkshire
Minor Counties Championship – Buckinghamshire
Most runs – Jack Russell 2575 @ 54.78 (HS 172)
Most wickets – Charlie Parker 206 @ 13.16 (BB 9–36)
Wisden Cricketers of the Year – Arthur Carr, Tich Freeman, Charlie Parker, Jack Russell, Andy Sandham
Australia
Sheffield Shield – Victoria
Most runs – Frank O'Keeffe 708 @ 118.00 (HS 180)
Most wickets – Ted McDonald 28 @ 21.50 (BB 8–84)
India
Bombay Quadrangular – Europeans
New Zealand
Plunket Shield – Auckland
South Africa
Currie Cup – undecided
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – Barbados
Cycling
Tour de France
Firmin Lambot (Belgium) wins the 16th Tour de France
Events
17 September — Dutch cyclist Piet Moeskops becomes World Champion in the UCI Track Cycling World Championships - Men's Sprint.
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
World Men's Champion – Gillis Grafström (Sweden)
World Women's Champion – Herma Szabo (Austria)
World Pairs Champions – Helene Engelmann and Alfred Berger (Austria)
Golf
Major tournaments
British Open – Walter Hagen
US Open – Gene Sarazen
USPGA Championship – Gene Sarazen
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Ernest Holderness
US Amateur – Jess Sweetser
Horse racing
England
Grand National – Music Hall
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Silver Urn
2,000 Guineas Stakes – St Louis
The Derby – Captain Cuttle
The Oaks – Pogrom
St. Leger Stakes – Royal Lancer
Australia
Melbourne Cup – King Ingoda
Canada
Queen's Plate – South Shore
France
Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Ksar (second successive victory)
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Halston
Irish Derby Stakes – Spike Island
USA
Kentucky Derby – Morvich
Preakness Stakes – Pillory
Belmont Stakes – Pillory
Ice hockey
Stanley Cup
17–28 March — Toronto St. Pats defeats Vancouver Millionaires in the 1922 Stanley Cup Finals by 3 games to 2
Motorsport
Rowing
The Boat Race
1 April — Cambridge wins the 74th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby league
England
Championship – Wigan
Challenge Cup final – Rochdale Hornets 10–9 Hull F.C. at Headingley Rugby Stadium, Leeds
Lancashire League Championship – Oldham
Yorkshire League Championship – Huddersfield
Lancashire County Cup – Warrington 7–5 Oldham
Yorkshire County Cup – Leeds 11–3 Dewsbury
Australia
NSW Premiership – North Sydney 35–3 Glebe (grand final)
Rugby union
Five Nations Championship
35th Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Harald Strøm (Norway)
Swimming
Events
Johnny Weissmuller swims the 100 metres freestyle in 58.6 seconds to create a world record and break the "minute barrier"
Tennis
Events
Inaugural Australian Women's Singles Championship is held.
Australia
Australian Men's Singles Championship – James Anderson (Australia) defeats Gerald Patterson (Australia) 6–0 3–6 3–6 6–3 6–2
Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Molesworth (Australia) defeats Esna Boyd Robertson (Australia) 6–3 10–8
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Gerald Patterson (Australia) defeats Randolph Lycett (Great Britain) 6–3 6–4 6–2
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Suzanne Lenglen (France) defeats Molla Bjurstedt Mallory (Norway) 6–2 6–0
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Henri Cochet (France) defeats Jean Samazeuilh (France) 8–6 6–3 7–5
French Women's Singles Championship – Suzanne Lenglen (France) defeats Germaine Golding (France) 6–4 6–2
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Bill Tilden (USA) defeats Bill Johnston (USA) 4–6 3–6 6–2 6–3 6–4
American Women's Singles Championship – Molla Bjurstedt Mallory (Norway) defeats Helen Wills Moody (USA) 6–3 6–1
Davis Cup
1922 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – 4–1 at West Side Tennis Club (grass) New York City, United States
Water skiing
Events
Water skiing invented in Lake City, Minnesota by Ralph Samuelson
References
Sports by year
|
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] |
205540
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20meteor%20showers
|
List of meteor showers
|
Named meteor showers recur at approximately the same dates each year. They appear to radiate from a certain point in the sky, known as the radiant, and vary in the speed, frequency and brightness of the meteors. As of November 2019, there are 112 established meteor showers.
Table of meteor showers
Dates are given for 2022. The dates will vary from year to year due to the leap year cycle. This list includes showers with radiants in both the northern and southern hemispheres. There is some overlap, but generally showers whose radiants have positive declinations are best seen from the northern hemisphere, and those with negative declinations are best observed from the southern hemisphere.
See also
Lists of astronomical objects
Sources
This list of meteor streams and peak activity times is based on data from the International Meteor Organization while most of the parent body associations are from Gary W. Kronk book, Meteor Showers: A Descriptive Catalog, Enslow Publishers, New Jersey, , and from Peter Jenniskens's book, "Meteor Showers and Their Parent Comets", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, .
References
Further reading
Meteor showers
Lists of astronomical events
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elche
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Elche
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Elche () is a city and municipality of Spain, belonging to the province of Alicante, in the Valencian Community. According to 2014 data, Elche has a population of 228,647 inhabitants, making it the third most populated municipality in the region (after Valencia and Alicante) and the 20th largest Spanish municipality. It is part of the comarca of Baix Vinalopó.
Part of the municipality is coastal yet the city proper is roughly away from the Mediterranean Sea. A small creek called Vinalopó flows through the city. Elche is the centre of the footwear industry in Spain. The main airport of the province of Alicante (Alicante–Elche Miguel Hernández Airport) is located inside Elche's municipality, and it serves both Elche and Alicante, being the fifth-busiest airport in Spain.
Together with Alicante and other municipalities, Elche form a conurbation of some 800,000 inhabitants. The city is noted by its urban Palm Grove, designated as World Heritage Site.
History
L'Alcúdia is 10 km from the current city's location and the immediate predecessor of current day Elche. This original location was settled by the Greeks and then occupied by Carthaginians and Romans. Greek Ionian colonists from the Achaean city Helike established their new colony, naming it Helíkē () around 600BC. It was a point of resistance against Carthaginian advance in Spain between the First and Second Punic Wars. The Romans called the city Ilici or Illice and granted it the status of colonia; after a brief Byzantine rule, the Goths took over, establishing an episcopal see.
Elche lost importance during the period of Moorish occupation, when it was moved slightly north to its present location. James II of Aragon took the city from the Moors in the 13th century, during the Reconquista. The city grew throughout the 18th century and became more important during the 19th century with the arrival of the railway and a booming industrial development of what used to be the traditional footwear industry.
Many archaeological remains have been found in Elche, with the stone bust of the Lady of Elche (Dama de Elche/Dama d'Elx in Spanish and Valencian, respectively) being the most important. This may date from the Iberian period (4th century BC). The original is in the National Archaeological Museum of Spain.
Elche was granted the title of city by King Amadeo in 1871.
The espadrille industry developed in the 19th century, eventually becoming the leading Spanish municipality at producing textile footwear. By the late century, local entrepreneurs began to invest in leather footwear factories. The footwear industry grew during the Great War and thereafter.
Geography
The city is known for the Palmeral de Elche, that is an UNESCO World Heritage Site and is the only palm grove in Europe with North African origins and the largest on the continent. The Palm Grove also constitutes the northernmost and one of the largest palm groves in the world. Today, the city of Elche contains 97 orchards composed of 70,000 date palms, concentrated in the east bank of the Vinalopó. Outside the Elche city domain, other large plantations contain approximately 130,000 date palms. In total, Elche and its vicinity hold 200,000 palms. The Palm Grove ranges over 3.5 km2 (1.4 sq mi), including 1.5 km2 (0.58 sq mi) within the city of Elche. The Palm Grove of Elche comprises the National Artistic Garden, Palm Grove Museum, Route of El Palmeral, and Municipal Park.
It shares borders with Santa Pola, Guardamar del Segura, San Fulgencio, Dolores, Catral, Crevillent, Aspe, Montforte del Cid and Alicante. The most remarkable landform is Vinalopó River.
According to the Spanish Statistical Institute, there are 20 localities in the municipality besides the main town. The main town had a population of 190,821 in 2019 The number of people living in the other localities came up to 41,821 in the same year. Algoda was home to 2,650 people, Algorós has a population of 638, Altabix was inhabited by 2,829 people, El Altet was home to 5,750 people Atsavares was home to 1,328 people, Asprella had a population of 403, Las Bayas was home to 2,975 people, Carrús was inhabited by 1,300 people, Daimés had a population of 1,190, El Derramador was home to 419 people, La Foia was inhabited by 2,804 people, Jubalcoi had a population of 1,215, El Pla de Sant Jose was home to 2,411 people, Maitino was inhabited by 890 people, La Marina had a population of 2,008, La Perleta was home to 1,376 people, Puçol was inhabited by 900 people, Torrellano had a population of 7,480, Vallverda was home to 1,767 people and Los Arenales del Sol was inhabited by 2,019 people.
The local government also acknowledges Matola, which is part of Algoda according to the Spanish Stadistical Institute; Penya de les Àguiles, which is part of El Pla de Sant Josep accoding to the same institution, and Santa Anna, which is not recognised by the Stadistical Institute.
Demographics
10.497% inhabitants are foreigners – 3.267% come from other countries of Europe, 3.369% are African, 2.46% are American, 1.139% are Asian and 15 people from Oceania and stateless people reside in the municipality. The table below shows the population trend of 20th and 21st centuries by the beginning of their decades.
Economy
The economy of Elche is based, in large part, on the footwear industry, with over 1,000 shoe factories, being one of the most important footwear centres in Spain and the rest of Europe with brands like Pura Lopez, Kelme or . There are other economic activities in Elche: agriculture (dates, olives, cereals and pomegranates), although it has lost importance in recent years; rubber industry; trade, which employs 20% of the workforce; and tourism.
Elche has a conference centre (called Ciutat d'Elx), an international airport (Aeropuerto de Alicante) a public University, Universidad Miguel Hernández, and a private University, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera.
Climate
Elche has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh) close to a desert climate (BWh) with mild, dry winters and hot, dry summers. The city enjoys between 2,900-3,000 hours of sunshine per year and the rainfall is scarce year-round.
Elche's annual average temperature is above . The hottest temperature ever recorded was in 12 July 2021 while the coldest temperature ever recorded was in 12 February 1956.
Main sights
Palmeral of Elche ("The Palm Grove of Elche", Palmerar d'Elx in Valencian). It is an orchard of over 200,000 palm trees that was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000.
Altamira Castle, also known as Alcázar de la Señoría, located next to the Municipal Park (which, in turn, is a part of the Elche Palm Grove) It was originally built in Almohad times (12th-13th centuries), and was later renovated with brick exterior in the 15th century. A former fortress, in 1913 it became a fabric plant, it has also been used as the town hall and as a prison during the Spanish Civil War, while today is home to the Elche Archaeology and History Museum.
Baños Arabes (Arabic Baths), which re-uses old Roman baths.
Basilica of Santa Maria: The current temple was built in 1672. Previously, there were other temples in the same place, but they disappeared owing to several factors. It has a la Latin-cross plan, a large nave and four side chapels. A large dome has been constructed over the crossing.
Calahorra Tower, of rectangular plan and Rabic origin, it represent the last relic of the old city walls.
Municipio (Town Hall): it includes a tower named la torre del consell, and it is the most ancient structure in the south of the Valencian Community. It was built in the mid-15th century.
Convento de la Merced: it was built in a place where there were arabic baths. It dates back to 1270, when the prince Juan Manuel bestowed the baths to the grand master of a religious order.
Huerto del Cura: it is part of the Palmeral of Elche and hosts nearly 500 palm trees. There are individuals of the imperial palm species.
Elche Palaeontological Museum: more than 1,200 fossils are on display in the museum. Some elements such as remains of mastodons and replicas of dinosaurs are placed in the building.
Elche Municipal Festa Museum: it was built in 1997 and it hosts elements about the Misteri d'Elx performance.
Palm Groves Museum: This museum is allocated in a traditional 19th century building. This museum is devoted to the history, the evolution and the characteristics of the Palmeral of Elche.
The Mystery Play of Elx (better known as Misteri d'Elx, in Valencian) is a sacral-lyrical medieval drama, dated from the 15th century, which was declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2002. It is played every year in mid August, in the context of the local holidays dedicated to the Assumption of Virgin Mary. Also as a part of this celebration, on the 13th of August is the date of a celebration in Elche called Nit de l'Albà (Night of the Dawn) in which a citywide night-long show of fireworks takes place.
Transport
The Alicante–Elche Airport, the fifth-busiest in Spain is located in the municipality of Elche, around east from the city centre. The Autopista AP-7 serves the outskirts of the city, and the railway linking Alicante and Murcia del Carmen runs through a tunnel underneath the city, with two underground stations; Elche-Parque () and Elche-Carrús (). These are served by line C–1 of the Cercanías Murcia/Alicante commuter rail service, along with Media Distancia trains between Valencia Nord station and Murcia.
The Madrid–Levante high-speed rail network was extended to reach a new station named Elche-Matola in 2021, branching off from the line to Alicante near Monforte del Cid. The new AVE station contains parking space for 500 cars and 50 motorcycles.
Festivities
Holy Week: as generally in Spain, several processions (festive religious parades) occur during the festive period.
Moros i Cristians: it occurs in the first fortnight of August. The theme of this festivity is the Muslim rule that occurred in the High Middle Ages and part of the Late Middle Ages and the battles which took place between Christians and Muslims as a consequence of this occupation. A more specific subject of this festivity is the Reconquista.
Nit de la Roà: it takes place in mid August.
Christmas: A nativity scene is placed in the town and a living nativity scene also occurs during the festive period. A parade which theme is the Three Wise Men is also performed in the Epiphany's Eve (5 January).
Notable people
Marceliano Coquillat (1865–1924), architect.
Saúl Ñíguez (b. 1994), a footballer. He is currently playing in La Liga for Atlético Madrid.
Aarón Ñíguez (b. 1989), a footballer.
Sílvia Soler Espinosa (b. 1987), an ex-tennis player. She played in tournaments in the WTA. Her record position was semifinalist in the Strasbourg tour.
Francisco Mojica (b. 1963), a microbiologist noted for his research on the CRISPR gene editing technique.
Twin towns
Toulouse, France (since 1981)
San Bartolomé de Tirajana, Spain (since 1982)
Jaca, Spain (since 1984)
Culture
Cultural theatrical spaces
The Grand Theater
The Elche Grand Theater is a theatrical space constructed at the beginning of the 20th Century, created by the architect Alfonso Garín. It was opened in 1920 with the name Kursaal Theater. The interior of the room is in a horseshoe shape, where an orchestra section in front of the stage and two amphitheaters with box seats on the sides can be found. At the beginning of the 90s, the building was acquired by the local government, becoming municipal property. After a reform, the theater was reopened on May 16th, 1996 by Queen Sofía. The theater is found in the historical area of the city, very close to the Glorieta. The Grand Theater houses all types of theatrical, dance, and musical performances.
L’Escorxador Center for Contemporary Culture
Opened on November 7th, 2008 in the installations of the old Elche Slaughterhouse - constructed in the decade of 1940 - is a 5000 m² space oriented to the young public. The complex is divided into four pavilions: in the first one there is a theatrical space with more than 150 chairs, allocated for housing theatrical, resonant, and visual art shows; the second pavilion, called The Nave, is home to the multipurpose room where plastic art exhibitions, as well as open essays and special representations of performance, theater and music, are celebrated; in the third, rehearsal rooms that are available for rent, loan or assignment for the sound arts can be found; the fourth pavilion is the most spacious of the four, and houses the different studios that the center has as well as a small room of temporary exhibitions called Sala Lanart. In addition to the pavilions, the center has - since 2009 - a terrace in which performances and projections can be carried out outside.
La Llotja Cultural Room
The room is located in the remodeled installations of the old fruit and vegetable market from the Altabix neighborhood constructed between 1941 and 1942. It was opened on April 12th, 2008 and is a place where dance, theater, and music shows intended for young audiences are carried out, as well as school graduations and other events that can take place in it. In the time of elections, it is used as an electoral college.
Museums
Alejandro Ramos Folqués Archaeological and History Museum of Elche
The Alejandro Ramos Folqués Archaeological and History Museum of Elche has been turned into an archaeological cultural model at a regional level of great importance. Situated in the interior of the Altamira Palace - in the Elche historical center and very close to Saint María basilica - it was opened on May 18th, 2006 with a grand exhibition about Iberic culture, among where the Lady of Elche was found - one of the most significant pieces of Iberic art, transferred temporarily by the National Archaeological Museum for six months (from May 18th to November 1st in 2006).
Like a permanent exhibition, the museum offers a general overview of the distinct stages that have been taking place in the city, such as the Neolithic, the Copper Age, the Bronze Age, the Iberian stage, the process of Romanization, the Visigothic era, and the Islamic settlement (current site of the city) until the present.
The archaeological remains come from, among others, the Alcudia site, Elche Park (situated in one of the gardens in the city and which has provided important sculptural remains) and El Arenero de Monforte del Cid.
Festa Museum
The Festa Museum, about the Mystery of Elche, originated with the intention of showing La Festa to the visitors that come to the city throughout the year. The museum is made of two rooms: the first is where scenic tradition that involves the Mystery is collected, which can be posters, sketches, crowns, costumes, guitars...and the other is a more dynamic room, where new technologies are used, combining many visual images like typical smells and sounds from La Festa. Part of the museum is located in what was Saint Sebastian’s Shrine, which is also closely linked to Assumptionist drama and was restored for the purpose of creating the museum.
Palm Grove Museum (Palmeral Museum)
Museo del Palmeral
The Palm Grove Museum, found in a traditional house of the Garden of Saint Placidus (Huerto de San Plácido), close to the Garden of Healing (Huerto del Cura). The museum is dedicated to recognizing the municipal relationship with the palm groves. It shows the origins, history, culture of the palm grove, as well as the uses and its evolution. In the rooms, an overview of the history of the Palm Grove is shown through videos, panels, demonstrative elements and sounds, which continues with a visit to its own garden outside.
The Traditional Culture Center Pusol School Museum
The Traditional Culture Center Pusol School Museum was created in the year 1969 as an activity linked to the Pedagogical Project “The School and its Fear,” which developed the study of the purposes and traditions of the Field of Elche (Campo de Elche). In the museum, unique collections are housed that show distinct ethnological aspects (agriculture, business, industry, folklore, traditions, etc.) available for scientific studies at all levels. In 2009, it was included by UNESCO in the Register of Good Safeguarding Practices for Intangible Cultural Heritage.
In addition to these, other museums and places of interest exist in Elche:
Paleontological Museum in the plaza of Saint Juan Church.
Alcudia Museum, situated in the archaeological site where the Lady of Elche was found.
Museum of Contemporary Art, in the Raval neighborhood.
Museum of the Assumption of the Virgin, Patron Saint of Elche Museum dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin.
Visitors center in the Municipal Park, with audiovisual projections about the city.
Municipal Center of Exhibitions, with seasonal nature exhibitions.
The Center of Exhibitions of the Lonja, which is situated on the first floor of the Town Hall, occasionally houses exhibitions, primarily with themes related to the city.
Espai d’Art, which is a walk near the Municipal Park where we can contemplate contemporary art sculptures.
Arabian baths, which are found in the inside of the Clarisas Convent.
See also
Elche CF
Medieval Festival of Elx
Route of the Castles of Vinalopó
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Elche". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Feb. 2014, https://www.britannica.com/place/Elche.
The Editors of Spain.info. “Tourism in Elche.” Spain.info, https://www.spain.info/en/destination/elche-elx/.
The Editors of WordReference. “Word Reference.” Wordreference.com, n.d., https://www.wordreference.com/.
The Editors of Wiktionary. "Dándose." Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary. 25 May 2017, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=d%C3%A1ndose&oldid=44505375.
Royuela, María. “The Register of Good Safeguarding Practices for Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Pusol School Museum.” ResearchGate, Dec. 2018, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341119955_The_Register_of_Good_Safeguarding_Practices_for_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_The_Pusol_School_Museum.
External links
Ayuntamiento de Elche, Elche Municipality
Instituto Valenciano de Estadística City official statistics
Turisme d'Elx, City council official Tourist guide
Municipalities in the Province of Alicante
Greek colonies in Iberia
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Spain
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205543
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Saskatchewan
|
Coat of arms of Saskatchewan
|
The coat of arms of Saskatchewan is the heraldic symbol representing the Canadian province of Saskatchewan.
The arms, consisting of only the shield, was assigned by royal warrant of King Edward VII on 25 August 1906. It uses the provincial colours, green and gold. The remainder of the coat of arms was requested by the province in 1985, Saskatchewan Heritage Year, and was granted by royal proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II on 16 September 1986.
Symbolism
On the gold chief is a lion passant or leopard, a royal symbol of England. (English lions are usually gold with red tongues and claws; however, the default colours for a heraldic lion on a gold field are red with blue tongue and claws.) The three gold sheaves of wheat, or garbs, represent the province's agriculture; the heraldic sheaf of wheat has become a generalized symbol of the province.
The helmet above the shield is gold and faces left, a symbol of Saskatchewan's co-sovereign status in Confederation. The mantling is in the national colours of Canada. The crest is a beaver, Canada's national animal, holding a western red lily, Saskatchewan's provincial flower. The crest is surmounted by a crown, representing royal sovereignty.
Both supporters – a royal lion to the left, and an indigenous white-tailed deer to the right – are wearing collars of First Nations beadwork, from which are suspended badges in the same six-pointed shape as the insignia of the Saskatchewan Order of Merit. The lion's badge is emblazoned with a maple leaf and the deer's, with a red lily. The supporters stand on a compartment of red lilies.
The motto is : from many peoples, strength.
Blazon
The original royal warrant of 1906 blazoned the shield as follows:
The royal proclamation of 1986 blazoned the augmentations as follows:
See also
Flag of Saskatchewan
Symbols of Saskatchewan
Monarchy in Saskatchewan
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
Heraldry
References
External links
Saskatchewan Coat of Arms (Government of Saskatchewan)
[http://reg.gg.ca/heraldry/pub-reg/project.asp?lang=e&ProjectID=548 Arms of Saskatchewan in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges
Provincial symbols of Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
|
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] |
205548
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore%20Colts%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Baltimore Colts (disambiguation)
|
The Baltimore Colts were a National Football League franchise from 1953 until 1984, when they relocated to Indianapolis.
Baltimore Colts may also refer to:
Baltimore Colts (1947–1950), a franchise in the All-America Football Conference (1947–1949) and National Football League (1950) that disbanded after the 1950 season
Indianapolis Colts, the current incarnation of the former Baltimore Colts (1953–1983) franchise
Baltimore Stallions, earlier the Baltimore CFL Colts, a Canadian Football League team based in Baltimore from 1994 to 1995
See also
History of the Indianapolis Colts
Baltimore Ravens, Baltimore's current NFL team
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20invasion%20of%20Panama
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United States invasion of Panama
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The United States Invasion of Panama, codenamed Operation Just Cause, lasted over a month between mid-December 1989 and late January 1990. It occurred during the administration of President George H. W. Bush and ten years after the Torrijos–Carter Treaties were ratified to transfer control of the Panama Canal from the U.S. to Panama by January 1, 2000. The primary purpose of the invasion was to depose the de facto Panamanian leader, general and dictator Manuel Noriega. He was wanted by the United States for racketeering and drug trafficking. Following the operation, the Panama Defense Forces were dissolved and President-elect Guillermo Endara was sworn into office. The United Nations General Assembly and the Organization of American States condemned the invasion as a violation of international law.
Background
The United States had maintained numerous military bases and a substantial garrison throughout the Canal Zone to protect the American-owned Panama Canal and to maintain American control of this strategically important area. On September 7, 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter and the de facto leader of Panama, General Omar Torrijos, signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, which set in motion the process of handing over the Panama Canal to Panamanian control by 2000. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the military bases remained and one condition of the transfer was that the canal would remain open for American shipping. The U.S. had long-standing relations with General Noriega, who served as a U.S. intelligence asset and paid informant of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1967, including the period when Bush was head of the CIA (1976–77).
Noriega had sided with the U.S. rather than the USSR in Central America, notably in sabotaging the forces of the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and the revolutionaries of the FMLN group in El Salvador. Noriega received upwards of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, when his salary was increased to $200,000 per year. Although he worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration to restrict illegal drug shipments, he was known to simultaneously accept significant financial support from drug dealers, because he facilitated the laundering of drug money, and through Noriega, they received protection from DEA investigations due to his special relationship with the CIA.
In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate. In 1986, U.S. President Ronald Reagan opened negotiations with General Noriega, requesting that the Panamanian leader step down after he was publicly exposed in The New York Times by Seymour Hersh, and was later implicated in the Iran-Contra Scandal. Reagan pressured him with several drug-related indictments in U.S. courts (see United States v. Noriega); however, since extradition laws between Panama and the U.S. were weak, Noriega deemed this threat not credible and did not submit to Reagan's demands. In 1988, Elliot Abrams and others in the Pentagon began pushing for a U.S. invasion, but Reagan refused, due to Bush's ties to Noriega through his previous positions in the CIA and the Task Force on Drugs, and their potentially negative impact on Bush's presidential campaign. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments. In March 1988, Noriega's forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance towards the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving military aid from Cuba, Nicaragua, and Libya. American military planners began preparing contingency plans to invade Panama.
In May 1989, during the Panamanian national elections, an alliance of parties opposed to the Noriega dictatorship counted results from the country's election precincts, before they were sent to the district centers. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, by nearly 3–1. Endara was physically assaulted by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade. Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians. Noriega's government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U.S.-backed candidates from opposition parties. Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people. The United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega.
In October 1989, Noriega foiled a second coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF), led by Major Moisés Giroldi. Pressure mounted on Bush. Bush declared that the U.S. would not negotiate with a drug trafficker and denied knowledge of Noriega's involvement with the drug trade prior to his February 1988 indictment, although Bush had met with Noriega while Director of the CIA and had been the Chair of the Task Force on Drugs while Vice President. On December 15, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States.
The next day, four U.S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9:00 p.m. outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City. Marine Captain Richard E. Hadded, Navy Lieutenant Michael J. Wilson, Army Captain Barry L. Rainwater, and Marine First Lieutenant Robert Paz had left the Fort Clayton military base and were on their way to have dinner at the Marriott Hotel in downtown Panama City. The U.S. Department of Defense reported that the servicemen had been unarmed, were in a private vehicle, and attempted to flee only after their vehicle was surrounded by an angry crowd of civilians and PDF troops. The PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle and struck him in the back. Captain Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds. He received the Purple Heart posthumously. According to U.S. military sources, a U.S. Naval officer, SEAL Lieutenant Adam Curtis, and his wife, Bonnie, witnessed the incident and were detained by Panamanian Defense Force soldiers. While in police custody, they were assaulted by the PDF. Adam Curtis spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from the beating. PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife. The next day, President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan; the military set H-Hour as 0100 on December 20.
International mediation
Several neighboring governments secretly tried to negotiate a peaceful outcome and Noriega's willing resignation. Presidents Oscar Arias and Daniel Oduber of Costa Rica, Carlos Andrés Pérez of Venezuela, Alfonso López Michelsen of Colombia and Spanish Prime Minister Felipe González all on different occasions met Noriega in secret attempting to convince him to leave power and self-exile himself in Spain, to no avail.
U.S. rationale for the invasion
The official U.S. rationale for the invasion was articulated by President George H. W. Bush on the morning of December 20, 1989, a few hours after the start of the operation. Bush cited Panama's declaration of a state of war with the United States and attacks on U.S. troops as justification for the invasion.
Bush further identified four objectives of the invasion:
Safeguarding the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama. In his statement, Bush stated that Noriega had declared that a state of war existed between the U.S. and Panama and that he threatened the lives of the approximately 35,000 U.S. citizens living there. There had been numerous clashes between U.S. and Panamanian forces; one U.S. Marine had been killed a few days earlier.
Defending democracy and human rights in Panama.
Combating drug trafficking. Panama had become a center for drug money laundering and a transit point for drug trafficking to the U.S. and Europe.
Protecting the integrity of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. Members of Congress and others in the U.S. political establishment claimed that Noriega threatened the neutrality of the Panama Canal and that the U.S. had the right under the treaties to intervene militarily to protect the canal.
U.S. military forces were instructed to begin maneuvers and activities within the restrictions of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, such as ignoring PDF roadblocks and conducting short-notice "Category Three" military exercises on security-sensitive targets, with the express goal of provoking PDF soldiers. U.S. SOUTHCOM kept a list of abuses against U.S. servicemen and civilians by the PDF while the orders to incite PDF soldiers were in place. As for the Panamanian legislature's declaration of a state of war between the U.S. and Panama, Noriega insists that this statement referred to a state of war directed by the U.S. against Panama, in the form of what he claimed were harsh economic sanctions and constant, provocative military maneuvers (Operations Purple Storm and Sand Flea) that were prohibited by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. The U.S. had turned a blind eye to Noriega's involvement in drug trafficking since the 1970s. Noriega was then singled out for direct involvement in these drug trafficking operations due to the widespread public knowledge of his involvement in money laundering, drug activities, political murder, and human rights abuses.
Bush's four reasons for the invasion provided sufficient justification to establish bipartisan Congressional approval and support for the invasion. However, the secrecy before initiation, the speed and success of the invasion itself, and U.S. public support for it (80% public approval) did not allow Democrats to object to Bush's decision to use military force. One contemporary study suggests that Bush decided to invade for domestic political reasons, citing scarce strategic reasoning for the U.S. to invade and immediately withdraw without establishing the structure to enforce the interests that Bush used to justify the invasion.
Military operations
Elements of US Naval Special Warfare, including NSWU-8, Seal Team Four and Special Boat Unit 26.
The U.S. Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard participated in Operation Just Cause. Ground forces consisted of:
combat elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps,
the 82nd Airborne Division,
the 7th Infantry Division (Light),
the 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne),
the 75th Ranger Regiment,
Tactical Air Control Parties from the 507th and 602nd Tactical Air Control Wings and the 24th Composite Wing
Combat Controllers from the 1721st Combat Control Squadron
a Joint Special Operations Task Force
elements of the 5th Infantry Division
1st Battalion, 61st Infantry Regiment
4th Battalion, 6th Infantry Regiment (replacing 1/61st in September 1989)
16th Military Police Brigade (Airborne), Ft Bragg NC
503rd Military Police Battalion (Airborne), Ft Bragg NC
21st Military Police Company (Airborne), Ft Bragg NC
65th Military Police Company, Ft Bragg NC
108th Military Police Company (Air Assault), Ft Bragg NC
519th Military Police Battalion
1138th Military Police Company, Missouri Army National Guard
988th Military Police Company, Ft Benning, GA
555th Military Police Company, Ft Lee, VA
193rd Infantry Brigade
5th Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 508th Infantry Regiment
8th Ordnance Company (Ammo), Ft Bragg, NC (Select detachment attached to SOUTHCOM)
Marine Security Forces Battalion Panama,
Company K, 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines Regiment,
Marine Fleet Antiterrorism Security Teams,
2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion,
2nd Marine Logistics Group 39th Combat Engineer Battalion Co C.
511th Military Police Company, Ft Drum NY
1097th Transportation Company (Medium Boat), Fort Davis, Panama
Air logistic support was provided by the 22nd Air Force with air assets from the 60th, 62nd, and 63rd military airlift wings.
The military incursion into Panama began on December 20, 1989, at 1:00 a.m. local time. The operation involved 27,684 U.S. troops and over 300 aircraft, including C-130 Hercules tactical transports flown by the 317th Tactical Airlift Wing (which was equipped with the Adverse Weather Aerial Delivery System or AWADS) and 314th Tactical Airlift Wing, AC-130 Spectre gunships, OA-37B Dragonfly observation and attack aircraft, C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy strategic transports, F-117A Nighthawk stealth aircraft flown by the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing, and AH-64 Apache attack helicopters. The invasion of Panama was the first combat deployment for the AH-64, the HMMWV, and the F-117A. Panamanian radar units were jammed by two EF-111As of the 390th ECS, 366th TFW. These aircraft were deployed against the 16,000 members of the PDF.
The operation began with an assault of strategic installations, such as the civilian Punta Paitilla Airport in Panama City and a PDF garrison and airfield at Rio Hato, where Noriega also maintained a residence. U.S. Navy SEALs destroyed Noriega's private jet and a Panamanian gunboat. A Panamanian ambush killed four SEALs and wounded nine. Other military command centers throughout the country were also attacked. The attack on the central headquarters of the PDF (referred to as La Comandancia) touched off several fires, one of which destroyed most of the adjoining and heavily populated El Chorrillo neighborhood in downtown Panama City. During the firefight at the Comandancia, the PDF downed two special operations helicopters and forced one MH-6 Little Bird to crash-land in the Panama Canal. The opening round of attacks in Panama City also included a special operations raid on the Carcel Modelo prison (known as Operation Acid Gambit) to free Kurt Muse, a U.S. citizen convicted of espionage by Noriega.
Fort Amador was secured by elements of the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 5th Infantry Division [Scouts] and 59th Engineer Company (sappers) in a nighttime air assault which secured the fort in the early hours of December 20. Fort Amador was a key position because of its relationship to the large oil farms adjacent to the canal, the Bridge of the Americas over the canal, and the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal. Key command and control elements of the PDF were stationed there. C Company 1st Battalion (Airborne) 508th PIR was assigned the task of securing La Comandancia. Furthermore, Fort Amador had a large U.S. housing district that needed to be secured to prevent the PDF from taking U.S. citizens as hostages. This position also protected the left flank of the attack on La Comandancia and the securing of the El Chorrillos neighborhood, guarded by Dignity Battalions, Noriega supporters that the U.S. forces sometimes referred to as "Dingbats". Military police units from Ft. Bragg, North Carolina deployed via strategic airlift into Howard Air Force Base the next morning and secured key government buildings in the downtown area of Panama City. MPs seized PDF weapons, vehicles and supplies during house-to-house searches in the following days, and conducted urban combat operations against snipers and Dignity Battalion holdouts for the following week.
A few hours after the invasion began, Guillermo Endara was sworn in at Fort Clayton. According to The Los Angeles Times, Endara was the "presumed winner" in the presidential election which had been scheduled earlier that year.
A platoon from the 1138th Military Police Company, Missouri Army National Guard, which was on a routine two-week rotation to Panama was called upon to set up a detainee camp on Empire Range to handle the mass of civilian and military detainees. This unit was the first National Guard unit called into active service since the Vietnam War.
Noriega's capture
Operation Nifty Package was an operation launched by Navy SEALs to prevent Noriega's escape. They sank Noriega's boat and destroyed his jet, at a cost of four killed and nine wounded. Military operations continued for several weeks, mainly against military units of the Panamanian army. Noriega remained at large for several days, but realizing he had few options in the face of a massive manhunt and a $1 million reward for his capture, he obtained refuge in the Vatican diplomatic mission in Panama City. The U.S. military's psychological pressure on him and diplomatic pressure on the Vatican mission, however, was relentless, as was the playing of loud rock-and-roll music day and night in a densely populated area. The report of the Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff claimed that the music was used principally to prevent parabolic microphones from being used to eavesdrop on negotiations, and not as a psychological weapon based around Noriega's supposed loathing of rock music. Noriega finally surrendered to the U.S. military on January 3, 1990. He was immediately put on an MC-130E Combat Talon I aircraft and flown to the U.S.
Casualties
According to official Pentagon figures, 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion; however, an internal U.S. Army memo estimated the number at 1,000.
The UN estimated 500 deaths whereas Americas Watch found that around 300 civilians died. President Guillermo Endara said that "less than 600 Panamanians" died during the entire invasion. Former Attorney General Ramsey Clark estimated 3,000 civilian deaths. Figures estimating thousands of civilian casualties were widely rejected in Panama. The Roman Catholic Church estimated that 673 Panamanians were killed in total. Physicians for Human Rights, said it had received "reliable reports of more than 100 civilian deaths" that were not included in the U.S. military estimate but also that there was no evidence of several thousand civilian deaths.
US military casualties in the invasion were 23 killed and 325 wounded. In June 1990, the US military announced that of its casualties, 2 dead and 19 wounded were victims of friendly fire. The number of Panamanian military dead was estimated at 314 by the United States Southern Command.
Civilian fatalities included two American school teachers working in Panama for the Department of Defense Schools. They were Kandi Helin and Ray Dragseth. Rick Paul, the adult son of another teacher, was also killed by friendly fire as he ran an American road block. Also killed was a Spanish freelance press photographer on assignment for El Pais, Juan Antonio Rodriguez Moreno. Rodriguez was killed outside of the Marriott Hotel in Panama City early on December 21. In June 1990, his family filed a claim for wrongful death against the United States Government. When the Rodriguez claim was rejected by the U.S. government, in 1992 the Spanish government sent a Note Verbale extending diplomatic protection to Rodriguez and demanding compensation on behalf of his family. However, the U.S. government again rejected the claim, disputing both its liability for warzone deaths in general and whether Rodriguez had been killed by U.S. rather than Panamanian gunfire.
Human Rights Watch's 1991 report on Panama in the post-invasion aftermath stated that even with some uncertainties about the scale of civilian casualties, the figures are "still troublesome" because [Panama's civilian deaths] reveal that the "surgical operation" by American forces inflicted a toll in civilian lives that was at least four-and-a-half times higher than military casualties in the enemy, and twelve or thirteen times higher than the casualties suffered by U.S. troops. By themselves, these ratios suggest that the rule of proportionality and the duty to minimize harm to civilians, where doing so would not compromise a legitimate military objective, were not faithfully observed by the invading U.S. forces. For us, the controversy over the number of civilian casualties should not obscure the important debate on the manner in which those people died.
Origin of the name "Operation Just Cause"
Operation plans directed against Panama evolved from plans designed to defend the Panama Canal. They became more aggressive as the situation between the two nations deteriorated. The Prayer Book series of plans included rehearsals for a possible clash (Operation Purple Storm) and missions to secure U.S. sites (Operation Bushmaster).
Eventually, these plans became Operation Blue Spoon which was then, in order to sustain the perceived legitimacy of the invasion throughout the operation, renamed by The Pentagon to Operation Just Cause. General Colin Powell said that he liked the name because "even our severest critics would have to utter 'Just Cause' while denouncing us." Critics, however, renamed it Operation "Just 'Cuz", arguing that it had been undertaken "just [be]cause Bush felt like it."
The post-invasion civil-military operation designed to stabilize the situation, support the U.S.-installed government, and restore basic services was originally planned as "Operation Blind Logic", but was renamed "Operation Promote Liberty" by the Pentagon on the eve of the invasion.
The original operation, in which U.S. troops were deployed to Panama in early 1989, was called "Operation Nimrod Dancer".
Legality
The US government invoked self-defense as a legal justification for its invasion of Panama. Several scholars and observers have opined that the invasion was illegal under international law. They argue that the justifications for the invasion which were given by the U.S. were, according to these sources, factually groundless, and moreover, even if they had been true they would have provided inadequate support for the invasion under international law. Article 2 of the United Nations Charter, a cornerstone of international law, prohibits the use of force by member states to settle disputes except in self-defense or when authorized by the United Nations Security Council. Articles 18 and 20 of the Charter of the Organization of American States, written in part in reaction to the history of US military interventions in Central America, also explicitly prohibit the use of force by member states: "[n]o state or group of states has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in the internal affairs of any other state." (Charter of the Organization of American States (OAS), Article 18.) Article 20 of the OAS Charter states that "the territory of a states is inviolable; it may not be the object, even temporarily, of military occupation or of other measures of force taken by another state, directly or indirectly, on any grounds whatever." The US has ratified the UN Charter and the OAS Charter and therefore they are among the highest law of the land in the US under the Supremacy Clause of the US Constitution. Other international law experts who have examined the legal justification of the US invasion have concluded that it was a "gross violation" of international law.
The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution which strongly deplored
the 1989 U.S. armed invasion of Panama. The resolution determined that the U.S. invasion was
a "flagrant violation of international law." A similar resolution which was proposed by the United Nations Security Council was supported by the majority of its member nations but vetoed by the US, France and the UK.
Independent experts and observers have concluded that the US invasion of Panama also exceeded the authority of the president of the United States under the US Constitution because Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution grants the power to declare war solely to the Congress, not to the president. According to observers, the US invasion also violated the War Powers Resolution, a federal law designed to limit presidential action without Congressional authorization, because the president failed to consult with Congress regarding the invasion of Panama prior to the invasion.
Local and international reactions
The invasion of Panama provoked international outrage. Some countries charged that the U.S. had committed an act of aggression by invading Panama and was trying to conceal a new manifestation of its interventionist policy of force in Latin America. On December 29, the General Assembly of the United Nations voted 75–20, with 40 abstentions, to condemn the invasion as a flagrant violation of international law.
On December 22, the Organization of American States passed a resolution deploring the invasion and calling for withdrawal of U.S. troops, as well as a resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan Embassy in Panama by U.S. Special Forces who had entered the building. At the UN Security Council, after discussing the issue over several days, seven nations initiated a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Panama.
It was vetoed on December 23 by three of the permanent members of the Security Council,
France, United Kingdom, and the United States, which cited its right of self-defense of 35,000 Americans present on the Panama Canal.
Peru recalled its ambassador from the U.S. in protest of the invasion.
Nicolae Ceaușescu – President of the Socialist Republic of Romania – criticised the American invasion of Panama as "brutal aggression".
Some claim that the Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported the invasion. According to a CBS poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the U.S. incursion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the coup. The poll was conducted in 158 randomly selected areas of the country covering about 75 percent of Panama's adult population. CBS News said the margin of sampling error was plus or minus four percentage points. Human Rights Watch described the reaction of the civilian population to the invasion as "generally sympathetic". According to Robert Pastor, a former U.S. national security advisor, 74% of Americans polled approved of the action.
Eighteen years after the invasion, Panama's National Assembly unanimously declared December 20, 2007 to be a day of national mourning. The resolution was vetoed by President Martin Torrijos. On December 19, 2019 the Panamanian government declared December 20 to be a National Day of Mourning (Dia de duelo nacional) to be marked by lowering the national flag to half staff.
The Washington Post disclosed several rulings of the Office of Legal Counsel, issued shortly before the invasion, regarding the U.S. armed forces being charged with making an arrest abroad. One ruling interpreted an executive order which prohibits the assassination of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy. Another ruling concluded that the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878, which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization, is effective only within the boundaries of the U.S., such that the military could be used as a police force abroad—for example, in Panama, to enforce a federal court warrant against Noriega.
Aftermath
Guillermo Endara, in hiding, was sworn in as president by a judge on the night preceding the invasion. In later years, he staged a hunger strike, calling attention to the poverty and homelessness left in the wake of both the Noriega years and the destruction caused by the U.S. invasion.
On July 19, 1990, a group of 60 companies with operations in Panama filed a lawsuit against the U.S. government in Federal District Court in New York City alleging that the U.S. action against Panama was "done in a tortuous, careless and negligent manner with disregard for the property of innocent Panamanian residents". Most of the businesses had insurance, but the insurers either went bankrupt or refused to pay, claiming that acts of war were not covered.
About 20,000 people lost their homes and became refugees as a result of urban warfare. About 2,700 families that were displaced by the Chorrillo fire were each given $6,500 by the U.S. to build a new house or apartment in selected areas in or near the city. However, numerous problems were reported with the new constructions just two years after the invasion.
The government of Guillermo Endara designated the first anniversary of the U.S. invasion a "national day of reflection". Hundreds of Panamanians marked the day with a "black march" through the streets of Panama City to denounce the U.S. invasion and Endara's economic policies. Protesters echoed claims that 3,000 people were killed as a result of U.S. military action. Since Noriega's ousting, Panama has had four presidential elections, with candidates from opposing parties succeeding each other in the Palacio de las Garzas. Panama's press, however, is still subject to numerous restrictions. On February 10, 1990, the Endara government abolished Panama's military and reformed the security apparatus by creating the Panamanian Public Forces. In 1994, a constitutional amendment permanently abolished the military of Panama. Concurrent with a severe recession in Latin America throughout the 1990s, Panama's GDP recovered by 1993, but very high unemployment remained a serious problem.
Noriega was brought to the U.S. to stand trial. He was subsequently convicted on eight counts of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering and sentenced to 40 years in prison. His sentence was later reduced to 30 years.
On December 20, 2015, Vice President Isabel De Saint Malo de Alvarado announced Panama's intention to form a special independent commission with the aim to publish a report to mark the 26th anniversary of the U.S. invasion of Panama. The commission's goal would be to identify victims so that reparations could be paid to their families, as well as to establish public monuments and school curriculums to honor history and reclaim Panama's collective memory. Victims' families have claimed that past investigations into the invasion had been funded by Washington and therefore were biased.
Timeline
Information in this section
September 1987
U.S. Senate passes resolution urging Panama to re-establish a civilian government. Panama protests alleged U.S. violations of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.
November 1987
U.S. Senate resolution cuts military and economic aid to Panama. Panamanians adopt resolution restricting U.S. military presence.
February 1988
Noriega indicted on drug-related charges. U.S. forces begin planning contingency operations in Panama (OPLAN Blue Spoon).
March 1988
March 15: First of four deployments of U.S. forces begins providing additional security to U.S. installations.
March 16: PDF officers attempt a coup against Noriega.
April 1988
April 5: Additional U.S. forces deployed to provide security.
April 9: Joint Task Force Panama activated.
May 1989
May 7: Civilian elections are held in Panama; opposition alliance tally shows their candidate, Guillermo Endara, beating Noriega's candidate, Carlos Duque, by a 3 to 1 margin. The election is declared invalid two days later by Noriega.
May 11: President Bush orders 1,900 additional combat troops to Panama (Operation Nimrod Dancer).
May 22: Convoys conducted to assert U.S. freedom of movement. Additional transport units travel from bases in the territorial U.S. to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.
June–September 1989 (Operation Nimrod Dancer)
U.S. begins conducting joint training and freedom of movement exercises (Operation Sand Flea and Operation Purple Storm). Additional transport units continue repeatedly traveling from bases in the territorial U.S. to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.
October 1989 (Operation Nimrod Dancer)
October 3: PDF, loyal to Noriega, defeat second coup attempt.
December 1989
December 15: Noriega refers to himself as leader of Panama and declares that the U.S. is in a state of war with Panama.
December 16: U.S. Marine lieutenant shot and killed by PDF. Navy lieutenant and wife detained and assaulted by PDF.
December 17: NCA directs execution of Operation Just Cause.
December 18: Army lieutenant shoots PDF sergeant. Joint Task Force South (JTFSO) advance party deploys. JCS designates D-Day/H-Hour as 20 December/1:00 a.m.
December 19: U.S. forces alerted, marshalled, and launched.
D-Day, December 20, 1989
U.S. invasion of Panama begins. The operation was conducted as a campaign with limited military objectives. JTFSO objectives in PLAN 90-2 were to: protect U.S. lives and key sites and facilities, capture and deliver Noriega to competent authority, neutralize PDF forces, neutralize PDF command and control, support establishment of a U.S.-recognized government in Panama, and restructure the PDF. Major operations detailed elsewhere continued through December 24.
JCS directs execution of Operation Promote Liberty.
January 3, 1990 (D-Day + 14)
Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces.
January 31, 1990 (D-Day + 42)
Operation Just Cause ends.
Operation Promote Liberty begins.
September 1994 (D-Day + approximately 4.5 years)
Operation Promote Liberty ends.
Major operations and U.S. units involved
Operations
All 27 objectives related to the Panamanian Defense Force were completed on D-Day, December 20, 1989. As initial forces moved to new objectives, follow-on forces from the 7th Infantry Division (L) moved into the western areas of Panama and into Panama City.
December 18, 1989 (D-Day – 2)
SFODA-795/796 of Company C, 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne), part of Task Force Black, moves to Albrook Air Force Station as a forward element in preparation to secure the Panamanian President-elect Endara and his two vice presidents-elect, by force, if necessary.
December 19, 1989 (D-Day − 1)
Company A, 1st Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) – already deployed into Panama, along with 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) – then permanently headquartered at Fort Davis, Panama, both elements of Task Force Black, moved to predetermined positions.
Task Force Black receives Presidential cross-border authority message from President Bush.
Company C, 3rd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) is stood down from its mission to rescue of the duly elected Panamanian Presidency and awaits a new mission.
3d Bde, 7th Infantry Division (L) (4/17th Inf), already deployed as part of peacekeeping forces in the region, was deployed to predetermined positions.
2nd Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), was alerted for deployment. DRF 1 (3/27th Inf) and DRF 2 (2/27th INF) were deployed.
Tow Platoon, HHC, 5/87th Inf (L), conducts pre-invasion recon of all objectives for Task Force Wildcat.
December 20, 1989 (D-Day)
3d Bde, 7th Infantry Division (L) (4/17th Inf) began operations in Colon City, the Canal Zone, and Panama City.
The remainder of the 2d Bde was deployed and closed in Panama.
Elements of 1st and 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) conducted air assault and secured Pacora River Bridge preventing PDF reinforcements from reaching Omar Torrijos Airport and Panama City.
The entire 75th Ranger Regiment, split into two elements (Team Black and Team Gold), conducted simultaneous parachute drops at Rio Hato Airfield, along with half the command and control of the HQ 75th RGR, the entire 2nd Battalion 75th RGR, and two companies from 3rd Battalion 75th, to neutralize PDF and Macho de Montes units present, seize the runway, and secure Manuel Noriega's beachside facility.
The other half of HQ 75th RGR C&C, along with 1st Battalion 75th RGR and the remaining elements of 3rd Battalion 75th RGR, dropped into Omar Torrijos Airport to seize the runway and tower for follow-on operations by elements of the 82nd Airborne Division, deployed by C141 airdrop/airland elements of the 317th Combat Control Squadron, 507th Tactical Air Control Squadron.
193d Infantry Brigade (Light) assaulted PDF headquarters at La Commandancia, PDF Engineer Battalion, PDF 5th Company at Fort Amador, PDF units at Balboa and Ancon.
45 minutes after the 75th RGR RGT conducted their parachute drop onto Omar Torrijos Airport the 1st BDE 82 ABN DIV begins parachuting onto the airfield, and then assembles for movement to assigned follow on objectives.
Company C, 3rd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) conducts a daylight raid on Panama National Radio in downtown Panama City by fast-roping onto the roof of its 20 story building from MH-60 helicopters, destroying its FM broadcast capability. In a short turn around operation with 15 minutes warning and on order from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the unit air assaults the Radio Panama AM radio transmitter site destroying the transmission tower and cutting off Noriega's final link to rally his supporters.
December 21, 1989 (D-Day + 1)
JCS directed execution of Operation Promote Liberty (renamed from Plan Blind Logic).
The Panama Canal reopened for daylight operations.
Refugee situation became critical.
C Company, 5th Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment (193d Infantry Brigade) repelled a PDF counterattack at the PDF DNTT headquarters and rescued Panamanian Vice President Ford, whose convoy was also attacked.
TF Bayonet began CMO in Panama City.
Marriott Hotel was secured and hostages evacuated.
December 22, 1989 (D-Day + 2)
FPP established.
CMO and stability operations became primary focus.
2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), deployed to Rio Hato.
1st Bde (9th Regiment), 7th Inf Div (L), was alerted for deployment.
December 23, 1989 (D-Day + 3)
International airport reopened.
2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L) and SF elements began operations in west.
96th CA Bn assumed responsibility for DC Camp from USARSO.
1st Bde (9th Regiment) 7th Inf Div (L) closed in Panama.
December 24, 1989 (D-Day + 4)
Noriega entered Papal Nunciatura.
Money for Weapons program initiated.
Combined U.S./FPP patrols began.
December 25, 1989 (D-Day + 5)
Rangers secured Davíd.
Operations in western Panama continued successfully.
January 3, 1990 (D-Day + 14)
Noriega surrendered to U.S. forces.
Combat and stability ops continue.
January 31, 1990 (D-Day + 42)
Operation Just Cause ends.
Operation Promote Liberty begins.
September 1994 (D-Day + approximately 4.5 years)
Operation Promote Liberty ends.
Above information in this section
Related operations
Operation Nifty Package: an operation which the SEALs undertook in order to capture Manuel Noriega or destroy his two escape routes, his private jet which was located at the Paitilla Airfield was destroyed in the operation along with his gunboat, which was docked in a canal. Noriega surrendered to U.S. troops on January 3, 1990.
Operation Nimrod Dancer: an operation which reinforced the forward-deployed U.S. forces with a brigade headquarters and an infantry battalion task force from the 7th Inf Div (L), a mechanized infantry battalion from the 5th Inf Div (M), and a U.S. Marine Corps Light Armored Infantry (LAI) Company. Augmentation continued with units rotating from both divisions under Operation Nimrod Sustain.
Operation Prayer Book
Operation Promote Liberty: an operation whose purpose was to rebuild the Panamanian military and Panama's civilian infrastructure.
Operation Purple Storm: an operation whose purpose was to assert, display, and exercise U.S. freedom-of-movement rights, with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose.
Operation Sand Flea: an operation whose purpose was to exercise, display, and assert U.S. freedom-of-movement rights, with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose.
Raid at Renacer Prison: a military operation in which the prison was taken over and 64 prisoners were rescued.
See also
The Panama Deception, an Academy Award–winning 1992 documentary which was narrated by Elizabeth Montgomery.
Invasion, a 2014 Panamanian documentary.
Foreign interventions by the United States
United States involvement in regime change
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Crandall, Russell. Gunboat democracy: US interventions in the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Panama (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006).
Gilboa, Eytan. "The Panama Invasion Revisited: Lessons for the Use of Force in the Post Cold War Era." Political Science Quarterly 110.4 (1995): 539–562. .
Michaud, Nelson and Howard M. Hensel, eds. Global Media Perspectives on the Crisis in Panama (2011). excerpt
Ratcliff, Ronald. "Panama–The Enduring Crisis 1985–1989". Case studies in policy making and implementation (2002).
External links
Panama: Background of U.S. Invasion of 1989 – historical timeline
Tactical map of Operation Just Cause
Effects of the military intervention by the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America, UN General Assembly Meeting December 29, 1989
Interview with UH-60 helicopter pilot 1LT Lisa Kutschhera, Operation JUST CAUSE Interview #001 – 1LT Lisa Kutschera
20th-century military history of the United States
1989 in Panama
1990 in Panama
Airborne operations
Panama
Conflicts in 1989
Conflicts in 1990
December 1989 events in North America
History of Panama
1989 in the United States
1990 in the United States
Invasions by the United States
Invasions of Panama
January 1990 events in North America
P
Military history of Panama
Operations against organized crime
Operations involving American special forces
Panama–United States relations
Presidency of George H. W. Bush
United States Army Rangers
United States Marine Corps in the 20th century
Urban warfare
Wars involving Panama
United States involvement in regime change
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205554
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Jon%20Williams
|
Walter Jon Williams
|
Walter Jon Williams (born October 28, 1953) is an American writer, primarily of science fiction. Previously he wrote nautical adventure fiction under the name Jon Williams, in particular, Privateers and Gentlemen (1981–1984), a series of historical novels set during the age of sail.
Career
As Jon Williams, he designed the games Heart of Oak (1982) and Privateers and Gentlemen (1983) for Fantasy Games Unlimited. A Cyberpunk RPG sourcebook called Hardwired (1989) was licensed by R. Talsorian Games, based on the 1986 novel of the same name by Williams.
Williams was born in Duluth, Minnesota and graduated from the University of New Mexico, where he received his BA degree in 1975. He currently lives in Valencia County, south of Albuquerque in New Mexico.
In 2006, Williams founded the Taos Toolbox, a two-week writer's workshop for fantasy and science fiction writers.
In 2017, Williams was the Guest of Honor at the 75th World Science Fiction Convention, held in Helsinki.
Publications
Novels
Hardwired series
Hardwired (1986)
Solip:System (1989; novelette released as a standalone book)
Voice of the Whirlwind (1987)
Drake Maijstral series
An SF comedy of manners series about the aristocratic burglar Drake Maijstral. Collected as an omnibus, Ten Points for Style (1995)
The Crown Jewels (1987)
House of Shards (1988)
Rock of Ages (1995)
Metropolitan series
Metropolitan (1995), Nebula Award nominee
City on Fire (1997), Hugo Award nominee; Nebula Award nominee
Dread Empire's Fall series
A military science fiction/space opera series.
The Praxis (2002)
The Sundering (2003)
Conventions of War (2005)
Investments (2008), novella
Impersonations (2016)
The Accidental War (2018)
Fleet Elements (2020)
Privateers and Gentlemen series, as Jon Williams
To Glory Arise, originally The Privateer (1981)
The Tern Schooner, originally The Yankee (1981)
Brig of War, originally The Raider (1981)
The Macedonian (1981)
Cat Island (1981)
Dagmar Shaw series
A sci-fi thriller series involving crowdsourcing and alternate reality games.
This Is Not a Game (2009)
Deep State (2011)
The Fourth Wall (2012)
"Diamonds from Tequila" (2014), short story published in Rogues
Quillifer series
Quillifer (2017)
Quillifer The Knight (2019)
Lord Quillifer (2022, scheduled)
Other novels
Ambassador of Progress (1984)
Knight Moves (1985), Philip K. Dick Award nominee
Angel Station (1989)
Elegy for Angels and Dogs (1990)
Days of Atonement (1991)
Aristoi (1992)
The Rift (1999), as by Walter J. Williams
The New Jedi Order: Destiny's Way (2002)
Implied Spaces (2008)
Short fiction collections
Facets (1990)
Frankensteins and Foreign Devils (1998)
The Green Leopard Plague and Other Stories (Trade Hardcover: Night Shade Books, 2010, )
Notable short fiction
"Dinosaurs" (1987), Hugo Award nominee
"Witness" (1987), Nebula Award nominee
"Surfacing" (1988), Hugo Award and Nebula Award nominee
"Erogenoscape" (1991)
"Prayers on the Wind" (1991), Nebula Award nominee
"Wall, Stone, Craft" (1993), Hugo Award and Nebula Award nominee
"Red Elvis" (1994) (collected in Mike Resnick's alternate history anthology Alternate Outlaws)
"Foreign Devils" in War of the Worlds: Global Dispatches (1996), Sidewise Award for Alternate History winner
"Lethe" (1999), Nebula Award nominee
"Daddy's World" (2000), Nebula Award winner
"Argonautica" (2001), Nebula Award nominee
"The Last Ride of German Freddie", in Worlds That Weren't (2002), Sidewise Award for Alternate History nominee
"The Tang Dynasty Underwater Pyramid" (2004)
"The Green Leopard Plague" (2004), Nebula Award winner, Hugo Award nominee
"Prompt. Professional. Pop!: A Tor.Com Original" (2014)
References
External links
with blog
Critical profile and bibliography in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
Walter Jon Williams discussion at theforce.net Message Boards
Interview on Bibliophile Stalker
Practice for Something Else: Walter Jon Williams, Interview by Jeremy L. C. Jones, Clarkesworld Magazine, January 2011
Interview With a Writer: Science Fiction Writer Walter Jon Williams, Interview by Tom Chandler, Writer Underground blog, April 2011
Jon Williams at LC Authorities – undifferentiated name; 6 of 7 catalog records belong to this Jon Williams
Jon Williams at WorldCat (Privateers and Gentlemen, among works by other Jon Williams)
1953 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
American fantasy writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American people of Finnish descent
American science fiction writers
American thriller writers
Living people
Nautical historical novelists
Nebula Award winners
Role-playing game designers
Sidewise Award winners
University of New Mexico alumni
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
People from Los Lunas, New Mexico
|
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] |
205558
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenithal%20hourly%20rate
|
Zenithal hourly rate
|
In astronomy, the zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) of a meteor shower is the number of meteors a single observer would see in an hour of peak activity if it was at the zenith, assumed the conditions are excellent (stars visible up to magnitude 6,5). The rate that can effectively be seen is nearly always lower and decreases the closer the radiant is to the horizon.
The formula to calculate the ZHR is:
where
represents the hourly rate of the observer. N is the number of meteors observed, and Teff is the effective observation time of the observer.
Example: If the observer detected 12 meteors in 15 minutes, their hourly rate was 48. (12 divided by 0.25 hours).
This represents the field of view correction factor, where k is the percentage of the observer's field of view which is obstructed (by clouds, for example).
Example: If 20% of the observer's field of view were covered by clouds, k would be 0.2 and F would be 1.25. The observer should have seen 25% more meteors, therefore multiply by F = 1.25.
This represents the limiting magnitude correction factor (Population index). For every change of 1 magnitude in the limiting magnitude of the observer, the number of meteors observed changes by a factor of r. Therefore, this must be taken into account.
Example: If r is 2, and the observer's limiting magnitude is 5.5, the hourly rate is multiplied by 2 (2 to the power 6.5–5.5), to know how many meteors they would have seen if their limiting magnitude was 6.5.
This represents the correction factor for the altitude of the radiant above the horizon (hR). The number of meteors seen by an observer changes as the sine of the radiant height.
Example: If the radiant was at an average altitude of 30° during the observation period, the observer's hourly rate will need to be divided by 0.5 (sin 30°) to know how many meteors they would have seen if the radiant was at the zenith.
See also
List of meteor showers
References
External links
North American Meteor Network (NAMN)
Meteoroids
Observational astronomy
|
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] |
205559
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZHR
|
ZHR
|
ZHR may represent:
Zenithal Hourly Rate, an astronomical term
Związek Harcerstwa Rzeczypospolitej, a Polish Scout organisation
|
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205561
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Persons
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Robert Persons
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Robert Persons (24 June 1546 – 15 April 1610), later known as Robert Parsons, was an English Jesuit priest. He was a major figure in establishing the 16th-century "English Mission" of the Society of Jesus.
Early life
Robert Persons was born at Nether Stowey, Somerset to yeoman parents. Through the favour of local parson named John Hayward, a former monk, he was educated in 1562 at St. Mary's Hall, Oxford. After completing his degrees with distinction, he became a fellow and tutor at Balliol in 1568.
College fellow and priest
As a Fellow of Balliol College, Persons clashed with the Master there, Adam Squire, and also the academic and Roman Catholic priest Christopher Bagshaw. On 13 February 1574, he was subsequently forced to resign. Through discussion and encouraged by pupillage with Father William Good, SJ, he travelled overseas to become a Jesuit priest at St Paul's, Rome on 3 July 1575.
English mission: 1580–1581
Persons accompanied Edmund Campion on his mission to fellow English Catholics in 1580. The Jesuit General, Everard Mercurian, had been reluctant to involve the Society directly in English ecumenical affairs. He was persuaded by an Italian Jesuit provincial, and later by Superior General Claudio Acquaviva, after William Cardinal Allen had found Mercurian resistant to change in October 1579. Persons fast tracked English recruits to the Jesuits, and planned to set up cooperation with the remaining English secular clergy. He became impatient with Father Good's approach to the situation. Campion was much less of an enthusiast than he was.
The mission was immediately compromised as the pope had sent a separate group to the Jesuit mission, to support the Irish rebel, James FitzMaurice FitzGerald. Persons and Campion only learned of this event in Reims while they were en route to England. After the initial invasion force under the mercenary Thomas Stukley had achieved nothing successful in 1578, the intervention under FitzGerald caused the English authorities to monitor the recusants closely, and try to finance the campaign against the papal forces with exactions from them. Campion and Persons crossed separately into England.
In June 1580 Thomas Pounde, then in the Marshalsea Prison, went to speak to Persons. This action then resulted in a petition from Pounde to the Privy Council to allow a disputation where the Jesuits would take on Robert Crowley and Henry Tripp, who used to preach to the Marshalsea inmates. Campion and Persons also prepared their own personal statements, to be kept in reserve. The immediate consequence was that Pounde was then transferred to Bishop's Stortford Castle; but the prepared statement by Campion was later circulated soon after his capture.
Much of the time Persons spent in England was taken up with covert printing, and pamphleteering. He made his negative view on church papism clear to the local Catholic clergy, before a synod in Southwark. The secret printing press needed to be relocated, moving it in early 1581 to Stonor Park. Campion was captured in July of that year; and then Stephen Brinkley, who ran the printing press, was taken captive in August. Quite soon after that date Persons left for France. His underlying strategy of trying to embarrass the English government by demanding a forum for his ideals was consistent with the general approach of Allen and Persons, but met with much criticism from the Catholic members. Allen and Parsons persisted with their demand for another two years, but Jesuit opinion was against further confrontation. Campion was forced into disputation in the Tower of London under adverse conditions. When Persons left England, he was never to return.
To the Armada
Persons spent the winter of 1581–82 at Rouen, and embarked on writing projects. He was in close contact with Henry I, Duke of Guise, and through the Duke founded a school for English boys at Eu, on the coast to the north-east. Father William Creighton, SJ, was on the way to Scotland. He arrived in January 1582 and was briefed by Persons and the duke. In April Creighton returned with word from Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox; and they went to Paris to confer with William Allen, James Beaton and Claude Mathieu, Jesuit provincial in France, on his military plans and the imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots. The scheme, which Persons supported confidently, advanced further, but was stopped after the raid of Ruthven of August 1582. One consequence was that Allen was made Cardinal, as Persons had recommended.
A new enterprise was projected for September 1583, this time through England. Persons was sent by the Duke of Guise with written instructions to Rome. He returned to Flanders, and stayed for some time at the court of the Duke of Parma. The discovery of the Throckmorton Plot disrupted the plan, and the Duke of Guise became absorbed in French domestic affairs. Philip II of Spain took over the lead, placed the Duke of Parma in charge, and limited involvement to Persons, Allen, and Hew Owen.
It was during this period that Persons was involved in the work later known as Leicester's Commonwealth. Distributed covertly, it came to light in 1584. Persons is now generally thought not to be the author. The British historian John Bossy, from the University of York, is inclined to disagree.
There is a scholarly consensus that the intention was to affect French domestic politics, strengthening the Guise faction against Anglophiles. Correspondingly his own standing suffered in some quarters. Claudio Acquaviva by the end of the year was concerned that the Jesuit strategies for France and the English mission would turn out to be inconsistent in the longer term, and consulted Pope Gregory XIII on the matter. Persons as his subordinate had been told to drop plans to assassinate Elizabeth.
In September 1585, Pope Sixtus V succeeded Pope Gregory XIII, and Persons and Allen went to Rome; Persons was still there when the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. At this period Allen and Persons made a close study of the succession to Elizabeth I of England, working with noted genealogist Robert Heighinton. Persons took his vows of final profession in the Jesuits in Rome on 7 May 1587.
Later life
Persons was sent to Spain at the close of 1588 to conciliate Philip II of Spain, who was offended with Claudio Acquaviva. Persons was successful, and then made use of the royal favour to found the seminaries of Valladolid, Seville, and Madrid (1589, 1592, 1598) and the residences of San-Lucar and of Lisbon (which became a college in 1622). He then succeeded in establishing at St Omer (1594) a larger institution to which the boys from Eu were transferred. It is the institutional ancestor of Stonyhurst College.
In 1596, in Seville, he wrote Memorial for the Reformation of England, which gave in some detail a blueprint for the kind of society England was to become after its return to the faith. He had hoped to succeed Allen as Cardinal on the latter's death. Unsuccessful, he was rewarded with the rectorship of the English College in Rome, where he died at the age of 63. John Donne's Pseudo Martyr (1610) engages critically with Persons' views.
Works
Persons's published works were:
A brief discovrs contayning certayne reasons why Catholiques refuse to goe to Church . . . dedicated by I. H. to the queenes most excellent Maiestie. Doway, John Lyon [London], 1580. This work was published through a clandestine printing press in London, printed as a consequence of decisions at a synod at Southwark held not long after Frs. Persons and Campion landed. It was aimed at implementing a 1563 declaration of Pope Pius IV that Catholics should not mix with heretics.
A Discouerie of I. Nicols, minister, misreported a Jesuite, latelye recanted in the Tower of London. Doway [London], 1580. Printed by Persons at Stonor Park, it concerned a renegade Catholic priest. In a poem which begins, Gwrandewch ddatcan, meddwl maith ("Hear a song, a great thought,"), St. Richard Gwyn, who was Canonized in 1970 as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales, both summarized Fr. Persons' work and rendered it into a work of Welsh poetry in strict meter. All of the reasons given by Fr. Persons for Catholics to refuse to attend Anglican services were listed by St. Richard Gwyn in the poem, "but of course only in brief poetic way."
A briefe censure upon two bookes written in answer to M. Edmund Campians offer of disputation. Doway, John Lyon [really at Mr. Brooke's house near London], 1581. Against William Charke and Meredith Hanmer, who had engaged in controversy with Campion.
De persecvtione Anglicana commentariolus a collegio Anglicano Romano hoc anno 1582 in vrbe editus et iam denuo Ingolstadii excusus . . . anno eodem. Also, De persecutione Angl. libellus, Romæ, ex typogr. G. Ferrarii, 1582.
A Defence of the censvre gyven vpon tvvo bookes of William Charke and Meredith Hanmer, mynysters, 1582.
The first booke of the Christian exercise, appertayning to Resolution [Rouen], 1582. Preface signed R. P. Afterwards much enlarged, under the title of A Christian Directorie, guiding men to their saluation, devided into three books, anno 1585, and often reprinted (40 editions by 1640). This was a major devotional work in English, and was soon adapted by Edmund Bunny to Protestant needs.
Relacion de algunos martyres ... en Inglaterra, traduzida en Castellano, 1590. William Thomas Lowndes considered that Persons was the probable author of this work on the English martyrs, as well as its translator into Spanish.
Elizabethæ Angliæ reginæ hæresim Calvinianam propvgnantis sævissimvm in Catholicos sui regni Edictvm . . . promulgatum Londini 29 Nouembris 1591. Cum responsione ad singula capita . . . per D. Andream Philopatrum, presb. ac theol. Romanum, Lvgduni, 1592. This Latin work was a detailed rebuttal of a proclamation of Elizabeth I of October 1591, against seminary priests and Jesuits.
A Conference abovt the next svccession to the crowne of Ingland, divided into tvvo partes. . . . Where vnto is added a new & perfect arbor or genealogie.... Published by R. Doleman. Imprinted at N. [St. Omer] with licence, 1594. The book suggests Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain as the proper successor.
A Memoriall for the Reformation of England conteyning certayne notes and advertisements which seeme might be proposed in the first parliament and nationall councell of our country after God of his mercie shall restore it to the catholique faith [...]; gathered and set downe by R. P., 1596. Left in manuscript, the circulation having included Isabella Clara Eugenia. It was first published in 1690 by Edward Gee, as Jesuits Memorial for the intended Reformation of England.
A Temperate Ward-word to the turbulent and seditious Wach-word of Sir Francis Hastinges, knight, who indevoreth to slander the whole Catholique cause.... By N. D. 1599. Controversy with Sir Francis Hastings.
The Copie of a letter written by F. Rob. Persons, the jesuite, 9 Oct 1599, to M. D. Bis[op] and M. Cha[rnock], two banished and consigned priests... for presuming to goe to Rome in the affaires of the Catholicke church. This was printed in Copies of certain Discourses, Roane, 1601, pp. 49–67, edited by William Bishop, one of the appellants in the Archpriest controversy; the other appellant named is Robert Charnock.
A Briefe Apologie or Defence of the Catholike ecclesiastical hierarchie & subordination in England, erected these later yeares by our holy Father ... and impugned by certayne libels printed ... by some vnquiet persons under the name of priests of the seminaries. Written ... by priests vnited in due subordination to the right rev. Archpriest [early in 1602]. Anti-appellant work in the Archpriest controversy.
An Appendix to the Apologie lately set forth for the defence of the hierarchie [1602]. A Latin translation of the 'Appendix' was also published in the same year.
A Manifestation of the great folly and bad spirit of certayne in England calling themselves secular priestes, who set forth dayly most infamous and contumelious libels against worthy men of their own religion. By priests liuing in obedience, 1602. Anti-appellant work in the Archpriest controversy.
The Warn-word to Sir F. Hastings Wastword: conteyning the issue of three former treatises, the Watchword, the Ward-word, and the Wastword . . . Whereunto is adjoyned a brief rejection of an insolent . . . minister masked with the letters O. E. (i.e. Matthew Sutcliffe). By N. D., 1602.
A Treatise of Three Conversions of England ... divided into three parts. The former two whereof are handled in this book. . . . By N. D., author of the Ward-word, 1603. Polemical work against John Foxe's anti-Catholic reading of history.
The Third part of a treatise intituled of the Three Conversions of England. Conteyning an examen of the Calendar or Catalogue of Protestant saints . . . devised by Fox. By N. D. (preface dated November 1603).
A Review of ten pvblike dispvtations or conferences held within the compasse of foure yeares vnder K. Edward and Qu. Mary. By N.D., 1604 (separately paged but issued with third part of 'Three Conversions).
A Relation of the triall made before the king of France upon the yeare 1600 betweene the bishop of Évreux and the L. Plessis Mornay. Newly reviewed . . . with a defence thereof against the impugnations both of the L. Plessis in France and O. E. in England. By N. D., 1604. On the debate at Fontainebleau on 4 May 1600 between Jacques-Davy Duperron and Philippe de Mornay.
An Ansvvere to the fifth part of Reportes lately set forth by Syr Edward Cooke knight, the King's attorney generall, concerning the ancient and moderne municipal lawes of England, which do appertayne to spiritual power and jurisdiction. By a Catholick Deuyne [St. Omer], 1606. Polemical work against Sir Edward Coke's anti-Catholic reading of the common law.
Quæstiones duæ: quarum 1a est, an liceat Catholicis Anglicanis . . . Protestantium ecclesias vel preces adire: 2da utrum non si precibus ut concionibus saltem hæreticis . . . licite possint interesse easque audire [St. Omer], 1607. Pope Paul V had repeated the declaration against Catholics attending Protestant churches.
A treatise tending to mitigation tovvards Catholicke-subiectes in England. . . . Against the seditious wrytings of Thomas Morton, minister. By P. R., 1607 (the first part is on rebellion, the second concerns the doctrine of equivocation). Written in the aftermath of the Gunpowder Plot, the work argues for religious toleration in England.
The Judgment of a Catholicke Englishman liuing in banishment for his religion . . . concerning a late booke [by K. James] entituled: Triplici nodo triplex cuneus, or an apologie for the oath of allegiance. . . . wherin the said oath is shewn to be vnlawful. . . . 1608. Contribution to the allegiance oath controversy.
Dutifull and respective considerations upon foure severall heads . . . proposed by the high and mighty Prince James ... in his late book of Premonition to all Christian princes. . . . By a late minister and preacher in England, St. Omer, 1609 (written by Persons for Humphrey Leech, under whose name it appeared). Argues for tolerance for Catholicism in its integrity.
A quiet and sober reckoning with M. Thomas Morton, somewhat set in choler by his advesary P. R. ... There is also adioyned a peece of reckoning with Syr Edward Cooke, now LL. Chief Justice, 1609. Against Thomas Morton, who had argued that recusant Catholics were necessarily disloyal, Persons argued that Catholicism could co-exist peacefully with the Church of England.
A Discussion of the answer of M. William Barlow, Doctor of Diuinity, to the book intituled, The Judgment of a Catholic Englishman, St. Omers, 1612 (published after Persons's death, with a supplement by Thomas Fitzherbert). Reply to William Barlow in the allegiance oath controversy.
Epitome controversiarum hujus temporis was a manuscript preserved in Balliol College.
Misattributed
An Apologicall Epistle: directed to the right honourable lords and others of her majesties privie counsell. Serving as well for a preface to a Booke entituled A Resolution of Religion [signed R. B.], Antwerp, 1601, is by Richard Broughton rather than Persons (as the Dictionary of National Biography says). Some works against Thomas Bell were thought to be by Persons (as in the DNB), but were in fact by Philip Woodward.
See also
References
Sources
Attribution
1546 births
1610 deaths
16th-century English Jesuits
17th-century English Jesuits
Alumni of St Mary Hall, Oxford
Early modern Christian devotional writers
English expatriates in Italy
English expatriates in Spain
People from Sedgemoor (district)
Rectors of the English College, Rome
Recusants
English Roman Catholics
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltire
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Saltire
|
A saltire, also called Saint Andrew's Cross or the crux decussata, is a heraldic symbol in the form of a diagonal cross, like the shape of the letter X in Roman type. The word comes from the Middle French sautoir, Medieval Latin saltatoria ("stirrup").
From its use as field sign, the saltire came to be used in a number of flags, in the 16th century for Scotland and Burgundy, in the 18th century also as the ensign of the Russian Navy, and for Ireland. Notable 19th-century usage includes some of the flags of the Confederate States of America. It is also used in the flag of Jamaica and on seals, and as a heraldic charge in coats of arms.
The term saltirewise or in saltire refers to heraldic charges arranged as a diagonal cross. The shield may also be divided per saltire, i.e. diagonally.
A warning sign in the shape of a saltire is also used to indicate the point at which a railway line intersects a road at a level crossing.
Heraldry and vexillology
The saltire is important both in heraldry, being found in many coats of arms, and in vexillology, being found as the dominant feature of multiple flags.
The saltire is one of the so-called ordinaries, geometric charges that span throughout (from edge to edge of) the shield. As suggested by the name saltire ("stirrup"; in French: sautoir, in German: Schragen), the ordinary in its early use was not intended as representing a Christian cross symbol. The association with Saint Andrew is a development of the 15th to 16th centuries. The Cross of Burgundy emblem originates in the 15th century, as a field sign, and as the Saint Andrew's Cross of Scotland was used in flags or banners (but not in coats of arms) from the 16th century, and used as naval ensign during the Age of Sail.
When two or more saltires appear, they are usually blazoned as couped (cut off). For example, contrast the single saltire in the arms granted to G. M. W. Anderson—with the three saltires couped in the coat of Kemble Greenwood.
Diminutive forms include the fillet saltire, usually considered half or less the width of the saltire, and the saltorel, a narrow or couped saltire.
A field (party) per saltire is divided into four areas by a saltire-shaped "cut". If two tinctures are specified, the first refers to the areas above (in chief) and below (in base) the crossing, and the second refers to the ones on either side (in the flanks). Otherwise, each of the four divisions may be blazoned separately.
The phrase in saltire or saltirewise is used in two ways:
Two long narrow charges "in saltire" are placed to cross each other diagonally. Common forms include the crossed keys found in the arms of many entities associated with Saint Peter and paired arrows.
When five or more compact charges are "in saltire", they are arranged with one in the center and the others along the arms of an invisible saltire.
Division of the field per saltire was notably used by the Aragonese kings of Sicily beginning in the 14th century (Frederick the Simple), showing the pales of Aragon and the "Hohenstaufen" eagle (argent an eagle sable).
Scotland
The Flag of Scotland, called The Saltire or Saint Andrew's Cross, is a blue field with a white saltire. According to tradition, it represents Saint Andrew, who is supposed to have been crucified on a cross of that form (called a crux decussata) at Patras, Greece.
The Saint Andrew's Cross was worn as a badge on hats in Scotland, on the day of the feast of Saint Andrew.
In the politics of Scotland, both the Scottish National Party and Scottish Conservative Party use stylised saltires as their party logos, deriving from the flag of Scotland.
Prior to the Union the Royal Scots Navy used a red ensign incorporating the St Andrew's Cross; this ensign is now sometimes flown as part of an unofficial civil ensign in Scottish waters. With its colours exchanged (and a lighter blue), the same design forms part of the arms and flag of Nova Scotia (whose name means "New Scotland").
Cross of Burgundy
The Cross of Burgundy, a form of the Saint Andrew's Cross, is used in numerous flags across Europe and the Americas. It was first used in the 15th century as an emblem by the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. The Duchy of Burgundy, forming a large part of eastern France and the Low Countries, was inherited by the House of Habsburg on the extinction of the Valois ducal line. The emblem was therefore assumed by the monarchs of Spain as a consequence of the Habsburgs bringing together, in the early 16th century, their Burgundian inheritance with the other extensive possessions they inherited throughout Europe and the Americas, including the crowns of Castile and Aragon. As a result, the Cross of Burgundy has appeared in a wide variety of flags connected with territories formerly part of the Burgundian or Habsburg inheritance. Examples of such diversity include the Spanish naval ensign (1506-1701), the flag of Carlism (a nineteenth century Spanish conservative movement), the flag of the Dutch capital of Amsterdam and municipality of Eijsden, the flag of Chuquisaca in Bolivia and the flags of the US states of Florida and Alabama.
Gascony
Gascony has not had any institutional unity since the 11th century, hence several flags are currently used in the territory. Legend says that this flag appeared in the time of Pope Clement III to gather the Gascons during the Third Crusade (12th century). That flag, sometimes called "Union Gascona" (Gascon Union), contains the St Andrew's cross, the patron saint of Bordeaux and the red color of English kingdom, which reigned over Gascony from 12th to mid-15th century.
In Tome 14 of the Grande Encyclopédie, published in France between 1886 and 1902 by Henri Lamirault, it says
That saltire is also represented in the pattern of some in many bullrings in Gascony.
Maritime flags
The naval ensign of the Imperial Russian (1696–1917) and Russian navies (1991–present) is a blue saltire on a white field.
The international maritime signal flag for M is a white saltire on a blue background, and indicates a stopped vessel. A red saltire on a white background denotes the letter V and the message "I require assistance".
Others
The flags of the Colombian archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia and the Spanish island of Tenerife also use a white saltire on a blue field. The Brazilian cities of Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza also use a blue saltire on a white field, with their coats-of-arms at the hub.
Saltires are also seen in several other flags, including the flags of Grenada, Jamaica, Alabama, Florida, Jersey, Logroño, Vitoria, Amsterdam, Breda, Katwijk, Potchefstroom, The Bierzo and Valdivia, as well as the former Indian princely states of Khairpur, Rajkot and Jaora.
The design is also part of the Confederate Battle Flag and Naval Jack used during the American Civil War (see Flags of the Confederate States of America). Arthur L. Rogers, designer of the final version of the Confederate National flag, claimed that it was based on the saltire of Scotland. The saltire is used on modern-day Southern U.S. state flags to honour the former Confederacy.
Christian symbol
Anne Roes (1937) identifies a design consisting of two crossing diagonal lines in a rectangle, sometimes with four dots or balls in the four quarters, as an emblem or vexillum (standard) of Persepolis during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC. Roes also finds the design in Argive vase painting, and still earlier in button seals of the Iranian Chalcolithic. Roes also notes the occurrence of a very similar if not identical vexillum which repeatedly occurs in Gaulish coins of c. the 2nd to 1st century BC, in a recurring design where it is held by a charioteer in front of his human-headed horse. A large number of coins of this type (118 out of 152 items) forms part of the Les Sablons hoard of the 1st century BC, discovered in Le Mans between 1991 and 1997, associated with the Cenomani.
The same design is found on coins of Christian Roman emperors of the 4th to 5th centuries (Constantius II, Valentinian, Jovian, Gratianus, Valens, Arcadius, Constantine III, Jovinus, Theodosius I, Eugenius and Theodosius II). The letter Χ (Chi) was from an early time used as a symbol for Christ (unrelated to the Christian cross symbol, which at the time was given a T-shape). The vexillum on imperial coins from the 4th century was sometimes shown as the Labarum, surmounted by or displaying the Chi-Rho monogram rather than just the crux decussata. The emblem of the crux decussata in a rectangle, sometimes with four dots or balls, re-appears in coins the Byzantine Empire, in the 9th to 10th centuries. Roes suggested that early Christians endorsed its solar symbolism as appropriate to Christ.
The association with Saint Andrew develops in the late medieval period. The tradition according to which this saint was crucified on a decussate cross is not found in early hagiography. Depictions of Saint Andrew being crucified in this manner first appear in the 10th century, but do not become standard before the 17th century. Reference to the saltire as "St Andrew's Cross" is made by the Parliament of Scotland (where Andrew had been adopted as patron saint) in 1385, in a decree to the effect that every Scottish and French soldier (fighting against the English under Richard II) "shall have a sign before and behind, namely a white St. Andrew's Cross".
Other
The diagonal cross (decussate cross) or X mark is called "saltire" in heraldic and vexillological contexts.
A black diagonal cross was used in an old European Union standard as the hazard symbol for irritants (Xi) or harmful chemicals (Xn). It indicated a hazard less severe than skull and crossbones, used for poisons, or the corrosive sign.
The Maria Theresa thaler has a Roman numeral ten to symbolize the 1750 debasement of the coinage, from 9 to 10 thalers to the Vienna mark (a weight of silver).
A diagonal cross known as "crossbuck" is used as the conventional road sign used to indicate the point at which a railway line intersects a road at a level crossing, called a in this context. A white diagonal cross on a blue background (or black on yellow for temporary signs) is displayed in UK railway signalling as a "cancelling indicator" for the Automatic Warning System (AWS), informing the driver that the received warning can be disregarded.
In Cameroon, a red "X" placed on illegally constructed buildings scheduled for demolition is occasionally referred to as a "St Andrew's Cross". It is usually accompanied by the letters "A.D." ("à détruire"—French for "to be demolished") and a date or deadline. During a campaign of urban renewal by the Yaoundé Urban Council in Cameroon, the cross was popularly referred to as "Tsimi's Cross" after the Government Delegate to the council, Gilbert Tsimi Evouna.
In traditional timber framing a pair of crossing braces is sometimes called a saltire or a St. Andrew's Cross. Half-timbering, particularly in France and Germany, has patterns of framing members forming many different symbols known as ornamental bracing.
Unicode encoded various decussate crosses under the name of saltire, they are , , , , , , and .
Gallery
Coats of arms
saltirewise
in supporters
Flags
International Code of Signals
US states
Military insignia
Orders
See also
Christian cross
Cross of Saint Peter
Crossbuck
Nordic cross
Saint George's Cross
Saint Patrick's Saltire
X mark
Notes
References
External links
Andrew the Apostle
Christian symbols
Cross symbols
Crosses in heraldry
Flags of saints
Heraldic ordinaries
Saltire flags
Timber framing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nether%20Stowey
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Nether Stowey
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Nether Stowey is a large village in the Sedgemoor district of Somerset, South West England. It sits in the foothills of the Quantock Hills (England's first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty), just below Over Stowey. The parish of Nether Stowey covers approximately 4 km², with a population of 1,373 (2011 census).
History
The Iron Age fort of Dowsborough lies about one and a half miles west of the village.
In the Domesday Book of 1086 it was recorded as Stawei, the name coming from the Old English stan weg, or paved road.
The parish of Nether Stowey was part of the Williton and Freemanners Hundred.
Nether Stowey may have been a borough as early as 1157 or 1158 but by 1225 it is officially recorded as such. The economy of the medieval town was based on textiles and pottery, and it had both a weekly market and a yearly fair after 1304.
During the "Bloody Assizes" in the autumn of 1685, in the aftermath of Duke of Monmouth's Rebellion, men from Nether Stowey who were caught up in the rebellion are said to have been hanged, drawn and quartered in the village after they were sentenced to death by Judge Jeffries. Their body parts were then displayed around the village to discourage others from rebellion against the King. Many villages throughout the South West were witness to the same bloody retribution.
Governance
The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council’s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.
The village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of Sedgemoor, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Bridgwater Rural District, which is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.
Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.
The village is part of the 'Quantocks' electoral ward. The ward stretches from Nether Stowey north east to Stockland Bristol and south east to Goathurst. The total ward population at the 2011 census was 4,471.
It is also part of the Bridgwater and West Somerset county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.
Notable buildings
Castle
Stowey Castle is a Norman motte-and-bailey castle, built in the 11th century. The blue lias rubble walling is the only visible structural remains of the castle which stand on a conical earthwork with a ditch approximately in circumference. The castle was destroyed in the 15th century, which may have been as a penalty for the local Lord Audley's involvement in the Second Cornish Uprising of 1497 led by Perkin Warbeck.
Church
The Church of St Mary the Virgin has a 15th-century tower, with the remainder of the church being rebuilt in 1851 by Richard Carver and Charles Edmund Giles. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building.
Stowey Court
Stowey Court may contain part of Lord Audley's original house which was left unfinished after his execution in 1497 until his descendants rebuilt the half-finished dwelling. Most of the current building is 19th and 20th-century. In 2008 the British Museum exhibited a hoard of silverware that was found near Stowey Court. The spoons, a goblet and a bell shaped salt cellars are thought to date from the time of the English Civil War and they were recently discovered in a broken earthenware jar using a metal detector.
Coleridge Cottage
Coleridge Cottage was, between 1797 and 1799, the home of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, one of the founders of the Romantic Movement in poetry (along with William Wordsworth, who himself lived three miles away). It was here he wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan.
The Coleridge Way celebrates his walks in the area.
Poole House
Poole House is thought to have been built in the late 17th century although some parts may be even older. Local tanner, politician and philanthropist Thomas Poole lived in the house in the late 18th and early 19th century. Poole provided a cottage, Coleridge Cottage, for the use of the romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Coleridge spent much time in Poole House, reading and writing in the barrel room. William Wordsworth and his sister were also frequent visitors.
Poole House is now a grade 2 listed house and many original features remain including fireplaces and the Georgian interior.
Clock Tower
The Clock Tower in St Mary Street was built in 1897. During 2011, the Clock Tower underwent a major refurbishment job which saw the replacement of several components of the bell chiming system. The tower also received a fresh coat of paint.
Current facilities
In the last 50 years, the building nearby of Hinkley Point A and Hinkley Point B nuclear power stations has produced small growth, including the building of a second new (last 20 years) housing development.
Local amenities include three pubs (The Ancient Mariner, The George Hotel and The Rose and Crown), a doctor's surgery, a Retained / Part Time Fire Station and a primary school. There are also several shops, a post office, a small restaurant and places offering bed and breakfast. There is a tourist information centre in the library, which is housed in the old primary school building. Adjacent to this is a small car park with public toilets.
Notable residents
In July 1789, local resident John Walford murdered his wife after a visit to Castle of Comfort Farm (a pub that still exists). He was tried and found guilty. He was executed in the spot where he committed his crime and hung in a gibbet. Walford's gibbet is a local landmark. The cage in which he was hung is now held at the Museum of Somerset in Taunton. Walford attained notoriety due to the brutality of the crime in an otherwise quiet and peaceful village. His relatives still live in the village to this day.
Thomas Poole was a local tanner who became wealthy and founded the Nether Stowey Women's Friendly Society in 1807. The Society continued (under several different names) until 1975 and is still celebrated annually. Poole was also a patron of Coleridge and Wordsworth.
The village was the birthplace of Jesuit priest Robert Parsons.
The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived in the village between 1797 and 1799, as noted above.
Twinning
The village is twinned with Theillay in the Loir-et-Cher départment of France, and the Nether Stowey Twinning Association was established in 1996 by Glyn Legge and Steve Darch.
Every year Theillay and Nether Stowey organise an annual trip to each village, taking turns every year.
References
External links
Villages in Sedgemoor
Civil parishes in Somerset
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] |
205565
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20political%20families
|
List of United States political families
|
During its history, the United States has seen many families who have repeatedly produced notable politicians from their ranks, and these families have had a significant impact on politics in the United States and the Americas.
Many of these families moved to national prominence from a state or regional power base. The Huntington family, for example, is identified with Connecticut, the Long family with Louisiana, the Harrisons and Lees with Virginia, the Roosevelts with New York, the Daleys with Illinois and more specifically Chicago, the Muhlenbergs with Pennsylvania, the Tafts with Ohio and the DuPont's Family with Delaware.
Other political families are less connected with a specific state. For example, the Bush family entered politics in Ohio and Connecticut, but is now more closely identified with Texas and Florida. Members of the Rockefeller family have been elected in New York, West Virginia, and Arkansas. Kennedy family members have been elected in New York, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Maryland, and California, in addition to their primary base of Massachusetts. The Udall family first became prominent in Arizona, but three cousins from the most recent generation simultaneously served in the U.S. Senate from Colorado, New Mexico, and Oregon. The Clinton family moved quickly from Arkansas to national politics, with Bill Clinton elected the 42nd president and Hillary Clinton elected to the U.S. Senate from New York.
Alphabetical list
See also
List of political families
External links
A database of political history and cemeteries
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20Roberts%2C%20Washington
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Point Roberts, Washington
|
Point Roberts is a pene-exclave of the United States on the southernmost tip of the Tsawwassen peninsula, south of Vancouver, Canada. The area, which had a population of 1,191 at the 2020 census,
is reached by land from the rest of the United States by traveling through Canada. It is a census-designated place in Whatcom County, Washington, with a post office, and a ZIP Code of 98281. Direct sea and air connections with the U.S. are available across Boundary Bay.
Point Roberts was created when the United Kingdom and the United States settled the Pacific Northwest American-Canadian border dispute in the mid-19th century with the Oregon Treaty. The two parties agreed that the 49th parallel would define the boundary between their respective territories, and the small area that incorporates Point Roberts is south of the 49th parallel. Questions about ceding the territory to the United Kingdom and later to Canada have been raised since its creation but its status has remained unchanged.
History
The area around the southern Tsawwassen Peninsula was a favored fishing spot for several Coast Salish groups, who named the peninsula "q̓ʷulƛ̕əl̕". The first Europeans to see Point Roberts were members of the 1791 expedition of Francisco de Eliza. The maps produced from Eliza's explorations depicted Point Roberts as "Isla de Cepeda" or "Isla de Zepeda." In 1792, the British expedition of George Vancouver and the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano encountered one another near Point Roberts. In the morning of June 13, 1792, the two ships under Galiano sailed into Boundary Bay and verified Point Roberts was not an island, which was thus renamed Punta Cepeda. They then sailed around Point Roberts and immediately encountered HMS Chatham, the second ship of Vancouver's expedition. The two parties made contact and agreed to share information and work together in mapping the Strait of Georgia.
Point Roberts acquired its present name from Vancouver, who named it after his friend Henry Roberts, who had originally been given command of the expedition. Point Roberts assumed its present political status in 1846, when the Oregon Treaty extended the 49th parallel as the boundary between U.S. and British territory from the Rocky Mountains to Georgia Strait.
Treaty history specific to Point Roberts
After years of joint occupation of the disputed area between Mexican California and Russian America known as the Oregon Country to the Americans, and as the Columbia District to the British, American expansionists like U.S. Senator Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana urged U.S. President James K. Polk to annex the entire Oregon Country up to latitude 54°40′N, as the Democrats had been elected on the slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight".
While his government asserted that the title of the United States of America to the entire territory was unquestionable even though there was only one U.S. resident (a former Briton) north of the Columbia basin, Polk and Secretary of State James Buchanan made an offer of a boundary at 49 degrees with the line straight across Vancouver Island, with no commercial privilege to be granted to the British south of the line, with the exception of free ports on Vancouver Island. The British rejected the offer and the U.S. soon withdrew it.
On April 18, 1846, notice was forwarded to London that the U.S. Congress had adopted a joint resolution abrogating the Treaty of 1818 which provided for joint occupancy.
The British emissary, Richard Pakenham, had been advised that the last concession he could expect of the United States was to bend the boundary at the 49th parallel around the southern end of Vancouver Island. Fort Victoria was viewed as the future center for settlements on the island. It was deemed necessary around this point in time to give up territory on the Lower Mainland to keep Vancouver Island part of British North America.
Lord Aberdeen, British Foreign Secretary, proposed a treaty making the 49th parallel the boundary to the sea, giving the UK the whole of Vancouver Island. The Treaty of Oregon was concluded on June 15, 1846.
The acceptance of the 49th parallel as the international boundary was concluded without precise knowledge of its effects. Later, as the Boundary Commission surveyed the line, the British government realized the peninsula of Point Roberts would be an isolated part of the United States. The British Foreign Office instructed Captain James Prevost, the British Boundary Commissioner, to inform his U.S. counterpart of the situation and request Point Roberts be left to Britain, because of the great inconvenience it would be to the United States. If the American Boundary Commission was reluctant, Prevost was instructed to offer "some equivalent compensation by a slight alteration of the Line of Boundary on the Mainland". It is not known how the U.S. commissioner responded, but Point Roberts remained part of the United States.
Relationship with Canada
During the 1858 Fraser gold rush, prospectors from Victoria, BC who were attempting to avoid tax collection briefly settled Point Roberts. Their settlement was called Robert's Town and consisted of six wooden buildings, including a store and saloon, but lasted less than a year.
In 1949, there was talk about Point Roberts seceding from the U.S. and joining Canada. A regional development plan for the Lower Mainland presented in 1952 suggested turning Point Roberts into an international park or leasing it for 99 or 999 years. In 1973, a drought that caused the wells to run dry created tensions between Point Roberts' U.S. and Canadian residents. The Americans threatened to cut off the Canadian residents' water supply — and hung up signs saying "Canadians Go Home" — unless the Canadian municipality of Delta agreed to provide water. An agreement signed on August 28, 1987, requires the Point Roberts Water District to purchase raw water on an annual basis from the Greater Vancouver Water District. Delta Fire Department also provides assistance to the Point Roberts volunteer fire department when requested. Until 1988, BC Tel (now Telus) provided telephone service; the sole exchange prefix of 945, officially part of area code 206, could also be dialed through area code 604 during the period of BC Tel ownership.
After the September 11 attacks of 2001, security at border crossings—including Point Roberts—was increased, leading to long delays for residents. The Canadian border was closed to non-essential travel in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which had been worsening in both countries but especially in the United States. A study found that Point Roberts had lost 80 percent of its business and hundreds of seasonal residents as a result of the pandemic and border shutdown. The area, described as a "ghost town" by the local chamber of commerce director, had no confirmed cases of COVID-19 . A temporary ferry was set up in August 2020 to connect Point Roberts to the mainland, initially to Blaine and later to Bellingham. The Canadian government waived its mandatory COVID testing requirements for Point Roberts residents in February 2021, following negotiations with Washington state.
Geography
Point Roberts is a U.S. exclave bordered by Canada and the waters of Boundary Bay. It is south of Downtown Vancouver, British Columbia. Point Roberts is part of the U.S. because it lies south of the 49th parallel, which constitutes the Canada–US border in that area. Other exclaves of this type include parts of Minnesota such as the Northwest Angle and Elm Point, Minnesota. Alburgh, Vermont and nearby Province Point are separated from the rest of the U.S. by Lake Champlain, though Alburgh is reachable by highway bridge from "mainland" Vermont.
Point Roberts borders the municipality of Delta in British Columbia. Boundary Bay lies to the east of Point Roberts and the Strait of Georgia to the south and west. The U.S. portion of the peninsula is about from north to south and about from east to west. It has an area of .
Geology
Beneath Point Roberts, the bedrock of the Chuckanut Formation was deposited as an alluvial plain containing layers of sediments consisting of silt, sand, sand and gravel, and peat. During the last 60 million years the sediments were compacted and folded by mountain building forces from continental drift to form strata of siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate and coal. During recent geologic history, the Chuckanut formation was overridden by four or more glaciations.
Point Roberts consists of a series of the resulting glacial sediments resting upon the Chuckanut Formation. The lowest glacial sediments (now near sea level) are from Salmon Springs or older glaciations. At the peak of the most recent glaciation, the main ice sheet was in excess of 7,000 feet thick as it moved southward between Vancouver Island and the Canadian Coast Range and down the Strait of Georgia. A smaller lobe of the continental glacier in excess of 5,000 feet traveled down the Fraser River flood plains merging with the main ice sheet over the greater Vancouver area and Whatcom and Skagit Counties. The coalesced continental ice sheet traveled south terminating in the vicinity of Chehalis, Washington. Relatively impermeable Vashon glacial lodgment till (estimated to be as much as 40 feet thick at the uppermost layer) was plastered over the advance outwash as the weight of the 7,000 foot thick plus Strait of Georgia ice lobe moved southward over approximately 10,000 years. (Armstrong, et al., 1965) Point Roberts, Tsawwassen, and part of British Columbia extending past English Bluff comprised an island at the close of the Vashon Glaciation, approximately 11,000 years ago.
As the ice sheets melted, the thinner Fraser Lobe began to float while the Strait of Georgia lobe acted as a dam forming a lake under the Fraser Lobe. Sediments settling from the melting, floating ice resulted in the accumulation of 300 feet or more of glacial marine drift over much of western Whatcom County. (Easterbrook, 1976; Geologic Map of Western Whatcom County, Washington, USGS, Map I-854-B) This glacial marine drift is generally soft and was not consolidated by the weight of the glacier. A discontinuous, thin mantle of this glacial marine drift above the glacial lodgement till has been identified sporadically across Point Roberts. The uppermost layer of glacial sediments consists of recessional sand, silt, and gravel deposited as the Strait of Georgia ice lobe receded. Since the recession of the glaciers, the Fraser River has deposited deltaic sediments on the north and easterly side of the Point Roberts-Tsawwassen Island, connecting it to the Greater Vancouver mainland (approximately 2,500 years ago, Murray 2008). At some locations, these sediments have been eroded or removed, exposing the lodgement till.
Parks and features
Maple Beach (NE)
Monument Park (NW)
Lighthouse Marine Park (SW)
Point Roberts Skate Park (Central - recreational open space)
Lily Point Marine Reserve (SE)
Cascadia Marine Trail (S and E)
Neighborhoods
South Beach Estates (beach rights)
Bells Grove
Crystal Waters
Freeman Beach
Lily Point
Maple Beach
Waters Plat
Ocean View Estates
Seabright Farm Cottages
Climate
Despite its proximity to 49 °N latitude, Point Roberts has an Oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) although winters may be colder for this climatic subtype, similar to the Vancouver-Seattle-Portland axis. Point Roberts lies within a depression created by Vancouver Island, the north shore mountains surrounding Vancouver, and the North Cascades (including Mount Baker). This micro-climate provides some of the mildest weather in the Pacific Northwest. With annual precipitation of about , Point Roberts enjoys more sunny days and a milder climate than its neighbors. While 49 °N latitude suggests a harsh winter, snow averages and low January temperatures are milder than the American average: in vs and vs , respectively. Although the amount of rainfall is less than the regional average, it is better-distributed through the year , with 146 days of precipitation. The comfort index is high.
Demographics
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 1,314 people, 678 households, and 372 families residing in the Point Roberts ZCTA (ZIP Code Tabulation Area). There were 2,068 housing units, only 678 (33%) of which were occupied. The racial makeup of the ZCTA was 91.9% White, 0.8% African American, 0.8% Native American, 4.5% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 2.4% of the population.
The age distribution was 16.2% under 20, 3.0% from 20 to 24, 16.2% from 25 to 44, 40.7% from 45 to 64, and 23.9% who were 65 or older. The median age was 52.7 years.
The median income for a household in the ZCTA was $58,672; the median income for a family was $75,724; and the per capita income was $39,696.
During the summer the population swells to about 4,500, most of the visitors being vacationing Canadians.
Point Roberts' population includes descendants of Icelandic immigrants, who first settled there in the 1890s.
Economy
Many of the area's businesses serve weekend and recreational visitors from Greater Vancouver. Canadians visit for cheaper American gasoline, alcohol, and food when the Canadian dollar is strong; Americans from Point Roberts do the same in Canada. Many Canadians visited its bars and nightclubs on Sundays until Sunday drinking was legalized in British Columbia in 1986. The local post office and several private companies rent many post office boxes to individuals and businesses from the Greater Vancouver area, who find it a convenient and fast way to receive mail and parcels from the United States without paying for cross-border shipping costs. The U.S. Consulate General in Vancouver also used the Point Roberts post office, but it has since changed to using one in Blaine, directly on the border.
Because entry to Point Roberts from the rest of the U.S. requires two international border crossings, it has sometimes been described as "the best gated community in the U.S." Residents enjoy a low crime rate at the cost of a high local security presence and other inconveniences. While there is one doctor's clinic, there is no hospital, dentist, pharmacist or veterinarian, and because American health insurers will not pay for treatment from Canadian providers, Point Roberts residents usually seek medical care in Bellingham, Washington, although Vancouver is closer.
Point Roberts has a single grocery store, which threatened to close in July 2021 due to the prolonged COVID-19 travel restrictions. An emergency grant of $100,000 from the state government was approved in late June to prevent its closure.
Education
Point Roberts Primary School, the only school on the Point, provides only kindergarten and first, second and third grades. From fourth grade on (previously third grade), American children must take a 40-minute ride through British Columbia, crossing back into the United States at Blaine, Washington. Canadian children can attend school in Delta, British Columbia.
Infrastructure
Transportation
The only authorized land access to Canada from Point Roberts is Point Roberts-Boundary Bay Border Crossing, the westernmost in the Lower 48. On the US side, this major thoroughfare northward is named Tyee Drive; on the Canadian side, it is 56th Street. Point Roberts also has a small airport (Point Roberts Airpark) and a large marina (Point Roberts Marina Resort) for air and water access; these two point facilities allow direct access to the rest of Washington state without the need to enter Canada.
A temporary passenger ferry service from Point Roberts to Blaine operated by the Port of Bellingham and the Whatcom Transportation Authority entered service in August 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic, which had closed the Canadian border to non-essential travel for several months. The ferry uses two vessels leased from San Juan Cruises and is fare-free. It was initially run once per week, but the frequency was increased to twice a week and the ferry was diverted to serve the Bellingham Cruise Terminal due to high demand.
Roosevelt Road follows the US side of the border across the peninsula. To the west, it ends at a small park, Monument Park built around Monument 1, the westernmost point of the 49th parallel border.
Telecommunications
Until 1988, Point Roberts telephone numbers were in British Columbia's area code 604 and served by BCTel, the local telephone company for most of British Columbia. It was served by the 945 exchange which was officially in area code 206, the area code for most of western Washington, but protected in 604, resulting in the oddity of calls from British Columbia being local calls while calls from Washington and the rest of the United States were billed as international calls. In 1988, Point Roberts service was severed from BC Tel, and the protection of the 604-945 prefix ended, at the expense of losing the ability to make local calls to any other exchange in either country. Along with the rest of Whatcom County, Point Roberts moved to area code 360 in 1995. The local regular-service telecom provider is Whidbey Telecom.
Although Point Roberts is nominally part of the Seattle television market, the only over-the-air stations available in the town come from the Metro Vancouver region and Bellingham, Washington. Cable television in Point Roberts was provided by Delta Cable, a subsidiary of Canadian cable company EastLink. Delta Cable pulled out of Point Roberts with short notice in August 2019.
Whidbey Telecom is the broadband Internet provider to residents of Point Roberts. In 2019, Whidbey Telecom began construction to provide fiber-optic Internet to Point Roberts.
Mobile telephone service is provided by a variety of companies, both American and Canadian.
Notable residents
Current
Glen Hanlon, former National Hockey League goaltender and former ice hockey coach
Michael S. McLean, Emmy award winner and former Hollywood director, editor and producer
Ross Douglas, songwriter, musician and actor
Past
Pavel Bure, former National Hockey League forward
Roger Fisher, founding guitarist of rock band Heart and its previous incarnations (departed 1979); lived in Point Roberts during the writing of Heart's debut album Dreamboat Annie (1975), which was recorded in Vancouver, British Columbia
Margaret Laurence, Canadian novelist and short story writer
Kekuta Manneh, Gambian-born soccer player, formerly of Vancouver Whitecaps FC; adopted by an American family and lived in Point Roberts to fulfill his residency requirements for the American citizenship he received in September 2016
Alexander Mogilny, former National Hockey League forward
Dave Nonis, National Hockey League former senior vice president and general manager with the Toronto Maple Leafs
Bob Robertson, longtime Northwest play-by-play sportscaster, lived in Point Roberts as a teen
Katee Sackhoff, actress; lived in Point Roberts during filming the TV series Battlestar Galactica from 2004 to 2009 in Vancouver, British Columbia
John Tortorella, coach of the Columbus Blue Jackets; former ice hockey coach with Vancouver Canucks
Nancy Wilson, guitarist and vocalist of rock band Heart (1974–present); lived in Point Roberts during writing of Heart's debut album Dreamboat Annie (1975), which was recorded in Vancouver, British Columbia
See also
Border irregularities of the United States
Oregon boundary dispute
Tsawwassen, British Columbia
Río Rico, Tamaulipas, a city that was once an exclave of the United States, now ceded to Mexico
Northwest Angle, another US exclave in Canada
References
Further reading
Clark, Richard E. Point Roberts, USA: The History of a Canadian Enclave. Textype Publishing, 1980.
Murray, Anne. A Nature Guide to your Boundary Bay. Nature Guides B.C., Delta, 2006
Point Roberts Census County Division, Whatcom County, Washington United States Census Bureau
Swenson, Mark. Point Roberts Backstory: Tales, Trails and Trivia from an American Exclave. Village Books, 2017 ().
External links
Geologic Map from Washington State Department of Natural Resources
Zoning Map from Whatcom County
Point Roberts Chamber of Commerce
Census-designated places in Whatcom County, Washington
Exclaves in the United States
Border irregularities of the United States
Peninsulas of Washington (state)
Borders of Washington (state)
Landforms of Whatcom County, Washington
Cities in Whatcom County, Washington
Delta, British Columbia
|
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] |
205574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Dobbie
|
William Dobbie
|
Lieutenant General Sir William George Shedden Dobbie, (12 July 1879 – 3 October 1964) was a British Army veteran of the Second Boer War and the First and Second World Wars.
Early life
William was born in Madras to a civil servant father, W. H. Dobbie of the Indian Civil Service – and to a family with a long military lineage. When he was only nine months old, his parents left him in the care of relatives in England, so that he might receive an education in keeping with his family's station.
At thirteen, young William won a scholarship to Charterhouse School and became a top-ranking classical scholar and a keen student of ancient military campaigns. Upon graduation, he proved to be qualified for a military career at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, from which, in due course, he went to the Royal School of Military Engineering at Chatham. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers on 6 August 1899.
Second Boer War to First World War
Dobbie joined the Second Boer War shortly after the funeral of Queen Victoria in February 1901, and was promoted to lieutenant while in South Africa, on 1 April 1902. He was wounded, and returned to the United Kingdom shortly after the end of hostilities, arriving in Southampton in July 1902. He later opined that the Second Boer War was a rather unjust war. Following his return he was stationed at Chatham in late 1902, and was promoted to captain on 6 August 1908. He attended the Staff College, Camberley, from 1911 to 1912.
First World War
Dobbie was appointed a Knight of the Legion of Honour in November 1914 and appointed a GSO 3rd Grade on 1 April 1915. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 14 January 1916, promoted to major on 1 April 1916, promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on 19 August 1916 (retroactive from 6 July 1915 on 1 January 1920) and brevetted to lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1917. During the First World War, Dobbie happened to have been the staff officer on duty in November 1918 and his is the only signature on the cease-fire telegram that was sent to all troops. In later years, when asked what he did during the war, Dobbie would reply "I stopped the bloody thing!". After the war Dobbie was appointed an Officer of the Order of Leopold on 21 August 1919.
Interwar years
He was graded a temporary lieutenant colonel on 18 April 1920 and brevetted to colonel on 1 July 1922. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1925 and to colonel on 18 January 1926. On 29 June 1928, he was appointed commander of the Cairo Brigade with the rank of brigadier, then considered a temporary rank. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1930 New Year Honours List. He reverted to his permanent rank of colonel and ceased to be employed from 15 July 1932, being placed on half-pay. On 18 February 1933, he was promoted to major general and appointed Commandant of the School of Military Engineers. He was appointed General Officer Commanding Malaya Command on 8 November 1935, holding the post to 1939.
Second World War
Dobbie, then holding the rank of major general, was informed that after Malaya he would be retired, because new War Office regulations deemed him too old for a further position. After war was declared in September, he was frustrated in his attempts to return to active service, until in April 1940 he encountered the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Edmund Ironside, who offered him the position of Governor of Malta and Commander-in-chief of Malta. As acting Governor, he was granted the acting rank of lieutenant-general on 27 April 1940, and was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 14 March 1941. Promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 27 April, he was confirmed as Governor of Malta on 19 May. He remained Governor of Malta until May 1942, and retired with the honorary rank of lieutenant-general on 10 November 1942.
When he arrived on Malta, its defensibility was in question because of the presumed ease with which Italy could overrun it. There were only 4 planes on the island and these had probably been overlooked. Few other than Churchill saw any strategic value in maintaining it and the commitment of the Maltese to the British cause was also questioned.
On the day Italy declared war Dobbie issued a statement to the garrison:
The decision of His Majesty's government to fight until our enemies are defeated will be heard with the greatest satisfaction by all ranks of the Garrison of Malta.
It may be that hard times lie ahead of us, but I know that however hard they may be, the courage and determination of all ranks will not falter, and that with God's help we will maintain the security of this fortress.
I call on all officers and other ranks humbly to seek God's help, and then in reliance on Him to do their duty unflinchingly.
Despite being a Protestant on a Catholic island, his faith became an asset. Admiral Cunningham, commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, described him as "an Ironside of a man. His profound faith in the justice of our cause made a great impression on the religious Maltese. The complete and calm faith shown in the broadcasts he made nearly every evening contributed immensely towards keeping up the morale of the people".
Over the next two years, Malta was a crucial element of war in the Mediterranean. Churchill responded to Dobbie's requests for planes and reinforcements and the Malta Fortress played a key part in reducing the German supply lines in North Africa, until the Luftwaffe joined in the most intense bombardment of the war in early 1942. In two months there were 500 air raids during which 27 times the tonnage of bombs were dropped as in the Coventry Blitz.
Two attempts to relieve the island failed when supply ships were bombed in the harbour and a succession of Spitfires were picked off on the ground shortly after delivery. There also were problems in the Administrative Council in which a blame culture had emerged. Despite a visit from Dobbie's friend Lord Cranbourne, in May 1942 Churchill replaced Dobbie, who was exhausted and unwell, with Viscount Gort. Gort brought with him the George Cross that had been awarded to the island by King George VI. Dobbie himself received the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George.
Personal life and later years
He and his wife Sybil (nee Orde-Browne) had one daughter, also called Sybil, who was married to Percival Johnston. They also had two sons, Arthur William Granville Dobbie who died on the 19th of June 1944 aged 38 and was a member of the Royal Engineers 237th Field Company. Orde Charles Staple Dobbie was their other son.
Dobbie was a member of the Protestant Plymouth Brethren, and when living in The Paragon, Blackheath, attended the large Brethren assembly in Nightingale Vale, Woolwich Common, London SE18. He was a member of the Board of Governors of Monkton Combe School in Somerset from 1942 to 1964.
Dobbie died on 3 October 1964 in Kensington, London, England, at the age of 85 years. He was buried in Charlton Cemetery, near the Chindit memorial of his nephew Major General Orde Wingate (1903–1944). His wife Sybil and other members of his family are also buried there.
Dobbie's hypothesis regarding the capture of Singapore
In 1936, Dobbie, then General Officer Commanding (Malaya) stationed in Singapore, made an inquiry to find out if more forces were required on mainland Malaya to prevent the Japanese landing and capturing forward bases to attack Singapore. Percival, then his Chief Staff Officer, was assigned the task of drawing up a tactical appreciation on how the Japanese were most likely to attack. Percival's report in late 1937 did confirm that north Malaya could serve as a base for the conquest of Singapore and Borneo.
Both Dobbie and Percival made it clear that Singapore could no longer be seen as a self-contained naval base, and that its survival rested on the defence of mainland Malaya. So in May 1938, Dobbie wrote to the Chief of Staff:
Dobbie added that an attack might be possible between the months of November and March, despite high winds and waves produced by the northeast monsoon. The recent landing of "5000 smuggled coolies" at this time dissolved any preconceptions that the monsoon offered protection. On the contrary, this monsoon would provide good cloud cover for the invaders.
Quotes
Reverend Daniel A. Poling, 1943
Never before in any comparable area, have I found so many ranking executives giving so much attention to religion.
Prime Minister Churchill
[Dobbie is] a Governor of outstanding character who inspired all ranks and classes, military and civil, with his … determination … a soldier who … in … leadership and religious zeal … recalled memories of General Gordon and … the Ironsides and Covenanters.
Lord Louis Mountbatten
[Dobbie] prays aloud after dinner, invoking the aid of God in destroying our enemies. This is highly approved of by the Maltese, who have the same idea about God, but I would prefer an efficient Air force here.
Mabel Strickland
At San Anton, every night about seven, everyone would be summoned for prayer … Dobbie would stand … and … pray … and … ask the Almighty to bless the convoy … but he never prayed to stop the bombing … that was God's will … God helps those that help themselves …
William Dobbie, on British intervention to restore order in the Arab-Jewish riots of 1928
This will be the easiest war … We will have to fight only four days a week. The Arabs won't fight on Friday, the Jews on Saturday and Dobbie certainly won't on Sunday.
Dobbie was stationed in Palestine and had an office overlooking (Gordon's) Golgotha. In 1929 the Bible Society distributed New Testaments to the British soldiers serving there. Dobbie wrote the following note which was inserted into each copy for his troops:
{{blockquote|You are stationed at the place where the central event in human history occurred – namely the crucifixion of the Son of God. You may see the place where this happened and you may read the details in this book. As you do this, you cannot help being interested, but your interest will change into something far deeper when you realise the events concern you personally. It was for your sake the Son of God died on the cross here. The realisation of this fact cannot but produce a radical change in one's life – and the study of this book will, under God's guidance, help you to such a realisation. W.G.S. Dobbie (Brigadier) 10 October 1929.}}
I can't help feeling that the security of the Fortress might be better served by having a stronger force in being outside it … I consequently feel that the answers to the possible threat (of Japanese landing and establishing an advanced base on the mainland) is primarily to be found in suitable mobile forces in being in the Malay Peninsula … – Dobbie's letter as GOC (Malaya), to the War Office on 17 March 1936.
References
Sources
Further reading
Dobbie, Lt-Gen Sir William (1944) A Very Present Help. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Dobbie, Sybil (1944) Grace Under Malta. London : Lindsay Drummond.
Dobbie, Sybil (1979) Faith & Fortitude. The Life & Works of General Sir William Dobbie :
Dobbie's report on the military weakness of Singapore, and on the probable plan of Japanese attack, is discussed at some length in War and Remembrance'' (1978) by Herman Wouk.
External links
Royal Engineers Museum Detailed biography
Royal Engineers Museum Dobbie in Malta (Second World War)
The Defence Of Malta: an address by Lt. General Sir William G. S. Dobbie, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., LL.D, at The Empire Club of Canada, Toronto, Canada on Thursday, 22 February 1945. Presented by Club Chairman Mr. C. R. Conquergood.
Cricinfo – Officials and Players: William Dobbie Contains brief profile of Sir William Dobbie and his cricket scores profile.
1879 births
1964 deaths
People educated at Charterhouse School
Royal Engineers officers
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
British Army personnel of World War I
British Army generals of World War II
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Military of Singapore under British rule
British Plymouth Brethren
Governors and Governors-General of Malta
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
English cricketers
Europeans cricketers
Governors of Monkton Combe School
British Army generals
Military personnel of British India
|
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205576
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser%20Valley
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Fraser Valley
|
The Fraser Valley is a geographical region in southwestern British Columbia, Canada and northwestern Washington State. It starts just west of Hope in a narrow valley encompassing the Fraser River and ends at the Pacific Ocean stretching from the North Shore Mountains, opposite the city of Vancouver BC, to just south of Bellingham, Washington.
In casual usage it typically describes the Fraser River basin downstream of the Fraser Canyon. The term is sometimes used outside British Columbia to refer to the entire Fraser River sections including the Fraser Canyon and up from there to its headwaters, but in general British Columbian usage the term refers to the stretch of Lower Mainland west of the Coquihalla River mouth at the inland town of Hope, and includes all of the Canadian portion of the Fraser Lowland as well as the valleys and upland areas flanking it. It is divided into the Upper Fraser Valley and Lower Fraser Valley by the Vedder River mouth at the eastern foothills of Sumas Mountain, although the Lower Valley section upstream of McMillan Island and the Salmon River mouth (at Fort Langley) used to be called the Central Fraser Valley up until 1995 (see Central Fraser Valley Regional District).
Administratively, the Fraser Valley comprises parts of the regional districts of Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley Regional District. The main population centers in the Fraser Valley are Greater Vancouver, Abbotsford and Chilliwack.
History
This section of the Fraser River is known by local indigenous peoples as "Sto:lo" in the Halqemeylem language of the area, and this term has been adopted to refer to all of the indigenous peoples of the Fraser Lowland, other than the Squamish and Musqueam. The indigenous peoples of the area have long made use of the river valley for agricultural and commercial exploits and continue to do so today.
These indigenous keepers of the land were not consulted in the Treaty of Oregon, which saw the United States and Great Britain define and recognize each others' claims to the area. This overstepping of jurisdiction inevitably lead to conflict as Great Britain was incapable of exercising the control they claimed over the river valley. As a wave of immigrants flooded into the Fraser River Valley because of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, the British were unable to maintain order without the cooperation of the local indigenous peoples, and the Fraser Canyon War broke out. The war was resolved with a series of treaties, none of which remain to this day, but which evidently included the regulation of immigration and the continuation of mining on the river by the indigenous inhabitants and the new immigrants. This war was part of a series of local conflicts surrounding the arrival of settlers ahead of American and British capacity to maintain order and refusal to cooperate with or recognize indigenous land claims and demands. These conflicts were pivotal in many aspects to the settlement of the West Coast in both Canada and the United States.
The interaction of indigenous peoples and settlers lead to the growth of Chinook Wawa, a pidgin language that was used throughout the Fraser River Valley until the early 1900s. Industrialization of the river began with the use of the traditional trade waterway by steamboats and eventually, roads and railways were built, fueled by and in turn fuelling further population growth. Today, the most important transportation through the region are the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway transcontinental main lines, the Lougheed Highway (Hwy 7), and the Trans-Canada Highway (Hwy 1).
Geography
After descending through the rapids of the Fraser Canyon, the Fraser River emerges almost at sea level at Yale, over 100 km inland. Although the canyon in geographic terms is defined as ending at Yale, Hope is generally to be considered the southern end of the canyon, partly because of the change in the character of the highway from that point, and perhaps also because it is at Hope that the first floodplains typifying the course of the Lower Fraser are found. Downstream from Hope, the river and adjoining floodplains widen considerably in the area of Rosedale, Chilliwack and Agassiz, which is considered the head of the Fraser Delta. From there the river passes through some of the most fertile agricultural land in British Columbia—as well as the heart of the Metro Vancouver region—on its way through the valley to its mouth at Georgia Strait.
During the last ice age, the area that would become the Fraser Valley was covered by a sheet of ice, walled in by the surrounding mountains. As the ice receded, land that had been covered by glaciers became covered by water instead, then slowly rose above the water, forming the basin that exists today. The valley is the largest landform of the Lower Mainland ecoregion, with its delta considered to begin in the area of Agassiz and Chilliwack, although stretches of floodplain flank the mountainsides between there and Hope.
Several of the Fraser's lower tributaries have floodplains of their own, shared in common with the Fraser freshet. Of varying size these include the Harrison River, Chilliwack River (Vedder River), Hatzic Creek and Hatzic Lake, the Stave, Alouette, Pitt and Coquitlam Rivers. Also incorporated in the Fraser delta region are the Nicomekl and Serpentine River floodplains and the Sumas River drainage, which flow to saltwater independently of the Fraser but help drain its lowland. The Fraser is tidal as far upstream as the town of Mission and, across the river, the City of Abbotsford, which is at the Fraser's closest approach to the international boundary, about 6 miles north of Sumas, Washington. Pitt Lake, one of the Fraser's last tributaries and among its largest, is so low in elevation, despite its mountain setting, that it is one of the largest tidal freshwater lakes in the world .
Oxbow lakes and side-sloughs are a common feature of the Lower Fraser's geography. The two main oxbows are those of Hatzic Lake and the Stave River on opposite sides of Mission, although that of the Stave has been silted in and part of it drained for a man-made lake. Around Fort Langley is an oxbow formation, mostly swamped in at the time of the fort's foundation, which was drained and made part of the fort's farm and remains farmland today. The system of sloughs and side-channels of the river is complicated, but important sloughs include those around Nicomen Island, Sea Bird Island and flanking the river from Rosedale to Sumas Mountain, on the western side of Chilliwack.
Climate
In winter, the Fraser Valley occasionally plays a significant role in the weather regime along the west coast of North America as far south as California, acting as a natural outlet for the intensely cold Arctic air mass which typically sits over Western Canada during winter. Under certain meteorological conditions strong winds pour out of the Fraser Valley and over the relatively warmer waters of the Strait of Georgia and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This can cause ocean-effect snow, especially between Port Angeles and Sequim, where the air mass collides with the Olympic Mountains. The cold air from the Fraser Valley can also flow out over the Pacific Ocean. Lanes of convective ocean-effect clouds and showers are produced as heat and moisture modify the very dry, frigid air mass. These then typically organize as a low pressure system which returns the showers to the coast south of Canada, often bringing snow to unusually low elevations.
Western Fraser Valley
Central Fraser Valley
Eastern Fraser Valley
Demographics
Fraser Valley Regional District
According to the 2011 Census, 76.47% of the Fraser Valley regional district in BC have English as mother tongue; Punjabi is the mother tongue of 10.02% of the population, followed by German (3.49%), Dutch (1.39%), French (1.07%), Korean (0.69%), Spanish (0.66%), Tagalog (0.35%), Chinese, n.o.s. (0.33%), and Vietnamese (0.30%).
Modern land use
Today, the Fraser Valley has a mix of land uses, ranging from the urban and industrial centres of Vancouver, Surrey, and Abbotsford through golf courses and parks to dairy farms and market gardens.
Agricultural land in the valley – much of it protected by the Agricultural Land Reserve – is intensively farmed: the Fraser Valley brings in over half of British Columbia's annual agricultural revenue, although it makes up a small percentage of the province's total land area.
The Fraser Valley, specifically in Abbotsford, is the northernmost area of rice cultivation in the world.
Air quality
As the valley population grows and traffic increases, air pollution becomes an increasingly important issue; various controversies have risen over the years (most recently over "Sumas 2", a defeated proposal for a power plant just south of the Canadian/USA border) as to whether or not air pollution is a problem, and if it is a problem, how this should be addressed.
Air quality monitoring has improved in recent years and it is now possible to compare BC communities on a variety of measures. Comparative data on four measures—fine particulate matter, ground-level ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide—shows the Fraser Valley to have better air quality than Vancouver on several measures. For example, Fraser Valley communities had less than half the levels of nitrogen dioxide, and were lower in fine particulate matter and sulphur dioxide (on the latter measure, Abbotsford and Chilliwack were among the lowest of all BC sites).
In certain weather conditions during the summer, prevailing westerly winds blow air pollution from vehicles and from ships in Vancouver harbour east up the triangular delta, trapping it between the Coast Mountains on the north and the Cascades on the southeast. Air quality suffers. This usually occurs during a temperature inversion, and lasts for a few days. Ground-level ozone tends to be from local sources in the valley and varies with prevailing winds. With prevailing winds from the northeast during the late fall and winter, air quality is seldom a problem.
Air quality in the Fraser Valley at times exceeds the Canada-Wide Standard (CWS) for ozone (at Hope) and is close to exceeding the CWS for Particulate Matter.
Modern usage of the name
In colloquial usage, "Fraser Valley" usually refers only to that part of the valley beyond the continuously built-up urban area around Vancouver, up to and including Chilliwack and Agassiz, about 80 km east, and abutting the border with Washington's Whatcom County; news media typically also include the built-up eastern suburban areas of Vancouver which a few decades ago were mixed farmland and forest, typical of "the Valley". The Fraser Valley region is also the namesake of the Fraser Valley Regional District, though that consists of only about half of the actual Fraser Valley, and is made up of the municipalities and incorporated areas from Abbotsford and Mission eastwards to Hope. It also includes areas not in the Fraser Valley, particularly the lower Fraser Canyon from Boston Bar to Hope.
The term "Central Fraser Valley" refers to Mission and Abbotsford and is included within the Lower Fraser Valley. The Upper Fraser Valley means from Chilliwack and Agassiz to Hope. The phrases "Fraser Valley towns" and "Fraser River municipalities" include Delta and Richmond, though the colloquial "in the Valley" means from Surrey and Coquitlam eastwards.
The "Tidal Fraser area" is usually defined as the area of the Fraser from the mouth at the Pacific Ocean to the Mission bridge. Everything in between there is influenced greatly by ocean tides, including the largest tidal lake in North America, Pitt Lake.
Sociology
The south shore of the Central and Upper Fraser Valley is also known colloquially as the "Bible Belt" of British Columbia and is home to many of Canada's largest churches, notably the Mennonite Brethren and the Dutch Reformed Church, a reflection of the heavy settlement of the Valley by post-war Dutch and German immigrants, as well as the Canadian headquarters of many Christian/Evangelical para-church organisations such as Focus on the Family and Campus Crusade for Christ. Voters in south shore ridings typically elect right-wing candidates, while in ridings on the river's north side elections sway between left-wing and right-wing parties regularly.
See also
Air pollution in British Columbia
Notes
References
Arnett, T.C. 1976. The Chilliwack Valley Continuum: A Search for a Canadian Land Ethic. Unpublished Master's Thesis, UBC.
Carlson, K.T. (ed.) 2001. A Stó:lō-Coast Salish Historical Atlas. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
Carlson, K.T. (ed.) 1996. You Are Asked To Witness: The Stó:lō in Canada's Pacific Coast History. Chilliwack: Stolo Heritage Trust.
Cherrington, J.A. 1992. The Fraser Valley: A History. Madeira Park, B.C.: Harbour Publishing.
Cook, D. 1978. Early Settlement in the Chilliwack Valley. Unpublished research paper, UBC.
Demeritt, D. 1995–96. Visions of Agriculture in British Columbia. BC Studies 108, 29–59.
Harris, C. 1997. The Resettlement of British Columbia. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Oliver, J. 2006. A View From the Ground: Understanding the 'Place' of the Fraser Valley in the Changing Contexts of a Colonial World 1792–1918. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Sheffield.
Ramsey, B. 1975. Five Corners, the story of Chilliwack. Chilliwack: Chilliwack Valley Historical Society.
Waite, D.E. 1977. The Langley Story illustrated: An Early History of The Municipality of Langley: Don Waite Publishing.
Wynn, G. & T.R. Oke (eds) 1992. Vancouver and Its Region. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Fraser River
Valleys of British Columbia
Landforms of Lower Mainland
Wine regions of British Columbia
|
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205577
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb%20shelter
|
Bomb shelter
|
A bomb shelter is a structure designed to provide protection against the effects of a bomb.
Types of shelter
Different kinds of bomb shelters are configured to protect against different kinds of attack and strengths of hostile explosives.
Air-raid shelter
An air-raid shelter is a structure built to protect against bomber planes dropping bombs over a large area. These were commonly seen during World War II, such as the "Anderson shelters" of the United Kingdom.
Fallout shelter
A fallout shelter is a shelter designed specifically for a nuclear war, with thick walls made from materials intended to block the radiation from fallout resulting from a nuclear explosion. Many such shelters were constructed as civil defense measures during the Cold War. A blast shelter protects against more conventional bomb blasts. Its main purpose is to protect from shock waves and overpressure and also from earthquake.
Bunker
While these forms of bomb shelters are equally amenable to civilians and military use, a bunker is more commonly associated with military use. A bunker may be hastily assembled as part of an ongoing military advance, or to hold a line. Bunkers have also been popular with the Survivalism subculture.
History
While military units have long built defensive structures to protect against various kinds of hostile bombardment, the use of the phrase "bomb shelter" can be traced at least as far back as 1833. A dictionary from that year defines a "casement" as "a bomb-proof shelter for soldiers in garrison". In 1881, the United States War Department issued a report in which it indicated that the defenses of Charleston, South Carolina included construction at Fort Moultrie of:
The shortening of this phrase to the conventional "bomb shelter" appears in print at least as early as 1895.
See also
Shelter
References
Civil defense
he:מקלט (מיגון)
war:Sirongan hin bomba
|
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] |
205581
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20building%20types
|
List of building types
|
Residential
Single-family detached
Examples of single-family detached house types include:
Bungalow
Central-passage house (North America)
Chattel house (Caribbean)
Cottage (various)
Courtyard house (various)
Konak (Asia)
Log house (various)
Mansion (various)
Housebarn (various)
Split level home (various)
Upper Lusatian house (Europe)
Single-family attached (small multi-family)
Duplex, semi-detached, double-decker, or two-family
Triplex, triple-decker or three-family
Quadplex, quadruple, or four-family
Townhouse or terraced house
Large multi-family (apartments/flats/condos)
Garden or walk-up apartments: 1–5 stories, 50–400 units, no elevators
Mid-rise apartments/condos: 5–9 stories, 30–110 units, with elevators
High-rise apartments/condos: 9+ stories, 100+ units, professionally managed
Special-purpose group housing
Retirement home
Nursing home
Dormitory
Prison
Commercial
Commercial buildings, generally, are buildings used by businesses to sell their products to consumers.
Office
Office buildings are generally categorized by size and by quality (e.g., "a low-rise Class A building")
Office buildings by size
Low-rise (less than 7 stories)
Mid-rise (7–25 stories)
High-rise (more than 25 stories), including skyscrapers (over 40 stories)
Office buildings by quality
Trophy or 5-star building: A landmark property designed by a recognized architect
Class A or 4-star building: Rents in the top 30-40% of the local market; well-located; above-average upkeep and management; usually older than a trophy/5-star building
Class B or 3-star building: Rents between Class A and Class C; fair-to-good locations; average upkeep and management
Class C or 2-star building: Rents in the bottom 10-20% of the local market; less-desirable locations; below-average upkeep and management
1-star building: Does not meet the needs of typical tenants; may be obsolete and/or in need of significant renovation
Retail
Retail buildings are categorized by their configuration and size
Non-freestanding (also known as shopping malls)
Super-regional shopping center: enclosed space; 800,000+ sqft; 5+ anchor stores with other tenants that sell a very large variety of goods
Regional shopping center: enclosed space; 400,000–800,000 sqft; 1–5 anchor stores with other tenants that sell a large variety of goods
Community shopping center: open space; 125,000–400,000 sqft; provides general merchandise and commodities (e.g., supermarket, discount department store)
Neighborhood shopping center: open space; 3,000–125,000 sqft; provides commodities to nearby neighborhoods (e.g. drug store)
Strip or convenience shopping center: open space; less than 30,000 sqft; located along suburban transportation arteries on shallow land parcels; a strip may be configured in a straight line, or have an "L" or "U" shape
Lifestyle center: "Main Street" concept with pedestrian circulation in core and vehicular circulation along perimeter; upscale national chain specialty stores, dining or entertainment (e.g. The Grove, Los Angeles, CA; Americana at Brand, Glendale, CA)
Freestanding: any stand-alone retail structure that is not part of a complex
Big box: freestanding category-dominant retailer; 50,000+ sqft (e.g. The Home Depot, Target, Walmart)
Power center: among the largest types of retail properties; 3+ big box anchor stores; multiple large buildings with parking lot in front and loading in back; smaller retailers usually clustered in a community shopping center configuration
Retail outlet: manufacturers' outlet stores; 50,000–400,000 sqft
Pop-up retail: a retail location designed to only be in a location temporarily (e.g., a retail store that only opens during a holiday season)
Hotels
Full service hotels
Travelers' hotels
Motel
Choultry
Caravanserai
Extended stay hotels
Boutique hotels
Casino
Resort
Special-purpose
Self-storage
Car washes
Theme or amusement parks
Bowling alleys
Marinas
Theaters
Funeral homes
Industrial
Industrial buildings are primarily used for the production and storage/distribution of goods, among other uses.
Manufacturing
Light manufacturing
Heavy manufacturing
Warehouse/distribution
Warehouses
Bulk warehouse
Cold/cool/refrigerator/freezer storage
High-cube (an industrial building with a large amount of vertical clearance, a.k.a. "high bay")
Warehouse store or retail warehouse
Distribution/fulfillment centers
Container terminals
Truck terminals
Flex space
Office building
Laboratory
Data center
Call center
Showroom
Infrastructure
Composting facility
Desalination plant
Waste transfer centre
Power generation
Power plant
Thermal power plant
Fossil-fuel power station
Nuclear power plant
Geothermal power
Biomass power plant
Renewable energy power station
Power distribution
Substation building
Converter hall
Rotary converter plant
Transmitter building
Dams
Pump house
Agricultural
Abattoir
Barn
Chicken coop or chickenhouse
Cow-shed
Farmhouse
Granary, Hórreo
Greenhouse
Hayloft
Pigpen or sty
Root cellar
Shed
Silo
Slaughterhouse
Stable
Storm cellar
Well house
Crib
Windmill
Workshop
Institutional
Medical
Hospital
Nursing homes
Mental hospital
Sanatorium
Educational
Archive
College
Elementary schools
Orphanage
Secondary School
School
University
Nursery school
Civic
Arena
Recreational sports facilities
Library
Mudhif: a traditional reed house made by the Madan people of Iraq
Museum
Observatory
Community hall
Religious
Church
Basilica
Cathedral
Duomo
Chapel
Oratory
Martyrium
Imambargah
Monastery
Mithraeum
Shrine
Synagogue
Temple
Pagoda
Gurdwara
Hindu temple
Mosque
Government
City hall
Consulate
Courthouse
Embassy
Fire station
Meeting house
Moot hall
Parliament house
Police station
Post office
Assembly
Military
Arsenal
Barracks
Bunker
Blockhouse
Citadel
Missile launch facility
Transport
Airport terminal
Bus station
Metro (subway, underground) station
Taxi station
Railway station (or, primarily in US, Railroad station)
Signal box
Lighthouse
Shipyard
Space port
Hovercraft
Ferry terminal
Cruise terminal
Boathouse
Parking garage
Hangar
Other
Aul
Bathhouse
Film studio
Folly
Gym
See also
Outline of architecture
References
|
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205583
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20in%20Europe
|
Transport in Europe
|
Transport in Europe provides for the movement needs of over 700 million people and associated freight.
Overview
The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the Industrial Revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease.
Road, rail, air and water transportation are all prevalent and important across Europe. Europe was the location of the world's first railways and motorways and is now the location of some of the world's busiest ports and airports. The Schengen Area enables border control-free travel between 26 European countries. Freight transportation has a high level of intermodal compatibility and the European Economic Area allows the free movement of goods across 30 states. Of all tonne-kilometres transported in 2016, 51% were by road, 33% by sea, 12% by rail, 4% by inland waterways, and 0.1% by air.
A review of critical success factors for the delivery of transport infrastructure projects in Europe is presented in a 2017 report.
Rail transport
Powered rail transport began in England in the early 19th century with the invention of the speed train. The modern European rail network spans the entire continent and provides movement of passengers and freight. There are significant high-speed rail passenger networks, such as the TGV in France and the LAV in Spain. The Channel Tunnel connects the United Kingdom with France and thus the whole of the European rail system, and it was called one of the seven wonders of the modern world by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Various method of rail electrification are used as well as much unelectrified track. Standard gauge is widespread in Central and Western Europe, Russian gauge predominates in parts of Eastern Europe, and mainline services on the Iberian Peninsula and the island of Ireland use the rarer Iberian gauge and Irish gauge, respectively. The European Rail Traffic Management System is an EU initiative to create a Europe-wide standard for train signalling.
Rail infrastructure, freight transport and passenger services are provided by a combination of local and national governments and private companies. Passenger ticketing varies from country to country and service to service. The Eurail Pass, a rail pass for 18 European countries, is available only for persons who do not live in Europe, Morocco, Algeria or Tunisia. Inter Rail passes allow multi-journey travel around Europe for people living in Europe and surrounding countries.
Rapid transit
Many cities across Europe have a rapid transit system, commonly referred to as a metro, which is an electric railway. The world's first underground railway, the Metropolitan Railway, was opened in London in 1863. It is now part of London's rapid transit system that referred to as the London Underground, the longest such system in Europe. After London, the largest European metro systems by track length are in Moscow, Madrid and Paris.
Coach transport
In the early 2010s, many countries in Europe decided to liberalize the market for medium/long distance coach (intercity bus) transportation. This move has already proven to be helping both the economies and the Europeans.
The bus is the cheapest method of transportation and slower than the train in countries that have high-speed rail. However, many companies have made adjustments so that their coach fleets can be as comfortable as trains. Toilets and power have been added to the coaches, and some are equipped with WiFi.
Air transport
Despite an extensive road and rail network, 43% of international travel within the EU was by air in 2013. Air travel is particularly important for peripheral nations such as Spain and Greece and island nations such as Malta and Cyprus, where a large majority of border crossings are by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe's many large international airports – major hubs include London Heathrow, Istanbul, Paris-Charles De Gaulle, Frankfurt and Amsterdam Schiphol. The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems.
Within the European Union, the complete freedoms of the air and the world's most extensive cabotage agreements allow budget airlines to operate freely across the EU. Cheap air travel is spurred on by the trend for regional airports levying low fees to market themselves as serving large cities quite far away. Ryanair is especially noted for this, since it primarily flies out of regional airports up to 150 kilometres away from the cities they are said to serve. A primary example of this is the Weeze-Skavsta flight, where Weeze mainly serves the Nijmegen/Kleve area, while Skavsta serves Nyköping/Oxelösund. Ryanair however, markets this flight as Düsseldorf-Stockholm, which are both 80–90 kilometres away from these airports, resulting in up to four hours of ground transportation just to get to and from the airport.
Sea and river transport
The Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands is the largest port in Europe and one of the busiest ports in the world, handling some 440 million metric tons of cargo in 2013. When the associated Europoort industrial area is included, Rotterdam is by certain measurements the world's busiest port. Two thirds of all inland water freight shipping within the E.U., and 40% of containers, pass through the Netherlands. Other large ports are the Port of Hamburg in Germany and the Port of Antwerp in Belgium. They are all a part of the so-called "Northern Range".
The English Channel is one of the world's busiest seaways carrying over 400 ships per day between Europe's North Sea and Baltic Sea ports and the rest of the world.
As well as its role in freight movement, sea transport is an important part of Europe's energy supply. Europe is one of the world's major oil tanker discharge destinations. Energy is also supplied to Europe by sea in the form of LNG. The South Hook LNG terminal at Milford Haven, Wales is Europe's largest LNG terminal.
See also
Transport in the European Union
Directorate-General for Energy and Transport
Emission standard
Energy in the European Union
Environment in the European Union
European Aviation Safety Agency
European Car of the Year
European Climate Change Programme
European Common Aviation Area
European Federation for Transport and Environment
European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL)
European vehicle registration plates
International E-road network
Momo car-sharing
The ROADEX Project
Trans-European Networks
UNECE vehicle standards.
Jacques Barrot, Vice-President of the European Commission, in charge of transport.
ACP Rail International
Southeast Europe Transport Community
References
External links
Common Transport Policy and European transport, European Commission.
Eurostat – Statistics Explained – all articles on transport
Worldwide official website for Eurail Passes (non-European).
Worldwide official website for InterRail Passes (European).
Railways in Europe (with emphasis on interoperability and border crossings)
European waterways
Rail Choice, UK provider of a vast number of different railpasses covering Europe, the United States, Japan and Australasia.
Transport & Mobility Leuven.
Trains Europe, An exciting, economic and flexible way to explore Europe.
Rail Europe Official site, US distributor of the European Railroads.
Britain On Track Official BritRail Pass site, US and Canadian supplier of BritRail and Eurail Passes.
ACP Rail International Official site, Offers Eurail passes, BritRail, Amtrak, Japan Rail, Australia rail passes and more.
Europa Trenes.
The public transport guide, European public transport overview
Mapofeurope.com, Information on travelling through Europe
Europe Travel Guide, dedicated to all aspects of traveling throughout the 55 European nations
Economy of Europe
|
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205584
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20Stock%20Exchange
|
Toronto Stock Exchange
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The Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX; ) is a stock exchange located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is the 11th largest exchange in the world and the third largest in North America based on market capitalization. Based in the EY Tower in Toronto's Financial District, the TSX is a wholly owned subsidiary of the TMX Group for the trading of senior equities. A broad range of businesses from Canada and abroad are represented on the exchange. In addition to conventional securities, the exchange lists various exchange-traded funds, split share corporations, income trusts and investment funds. More mining and oil and gas companies are listed on Toronto Stock Exchange than any other stock exchange.
History
Beginnings
The Toronto Stock Exchange likely descended from the Association of Brokers, a group formed by Toronto businessmen on July 26, 1852. No records of the group's transactions have survived. It is however known that on October 25, 1861, twenty-four brokers gathered at the Masonic Hall to create and participate in the Toronto Stock Exchange. Between 1852 and 1870, two other distinct, commodity-orientated, exchanges were founded : the Toronto Exchange in 1854 and the Toronto Stock and Mining Exchange in 1868. Initially the TSE had 13 listings but it grew to 18 in 1868 (a majority of bonds and bank's issues). Many banks of Upper Canada failed during 1869, which halted any sort of trading in the city as the market was just too small. A bull market in 1870 boosted investor's confidence and eight of the original 24 brokers joined again to re-establish the TSE. The exchange was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1878.
The TSE grew continuously in size and in shares traded, save for a three-month period in 1914 when the exchange was shut down for fear of financial panic due to World War I. The day of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Toronto's exchange was better connected to New York's and received the bad news before Montreal's (prior to 1931, exchanges communicated via telephone or by brokers’ private wires, as they were not yet interconnected by ticker). By the afternoon, its three most popular stocks were down by at least 8%: International Nickel, Hiram Walker & Sons and Brazilian Light & Power. The following day, a record number of 331,000 shares changed hands on the TSE, with an overall loss of value of 20% (in Montreal, 525,000 shares and 25% loss).
Meanwhile, a British Columbia gold rush in the 1890s stimulated the demand for start-up capital but Montreal and Toronto's exchanges deemed the ventures too risky. The boom was handled with the Toronto Stock and Mining Exchange, founded in 1896 and which merged with its rival Standard Stock and Mining Exchange in 1899. The SSME, after years of ups and downs, was amalgamated into the Toronto Stock Exchange in 1934. While a durable surge in mining trading was recorded in Toronto (either commodities or securities), in Montreal the volume of the equity-centric market was going down. Toronto found itself a reputation as a financial centre for mining and from 1934, the total trading volume on the TSE surpassed that of Montreal's.
A major exchange
The TSE moved on Bay Street in 1913 and in 1937 opened a new trading floor and headquarters in an Art Deco building, still on Bay. By 1936, the Toronto Stock Exchange grew to become the third largest in North America.
In 1977, it launched the TSE 300 index and introduced the CATS (Computer Assisted Trading System), an automated trading system, and began to use it for the quotation of less liquid equities. In 1983, the TSE vacated its Art Deco headquarters on Bay Street and moved into the Exchange Tower. The old TSE building later became the Design Exchange, a museum and education centre. On April 23, 1997, the TSE's trading floor closed, making it the second-largest stock exchange in North America to choose a floorless, electronic (or virtual trading) environment.
In 1999, through a major realignment plan, Toronto Stock Exchange became Canada's sole exchange for the trading of senior equities. The Bourse de Montréal/Montreal Exchange assumed responsibility for the trading of derivatives and the Vancouver Stock Exchange and Alberta Stock Exchange merged to form the Canadian Venture Exchange (CDNX) handling trading in junior equities. The Canadian Dealing Network, Winnipeg Stock Exchange, and equities portion of the Montreal Exchange later merged with CDNX. In 2000, the Toronto Stock Exchange became a for-profit company. In 2002 its acronym was rebranded to TSX and it became a public company.
TMX Group era
In 2001, the Toronto Stock Exchange acquired the Canadian Venture Exchange, which was renamed the TSX Venture Exchange in 2002; this resulted in the creation of a parent to the TSX, the TSX Group. This ended 123 years of the usage of TSE as a Canadian stock exchange. On May 11, 2007, the S&P/TSX Composite, the main index of the Toronto Stock Exchange, traded above the 14,000 point level for the first time ever. On December 17, 2008, for the first time in TSX history, the exchange was closed for an entire trading day due to a technical glitch.
On February 9, 2011, the London Stock Exchange announced that it had agreed to merge with the TMX Group, Toronto Stock Exchange's parent, hoping to create a combined entity with a market capitalization of $5.9 trillion (£3.7 trillion). Xavier Rolet, who is CEO of the LSE Group, would have headed the new enlarged company, while TMX Chief Executive Thomas Kloet would become the new firm president. Based on data from December 30, 2010 the new stock exchange would have been the second largest in the world with a market cap 48% greater than the Nasdaq. Eight of the 15 board members of the combined entity were to be appointed by LSE, 7/15 by TMX. The provisional name for the combined group would be LTMX Group plc. About two weeks after Maple Group launched a competing bid the LSEG-TMX deal was terminated after failing to receive the minimum 67% voter approval from shareholders of TMX Group. The rejection came amidst new concerns raised by Bank of Canada governor Mark Carney regarding foreign control of clearing systems and opposition to the deal by Ontario's finance minister.
On June 13, 2011, a rival, and hostile bid from the Maple Group of Canadian interests, was unveiled. A cash and stock bid of $3.7 billion CAD, in hopes of blocking the LSE Group's takeover of TMX. The group composed of the leading banks and financial institutions of Canada. In March 2015, a competing exchange, Aequitas Neo, opened for trading, listing 45 issues that had been listed only on the TSX. The new exchange aims to focus on fairness, specifically regarding what it refers to as "predatory high-frequency trading practices". The exchange plans to list additional TSX-listed securities.
Hours
The exchange has a normal trading session from 09:30am to 04:00pm ET and a post-market session from 4:15pm to 5:00pm ET on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the Exchange in advance.
Companies listed
As of August 2019, Toronto Stock Exchange had 1,569 listed issuers (including ETFs and other structured financial products) with a combined market capitalization of CAD $3,059,755,023,680. By the end of 2019, the total market capitalization of companies listed on TSX & TSXV reached $3.2 trillion.
The exchange is home to all of Canada's Big Five commercial banks—Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC), Bank of Montreal (BMO), Bank of Nova Scotia (Scotiabank), Royal Bank of Canada (RBC), and the Toronto-Dominion Bank (TD)—making the exchange the centre for banking in the country. This was seen as being most evident during the proposed mergers of Royal Bank with Bank of Montreal, and CIBC with the Toronto-Dominion Bank in 1998. Then-Finance Minister Paul Martin blocked the mergers to preserve competition.
The exchange is the primary listing for a number of energy companies including; Enbridge, Suncor, TC Energy, Canadian Natural Resources, Imperial Oil, Pembina and Cenovus all within the S&P/TSX 60 index.
Many of the large companies listed on the TSX, especially those on the S&P/TSX 60 index, have a secondary listing on an American exchange such as the New York Stock Exchange.
See also
Stock market index
List of stock exchanges
List of stock exchanges in the Americas
List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
List of stock exchanges in the Commonwealth of Nations
S&P/TSX 60
:Category:Lists of companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
References
External links
Official site
Site of parent company
Financial services companies established in 1861
1861 establishments in Ontario
Stock exchanges in Canada
Economy of Toronto
Companies based in Toronto
Canadian companies established in 1861
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205587
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfuvirtide
|
Enfuvirtide
|
Enfuvirtide (INN) is an HIV fusion inhibitor, the first of a class of antiretroviral drugs used in combination therapy for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. It is marketed under the trade name Fuzeon (Roche).
Structural formula
Enfuvirtide is a 36-amino acid peptide with the following sequence:
CH3CO-Tyr-Thr-Ser-Leu-Ile-His-Ser-Leu-Ile-Glu-Glu-Ser-Gln-Asn-Gln-Gln-Glu-Lys-Asn-Glu-Gln-Glu-Leu-Leu-Glu-Leu-Asp-Lys-Trp-Ala-Ser-Leu-Trp-Asn-Trp-Phe-NH2 (Ac-YTSLIHSLIEESQNQQEKNEQELLELDKWASLWNWF-NH2)
History
Enfuvirtide originated at Duke University, where researchers formed a pharmaceutical company known as Trimeris. Trimeris began development on enfuvirtide in 1996 and initially designated it T-20. In 1999, Trimeris entered into partnership with Hoffmann-La Roche to complete the development of the drug. It was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on March 13, 2003 as the first HIV fusion inhibitor, a new class of antiretroviral drugs. It was approved on the basis of two studies which compared the effect of optimized regimens of antiretroviral medication with and without the addition of enfuvirtide on serum viral load.
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
Enfuvirtide works by disrupting the HIV-1 molecular machinery at the final stage of fusion with the target cell, preventing uninfected cells from becoming infected. A biomimetic peptide, enfuvirtide was designed to mimic components of the HIV-1 fusion machinery and displace them, preventing normal fusion. Drugs that disrupt fusion of virus and target cell are termed entry inhibitors or fusion inhibitors.
HIV binds to the host CD4+ cell receptor via the viral protein gp120; gp41, a viral transmembrane protein, then undergoes a conformational change that assists in the fusion of the viral membrane to the host cell membrane. Enfuvirtide binds to gp41 preventing the creation of an entry pore for the capsid of the virus, keeping it out of the cell.
Enfuvirtide is also an activator of the chemotactic factor receptor, formyl peptide receptor 1, and thereby activates phagocytes and presumably other cells bearing this receptor (see formyl peptide receptors). The physiological significance of this activation is unknown.
Microbiology
Enfuvirtide is considered to be active against HIV-1 only. Low activity against HIV-2 isolates has been demonstrated in vitro.
Variable susceptibility to enfuvirtide has been observed in clinical isolates, with acquired resistance the result of a mutated 10 amino acid motif in viral gp41. Primary resistance, however, has yet to be observed.
Clinical use
Indications
Enfuvirtide is indicated for the treatment of HIV-1 infection, in combination therapy with other antiretrovirals, in patients where all other treatments have failed.
Dosage forms
By virtue of its peptide nature, enfuvirtide is marketed in injectable form. The lyophilised enfuvirtide powder must be reconstituted by the patient and administered twice daily by subcutaneous injection. Due to the chronic nature of this kind of therapy, this dosage form may be a major problem for the patient's adherence to this drug regimen.
Adverse effects
Common adverse drug reactions (≥1% of patients) associated with enfuvirtide therapy include: injection site reactions (pain, hardening of skin, erythema, nodules, cysts, itch; experienced by nearly all patients, particularly in the first week), peripheral neuropathy, insomnia, depression, cough, dyspnoea, anorexia, arthralgia, infections (including bacterial pneumonia) and/or eosinophilia. Various hypersensitivity reactions occur infrequently (0.1–1% of patients), symptoms of which include rash, fever, nausea, vomiting, chills, rigors, hypotension, elevated hepatic transaminases; and possibly more severe reactions including respiratory distress, glomerulonephritis and/or anaphylaxis – rechallenge is not recommended.
References
External links
Entry inhibitors
Hepatotoxins
Peptides
Hoffmann-La Roche brands
Genentech brands
|
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205590
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TMX%20Group
|
TMX Group
|
TMX Group Limited is a Canadian financial services company that operates equities, fixed income, derivatives, and energy markets exchanges. The company provides services encompassing listings, trading, clearing, settling and depository facilities, information services as well as technology services for the international financial community.
TMX Group is best known for its stock exchanges, Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX), which serves the senior equity markets, and TSX Venture Exchange (TSXV), which serves the public venture equity market. TSXV was formerly known as the Canadian Venture Exchange (CDNX), but it also owns and operates other exchanges in Canada, including Montréal Exchange, NGX, a North American exchange for the trading and clearing of natural gas and electricity contracts, TSX Alpha Exchange, as well as the country's depository, clearing and settlement business, CDS. TMX Group also owns and operates TMX Equity Transfer Services, Shorcan Brokers Limited, the Canadian Derivatives Clearing Corporation (CDCC), as well as stakes in both CanDeal.ca Inc. and BOX Options Exchange.
TMX Group is headquartered in Toronto and operates offices across Canada (Montreal, Calgary and Vancouver), in key U.S. markets (New York City, Houston, Boston and Chicago), and overseas (London, Beijing, Singapore and Sydney).
History
In 2001, the Toronto Stock Exchange acquired the Canadian Venture Exchange (formed by the merger of the Vancouver Stock Exchange and Alberta Stock Exchange on November 29, 1999), which was renamed the TSX Venture Exchange on July 31, 2001. The acquisition was carried out through a parent company, TSX Group Inc..
The Montreal Exchange was acquired on December 10, 2007 for C$1.31 Billion
The acquisition was completed on May 1, 2008 and the corporation subsequently renamed to TMX Group Inc.
On June 11, 2008 at a meeting of shareholders of TSX Group Inc a resolution to change the name of the corporation to TMX Group Inc. was put forward. The formal vote for the deal took place in September.
On February 9, 2011, the London Stock Exchange Group announced that they had agreed to merge with the TMX, creating a combined entity with a market capitalization of $5.9 billion (£3.7 billion). Xavier Rolet, CEO of the LSE Group, will head the company, while TMX Chief Executive Thomas Kloet will become president. Based on data from November 30, 2010 the new stock exchange would be the second largest in the world with a market cap 47% greater than the Nasdaq. Announced on June 1, 2011, the provisional name for the combined group would be LTMX Group plc.
On June 13, 2011, a rival bid from the Maple Group of Canadian interests, was unveiled: a cash and stock bid of $3.7 billion CAD, in hopes of blocking the LSE Group's takeover of TMX. The group is composed of the leading banks and financial institutions of Canada. Luc Bertrand, spokesman for Maple Group and one of the drivers of the bid is vice chairman of the National Bank of Canada and also TMX Group's largest individual shareholder.
On June 22, 2011, the LSE Group and TMX agreed to pay a special dividend to shareholders. The special dividend is meant to sway voters away from Maple Groups rival bid. The dividend was valued at $678 million with TMX shareholders receiving $4 per share and LSE shareholders receiving $1.36 per share. Including the special dividend, the LSE agreement would be valued at $48.90 per share versus the $48 per share of Maple. The exchanges also pledged to maintain the dividend at least as high as the current TMX annual payout, which is C$1.60 a share.
On June 29, LSEG and TMX terminated the merger plans after it appeared that the merger would not be approved by the needed two-thirds majority of TMX shareholders.
On July 11, 2012, Maple Group's deal was approved by all federal and provincial regulatory authorities, including the Ontario Securities Commission and the Autorité des marchés financiers.
On July 31, 2012 Maple Group announced that it won control of the TMX Group, as 91% of shares were tendered for its takeover offer. The formal vote for the deal will take place in September.
On January 21, 2013 TMX Group announced that combined, Toronto Stock Exchange and TSX Venture Exchange were first in the world among global exchanges by number of new listings for the fourth consecutive year, according to data from the World Federation of Exchanges (WFE) as of December 31, 2012.
On February 13, 2013 TMX Group announced it had entered into an agreement with Equity Financial Holdings Inc. (Equity) to acquire its transfer agent and corporate trust services business.
On July 25, 2013 the S&P Dow Jones Indices and TMX Group announced the launch of the S&P/TSX High Income Energy Index. The new index was licensed by S&P Dow Jones Indices to Guggenheim Investments for an Exchange Traded Fund listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
On February 12, 2014 TSX Venture Exchange announced the 2014 TSX Venture 50, an annual ranking of strong performing companies from five sectors: Clean Technology, Diversified Industries, Mining, Oil & Gas, and Technology & Life Sciences.
On March 25, 2014 TMX Group announced plans to launch a business to facilitate capital raising and the trading of securities in the exempt market. TSX Private Markets enables TMX Group to serve companies throughout their evolution from start-up, to private issuer, to public issuer.
On June 2, 2015 TMX Group announced a realignment of the organization. The changes follow the completion of an in-depth strategic review of the organization, which began in January 2015.
On June 16, 2015, TMX Group announced a new initiative. AgriClear, an online platform designed to provide U.S. and Canadian cattle buyers and sellers with an efficient, cost-effective transaction and payment service.
On November 12, 2018, TMX Group launched TMX Matrix, a platform designed to showcase regulated growth companies listed on TSX Venture Exchange.
On June 30th, 2020, TMX Group integrated TMX Matrix with TMX Money, its flagship site that provides free real-time stock quotes for retail investors.
Management
In September 2004, Stymiest announced the resignation of Barbara Stymiest as CEO of the TSX Group so that she could join the RBC Financial Group to serve as its COO. In December 2004, the TSX Group announced the appointment of Richard Nesbitt as the new CEO of TSX Group. Nesbitt had previously served as president and chief executive officer of HSBC Securities Canada. Nesbitt stepped down in January 2008, and was replaced by Thomas Kloet on July 14, 2008.
On January 18, 2013 TMX Group Limited announced the appointment of Jean Desgagne as president and chief executive of the Canadian Depository for Securities Limited (CDS), Canada's national securities depository, clearing and settlement hub for equity, fixed income and money markets. He replaced Ian Gilhooley, who retired on December 31, 2012.
On May 30, 2013 TMX Group announced the appointment of Deana Djurdjevic to senior vice president, Equities Trading.
On March 17, 2014 TMX Group announced that chief executive Thomas Kloet would retire from the company effective August 31, 2014. The company later announced on August 12, 2014 that Kloet would remain in the role of CEO until October 31, 2014.
On September 29, 2014 TMX Group announced that it had selected Lou Eccleston to lead the organization as its CEO effective November 3, 2014.
On March 2, 2015 TMX Group announced the promotion of Cheryl Graden to senior vice president, Group Head of Legal and Business Affairs and Corporate Secretary. She was also appointed an officer of TMX Group Limited and its subsidiaries.
On July 16, 2015, TMX Group announced that it had named Nicholas Thadaney, president & CEO, Global Equity Capital Markets effective September 1, 2015. Mr. Thadaney, who reports to TMX Group's Chief Executive Officer, is responsible for all of TMX Group's equity listing and trading activity.
References
External links
Financial services companies established in 2008
Companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
Financial services companies of Canada
Companies based in Toronto
Toronto Stock Exchange
|
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205591
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle%20Pacific%20University
|
Seattle Pacific University
|
Seattle Pacific University (SPU) is a private Christian university in Seattle, Washington. It was founded in 1891 in conjunction with the Oregon and Washington Conference of the Free Methodist Church, as the Seattle Seminary. It became the Seattle Seminary and College in 1913, adopting the name Seattle Pacific College two years later, and received its current name in 1977.
History
Seattle Pacific University was founded in 1891 by Free Methodist pioneers to train missionaries for overseas service.
On June 5, 2014, a shooting occurred in the Otto Miller Hall, during which one student was killed and two other students were injured. The suspect was not a student at the school and had no connection to the university. The gunman was stopped by student Jon Meis, who used pepper spray to disarm him. Meis received a Citizen Honors award from the Congressional Medal of Honor Society in 2015 for his work in stopping the shooting. On November 16, 2016, the gunman was convicted in the shooting and sentenced to 112 years in prison.
Previous names
As the school developed from a seminary of the Free Methodist Church to its current status as a doctoral degree granting institution, its name has changed over time to befit its changes in status:
1891 – Seattle Seminary
1913 – Seattle Seminary and College
1915 – Seattle Pacific College/Seattle Pacific Christian College
1977 – Seattle Pacific University
Academics
The university's academic programs are divided into one college and five schools:
College of Arts and Sciences
School of Business, Government, and Economics
School of Education
School of Health Sciences
School of Psychology, Family and Community
School of Theology
Honors program
SPU offers a four-year alternate series of general education classes for honors students called University Scholars that revolves around a Great Books reading list and the writing of a lengthy senior dissertation Honors Projects - Seattle Pacific University. Along with literature classes, the curriculum includes two Faith & Science classes and a Christianity & Scholarship class. The work load is generally very rigorous.
A student in the program takes his or her sequence of University Scholars courses with the same cohort of 40 students for the entire four years. A student may be admitted to the program regardless of major. Students apply in the spring of their senior year of college; a few students are invited into the program after their freshman year at SPU. There are no University Scholars classes scheduled for the fall of junior year, in order to give students the opportunity to study abroad
Graduate School
In 2005, SPU launched a MFA low-residency program in Creative Writing featuring distance-learning for graduate writers in Poetry, Fiction, Creative Non-Fiction, and Young Adult Fiction. The program features a site-specific residency on Whidbey Island, WA. Core faculty include several notable authors including Scott Cairns, Lauren Winner, Gina Ochsner, Sara Zarr, and Mischa Willett. The program maintains an institutional affiliation with Image.
Enrollment
Student enrollment
As of the 2018 Autumn Quarter:
Total enrollment: 3,688
Undergraduate students: 2,876
Post-baccalaureate students: 24
Graduate students: 788
Continuing education: 4,297 (2017–2018)
Class size
80 percent of Autumn Quarter 2018 undergraduate classes had enrollments of 30 or less
Student-Faculty Ratio of 13:1 (Based on Common Data Set definition)
Campus
The university sits on a 43-acre campus at the northern end of Queen Anne Hill, near the Fremont neighborhood and approximately four miles north of downtown Seattle. Many of the trees on the campus' central Tiffany Loop are among the oldest in the city. SPU also owns and operates two satellite campuses: a wilderness field station specializing in biology on Blakely Island in the San Juan Islands and Camp Casey, a former U.S. military fort re-purposed as a conference and retreat facility on Whidbey Island. Notable buildings on the Seattle campus include:
Alexander and Adelaide Hall
Named for the first president of Seattle Pacific University, Alexander Beers, this four-story brick building is home to the School of Theology. The founder's first name, Alexander, was used, as the board did not want a building on campus called "Beers Hall." The building also houses the Sociology and History departments within the College of Arts and Sciences. Alexander Hall is the oldest building on campus, and at the time of the University's founding was the campus' only building. A $6.2-million seismic retrofitting and renovation of the interior office space and chapel was completed in 2014. Next door to Alexander is the main performing arts space on campus, the McKinley Theater.
Demaray Hall/Clocktower
Demaray Hall is the central academic building at Seattle Pacific University, housing numerous classrooms as well as the Office of Undergraduate Admissions, Student Academic Services and Student Financial Services. Administrative offices, including the offices of the president and provost, are also located in Demaray. The building is named for Calvin Dorr Demaray, president of SPU from 1959–1968 and pastor of First Free Methodist Church, from 1948 to 1959.
The clocktower in front of Demaray Hall was given to Seattle Pacific University by the class of 1966. It displays a bas-relief sculpture designed by former Professor of Art Ernst Schwidder, titled "Science, Religion and Humanities," which was brought to fruition by former Professor of Art Larry Metcalf and three of his students. The cast-stone relief panels depict various areas of study: the physical sciences, social sciences and humanities. Its symbols are drawn from American Pima, Arabic, Aztec, Babylonian, Egyptian and Greek cultures.
Gwinn Commons
Gwinn Commons is home to three different points of interest. The Crossroads at Gwinn Commons is the main dining hall on campus. Upstairs is the university's main, multi-use location. A pair of large rooms, the Queen Anne Room (named after the neighborhood in which SPU is located) and the Cascade Room (named after the mountain range that can be seen from Upper Gwinn Commons) can each hold up to 500 people. Multiple functions are held in Upper Gwinn, ranging from Group (a Wednesday night worship service), admissions events, lectures, board meetings and more. The President's Dining room is also located here. In addition, there is the Corner Place Market, or C-Store, which holds Einstein Bros. Bagels and also a market where students can purchase various daily necessities. Wells Gwinn, for whom the dining facility is named, served 32 years on the Seattle Pacific Board of Trustees.
Ames Library
The Ames Library was completed in 1994. Housing over 250,000 volumes and 1,300 print periodicals, it grows by 6,000 new titles a year. Students, faculty, and alumni have access to the collections of Summit and the Orbis Cascade Alliance, comprising over 30 million items held in Washington and Oregon academic libraries, including the University of Washington. In addition to printed reference materials, the library also has access to myriad electronic databases including JSTOR, ProQuest Direct, EBSCOHost, First Search, and others. Access is available to the university community via login both on and off campus.
Peterson Hall
Peterson Hall is the second-oldest building on campus and houses the School of Education as well as the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences. In the basement is a food lab, as well as a sewing lab. Each month, SPU's food lab plays host to a Community Kitchen - an outreach to the city's homeless population wherein these individuals join with members of the university community in cooking and sharing a common meal.
Student Union Building
The Student Union Building (commonly known as the "SUB") was built in the 1960s and still serves as a central point where many students gather. On the first floor is the Pacific Collegium, a hub for commuter students. Dining options provided by the on campus dining services can also be found in the SUB. UNICOM, a student-run information desk assists with ticket sales, bus passes, pool passes, among other general information items. ASSP, the student government of SPU has its offices in the SUB along with STUB, the student event programming organization.
Philip W. and Sharon K. Eaton Hall
SPU's main hard sciences facility houses biology, chemistry and some psychology labs. Built in 2003, it is the most advanced building on campus, complete with an electron microscope, cold room, fully contained greenhouse and LEED Certification. This building is central to those students in the Pre-Professional Health Sciences programs. SPU's pre-med track has become widely known for its annual 90–100% acceptance into medical schools following graduation. On May 23, 2012, the SPU Board of Trustees announced that it named the building in honor of past SPU president Philip W.Eaton and his wife, Sharon.
McKenna Hall
The School of Business, Government, and Economics (SBGE) is located in McKenna Hall. In addition to undergraduate degrees in Management, Accounting, Economics, Political Science, and Global Development Studies, SBGE also offers three graduate level degrees: Master of Business Administration, Master of Science in Information Management, and a Master of Arts in Management. SBGE is home to the Center for Applied Learning and the Center for Integrity in Business which examines the intersections of theology and contemporary business.
Residences
Seattle Pacific University has five residence halls. The university offers other on-campus residence options, such as the Cremona and Wesley apartments, and other small suite- or apartment-style living facilities for continuing students. All residence halls feature single-gender floors. The five residence halls are Ashton Hall, Hill Hall, Moyer Hall, Emerson Hall, and Arnett Hall.
Freshmen are required to live on campus in the residence halls unless they are living with family. Meal plans are required for all students living in the dorms. Students may leave campus housing when they are 20 years old, have junior class status, have petitioned and been approved to live off campus by Campus Housing, or are graduate students.
Arnett Hall welcomed its inaugural residents in Autumn 2014. As SPU's second smallest dorm with only four resident floors, it features suite-style single, double, and triple rooms, a main lounge on the first floor, and a green roof and roof deck on the fifth floor. Rooms on the upper floors may also feature views of the Lake Washington Ship Canal. It is located in the northwest corner of campus, just across the street from Demaray Hall and just down the hill from Gwinn Commons, SPU's dining hall.
Ashton Hall, opened in 1965, is SPU's largest residence hall with more than 400 students on 6 floors. It was named in honor of Philip F. Ashton, PhD, a psychology professor (1929–1971). The hall is located on the highest point of SPU's campus. Many rooms have views of the campus and the Lake Washington Ship Canal. Annual Ashton Pop events include the Ashton Cup lip-sync contest, the Ashton Art Show, and a formal ball. In previous years the ball has been held at the Space Needle, on an Argosy Cruise, and at Seattle's W Hotel. Ashton Hall is also former home to the Orangemen of 6th West (6w), a notable floor on campus, who display their school spirit by attending men's basketball home games and some away games, leading cheers for the Falcons and occasionally against the referees and the other team.
Emerson Hall, opened in 2001, is the campus's second newest residence hall, featuring suite-style single, double, and triple rooms, card-access security, a main lounge with gas fireplace and Northwest wood beams, and an exercise center. Emerson also has a "Bridges Program", which lets students participate in intentional programs and conversations related to global issues and cross-cultural relationships. Emerson events include a quarterly Coffee House, the Emerson Film Festival, and the Spring Banquet. The hall is named for the street on which it resides.
Hill Hall, which opened in 1962, located in the upper middle of the campus just steps from Gwinn Commons and the SPU Library, is known as the "family" hall for its comfortable atmosphere. It features a newly updated main lounge, the REX athletic center, and the Hill Hall "beach", a grassy area behind the hall popular for outdoor recreation and sunbathing. Hill Hall events include "Decade" Skate (a song-based skit competition), a retreat to Camp Casey, an annual ball, and 6th Hill "Beach Bash." It is named for the Reuben Hill family who donated property to the school for its expansion.
Moyer Hall, opened in 1953 and remodeled in 1983, is located in the center of the campus on the edge of Tiffany Loop. The smallest of the traditional residence halls, Moyer was named in honor of Jacob Moyer, PhD, professor of chemistry and dean (1925–46). The hall's annual events include a fall retreat, an ice-broomball game, a citywide scavenger hunt, and an all-hall banquet. In the past, the ice-broomball game was played between residents of Moyer and Marston Hall (no longer used for housing). This annual "Toilet Bowl" match featured as its trophy a urinal removed from Moyer during the 1983 remodel, which the losing hall was required to display prominently the year following their loss. The 05–06 school year also introduced a new event called The Experience Moyer Project (EMP), which featured musical talent from the hall as well as a variety of other activities.
The university owns multiple additional residences including Bailey, Cremona, 37 West Dravus, Falcon, Wesley and other buildings known by address rather than name are owned and maintained by SPU. These apartments are closer to campus but provide a more independent-living situation. They provide a great aggregate living environment among students. The 35 and 34 West Cremona apartments were remodeled in 2008–09 and 2009–10, respectively, and the Wesley Apartments at Cremona and Dravus, as of the 2011–2012 academic year, are now owned and operated by SPU and include the offices of two of the Residence Life Coordinators. The school sold the Robbins apartments in 2012.
Athletics
The university's athletic teams participate in the Great Northwest Athletic Conference at the Division II level of the NCAA.
Men's varsity athletics
Basketball
Cross country
Soccer
Track & field
Women's varsity athletics
Basketball
Cross country
Rowing
Soccer
Track & field
Volleyball
Notable alumni
Brian Fennell '06, Singer/Songwriter in SYML and Barcelona (indie rock band),
Timothy Beal '86, Florence Harkness Professor of Religion at Case Western Reserve University, author
Ken Bone '82, former basketball coach at Washington State University
Jim Cornelison '86, national anthem singer for Chicago Blackhawks
Jake DeShazer, Doolittle raider, missionary to Japan
Gordon Fee, distinguished professor of New Testament, biblical scholar, textual critic
Andrew Foster '56, brought schools for the deaf to Africa and received the SPU 1982 alumni Medallion Award in recognition of this work
Robert A. Funk, founder, CEO, and Chairman of the Board of Express Employment Professionals, an employment agency company headquartered in Oklahoma City
Gaylord T. Gunhus '62 20th Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army
Marcus Hahnemann '93, former goalkeeper for United States Men's National Soccer Team and retired goalkeeper for Seattle Sounders F.C. 2012–14.
Doris Brown Heritage '64, five-time world cross-country champion, coach, USA Track and Field Hall of Fame
Joseph Kearney, former athletic director at the University of Washington, Michigan State University and WAC Commissioner
William L. Lane, New Testament theologian and professor of biblical studies
Gayle Moran, jazz vocalist, keyboardist and composer
Rodger Nishioka, Christian educator and professor of Christian education
Eugene H. Peterson '54, author of The Message
Dan Price '08, CEO of Gravity Payments
Jeff Probst, host of Survivor television show
Daniel Sandrin '03, Korean Basketball League player
Jean Stothert, mayor of Omaha, Nebraska
Larry Wall '76, programmer, linguist, author, creator of the Perl programming language
David T. Wong '61, co-inventor of Prozac
Phil Zevenbergen, retired National Basketball Association player
Conrad Lee, mayor of Bellevue, Washington
Chad Forcier, assistant coach for the Milwaukee Bucks
Jason Farrell, former U.S.soccer midfielder who spent four seasons in Major League Soccer
Esther Snyder, businesswoman, co-founder of In-N-Out Burger
References
External links
Official website
Educational institutions established in 1891
Liberal arts colleges in Washington (state)
Universities and colleges in Seattle
Universities and colleges in the United States affiliated with the Free Methodist Church
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Private universities and colleges in Washington (state)
Evangelicalism in Washington (state)
1891 establishments in Washington (state)
Council for Christian Colleges and Universities
Queen Anne, Seattle
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway%20engineering
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Highway engineering
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Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods. Highway engineering became prominent towards the latter half of the 20th century after World War II. Standards of highway engineering are continuously being improved. Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of highway intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design, highway pavement materials and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and pavement maintenance.
History
The beginning of road construction could be dated to the time of the Romans. With the advancement of technology from carriages pulled by two horses to vehicles with power equivalent to 100 horses, road development had to follow suit. The construction of modern highways did not begin until the late 19th to early 20th century.
The first research dedicated to highway engineering was initiated in the United Kingdom with the introduction of the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930. In the US, highway engineering became an important discipline with the passing of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, which aimed to connect 90% of cities with a population of 50,000 or more. With constant stress from vehicles which grew larger as time passed, improvements to pavements were needed. With technology out of date, in 1958 the construction of the first motorway in Great Britain (the Preston bypass) played a major role in the development of new pavement technology.
Planning and development
Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes on a road network. The Highway planning is also a basic need for the Highway development. Highway engineers strive to predict and analyze all possible civil impacts of highway systems. Some considerations are the adverse effects on the environment, such as noise pollution, air pollution, water pollution, and other ecological impacts.
Financing
Developed countries are constantly faced with high maintenance cost of aging transportation highways. The growth of the motor vehicle industry and accompanying economic growth has generated a demand for safer, better performing, less congested highways. The growth of commerce, educational institutions, housing, and defense have largely drawn from government budgets in the past, making the financing of public highways a challenge.
The multipurpose characteristics of highways, economic environment, and the advances in highway pricing technology are constantly changing. Therefore, the approaches to highway financing, management, and maintenance are constantly changing as well.
Environmental impact assessment
The economic growth of a community is dependent upon highway development to enhance mobility. However, improperly planned, designed, constructed, and maintained highways can disrupt the social and economic characteristics of any size community. Common adverse impacts to highway development include damage of habitat and bio-diversity, creation of air and water pollution, noise and vibration generation, damage of natural landscape, and the destruction of a community's social and cultural structure. Highway infrastructure must be constructed and maintained to high qualities and standards.
There are three key steps for integrating environmental considerations into the planning, scheduling, construction, and maintenance of highways. This process is known as an Environmental Impact Assessment, or EIA, as it systematically deals with the following elements:
Identification of the full range of possible impacts on the natural and socio-economic environment
Evaluation and quantification of these impacts
Formulation of measures to avoid, mitigate, and compensate for the anticipated impacts.
Highway safety
Highway systems generate the highest price in human injury and death, as nearly 50 million persons are injured in traffic accidents every year, not including the 1.2 million deaths. Road traffic injury is the single leading cause of unintentional death in the first five decades of human life.
Management of safety is a systematic process that strives to reduce the occurrence and severity of traffic accidents. The man/machine interaction with road traffic systems is unstable and poses a challenge to highway safety management. The key for increasing the safety of highway systems is to design, build, and maintain them to be far more tolerant of the average range of this man/machine interaction with highways. Technological advancements in highway engineering have improved the design, construction, and maintenance methods used over the years. These advancements have allowed for newer highway safety innovations.
By ensuring that all situations and opportunities are identified, considered, and implemented as appropriate, they can be evaluated in every phase of highway planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation to increase the safety of our highway systems.
Design
The most appropriate location, alignment, and shape of a highway are selected during the design stage. Highway design involves the consideration of three major factors (human, vehicular, and roadway) and how these factors interact to provide a safe highway. Human factors include reaction time for braking and steering, visual acuity for traffic signs and signals, and car-following behaviour. Vehicle considerations include vehicle size and dynamics that are essential for determining lane width and maximum slopes, and for the selection of design vehicles. Highway engineers design road geometry to ensure stability of vehicles when negotiating curves and grades and to provide adequate sight distances for undertaking passing maneuvers along curves on two-lane, two-way roads.
Geometric design
Highway and transportation engineers must meet many safety, service, and performance standards when designing highways for certain site topography. Highway geometric design primarily refers to the visible elements of the highways. Highway engineers who design the geometry of highways must also consider environmental and social effects of the design on the surrounding infrastructure.
There are certain considerations that must be properly addressed in the design process to successfully fit a highway to a site's topography and maintain its safety. Some of these design considerations are:
Design speed
Design traffic volume
Number of lanes
Level of service (LOS)
Sight distance
Alignment, super-elevation, and grades
Cross section
Lane width
Structure gauge, Horizontal and vertical clearance
The operational performance of a highway can be seen through drivers' reactions to the design considerations and their interaction.
Materials
The materials used for roadway construction have progressed with time, dating back to the early days of the Roman Empire. Advancements in methods with which these materials are characterized and applied to pavement structural design has accompanied this advancement in materials.
There are three major types of pavement surfaces - pavement quality concrete (PQC), Portland cement concrete (PCC) and hot-mix asphalt (HMA). Underneath this wearing course are material layers that give structural support for the pavement system. These underlying surfaces may include either the aggregate base and sub base layers, or treated base and sub base layers, and additionally the underlying natural or treated sub grade. These treated layers may be cement-treated, asphalt-treated, or lime-treated for additional support. New Material
Flexible pavement design
A flexible, or asphalt, or Tarmac pavement typically consists of three or four layers. For a four layer flexible pavement, there is a surface course, base course, and subbase course constructed over a compacted, natural soil subgrade. When building a three layer flexible pavement, the subbase layer is not used and the base course is placed directly on the natural subgrade.
A flexible pavement's surface layer is constructed of hot-mix asphalt (HMA).Unstabilized aggregates are typically used for the base course; however, the base course could also be stabilized with asphalt, Foamed Bitumen,<Roadstone Recycling> Portland cement, or another stabilizing agent. The subbase is generally constructed from local aggregate material, while the top of the subgrade is often stabilized with cement or lime.
With flexible pavement, the highest stress occurs at the surface and the stress decreases as the depth of the pavement increases. Therefore, the highest quality material needs to be used for the surface, while lower quality materials can be used as the depth of the pavement increases. The term "flexible" is used because of the asphalts ability to bend and deform slightly, then return to its original position as each traffic load is applied and removed. It is possible for these small deformations to become permanent, which can lead to rutting in the wheel path over an extended time.
The service life of a flexible pavement is typically designed in the range of 20 to 30 years. Required thicknesses of each layer of a flexible pavement vary widely depending on the materials used, magnitude, number of repetitions of traffic loads, environmental conditions, and the desired service life of the pavement. Factors such as these are taken into consideration during the design process so that the pavement will last for the designed life without excessive distresses.
Rigid pavement design
Rigid pavements are generally used in constructing airports and major highways, such as those in the interstate highway system. In addition, they commonly serve as heavy-duty industrial floor slabs, port and harbor yard pavements, and heavy-vehicle park or terminal pavements. Like flexible pavements, rigid highway pavements are designed as all-weather, long-lasting structures to serve modern day high-speed traffic. Offering high quality riding surfaces for safe vehicular travel, they function as structural layers to distribute vehicular wheel loads in such a manner that the induced stresses transmitted to the subgrade soil are of acceptable magnitudes.
Portland cement concrete (PCC) is the most common material used in the construction of rigid pavement slabs. The reason for its popularity is due to its availability and the economy. Rigid pavements must be designed to endure frequently repeated traffic loadings. The typical designed service life of a rigid pavement is between 30 and 40 years, lasting about twice as long as a flexible pavement.
One major design consideration of rigid pavements is reducing fatigue failure due to the repeated stresses of traffic. Fatigue failure is common among major roads because a typical highway will experience millions of wheel passes throughout its service life. In addition to design criteria such as traffic loadings, tensile stresses due to thermal energy must also be taken into consideration. As pavement design has progressed, many highway engineers have noted that thermally induced stresses in rigid pavements can be just as intense as those imposed by wheel loadings. Due to the relatively low tensile strength of concrete, thermal stresses are extremely important to the design considerations of rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three layers - a prepared subgrade, base or subbase, and a concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed according to a designed choice of plan dimensions for the slab panels, directly influencing the intensity of thermal stresses occurring within the pavement. In addition to the slab panels, temperature reinforcements must be designed to control cracking behavior in the slab. Joint spacing is determined by the slab panel dimensions.
Three main types of concrete pavements commonly used are jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP), jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP), and continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP). JPCPs are constructed with contraction joints which direct the natural cracking of the pavement. These pavements do not use any reinforcing steel. JRCPs are constructed with both contraction joints and reinforcing steel to control the cracking of the pavement. High temperatures and moisture stresses within the pavement creates cracking, which the reinforcing steel holds tightly together. At transverse joints, dowel bars are typically placed to assist with transferring the load of the vehicle across the cracking. CRCPs solely rely on continuous reinforcing steel to hold the pavement's natural transverse cracks together. Prestressed concrete pavements have also been used in the construction of highways; however, they are not as common as the other three. Prestressed pavements allow for a thinner slab thickness by partly or wholly neutralizing thermally induced stresses or loadings.
Flexible pavement overlay design
Over the service life of a flexible pavement, accumulated traffic loads may cause excessive rutting or cracking, inadequate ride quality, or an inadequate skid resistance. These problems can be avoided by adequately maintaining the pavement, but the solution usually has excessive maintenance costs, or the pavement may have an inadequate structural capacity for the projected traffic loads.
Throughout a highway's life, its level of serviceability is closely monitored and maintained. One common method used to maintain a highway's level of serviceability is to place an overlay on the pavement's surface.
There are three general types of overlay used on flexible pavements: asphalt-concrete overlay, Portland cement concrete overlay, and ultra-thin Portland cement concrete overlay. The concrete layer in a conventional PCC overlay is placed unbonded on top of the flexible surface. The typical thickness of an ultra-thin PCC overlay is 4 inches (10 cm) or less.
There are two main categories of flexible pavement overlay design procedures:
Component analysis design
Deflection-based design
Rigid pavement overlay design
Near the end of a rigid pavement's service life, a decision must be made to either fully reconstruct the worn pavement, or construct an overlay layer. Considering an overlay can be constructed on a rigid pavement that has not reached the end of its service life, it is often more economically attractive to apply overlay layers more frequently. The required overlay thickness for a structurally sound rigid pavement is much smaller than for one that has reached the end of its service life. Rigid and flexible overlays are both used for rehabilitation of rigid pavements such as JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP.
There are three subcategories of rigid pavement overlays that are organized depending on the bonding condition at the pavement overlay and existing slab interface.
Bonded overlays
Unbonded overlays
Partially bonded overlays
Drainage system design
Designing for proper drainage of highway systems is crucial to their success. A highway should be graded and built to remain "high and dry". Regardless of how well other aspects of a road are designed and constructed, adequate drainage is mandatory for a road to survive its entire service life. Excess water in the highway structure can inevitably lead to premature failure, even if the failure is not catastrophic.
Each highway drainage system is site-specific and can be very complex. Depending on the geography of the region, many methods for proper drainage may not be applicable. The highway engineer must determine which situations a particular design process should be applied, usually a combination of several appropriate methods and materials to direct water away from the structure. Pavement subsurface drainage, and underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure.
Erosion control is a crucial component in the design of highway drainage systems. Surface drainage must be allowed for precipitation to drain away from the structure. Highways must be designed with a slope or crown so that runoff water will be directed to the shoulder of the road, into a ditch, and away from the site. Designing a drainage system requires the prediction of runoff and infiltration, open channel analysis, and culvert design for directing surface water to an appropriate location.
Construction, maintenance, and management
Highway construction
Highway construction is generally preceded by detailed surveys and subgrade preparation. The methods and technology for constructing highways has evolved over time and become increasingly sophisticated. This advancement in technology has raised the level of skill sets required to manage highway construction projects. This skill varies from project to project, depending on factors such as the project's complexity and nature, the contrasts between new construction and reconstruction, and differences between urban region and rural region projects.
There are a number of elements of highway construction which can be broken up into technical and commercial elements of the system. Some examples of each are listed below:
Technical elements
Materials
Material quality
Installation techniques
Traffic
Commercial elements
Contract understanding
Environmental aspects
Political aspects
Legal aspects
Public concerns
Typically, construction begins at the lowest elevation of the site, regardless of the project type, and moves upward. By reviewing the geotechnical specifications of the project, information is given about:
Existing ground conditions
Required equipment for excavation, grading, and material transportation to and from the site
Properties of materials to be excavated
Dewatering requirements necessary for below-grade work
Shoring requirements for excavation protection
Water quantities for compaction and dust control
Subbase course construction
A subbase course is a layer designed of carefully selected materials that is located between the subgrade and base course of the pavement. The subbase thickness is generally in the range of 4 to 16 inches, and it is designed to withstand the required structural capacity of the pavement section.
Common materials used for a highway subbase include gravel, crushed stone, or subgrade soil that is stabilized with cement, fly ash, or lime. Permeable subbase courses are becoming more prevalent because of their ability to drain infiltrating water from the surface. They also prevent subsurface water from reaching the pavement surface.
When local material costs are excessively expensive or the material requirements to increase the structural bearing of the sub-base are not readily available, highway engineers can increase the bearing capacity of the underlying soil by mixing in Portland cement, foamed asphalt, or use polymer soil stabilization such as cross-linking styrene acrylic polymer that increases the California Bearing Ratio of in-situ materials by a factor 4 – 6.
Base course construction
The base course is the region of the pavement section that is located directly under the surface course. If there is a subbase course, the base course is constructed directly about this layer. Otherwise, it is built directly on top of the subgrade. Typical base course thickness ranges from 4 to 6 inches and is governed by underlying layer properties.
Heavy loads are continuously applied to pavement surfaces, and the base layer absorbs the majority of these stresses. Generally, the base course is constructed with an untreated crushed aggregate such as crushed stone, slag, or gravel. The base course material will have stability under the construction traffic and good drainage characteristics.
The base course materials are often treated with cement, bitumen, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, fly ash, or lime. These treatments provide improved support for heavy loads, frost susceptibility, and serves as a moisture barrier between the base and surface layers.
Surface course construction
There are two most commonly used types of pavement surfaces used in highway construction: hot-mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These pavement surface courses provide a smooth and safe riding surface, while simultaneously transferring the heavy traffic loads through the various base courses and into the underlying subgrade soils.
Hot-mix asphalt layers
Hot-mix asphalt surface courses are referred to as flexible pavements. The Superpave System was developed in the late 1980s and has offered changes to the design approach, mix design, specifications, and quality testing of materials.
The construction of an effective, long-lasting asphalt pavement requires an experienced construction crew, committed to their work quality and equipment control.
Construction issues:
Asphalt mix segregation
Laydown
Compaction
Joints
A prime coat is a low viscosity asphalt that is applied to the base course prior to laying the HMA surface course. This coat bonds loose material, creating a cohesive layer between the base course and asphalt surface.
A tack coat is a low viscosity asphalt emulsion that is used to create a bond between an existing pavement surface and new asphalt overlay. Tack coats are typically applied on adjacent pavements (curbs) to assist the bonding of the HMA and concrete.
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Portland cement concrete surface courses are referred to as rigid pavements, or concrete pavements. There are three general classifications of concrete pavements - jointed plain, jointed reinforced, and continuously reinforced.
Traffic loadings are transferred between sections when larger aggregates in the PCC mix inter-lock together, or through load transfer devices in the transverse joints of the surface. Dowel bars are used as load-transferring devices to efficiently transfer loads across transverse joints while maintaining the joint's horizontal and vertical alignment. Tie-bars are deformed steel bars that are placed along longitudinal joints to hold adjacent pavement sections in place.
Highway maintenance
The overall purpose of highway maintenance is to fix defects and preserve the pavement's structure and serviceability. Defects must be defined, understood, and recorded in order to create an appropriate maintenance plan. Maintenance planning is solving an optimisation problem and it can be predictive. In predictive maintenance planning empirical, data-driven methods give more accurate results than mechanical models. Defects differ between flexible and rigid pavements.
There are four main objectives of highway maintenance:
repair of functional pavement defects
extend the functional and structural service life of the pavement
maintain road safety and signage
keep road reserve in acceptable condition
Through routine maintenance practices, highway systems and all of their components can be maintained to their original, as-built condition.
Project management
Project management involves the organization and structuring of project activities from inception to completion. Activities could be the construction of infrastructure such as highways and bridges or major and minor maintenance activities related to constructing such infrastructure. The entire project and involved activities must be handled in a professional manner and completed within deadlines and budget. In addition, minimizing social and environmental impacts is essential to successful project management.
See also
Highway and parkway
Controlled-access highway
Interstate Highway System
Limited-access highway
Parkway
Strategic Highway Network
Design and consideration
Breakover angle
Degree of curvature
Geometric design of roads
Pavement engineering
Road furniture
Road traffic safety
Traffic barrier
Traffic light
Traffic sign
Transition curve
References
External links: highway design standards
Australia
United Kingdom
AggreBind
United States of America (AASHTO)
Arizona (USA)
California (USA)
Connecticut (USA)
Kentucky (USA)
New York (USA)
New Jersey (USA)
Texas (USA)
Wisconsin (USA)
Further reading
Human Factors for Highway Engineers at Googlebooks
Transportation engineering
Road infrastructure
Highways
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zane%20Grey
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Zane Grey
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Pearl Zane Grey (January 31, 1872 – October 23, 1939) was an American author and dentist. He is known for his popular adventure novels and stories associated with the Western genre in literature and the arts; he idealized the American frontier. Riders of the Purple Sage (1912) was his best-selling book.
In addition to the success of his printed works, his books have second lives and continuing influence adapted for films and television. His novels and short stories were adapted into 112 films, two television episodes, and a television series, Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theater.
Biography
Early life
Pearl Zane Grey was born January 31, 1872, in Zanesville, Ohio. His birth name may have originated from newspaper descriptions of Queen Victoria's mourning clothes as "pearl grey." He was the fourth of five children born to Alice "Allie" Josephine Zane, whose English Quaker immigrant ancestor Robert Zane came to the American colonies in 1673, and her husband, Lewis M. Gray, a dentist. His family changed the spelling of its last name to "Grey" after his birth. Later Grey dropped Pearl and used Zane as his first name.
He grew up in Zanesville, a city founded by his maternal grandfather, John McIntire, who had been given the land by Zane's maternal great-grandfather Ebenezer Zane, an American Revolutionary War patriot.
Both Zane and his brother Romer were active, athletic boys who were enthusiastic baseball players and fishermen. From an early age, he was intrigued by history. Soon, he developed an interest in writing. His early interests contributed to his later writing success. For example, his knowledge of history informed his first three novels, which recounted the heroism of ancestors who fought in the American Revolutionary War.
As a child, Grey frequently engaged in violent brawls, probably related to his father's punishing him with severe beatings. Though irascible and antisocial like his father, Grey was supported by a loving mother and found a father substitute. Muddy Miser was an old man who approved of Grey's love of fishing and writing, and who talked about the advantages of an unconventional life. Despite warnings by Grey's father to steer clear of Miser, the boy spent much time during five formative years in the company of the old man.
Grey was an avid reader of adventure stories such as Robinson Crusoe and the Leatherstocking Tales, as well as dime novels featuring Buffalo Bill and Deadwood Dick. He was enthralled by and crudely copied the great illustrators Howard Pyle and Frederic Remington. He was particularly impressed with Our Western Border, a history of the Ohio frontier that likely inspired his earliest novels. Zane wrote his first story, Jim of the Cave, when he was fifteen. His father tore it to shreds and beat him.
Due to shame from a severe financial setback in 1889 caused by a poor investment, Lewis Grey moved his family from Zanesville and started again in Columbus, Ohio. While his father struggled to re-establish his dental practice, Zane Grey made rural house calls and performed basic extractions, which his father had taught him. The younger Grey practiced until the state board intervened. His brother Romer earned money by driving a delivery wagon. Grey also worked as a part-time usher in a theater and played summer baseball for the Columbus Capitols, with aspirations of becoming a major leaguer. Eventually, Grey was spotted by a baseball scout and received offers from many colleges. Romer also attracted scouts’ attention and went on to have a professional baseball career.
University of Pennsylvania and baseball
Grey chose the University of Pennsylvania on a baseball scholarship, where he studied dentistry and joined Sigma Nu fraternity; he graduated in 1896. When he arrived at Penn, he had to prove himself worthy of a scholarship before receiving it. He rose to the occasion by coming in to pitch against the Riverton club, pitching five scoreless innings and producing a double in the tenth which contributed to the win. The Ivy League was highly competitive and an excellent training ground for future pro baseball players. Grey was a solid hitter and an excellent pitcher who relied on a sharply dropping curveball. When the distance from the pitcher's mound to the plate was lengthened by ten feet in 1894 (primarily to reduce the dominance of Cy Young's pitching), the effectiveness of Grey's pitching suffered. He was re-positioned to the outfield. The short, wiry baseball player remained a campus hero on the strength of his timely hitting.
He was an indifferent scholar, barely achieving a minimum average. Outside class, he spent his time on baseball, swimming, and creative writing, especially poetry. His shy nature and his teetotaling set him apart from other students, and he socialized little. Grey struggled with the idea of becoming a writer or baseball player for his career, but unhappily concluded that dentistry was the practical choice.
During a summer break, while playing "summer nines" in Delphos, Ohio, Grey was charged with, and quietly settled, a paternity suit. His father paid the $133.40 cost and Grey resumed playing summer baseball. He concealed the episode when he returned to Penn.
Grey went on to play minor league baseball with several teams, including the Newark, New Jersey Colts in 1898 and also with the Orange Athletic Club for several years. His brother Romer Carl "Reddy" Grey (known as "R.C." to his family) did better and played professionally in the minor leagues. Zane Grey and Romer Grey played together as teammates for the 1895 Findlay Sluggers of the Interstate League. Romer played a single major league game in 1903 for the Pittsburgh Pirates.
Dentistry
After graduating, Grey established his practice in New York City under the name of Dr. Zane Grey in 1896. It was a competitive area but he wanted to be close to publishers. He began to write in the evening to offset the tedium of his dental practice. He struggled financially and emotionally. Grey was a natural writer but his early efforts were stiff and grammatically weak. Whenever possible, he played baseball with the Orange Athletic Club in New Jersey, a team of former collegiate players that was one of the best amateur teams in the country.
Grey often went camping with his brother R.C. in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, where they fished in the upper Delaware River. When canoeing in 1900, Grey met seventeen-year-old Lina Roth, better known as "Dolly." Dolly came from a family of physicians and was studying to be a schoolteacher.
Marriage and family
After a passionate and intense courtship marked by frequent quarrels, Grey and Dolly married five years later in 1905. Grey suffered bouts of depression, anger, and mood swings, which affected him most of his life. As he described it, "A hyena lying in ambush—that is my black spell! I conquered one mood only to fall prey to the next ... I wandered about like a lost soul or a man who was conscious of imminent death."
During his courtship of Dolly, Grey still saw previous girlfriends and warned her frankly,
But I love to be free. I cannot change my spots. The ordinary man is satisfied with a moderate income, a home, wife, children, and all that. ... But I am a million miles from being that kind of man and no amount of trying will ever do any good ... I shall never lose the spirit of my interest in women.
After they married in 1905, Dolly gave up her teaching career. They moved to a farmhouse at the confluence of the Lackawaxen and Delaware rivers, in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, where Grey's mother and sister joined them. (This house, now preserved and operated as the Zane Grey Museum, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.) Grey finally ceased his dental practice to work full-time on his nascent literary pursuits. Dolly's inheritance provided an initial financial cushion.
Writing career
While Dolly managed Grey's career and raised their three children, including son Romer Zane Grey, over the next two decades Grey often spent months away from the family. He fished, wrote, and spent time with his many mistresses. While Dolly knew of his behavior, she seemed to view it as his handicap rather than a choice. Throughout their life together, he highly valued her management of his career and their family, and her solid emotional support. In addition to her considerable editorial skills, she had good business sense and handled all his contract negotiations with publishers, agents, and movie studios. All his income was split fifty-fifty with her; from her "share," she covered all family expenses. Their considerable correspondence shows evidence of his lasting love for her despite his infidelities and personal emotional turmoil.
The Greys moved to California in 1918. In 1920 they settled in Altadena, California, at a home later known as the '"Zane Grey Estate"'. In Altadena Grey also spent time with his mistress Brenda Montenegro. The two met while hiking Eaton Canyon. Of her he wrote,
I saw her flowing raven mane against the rocks of the canyon. I have seen the red skin of the Navajo, and the olive of the Spaniards, but her ... her skin looked as if her Creator had in that instant molded her just for me. I thought it was an apparition. She seemed to be the embodiment of the West I portray in my books, open and wild. Grey summed up his feelings for the city: "In Altadena, I have found those qualities that make life worth living."
With the help of Dolly's proofreading and copy editing, Grey gradually improved his writing. His first magazine article, "A Day on the Delaware," a human-interest story about a Grey brothers' fishing expedition, was published in the May 1902 issue of Recreation magazine. Elated at selling the article, Grey offered reprints to patients in his waiting room. In writing, Grey found temporary escape from the harshness of his life and his demons. "Realism is death to me. I cannot stand life as it is." By this time, he had given up baseball.
Grey read Owen Wister's great Western novel The Virginian. After studying its style and structure in detail, he decided to write a full-length work. Grey had difficulties in writing his first novel, Betty Zane (1903). When it was rejected by Harper & Brothers, he lapsed into despair. The novel dramatized the heroism of an ancestor, Betty Zane who had saved Fort Henry. He self-published it, perhaps with funds provided by his wife Dolly or his brother R. C.'s wealthy girlfriend Reba Smith. From the beginning, vivid description was the strongest aspect of his writing.
After attending a lecture in New York in 1907 by Charles Jesse "Buffalo" Jones, western hunter and guide who had co-founded Garden City, Kansas, Grey arranged for a mountain lion-hunting trip to the North Rim of the Grand Canyon. He brought along a camera to document his trips and prove his adventures. He also began the habit of taking copious notes, not only of scenery and activities but of dialogue. His first two trips were arduous, but Grey learned much from his compatriot adventurers. He gained the confidence to write convincingly about the American West, its characters, and its landscape. Treacherous river crossings, unpredictable beasts, bone-chilling cold, searing heat, parching thirst, bad water, irascible tempers, and heroic cooperation all became real to him. He wrote, "Surely, of all the gifts that have come to me from contact with the West, this one of sheer love of wildness, beauty, color, grandeur, has been the greatest, the most significant for my work."
Upon returning home in 1909, Grey wrote a new novel, The Last of the Plainsmen, describing the adventures of Buffalo Jones. Harper's editor Ripley Hitchcock rejected it, the fourth work in a row. He told Grey, "I do not see anything in this to convince me you can write either narrative or fiction." Grey wrote dejectedly,
I don't know which way to turn. I cannot decide what to write next. That which I desire to write does not seem to be what the editors want ... I am full of stories and zeal and fire ... yet I am inhibited by doubt, by fear that my feeling for life is false.
The book was later published by the American magazine, Outing, which provided Grey some satisfaction. Grey next wrote a series of magazine articles and juvenile novels.
With the birth of his first child pending, Grey felt compelled to complete his next novel, The Heritage of the Desert. He wrote it in four months in 1910. It quickly became a bestseller. Grey took his next work to Hitchcock again; this time Harper published his work, a historical romance in which Mormon characters were of central importance. Grey continued to write popular novels about Manifest Destiny, the conquest of the Old West, and the behavior of men in elemental conditions.
Two years later Grey produced his best-known book, Riders of the Purple Sage (1912), his all-time best-seller, and one of the most successful Western novels of all time. Hitchcock rejected it, but Grey took his manuscript directly to the vice president of Harper, who accepted it. The novel had a sequel (The Rainbow Trail in 1915), and was filmed five times (in 1918, 1925, 1931, 1941, and 1996; but in later film versions the villains are corrupt judges or lawyers, not polygamous Mormons).
As Zane Grey had become a household name, after that Harper eagerly received all his manuscripts. Other publishers caught on to the commercial potential of the Western novel. Max Brand and Ernest Haycox were among the most notable of other writers of Westerns. Grey's publishers paired his novels with some of the best illustrators of the time, including N. C. Wyeth, Frank Schoonover, Douglas Duer, W. Herbert Dunton, W. H. D. Koerner, and Charles Russell.
Grey had the time and money to engage in his first and greatest passion: fishing. From 1918 until 1932, he was a regular contributor to Outdoor Life magazine. As one of its first celebrity writers, he began to popularize big-game fishing. Several times he went deep-sea fishing in Florida to relax and to write in solitude. Although he commented that "the sea, from which all life springs, has been equally with the desert my teacher and religion", Grey was unable to write a great sea novel. He felt the sea soothed his moods, reduced his depressions, and gained him the opportunity to harvest deeper thoughts:
Over the years, Grey spent part of his time traveling and the rest of the year writing novels and articles. Unlike writers who could write every day, Grey would have dry spells and then sudden bursts of energy, in which he could write as much as 100,000 words in a month. He encountered fans in most places. He visited the Rogue River in Oregon in 1919 for a fishing expedition, and fell in love with it. He returned in the 1920s, eventually setting up a cabin on the lower Rogue River. Grey captured the river's essence in two books: Tales of Freshwater Fishing and Rogue River Feud. Other excursions took him to Washington state and Wyoming.
From 1923 to 1930, he spent a few weeks a year at his cabin on the Mogollon Rim, in Central Arizona. After years of abandonment and decay, the cabin was restored in 1966 by Bill Goettl, a Phoenix air conditioning magnate. He opened it to the public as a free-of-charge museum. The Dude Fire destroyed the cabin in 1990. It was later reconstructed 25 miles away in the town of Payson.
During the 1930s, Grey continued to write, but the Great Depression hurt the publishing industry. His sales fell off, and he found it more difficult to sell serializations. He had avoided making investments that would have been affected by the stock market crash of 1929, and continued to earn royalty income, so he did better than many financially. Nearly half of the film adaptations of his novels were made in the 1930s.
From 1925 to his death in 1939, Grey traveled more and further from his family. He became interested in exploring unspoiled lands, particularly the islands of the South Pacific, New Zealand and Australia. He thought Arizona was beginning to be overrun by tourists and speculators. Near the end of his life, Grey looked into the future and wrote:
Reception by critics
The more books Grey sold, the more the established critics, such as Heywood Broun and Burton Rascoe, attacked him. They claimed his depictions of the West were too fanciful, too violent, and not faithful to the moral realities of the frontier. They thought his characters unrealistic and much larger-than-life. Broun stated that "the substance of any two Zane Grey books could be written upon the back of a postage stamp."
T. K. Whipple praised a typical Grey novel as a modern version of the ancient Beowulf saga,
"a battle of passions with one another and with the will, a struggle of love and hate, or remorse and revenge, of blood, lust, honor, friendship, anger, grief—all of a grand scale and all incalculable and mysterious." But he also criticized Grey's writing, "His style, for example, has the stiffness which comes from an imperfect mastery of the medium. It lacks fluency and facility."
Grey based his work in his own varied first-hand experience, supported by careful note-taking, and considerable research. Despite his great popular success and fortune, Grey read the reviews and sometimes became paralyzed by negative emotions after critical ones.
In 1923, a reviewer said Grey's "moral ideas ... [were] decidedly askew." Grey reacted with a 20-page treatise, "My Answer to the Critics." He defended his intentions to produce great literature in the setting of the Old West. He suggested that critics should ask his readers what they think of his books, and noted actor and fan John Barrymore as an example. Dolly warned him against publishing the treatise, and he retreated from a public confrontation.
His novel The Vanishing American (1925), first serialized in The Ladies' Home Journal in 1922, prompted a heated debate. People recognized its Navajo hero as patterned after Jim Thorpe, a great Native American athlete. Grey portrayed the struggle of the Navajo to preserve their identity and culture against corrupting influences of the white government and of missionaries. This viewpoint enraged religious groups. Grey contended, "I have studied the Navaho Indians for 12 years. I know their wrongs. The missionaries sent out there are almost everyone mean, vicious, weak, immoral, useless men." To have the book published, Grey agreed to some structural changes. With this book, Grey completed the most productive period of his writing career, having laid out most major themes, character types, and settings.
His Wanderer of the Wasteland is a thinly disguised autobiography. One of his books, "Tales of the Angler's El Dorado, New Zealand," helped establish the Bay of Islands in New Zealand as a premier game fishing area. Several of his later writings (e.g. Rangle River) were based in Australia.
Fishing
Grey co-founded the "Porpoise Club" with his friend, Robert H. Davis of Munsey's Magazine, to popularize the sport of hunting of dolphins and porpoises. They made their first catch off Seabright, New Jersey, on September 21, 1912, where they harpooned and reeled in a bottlenose dolphin.
Grey's son Loren claims in the introduction to Tales of Tahitian Waters that Zane Grey fished on average 300 days a year through his adult life. Grey and his brother R.C. were frequent visitors to Long Key, Florida, where they helped to establish the Long Key Fishing Club, built by Henry Morrison Flagler. Zane Grey was its president from 1917 to 1920. He pioneered the fishing of Boohoo fish (sailfish). Zane Grey Creek was named for him.
Grey indulged his interest in fishing with visits to Australia and New Zealand. He first visited New Zealand in 1926 and caught several large fish of great variety, including a mako shark, a ferocious fighter which presented a new challenge. Grey established a base at Otehei Bay, Urupukapuka Island in the Bay of Islands, which became a destination for the rich and famous. He wrote many articles in international sporting magazines highlighting the uniqueness of New Zealand fishing, which has produced heavy-tackle world records for the major billfish, striped marlin, black marlin, blue marlin and broadbill. A lodge and camp were established at Otehei Bay in 1927 called the Zane Grey Sporting Club. He held numerous world records during this time and invented the teaser, a hookless bait that is still used today to attract fish. Grey made three additional fishing trips to New Zealand. The second was January to April 1927, the third December 1928 to March 1929, and the last from December 1932 to February 1933.
Grey fished out of Wedgeport, Nova Scotia, for many summers.
Grey also helped establish deep-sea sport fishing in New South Wales, Australia, particularly in Bermagui, which is famous for marlin fishing. Patron of the Bermagui Sport Fishing Association for 1936 and 1937, Grey set a number of world records, and wrote of his experiences in his book An American Angler in Australia.
From 1928 on, Grey was a frequent visitor to Tahiti. He fished the surrounding waters several months at a time and maintained a permanent fishing camp at Vairao. He claimed that these were the most difficult waters he had ever fished, but from these waters he also took some of his most important records, such as the first marlin over .
Grey had built a getaway home in Santa Catalina Island, California, which once served as the Zane Grey Pueblo Hotel. He served as president of Catalina's exclusive fishing club, the Tuna Club of Avalon.
Death
Zane Grey died of heart failure on October 23, 1939, aged 67 at his home in Altadena, California. He was interred at the Lackawaxen and Union Cemetery, Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania.
Legacy
Literary works
Grey became one of the first millionaire authors.
Zane Grey was a major force in shaping the myths of the Old West; his books and stories were adapted into other media, such as film and TV productions. He was the author of more than 90 books, some published posthumously or based on serials originally published in magazines. His total book sales exceed 40 million.
Grey wrote not only Westerns, but two hunting books, six children's books, three baseball books, and eight fishing books. Many of them became bestsellers. It is estimated that he wrote more than nine million words in his career. From 1917 to 1926, Grey was in the top ten best-seller list nine times, which required sales of more than 100,000 copies each time. Even after his death, Harper had a stockpile of his manuscripts and continued to publish a new title each year until 1963. During the 1940s and afterward, as Grey's books were reprinted as paperbacks, his sales exploded.
Erle Stanley Gardner, prolific author of mystery novels and the Perry Mason series, said of Grey:
Grey was President Dwight D. Eisenhower's favorite writer.
Hollywood and other media
Grey started his association with Hollywood when William Fox bought the rights to Riders of the Purple Sage for $2,500 in 1916. The ascending arc of Grey's career matched that of the motion picture industry. It eagerly adapted Western stories to the screen practically from its inception, with Bronco Billy Anderson becoming the first major western star. Legendary director John Ford was then a young stage hand and Tom Mix, who had been a real cowhand, was defining the persona of the film cowboy. The Grey family moved to California to be closer to the film industry and to enable Grey to fish in the Pacific.
After his first two books were adapted to the screen, Grey formed his own motion picture company. This enabled him to control production values and faithfulness to his books. After seven films he sold his company to Jesse Lasky who was a partner of the founder of Paramount Pictures. Paramount made a number of movies based on Grey's writings and hired him as advisor. Many of his films were shot at locations described in his books.
In 1936 Grey appeared as himself in a feature film shot in Australia, White Death (1936). At the same time he provided a story that was filmed as Rangle River (1936).
Grey became disenchanted by the commercial exploitation and copyright infringement of his works. He felt his stories and characters were diluted by being adapted to film. Nearly 50 of his novels were converted into more than 100 Western movies. Shortly after Grey's death, the success of Fritz Lang's Western Union (1941), a film based on one of his books, helped bring about a resurgence in Hollywood westerns. Its costars were Randolph Scott and Robert Young. The period of the 1940s and 1950s included the great works of John Ford, who successfully used the settings of Grey's novels in Arizona and Utah.
The success of Grey's The Lone Star Ranger (the novel was adapted into four movies: 1914, 1919, 1930 and 1942, and a comic book in 1949) and King of the Royal Mounted (popular as a series of Big Little Books and comics, later turned into a 1936 film and three film serials) inspired two radio series by George Trendle (WXYZ, Detroit). Later these were adapted again for television, forming the series The Lone Ranger and Challenge of the Yukon (Sgt. Preston of the Yukon on TV). More of Grey's work was featured in adapted form on the Zane Grey Show, which ran on the Mutual Broadcasting System for five months in the 1940s, and the "Zane Grey Western Theatre," which had a five-year run of 145 episodes.
Many famous actors got their start in films based on Zane Grey books. They included Gary Cooper, Randolph Scott, William Powell, Wallace Beery, Richard Arlen, Buster Crabbe, Shirley Temple, and Fay Wray. Victor Fleming, later director of Gone with the Wind, and Henry Hathaway, who later directed True Grit, both learned their craft on Grey films.
Honors and awards
The National Park Service maintains his former home in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania as the Zane Grey Museum, a part of the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River area.
Zanesville, Ohio, has a museum named in his honor, the National Road-Zane Grey Museum.
Zane Grey Terrace, a small residential street in the hillsides of Altadena, is named in his honor.
The Zane Grey Tourist Park in Bermagui, Australia.
"Zane Greys'" a headland at the western end of Matapaua Bay, New Zealand.
The Zane Grey Continuation School is located adjacent to Reseda High School in Reseda, Los Angeles, California.
Zane Grey room is located at the Sigma Nu – Beta Rho house in honor of where Zane Grey lived for part of his time at the University of Pennsylvania.
Wilder Ranch State Park near Santa Cruz, California named the Zane Grey Trail after the author. Zane Grey briefly worked as a ranch hand at Wilder Ranch.
Zane Grey Roadless Area (58,000 acres), along the Rogue River, is managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in Oregon, USA.
In 1977, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
Works
Works published posthumously after 1939 include original novels, sequels to earlier novels, and compilations and revisions of previously published novels. All western works were translated from English into Spanish by Editorial Juventud in 1959 for CLASICOS Y MODERNOS collection.
Books
Films
Between 1911 and 1996, 112 films were adapted from the novels and stories of Zane Grey. In addition, three television series included episodes adapted from his work, including Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre (1956–58).
Fighting Blood (1911 short) novel
Graft (1915) story
The Border Legion (1918) novel
Riders of the Purple Sage (1918) novel
The Rainbow Trail (1918) story
The Light of the Western Stars (1918) novel
The Lone Star Ranger (1919) novel
The Last of the Duanes (1919) story
Desert Gold (1919)
Riders of the Dawn (1920) novel The Desert of Wheat
Days of Daring (1920 short) novel In the Days of Thundering Herd
The U.P. Trail (1920) novel
Man of the Forest (1921) novel
The Mysterious Rider (1921) novel
The Last Trail (1921) novel
When Romance Rides (1922) novel Wildfire
Golden Dreams (1922) story
To the Last Man (1923) novel
The Lone Star Ranger (1923) novel
The Call of the Canyon (1923) story
Heritage of the Desert (1924) novel
Wanderer of the Wasteland (1924) novel
The Border Legion (1924) novel
The Last of the Duanes (1924) story
The Thundering Herd (1925) novel
Riders of the Purple Sage (1925) novel
Code of the West (1925) novel
The Rainbow Trail (1925) story
The Light of Western Stars (1925) novel
Wild Horse Mesa
The Vanishing American (1925) novel
Desert Gold (1926) novel
Born to the West (1926) story
Forlorn River (1926) novel
Man of the Forest (1926) novel
The Last Trail (1927) novel
The Mysterious Rider (1927) novel
Drums of the Desert (1927) novel Captives of the Desert
Lightning (1927) story
Nevada (1927) novel
Open Range (1927) novel Valley of Wild Horses
Under the Tonto Rim (1928) novel
The Vanishing Pioneer (1928) novel Golden Dreams
The Water Hole (1928) story
Avalanche (1928) novel
Sunset Pass (1929) novel
Stairs of Sand (1929) novel
The Lone Star Ranger (1930) novel
The Light of Western Stars (1930) novel
The Border Legion (1930) novel
The Last of the Duanes (1930) novel
El último de los Vargas (1930) novel
Fighting Caravans (1931) novel Wagon Wheels
Riders of the Purple Sage (1931) novel
The Rainbow Trail (1932) story
Heritage of the Desert (1932) story
The Golden West (1932) story
Wild Horse Mesa
End of the Trail (1932) story
Robbers' Roost (1932) novel
The Woman Accused (1933) story Liberty Magazine along with 7 other authors
Smoke Lightning (1933) novel Canyon Walls
The Thundering Herd (1933) story
Under the Tonto Rim (1933) novel The Bee Hunter
Sunset Pass (1933) novel
Life in the Raw (1933) novel
The Last Trail (1933) novel
Man of the Forest (1933) novel
To the Last Man (1933) story
The Last Round-Up (1934) novel The Border Legion
Wagon Wheels (1934) novel Fighting Caravans
The Dude Ranger (1934) story
West of the Pecos (1934) novel
Home on the Range (1935) novel Code of the West
Rocky Mountain Mystery (1935) novel Golden Dreams
Wanderer of the Wasteland (1935) novel
Thunder Mountain (1935) novel
Nevada (1935) novel
Drift Fence (1936) novel
Desert Gold (1936) novel
The Arizona Raiders (1936) novel Raiders of Spanish Peaks
King of the Royal Mounted (1936) story
End of the Trail (1936) novel Outlaws of Palouse
Arizona Mahoney (1936) novel Stairs of Sand
Rangle River (1936) novel
Forlorn River (1937) novel
Roll Along, Cowboy (1937) novel The Dude Ranger
Thunder Trail (1937) story "Arizona Ames"
Born to the West (1937) novel
The Mysterious Rider (1938) characters
Heritage of the Desert (1939) novel
The Light of Western Stars (1940) novel
Knights of the Range (1940) story
The Border Legion (1940) novel
Western Union (1941) novel
Last of the Duanes (1941) story
Riders of the Purple Sage (1941) novel
Lone Star Ranger (1942) novel
Nevada (1944) novel
Wanderer of the Wasteland (1945) novel
West of the Pecos (1945) novel
Sunset Pass (1946) novel
Code of the West (1947) novel
Thunder Mountain (1947) novel
Gunfighters (1947) novel Twin Sombreros
Under the Tonto Rim (1947) novel
Wild Horse Mesa
Red Canyon (1949) novel Wildfire
Robbers' Roost (1955) story
The Vanishing American (1955) novel
Chevron Hall of Stars (1956, TV) story "The Lone Hand"
Schlitz Playhouse of Stars (1956 TV) story "A Tale of Wells Fargo"
The Maverick Queen (1956) novel
Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre (1956–58 TV) stories for 6 episodes
Riders of the Purple Sage (1996, TV film) novel
See also
Bret Harte
Rex Beach
James Oliver Curwood
Jack London
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Sources
Works by Zane Grey at Freeread
Archival Materials
Zane Grey papers, MSS 8316 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University
Joe Wheeler collection on Zane Grey, MSS 7641 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University
Guide to Zane Grey's papers at the University of Oregon
Zane Grey Collection. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke RareBook and Manuscript Library.
Other
Western American Literature Journal: Zane Grey
Zane Grey's West Society
Zane Grey Cabin
Zane Grey Museum in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania
National Road/Zane Grey Museum Norwich, Ohio
King of the Royal Mounted BLBs and Comics
Zane Grey biography at Ohio History Central
Zane Grey Incorporated
1872 births
1939 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
American Western (genre) novelists
American dentists
American film studio executives
American fishers
American male novelists
American people of English descent
Angling writers
Film producers from Ohio
Findlay Sluggers players
Novelists from Ohio
Penn Quakers baseball players
People from Zanesville, Ohio
University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine alumni
|
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205598
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20MacBride%20Allen
|
Roger MacBride Allen
|
Roger MacBride Allen (born September 26, 1957) is an American science fiction author. He was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut and grew up in Washington, D.C., graduating from Boston University in 1979. His father is American historian and author Thomas B. Allen.
Bibliography
Allies and Aliens
The Torch of Honor (1985)
Rogue Powers (1986)
Allies and Aliens (1995) collects The Torch of Honor and Rogue Powers
Hunted Earth
The Ring of Charon (1990)
The Shattered Sphere (1994)
The Falling World (TBA)
Caliban
Isaac Asimov's Caliban (1993)
Isaac Asimov's Inferno (1994)
Isaac Asimov's Utopia (1996)
Chronicles of Solace
The Depths of Time (2000)
The Ocean of Years (2002)
The Shores of Tomorrow (2003)
BSI Starside
BSI Starside: The Cause of Death (2006)
BSI Starside: Death Sentence (2007)
BSI Starside: Final Inquiries (2008)
Corellian (Star Wars)
Star Wars: Ambush at Corellia (1995)
Star Wars: Assault at Selonia (1995)
Star Wars: Showdown at Centerpoint (1995)
Stand-alone novels
Orphan of Creation (1988)
Farside Cannon (1988)
The War Machine: Crisis of Empire III (1989), with David Drake
Supernova (1991), with Eric Kotani
The Modular Man (1992), accompanying the novel is an essay by Isaac Asimov "Intelligent Robots and Cybernetic Organisms."
Historical
Time Capsule: The Book of Record (2010) with Thomas B. Allen
Mr. Lincoln's High Tech War (2008) with Thomas B. Allen
See also
Political ideas in science fiction
Religious ideas in science fiction
References
External links
1957 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Boston University alumni
Writers from Bridgeport, Connecticut
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Connecticut
|
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205599
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20R.%20Bourne
|
Stephen R. Bourne
|
Stephen Richard "Steve" Bourne (born 7 January 1944) is an English computer scientist based in the United States for most of his career. He is well known as the author of the Bourne shell (sh), which is the foundation for the standard command-line interfaces to Unix.
Biography
Bourne has a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree in mathematics from King's College London, England. He has a Diploma in Computer Science and a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in mathematics from Trinity College, Cambridge. Subsequently, he worked on an ALGOL 68 compiler at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory (see ALGOL 68C). He also worked on CAMAL, a system for algebraic manipulation used for lunar theory calculations.
After the University of Cambridge, Bourne spent nine years at Bell Labs with the Seventh Edition Unix team. Besides the Bourne shell, he wrote the adb debugger and The Unix System, the second book on the topic, intended for general readers.
After Bell Labs, Bourne worked in senior engineering management positions at Silicon Graphics, Digital Equipment Corporation, Sun Microsystems, and Cisco Systems.
He was involved with developing international standards in programming and informatics, as a member of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi, which specified, maintains, and supports the programming languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68.
From 2000 to 2002 he was president of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). For his work on computing, Bourne was awarded the ACM's Presidential Award in 2008 and was made a Fellow of the organization in 2005. He is also a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
Bourne was chief technology officer at Icon Venture Partners, a venture capital firm based in Menlo Park, California through 2014. He is also chairperson of the editorial advisory board for ACM Queue, a magazine he helped found when he was president of the ACM.
References
External links
Living people
British computer scientists
American computer scientists
Unix people
Alumni of King's College London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Members of the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery
British expatriates in the United States
Silicon Graphics people
Digital Equipment Corporation people
Sun Microsystems people
Programming language designers
Computer science writers
Cellular automatists
1944 births
Chief technology officers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Augusta%20Ward
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Mary Augusta Ward
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Mary Augusta Ward (née Arnold; 11 June 1851 – 24 March 1920) was a British novelist who wrote under her married name as Mrs Humphry Ward.
She worked to improve education for the poor and she became the founding President of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League.
Early life
Mary Augusta Arnold was born in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, into a prominent intellectual family of writers and educationalists. Mary was the daughter of Tom Arnold, a professor of literature, and Julia Sorell. Her uncle was the poet Matthew Arnold and her grandfather Thomas Arnold, the famous headmaster of Rugby School. Her sister Julia founded a school and married Leonard Huxley and their sons were Julian and Aldous Huxley. The Arnolds and the Huxleys were an important influence on British intellectual life.
Mary's father Tom Arnold was appointed inspector of schools in Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and commenced his role on 15 January 1850. Tom Arnold was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 12 January 1856, which made him so unpopular in his job (and with his wife) that he resigned and left for England with his family in July 1856. Mary Arnold had her fifth birthday the month before they left, and had no further connection with Tasmania. On arriving in England Tom Arnold was offered the chair of English literature at the contemplated Catholic university, Dublin, but this was only ratified after some delay.
Mary spent much of her time with her grandmother. She was educated at various boarding schools (from ages 11 to 15, in Shifnal, Shropshire) and at 16 returned to live with her parents at Oxford, where her father had a lecturership in history. Her schooldays formed the basis for one of her later novels, Marcella (1894).
On 6 April 1872, not yet 21 years old, Mary married Humphry Ward, a fellow and tutor of Brasenose College, and also a writer and editor. For the next nine years she continued to live at Oxford, at 17 Bradmore Road, where she is commemorated by a blue plaque. She had by now made herself familiar with French, German, Italian, Latin and Greek. She was developing an interest in social and educational service and making tentative efforts at literature. She added Spanish to her languages, and in 1877 undertook the writing of a large number of the lives of early Spanish ecclesiastics for the Dictionary of Christian Biography edited by Dr William Smith and Dr. Henry Wace. Her translation of Amiel's Journal appeared in 1885.
Ward supported the opening of Oxford University to female students. She was a member of the Lectures for Women Committee, which met from 1873 and organised courses of lectures with an optional final examination for women. With other members of the committee she formed the Association for the Education of Women, which supported the opening of halls for women students in Oxford.
Ward became very involved in the negotiations surrounding the foundation of Somerville College in Oxford in 1879. She suggested that the new institution should be named after Mary Somerville. Ward was appointed as the first secretary of the Somerville Council and prepared for the arrival of new students despite being eight months pregnant when Somerville opened in October 1879.
Career
Ward began her career writing articles for Macmillan's Magazine while working on a book for children that was published in 1881 under the title Milly and Olly. This was followed in 1884 by a more ambitious, though slight, study of modern life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an actress. Ward's novels contained strong religious subject matter relevant to Victorian values she herself practised. Her popularity spread beyond Great Britain to the United States. Her book Lady Rose's Daughter was the best-selling novel in the United States in 1903, as was The Marriage of William Ashe in 1905. Ward's most popular novel by far was the religious "novel with a purpose" Robert Elsmere, which portrayed the emotional conflict between the young pastor Elsmere and his wife, whose over-narrow orthodoxy brings her religious faith and their mutual love to a terrible impasse; but it was the detailed discussion of the "higher criticism" of the day, and its influence on Christian belief, rather than its power as a piece of dramatic fiction, that gave the book its exceptional vogue. It started, as no academic work could have done, a popular discussion on historic and essential Christianity.
Ward helped establish an organisation for working and teaching among the poor. She also worked as an educator in the residential settlement movements she founded. Mary Ward's declared aim was "equalisation" in society, and she established educational settlements first at Marchmont Hall and later at what is now called Mary Ward House on Tavistock Place in Bloomsbury. This was originally called the Passmore Edwards Settlement, after its benefactor John Passmore Edwards, but after Ward's death it became the Mary Ward Settlement. It is now known as the Mary Ward Centre and continues as an adult education college; affiliated with it is the Mary Ward Legal Centre.
She was also a significant campaigner against women getting the vote. In the summer of 1908 she was approached by George Nathaniel Curzon and William Cremer, who asked her to be the founding president of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League. Ward took on the job, creating and editing the Anti-Suffrage Review. She published a large number of articles on the subject, while two of her novels, The Testing of Diana Mallory and Delia Blanchflower, were used as platforms to criticise the suffragettes. In a 1909 article in The Times, Ward wrote that constitutional, legal, financial, military, and international problems were problems only men could solve. However, she came to promote the idea of women having a voice in local government and other rights that the men's anti-suffrage movement would not tolerate. Julia Stephen who was Virginia Woolf's mother recommended Florence Nightingale, Octavia Hill and Ward as good role models for her daughters.
During World War I, Ward was asked by former United States President Theodore Roosevelt to write a series of articles to explain to Americans what was happening in Britain. Her work involved visiting the trenches on the Western Front, and resulted in three books, England's Effort - Six Letters to an American Friend (1916), Towards the Goal (1917), and Fields of Victory (1919).
Ward was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1919 New Year Honours.
Diarist (anonymous)
Throughout the 1880s Mary kept a personal diary of social and literary stories of the people she knew and met. She preferred to conduct her observations anonymously, and the diary was never published in her lifetime. Her reminiscences were heavily drawn upon by her friend Lucy B. Walford in a 1912 memoir in which she is referred to simply as "Mary". Shortly after Mary's death in 1921 the diary was published, still anonymously, as Echoes of the 'Eighties: Leaves from the Diary of a Victorian Lady. The identification of Mary Ward as the author of the diary was unknown until 2018 when an online article, about the diary's description of Oscar Wilde wearing a coat in the shape of a cello, cross-referenced her stories with corresponding information in the Walford memoir.
Death
Mary Augusta Ward died in London and was interred at Aldbury in Hertfordshire, near her beloved country home Stocks.
Foundations, organisations and settlements
Evening Play Centre Committee
Mary Ward Centre, formerly the Passmore Edwards Settlement
Women's National Anti-Suffrage League
Associated activists in social change
Dame Grace Kimmins
Selected works
Fiction
(1881). Milly and Olly.
(1884). Miss Bretherton.
(1888). Robert Elsmere.
(1892). The History of David Grieve (3 vols.)
(1894). Marcella (3 vols.)
(1895). The Story of Bessie Costrell.
(1896). Sir George Tressady.
(1898). Helbeck of Bannisdale.
(1900). Eleanor.
(1903). Lady Rose's Daughter (dramatised as Agatha in 1905).
(1905). The Marriage of William Ashe.
(1906). Fenwick's Career.
(1908). Diana Mallory (published in America as The Testing of Diana Malory).
(1909). Daphne, or 'Marriage à la Mode' (published in America as Marriage à la Mode).
(1910). Canadian Born (published in America as Lady Merton, Colonist).
(1911). The Case of Richard Meynell.
(1913). The Mating of Lydia.
(1913). The Coryston Family.
(1914). Delia Blanchflower.
(1915). Eltham House.
(1915). A Great Success.
(1916). Lady Connie.
(1917). Missing.
(1918). The War and Elizabeth (published in America as Elizabeth's Campaign).
(1919). Cousin Philip (published in America as Helena).
(1920). Harvest.
Non-fiction
(1891). Address to Mark the Opening of University Hall.
(1894). Unitarians and the Future: Essex Hall Lecture.
(1898). New Forms of Christian Education: An Address to the University Hall Guild.
(1906). The Play-time of the Poor.
(1907). William Thomas Arnold, Journalist and Historian (with C. E. Montague).
(1910). Letters to my Neighbor on the Present Election.
(1916). England's Effort, Six Letters to an American Friend.
(1917). Towards the Goal (with an Introduction by Theodore Roosevelt.)
(1918). A Writer's Recollections.
(1919). Fields of Victory.
Selected articles
(1883). "French Souvenirs," Macmillan's Magazine 48, pp. 141–153.
(1883). "M. Renan's Autobiography," Macmillan's Magazine 48, pp. 213–223.
(1883). "Francis Garnier," Macmillan's Magazine 48, pp. 309–320.
(1883). "A Swiss Peasant Novelist," Macmillan's Magazine 48, pp. 453–464.
(1884). "The Literature of Introspection," Part II, Macmillan's Magazine 49, pp. 190–201, 268–278.
(1884). "A New Edition of Keats," Macmillan's Magazine 49, pp. 330–340.
(1884). "M. Renan's New Volume," Macmillan's Magazine 50, pp. 161–170.
(1884). "Recent Fiction in England and France," Macmillan's Magazine 50, pp. 250–260.
(1885). "Style and Miss Austen," Macmillan's Magazine 51, pp. 84–91.
(1885). "French Views on English Writers," Macmillan's Magazine 52, pp. 16–25.
(1885). "Marius the Epicurean," Macmillan's Magazine 52, pp. 132–139.
(1889). "The New Reformation: A Dialogue," The Nineteenth Century 25, pp. 454–480.
(1899). "The New Reformation II: A Conscience Clause for the Laity," The Nineteenth Century 46, pp. 654–672.
(1908). "Some Suffragist Arguments," Educational Review 36, pp. 398–404.
(1908). "Why I Do Not Believe in Woman Suffrage," Ladies' Home Journal 25, p. 15.
(1908). "Women's Anti-Suffrage Movement," Nineteenth Century and After 64, pp. 343–352.
(1917). "Some Thoughts on Charlotte Brontë," In: Charlotte Brontë, 1816-1916: A Centenary Memorial. London: T. Fisher Unwin, pp. 11–38.
(1918). "Let Women Say! An Appeal to the House of Lords," The Nineteenth Century and After 83, pp. 47–59.
Miscellany
(1879–1889). Personal diary. Published (1921) as Echoes of the 'eighties : leaves from the diary of a Victorian lady. London: Eveleigh Nash Co. Ltd.
(1899). Joubert: A Selection from His Thoughts; with a Preface by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
(1899–1900). The Life and Work of the Sisters Brontë. 7 vols.; with an Introduction by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
(1901). The Case for the Factory Acts, Ed. by Beatrice Webb; with a Preface by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
(1908). The Forewarners: A Novel, by Giovanni Cena; with a Preface by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
(1911).
(1917). Six Women and the Invasion, by Gabrielle & Marguerite Yerta; with a Preface by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
(1920). Evening Play Centres for Children, by Janet Penrose Trevelyan; with a Preface by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
Translations
(1885). Amiel's Journal: The Journal Intime (2 vols.)
Collected works
(1909–12). The Writings of Mrs Humphry Ward. Houghton Mifflin (16 vols.)
(1911–12). The Writings of Mrs Humphry Ward. Westmoreland Edition (16 vols.)
Filmography
The Marriage of William Ashe, directed by Cecil Hepworth (UK, 1916, based on the novel The Marriage of William Ashe)
Missing, directed by James Young (1918, based on the novel Missing)
Lady Rose's Daughter, directed by Hugh Ford (1920, based on the novel Lady Rose's Daughter)
The Marriage of William Ashe, directed by Edward Sloman (1921, based on the novel The Marriage of William Ashe)
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Bennett, Arnold (1917). "Mrs Humphry Ward's Heroines." In: Books and Persons. New York: George H. Doran, pp. 47–52.
Bensick, Carol M. (1999). "'Partly Sympathy and Partly Rebellion': Mary Ward, the Scarlet Letter, and Hawthorne." In: Hawthorne and Women: Engendering and Expanding the Hawthorne Tradition. Ed. John L. Ido, Jr. and Melinda M. Ponder. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, pp. 159–167.
Bergonzi, Bernard (2001). "Aldous Huxley and Aunt Mary." In: Aldous Huxley: Between East and West. Ed. C. C. Barfoot. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi, pp. 9–17.
Bindslev, Anne M. (1985). Mrs. Humphry Ward: A Study in Late-Victorian Feminine Consciousness and Creative Expression. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Boughton, Gillian E. (2005). "Dr. Arnold’s Granddaughter: Mary Augusta Ward". In: The Child Writer from Austen to Woolf. Ed. Christine Alexander and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 237–53.
Collister, Peter (1980). "Mrs Humphry Ward, Vernon Lee, and Henry James," The Review of English Studies, New Series, Vol. 31, No. 123, pp. 315–321.
Courtney, W.L. (1904). "Mrs Humphry Ward." In: The Feminine Note in Fiction. London: Chapman & Hall, pp. 3–41.
Cross, Wilbur L. (1899). "Philosophical Realism: Mrs. Humphry Ward and Thomas Hardy." In: The Development of the English Novel. New York: The Macmillan Company, pp. 268–280.
Fawkes, Alfred (1913). "The Ideas of Mrs. Humphry Ward." In: Studies in Modernism. London: Smith, Elder & Co., pp. 447–468.
Gardiner, A.G. (1914). "Mrs. Humphry Ward." In: Pillars of Society. London: James Nisbett & Co., Limited.
Hamel, F. (1903). "The Scenes of Mrs. Humphry Ward's Novels," The Bookman, pp. 144–152.
James, Henry (1893). "Mrs. Humphry Ward." In: Essays in London and Elsewhere. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers.
Olcott, Charles S. (1914). "The Country of Mrs. Humphry Ward." In: The Lure of the Camera. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Smith, Esther Marian Greenwell (1980). Mrs. Humphry Ward. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
Sutherland, John (1988). "A Girl in the Bodleian: Mary Ward's Room of Her Own," Browning Institute Studies, Vol. 16, Victorian Learning, pp. 169–179.
Trevelyan, Janet Penrose (1923). The Life of Mrs. Humphry Ward. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company.
Walters, J. Stuart (1912). Mrs. Humphry Ward: Her Work and Influence. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.
External links
Works by Mary Augusta Ward, at Hathi Trust
Ward [née Arnold], Mary Augusta
Mrs Humphry Ward - Victorian Fiction Research Guide
Ward at the Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography
Mary Augusta Ward at The Victorian Web
Works by Ward at The Victorian Women Writers Project
Mary Ward Centre
Women's National Anti-Suffrage League
Finding aid to Mary A. (Mrs. Humphry) Ward papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
Mrs. Humphry Ward Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Mrs. Humphry Ward Papers, Special Collections, The Claremont Colleges Library, Claremont, California.
1851 births
1920 deaths
19th-century English novelists
19th-century English women writers
20th-century English women writers
20th-century English novelists
Victorian novelists
Victorian women writers
Huxley family
People from Hobart
English women novelists
English Unitarians
Female critics of feminism
Anti-suffragists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Pseudonymous women writers
Somerville College, Oxford
19th-century pseudonymous writers
20th-century pseudonymous writers
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Moore
|
George Moore
|
George Moore may refer to:
Business
George Moore (philanthropist) (1806–1876), English merchant and philanthropist
George Moore (businessman) (1871–1947), New Zealand Salvation Army officer and businessman
George S. Moore (1905–2000), chairman of Citigroup, 1967–1970
Entertainment
George Moore (novelist) (1852–1933), George Augustus Moore, Irish novelist
George Henry Moore (author) (1823–1892), American writer and librarian
George Washington Moore (1820–1909), New York-born British music hall impresario
George Moore (radio presenter), Australian radio DJ, announcer and host
George N. Moore (1844–?), early photographer in the Pacific Northwest
Military
George F. Moore (general) (1887–1949), United States Army general
George G. Moore (1844–1925), American Civil War soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
George Moore (Medal of Honor) (1837–1904), Union Navy sailor and Medal of Honor recipient
George Davis Moore (1867–1947), American general
Politics
George Moore (SHK) (1709–1787), Manx politician
George Moore (Dublin MP) (c. 1779–?), Member of Parliament for Dublin City, 1826–1831
George Fletcher Moore (1798–1886), Attorney-General of Western Australia
George Henry Moore (politician) (1811–1870), Irish landowner, politician and supporter of tenant rights
George Moore (1811–1871), landowner and High Sheriff of Derbyshire
George DeGraw Moore (1822–1891), American politician and jurist
George Moore (mayor) (1845–1916), businessman and politician in Ontario, Canada
George F. Moore (lieutenant governor) (1861–1938), Democratic politician from Idaho
George H. Moore (1871–1958), Los Angeles city councilman, 1943–1951
George Dunbar Moore (1893–1979), Australian admiral and diplomat
George Curtis Moore (1925–1973), American diplomat
Religion and philosophy
George Moore (priest) (died 1807), Archdeacon of Cornwall
George Foot Moore (1851–1931), Asian scholar, historian of religion, Presbyterian minister
G. E. Moore (George Edward Moore, 1873–1958), British philosopher
George Moore, a leading character in Tom Stoppard's 1972 play Jumpers
Science
George Moore (physician) (1803–1880), physician, author, grandfather of G. E. Moore
George E. Moore (1920–2008), American doctor and cancer research
George Thomas Moore (1871–1956), botanist
Sports
George Moore (cricketer) (1820–1916), Australian cricketer
George Moore (footballer) (1884–?), English footballer for Birmingham
George Moore (fencer) (1906–1977), British Olympic fencer
George Moore (pentathlete) (1918–2014), American modern pentathlete
George Moore (jockey) (1923–2008), Australian Hall of Fame jockey
Stanley Moore (cricketer) (1886–1948), Australian cricketer, born George Stanley Moore
George Moore (rugby league), Australian rugby player
Other
George Moore (judge) (1878–1962), Missouri attorney and United States federal judge
George F. Moore (disambiguation)
George Henry Moore (runholder) (1812–1905), sheep station manager
George W. Moore, billiards champion
See also
George Raymond Dallas Moor (1896–1918), VC recipient
George More (1553–1632), MP
|
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] |
205615
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxobacteria
|
Myxobacteria
|
The myxobacteria ("slime bacteria") are a group of bacteria that predominantly live in the soil and feed on insoluble organic substances. The myxobacteria have very large genomes relative to other bacteria, e.g. 9–10 million nucleotides except for Anaeromyxobacter and Vulgatibacter. One species of myxobacteria, Minicystis rosea, has the largest known bacterial genome with over 16 million nucleotides. The second largest is another myxobacteria Sorangium cellulosum. Myxobacteria are included among the delta group of proteobacteria, a large taxon of Gram-negative forms.
Myxobacteria can move by gliding. They typically travel in swarms (also known as wolf packs), containing many cells kept together by intercellular molecular signals. Individuals benefit from aggregation as it allows accumulation of the extracellular enzymes that are used to digest food; this in turn increases feeding efficiency. Myxobacteria produce a number of biomedically and industrially useful chemicals, such as antibiotics, and export those chemicals outside the cell.
Myxobacteria are used to study the polysaccharide production in gram-negative bacteria like the model Myxococcus xanthus which have four different mechanisms of polysaccharide secretion and where a new Wzx/Wzy mechanism producing a new polysaccharide was identified in 2020.
Myxobacteria are also good models to study the multicellularity in the bacterial world.
Life cycle
When nutrients are scarce, myxobacterial cells aggregate into fruiting bodies (not to be confused with those in fungi), a process long-thought to be mediated by chemotaxis but now considered to be a function of a form of contact-mediated signaling. These fruiting bodies can take different shapes and colors, depending on the species. Within the fruiting bodies, cells begin as rod-shaped vegetative cells, and develop into rounded myxospores with thick cell walls. These myxospores, analogous to spores in other organisms, are more likely to survive until nutrients are more plentiful. The fruiting process is thought to benefit myxobacteria by ensuring that cell growth is resumed with a group (swarm) of myxobacteria, rather than as isolated cells. Similar life cycles have developed among certain amoebae, called cellular slime molds.
At a molecular level, initiation of fruiting body development in Myxococcus xanthus is regulated by Pxr sRNA.
Myxobacteria such as Myxococcus xanthus and Stigmatella aurantiaca are used as model organisms for the study of development.
It has been suggested that the last common ancestor of myxobacteria was an aerobe and that their anaerobic predecessors lived syntrophically with early eukaryotes.
Clinical use
Metabolites secreted by Sorangium cellulosum known as epothilones have been noted to have antineoplastic activity. This has led to the development of analogs which mimic its activity. One such analog, known as Ixabepilone is a U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved chemotherapy agent for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer.
Myxobacteria are also known to produce gephyronic acid, an inhibitor of eukaryotic protein synthesis and a potential agent for cancer chemotherapy.
References
External links
The Myxobacteria Web Page
Deltaproteobacteria
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Anton%20Palace
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San Anton Palace
|
San Anton Palace () is a palace in Attard, Malta that currently serves as the official residence of the President of Malta. It was originally built in the early 17th century as a country villa for Antoine de Paule, a knight of the Order of St. John. It was expanded into a palace following de Paule's election as Grand Master in 1623.
The palace was used as a residence by subsequent Grand Masters, being enlarged a number of times in the process. It was the headquarters of the rebel National Assembly during the uprising of 1798–1800, and it later became a residence for the Civil Commissioners, Governors and Governors-General of Malta. It has been the official residence of the President since the office was created in December 1974.
The palace is surrounded by the extensive San Anton Gardens, parts of which have been open to the public since 1882.
History
In around 1600, Antoine de Paule, a knight of the Order of St. John from the Langue of Provence, acquired a piece of land in Attard and built a country villa. De Paule was elected Grand Master in 1623, and the villa was subsequently enlarged into a palace in around 1625. The palace was named San Anton after the Grand Master's patron saint, Anthony of Padua.
De Paule planned the villa on generous proportions so as to provide accommodation for his guests and for his large domestic staff which included cooks, food tasters, torch bearers, pantry boys, wig makers, a winder of the clocks, physicians, as well as a baker to make black bread for feeding his hunting dogs.
Following de Paule's death in 1636, the palace remained in use as a residence by subsequent Grand Masters of the Order, since it was closer to the capital city Valletta than the Verdala Palace. Over the years, the building was expanded from having a T-shape into a Latin cross.
During the French occupation of Malta and the subsequent Maltese uprising, the palace was the meeting place of the rebel National Assembly, which first met on 11 February 1799. In 1800, the palace became the residence of the first British Civil Commissioner, Admiral Sir Alexander Ball, who died at the palace in October 1809.
The palace subsequently became the official residence of the Governor and, later, Governor-General of Malta. Some structural changes were made during British rule, including a reduction of the height of the tower after it was hit by lightning in 1819, and the addition of a balustraded walk around the main courtyard. Parts of the palace's gardens were opened to the public in 1882. San Anton has been the official residence of the President of Malta since the island became a republic in December 1974.
Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was born at the palace on 25 November 1876, when her father Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was stationed in Malta as a Royal Navy officer.
Queen Elizabeth II stayed at the palace during her royal visits to Malta in 1954, 1967 and 2005.
The palace and its gardens were included on the Antiquities List of 1925. It is now a Grade 1 national monument, and it is also listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands.
A stretch of a historic wall forming part of the palace collapsed on 17 October 2018. The wall, which had been restored a few months before, collapsed into a parking area and it damaged some parked vehicles although there were no injuries. The gardens were subsequently closed to the public, and emergency works to conserve the remaining part of the wall have been undertaken. The Restoration Directorate is looking into the collapse.
Architecture
San Anton Palace is a two-storey building, with a high square tower which has panoramic views of the surrounding area.
Chapels
San Anton Palace contains two chapels, one dedicated to Our Lady of Pilar and another dedicated to St. Anthony. The Chapel of Our Lady of Pilar was built by Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena in the 18th century. It consists of a barrel-vaulted nave, with ribs dividing the ceiling into six bays. The vault is decorated with the coats of arms of de Vilhena, and subsequent Grand Masters Manuel Pinto da Fonseca and Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc. The altar is set within a chancel separated from the nave by pilasters.
The Chapel of St. Anthony, which is also known as the Russian Chapel, was built in the 19th century as a Protestant chapel. It was later converted to a Russian Orthodox chapel to accommodate Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the wife of Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. It is larger than the Chapel of Our Lady of Pilar. The chapel's denomination is now Roman Catholic, and it was restored in 2013.
Gardens
Although the palace's architecture is not that remarkable, the main attraction is the San Anton Gardens. The gardens are laid out in a formal manner, with graceful walkways, sculptures, ornamental ponds with families of ducks and swans, and a small aviary.
The gardens contain a large variety of trees and flowers from around the world, including a variety of palm trees, cypress, jacarandas, araucarias and other exotic plants, some of them over three centuries old. For many years it has been customary for visiting heads of state to plant a tree in memory of their stay in Malta. The gardens also contain an orangery, and it was once the practice of incumbent Governors to give baskets of oranges grown in the palace gardens as gifts at Christmas time.
The San Anton Gardens contain a number of fountains. One is decorated with a statue which was relocated from Argotti Gardens.
Parts of the gardens were first opened to the public in the early 19th century by Admiral Sir Alexander Ball. They were enriched by General The 1st Marquess of Hastings, the second Governor of Malta, in the 1820s. Lord Hastings, an Anglo-Irish aristocrat, had previously served as Governor-General of India. The gardens were reopened to the public in 1882.
Events
A number of events are held at San Anton Palace, including the annual Horticultural Spring Show. The Malta Community Chest Fund, a charitable organization headed by the President, also occasionally holds fund-raising events at the palace.
The President's Kitchen Garden is located across the street from San Anton Palace, close to Villa Bologna. While not being physically part of the palace, it is part of the property of the palace and under the President of Malta. It offers a privately contracted food retreat, and profits go to the Malta Community Chest Fund.
Legacy
San Anton Palace and its gardens probably influenced subsequent Grand Masters to build their own residences and gardens, such as Giovanni Paolo Lascaris, who built Ġnien is-Sultan in Valletta, and António Manoel de Vilhena, who built Casa Leoni in Santa Venera.
References
External links
National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands
Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth
Palaces in Malta
Buildings and structures completed in 1625
Official residences in Malta
Presidential residences
Gardens in Malta
Attard
1625 establishments in Malta
Limestone buildings in Malta
National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands
Knights Hospitaller
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta%20%28island%29
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Malta (island)
|
Malta is the largest of the three major islands that constitute the Maltese archipelago. It is sometimes referred to as Valletta for statistical purposes to distinguish the main island from the entire country. Malta is in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea directly south of Italy and north of Libya. The island is long and wide, with a total area of . The capital is Valletta, while the largest locality is Rabat. The island is made up of many small towns, which together form one larger urban zone with a population of 409,259. The landscape is characterised by low hills with terraced fields.
History
Humans have inhabited Malta since about 5200 BC, when stone age hunters or farmers arrived from Sicily. Early Neolithic settlements were discovered in open areas and also in caves, such as Għar Dalam. Around 3500 BC, a culture of megalithic temple builders then either supplanted or arose. They built some of the oldest existing, free-standing structures in the world in the form of megalithic temples such as those at Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra. After 2500 BC, Malta was depopulated but soon became the home of Bronze Age settlers, who settled in sites such as Borġ in-Nadur. They built first fortifications in Malta.
Malta was later ruled by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs before it was occupied by the County of Sicily in 1091. The island then became part of the Kingdom of Sicily until it was given to the Order of Saint John along with Gozo and Tripoli (North Africa) in 1530. In 1192 Tancred, King of Sicily created Margaritus of Brindisi the first Count of Malta. In 1565, the Order and the Maltese withstood a major Ottoman invasion which became known as the Great Siege of Malta. The Order ruled Malta for over 250 years and built many great pieces of architecture, including the capital city Valletta. In 1798, the French under Napoleon occupied Malta and ruled from 1798–1800. Napoleon's stay lasted from 12–18 June when he resided at Palazzo Parisio in Valletta. The French remained until the Maltese rebelled against their rule. In 1800, the British took control over Malta and the island initially became a British protectorate, and a colony a couple of years later. The British ruled for about 150 years and Malta became independent in 1964. Ten years later the State of Malta became the Republic of Malta. Malta joined the European Union in 2004 and adopted the Euro four years later.
Geography
Malta is the largest island in an archipelago in the central Mediterranean, some south of the Italian island of Sicily across the Malta Channel. Malta is located east of its sister islands of Gozo and Comino. It lies on the Malta plateau, a shallow shelf formed from the high points of a land bridge between Sicily and North Africa that became isolated as sea levels rose after the last Ice Age. Malta is therefore situated in the zone between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates.
Numerous bays along the indented coastline of the islands provide good harbours. The landscape consists of low hills with terraced fields. The highest point in Malta is Ta' Dmejrek, at , near Dingli. Although there are some small rivers at times of high rainfall, there are no permanent rivers or lakes on Malta. However, some watercourses have fresh water running all year round, such as those at Ras ir-Raħeb near Baħrija and at l-Imtaħleb.
Phytogeographically, Malta belongs to the Liguro-Tyrrhenian province of the Mediterranean Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Malta belongs to the ecoregion of "Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub".
Some minor islands off the main island of Malta include:
Dellimara Island (Marsaxlokk)
Filfla (Żurrieq/Siġġiewi)
Għallis Rock (Naxxar)
St Paul's Islands (Mellieħa)
Manoel Island (Gżira) - connected to the mainland via a bridge
Mistra Rocks (San Pawl il-Baħar)
Qawra Point/Ta' Fraben Island (San Pawl il-Baħar)
Sala Rock (Żabbar)
Xrobb l-Għaġin Rock (Marsaxlokk)
Climate
Malta has a Subtropical–Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), with very mild winters and hot summers. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. According to the International Living, Malta is the country with the best climate in the world.
The average yearly temperature is around during the day and at night. In the coldest month – January – the typically maximum temperature ranges from during the day and minimum at night. In the warmest month – August – the typically maximum temperature ranges from during the day and minimum at night. Generally – summers/holiday season lasts to 8 months, starting from around mid-April with temperatures during the day and at night, ending in November with temperatures during the day and at night, although also in the remaining 4 months temperatures sometimes reach . Amongst all capitals in the continent of Europe, Valletta – the capital of Malta has the warmest winters, with average temperatures of around during the day and at night in the period January–February. In March and December average temperatures is around during the day and at night. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare. Also, Malta is one of the few places in Europe which are "green" all year round.
Average annual temperature of the sea is (the highest in the continent of Europe), from in February to in August. In the 6 months – from June to November – the average sea temperature exceeds .
Sunshine duration hours total around 3,000 per year (one of the highest results in Europe), from an average above five hours of sunshine per day in December to an average above 12 hours in July. This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe, for comparison: London – 1,461; however, in winter it has up to several times more sunshine; for comparison: in December, London has 37 hours of sunshine whereas Malta has about 160.
Urbanization
According to Eurostat, Malta Island is a single Larger Urban Zone nominally referred to as "Valletta". According to Demographia, the whole country is identified as urban area. According to European Spatial Planning Observation Network, Malta is identified as Functional Urban Area (FUA). According to United Nations, about 95% area of Malta is urban area and the number grows every year. Also, according to the results of ESPON and EU Commission studies, "the whole territory of Malta constitutes a single urban region".
Economy
The main island of Malta contributes significantly to the country's overall economy, which itself is classified as an advanced economy according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Until 1800 Malta depended on cotton, tobacco and its shipyards for exports. Once under British control, they came to depend on Malta Dockyard for support of the Royal Navy, especially during the Crimean war of 1854. Malta's economy was boosted by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, as there was a massive increase of civilian shipping which entered the port. Ships stopping at Malta's docks for refuelling helped the Entrepôt trade, which brought additional benefits to the island. Towards the end of the 19th century the economy began declining, and by the 1940s Malta's economy was in serious crisis. One factor was the longer range of newer merchant ships that required less frequent refuelling stops. The economy was boosted again after World War II when the island needed to be rebuilt.Currently, Malta's major resources are limestone, a favourable geographic location and a productive labour force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies because of the drought in the summer and has no domestic energy sources, aside from the potential for solar energy from its plentiful sunlight. The economy is dependent on foreign trade (serving as a freight trans-shipment point), manufacturing (especially electronics and textiles) and tourism.
Film production is a growing contributor to the Maltese economy. Despite its size, Malta continues to attract international film productions from around the world and this is the best sign of confidence that a small country can get from foreign producers. The first film shot in Malta was Sons of the Sea in 1925. Since then, over 100 other films were partially or fully shot in Malta, including Malta Story (1953), Midnight Express (1978), Popeye (1980), Gladiator (2000), Munich (2005), World War Z (2013) and Captain Phillips (2013).
In preparation for Malta's membership in the European Union, which it joined on 1 May 2004, it privatised some state-controlled firms and liberalised markets. For example, the government announced on 8 January 2007 that it was selling its 40% stake in MaltaPost, to complete a privatisation process which has been ongoing for the past five years. By 2010, Malta had privatised telecommunications, postal services, shipyards and shipbuilding.
Banking and finance
The two largest commercial banks are Bank of Valletta and HSBC Bank Malta, both of which can trace their origins back to the 19th century.
The Central Bank of Malta (Bank Ċentrali ta' Malta) has two key areas of responsibility: the formulation and implementation of monetary policy and the promotion of a sound and efficient financial system. It was established by the Central Bank of Malta Act on 17 April 1968. The Maltese government entered ERM II on 4 May 2005, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2008.
FinanceMalta is the quasi-governmental organisation tasked with marketing and educating business leaders in coming to Malta and runs seminars and events around the world highlighting the emerging strength of Malta as a jurisdiction for banking and finance and insurance.
Transport
Traffic in Malta drives on the left. Car ownership in Malta is exceedingly high, given the very small size of the island.
The main roads of Malta from the southernmost point to the northernmost point are these: Triq Birżebbuġa in Birżebbuġa, Għar Dalam Road and Tal-Barrani Road in Żejtun, Santa Luċija Avenue in Paola, Aldo Moro Street (Trunk Road), 13 December Street and Ħamrun-Marsa Bypass in Marsa, Regional Road in Santa Venera/Msida/Gżira/San Ġwann, St Andrew's Road in Swieqi/Pembroke, Malta, Coast Road in Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq, Salina Road, Kennedy Drive, St. Paul's Bypass and Xemxija Hill in San Pawl il-Baħar, Mistra Hill, Wettinger Street (Mellieħa Bypass) and Marfa Road in Mellieħa.
Buses (xarabank or karozza tal-linja) are the primary method of public transport. Established in 1905, the service underwent an extensive reform in July 2011. The management structure changed from having self-employed drivers driving their own vehicles to a service being offered by a single company through a public tender. The public tender was won by Arriva Malta, a member of the Arriva group, but the company ceased operations on 1 January 2014 having been nationalised as Malta Public Transport by the Maltese government, with a new bus operator to take over their operations in the near future.
Malta has three large natural harbours:
The Grand Harbour (or Port il-Kbir), located at the eastern side of the capital city of Valletta, has been a harbour since Roman times. It has several extensive docks and wharves, as well as a cruise liner terminal. A terminal at the Grand Harbour serves ferries that connect Malta to Pozzallo & Catania in Sicily.
Marsamxett Harbour, located on the western side of Valletta, accommodates a number of yacht marinas.
Marsaxlokk Harbour (Malta Freeport), at Birżebbuġa on the south-eastern side of Malta, is the islands' main cargo terminal. Malta Freeport is the 11th busiest container ports in continent of Europe and 46th in the World with a trade volume of 2.3 million TEU's in 2008.
There is also a man-made harbour at Ċirkewwa. This is connected with Mġarr Harbour on Gozo by the Gozo ferry which makes numerous trips each day.
The only airport on Malta is Malta International Airport. It is built on the land formerly occupied by the RAF Luqa air base. Two further airfields at Ta' Qali and Ħal Far were operated during World War II and into the 1960s but are now closed. Today, Ta' Qali houses a national park, stadium, the Crafts Village visitor attraction and the Malta Aviation Museum. This museum preserves several aircraft, including Hurricane and Spitfire fighters that defended the island in World War II. The national airline is Air Malta.
Tourism
Malta is a popular tourist destination, with 1.2 million tourists per year. Three times more tourists visit than there are residents. Tourism infrastructure has increased dramatically over the years and a number of good-quality hotels are present on the island, although overdevelopment and the destruction of traditional housing is of growing concern. An increasing number of Maltese now travel abroad on holiday.
In recent years, Malta has advertised itself as a medical tourism destination, and a number of health tourism providers are developing the industry. However, no Maltese hospital has undergone independent international healthcare accreditation. Malta is popular with British medical tourists, pointing Maltese hospitals towards seeking UK-sourced accreditation, such as with the Trent Accreditation Scheme. Dual accreditation with the American-oriented Joint Commission is necessary if hospitals in Malta wish to compete with the Far East and Latin America for medical tourists from the United States.
Demographics
Native Maltese people make up the majority of the island. However, there are minorities, the largest of which are British, many of whom have retired to Malta. According to the government's estimate of 2013, the population of Malta stood at 409,259 people which is about 91.6% of the country's total population. The largest city is Birkirkara with a population of 22,319. The capital Valletta has a relatively small population of 6675 people.
The main language spoken on Malta is the Maltese language, a Semitic language descended from the now defunct Siculo-Arabic dialect of southern Italy. The language has substantial borrowing from Sicilian, Italian, a little French, and more recently and increasingly, English. The hybrid character of Maltese was established by a long period of Maltese-Sicilian urban bilingualism gradually transforming rural speech and which ended in the early 19th century with Maltese emerging as the vernacular of the entire native population. The language includes different dialects that can vary greatly from one town to another or from one island to another.
The Eurobarometer states that 100% of the population speak Maltese. Also, 88% of the population speak English, 66% speak Italian, and 17% speak French. This widespread knowledge of second languages makes Malta one of the most multilingual countries in the European Union. A study collecting public opinion on what language was "preferred" discovered that 86% of the population express a preference for Maltese, 12% for English, and 2% for Italian. Still, Italian television channels from Italy-based broadcasters, such as Mediaset and RAI, reach Malta and remain popular.
Administrative divisions
Malta has had a system of local government since 1993, based on the European Charter of Local Self-Government. The main island is divided into four regions, each having its own Regional Committee:
Central Region
Northern Region
South Eastern Region
Southern Region
Each region is further divided into local councils. Some hamlets have administrative committees, which are part of larger local councils. Currently there are 54 local councils and 13 administrative committees in Malta.
The island is also divided into five districts, but these serve primarily for statistical purposes:
Northern District
Northern Harbour District
South Eastern District
Southern Harbour District
Western District
See also
Malta (country)
Geography of Malta
Gozo
Comino
References
External links
Islands of Malta
NUTS 3 statistical regions of the European Union
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] |
205620
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid%20%28software%29
|
Squid (software)
|
Squid is a caching and forwarding HTTP web proxy. It has a wide variety of uses, including speeding up a web server by caching repeated requests, caching web, DNS and other computer network lookups for a group of people sharing network resources, and aiding security by filtering traffic. Although primarily used for HTTP and FTP, Squid includes limited support for several other protocols including Internet Gopher, SSL, TLS and HTTPS. Squid does not support the SOCKS protocol, unlike Privoxy, with which Squid can be used in order to provide SOCKS support.
Squid was originally designed to run as a daemon on Unix-like systems. A Windows port was maintained up to version 2.7. New versions available on Windows use the Cygwin environment. Squid is free software released under the GNU General Public License.
History
Squid was originally developed as the Harvest object cache, part of the Harvest project at the University of Colorado Boulder. Further work on the program was completed at the University of California, San Diego and funded via two grants from the National Science Foundation. Duane Wessels forked the "last pre-commercial version of Harvest" and renamed it to Squid to avoid confusion with the commercial fork called Cached 2.0, which became NetCache. Squid version 1.0.0 was released in July 1996.
Squid is now developed almost exclusively through volunteer efforts.
Basic functionality
After a Squid proxy server is installed, web browsers can be configured to use it as a proxy HTTP server, allowing Squid to retain copies of the documents returned, which, on repeated requests for the same documents, can reduce access time as well as bandwidth consumption. This is often useful for Internet service providers to increase speed to their customers, and LANs that share an Internet connection. Because the caching servers are controlled by the web service operator, caching proxies do not anonymize the user and should not be confused with anonymizing proxies.
A client program (e.g. browser) either has to specify explicitly the proxy server it wants to use (typical for ISP customers), or it could be using a proxy without any extra configuration: "transparent caching", in which case all outgoing HTTP requests are intercepted by Squid and all responses are cached. The latter is typically a corporate set-up (all clients are on the same LAN) and often introduces the privacy concerns mentioned above.
Squid has some features that can help anonymize connections, such as disabling or changing specific header fields in a client's HTTP requests. Whether these are set, and what they are set to do, is up to the person who controls the computer running Squid. People requesting pages through a network which transparently uses Squid may not know whether this information is being logged. Within UK organisations at least, users should be informed if computers or internet connections are being monitored.
Reverse proxy
The above setup—caching the contents of an unlimited number of webservers for a limited number of clients—is the classical one. Another setup is "reverse proxy" or "webserver acceleration" (using ). In this mode, the cache serves an unlimited number of clients for a limited number of—or just one—web servers.
As an example, if slow.example.com is a "real" web server, and www.example.com is the Squid cache server that "accelerates" it, the first time any page is requested from www.example.com, the cache server would get the actual page from slow.example.com, but later requests would get the stored copy directly from the accelerator (for a configurable period, after which the stored copy would be discarded). The end result, without any action by the clients, is less traffic to the source server, meaning less CPU and memory usage, and less need for bandwidth. This does, however, mean that the source server cannot accurately report on its traffic numbers without additional configuration, as all requests would seem to have come from the reverse proxy. A way to adapt the reporting on the source server is to use the X-Forwarded-For HTTP header reported by the reverse proxy, to get the real client's IP address.
It is possible for a single Squid server to serve both as a normal and a reverse proxy simultaneously. For example, a business might host its own website on a web server, with a Squid server acting as a reverse proxy between clients (customers accessing the website from outside the business) and the web server. The same Squid server could act as a classical web cache, caching HTTP requests from clients within the business (i.e., employees accessing the internet from their workstations), so accelerating web access and reducing bandwidth demands.
Media-range limitations
For example, a feature of the HTTP protocol is to limit a request to the range of data in the resource being referenced. This feature is used extensively by video streaming websites such as YouTube, so that if a user clicks to the middle of the video progress bar, the server can begin to send data from the middle of the file, rather than sending the entire file from the beginning and the user waiting for the preceding data to finish loading.
Partial downloads are also extensively used by Microsoft Windows Update so that extremely large update packages can download in the background and pause halfway through the download, if the user turns off their computer or disconnects from the Internet.
The Metalink download format enables clients to do segmented downloads by issuing partial requests and spreading these over a number of mirrors.
Squid can relay partial requests to the origin web server. In order for a partial request to be satisfied at a fast speed from cache, Squid requires a full copy of the same object to already exist in its storage.
If a proxy video user is watching a video stream and browses to a different page before the video completely downloads, Squid cannot keep the partial download for reuse and simply discards the data. Special configuration is required to force such downloads to continue and be cached.
Supported operating systems
Squid can run on the following operating systems:
AIX
BSDI
Digital Unix
FreeBSD
HP-UX
IRIX
Linux
macOS
NetBSD
NeXTStep
OpenBSD
OS/2 (including ArcaOS and eComStation)
SCO OpenServer
Solaris
UnixWare
Windows
See also
Web accelerator which discusses host-based HTTP acceleration
Proxy server which discusses client-side proxies
Reverse proxy which discusses origin-side proxies
Comparison of web servers
References
Further reading
External links
Squid Blog
Squid User's Guide
Squid Transparent Proxy For DD-WRT
Squid reverse proxy — Create a reverse proxy with Squid
Configuration Manual — ViSolve Squid Configuration Manual Guide
Configuration Manual — Authoritative Squid Configuration Options
— Setup squid on solaris
SQUID – Installation on CentOS, Fedora and Red Hat
Free proxy servers
Reverse proxy
Proxy server software for Linux
Unix network-related software
Gopher clients
Cross-platform free software
|
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] |
205623
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Squid (disambiguation)
|
A squid is a type of marine cephalopod with ten limbs.
Squid or squids may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Squid (band), a post-punk band from Brighton, England
Squid (DC Comics), a fictional character from DC Comics
Squid (Marvel Comics), a villain from Marvel Comics
Squid, a fictional character (villain) from Universal Soldier: The Return
"Squid" (song), by Paul McCartney from Flaming Pie
SQUID, a fictional form of virtual reality unit in the film Strange Days
Squids (video game)
Squid (game), children's game in Korea
Squid Game, Korean television show
Other uses
SQUID (cryptocurrency), cryptocurrency scam based on Squid Game
Squid (software), a proxy server and web cache
Squid (weapon), an anti-submarine weapon
SQUID, a superconducting loop used to make sensitive measurements of magnetic fields
Squid as food, squid prepared as food
See also
Giant squid (disambiguation)
|
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205624
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal%20gene%20transfer
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Horizontal gene transfer
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Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer (LGT) is the movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the ("vertical") transmission of DNA from parent to offspring (reproduction). HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms.
Horizontal gene transfer is the primary mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and plays an important role in the evolution of bacteria that can degrade novel compounds such as human-created pesticides and in the evolution, maintenance, and transmission of virulence. It often involves temperate bacteriophages and plasmids. Genes responsible for antibiotic resistance in one species of bacteria can be transferred to another species of bacteria through various mechanisms of HGT such as transformation, transduction and conjugation, subsequently arming the antibiotic resistant genes' recipient against antibiotics. The rapid spread of antibiotic resistance genes in this manner is becoming medically challenging to deal with. Ecological factors may also play a role in the HGT of antibiotic resistant genes. It is also postulated that HGT promotes the maintenance of a universal life biochemistry and, subsequently, the universality of the genetic code.
Most thinking in genetics has focused upon vertical transfer, but the importance of horizontal gene transfer among single-cell organisms is beginning to be acknowledged.
Gene delivery can be seen as an artificial horizontal gene transfer, and is a form of genetic engineering.
History
Griffith's experiment, reported in 1928 by Frederick Griffith, was the first experiment suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation. Griffith's findings were followed by research in the late 1930s and early 40s that isolated DNA as the material that communicated this genetic information.
Horizontal genetic transfer was then described in Seattle in 1951, in a paper demonstrating that the transfer of a viral gene into Corynebacterium diphtheriae created a virulent strain from a non-virulent strain, also simultaneously solving the riddle of diphtheria (that patients could be infected with the bacteria but not have any symptoms, and then suddenly convert later or never), and giving the first example for the relevance of the lysogenic cycle. Inter-bacterial gene transfer was first described in Japan in a 1959 publication that demonstrated the transfer of antibiotic resistance between different species of bacteria. In the mid-1980s, Syvanen predicted that lateral gene transfer existed, had biological significance, and was involved in shaping evolutionary history from the beginning of life on Earth.
As Jian, Rivera and Lake (1999) put it: "Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between prokaryotes" (see also Lake and Rivera, 2007). The phenomenon appears to have had some significance for unicellular eukaryotes as well. As Bapteste et al. (2005) observe, "additional evidence suggests that gene transfer might also be an important evolutionary mechanism in protist evolution."
Grafting of one plant to another can transfer chloroplasts (organelles in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis), mitochondrial DNA, and the entire cell nucleus containing the genome to potentially make a new species. Some Lepidoptera (e.g. monarch butterflies and silkworms) have been genetically modified by horizontal gene transfer from the wasp bracovirus. Bites from insects in the family Reduviidae (assassin bugs) can, via a parasite, infect humans with the trypanosomal Chagas disease, which can insert its DNA into the human genome. It has been suggested that lateral gene transfer to humans from bacteria may play a role in cancer.
Aaron Richardson and Jeffrey D. Palmer state: "Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has played a major role in bacterial evolution and is fairly common in certain unicellular eukaryotes. However, the prevalence and importance of HGT in the evolution of multicellular eukaryotes remain unclear."
Due to the increasing amount of evidence suggesting the importance of these phenomena for evolution (see below) molecular biologists such as Peter Gogarten have described horizontal gene transfer as "A New Paradigm for Biology".
Mechanisms
There are several mechanisms for horizontal gene transfer:
Transformation, the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake and expression of foreign genetic material (DNA or RNA). This process is relatively common in bacteria, but less so in eukaryotes. Transformation is often used in laboratories to insert novel genes into bacteria for experiments or for industrial or medical applications. See also molecular biology and biotechnology.
Transduction, the process in which bacterial DNA is moved from one bacterium to another by a virus (a bacteriophage, or phage).
Bacterial conjugation, a process that involves the transfer of DNA via a plasmid from a donor cell to a recombinant recipient cell during cell-to-cell contact.
Gene transfer agents, virus-like elements encoded by the host that are found in the alphaproteobacteria order Rhodobacterales.
Horizontal transposon transfer
A transposable element (TE) (also called a transposon or jumping gene) is a mobile segment of DNA that can sometimes pick up a resistance gene and insert it into a plasmid or chromosome, thereby inducing horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance.
Horizontal transposon transfer (HTT) refers to the passage of pieces of DNA that are characterized by their ability to move from one locus to another between genomes by means other than parent-to-offspring inheritance. Horizontal gene transfer has long been thought to be crucial to prokaryotic evolution, but there is a growing amount of data showing that HTT is a common and widespread phenomenon in eukaryote evolution as well. On the transposable element side, spreading between genomes via horizontal transfer may be viewed as a strategy to escape purging due to purifying selection, mutational decay and/or host defense mechanisms.
HTT can occur with any type of transposable elements, but DNA transposons and LTR retroelements are more likely to be capable of HTT because both have a stable, double-stranded DNA intermediate that is thought to be sturdier than the single-stranded RNA intermediate of non-LTR retroelements, which can be highly degradable. Non-autonomous elements may be less likely to transfer horizontally compared to autonomous elements because they do not encode the proteins required for their own mobilization. The structure of these non-autonomous elements generally consists of an intronless gene encoding a transposase protein, and may or may not have a promoter sequence. Those that do not have promoter sequences encoded within the mobile region rely on adjacent host promoters for expression. Horizontal transfer is thought to play an important role in the TE life cycle.
HTT has been shown to occur between species and across continents in both plants and animals (Ivancevic et al. 2013), though some TEs have been shown to more successfully colonize the genomes of certain species over others. Both spatial and taxonomic proximity of species has been proposed to favor HTTs in plants and animals. It is unknown how the density of a population may affect the rate of HTT events within a population, but close proximity due to parasitism and cross contamination due to crowding have been proposed to favor HTT in both plants and animals. Successful transfer of a transposable element requires delivery of DNA from donor to host cell (and to the germ line for multi-cellular organisms), followed by integration into the recipient host genome. Though the actual mechanism for the transportation of TEs from donor cells to host cells is unknown, it is established that naked DNA and RNA can circulate in bodily fluid. Many proposed vectors include arthropods, viruses, freshwater snails (Ivancevic et al. 2013), endosymbiotic bacteria, and intracellular parasitic bacteria. In some cases, even TEs facilitate transport for other TEs.
The arrival of a new TE in a host genome can have detrimental consequences because TE mobility may induce mutation. However, HTT can also be beneficial by introducing new genetic material into a genome and promoting the shuffling of genes and TE domains among hosts, which can be co-opted by the host genome to perform new functions. Moreover, transposition activity increases the TE copy number and generates chromosomal rearrangement hotspots. HTT detection is a difficult task because it is an ongoing phenomenon that is constantly changing in frequency of occurrence and composition of TEs inside host genomes. Furthermore, few species have been analyzed for HTT, making it difficult to establish patterns of HTT events between species. These issues can lead to the underestimation or overestimation of HTT events between ancestral and current eukaryotic species.
Methods of detection
Horizontal gene transfer is typically inferred using bioinformatics methods, either by identifying atypical sequence signatures ("parametric" methods) or by identifying strong discrepancies between the evolutionary history of particular sequences compared to that of their hosts. The transferred gene (xenolog) found in the receiving species is more closely related to the genes of the donor species than would be expected.
Viruses
The virus called Mimivirus infects amoebae. Another virus, called Sputnik, also infects amoebae, but it cannot reproduce unless mimivirus has already infected the same cell. "Sputnik's genome reveals further insight into its biology. Although 13 of its genes show little similarity to any other known genes, three are closely related to mimivirus and mamavirus genes, perhaps cannibalized by the tiny virus as it packaged up particles sometime in its history. This suggests that the satellite virus could perform horizontal gene transfer between viruses, paralleling the way that bacteriophages ferry genes between bacteria." Horizontal transfer is also seen between geminiviruses and tobacco plants.
Prokaryotes
Horizontal gene transfer is common among bacteria, even among very distantly related ones. This process is thought to be a significant cause of increased drug resistance when one bacterial cell acquires resistance, and the resistance genes are transferred to other species. Transposition and horizontal gene transfer, along with strong natural selective forces have led to multi-drug resistant strains of S. aureus and many other pathogenic bacteria. Horizontal gene transfer also plays a role in the spread of virulence factors, such as exotoxins and exoenzymes, amongst bacteria. A prime example concerning the spread of exotoxins is the adaptive evolution of Shiga toxins in E. coli through horizontal gene transfer via transduction with Shigella species of bacteria. Strategies to combat certain bacterial infections by targeting these specific virulence factors and mobile genetic elements have been proposed. For example, horizontally transferred genetic elements play important roles in the virulence of E. coli, Salmonella, Streptococcus and Clostridium perfringens.
In prokaryotes, restriction-modification systems are known to provide immunity against horizontal gene transfer and in stabilizing mobile genetic elements. Genes encoding restriction modification systems have been reported to move between prokaryotic genomes within mobile genetic elements (MGE) such as plasmids, prophages, insertion sequences/transposons, integrative conjugative elements (ICE), and integrons. Still, they are more frequently a chromosomal-encoded barrier to MGE than an MGE-encoded tool for cell infection.
Lateral gene transfer via a mobile genetic element, namely the integrated conjugative element (ICE) Bs1 has been reported for its role in the global DNA damage SOS response of the gram positive Bacillus subtilis. Furthermore it has been linked with the radiation and desiccation resistance of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 spores, isolated from spacecraft cleanroom facilities.
Transposon insertion elements have been reported to increase the fitness of gram-negative E. coli strains through either major transpositions or genome rearrangements, and increasing mutation rates. In a study on the effects of long-term exposure of simulated microgravity on non-pathogenic E. coli, the results showed transposon insertions occur at loci, linked to SOS stress response. When the same E. coli strain was exposed to a combination of simulated microgravity and trace (background) levels of (the broad spectrum) antibiotic (chloramphenicol), the results showed transposon-mediated rearrangements (TMRs), disrupting genes involved in bacterial adhesion, and deleting an entire segment of several genes involved with motility and chemotaxis. Both these studies have implications for microbial growth, adaptation to and antibiotic resistance in real time space conditions.
Bacterial transformation
Natural transformation is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer (HGT) that depends on the expression of numerous bacterial genes whose products are responsible for this process. In general, transformation is a complex, energy-requiring developmental process. In order for a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiological state. Competence development in Bacillus subtilis requires expression of about 40 genes. The DNA integrated into the host chromosome is usually (but with infrequent exceptions) derived from another bacterium of the same species, and is thus homologous to the resident chromosome. The capacity for natural transformation occurs in at least 67 prokaryotic species.
Competence for transformation is typically induced by high cell density and/or nutritional limitation, conditions associated with the stationary phase of bacterial growth. Competence appears to be an adaptation for DNA repair. Transformation in bacteria can be viewed as a primitive sexual process, since it involves interaction of homologous DNA from two individuals to form recombinant DNA that is passed on to succeeding generations. Although transduction is the form of HGT most commonly associated with bacteriophages, certain phages may also be able to promote transformation.
Bacterial conjugation
Conjugation in Mycobacterium smegmatis, like conjugation in E. coli, requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is DNase resistant, and the transferred DNA is incorporated into the recipient chromosome by homologous recombination. However, unlike E. coli high frequency of recombination conjugation (Hfr), mycobacterial conjugation is a type of HGT that is chromosome rather than plasmid based. Furthermore, in contrast to E. coli (Hfr) conjugation, in M. smegmatis all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies. Substantial blending of the parental genomes was found as a result of conjugation, and this blending was regarded as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction.
Archaeal DNA transfer
The archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, when UV irradiated, strongly induces the formation of type IV pili which then facilitates cellular aggregation. Exposure to chemical agents that cause DNA damage also induces cellular aggregation. Other physical stressors, such as temperature shift or pH, do not induce aggregation, suggesting that DNA damage is a specific inducer of cellular aggregation.
UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates intercellular chromosomal HGT marker exchange with high frequency, and UV-induced cultures display recombination rates that exceed those of uninduced cultures by as much as three orders of magnitude. S. solfataricus cells aggregate preferentially with other cells of their own species. Frols et al. and Ajon et al. suggested that UV-inducible DNA transfer is likely an important mechanism for providing increased repair of damaged DNA via homologous recombination. This process can be regarded as a simple form of sexual interaction.
Another thermophilic species, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, is able to undergo HGT. S. acidocaldarius can exchange and recombine chromosomal markers at temperatures up to 84 °C. UV exposure induces pili formation and cellular aggregation. Cells with the ability to aggregate have greater survival than mutants lacking pili that are unable to aggregate. The frequency of recombination is increased by DNA damage induced by UV-irradiation and by DNA damaging chemicals.
The ups operon, containing five genes, is highly induced by UV irradiation. The proteins encoded by the ups operon are employed in UV-induced pili assembly and cellular aggregation leading to intercellular DNA exchange and homologous recombination. Since this system increases the fitness of S. acidocaldarius cells after UV exposure, Wolferen et al. considered that transfer of DNA likely takes place in order to repair UV-induced DNA damages by homologous recombination.
Eukaryotes
"Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many genes among diverse species including across the boundaries of phylogenetic 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes."
Organelle to nuclear genome
Analysis of DNA sequences suggests that horizontal gene transfer has occurred within eukaryotes from the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to the nuclear genome. As stated in the endosymbiotic theory, chloroplasts and mitochondria probably originated as bacterial endosymbionts of a progenitor to the eukaryotic cell.
Organelle to organelle
Mitochondrial genes moved to parasites of the Rafflesiaceae plant family from their hosts and from chloroplasts of a still-unidentified plant to the mitochondria of the bean Phaseolus.
Viruses to plants
Plants are capable of receiving genetic information from viruses by horizontal gene transfer.
Bacteria to fungi
Horizontal transfer occurs from bacteria to some fungi, such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Bacteria to plants
Agrobacterium, a pathogenic bacterium that causes cells to proliferate as crown galls and proliferating roots is an example of a bacterium that can transfer genes to plants and this plays an important role in plant evolution.
Bacteria to insects
HhMAN1 is a gene in the genome of the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) that resembles bacterial genes, and is thought to be transferred from bacteria in the beetle's gut.
oskar is an essential gene for the specification of the germline in Holometabola and its origin is through to be due to a HGT event followed by a fusion with a LOTUS domain.
Bacteria to animals
Bdelloid rotifers currently hold the 'record' for HGT in animals with ~8% of their genes from bacterial origins. Tardigrades were thought to break the record with 17.5% HGT, but that finding was an artifact of bacterial contamination.
A study found the genomes of 40 animals (including 10 primates, four Caenorhabditis worms, and 12 Drosophila insects) contained genes which the researchers concluded had been transferred from bacteria and fungi by horizontal gene transfer. The researchers estimated that for some nematodes and Drosophila insects these genes had been acquired relatively recently.
A bacteriophage-mediated mechanism transfers genes between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Nuclear localization signals in bacteriophage terminal proteins (TP) prime DNA replication and become covalently linked to the viral genome. The role of virus and bacteriophages in HGT in bacteria, suggests that TP-containing genomes could be a vehicle of inter-kingdom genetic information transference all throughout evolution.
Endosymbiont to insects and nematodes
The adzuki bean beetle has acquired genetic material from its (non-beneficial) endosymbiont Wolbachia. New examples have recently been reported demonstrating that Wolbachia bacteria represent an important potential source of genetic material in arthropods and filarial nematodes.
Plant to plant
Striga hermonthica, a parasitic eudicot, has received a gene from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) to its nuclear genome. The gene's functionality is unknown.
A gene that allowed ferns to survive in dark forests came from the hornwort, which grows in mats on streambanks or trees. The neochrome gene arrived about 180 million years ago.
Plants to animals
The eastern emerald sea slug Elysia chlorotica has been suggested by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis to contain photosynthesis-supporting genes obtained from an algae (Vaucheria litorea) in their diet. LGT in Sacoglossa is now thought to be an artifact and no trace of LGT was found upon sequencing the genome of Elysia chlorotica.
Plant to fungus
Gene transfer between plants and fungi has been posited for a number of cases, including rice (Oryza sativa).
Fungi to insects
Pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) contain multiple genes from fungi. Plants, fungi, and microorganisms can synthesize carotenoids, but torulene made by pea aphids is the only carotenoid known to be synthesized by an organism in the animal kingdom.
Animals to animals
Smelt fish received antifreeze protein (AFP) gene from herring through a direct horizontal transfer.
Human to protozoan
The malaria pathogen Plasmodium vivax acquired genetic material from humans that might help facilitate its long stay in the body.
Human genome
One study identified approximately 100 of humans' approximately 20,000 total genes which likely resulted from horizontal gene transfer, but this number has been challenged by several researchers arguing these candidate genes for HGT are more likely the result of gene loss combined with differences in the rate of evolution.
Artificial horizontal gene transfer
Genetic engineering is essentially horizontal gene transfer, albeit with synthetic expression cassettes. The Sleeping Beauty transposon system (SB) was developed as a synthetic gene transfer agent that was based on the known abilities of Tc1/mariner transposons to invade genomes of extremely diverse species. The SB system has been used to introduce genetic sequences into a wide variety of animal genomes.
Importance in evolution
Horizontal gene transfer is a potential confounding factor in inferring phylogenetic trees based on the sequence of one gene. For example, given two distantly related bacteria that have exchanged a gene a phylogenetic tree including those species will show them to be closely related because that gene is the same even though most other genes are dissimilar. For this reason, it is often ideal to use other information to infer robust phylogenies such as the presence or absence of genes or, more commonly, to include as wide a range of genes for phylogenetic analysis as possible.
For example, the most common gene to be used for constructing phylogenetic relationships in prokaryotes is the 16S ribosomal RNA gene since its sequences tend to be conserved among members with close phylogenetic distances, but variable enough that differences can be measured. However, in recent years it has also been argued that 16s rRNA genes can also be horizontally transferred. Although this may be infrequent, the validity of 16s rRNA-constructed phylogenetic trees must be reevaluated.
Biologist Johann Peter Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research" therefore "biologists should use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use the metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of HGT among microbes". There exist several methods to infer such phylogenetic networks.
Using single genes as phylogenetic markers, it is difficult to trace organismal phylogeny in the presence of horizontal gene transfer. Combining the simple coalescence model of cladogenesis with rare HGT horizontal gene transfer events suggest there was no single most recent common ancestor that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of life. Each contemporary molecule has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule cenancestor. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times."
Challenge to the tree of life
Horizontal gene transfer poses a possible challenge to the concept of the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) at the root of the tree of life first formulated by Carl Woese, which led him to propose the Archaea as a third domain of life. Indeed, it was while examining the new three-domain view of life that horizontal gene transfer arose as a complicating issue: Archaeoglobus fulgidus was seen as an anomaly with respect to a phylogenetic tree based upon the encoding for the enzyme HMGCoA reductase—the organism in question is a definite Archaean, with all the cell lipids and transcription machinery that are expected of an Archaean, but whose HMGCoA genes are of bacterial origin. Scientists are broadly agreed on symbiogenesis, that mitochondria in eukaryotes derived from alpha-proteobacterial cells and that chloroplasts came from ingested cyanobacteria, and other gene transfers may have affected early eukaryotes. (In contrast, multicellular eukaryotes have mechanisms to prevent horizontal gene transfer, including separated germ cells.) If there had been continued and extensive gene transfer, there would be a complex network with many ancestors, instead of a tree of life with sharply delineated lineages leading back to a LUCA. However, a LUCA can be identified, so horizontal transfers must have been relatively limited.
Phylogenetic information in HGT
It has been remarked that, despite the complications, the detection of horizontal gene transfers brings valuable phylogenetic and dating information.
The potential of HGT to be used for dating phylogenies has recently been confirmed.
The chromosomal organization of horizontal gene transfer
The acquisition of new genes has the potential to disorganize the other genetic elements and hinder the function of the bacterial cell, thus affecting the competitiveness of bacteria. Consequently, bacterial adaptation lies in a conflict between the advantages of acquiring beneficial genes, and the need to maintain the organization of the rest of its genome. Horizontally transferred genes are typically concentrated in only ~1% of the chromosome (in regions called hotspots). This concentration increases with genome size and with the rate of transfer. Hotspots diversify by rapid gene turnover; their chromosomal distribution depends on local contexts (neighboring core genes), and content in mobile genetic elements. Hotspots concentrate most changes in gene repertoires, reduce the trade-off between genome diversification and organization, and should be treasure troves of strain-specific adaptive genes. Most mobile genetic elements and antibiotic resistance genes are in hotspots, but many hotspots lack recognizable mobile genetic elements and exhibit frequent homologous recombination at flanking core genes. Overrepresentation of hotspots with fewer mobile genetic elements in naturally transformable bacteria suggests that homologous recombination and horizontal gene transfer are tightly linked in genome evolution.
Genes
There is evidence for historical horizontal transfer of the following genes:
Lycopene cyclase for carotenoid biosynthesis, between Chlorobi and Cyanobacteria.
TetO gene conferring resistance to tetracycline, between Campylobacter jejuni.
Neochrome, a gene in some ferns that enhances their ability to survive in dim light. Believed to have been acquired from algae sometime during the Cretaceous.
Transfer of a cysteine synthase from a bacterium into phytophagous mites and Lepidoptera allowing the detoxification of cyanogenic glucosides produced by host plants.
The LINE1 sequence has transferred from humans to the gonorrhea bacteria.
See also
Agrobacterium, a bacterium well known for its ability to transfer DNA between itself and plants.
Endogenous retrovirus
Genetically modified organism
Inferring horizontal gene transfer
Integron
Mobile genetic elements
Phylogenetic network
Phylogenetic tree
Provirus
Reassortment
Retrotransposon
Symbiogenesis
Tree of life (biology)
Xenobiology
References
Further reading
– Papers by Dr Michael Syvanen on Horizontal Gene Transfer
This article seeks to shift the emphasis in early phylogenic adaptation from vertical to horizontal gene transfer. He uses the term "Darwinian Threshold" for the time of major transition of evolutionary mechanisms from mostly horizontal to mostly vertical transfer, and the "origin of speciation".
This article proposes using the presence or absence of a set of genes to infer phylogenies, in order to avoid confounding factors such as horizontal gene transfer.
External links
:Citizendium:Horizontal gene transfer
:Citizendium:Horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes
:Citizendium:Horizontal gene transfer in plants
:Citizendium:Horizontal gene transfer (History)
Antimicrobial resistance
Genetics
Microbial population biology
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205627
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug%20resistance
|
Drug resistance
|
Drug resistance is the reduction in effectiveness of a medication such as an antimicrobial or an antineoplastic in treating a disease or condition. The term is used in the context of resistance that pathogens or cancers have "acquired", that is, resistance has evolved. Antimicrobial resistance and antineoplastic resistance challenge clinical care and drive research. When an organism is resistant to more than one drug, it is said to be multidrug-resistant.
The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is so specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the European Union alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.
Bacteria are capable of not only altering the enzyme targeted by antibiotics, but also by the use of enzymes to modify the antibiotic itself and thus neutralize it. Examples of target-altering pathogens are Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci and macrolide-resistant Streptococcus, while examples of antibiotic-modifying microbes are Pseudomonas aeruginosa and aminoglycoside-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.
In short, the lack of concerted effort by governments and the pharmaceutical industry, together with the innate capacity of microbes to develop resistance at a rate that outpaces development of new drugs, suggests that existing strategies for developing viable, long-term anti-microbial therapies are ultimately doomed to failure. Without alternative strategies, the acquisition of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms looms as possibly one of the most significant public health threats facing humanity in the 21st century. Some of the best alternative sources to reduce the chance of antibiotic resistance are probiotics, prebiotics, dietary fibers, enzymes, organic acids, phytogenics.
Types
Drug, toxin, or chemical resistance is a consequence of evolution and is a response to pressures imposed on any living organism. Individual organisms vary in their sensitivity to the drug used and some with greater fitness may be capable of surviving drug treatment. Drug-resistant traits are accordingly inherited by subsequent offspring, resulting in a population that is more drug-resistant. Unless the drug used makes sexual reproduction or cell-division or horizontal gene transfer impossible in the entire target population, resistance to the drug will inevitably follow. This can be seen in cancerous tumors where some cells may develop resistance to the drugs used in chemotherapy. Chemotherapy causes fibroblasts near tumors to produce large amounts of the protein WNT16B. This protein stimulates the growth of cancer cells which are drug-resistant. MicroRNAs have also been shown to affect acquired drug resistance in cancer cells and this can be used for therapeutic purposes. Malaria in 2012 has become a resurgent threat in South East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum are posing massive problems for health authorities. Leprosy has shown an increasing resistance to dapsone.
A rapid process of sharing resistance exists among single-celled organisms, and is termed horizontal gene transfer in which there is a direct exchange of genes, particularly in the biofilm state. A similar asexual method is used by fungi and is called "parasexuality". Examples of drug-resistant strains are to be found in microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, parasites both endo- and ecto-, plants, fungi, arthropods, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians.
In the domestic environment, drug-resistant strains of organism may arise from seemingly safe activities such as the use of bleach, tooth-brushing and mouthwashing, the use of antibiotics, disinfectants and detergents, shampoos, and soaps, particularly antibacterial soaps, hand-washing, surface sprays, application of deodorants, sunblocks and any cosmetic or health-care product, insecticides, and dips. The chemicals contained in these preparations, besides harming beneficial organisms, may intentionally or inadvertently target organisms that have the potential to develop resistance.
Mechanisms
The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:
Drug inactivation or modification: e.g., enzymatic deactivation of Penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases.
Alteration of target site: e.g., alteration of PBP — the binding target site of penicillins — in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria.
Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g., some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid.
Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability and/or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface.
Mechanisms of Acquired Drug Resistance:
Metabolic cost
Biological cost is a measure of the increased energy metabolism required to achieve a function.
Drug resistance has a high metabolic price in pathogens for which this concept is relevant (bacteria, endoparasites, and tumor cells.) In viruses, an equivalent "cost" is genomic complexity. The high metabolic cost means that, in the absence of antibiotics, a resistant pathogen will have decreased evolutionary fitness as compared to susceptible pathogens. This is one of the reasons drug resistance adaptations are rarely seen in environments where antibiotics are absent. However, in the presence of antibiotics, the survival advantage conferred off-sets the high metabolic cost and allows resistant strains to proliferate.
Treatment
In humans, the gene ABCB1 encodes MDR1(p-glycoprotein) which is a key transporter of medications on the cellular level. If MDR1 is overexpressed, drug resistance increases. Therefore, ABCB1 levels can be monitored. In patients with high levels of ABCB1 expression, the use of secondary treatments, like metformin, have been used in conjunction with the primary drug treatment with some success.
For antibiotic resistance, which represents a widespread problem nowadays, drugs designed to block the mechanisms of bacterial antibiotic resistance are used. For example, bacterial resistance against beta-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillin and cephalosporins) can be circumvented by using antibiotics such as nafcillin that are not susceptible to destruction by certain beta-lactamases (the group of enzymes responsible for breaking down beta-lactams). Beta-lactam bacterial resistance can also be dealt with by administering beta-lactam antibiotics with drugs that block beta-lactamases such as clavulanic acid so that the antibiotics can work without getting destroyed by the bacteria first. Recently, researchers have recognized the need for new drugs that inhibit bacterial efflux pumps, which cause resistance to multiple antibiotics such as beta-lactams, quinolones, chloramphenicol, and trimethoprim by sending molecules of those antibiotics out of the bacterial cell. Sometimes a combination of different classes of antibiotics may be used synergistically; that is, they work together to effectively fight bacteria that may be resistant to one of the antibiotics alone.
Destruction of the resistant bacteria can also be achieved by phage therapy, in which a specific bacteriophage (virus that kills bacteria) is used.
See also
Antibiotic resistance
Fecal bacteriotherapy
Mass drug administration
Multidrug resistance
Pharmacoepidemiology
Physical factors affecting microbial life
Small multidrug resistance protein
Eleftheria terrae
References
External links
BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European hospitals
Merck - Tolerance and Resistance
Cosmetics Database
HCMV drug resistance mutations tool
Combating Drug Resistance - An informative article on multidrug resistance
Battle of the Bugs: Fighting Antibiotic Resistance
MDRIpred : A web server for predicting inhibitors against drug tolerant M. Tuberculosis, published in Chemistry Central Journal
CancerDR: Cancer Drug Resistance Database. Scientific Reports 3, 1445
Immunology
Psychopharmacology
|
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205633
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyirbal%20language
|
Dyirbal language
|
Dyirbal (also Djirubal) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken in northeast Queensland by about 29 speakers of the Dyirbal people. It is a member of the small Dyirbalic branch of the Pama–Nyungan family. It possesses many outstanding features that have made it well known among linguists.
In the years since the Dyirbal grammar by Robert Dixon was published in 1972, Dyirbal has steadily moved closer to extinction as younger community members have failed to learn it.
Dialects
There are many different groups speaking dialects of Dyirbal language. Researcher Robert Dixon estimates that Dyirbal had, at its peak, 10 dialects.
Dialects include:
Dyirbal (or Jirrbal) spoken by the Dyirbalŋan
Mamu, spoken by the Waɽibara, Dulgubara, Bagiɽgabara, Dyiɽibara, and Mandubara (There are also different types of Mamu spoken by individual groups, such as Warribara Mamu, and Dulgubara Mamu)
Giramay (Or Girramay), spoken by the Giramaygan
Gulŋay (or Gulngay), spoken by the Malanbara
Dyiru (or Djirru), spoken by the Dyirubagala
Ngadyan (or Ngadjan), spoken by the Ngadyiandyi
Walmalbarra
The speakers of these dialects largely regard their dialects as different languages. They were classified as dialects by researcher Robert Dixon, who classified them as such based on linguistic criteria and their similarities, some dialects sharing as much as 90% of their vocabularies. Since the dialects were viewed by speakers as different languages, the language had no formal name, so Dixon assigned the language the name Dyirbal, naming it after Jirrbal, which was the dialect with the largest number of speakers at the time he was studying it.
Neighbouring languages
Languages neighbouring the many Dyirbal dialects include:
Ngaygungu
Mbabaram
Muluriji
Yidiny
Warungu
Warrgamay
Nyawaygi
Phonology
Dyirbal has only four places of articulation for the stop and nasals, whereas most other Australian Aboriginal languages have six. This is because Dyirbal lacks the dental/alveolar/retroflex split typically found in these languages. Like the majority of Australian languages, it does not make a distinction between voiced consonants (such as b, d, g, etc.) and voiceless consonants (the corresponding p, t, and k, etc. respectively). Like Pinyin, standard Dyirbal orthography uses voiced consonants, which seem to be preferred by speakers of most Australian languages since the sounds (which can often be semi-voiced) are closer to English semi-voiced b, d, g than aspirated p, t, k.
The Dyirbal vowel system is typical of Australia, with three vowels: , and , though is realised as in certain environments and can be realised as , also depending on the environment in which the phoneme appears. Thus the actual inventory of sounds is greater than the inventory of phonemes would suggest. Stress always falls on the first syllable of a word and usually on subsequent odd-numbered syllables except the ultima, which is always unstressed. The result of this is that consecutive stressed syllables do not occur.
Grammar
The language is best known for its system of noun classes, numbering four in total. They tend to be divided among the following semantic lines:
I – most animate objects, men
II – women, water, fire, violence, and exceptional animals
III – edible fruit and vegetables
IV – miscellaneous (includes things not classifiable in the first three)
The class usually labelled "feminine" (II) inspired the title of George Lakoff's book Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. Some linguists distinguish between such systems of classification and the gendered division of items into the categories of "feminine", "masculine" and (sometimes) "neuter" that is found in, for example, many Indo-European languages.
Dyirbal shows a split-ergative system. Sentences with a first or second person pronoun have their verb arguments marked for case in a pattern that mimics nominative–accusative languages. That is, the first or second person pronoun appears in the least marked case when it is the subject (regardless of the transitivity of the verb), and in the most marked case when it is the direct object. Thus Dyirbal is morphologically accusative in the first and second persons, but morphologically ergative elsewhere; and it is still always syntactically ergative.
Taboo
There used to be in place a highly complex taboo system in Dyirbal culture. A speaker was completely forbidden from speaking with his/her mother-in-law, child-in-law, father's sister's child or mother's brother's child, and from approaching or looking directly at these people. Speakers were forbidden from speaking with their cross-cousins of the opposite sex due to the fact that those relatives were of the section from which an individual must marry, but were too close of kin to choose as a spouse so the avoidance might have been on the grounds of indicating anyone sexually unavailable.
Furthermore, because marriage typically took place a generation above or below, the cross-cousin of the opposite sex often is a potential mother-in-law or father-in-law. In addition, when within hearing range of taboo relatives a person was required to use a specialized and complex form of the language with essentially the same phonemes and grammar, but with a lexicon that shared no words with the standard language except for four lexical items referring to grandparents on the mother and father's side.
The taboo relationship was reciprocal. Thus, an individual was not allowed to speak with one's own mother-in-law and it was equally taboo for the mother-in-law to speak to her son-in-law. This relationship also prevailed among both genders such that a daughter-in-law was forbidden to speak to directly or approach her father-in-law and vice versa. This taboo existed, but less strongly enforced, between members of the same sex such that a male individual ought to have used the respectful style of speech in the presence of his father-in-law, but the father-in-law could decide whether or not to use the everyday style of speech or the respectful style in the presence of his son-in-law.
The specialized and complex form of the language, the Dyalŋuy, was used in the presence of the taboo relatives whereas a form referred to in most dialects as Guwal was used in all other circumstances. The Dyalŋuy had one quarter of the amount of lexical items as the everyday language which reduced the semantic content in actual communication in the presence of a taboo relative. For example, in Dyalŋuy the verb 'to ask' is [baŋarrmba-l]. In Guwal, 'to ask' is [ŋanba-l], 'to invite someone over' is [yumba-l], 'to invite someone to accompany one' is [bunma-l] and 'to keep asking after having already been told' is [gunji-y]. There are no correspondences to the other 3 verbs of Guwal in Dyalŋuy.
To get around this limitation, Dyirbal speakers use many syntactic and semantic tricks to make do with a minimal vocabulary which reveals a lot to linguists about the semantic nature of Dyirbal. For example, Guwal makes use of lexical causatives, such as transitive bana- "break" and intransitive gaynyja- "break" (similar to English be dead/kill, lie/lay). Since Dyirbal has fewer lexemes, a morpheme -rri- is used as an intransitive derivational suffix. Thus the Dyalŋguy equivalents of the two words above were transitive yuwa and intransitive yuwa-rri-.
The lexical items found in Dyalŋuy were mainly derived from three sources: "borrowings from the everyday register of neighbouring dialects or languages, the creation of new [Dyalŋuy] forms by phonological deformation of lexemes from the language's own everyday style, and the borrowing of terms that were already in the [Dyalŋuy] style of a neighboring language or dialect".
An example of borrowing between dialects is the word for sun in the Yidin and Ngadyan dialects. In Yidin, the Guwal style word for sun is [buŋan], and this same word was also the Dyalŋuy style of the word for sun in the Ngadyan dialect. It is hypothesized that children of Dyirbal tribes were expected to acquire the Dyalŋuy speech style years following their acquisition of the everyday speech style from their cross cousins who would speak in Dyalŋuy in their presence. By the onset of puberty, the child probably spoke Dyalŋuy fluently and was able to use it in the appropriate contexts. This phenomenon, commonly called mother-in-law languages, was common in indigenous Australian languages. It existed until about 1930, when the taboo system fell out of use.
Young Dyirbal
In the 1970s, speakers of Dyirbal and Giramay dialects purchased land in the Murray Upper, with the assistance of the Australian federal government and formed a community. Within this community shift in language began to occur, and with it came the emergence of new form of Dyirbal, dubbed by researcher Annette Schmidt "Young Dyirbal" or "YD". This language stands in contrast to "Traditional Dyirbal" or "TD".
Young Dyirbal is grammatically distinct from Traditional Dyirbal, in some cases being more similar to English, such as the gradual loss of ergative inflection, as is found in Traditional Dyirbal, in favour of a style of inflection more similar to the one found in English.
Notes
References
External links
Lecture notes on Dyirbal illustrating mother-in-law language
Bibliography of Dyirbal people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Bibliography of Girramay people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Bibliography of the Gulngay people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
Rosetta Project: Dyirbal Swadesh List
Dyirbalic languages
Endangered indigenous Australian languages in Queensland
|
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] |
205635
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac%20OS%209
|
Mac OS 9
|
Mac OS 9 is the ninth major release of Apple's classic Mac OS operating system which was succeeded by OS X. Introduced on October 23, 1999, it was promoted by Apple as "The Best Internet Operating System Ever", highlighting Sherlock 2's Internet search capabilities, integration with Apple's free online services known as iTools and improved Open Transport networking. While Mac OS 9 lacks protected memory and full pre-emptive multitasking, lasting improvements include the introduction of an automated Software Update engine and support for multiple users.
Apple discontinued development of Mac OS 9 in late 2001, transitioning all future development to Mac OS X. The final updates to Mac OS 9 addressed compatibility issues with Mac OS X while running in the Classic Environment and compatibility with Carbon applications. At the 2002 Worldwide Developers Conference, Steve Jobs began his keynote address by staging a mock funeral for OS 9.
Features
Apple billed Mac OS 9 as including "50 new features" and heavily marketed its Sherlock 2 software, which introduced a "channels" feature for searching different online resources and introduced a QuickTime-like metallic appearance. Mac OS 9 also featured integrated support for Apple's suite of Internet services known as iTools (later re-branded as .Mac, then MobileMe, which was replaced by iCloud) and included improved TCP/IP functionality with Open Transport 2.5.
Other features new to Mac OS 9 include:
Integrated support for multiple user accounts without using At Ease.
Support for voice login through VoicePrint passwords.
Keychain, a feature allowing users to save passwords and textual data encrypted in protected keychains.
A Software Update control panel for automatic download and installation of Apple system software updates.
A redesigned Sound control panel and support for USB audio.
Speakable Items 2.0, also known as PlainTalk, featuring improved speech synthesis and recognition along with AppleScript integration.
Improved font management through FontSync.
Remote Access Personal Server 3.5, including support for TCP/IP clients over Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).
An updated version of AppleScript with support for TCP/IP.
Personal File Sharing over TCP/IP.
USB Printer Sharing, a control panel allowing certain USB printers to be shared across a TCP/IP network.
128-bit file encryption in the Finder.
Support for files larger than 2 GB.
Unix volume support.
CD Burning in the Finder (introduced in Mac OS 9.1).
Addition of a "Window" menu to the Finder (introduced in Mac OS 9.1)
Mac OS 9 and the Classic Environment
PowerPC versions of Mac OS X prior to 10.5 include a compatibility layer (a shell) called Classic, enabling users to run applications and hardware requiring Mac OS 9 from within OS X. This is achieved through running Mac OS 9 without access to its Finder inside OS X. This requires Mac OS 9 to be installed on the computer even though computers that can run the Classic environment are not necessarily able to boot into Mac OS 9. Some Mac OS 9 applications do not run well in Classic. They demonstrate screen redraw problems and lagging performance. In addition, some drivers and other software which directly interact with the hardware fail to work properly.
In May 2002, at Apple's Worldwide Developers Conference in San Jose, California, Steve Jobs, accompanied by a coffin, held a mock funeral to announce that Apple had stopped development of Mac OS 9. Mac OS 9.2.2, released in December 2001, was the final version of Mac OS 9 and the "classic" Mac OS.
In June 2005, Jobs announced that the Macintosh platform would be transitioning to Intel x86 microprocessors. Developer documentation of the Rosetta PowerPC emulation layer revealed that applications written for Mac OS 8 or 9 would not run on x86-based Macs. The Classic Environment remains in the PowerPC version of 10.4; however, x86 versions of OS X do not support the Classic environment.
Mac OS 9 can be emulated by using SheepShaver, a PowerPC emulator available on multiple operating systems, including Intel-based Macs. However, SheepShaver cannot run Mac OS versions newer than 9.0.4, as there is no support for a memory management unit. The PearPC PowerPC emulator does not support Mac OS 9. QEMU has experimental support for running Mac OS 9 using PowerPC G4 emulation.
The 1GHz Titanium Powerbook G4 “Antimony” model A1025 released in 2002 can boot both Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X and is often installed with a “dual boot” configuration. However this was the final notebook that could boot Mac OS 9. All other G4 Macs that have a 1 GHz and higher processor and all G5 Macs can not boot Mac OS 9 natively as the "Mac OS ROM" was never updated to allow those Macs, which were developed during the OS X era, to directly boot it. In recent years, unofficial patches for Mac OS 9 and the Mac OS ROM have been made to allow unsupported G4 Macs to boot into Mac OS 9 (G5 Macs still can't run Mac OS 9 at all since Mac OS 9 doesn't recognize the G5 processor), though this is not officially supported by Apple.
Other uses
Aside from Apple-branded hardware that is still maintained and operated, Mac OS 9 can be operated in other environments such as Windows and Unix. For example, the aforementioned SheepShaver software was not designed for use on x86 platforms and required an actual PowerPC processor present in the machine it was running on similar to a hypervisor. Although it provides PowerPC processor support, it can only run up to Mac OS 9.0.4 because it does not emulate a memory management unit.
Version history
Updates to Mac OS 9 include 9.0.4, 9.1, 9.2.1, and 9.2.2. Mac OS 9.0.4 was a collection of bug fixes primarily relating to USB and FireWire support. Mac OS 9.1 included integrated CD burning support in the Macintosh Finder and added a new Window menu in the Finder for switching between open windows. Mac OS 9.2 increased performance noticeably and improved Classic Environment support.
Compatibility
See also
List of Apple operating systems
References
External links
from apple.com
from apple.com
from apple.com TN1176 Mac OS 9 }} from apple.com
1999 software
Classic Mac OS
PowerPC operating systems
|
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205642
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austral%20L%C3%ADneas%20A%C3%A9reas
|
Austral Líneas Aéreas
|
Cielos del Sur S.A., operating as Austral Líneas Aéreas, more commonly known by its shortened name Austral, was a domestic airline of Argentina, the sister company of Aerolíneas Argentinas. It was the second-largest domestic scheduled airline in the country, after Aerolíneas Argentinas. As a subsidiary of Aerolíneas Argentinas, the company shares its headquarters with that airline, which is located in the Aeroparque Jorge Newbery of Buenos Aires, the main base of operations of the company.
Austral was currently fully integrated into Aerolíneas Argentinas; however, some differences arise, especially those relying upon the unions the staff of both companies are affiliated to, which lead to constant conflicts. In May 2020 it was announced that Austral would merge with Aerolíneas, saving an estimated 100 million US Dollars and eliminating Austral as a brand. Austral ended operations on 30 November 2020.
, the airline operated an all-Embraer 190 fleet.
History
The origins of the carrier trace back to 1957, when Compañía Austral de Transportes Aéreos SACI (CATASACI) was founded, starting scheduled services in . CATASACI focused its services on southwestern Argentina, but it also operated international flights to Montevideo, Puerto Montt and Punta Arenas. Aerotransportes Litoral Argentino (ALA) was a Rosario–based company that was founded in 1957 to operate flights between this city and Buenos Aires using Aero Commander equipment and operated flights within northern Argentina. In 1965, Pan Am acquired a 22% stake in ALA in return for supplying the company with DC-3s. A year later, CATASACI acquired a 30% holding in ALA and the services of both companies were integrated.
At , the ALA fleet consisted of two C-46s, five DC-3s, two DC-6Bs and five YS-11A-300s that served a domestic network including Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Formosa, Goya, Paraná, Paso de los Libres, Posadas, Resistencia, Rosario, Salta, Santa Fe and Tucumán, plus regional services to Antofagasta and Asunción, whereas CATASACI had a fleet that included seven BAC One-Elevens —four 400s and three 500s—, one C-46, one DC-6 and three YS-11s. Austral Líneas Aéreas was formally established in that year from the merger of CATASACI and ALA. In practice, operations of the latter airline were absorbed by CATASACI, which was rebranded as Austral Líneas Aéreas S.A. after merging. Austral inherited both companies' fleet, consisting of turboprops NAMC YS-11 and jetliners BAC One-Eleven.
Austral became a government-owned company in 1980. After poor economic performances, there were two failed attempts to re-privatise Austral in 1981 and 1983. All that time Austral and Aerolíneas Argentinas were competitors on a number of domestic routes. Realizing that such a situation could not persist much longer, the government decided again to privatise Austral. This was much resisted by the Aerolíneas Argentinas' personnel, and more specifically its pilots, who claimed their salaries were lower than those of Austral's counterparts. Aerolíneas Argentinas' pilots union understood the government effort was not to solve their affiliates salary conflict, but to focus on privatising a loss-making carrier as Austral was instead. The consequence of this discrepance was the announcement that Aerolíneas Argentinas flights were to be indefinitely suspended by way of a strike, effective 1 July 1986. The strike affected both Aerolineas Argentinas' domestic and international operations. Argentine as well as foreign carriers were benefited from this strike. Ironically, Austral was included among those carriers, gaining the domestic market share Aerolíneas Argentinas lost.
Austral became once again a privately owned firm when it was acquired by the holding company Cielos del Sur S.A. in late 1987. The acquisition generated some controversy on the Argentine aviation sector at that time, as it was raised that the new owner had little or no experience in managing an airline. In April 1988, the carrier became an IATA member. Shortly afterwards, the company faced a major accident during its new private era on 12 June 1988, when a McDonnell Douglas MD-81 hit a tree on a low visibility approach into Posadas and crashed. Apart from the 22 fatalities involved in the accident, it also spread concerns on the aviation sector over the airline's poor rate of occupation on some routes, of just 10.32% for this particular flight.
Cielos del Sur S.A. and Iberia formed a consortium to acquire an 85% stake in Aerolíneas Argentinas in 1990, within the framework of that flag carrier privatisation. Soon afterwards, Cielos del Sur S.A. sold Austral to Iberia. The destiny of both Aerolíneas Argentinas and Austral became aligned thereafter. By July 1998, the company was 10% owned by its erstwhile competitor Aerolíneas Argentinas.
On 21 July 2008 the Argentine Government took the airline back into state control after acquiring 99.4% of the share capital for an undisclosed price. The remaining 0.6% continues to be owned by the company's employees. In September 2008, Argentina's Senate approved the nationalization of Aerolíneas Argentinas and its subsidiary Austral Líneas Aéreas on a 46–21 vote in favor of the takeover.
In Aerolíneas Argentinas launched a new paint scheme to revamp the airline's image. The new livery resembles the colour blue of Argentina's flag and the colour yellow of the sun. As its subsidiary airline, Austral also adopted the new image. Austral's livery actually differs from the Aerolíneas Argentinas' one by a red cheatline only. In the meantime the airline also announced the incorporation of 20 new Embraer 190 to its fleet, receiving the first two of them in September 2010.
Destinations
The Federal Corridor (), was a two-way route linking the cities of Bariloche, Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Iguazú, Mendoza and Salta. Although the corridor is commercially ran by Aerolíneas Argentinas, the route is operated using Austral equipment.
Fleet
Austral Líneas Aéreas underwent a major fleet renewal. In 2009, the company signed a contract with Embraer for the purchase of 20 Embraer 190s, in a deal worth million that was 85% financed by BNDES. Two more E-190s were ordered in ; the first of these two aircraft was incorporated into the fleet in .
The airline's fleet consisted of the following aircraft ():
Retired
Austral previously operated the following equipment:
BAC One-Eleven 400
BAC One-Eleven 500
Boeing 737-200
CASA CN-235 (operated for Inter Austral, a former Córdoba-based subsidiary of Austral)
Curtiss C-46
Douglas DC-4
Douglas DC-6
Douglas DC-6A
Douglas DC-6B
Fokker F27-100
McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30
McDonnell Douglas DC-9-50
McDonnell Douglas MD-81
McDonnell Douglas MD-82
McDonnell Douglas MD-83
McDonnell Douglas MD-88
NAMC YS-11-100
NAMC YS-11A-300
Accidents and incidents
, Aviation Safety Network records 11 accidents/incidents for Austral Líneas Aéreas, totalling 224 deaths. The list below includes hull-loss accidents only.
See also
Aerolíneas Argentinas accidents and incidents
List of BAC One-Eleven operators
List of Embraer 190 operators
List of NAMC YS-11 operators
Transport in Argentina
Notes
References
External links
Official website (archived, 29 Mar 2018)
Unión de Aviadores de Líneas Aéreas (UALA)
Defunct airlines of Argentina
Airlines established in 1957
2020 disestablishments in Argentina
Airlines disestablished in 2020
Argentine companies established in 1971
Argentine brands
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne%20language
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Cheyenne language
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The Cheyenne language () (informal spelling Tsisinstsistots), is the Native American language spoken by the Cheyenne people, predominantly in present-day Montana and Oklahoma, in the United States. It is part of the Algonquian language family. Like all other Algonquian languages, it has complex agglutinative polysynthetic morphology. This language is considered endangered, at different levels, in both states.
Classification
Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages, which is a sub-category of the Algic languages. Specifically, it is a Plains Algonquian language. However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot, is an areal rather than genetic subgrouping.
Geographic distribution
Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana and in Oklahoma. On the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in March 2013 there were approximately 10,050 enrolled tribal members, of which about 4,939 resided on the reservation; slightly more than a quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English.
Current status
The Cheyenne language is considered "definitely endangered" in Montana and "critically endangered" in Oklahoma by the UNESCO. In Montana the number of speakers were about 1700 in 2012 according to the UNESCO. In 2021 there are approximately 300 elderly speakers. In 2021 in Oklahoma there are fewer than 20 elderly speakers. There is no current information on any other state in the United States regarding the Cheyenne language.
The 2017 film Hostiles features extensive dialogue in Northern Cheyenne. The film's producers hired experts in the language and culture to ensure authenticity.
Revitalization efforts and education
In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of Chief Dull Knife College applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $50,000 language preservation planning grant. The department wanted to use this money to assess the degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Following this, the department wanted to use the compiled data to establish long-term community language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and curriculum guide. In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual Language Immersion Camp. This event was organized into two weeklong sessions, and its aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5-10 year olds, while the second session focused on 11- to 18-year-olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The state of Montana has passed a law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana, at Southwestern Oklahoma State University, and at Watonga High School in Watonga, Oklahoma.
There are also holistic approaches to language revitalization taken upon by the Cheyenne people to try and keep their language vital. This is done by recognizing the integrated nature of the Cheyenne language with games, crafts, and ceremony which are integrated in youth and community programs. The language is very often not being taught in the home so instead of just teaching grammar as a revitalization effort, holistic approaches attract more attention from new speakers and educate the new generation and counter language and culture loss.
Phonology
Vowels
Cheyenne has three basic vowel qualities /e a o/. The phoneme called here is usually pronounced as a phonetic , and sometimes varies to .
These vowel qualities take four tones: high tone as in á [á]); low tone as in a [à]; mid tone as in ā [ā]; and rising tone as in ô [ǒ]. Tones are often not represented in the orthography. Vowels can also be voiceless (e.g. ė [e̥]). The high and low tones are phonemic, while voiceless vowels' occurrence is determined by the phonetic context, making them allophones of the voiced vowels.
Consonants
The phoneme /h/ is realized as [s] in the environment between /e/ and /t/ (h > s / e _ t). /h/ is realized as [ʃ] between [e] and [k] (h > ʃ / e _ k) i.e. /nahtóna/ nȧhtona - "alien", /nehtóna/ nėstona - "your daughter", /hehke/ heške - "his mother". The digraph "ts" represents assibilated /t/; a phonological rule of Cheyenne is that underlying /t/ becomes affricated before an /e/ . Therefore, "ts" is not a separate phoneme, but an allophone of /t/. The sound is not a phoneme, but derives from other phonemes, including (when precedes or follows a non-front vowel, /a/ or /o/), and the past tense morpheme /h/ which is pronounced when it precedes a morpheme which starts with /h/.
Orthography
The Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation orthography". In other words, it is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. represents the phoneme symbolized /e/, and represents .
Vowels
a - [a]
e - [e/ɪ/ɛ]
o - [o]
Consonants
h - [h/s/ʃ]
k - [k]
' - [ʔ]
m - [m]
n - [n]
p - [p]
s - [s]
š - [ʃ]
t - [t]
v - [v]
x - [x]
Tones
á, é, ó - high tone
ȧ, ė, ȯ or â, ê, ô - voiceless or whispered
Low tone is usually unmarked.
Feature system for phonemes
The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows:
Oral: primary articulation is oral (vs. at the glottis)
Vocoid (voc): central resonant (oral) continuant
Syllabic (syl): nuclear to syllable (vs. marginal)
Closure (clos): stoppage of air flow at point of primary articulation ['non-continuant']
Nasal (nas): velic is open
Grave (grv): primary articulation at oral extremity (lips or velum) ['non-coronal' for consonants, 'back' for vowels]
Diffuse (dif): primary articulation is relatively front ['anterior']
0 indicates the value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because the post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). Parentheses enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules.
Voicing
Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. [x] is written as x orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with a dot over vowels. Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high [a] and [o] is also usually devoiced preceding h followed by a stop. Phonemic /h/ is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below.
Penultimate devoicing
/hohkoʃ/ hohkȯxe 'ax';
/tétahpetáht/ tsétȧhpétȧhtse 'the one who is big';
/mótehk/ motšėške 'knife'
Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede the consonants [t], [s], [ʃ], [k], or [x] followed by an [e]. The rule is linked to the rule of e-epenthesis, which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary.
Prepenultimate devoicing
/tahpeno/ tȧhpeno 'flute';
/kosáné/ kȯsâne 'sheep (pl.)';
/mahnohtehtovot/ mȧhnȯhtsėstovȯtse 'if you ask him'
A vowel that does not have a high pitch is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by [h].
Special [a] and [o] devoicing
/émóheeohtéo/ émôheeȯhtseo'o 'they are gathering';
/náohkeho'sóe/ náȯhkėho'soo'e 'I regularly dance';
/nápóahtenáhnó/ nápôȧhtsenáhno 'I punched him in the mouth'
Non-high [a] and [o] become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by a voiced vowel and followed by an [h], a consonant, and two or more syllables.
Consonant devoicing émane [ímaṅi] 'He is drinking.'
Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced.
h-absorption
-pėhévoestomo'he 'kind' + -htse 'imperative suffix' > -pėhévoestomo'ėstse tsé- 'conjunct prefix' + -éna'he 'old' + -tse '3rd pers. Suffix' > tsééna'ėstse 'the one who is old'
né + 'you' + -one'xȧho'he 'burn' + tse 'suffix for some 'you-me' transitive animate forms' > néone'xȧho'ėstse ' you burn me'
The [h] is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels.
Pitch and tone
There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne. Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have a stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch.
High-raising
A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not followed by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high.
/ʃéʔʃé/ šê'še 'duck';
/sémón/ sêmo 'boat'
Low-to-high raising
A low vowel is raised to the high position when it precedes a high and is followed by a word final high.
/méʃené/ méšéne 'ticks';
/návóomó/ návóómo 'I see him';
/póesón/ póéso 'cat'
Low-to-mid raising
A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel.
/kosán/ kōsa 'sheep (sg.)';
/heʔé/ hē'e 'woman';
/éhomosé/ éhomōse 'he is cooking'
High pushover
A high vowel becomes low if it comes before a high and followed by a phonetic low.
/néháóénáma/ néhâoenama 'we (incl) prayed';
/néméhótóne/ némêhotone 'we (incl) love him';
/náméhósanémé/ námêhosanême 'we (excl) love'
Word-medial high raising
According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes a phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs. (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)"
/émésehe/ émêsehe 'he is eating';
/téhnémenétó/ tséhnêmenéto 'when I sang';
/násáamétohénoto/ násâamétȯhênoto 'I didn't give him to him'
Tone
Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, á, é, and ó. The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in the Cheyenne language:
maxháeanáto (if I am hungry)
maxháeanato (if you are hungry)
hótame (dog)
hotāme (dogs)
As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare matšėškōme "raccoon" and mátšėškomeo'o "raccoons"). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for "badger" has a permanent accent position: ma'háhko'e (sg.), ma'háhko'eo'o (pl.)
Nonnasal reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *k
The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, *n and *h drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before *k. *k then drops except in element-final position. Next, there is an increment before any remaining *k not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary h (replaced by š after e) ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the *k gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio '''k clusters are all reduced to glottal catch."
Grammar
Cheyenne is a morphologically polysynthetic language with a sophisticated, agglutinating verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure. Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences. Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate noun classification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of clusivity in the first person plural pronoun.
Order and mode
Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm. Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality.Leman 2011, p.24. The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011) and Mithun (1999).
Independent order
This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of evidentiality.
Conjunct order
This order governs a variety of dependent clause types. Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning. Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy.
Imperative order
The third order governs commands. Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages, distinguishes two types of imperative mood, one indicating immediate action, and the other indicating delayed action.Murray 2016, p.242.
Verb morphology
The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language,Petter 1905, p.451. to the point that even adjectives and even some nouns are largely substantive in nature. Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as modality, person and transitivity, as well as the animacy of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by the addition of an affix to the basic verb stem. There are also several instrumental, locative and adverbial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction. This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right.
All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure. The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm:
person – (tense) – (directional) – (preverb) – ROOT – (medial) – final
Pronominal affixes
Cheyenne represents the participants of an expression not as separate pronoun words but as affixes on the verb. There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne:
ná-first person
né-second person
é-third person
These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix ná- can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive.
Tense
Tense in Cheyenne is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem. Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation. Thus, návóómo could mean both "I see him" and "I saw him" depending on the context.
Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme /-h-/, which changes to /-x-/, /-s-/, /-š-/ or /-'-/ before the -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively. Thus:
návóómo I see him
náhvóómo I saw him
Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme /-hte/, which changes to -htse after the ná- pronominal, -stse after ne- and -tse in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether.
Directional affixes
These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker.
-nėh-toward
-nex-toward (before -h)
-ne'-toward (before a vowel)
-nes-toward (before -t)
-ta-away from
Preverbs
Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to the verb stem. Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample.
-emóose-secretly
-nésta-previously
-sé'hove-suddenly
-áhane-extremely
-táve-slightly
-ohke-regularly
-pȧháve-good, well
-ma'xe-much, a lot
-hé-for the purpose of
-ha'ke-slowly, softly
-hoove-mistakenly
Medial affixes
This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part. Thus: énėše'xahtse (he-wash-mouth) = "he gargled." Following is a sample of medial suffixes:
-ahtsemouth
-énéface
-na'eváarm
-vétovábody
-he'onáhand
-hahtáfoot
Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in:
ka'énė-hôtame [short-face-dog] = bulldog
Final affixes
Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon the animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself. Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object. All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI). Following are the most common object agreement markers for each verb class.
-eAnimate Intransitive (AI)
-óInanimate Intransitive (II)
-oTransitive Animate (TA)
-á/-éTransitive Inanimate (TI)
Negation
Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix -sâa- immediately after the pronominal affix. This morpheme changes to sáa- in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions.
Nouns
Nouns are classified according to animacy. They change according to grammatical number (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to gender or definiteness.
Obviation
When two third persons are referred to by the same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person." It is essentially an "out of focus" third person. As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun. If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically -o or -óho. For example:
návóómo hetane "I saw a man"
he'e évôomóho hetanóho "The woman saw a man"
Verbs register the presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns. These forms could be likened to a kind of passive voice, although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed. This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms.
Number
Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by the addition of suffixes.Petter 1905, p.454. These suffixes are irregular and can change slightly according to a complex system of phonological rules.
-(h)o, -(n)éInanimate plural
-(n)ȯtseAnimate plural
Possession
Possession is denoted by a special set of pronominal suffixes. Following is a list of the most common possession prefixes, although rarely some words take different prefixes.Petter 1905, p.455.
na-first person
ne-second person
he-third person
Generally, possessive prefixes take a low pitch on the following vowel.
When a third person animate noun is possessed by another third person, the noun becomes obviated and takes a different form. Much of the time, this obviated form is identical to the noun's regular plural form, with only a few exceptions. This introduces ambiguity in that it is not always possible to tell whether an obviated noun is singular or plural.
Historical development
Like all the Algonquian languages, Cheyenne developed from a reconstructed ancestor referred to as Proto-Algonquian (often abbreviated "PA"). The sound changes on the road from PA to modern Cheyenne are complex, as exhibited by the development of the PA word *erenyiwa "man" into Cheyenne hetane:
First, the PA suffix -wa drops (*erenyi)
The geminate vowel sequence -yi- simplifies to /i/ (semivowels were phonemically vowels in PA; when PA */i/ or */o/ appeared before another vowel, it became non-syllabic) (*ereni)
PA */r/ changes to /t/ (*eteni)
/h/ is added before word-initial vowels (*heteni)
Due to a vowel chain-shift, the vowels in the word wind up as /e/, /a/ and /e/ (PA */e/ sometimes corresponds to Cheyenne /e/ and sometimes to Cheyenne /a/; PA */i/ almost always corresponds to Cheyenne /e/, however) (hetane).
PA *θk has the Sutaio reflex ' in e-nete'e "she tells lies", but the Cheyenne-Proper reflex k in hetone'ke "tree-bark". According to linguist Paul Proulx, this gave off the appearance that "speakers of both Cheyenne dialects—perhaps mixed bands—were involved in the Arapaho contact that led to this unusual reflex of PA *k.".
Lexicon
Some Cheyenne words (with the Proto-Algonquian reconstructions where known):
ame "grease" (from PA *pemyi)
he'e "his liver" (from PA *weθkweni)
hē'e "woman" (from PA **eθkwe·wa)
hetane "man" (from PA *erenyiwa)
matana "milk" (from PA *meθenyi)
Translation History
Early work was done on the Cheyenne language by Rodolphe Charles Petter, a Mennonite missionary based in Lame Deer, Montana, from 1916. Petter published a mammoth dictionary of Cheyenne in 1915.
Current Translations
Currently there are many online resources that allow for the instant translation from any language to the Cheyenne language. There are online vocabulary lists, pronunciation guides, dictionaries, etc. Along with these resources, there are numbers published books regarding the history of the language as well as explain its grammar These resources can be found online or in libraries that carry these published books.
Notes
References
Esteban, Avelino Corral. "Does There Exist Passive Voice in Lakhota and Cheyenne?" Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas vol.7 (2012): 93.
Fisher Louise, Leroy Pine Sr., Marie Sanchez, and Wayne Leman, 2004. Cheyenne Dictionary. Lame Deer, Montana: Chief Dull Knife College.
Goddard, Ives. "The historical origins of Cheyenne inflections." Papers of the Thirty-First Algonquian Conference, edited by John D. Nichols. Winnnipeg: University of Manitoba, 2000. ISSN 0031-5671. pp.78-129. https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/31967?show=full
Mithun, Marianne. "The Languages of Native North America." Cambridge University Press, 1999
Murray, Sarah E. "Two Imperatives in Cheyenne: Some Preliminary Distinctions." In Monica Macaulay, et al. Papers of the Forty-Fourth Algonquian Conference. State University of New York Press. pp. 242–56.
Petter, Rodolphe. "English-Cheyenne Dictionary." Kettle Falls, WA: Rodolphe Petter, 1915
Petter, Rodolphe. "Sketch of the Cheyenne Grammar." Lancaster, PA: American Anthropological Association, 1905
Leman, Wayne. "A Reference Grammar of the Cheyenne Language." Lulu Press, 2011
External links
Cheyenne online dictionary, maintained at Chief Dull Knife College
Modern Southern Cheyenne alphabet and pronunciation key
FREELANG Cheyenne-English and English-Cheyenne online dictionary
Cheyenne language flashcards at Quizlet, based on
Cheyenne Language Website
Native Languages of the Americas: Cheyenne
Portions of the Anglican/Episcopal Prayer Book Cheyenne
Martin Luther's Small Catechism in Cheyenne
Lomax Collection Recording of Cheyenne (1956), Conversation
OLAC resources in and about the Cheyenne language
Language
Plains Algonquian languages
Indigenous languages of the North American Plains
Indigenous languages of Oklahoma
Indigenous languages of Montana
Agglutinative languages
Endangered languages of the United States
Tonal languages
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cakewalk
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Cakewalk
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The cakewalk was a dance developed from the "prize walks" (dance contests with a cake awarded as the prize) held in the mid-19th century, generally at get-togethers on Black slave plantations before and after emancipation in the Southern United States. Alternative names for the original form of the dance were "chalkline-walk", and the "walk-around". It was originally a processional partner dance danced with comical formality, and may have developed as a subtle mockery of the mannered dances of white slaveholders.
Following an exhibition of the cakewalk at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, the cakewalk was adopted by performers in minstrel shows, where it was danced exclusively by men until the 1890s. At that point, Broadway shows featuring women began to include cakewalks, and grotesque dances became very popular across the country.
The fluid and graceful steps of the dance may have given rise to the colloquialism that something accomplished with ease is a "cakewalk".
As a plantation dance
Firsthand accounts
The cakewalk was influenced by the ring shout, which survived from the 18th into the 20th century.
There is extensive first-person testimony from emancipated slaves about the culture and dancing they developed among themselves on the plantations, including the dances that developed into the cakewalk. Louise Jones spoke of "Sech dancin' you never seen before. Slaves would set de flo' in turns, an' do de cakewalk mos' all night." Georgia Baker said that she sang cakewalk songs as a child, and was amused that as an adult, she "would be cakewalkin' to de same song." Estella Jones described nighttime parties with elaborate dress, some of which were attended by the slaveowners, who would judge the dancing and award cakes to the winners.
Secondhand, oral-tradition accounts
James Weldon Johnson, born in 1871, recounted a cakewalk at a ball in his 1912 novel The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man.
Some secondhand accounts of the cakewalk describe it as a subtle mockery of the formal, mannered dancing practiced by slaveholding whites. The slaves would dress in handed-down finery and comically exaggerate the poised movements of minuets and waltzes. These accounts describe any slaveowners in attendance as unaware that they were being mocked. One man recalled such a dance that his childhood nanny had described to him: "Sometimes the white folks noticed it, but they seemed to like it; I guess they thought we couldn't dance any better." A 1981 article by Brooke Baldwin concludes that the cakewalk was meant "to satirize the competing culture of supposedly 'superior' whites. Slaveholders were able to dismiss its threat in their own minds by considering it as a simple performance which existed for their own pleasure".
Entertainer Tom Fletcher, born in 1873, wrote in 1954 that his grandparents told him about the chalk-line walk/cakewalk as a child, but had no information about its origins. In their version, "there was no prancing, just a straight walk on a path made by turns and so forth, along which the dancers made their way with a pail of water on their heads. The couple that was the most erect and spilled the least water or no water at all was the winner." He describes it being "revived with fancy steps by Charlie Johnson, a clever eccentric dancer" and becoming known as the "Cake Walk".
Alternative explanations
It has been suggested that the cakewalk originated in Florida, with the war dances of the Seminole Indians. Ethel L. Urlin, writing in the book Dancing, Ancient and Modern (1912), described these dances as consisting of "wild and hilarious jumping and gyrating, alternating with slow processions in which the dancers walked solemnly in couples," which he believed grew into the cakewalk style. The Encyclopedia of Social Dance echoed this, stating that the dance spread from Florida to Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and eventually New York, with the development of Florida into a winter tourist destination in the 1880s.
The authors of Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance reported that an informal experiment with African dancers undertaken in the 1950s turned up "no worthy African counterpart" to the Cakewalk. The same book noted eyewitness reports of dances from South Africa, Ghana, and Nigeria that bore a resemblance to the Cakewalk, with no elaboration.
Cakewalk in minstrelsy, musicals, and as a popular dance
Amiri Baraka in Blues People explained the strangeness of a slave dance covertly mocking white slaveholders that later was adopted by whites unaware of the mockery: "If the cakewalk is a Negro dance caricaturing certain white customs, what is that dance, when, say, a white theater company attempts to satirize it as a Negro dance? I find the idea of white minstrels in blackface satirizing a dance satirizing a dance satirizing themselves a remarkable kind of irony—which, I suppose, is the whole point of minstrel shows."
An exhibit at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial featured Black people singing folk songs and doing an old dance called the "chalk-line walk" in a plantation-like setting. The dance was "done in the original fashion", as described by Fletcher.
In 1877, performer-showmen Harrigan and Hart produced "Walking for Dat Cake, An Exquisite Picture of Negro Life and Customs" as a feature sketch at New York's Theater Comique on lower Broadway.
Thereafter it was performed in minstrel shows, exclusively by men until the 1890s. In the 1893 production of The Creole Show, which ran from 1889 to 1897, Dora Dean and her husband Charles E. Johnson were a hit with their specialty, a cakewalk danced as partners. Their production had an African-American cast, and featured women dancing, which was revolutionary for the time. The inclusion of women "made possible all sorts of improvisations in the Walk, and the original was soon changed into a grotesque dance" which became very popular across the country.
A Grand Cakewalk was held in Madison Square Garden, the largest commercial venue in New York City, on February 17, 1892.
The Illustrated London News carried an 1897 report of a cakewalk at a barn dance in Ashtabula, Ohio, written by an English woman traveler. This version was more of a procession and less of a dance: "Just before the ball was declared finished a long procession of couples was formed who walked in their very best manner around the room three times before the criticizing eyes of a dozen old people, who selected the best turned-out pair, and gravely presented them with a large plum cake.
In July 1898, the musical comedy Clorindy, or The Origin of the Cake Walk opened on Broadway in New York. Will Marion Cook wrote ragtime music for the show. Black dancers mingled with white cast members for the first instance of integration on stage in New York. According to Cook, the show was a resounding success: "My chorus sang like Russians, dancing meanwhile like Negroes, and cakewalking like angels, black angels! When the last note was sounded, the audience stood and cheered for at least ten minutes. This was the finale which Witmark had said no one would listen to. It was pandemonium .... But did that audience take offense at my rags and lack of conducting polish? Not so you could notice it!"
"Dusky troopers march & cake walk" was written by Will Hardy and published in 1900.
Scott Joplin mentioned the cake walk in his folk ballet The Ragtime Dance, published in 1902.
Let me see you do the rag-time dance,
Turn left and do the cakewalk prance,
Turn the other way and do the slow drag –
Now take your lady to the World's Fair
And do the rag-time dance.
The French music hall singer and dancer Eugénie Fougère was filmed in 1899 in the rag-time cake-walk "Hello, Ma Baby," with which she made a sensation at the New York Theatre. She is said to have introduced the dance in Paris (France) in 1900 in the Théâtre Marigny after she returned from a tour in the United States. The ambiguous "cake walk" became very popular quickly and Fougère appeared on the 18 October 1903 cover of Paris qui Chante dancing to the song Oh ! ce cake-walk.
Performances of the "Cake Walk", including a "Comedy Cake Walk" were filmed by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in 1903. Prancing steps were the main steps shown in the "Cake Walk" segment, which featured two couples, and a solo dancer. All dancers were African-American. 1903 was the same year that both the cakewalk and ragtime music arrived in Buenos Aires, Argentina, which may have influenced early styles of tango.
"Cakewalk King" Charles E. Johnson, who, with his wife Dora Jean, achieved fame cakewalking throughout the United States and Europe described his kind of dance as "simple, dignified and well-dressed".
Cakewalk as a musical form
Most cakewalk music is notated in time signature with two alternate heavy beats per bar, giving it an oompah rhythm. The music was adopted into the works of various composers, including Robert Russell Bennett, John Philip Sousa, Claude Debussy and Louis Moreau Gottschalk. Debussy wrote "Golliwogg's Cake-walk" as the final movement of his Children's Corner suite for piano (published 1908), and The Little Nigar, subtitled A Cakewalk, for a piano method in 1909. The Cake Walk dance originated from the two-step, a dance which was itself spawned by the popularity of Sousa's marches. Although it featured more improvisation than the two-step, it was still very formal compared to later African-American dances such as the Charleston, Black Bottom and Lindy Hop.
Cakewalk music incorporated polyrhythm, syncopation, and the habanera rhythm into the regular march rhythm.
Modern times
The American English term "cakewalk" was used as early as 1863 to indicate something that is very easy or effortless, although this metaphor may refer to the carnival game of the same name in referring to the fact that the latter's winners obtain their prize by doing no more than walking around in a circle. Though the dance itself could be physically demanding, it was generally considered a fun, recreational pastime, covertly mocking slaveholder dance parties. The phrase "takes the cake" also comes from this practice, as could "piece of cake."
One version of the cakewalk is sometimes taught, performed included in competitions within the Scottish-inspired Highland dance community, especially in the southern United States. In 2021, the Royal Scottish Official Board of Highland Dancing ruled to remove the dance from competition on the basis that it was derogatory to persons of color.
A version of the cakewalk seen in vintage film clips from the early 1900s is kept alive in the Lindy hop community through performances by the Hot Shots and through cakewalk classes held in conjunction with Lindy Hop classes and workshops.
Judy Garland and Margaret O'Brien perform a cakewalk in the 1944 MGM musical Meet Me in St. Louis.
Fairground ride
The original cakewalk dance inspired a fairground ride. The ride consists of two sides, customers walk along one side, around the end and back down the other. Each side has a central bridge mounted on cranks which give it an up and down motion as well as to and fro. On each end of the bridge section is a gangway and sliding platform. The British rides were often given an American name such as "Old Tyme Brooklyn Cakewalk" or "American Cakewalk" or variations thereon.
The first cakewalk ride is believed to have been built by Plimson and Taylor in 1895. Traditional cakewalks had an organ attached and on some of them if the organ sped up the walk also speed up. Cakewalks, or to be precise the "dancing" customers, were considered to be good spectacle which drew in more potential customers.
Notes
References
Gordon, Rae Beth (2009). Dances With Darwin, 1875-1910: Vernacular Modernity in France, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing,
External links
Extraordinary Story Of Why A 'Cakewalk' Wasn't Always Easy at NPR
Cakewalks in the Ragtime Era
Britannica Brief article on the cakewalk
Online Cake Walk Sheet Music
article on Cakewalk at BasinStreet.com
Cakewalk and Ragtime composer Arthur Pryor at BasinStreet.com
Dances of the United States
Ragtime
African-American dance
Blackface minstrelsy
Dance terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Borrow
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George Borrow
|
George Henry Borrow (5 July 1803 – 26 July 1881) was an English writer of novels and of travel based on personal experiences in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |author=John Sutherland |author-link=John Sutherland (author) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzJ3yNVVqtUC&pg=PA77 |chapter=Borrow, George |pages=77 |title=The Stanford Companion to Victorian Literature |orig-year=1989 |year=1990 |isbn=9780804718424}}</ref> His travels gave him a close affinity with the Romani people of Europe, who figure strongly in his work. His best-known books are The Bible in Spain and the novels Lavengro and The Romany Rye set in his time with the English Romanichal (Gypsies).
Early life
Borrow was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, the son of an army recruiting officer, Thomas Borrow (1758–1824) and farmer's daughter, Ann Perfrement (1772–1858). His father, a lieutenant with the West Norfolk Militia, was quartered at the prisoner-of-war camp at Norman Cross from July 1811 to April 1813 and George spent his ninth and tenth years in the barracks there. He was educated at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and Norwich Grammar School.
Borrow studied law, but languages and literature became his main interests. In 1825, he began his first major European journey, walking in France and Germany. Over the next few years he visited Russia, Portugal, Spain and Morocco, acquainting himself with the people and languages of countries he visited. After his marriage on 23 April 1840, he settled in Lowestoft, Suffolk, but continued to travel inside and outside the United Kingdom.
Borrow in Ireland
Having a military father, Borrow grew up at various army posts. In the autumn of 1815, he accompanied the regiment to Clonmel in Ireland, where he attended the Protestant Academy and learned to read Latin and Greek "from a nice old clergyman". He was also introduced to the Irish language by a fellow student named Murtagh, who tutored him in return for a pack of playing cards. In keeping with the political friction of the time, he learned to sing "the glorious tune 'Croppies Lie Down'" at the military barracks. He was introduced to horsemanship and learned to ride without a saddle. The regiment moved to Templemore early in 1816, and Borrow began ranging around the country on foot and later on horseback.
After less than a year in Ireland, the regiment returned to Norwich. As the threat of war receded, the strength of the unit was greatly reduced.
Early career
Borrow's precocious linguistic skills as a youth made him a protégé of the Norwich-born scholar William Taylor, whom he depicted in his autobiographical novel Lavengro (1851) as an advocate of German Romantic literature. Recalling his youth in Norwich some 30 years earlier, Borrow depicted an old man (Taylor) and a young man (Borrow) discussing the merits of German literature, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther. Taylor confessed himself to be no admirer of either The Sorrows of Young Werther or its author, but he stated, "It is good to be a German [for] the Germans are the most philosophical people in the world."
With Taylor's encouragement, Borrow embarked on his first translation, Friedrich Maximilian Klinger's version of the Faust legend, entitled Faustus, his Life, Death and Descent into Hell, first published in St Petersburg in 1791. In his translation, Borrow altered the name of one city, so making one passage of the legend read:
They found the people of the place modelled after so unsightly a pattern, with such ugly figures and flat features that the devil owned he had never seen them equalled, except by the inhabitants of an English town, called Norwich, when dressed in their Sunday's best.
For this lampooning of Norwich society, the Norwich public subscription library burned his first publication.
Russian visit
As a linguist adept at acquiring new languages, Borrow informed the British and Foreign Bible Society, "I possess some acquaintance with the Russian, being able to read without much difficulty any printed Russian book."
He left Norwich for St Petersburg on 13 August 1833. Borrow was charged by the Bible Society with supervising a translation of the Bible into Manchu. As a traveller, he was overwhelmed by the beauty of St Petersburg: "Notwithstanding I have previously heard and read much of the beauty and magnificence of the Russian capital.... There can be no doubt that it is the finest City in Europe, being pre-eminent for the grandeur of its public edifices and the length and regularity of its streets."
During his two-year stay in Russia, Borrow called upon the writer Alexander Pushkin, who was out on a social visit. He left two copies of his translations of Pushkin's literary works and later Pushkin expressed regret at not meeting him.
Borrow described the Russian people as "the best-natured kindest people in the world, and though they do not know as much as the English, they have not the fiendish, spiteful dispositions, and if you go amongst them and speak their language, however badly, they would go through fire and water to do you a kindness."
Borrow had a lifelong empathy with nomadic people such as the Romany (or Gypsy) people, especially Romany music, dance and customs. He became so familiar with the Romany language as to publish a dictionary of it. In the summer of 1835, he visited Russian Roma camped outside Moscow. His impressions formed part of the opening chapter of his The Zincali: or an account of the Gypsies of Spain (1841). With his mission of supervising a Manchu translation of the Bible completed, Borrow returned to Norwich in September 1835. In his report to the Bible Society he wrote:
I quitted that country, and am compelled to acknowledge, with regret. I went thither prejudiced against that country, the government and the people; the first is much more agreeable than is generally supposed; the second is seemingly the best adapted for so vast an empire; and the third, even the lowest classes, are in general kind, hospitable, and benevolent.
Spanish mission
Such was Borrow's success that on 11 November 1835 he set off for Spain, once more as a Bible Society agent. Borrow said that he stayed in Spain for nearly five years. His reminiscences of Spain were the basis of his travelogue The Bible in Spain (1843). He wrote:
[T]he huge population of Madrid, with the exception of a sprinkling of foreigners... is strictly Spanish, though a considerable portion are not natives of the place. Here are no colonies of Germans, as at Saint Petersburg; no English factories, as at Lisbon; no multitudes of insolent Yankees lounging through the streets, as at the Havannah, with an air which seems to say, the land is our own whenever we choose to take it; but a population which, however strange or wild, and composed of various elements, is Spanish, and will remain so as long as the city itself shall exist.
Borrow translated the Gospel of Luke into the Romani and Basque languages. These were published in 1838, but both translations were banned for personal sale, with only public libraries being permitted copies.
Later life
In 1840 Borrow's career with the British and Foreign Bible Society came to an end, and he married Mary Clarke, a widow with a grown-up daughter called Henrietta, and a small estate at Oulton, Suffolk near Lowestoft. There Borrow began to write his books. The Zincali (1841) was moderately successful and The Bible in Spain (1843) was a huge success, making Borrow a celebrity overnight, but the eagerly awaited Lavengro (1851) and The Romany Rye (1857) puzzled many readers, who were not sure how much was fact and how much fiction – a question debated to this day. Borrow made one more overseas journey, across Europe to Istanbul in 1844, but the rest of his travels were in the UK: long walking tours in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Cornwall and the Isle of Man. Of these, only the Welsh tour yielded a book, Wild Wales (1862).
Borrow's restlessness, perhaps, led to the family, which had lived in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, in the 1850s, moving to London in the 1860s. Borrow visited the Romanichal encampments in Wandsworth and Battersea, and wrote one more book, Romano Lavo-Lil, a wordbook of the Anglo-Romany dialect (1874). Mary Borrow died in 1869, and in 1874 he returned to Lowestoft, where he was later joined by his stepdaughter Henrietta and her husband, who looked after him until his death there on 26 July 1881. He is buried with his wife in Brompton Cemetery, London.
Borrow was said to be a man of striking appearance and deeply original character. Although he failed to find critical acclaim in his lifetime, modern reviewers often praise his eccentric and cheerful style – "one of the most unusual people to have written in English in the last two hundred years" according to one.
Museum and memorials
In 1913, the Lord Mayor of Norwich bought Borrow's house in Willow Lane. It was renamed Borrow House, presented to the City of Norwich, and for many years open to the public as the Borrow Museum. The museum was closed and the house sold in 1994, but the proceeds went to establish a George Borrow Trust that aims to promote his works.
There are memorial blue plaques marking his residences at 22 Hereford Square, South Kensington, Fjaerland Hotel, Trafalgar Road, Great Yarmouth, and the former museum in Willow Lane, Norwich. In December 2011, a plaque was unveiled on a house, 16, Calle Santiago, Madrid, where he lived from 1836 to 1840. George Borrow Road, a residential crescent in the west of Norwich, is named after him. There is a George Borrow Hotel in Ponterwyd near Aberystwyth. A pub in Dereham is named The Romany Rye after one of his principal works.
A ketch, the FV George Borrow (LT956), was named after him. Built in 1902, the George Borrow sailed until 1915, when it was destroyed by a German U-boat (the SM UB-10). The skipper of the George Borrow was Thomas Crisp, who, in 1917, would go on to be awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross.
Principal worksThe Zincali (1841)The Bible in Spain (1843)Lavengro (1851)The Romany Rye (1857)Wild Wales (1862)Romano Lavo-lil (1874) A dictionary of the language of the English Romanichal people.
Notes
References
W. I. Knapp: Life, Writings and Correspondence of George Borrow, London, 1899
R. A. J. Walling: George Borrow: The Man and His Work, London, 1908
T. H. Darlow (ed.): Letters of George Borrow to the British and Foreign Bible Society, London, 1911
H. G. Jenkins: The Life of George Borrow, London 1924, 2nd edition (first edition 1912)
M. D. Armstrong: George Borrow, London, 1950
M. Collie: George Borrow, Eccentric, Cambridge, 1982
David Williams: A World of his Own. The Double Life of George Borrow, Oxford, 1982
External links
The full text of Wild Wales: Its People, Language and Scenery on A Vision of Britain through Time, with links to the places Borrow mentions.
George Borrow, by Edward Thomas. 1912 biography from Project Gutenberg
George Borrow and His Circle (1913), by Clement King Shorter, 1857–1926, at Project GutenbergWherein May Be Found Many Hitherto Unpublished Letters Of Borrow And His Friends''.
The George Borrow Trust
The George Borrow Society
George Borrow and Norfolk
George Borrow Studies
The Life of George Borrow, by Herbert Jenkins. 1912
Archival material at
1803 births
1881 deaths
19th-century British novelists
19th-century English non-fiction writers
British expatriates in the Russian Empire
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
English evangelicals
English male novelists
English travel writers
People educated at Norwich School
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
People from Dereham
People from Lowestoft
Translators of the Bible into China's tribal languages
Victorian novelists
Translators of the Bible into Basque
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Sisko
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Benjamin Sisko
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Benjamin Lafayette Sisko is a fictional character in the Star Trek franchise. He appears in the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (DS9). He is portrayed by actor Avery Brooks. The character was featured prominently on the television show between 1993 and 1999, which aired on syndicated television in the United States. He was the lead in the third major Star Trek live-action television series, after Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation. The character has also been utilized in various books, comics, and video games of the Star Trek franchise.
Character history
Early life and career
Born in 2332 in New Orleans, Louisiana, Benjamin is the son of Joseph Sisko, the chef and owner of the restaurant "Sisko's Creole Kitchen," or "Sisko's" for short. His birth mother was a human woman named Sarah. However, Sarah was possessed by one of the Bajoran Prophets (the entities that exist inside the Bajoran wormhole), and manipulated into marrying Joseph in order to conceive Benjamin. Sarah and Joseph were happily married until Sarah disappeared two days after Ben's first birthday, when the life-form left her body. She died in an accident several years later. Joseph eventually met and married another woman, who went on to raise Benjamin as her own son. Benjamin remained unaware of these events until well into his adulthood and long after he had otherwise made contact with the Bajoran Prophets. Ben has a sister named Judith, and at least two brothers.
Sisko entered Starfleet Academy in 2350. During his sophomore year, he was in a field-study assignment on Starbase 137. He met a woman named Jennifer in Babylon, New York, on Gilgo Beach, shortly after graduating from the Academy. The two eventually wed and had a son named Jake.
As a Starfleet officer coming up through the ranks, Sisko was mentored by Curzon Dax, a joined Trill serving as United Federation of Planets ambassador to the Klingon Empire, when the two were stationed aboard the USS Livingston early in Sisko's career. The symbiotic nature of the joined Trill becomes a significant aspect to Sisko's later relationships with his science officer Jadzia Dax and counselor Ezri Dax.
Sisko served aboard the USS Okinawa under Captain Leyton, who saw command potential in the young officer; Leyton promoted Sisko to Lieutenant Commander and made him his executive officer. It was during this assignment that Sisko and Leyton fought in the war between the Federation and the Tzenkethi.
Sisko eventually transferred to the USS Saratoga as its first officer. In early 2367, the Saratoga was one of the 40 Starfleet vessels involved in the Battle of Wolf 359 against the Borg.
In an attempt to gain knowledge about Starfleet defenses, the Borg assimilated Captain Jean-Luc Picard of the U.S.S. Enterprise, creating a Borg drone known as Locutus. In the ensuing battle, of the forty Federation starships amassed at Wolf 359 only the USS Endeavour (NCC-71805) survived. An estimated 11,000 people were lost, including Sisko's wife, Jennifer.
Afterward, Sisko took a position at the Utopia Planitia Fleet Yards on Mars. There he oversaw the development of new ships intended to contend with the Borg threat. One such ship, the USS Defiant, was later used against the Dominion.
Sisko was promoted to Captain on stardate 48959 during the episode "The Adversary".
Deep Space Nine
In 2369, Sisko is assigned to the Bajoran sector to command Deep Space Nine and help Bajor's recovery from the recently concluded Cardassian occupation, shepherding them toward possible membership in the Federation. Sisko and his son Jake reluctantly take up residence on the station. Recognizing that the assignment on DS9 is not an "ideal environment" in which to raise a son, Sisko contemplates resigning his commission. Adding to Sisko's discomfort is the presence of Captain Picard, who briefs him on his mission. Sisko continues to harbor deep resentment toward Picard for his role, however unwilling, in the death of his wife.
Upon Sisko's first visit to Bajor, the Kai (Bajor's spiritual leader), Opaka Sulan, labels him "the Emissary of the Prophets" and gives him one of the Bajoran Orbs, that supposedly comes from Bajor's Prophets. By studying the orb and nearby stellar phenomenon, Jadzia Dax finds a location of unusual activity in the nearby Denorios Belt. Traveling there, Dax and Sisko discover the first known stable wormhole; the other end of which connects to the Gamma Quadrant. During their return trip through the wormhole, Sisko and Dax encounter the mysterious entities living within it. The devoutly spiritual Bajorans believe the wormhole to be the "Celestial Temple" and the entities to be the Prophets, respectively. These entities exist outside linear time. Sisko's first contact with the entities is awkward and difficult for both parties; but the encounter helps Sisko recognize that he has never allowed himself to move beyond the bitterness and grief of losing his wife, as well as his anger towards Picard. After leaving the wormhole, Sisko embraces the opportunity to move forward and command Deep Space Nine and adopts a less hostile attitude towards Picard before his departure.
After the station is moved to the mouth of the wormhole to firmly claim it for Bajor, it becomes a new hub of scientific, commercial and political activity. Sisko at first clashes with Major Kira Nerys and on more than one occasion has to rein her in by asserting his authority. However, as time passed, the two came to have great respect for and trust in each other. Their relationship reached a new level of personal comfort when Sisko was injured during a battle with the Dominion and Kira did her best to care for him; telling him a story and praying to the Prophets in process. During this, she realized that Sisko had kept her at a certain professional distance because of his role as the Emissary but this softened after this event.
Sisko's assignment to the station also saw him reunited with an old friend in a new form. Jadzia, a female Trill and the current host to Dax had been assigned as the science officer to Deep Space Nine. The Dax symbiont had previously been joined to Curzon Dax; a Federation Diplomat who had been an old friend and mentor to Sisko early in his career. Indeed, Sisko would call Jadzia "old man", the same nickname he had used with Curzon. Sisko, would, at times, seek Dax's advice and she would also ask his at times. Most especially when the symbiont belonging to one of Dax's previous hosts wives arrived in a new host and Dax felt conflicted. When the Dax Symbiont was passed on to a new host due to the death of Jadzia, Sisko acted as something of a mentor to the new host, Ezri Dax.
Ezri was a young and inexperienced officer that had been joined to Dax when the symbiont's health seriously declined en route to the Trill home planet and a new host was required to save it. Ezri had not been prepared to be joined and had never wanted to be, so joining with Dax was rough for her. Sisko met Ezri for the first time while he was still on extended personal leave on Earth and Ezri subsequently assisted the Sisko family in their search for a new Bajoran orb. Upon meeting Ezri, Sisko promised to help her through the transition of being joined as well as helping her come to terms with the reality of her situation and Sisko found comfort in having his friend back, if even indirectly. After these events, Sisko returned to duty and arranged for Ezri's transfer to the station and posting as the station's counselor.
The wormhole's discovery cements in Opaka's and other Bajorans' minds the notion that Sisko is the Emissary of the Prophets, a title and set of responsibilities which initially makes Sisko uneasy, forcing him to walk a fine line in avoiding any violation of the Prime Directive. However, Sisko warms up to and eventually embraces his fated role in the Bajoran faith.
When Sisko leads the Defiant into the wormhole to intercept a Dominion fleet, the Prophets intervene. Sisko, at this point, has not fulfilled his destiny; to ensure that he survives, the Prophets erase the Dominion forces from existence.
Sisko plays a critical role in the intrigue of the Alpha Quadrant. His actions prove key in the security of Earth and the whole Alpha Quadrant. Examples include when he meets his former Captain, Admiral Leyton and learns that he planned on overthrowing the Federation government. Leyton framed Sisko as a shapeshifter who infiltrated Starfleet by faking a blood test. Sisko subsequently escaped custody with the help of Odo and stopped Leyton's plans. During the Klingon invasion of Cardassia, he is crucial to exposing the shapeshifter impersonating Klingon general Martok. Sisko's exploits continue during the Dominion's invasion of the Alpha Quadrant, eventually working alongside Vice Admiral William Ross to help plan massive actions against the Dominion and their Cardassian and Breen allies. Sisko's contributions to the war effort are sometimes more surreptitious, such as his clandestine work with former Obsidian Order operative Elim Garak. Specifically, Garak and Sisko work to bring the Romulans into the war by creating an elaborate ruse. He and Garak, with the help of a petty criminal, create a sophisticated holoprogram, specifically the recording of a high-level Dominion meeting planning the invasion of Romulus. They were to then give the fabricated evidence to Senator Vreenak, a Romulan Senator visiting the station who had staunch pro-Dominion leanings. As the ruse progressed however, due to several unforeseen complications that arose along the way, Sisko was grudgingly forced to set aside his an increasing amount of his moral certainty to make the plan a success and save the Federation, such as bribing Quark, and becoming an accessory to murder twice over. Vreenak discovered the forgery quickly enough, and angrily departed the station, determined to expose Sisko's plan to the entire Quadrant. En route back to Romulus, however, he was assassinated by a bomb Garak had clandestinely planted in his shuttle. Ironically, it wasn't the holoprogram itself, but Vreenak's assassination that brought the Romulans into the war, since the Tal Shiar (the Romulan equivalent of the Obsidian Order) believed the senator was assassinated by the Dominion after he found evidence of their planned invasion, and not by Garak, after discovering the data rod containing the holoprogram of the invasion plans that the Tal Shair assumed he was bring back to Romulus to warn his government, and any errors or flaws in the data stored within the rod was due to from damage from the explosion and not because it was a sophisticated forgery. Sisko was enraged when he figured out that Garak was behind the assassination, but later admitted with a note of bitterness that Garak was right, in that two deaths and an uneasy conscience was a very small price to pay in order to save the entire Alpha Quadrant.
Sisko fulfills the Prophets' destiny for him in the series finale, "What You Leave Behind", by confronting the Kosst Amojan-possessed Gul Dukat. They fight, and Dukat seems to be the winner, but in a last effort, Sisko throws himself and Dukat into the fiery abyss of the Bajoran Fire Caves, and Sisko is pulled into the Prophets' plane of existence to live with and learn from them. Sisko imparts a farewell to his new—and pregnant— wife, Kasidy Yates, informing her that although he does not know when, he will eventually return to her.
Personal life
Sisko was first married to Jennifer Sisko, with whom he had a son, Jake.
As seen in the pilot episode "Emissary", Sisko harbored a deep resentment towards Captain Jean-Luc Picard for years because it was Picard, as Locutus of Borg, who led the Borg attack against the Federation at the Battle of Wolf 359. Sisko lost his wife, Jennifer, during the Borg attack, forcing Sisko to raise their young son, Jake, as a single parent. To take care of Jake, Sisko placed his Starfleet career on hold by taking up a backwater position at the Federation Utopia Planitia shipyard orbiting Mars.
Sisko remained a widower and single parent for many years. Eventually Sisko reluctantly accepted a posting as commander of Deep Space Nine orbiting the planet Bajor, where he eventually married a space freighter captain, Kasidy Yates.
Sisko loves baseball, a sport that has largely disappeared by the 24th century but is kept alive by a small group of aficionados. He keeps a baseball on the desk in his office (given to him by an alien impersonating Buck Bokai, Sisko's favorite historical baseball player, halfway through the first season), and often picks it up and tosses it around when deep in thought. When the Dominion captures DS9, Sisko leaves the ball in his office as a message that he intends to return (this can also be seen in the second season three-parter, consisting of "Homecoming," "The Circle" and "The Siege" and also the Season 5 finale, "Call To Arms"). After Jadzia Dax's death in the Season 6 finale, "Tears of the Prophets", he takes the baseball with him to Earth, causing Kira Nerys to worry that he will not return.
Like his father, a chef, Sisko also enjoys cooking. His father owns a restaurant in New Orleans, and specialized in Creole cuisine.
It is also widely known that Sisko wants to become an Admiral; he states this intent to Admiral Ross during his temporary assignment at a starbase under Ross' command.
Alter egos
Sisko can also be identified as two other characters in the Star Trek universe:
Benny Russell
In the episode "Far Beyond the Stars", Sisko considers resigning his commission after losing an old friend during the Dominion War and the Prophets intervene, making Sisko briefly live the life of Benny Russell, a science fiction short story writer in 1950s America. (The other people in Russell's life are played by Brooks' DS9 co-stars, allowing them to appear without the heavy prosthetic makeup of their alien characters and show viewers their true appearance.)
Every day, Russell faces the prejudices of his world; his publisher does not even allow his photograph to be printed. He writes a story called "Deep Space Nine" that takes place in a universe without prejudice and bigotry. However, his publisher refuses to release the story because he makes the commander of the space station a black man. This injustice eventually drives Benny insane; soon after, Sisko finds himself back in the 24th century, understanding his place is aboard the station but questioning the nature of reality.
Later, in "Shadows and Symbols", Sisko experiences more flashbacks to his "life" as Benny Russell, now in a mental institution, obsessively writing the episode, synchronously, on the wall. Although it seems to be left ambiguous as to whether Benny is real or the Prophets' creation, at the end of this episode, the wormhole alien he was hunting says, "The Kosst Amojan tried to stop you with a false vision", implying that the Pah-wraiths were implanting the Russell fantasy into Sisko's mind to throw him off his mission.
Gabriel Bell
Due to a time travel incident depicted in "Past Tense" (S3E11 & E12), Sisko is transported to early-21st-century Earth where his presence unintentionally causes the death of Gabriel Bell, an important figure in early-21st-century America. Sisko takes Bell's place to preserve the timeline. Sisko (as "Bell") instigates the Bell Riots, which helped change the course of human history.
Although Sisko is successful in fulfilling Bell's destiny and preserving the timeline, historical images of Bell after this point show Sisko's image.
Cultural references
In Sunshine by Robin McKinley, the title character mentions a tour company called "Earth Trek" operated by a man named Benjamin Sisko.
Reception
In 2009, IGN ranked Sisko as the 8th best character of Star Trek overall. In 2012, Paste Magazine rated Sisko as the #9 character of all Star Trek live-action television shows up to that time. In 2016, ScreenRant rated Benjamin Sisko as the fourth best character in Star Trek overall as presented in television and film up to that time. In 2016, Sisko was ranked as the 2nd most important character of Starfleet within the Star Trek science fiction universe by Wired magazine.
In 2017, The Washington Post ranked Sisko as the second best Captain of Star Trek, and compared him to the American WW2 General and US President Eisenhower. They note how he tried to raise his son on the wayward space station despite being widowed, while contending with crew of dubious loyalties. In 2017, Space.com ranked Sisko the fifth best captain of Star Trek. In 2017, Screen Rant ranked the Sisko the 3rd most attractive person in the Star Trek universe, in between Seven of Nine and Nyota Uhura.
In 2019, Cinema Blend ranked Sisko the fourth best Star Trek Starfleet character of all time. Sisko was rated as one of the top seven time travelers of the Star Trek franchise by Nerdist in 2019, especially for his time traveling adventures in "Trials and Tribble-ations" and "Past Tense".
In 2018, CBR ranked Sisko the third best Starfleet character of Star Trek, in between Janeway and Picard.
References
External links
Emissary of the Prophets article at Memory Alpha
Benjamin Sisko at StarTrek.com
Fictional African-American people
Fictional characters from New Orleans
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional chefs
Fictional commanders
Fictional orphans
Fictional prophets
Fictional war criminals
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters
Starfleet captains
Starfleet commanders
Starfleet officers
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