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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf%20359
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Wolf 359
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Wolf 359 is a red dwarf star located in the constellation Leo, near the ecliptic. At a distance of approximately 7.9 light years from Earth, it has an apparent magnitude of 13.54 and can only be seen with a large telescope. Wolf 359 is one of the nearest stars to the Sun; only the Alpha Centauri system (including Proxima Centauri), Barnard's Star, the brown dwarfs Luhman 16 (WISE 1049-5319), and WISE 0855−0714 are known to be closer. Its proximity to Earth has led to its mention in several works of fiction.
Wolf 359 is one of the faintest and lowest-mass stars known. At the light-emitting layer called the photosphere, it has a temperature of about 2,800 K, which is low enough for chemical compounds to form and survive. The absorption lines of compounds such as water and titanium(II) oxide have been observed in the spectrum. The surface has a magnetic field that is stronger than the average magnetic field on the Sun. As a result of magnetic activity caused by convection, Wolf 359 is a flare star that can undergo sudden increases in luminosity for several minutes. These flares emit strong bursts of X-ray and gamma ray radiation that have been observed by space telescopes. Wolf 359 is a relatively young star with an age of less than a billion years. Two planetary companions are suspected but as yet no debris disks have been unmasked.
Observation history and name
Wolf 359 first came to the attention of astronomers because of the relatively high rate of transverse motion against the background, known as the proper motion. A high rate of proper motion can indicate that a star is located nearby, as more distant stars must move at higher velocities in order to achieve the same rate of angular travel across the celestial sphere. The proper motion of Wolf 359 was first measured in 1917 by German astronomer Max Wolf, with the aid of astrophotography. In 1919 he published a catalog of over one thousand stars with high proper motions, including this one, that are still identified by his name. He listed this star as entry number 359, and the star has since been referred to as Wolf 359 in reference to Max Wolf's catalogue.
The first parallax measurement of Wolf 359 was reported in 1928 from the Mount Wilson Observatory, yielding an annual shift in the star's position of . From this position change, and the known size of the Earth's orbit, the distance to the star could be estimated. It was the lowest-mass and faintest star known until the discovery of VB 10 in 1944. The infrared magnitude of the star was measured in 1957. In 1969, a brief flare in the luminosity of Wolf 359 was observed, linking it to the class of variable stars known as flare stars.
Properties
Wolf 359 has a stellar classification of M6.5, although various sources list a spectral class of M5.5, M6 or M8. Most M-type stars are red dwarfs: they are called red because the energy emission of the star reaches a peak in the red and infrared parts of the spectrum. Wolf 359 has a very low luminosity, emitting about 0.1% of the Sun's energy. If it were moved to the location of the Sun, it would appear ten times as bright as the full Moon.
At an estimated 9% of the Sun's mass, Wolf 359 is just above the lowest limit at which a star can perform hydrogen fusion through the proton–proton chain reaction: 8% of the Sun's mass. (Substellar objects below this limit are known as brown dwarfs.) The radius of Wolf 359 is an estimated 16% of the Sun's radius, or about 110,000 km. For comparison, the equatorial radius of the planet Jupiter is 71,492 km, which is 65% as large as Wolf 359's.
The entire star is undergoing convection, whereby the energy generated at the core is being transported toward the surface by the convective motion of plasma, rather than by transmission through radiation. This circulation redistributes any accumulation of helium that is generated through stellar nucleosynthesis at the core throughout the star. This process will allow the star to remain on the main sequence as a hydrogen fusing star proportionately longer than a star such as the Sun where helium steadily accumulates at the core. In combination with a lower rate of hydrogen consumption due to its low mass, the convection will allow Wolf 359 to remain a main-sequence star for about eight trillion years.
A search of this star by the Hubble Space Telescope revealed no stellar companions, but two candidate planets have since been detected. No excess infrared emission has been detected, which may indicate the lack of a debris disk in orbit around it. Radial velocity measurements of this star using the Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSPEC) instrument at the Keck II observatory have not revealed any variations that might otherwise indicate the presence of an orbiting companion. This instrumentation is sensitive enough to detect the gravitational perturbations of massive, short period companions with the mass of Neptune or greater.
Outer atmosphere
The outer, light-emitting layer of a star is known as the photosphere. Temperature estimates of the photosphere of Wolf 359 range from 2,500 K to 2,900 K, which is sufficiently cool for equilibrium chemistry to occur. The resulting chemical compounds survive long enough to be observed through their spectral lines. Numerous molecular bands appear in the spectrum of Wolf 359, including those of carbon monoxide (CO), iron hydride (FeH), chromium hydride (CrH), water (H2O), magnesium hydride (MgH), vanadium(II) oxide (VO), titanium(II) oxide (TiO) and possibly the molecule CaOH. Since there are no lines of lithium in the spectrum, this element must have already been consumed by fusion at the core. This indicates the star must be at least 100 million years old.
Beyond the photosphere lies a nebulous, high temperature region known as the stellar corona. In 2001, Wolf 359 became the first star other than the Sun to have the spectrum of its corona observed from a ground-based telescope. The spectrum showed emission lines of Fe XIII, which is heavily ionized iron that has been stripped of twelve of its electrons. The strength of this line can vary over a time period of several hours, which may be evidence of microflare heating.
Wolf 359 is classified as a UV Ceti-type flare star, which is a star that undergoes brief, energetic increases in luminosity because of magnetic activity in the photosphere. Its variable star designation is CN Leonis. Wolf 359 has a relatively high flare rate. Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope detected 32 flare events within a two-hour period, with energies of 1027 ergs (1020 joules) and higher. The mean magnetic field at the surface of Wolf 359 has a strength of about 2.2 kG (0.22 teslas), but this varies significantly on time scales as short as six hours. By comparison, the magnetic field of the Sun averages 1 gauss (100 μT), although it can rise as high as 3 kG (0.3 T) in active sunspot regions. During flare activity, Wolf 359 has been observed emitting X-rays and gamma rays.
Motion
The rotation of a star causes a Doppler shift to the spectrum. On average, this results in a broadening of the absorption lines in its spectrum, with the lines increasing in width with higher rates of rotation. However, only the rotational motion in the direction of the observer can be measured by this means, so the resulting data provides a lower limit on the star's rotation. This projected rotational velocity of Wolf 359's equator is less than 3 km/s, which is below the threshold of detection through spectral line broadening. This low rate of rotation may have been caused by loss of angular momentum through a stellar wind. Typically, the time scale for the spin down of a star at spectral class M6 is roughly 10 billion years, because fully convective stars like this lose their rotation more slowly than other stars. However, evolutionary models suggest that Wolf 359 is a relatively young star with an age of less than a billion years.
The proper motion Wolf 359 against the background is 4.696 arcseconds per year, and it is moving away from the Sun at a velocity of 19 km/s. When translated into the galactic coordinate system, this motion corresponds to a space velocity of = . The space velocity of Wolf 359 implies that it belongs to the population of old-disk stars. It follows an orbit through the Milky Way that will bring it as close as and as distant as from the Galactic Center. The galactic orbit has an eccentricity of 0.156, and the star can travel as far as away from the galactic plane. The closest stellar neighbor to Wolf 359 is the red dwarf Ross 128 at away. Approximately 13,850 years ago, Wolf 359 was at its minimal distance of about from the Sun.
Planetary system
In June of 2019, an international team of astronomers led by Mikko Tuomi from the University of Hertfordshire, UK, submitted a paper to a publication for peer-review with the results of the first reported detection of two candidate exoplanets orbiting Wolf 359 using the radial velocity method from observations with HARPS in Chile and HIRES in Hawaii. The setup of the system is similar to but more extreme than that of nearby red dwarf Proxima Centauri, both having a close-in low-mass planet and a farther out higher-mass planet. The inner planet, Wolf 359c, receives about three times more stellar radiation than Earth does, making it very unlikely to be a habitable planet.
See also
List of brown dwarfs
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
Wolf 359 in fiction
References
External links
The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight
Table with parallaxes.
Leo (constellation)
Local Bubble
M-type main-sequence stars
Flare stars
Leonis, CN
0359
0406
Planetary systems with two confirmed planets
TIC objects
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] |
205661
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Poa%20species
|
List of Poa species
|
The following species in the grass genus Poa are accepted by Plants of the World Online. Speciation in this genus is marked by interspecific and even intergeneric hybridization events.
Poa abbreviata
Poa acicularifolia
Poa acinaciphylla
Poa acroleuca
Poa adusta
Poa aequalis
Poa aequatoriensis
Poa aequigluma
Poa affinis
Poa afghanica
Poa aitchisonii
Poa ajanensis
Poa akmanii
Poa alberti
Poa albescens
Poa × alexandrae
Poa almasovii
Poa alopecurus
Poa alpigena
Poa alpina
Poa alsodes
Poa alta
Poa amplexicaulis
Poa amplivaginata
Poa amurica
Poa anae
Poa anceps
Poa androgyna
Poa angustifolia
Poa ankaratrensis
Poa annua
Poa antipoda
Poa apiculata
Poa arachnifera
Poa araratica
Poa archarensis
Poa arctica
Poa arechavaletae
Poa arida
Poa arnowiae
Poa arzhanensis
Poa asirensis
Poa asperifolia
Poa astonii
Poa atropidiformis
Poa atropurpurea
Poa attalica
Poa attenuata
Poa aucklandica
Poa auriculata
Poa aurigae
Poa × austrohercynica
Poa austrokurilensis
Poa austrouralensis
Poa autumnalis
Poa ayacuchensis
Poa ayseniensis
Poa babiogorensis
Poa bactriana
Poa badensis
Poa bajaensis
Poa balbisii
Poa banffiana
Poa bergii
Poa beringiana
Poa bigelovii
Poa binata
Poa binodis
Poa bolanderi
Poa boliviana
Poa bomiensis
Poa bonariensis
Poa borbonica
Poa boreorossica
Poa borneensis
Poa bradei
Poa breviglumis
Poa brevis
Poa bromoides
Poa buchananii
Poa bucharica
Poa bulbosa
Poa burmanica
Poa bussmannii
Poa cabreriana
Poa calchaquiensis
Poa calliopsis
Poa callosa
Poa calycina
Poa carazensis
Poa carpatica
Poa caucasica
Poa celebica
Poa celsa
Poa cenisia
Poa chaixii
Poa chamaeclinos
Poa chambersii
Poa chapmaniana
Poa chathamica
Poa cheelii
Poa chirripoensis
Poa chokensis
Poa cita
Poa clavigera
Poa clelandii
Poa clivicola
Poa × coarctata
Poa cockayneana
Poa colensoi
Poa colombiana
Poa × complanata
Poa compressa
Poa confinis
Poa congesta
Poa cookii
Poa cooperi
Poa cordemoyi
Poa costiniana
Poa crassicaudex
Poa crassicaulis
Poa crassinervis
Poa cucullata
Poa cumingii
Poa curtifolia
Poa cusickii
Poa cuspidata
Poa cyrenaica
Poa czazhmensis
Poa damavandica
Poa darwiniana
Poa davisii
Poa deminuta
Poa densa
Poa denticulata
Poa dentigluma
Poa denudata
Poa diaboli
Poa diaphora
Poa × digena
Poa dimorphantha
Poa dipsacea
Poa disjecta
Poa dissanthelioides
Poa diversifolia
Poa dolichophylla
Poa dolosa
Poa douglasii
Poa dozyi
Poa drummondiana
Poa dudkinii
Poa durifolia
Poa dzongicola
Poa egorovae
Poa eleanorae
Poa ensiformis
Poa epileuca
Poa erectifolia
Poa exigua
Poa faberi
Poa falconeri
Poa fauriei
Poa fawcettiae
Poa fax
Poa fendleriana
Poa ferreyrae
Poa fibrifera
Poa × figertii
Poa filiculmis
Poa fischeri
Poa flabellata
Poa flaccidula
Poa flexuosa
Poa foliosa
Poa fordeana
Poa × fossae-rusticorum
Poa fragilis
Poa gamblei
Poa gammieana
Poa × gandogeri
Poa garhwalensis
Poa × gaspensis
Poa gayana
Poa gigantea
Poa gilgiana
Poa glaberrima
Poa glauca
Poa gnutikovii
Poa golestanensis
Poa grandis
Poa granitica
Poa greuteri
Poa grisebachii
Poa guadianensis
Poa gunnii
Poa gymnantha
Poa hachadoensis
Poa hackelii
Poa hakusanensis
Poa halmaturina
Poa hartzii
Poa harveyi
Poa hedbergii
Poa helenae
Poa helmsii
Poa hentyi
Poa × herjedalica
Poa hesperia
Poa hideaki-ohbae
Poa hiemata
Poa hieronymi
Poa himalayana
Poa hirtiglumis
Poa hisauchii
Poa hissarica
Poa hitchcockiana
Poa holciformis
Poa homomalla
Poa hookeri
Poa horridula
Poa hothamensis
Poa howellii
Poa huancavelicae
Poa hubbardiana
Poa huecu
Poa humilis
Poa humillima
Poa hybrida
Poa hylobates
Poa hypsinephes
Poa ibarii
Poa iberica
Poa iconia
Poa igoshinae
Poa imbecilla
Poa imperialis
Poa inconspicua
Poa induta
Poa infirma
Poa interior
Poa × intricata
Poa intrusa
Poa iridifolia
Poa irkutica
Poa janaensis
Poa jansenii
Poa jaunsarensis
Poa × jemtlandica
Poa jeremiadis
Poa jubata
Poa jugicola
Poa × jurassica
Poa kabalanica
Poa kamczatensis
Poa keckii
Poa kelloggii
Poa kenteica
Poa kerguelensis
Poa keysseri
Poa khasiana
Poa khokhrjakovii
Poa kilimanjarica
Poa kirkii
Poa klokovii
Poa koelzii
Poa koksuensis
Poa kolymensis
Poa korshinskyi
Poa krasnoborovii
Poa kronokensis
Poa krylovii
Poa kuborensis
Poa kulikovii
Poa kurdistanica
Poa kurtzii
Poa kurynica
Poa labillardierei
Poa lachenensis
Poa laegaardiana
Poa laetevirens
Poa lamii
Poa lanata
Poa langtangensis
Poa languidior
Poa lanigera
Poa lanuginosa
Poa lavrenkoi
Poa laxa
Poa laxiflora
Poa lebedevae
Poa legionensis
Poa lehoueroui
Poa leibergii
Poa lepidula
Poa leptalea
Poa leptoclada
Poa leptocoma
Poa lettermanii
Poa levitskyi
Poa lhasaensis
Poa ligularis
Poa ligulata
Poa lilloi
Poa × limosa
Poa lindebergii
Poa lindsayi
Poa linearifolia
Poa lipskyi
Poa litorosa
Poa longifolia
Poa longii
Poa longiramea
Poa × longriensis
Poa lowanensis
Poa lunata
Poa macrantha
Poa macroanthera
Poa macrocalyx
Poa macusaniensis
Poa madecassa
Poa × magadanensis
Poa magadanica
Poa magellensis
Poa maia
Poa mairei
Poa maniototo
Poa mannii
Poa mansfieldii
Poa marcida
Poa margilicola
Poa markgrafii
Poa maroccana
Poa marshallii
Poa masenderana
Poa matris-occidentalis
Poa matsumurae
Poa matthewsii
Poa megalantha
Poa meionectes
Poa menachensis
Poa mendocina
Poa millii
Poa minimiflora
Poa minor
Poa mireniana
Poa moabitica
Poa molinerii
Poa mollis
Poa morrisii
Poa mucuchachensis
Poa muktinathensis
Poa mulalensis
Poa mulleri
Poa multinodis
Poa × multnomae
Poa muricata
Poa mustangensis
Poa myriantha
Poa nankoensis
Poa × nannfeldtii
Poa napensis
Poa navashinii
Poa × nematophylla
Poa nemoraliformis
Poa nemoralis
Poa neosachalinensis
Poa nepalensis
Poa nephelochloides
Poa nervosa
Poa nitidespiculata
Poa nivicola
Poa × nobilis
Poa novae-zelandiae
Poa novarae
Poa nubensis
Poa nubigena
Poa nyaradyana
Poa obvallata
Poa occidentalis
Poa olajensis
Poa olonovae
Poa opinata
Poa orba
Poa orientisibirica
Poa orizabensis
Poa orthoclada
Poa orthophylla
Poa paczoskii
Poa pagophila
Poa palmeri
Poa paludigena
Poa palustris
Poa pannonica
Poa paposana
Poa papuana
Poa parva
Poa parvifolia
Poa pattersonii
Poa pauciflora
Poa paucispicula
Poa × pawlowskii
Poa pearsonii
Poa pedersenii
Poa pentapolitana
Poa perconcinna
Poa perennis
Poa perligulata
Poa perrieri
Poa persica
Poa petrophila
Poa petrosa
Poa pfisteri
Poa phillipsiana
Poa physoclina
Poa pilata
Poa pilcomayensis
Poa pitardiana
Poa planifolia
Poa platyantha
Poa plicata
Poa poiformis
Poa polycolea
Poa polyneura
Poa × poppelwellii
Poa populetorum
Poa porphyroclados
Poa pratensis
Poa prichardii
Poa primae
Poa pringlei
Poa pseudamoena
Poa pseudoabbreviata
Poa pseudoattenuata
Poa pseudobulbosa
Poa pseudoradula
Poa pseudoschimperiana
Poa pulviniformis
Poa pumila
Poa pumilio
Poa pusilla
Poa pygmaea
Poa qinghaiensis
Poa quadrata
Poa radula
Poa raduliformis
Poa ragonesei
Poa rajbhandarii
Poa ramifera
Poa ramoniana
Poa ramosissima
Poa rauhii
Poa reclinata
Poa reflexa
Poa rehmannii
Poa reitzii
Poa remota
Poa resinulosa
Poa rhadina
Poa rhizomata
Poa rigidula
Poa riphaea
Poa rodwayi
Poa royleana
Poa ruprechtii
Poa ruwenzoriensis
Poa × sachalinensis
Poa saksonovii
Poa salinostepposa
Poa sallacustris
Poa saltuensis
Poa sanchez-vegae
Poa sandvicensis
Poa × sanionis
Poa scaberula
Poa scabrivaginata
Poa schimperiana
Poa schistacea
Poa schizantha
Poa schmidtiana
Poa schoenoides
Poa × sclerocalamos
Poa secunda
Poa sejuncta
Poa seleri
Poa sellovii
Poa senex
Poa serpana
Poa setulosa
Poa shumushuensis
Poa sibirica
Poa sichotensis
Poa sieberiana
Poa sierrae
Poa sikkimensis
Poa simensis
Poa sinaica
Poa sintenisii
Poa siphonoglossa
Poa skvortzovii
Poa smirnowii
Poa spania
Poa speluncarum
Poa sphondylodes
Poa spiciformis
Poa spicigera
Poa stapfiana
Poa stebbinsii
Poa stellaris
Poa stenantha
Poa sterilis
Poa stewartiana
Poa stiriaca
Poa strictiramea
Poa stuckertii
Poa suavis
Poa subinsignis
Poa sublanata
Poa sublimis
Poa subspicata
Poa subvestita
Poa sudicola
Poa sugawarae
Poa suksdorfii
Poa sunbisinii
Poa superlanata
Poa supina
Poa swallenii
Poa sylvestris
Poa szechuensis
Poa takasagomontana
Poa talamancae
Poa talikensis
Poa tanfiljewii
Poa tangii
Poa × taurica
Poa tayacajaensis
Poa telata
Poa tenera
Poa tenerrima
Poa tenkensis
Poa tennantiana
Poa tenuicula
Poa teretifolia
Poa thessala
Poa thomasii
Poa tianschanica
Poa timoleontis
Poa tolmatchewii
Poa tonsa
Poa tovarii
Poa trachyantha
Poa trachyphylla
Poa tracyi
Poa trichophylla
Poa tricolor
Poa trinervis
Poa triodioides
Poa trivialiformis
Poa trivialis
Poa trollii
Poa tuberifera
Poa tucumana
Poa tuonnachensis
Poa turgensis
Poa tuvinensis
Poa tzvelevii
Poa × tzyrenovae
Poa ullungdoensis
Poa umbricola
Poa umbrosa
Poa unilateralis
Poa unispiculata
Poa ursina
Poa urssulensis
Poa urubambensis
Poa uruguayensis
Poa ussuriensis
Poa uzonica
Poa vaginata
Poa verae
Poa veresczaginii
Poa versicolor
Poa vorobievii
Poa vvedenskyi
Poa wallowensis
Poa wardiana
Poa wendtii
Poa wheeleri
Poa wilhelminae
Poa × wippraensis
Poa wisselii
Poa wolfii
Poa xenica
Poa xingkaiensis
Poa yaganica
Poa yatsugatakensis
Poa zhirmunskii
Poa zhongdianensis
References
Poa
|
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205662
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit
|
Counterfeit
|
To counterfeit means to imitate something authentic, with the intent to steal, destroy, or replace the original, for use in illegal transactions, or otherwise to deceive individuals into believing that the fake is of equal or greater value than the real thing. Counterfeit products are fakes or unauthorized replicas of the real product. Counterfeit products are often produced with the intent to take advantage of the superior value of the imitated product. The word counterfeit frequently describes both the forgeries of currency and documents as well as the imitations of items such as clothing, handbags, shoes, pharmaceuticals, automobile parts, unapproved aircraft parts (which have caused many accidents), watches, electronics and electronic parts, software, works of art, toys, and movies.
Counterfeit products tend to have fake company logos and brands, which results in patent or trademark infringement in the case of goods. They also have a reputation for being lower quality, sometimes not working at all, and sometimes containing toxic substances such as lead. This has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, due to automobile and aviation accidents, poisoning, or ceasing to take essential compounds (e.g., in the case a person takes non-working medicine).
The counterfeiting of money, mostly paper money, is usually attacked aggressively by governments worldwide.
Forgery of money or government bonds
Counterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or government; this is against the law of all countries. The United States Secret Service, mostly known for its guarding-of-officials task, was initially organized primarily to combat the counterfeiting of U.S. dollars in the wake of the American Civil War. Both sides had printed counterfeit notes in attempts to destabilize the other's economy, an example of economic warfare.
Counterfeit government bonds are public debt instruments that are produced without legal sanction, with the intention of "cashing them in" for authentic currency or using them as collateral to secure loans or lines of credit through legitimate channels.
Counterfeiting of documents
Forgery is the process of making or adapting documents with the intention to deceive. It is a form of fraud, and is often a key technique in the execution of identity theft. Uttering and publishing is a term in United States law for the forgery of non-official documents, such as a trucking company's time and weight logs.
Questioned document examination is a scientific process for investigating many aspects of various documents, and is often used to examine the provenance and verity of a suspected forgery. Security printing is a printing industry specialty, focused on creating legal documents which are difficult to forge.
Counterfeiting of consumer goods
The spread of counterfeit goods (commonly called "knock-offs" or "rip-offs") has become global in recent years and the range of goods subject to infringement has increased significantly. Apparel and accessories accounted for over 50 percent of the counterfeit goods seized by U.S Customs and Border Control. According to the study of Counterfeiting Intelligence Bureau (CIB) of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), counterfeit goods make up 5 to 7% of world trade; however, these figures cannot be substantiated due to the secretive nature of the industry.
A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development indicates that up to US$200 Billion of international trade could have been in counterfeit and illegally copied goods in 2005. In November 2009, the OECD updated these estimates, concluding that the share of counterfeit and illegitimate goods in world trade had increased from 1.85% in 2000 to 1.95% in 2007. That represents an increase to US$250 billion worldwide.
In a detailed breakdown of the counterfeit goods industry, the total loss faced by countries around the world is $600 billion, with the United States facing the most economic impact.
When calculating counterfeit products, current estimates place the global losses at $400 billion. On November 29, 2010, the Department of Homeland Security seized and shut down 82 websites as part of a U.S. crackdown of websites that sell counterfeit goods, and was timed to coincide with "Cyber Monday," the start of the holiday online shopping season.
Some see the rise in counterfeiting of goods as being related to globalisation. As more and more companies, in an effort to increase profits, move manufacturing to the cheaper labour markets of the third world, areas with weaker labour laws or environmental regulations, they give the means of production to foreign workers. These new managers of production have little or no loyalty to the original corporation. They see that profits are being made by the global brand for doing little (other than advertising) and see the possibilities of removing the middle men (i.e. the parent corporation) and marketing directly to the consumer. This can result in counterfeit products being virtually indistinguishable from original products, as they are being produced in the same company, and in damage to the parent corporation due to copyright infringement.
Certain consumer goods, especially very expensive or desirable brands or those that are easy to reproduce cheaply, have become frequent and common targets of counterfeiting. The counterfeiters either attempt to deceive the consumer into thinking they are purchasing a legitimate item, or convince the consumer that they could deceive others with the imitation. An item which makes no attempt to deceive, such as a copy of a DVD with missing or different cover art or a book without a cover, is often called a "bootleg" or a "pirated copy" instead.
Counterfeiting has also been issued to "cash in" on the ever growing record collecting market. One major example is bootleggers have cloned copies of Elvis Presley's early singles for Sun Records since original copies starting changing hands amongst music fans for hundreds (and then, thousands) of dollars. Some who produce these even do so with the wrong material. For example the song "Heartbreak Hotel" which was never released on Sun, as by the time Elvis first heard it, prior to ever recording it, he had moved from Sun to RCA Victor. Rare releases by The Beatles such as their album with the butcher cover, fan-club only released Christmas records and early demonstration discs issued by EMI are also examples of product reproduced by counterfeiters due to their high value to collectors.
Many counterfeit goods are produced and manufactured in China, making it the counterfeit capital of the world. In fact, the counterfeiting industry accounts for 8% of China's GDP. Counterfeit goods are also made in Russia, North Korea, Taiwan, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Turkey is responsible for 3,3% of word’s counterfeit goods, according to OCDE. Some counterfeits are produced in the same factory that produce the original, authentic product, using inferior materials.
Another trend in counterfeiting, especially seen in consumer electronics, is the manufacture of entirely new products using poor quality materials or, more often, incorporating desirable features not present in a brand's authentic product line and then including prominent and fake brand names and logotypes to profit from brand recognition or brand image. An example would be imitation "Nokia" and "iPhone" cellular phones with features like dual SIM slots or analog TV, which are unavailable in authentic originals, or visually-identical clones of high-end smartphones using inferior components and the Android operating system, often with user interfaces made to resemble the devices they imitate. Another example would be imitation "iPod" MP3 players whose batteries are removable and replaceable, whereas in authentic originals the batteries are permanently installed.
In the United States, a federal crackdown on counterfeit imports is driving an increase in domestic output of fake merchandise, according to investigators and industry executives. Raids carried out in New York City resulted in the seizure of an estimated $200 Million in counterfeit apparel, bearing the logos of brands such as "The North Face," "Polo," "Izod Lacoste," "Rocawear," "Seven for all Mankind," and "Fubu." One of the largest seizures was a joint operation in Arizona, Texas and California that seized seventy-seven containers of fake "Nike Air Jordan" shoes and a container of "Abercrombie & Fitch" clothing, valued at $69.5 million. Another current method of attacking counterfeits is at the retail level. Fendi sued the Sam's Club division of Walmart for selling fake "Fendi" bags and leather goods in five states. Sam's Club agreed to pay Fendi a confidential amount to settle the dispute and dismiss the action. In the case Tiffany v. eBay, Tiffany & Co. sued auction site eBay for allowing the sale of counterfeit items, but lost on all claims.
A number of companies involved in the development of anti-counterfeiting and brand protection solutions have come together to form special industry-wide and global organisations dedicated to combating the so-called "brand pirates" such as the International Hologram Manufacturers Association. Other companies and organisations have established web-based communities that provide a framework for crowd-sourced solutions to counterfeiting. One such free community, Collectors Proof enables manufacturers and users alike to associate unique identification numbers to virtually any item so that each new owner can update its chain of custody. Because quality counterfeit items are often difficult to distinguish from authentic goods, this approach enables potential customers to access an item's current and previous ownersits provenanceprior to purchase.
To combat counterfeiting, companies may have the various parts of an item manufactured in independent factories and then limit the supply of certain distinguishing parts to the factory that performs the final assembly to the exact number required for the number of items to be assembled (or as near to that number as is practicable) or may require the factory to account for every part used and to return any unused, faulty or damaged parts. To help distinguish the originals from the counterfeits, the copyright holder may also employ the use of serial numbers or holograms etc., which may be attached to the product in another factory.
Counterfeit Culture
Counterfeit culture is the thriving markets surrounding fake streetwear. Most commonly, these markets originate out of areas where the inability to buy popular streetwear brands has fueled more sophisticated markets for counterfeit goods. These markets have spawned the emergence of a tribe of widely available copycat brands.
In countries like North Korea and Russia where trade sanctions were imposed in the past to prevent the importation of popular brands, demand was stimulated for available counterfeit alternatives. The economic standing of a country or region also contributed to the demand for these products as the average consumer can’t afford luxury prices but will gain the same social impact purchasing a knock-off that’s of almost indistinguishable quality to the original product.
Luxury streetwear is out of reach for many people, not just because of international sanctions and low wages, but because exclusivity is built into its business model. Social and cultural forces are driving the unique fashion scene. In particular, social media has a huge influence on over these markets giving people images of things they can’t own and further fueling the desire to obtains certain “hyped” items by any means accessible.
Designers have even begun to acknowledge the trend of counterfeit culture by referencing fake or knock-off goods in their designs. This brought counterfeit culture into the realm of mainstream culture and has essentially shifted global acceptance towards becoming more lenient of these products as an appropriate alternative.
Anti-counterfeiting technologies
Anti-counterfeiting technologies are added to products or their packaging to allow consumers or inspectors to check whether a product is authentic. The EUIPO Observatory on Infringements of Intellectual Property Rights has developed an anti-counterfeiting technology guide, to address the lack of information on technology solutions available on the market and help companies improve their protection against counterfeiting. In this guide, the main anti-counterfeiting technologies currently on the market are described, and classified into five main categories:
Electronic technologies
Marking technologies
Chemical and physical technologies
Mechanical technologies
Technologies for digital media
The International Standard Organization has also published standards related to the implementation of anti-counterfeiting solutions, including ISO 12931 and ISO 22381.
See also
Authentication
Brand protection
Coin counterfeiting
Copyright infringement
Counterfeit banknote detection pen
Counterfeit medications
Counterfeit watch
Entertainment law
Fauxbergé
Gresham's Law
Illegal stamps
Intellectual property
Legal fake
Philatelic fakes and forgeries
Prescription Drug Marketing Act
Slug
Watered stock
References
External links
OECD/EUIPO 2019 report on counterfeiting
Anti-counterfeit news and features at SecuringIndustry.com
Beware of Pirates! How to Avoid Bootleg Blu-rays and DVDs article at Brenton Film
Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
Forgery
Commercial crimes
Counterfeit
Organized crime activity
|
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205665
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalande%2021185
|
Lalande 21185
|
Lalande 21185 (also known as BD+36 2147, Gliese 411, and HD 95735) is a star in the south of Ursa Major. It is the apparent brightest red dwarf in the northern hemisphere. Despite this, and being relatively close by, it is (as are all red dwarfs) very dim, being only magnitude 7.5 in visible light and thus too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. The star is visible through a small telescope or binoculars.
At approximately away it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System; only the Alpha Centauri system, Barnard's Star, and Wolf 359 and the brown dwarfs Luhman 16 and WISE 0855−0714 are known to be closer. Because of its proximity it is a frequent subject for astronomical surveys and other research and thus is known by numerous other designations, most commonly Gliese 411 and HD 95735. In approximately 19,900 years it will be at its closest, about 4.65 ly (1.43 pc) from the Sun, just over half its present distance.
History
The celestial coordinates of Lalande 21185 were first published in 1801 by French astronomer Jérôme Lalande of the Paris Observatory in the star catalog Histoire céleste française. The catalog sequence numbers for majority of the observed stars, including this one, were introduced in its 1847 edition by Francis Baily. Today this star is one of just a few that are still commonly referred to by their Lalande catalog number.
In May 1857, Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander discovered the high proper motion of the star. It was sometimes called "Argelander's second star". (The "first Argelander's star" is Groombridge 1830, whose high proper motion was discovered by Argelander earlier—in 1842).
Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke is reported to have made the first measurement of the star's parallax of 0.511 arc seconds in 1857–58 and thus first identifying Lalande 21185 as the second-closest-known star to the Sun, after the Alpha Centauri system. Since that time better measurements have placed the star further away, but it remained the second-closest-known star system until the astrophotographic discovery of two dim red dwarfs, Wolf 359 and Barnard's Star, in the early 20th century.
Properties
Lalande 21185 is a typical type-M main-sequence star (red dwarf) with about 46% of the mass of the Sun and is much cooler than the Sun at 3,828 K. It is intrinsically dim with an absolute magnitude of 10.48, emitting most of its energy in the infrared. The proportion of elements other than hydrogen and helium is estimated based on the ratio of iron to hydrogen in the star when compared to the Sun. The logarithm of this ratio is −0.20, indicating that the proportion of iron is about 10−0.20, or 63% of the Sun. The surface gravity of this relatively compact star is approximately 65 times greater than the gravity at Earth's surface (log g = 4.8 cgs), which is more than twice the surface gravity of our Sun.
Lalande 21185 is listed as a BY Draconis type variable star in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars. It is identified by the variable star designation NSV 18593. Several star catalogs, including SIMBAD, also classify it as a flare star. This conclusion is not supported by the primary reference these catalogs all use. The observations made in this reference show that it is rather quiet in comparison to other stars of its variable type.
Lalande 21185 emits X-rays.
It is the brightest star between variable CO Ursae Maj and the comparably bright star HD 95129 to its west (specifically by south) and is a little closer to the latter.
Planetary system
Data published in 2017 from the HIRES system at the Keck Observatory on Mauna Kea supported the existence of a close-in planet with an orbital period of just 9.8693±0.0016 days, being at least .
Further radial velocity research with the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph and review of the original signal found that the 9.9 day period was undetectable, and instead proposed, using both datasets, that an exoplanet orbiting the star with a period of either 12.95 or 1.08 days, much more probably 12.95 as 1-day-period exoplanets seem to be rare in systems. This would give the planet a minimum mass of 2.99 Earth masses. It is too close to the star, and so therefore too hot, to be in the habitable zone, at all points within its eccentric orbit. The proposed planet on 12-day orbit was confirmed by (Calar Alto high-Resolution search for M dwarfs with Exoearths with Near-infrared and optical Echelle Spectrographs) project in 2020.
A second planet on a much further orbit was initially noticed by SOPHIE, but the baseline was not long enough to confirm the several-year-long signal. The signal was confirmed in 2021 to be a planet with mass at least , a lower-bound estimate later revised to .
A third planet, Gliese 411 d, is suspected to orbit between Gliese 411 b and Gliese 411 c with a period of 215 days.
The habitable zone for this star, defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-like planet, is at a radius of 0.11–0.24 AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun. The planet b has an equilibrium temperature of 370.1 K. Other known planets are outside HZ boundaries too, but undetected low-mass ones may be orbiting in this region of this system as well.
Past claims of planets
Dutch astronomer Peter van de Kamp wrote in 1945 that Lalande 21185 possessed an "unseen companion" of (about ). In 1951 van de Kamp and his student Sarah Lippincott claimed the astrometric detection of a planetary system using photographic plates taken with the refractor telescope at Swarthmore College's Sproul Observatory. In the summer of 1960, Sarah Lippincott altered the 1951 claim, to a planet of (that is, ), an 8-year orbital period, eccentricity of 0.3, a semi-major axis of . She used the original photographic plates and new plates taken with the same telescope. Photographic plates from this observatory, taken at the same time, were used by Van de Kamp for his erroneous claim of a planetary system for Barnard's Star. The plates made with the Sproul 24-inch refractor and used for these and other studies were in 1973 shown to be flawed; as they were the next year with astrometric measurements made by George Gatewood of the Allegheny Observatory.
In 1996 the same Gatewood prominently announced at an AAS meeting and to the popular press the discovery of multiple planets in this system, detected by astrometry. The initial report was based on a very delicate analysis of the star's position over the years, which suggested reflex orbital motion due to one or more companions. Gatewood claimed that such companions would usually appear more than 0.8 arcseconds from the red dwarf itself. Though, a paper by Gatewood published only a few years earlier and later searches by others, using coronagraphs and multifilter techniques to reduce the scattered-light problems from the star, did not positively identify any such companions, and so his claim remains unconfirmed and is now in doubt.
Before the 1980s, finding the radial velocity of red dwarfs was neither very accurate nor consistent, and so due to its apparent brightness and because it does not have a companion, this star, along with eleven other similar red dwarf stars, were chosen to have their radial velocity measured, to unprecedented high accuracy, by planet hunter Geoff Marcy. No companion was detected around this star in this nor other contemporary surveys, and such early equipment would have picked up any planet exceeding in an extremely close orbit of 5 days or less; or exceeding at about Jupiter's orbital distance.
See also
70 Ophiuchi
Barnard's Star
List of nearest stars
Wolf 359
References
Notes
External links
Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia: Confirmed (planet candidate) super-Earth planet Lalande 21185 b. Retrieved 2017-02-15
095735
High-proper-motion stars
054035
0411
BD+36 2147
Local Bubble
M-type main-sequence stars
Ursa Major (constellation)
Planetary systems with two confirmed planets
BY Draconis variables
J11032023+3558117
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205666
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacaille%209352
|
Lacaille 9352
|
Lacaille 9352 (Lac 9352) is a red dwarf star in the southern constellation of Piscis Austrinus. With an apparent visual magnitude of 7.34, this star is too faint to be viewed with the naked eye except possibly under excellent seeing conditions. Parallax measurements place it at a distance of about from Earth. It is the eleventh closest star system to the Solar System and is the closest star in the constellation Piscis Austrinus. The ChView simulation shows that its closest neighbour is the EZ Aquarii triple star system at about 4.1 ly away.
Properties
This star has the fourth highest known proper motion, (which was first noticed by Benjamin Gould in 1881) moving a total of 6.9 arcseconds per year. However, this is still a very small movement overall, as there are 3,600 arcseconds in a degree of arc. The space velocity components of this star are = . If the radial velocity (Vr) equals +9.7 km/s then about 2,700 years ago Lacaille 9352 was at its minimal distance of approximately from the Sun.
The spectrum of Lacaille 9352 places it at a stellar classification of M0.5V, indicating it is a type of main sequence star known as a red dwarf. This was the first red dwarf star to have its angular diameter measured, with the physical diameter being about 46% of the Sun's radius. It has around half the mass of the Sun and the outer envelope has an effective temperature of about 3,626 K.
Planetary system
In June 2020 two super-Earth planets were reported, as well as a third signal with a period of 50.7 days that may be due to stellar activity—however, were this planet real it may be located within the habitable zone. They were detected using the radial velocity method from observations with HARPS in Chile and HIRES in Hawaii.
See also
List of nearest stars
References
External links
SolStation.com: Lacaille 9352
217987
High-proper-motion stars
114046
0887
CD-36 15693
Local Bubble
Piscis Austrinus
M-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with two confirmed planets
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushehr
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Bushehr
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Bushehr, Booshehr or Bushire ( ; also romanised as Būshehr, Bouchehr, Buschir and Busehr), also known as Bandar Bushehr (; also romanised as Bandar Būshehr and Bandar-e Būshehr), previously Antiochia in Persis () and Bukht Ardashir, is the capital city of Bushehr Province, Iran and a port city in south of Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 161,674, in 40,771 families.
Bushehr lies in a vast plain running along the coastal region on the Persian Gulf coast of south-western Iran. It is built near the ancient port city of Rishahr (Sassanian, Riv Ardasher). It was the chief seaport of the country and is the administrative center of its province. Its location is about south of Tehran. Bushehr has a desert climate.
Bushehr was the main trade center of Iran in the past centuries. The city structures are traditional in style, modest in proportion and cost. Due to its lack of rail connection to the interior of the country and its shallow anchorage, it has lost its position as the primary port of Iran.
Etymology
During the Sassanian era, the name of the city was Ram Ardashir and later become Reyshahr, eventually this turned in to Bushehr, which is the current name of the city.
History
To the south of the present city, at Reeshire, are the remains of an earlier Elamite (c 3000 BCE) settlement. During the Greek Macedonian Seleucid dynasty, the city was refounded as Antiochia in Persis (Αντιόχεια της Περσίδος) by Seleucus Nicator. A few decades later the city was rebuilt by Seleucus's son Antiochus who transferred there colonists from Magnesia. Also, the Seleucid king Antiochus stayed there for a while in 205 B.C. after his campaign to the eastern provinces (212 -205 B.C.). Antiochia remained under Greek Seleucid rule until circa 170 B.C. It was one of the most important ports of the Sasanian navy and was named after the first king of this dynasty, Ardashir I.
In the 5th century AD, Bushehr was the seat of the Nestorian Christian expansion into southern Iran.
In 1737 the Dutch East India Company opened a trading post in Bushehr, which lasted until 1753.
In 1763 the Arab governor of Bushehr Sheikh Nasr Al-Madhkur granted the British East India Company the right to build a base and trading post there. It was used as a base by the British Royal Navy in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Bushehr became an important commercial port. It was occupied by British forces in 1856, during the Anglo-Persian War 1856–1857. Bushehr surrendered to the British on 9 December 1856.
It was occupied by the British again in 1915, this time due to the German Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition including Wilhelm Wassmuss.
Industries include fishing and a thermoelectric power plant, while the inland area (also called Bushehr) produces metalwork, rugs and other textiles, cement, and fertilizer. The Iranian navy maintains a base here.
Situation and significance
The strategic location of the city of Bushehr has been the main reason for the establishment of the port of Bushehr. During the 1st and 2nd Millennium BCE, the Peninsula of Bushehr was a thriving and flourishing seat of civilization called "Rey Shahr". Many relics have been found in this regard related to the Elamite era and the civilization of Shoush (Susa). These structures of "Rey Shahr" are said to be related to Ardeshir of the Sassanid dynasty and "Rey Shahr" was formerly known by the name of Ram Ardeshir. Thereby through the passage of time came to be called Rey Shahr and thence Bushehr.
The Persian Gulf and consequently the province of Bushehr enjoys a remarkable situation with trade in addition to its remarkable situation regarding military affairs. For these reasons the Europeans were interested to take control of the region and the city of Bushehr. The Portuguese invaded the city of Bushehr in 1506 CE and attempted to take the place of the Egyptian and the Venetian traders who were dominant in the region.
In 1734 Nader Shah of Afsharid dynasty chose it as the site for an Iranian naval base. During the Zand era, the region was a place for political challenges between different countries and political groups. When the Qajar dynasty replaced the Zand dynasty, they had less control over the region of the Persian Gulf, so the British influence in the region increased gradually.
At the end of the 18th century, the British and Dutch transferred their regional commercial offices to Bushehr, and during the 19th century, the town was prominent as the home of the British political agent for the Persian Gulf. The Consulate General of British governed Bushehr for 20 years. This situation had lasted till 1913, and during the long battle between the Iranian and the British troops, the Iranians lost in 1857 and the British influence expanded to include all the Persian Gulf coast. But in 1913 the Iranians won the long battle. Britain moved its diplomatic and commercial center across the Persian Gulf to Bahrein in 1946. The city was economically depressed until the 1960s when the government initiated a major development program. In 1975 the government began building a nuclear power plant at Bushehr. This facility was only partially completed when it was bombed by Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988). When Germany, the initial backer of the plant, declined to complete it after the war, Iran tried to secure aid from other countries. In 1995, however, Russia signed an agreement to finish the plant.
Bushehr is one of the important ports in Persian Gulf which has an international airport, and highways connect the city to Ahvaz to the northwest and Shiraz to the northeast. A secondary coastal road links Bushehr to Bandar-e Abbas to the southeast. The old section of central Bushehr has many examples of traditional Persian Gulf architecture from the period 1870 to 1920.
Bushehr is an export market for the farm produce of the neighboring and fertile Fars Province. Bushehr's industries include seafood canneries, food-processing plants, and engineering firms. It has a population of 205,320 (2001 estimate).
Sports
Bushehr's two major Football teams are Shahin, which currently plays in the Persian Gulf Pro League, and Iranjavan, which plays in the Azadegan League.
Bushehr has a few Dragonboat teams. Their junior team Sokkan I.R. Iran participated in the 2014 Club Crew World Championships in Ravenna, Italy. They performed exceedingly well, placing third in both 200 meters and 500 meters in Junior A Open.
Geography
Climate
Bushehr has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) with a precipitation pattern resembling a mediterranean climate, albeit it is both too hot and dry for too long to qualify as such, by a wide margin, due to the threshold for hot climates being much higher in terms of required rainfall.
Nuclear development
Bushehr is twelve kilometres from the site of the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant being built in cooperation with Russia. The work was begun by the Bonn firm A.G., a unit of Siemens AG, which contracted to build two nuclear reactors based on a contract worth $4 to $6 billion, signed in 1975.
Work stopped in January 1979, and Kraftwerk Union fully withdrew from the project in July 1979, with one reactor 50% complete, and the other reactor 85% complete. They said they based their action on Iran's non-payment of $450 million in overdue payments. The company had received $2.5 billion of the total contract. Their cancellation came following the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Iran subsequently requested that Siemens finish construction, but Siemens declined. Shortly afterward Iraq invaded Iran and the nuclear programme was stopped until the end of the war. The reactors were damaged by multiple Iraqi airstrikes between March 1984 and 1988.
In 1995, Russia signed a contract to supply a light water reactor for the plant (the contract is believed to be valued between $700 million and $1.2 billion USD). The agreement calls for the spent fuel rods to be sent back to Russia for reprocessing. The plant started adding electricity to the national grid on 3 September 2011, and was officially opened in a ceremony on 12 September 2011.
Colleges and universities
Persian Gulf University
Bushehr University of Medical Sciences
Payame Noor University, Boushehr campus
Islamic Azad University of Bushehr
Iran Nuclear Energy College
Postage stamps
See also
Bandar Abbas
History of Iran
References
Further reading
External links
Bushehr Travel Guide
Bushehr, The Persian Gulf
Bushehr's travel review
https://www.citypopulation.de/mapinex.html
Populated places in Bushehr County
Iranian provincial capitals
Cities in Bushehr Province
Port cities and towns in Iran
Port cities and towns of the Persian Gulf
Seleucid colonies
|
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205670
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20154
|
Ross 154
|
Ross 154 (V1216 Sgr) is a star in the southern zodiac constellation of Sagittarius. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 10.44, making it much too faint to be seen with the naked eye. At a minimum, viewing Ross 154 requires a telescope with an aperture of
under ideal conditions. The distance to this star can be estimated from parallax measurements, which places it at away from Earth. It is the nearest star in the southern constellation Sagittarius, and one of the nearest stars to the Sun.
Description
This star was first catalogued by American astronomer Frank Elmore Ross in 1925, and formed part of his fourth list of new variable stars. In 1926, he added it to his second list of stars showing a measurable proper motion after comparing its position with photographic plates taken earlier by fellow American astronomer E. E. Barnard. A preliminary parallax value of was determined in 1937 by Walter O'Connell using photographic plates from the Yale telescope in Johannesburg, South Africa. This placed the star at the sixth position of the then-known nearby stars.
Ross 154 was found to be a UV Ceti-type flare star, with a mean time between major flares of about two days. The first such flare activity was observed from Australia in 1951 when the star increased in magnitude by 0.4. Typically, the star will increase by 3–4 magnitudes during a flare. The strength of the star's surface magnetic field is an estimated . Ross 154 is an X-ray source and it has been detected by several X-ray observatories. The quiescent X-ray luminosity is about . X-ray flare emission from this star has been observed by Chandra observatory, with a particularly large flare emitting .
A stellar classification of M3.5V makes this a red dwarf star that is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. It has an estimated 17% of the Sun's mass and 24% of the Sun's radius, but it is radiating only 0.38% of the luminosity of the Sun. In contrast to the Sun where convection only occurs in the outer layers, a red dwarf with a mass this low will be entirely convective. Based on the relatively high projected rotation, this is probably a young star with an estimated age of less than a billion years. The abundance of elements heavier than helium is about half that in the Sun.
No low-mass companions have been discovered in orbit around Ross 154. Nor does it display the level of excess infrared emission that would suggest the presence of circumstellar dust. Such debris disks are rare among M-type star systems older than about 10 million years, having been primarily cleared away by drag from the stellar wind. The space velocity components of this star in the galactic coordinate system are = [–12.2, –1.0, –7.2]. It has not been identified as a member of a specific stellar moving group and is orbiting through the Milky Way galaxy at a distance from the core that varies from with an orbital eccentricity of 0.052. Based on its low velocity relative to the Sun, this is believed to be a young disk (Population I) star. This star will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 157,000 years, when it comes within
.
See also
Frank Elmore Ross
List of nearest stars
References
Notes
External links
SolStation.com: Ross 154
Flare stars
M-type main-sequence stars
Local Bubble
Sagittarius (constellation)
Durchmusterung objects
154
0729
092403
Sagittarii, V1216
?
|
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205671
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20248
|
Ross 248
|
Ross 248, also called HH Andromedae or Gliese 905, is a small star approximately from Earth in the northern constellation of Andromeda. Despite its proximity it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye. It was first catalogued by Frank Elmore Ross in 1926 with his second list of proper-motion stars; on which count it ranks 261st in the SIMBAD database. It was too dim to be included in the Hipparcos survey. In about 40,000 years, Voyager 2 will pass 1.7 light-years (9.7 trillion miles) from the star.
Within the next 80,000 years, Ross 248 is predicted to be nearest star to the Sun for a brief time, overtaking the current nearest star, the triple system Alpha Centauri.
Characteristics
This star has about 12% of the Sun's mass and 16% of the Sun's radius, but only 0.2% of the Sun's luminosity. It has a stellar classification of M6 V, which indicates it is a type of main-sequence star known as a red dwarf. This is a chromospherically-active star. With high probability, there appears to be a long-term cycle of variability with a period of 4.2 years. This variability causes the star to range in visual magnitude from 12.23 to 12.34. In 1950, this became the first star to have a small variation in magnitude attributed to spots on its photosphere as it rotates, a class known as BY Draconis variables.
Examining the proper motion of Ross 248 has found no evidence of a brown dwarf or stellar companion orbiting between 100–1400 AU, and other unsuccessful searches have been attempted using both the Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Planetary Camera and by near-infrared speckle interferometry. Long-term observations by the Sproul Observatory show no astrometric perturbations by any unseen companion.
Distance from the Sun
The space velocity components of this star in the galactic coordinate system are = [, , ] km/s. The trajectory of Ross 248 will bring it closer to the Solar System. In 1993, Matthews projected that in about 33,000 years it would enter a period of about 9,000 years as the closest star to the Sun, as close as in 36,000 years.
Any future spacecraft that escaped the Solar System with a velocity of 25.4 km/s would reach this star 37,000 years from now, when the star just passes its nearest approach. By comparison, the Voyager 1 has an escape velocity of 16.6 km/s.
The closest stellar neighbors to Ross 248 are Groombridge 34, at 1.8 light-years away, and Kruger 60, at 4.5 light-years.
Field star
Ross 248 is located nearly along the line of sight to star PLX 5735 but is not physically associated.
See also
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
Lists of stars
References
Sources
Table 1.
Table with parallaxes.
External links
SolStation.com: Ross 248
Image HH Andromedae
Andromeda (constellation)
Local Bubble
M-type main-sequence stars
Flare stars
248
0905
Andromedae, HH
BY Draconis variables
|
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205672
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20128
|
Ross 128
|
Ross 128 is a red dwarf in the equatorial zodiac constellation of Virgo, near β Virginis. The apparent magnitude of Ross 128 is 11.13, which is too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. Based upon parallax measurements, the distance of this star from Earth is , making it the twelfth closest stellar system to the Solar System. It was first cataloged in 1926 by American astronomer Frank Elmore Ross.
Properties
This low-mass star has a stellar classification of M4 V, which places it among the category of stars known as red dwarfs. It has 15% of the mass of the Sun and 21% of the Sun's radius, but generates energy so slowly that it has only 0.033% of the Sun's visible luminosity; however, most of the energy being radiated by the star is in the infrared band, with the bolometric luminosity being equal to 0.36% of solar. This energy is being radiated from the star's outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,180 K. This gives it the cool orange-red glow of an M-type star.
Ross 128 is an old disk star, which means it has a low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium, what astronomers term the star's metallicity, and it orbits near the plane of the Milky Way galaxy. The star lacks a strong excess of infrared radiation. An infrared excess is usually an indicator of a dust ring in orbit around the star.
In 1972, a flare was detected from Ross 128. It was observed to increase in brightness by about half a magnitude in the ultraviolet U band, returning to normal brightness in less than an hour. At optical wavelengths, the brightness changes were almost undetectable. It was classified as a flare star and given the variable star designation FI Virginis. Because of the low rate of flare activity, it is thought to be a magnetically evolved star. That is, there is some evidence that the magnetic braking of the star's stellar wind has lowered the frequency of flares, but not the net yield.
Brightness variations thought to be due to rotation of the star and magnetic cycles similar to the sunspot cycle have also been detected. These cause changes of just a few thousandths of a magnitude. The rotation period is found to be 165.1 days, and the magnetic cycle length 4.1 years.
Ross 128 is orbiting through the galaxy with an eccentricity of 0.122, causing its distance from the Galactic Center to range between . This orbit will bring the star closer to the Solar System in the future. The nearest approach will occur in approximately 71,000 years, when it will come within .
Planetary system
Ross 128 b was discovered in July 2017 by the HARPS instrument at the La Silla Observatory in Chile, by measuring changes in radial velocity of the host star. Its existence was confirmed on 15 November 2017. It is the second-closest known Earth-size exoplanet, after Proxima b. It is calculated that Ross 128 b has a mass of 1.8 times the Earth, a radius 1.6 times that of the Earth, and orbits 20 times closer to its star than Earth orbits the Sun, intercepting only about 1.38 times more solar radiation than Earth, increasing the chance of retaining an atmosphere over a geological timescale. Ross 128 b is a closely orbiting planet, with a year (rotation period) lasting about 9.9 days. At that close distance from its host star, the planet is most likely tidally locked, meaning that one side of the planet would have eternal daylight and the other would be in darkness. Near-infrared high-resolution spectra from APOGEE have demonstrated that Ross 128 has near solar metallicity; Ross 128 b therefore most likely contains rock and iron. Furthermore, recent models generated with these data support the conclusion that Ross 128 b is a "temperate exoplanet in the inner edge of the habitable zone."
Radio signals
In the spring of 2017 Arecibo astronomers detected strange radio signals thought to originate from Ross 128 that were unlike any they had seen before. SETI's Allen Telescope Array was used for follow-up observations and was unable to detect the signal but did detect man made interference, making it seem clear that the Arecibo detections were due to transmissions from Earth satellites in geosynchronous orbit. Ross 128 has a declination (a coordinate which can be likened to latitude) of close to 0 degrees, which places it in the thick of a phalanx of these satellites. Therefore, it can be concluded that the signal was a result of man made interference.
See also
List of nearest stars
PSR B1919+21 – pulsar mistaken for an alien radio signal (LGM-1)
References
External links
Astronomers heard “weird” signals from direction of Ross 128 (Skymania)
SolStation.com: Ross 128
Local Bubble
M-type main-sequence stars
Virgo (constellation)
Flare stars
128
0447
057548
Virginis, FI
?
Emission-line stars
Orion–Cygnus Arm
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
TIC objects
|
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43096802
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315%20Women%27s%20FIH%20Hockey%20World%20League%20Round%201
|
2014–15 Women's FIH Hockey World League Round 1
|
The 2014–15 Women's FIH Hockey World League Round 1 was held from June to December 2014. A total of 31 teams competing in 7 events were part in this round of the tournament playing for 15 berths in the Round 2, played in February and March 2015.
Teams
Each national association member of the International Hockey Federation (FIH) had the opportunity to compete in the tournament. Teams ranked 21st and lower in the FIH World Rankings current at the time of seeking entries for the competition at early 2013 were allocated to one of the Round 1 events. The following 31 teams, shown with final pre-tournament rankings, competed in this round of the tournament.
(29)
(41)
(21)
(23)
(37)
(51)
(59)
(25)
(47)
(33)
(43)
(39)
(34)
(22)
(30)
(61)
(28)
(62)
(60)
(49)
(53)
(36)
(27)
(42)
(24)
(45)
The teams were split into regional tournaments. Asian teams played at Singapore, Africans played in Kenya, and Oceanians played in Fiji. European teams were split into Lithuania and Czech Republic. Caribbean teams played in Jamaica, and the remaining American teams played in Mexico.
Singapore
Singapore, 21–26 June 2014.
All times are Singapore Standard Time (UTC+08:00)
First round
Pool A
Pool B
Fifth to seventh place classification
Seventh place
Fifth and sixth place
First to fourth place classification
Semifinals
Third and fourth place
Final
Šiauliai
Šiauliai, Lithuania, 27–29 June 2014.
Pool
All times are Eastern European Summer Time (UTC+03:00)
Hradec Králové
Hradec Králové, Czech Republic, 5–7 September 2014.
Pool
All times are Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00)
Nairobi
Nairobi, Kenya, 5–7 September 2014.
Pool
All times are East Africa Time (UTC+03:00)
Guadalajara
Guadalajara, Mexico, 11–14 September 2014.
Pool
All times are Central Daylight Time (UTC−06:00)
Kingston
Kingston, Jamaica, 30 September–5 October 2014.
Pool
All times are Eastern Standard Time (UTC−05:00)
Suva
Suva, Fiji, 6–11 December 2014.
Pool
All times are Fiji Summer Time (UTC+12:00)
References
External links
Official website (Singapore)
Official website (Siauliai)
Official website (Nairobi)
Official website (Hradec Králové)
Official website (Guadalajara)
Official website (Kingston)
Official website (Suva)
Round 1
|
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205677
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ply
|
Ply
|
Ply, Pli, Plies or Plying may refer to:
Common uses
Ply (layer), typically of paper or wood
Plywood, made of layers of wood
Tire ply, a layer of cords embedded in the rubber of a tire
Places
Plymouth railway station, England, station code PLY
Plymouth Municipal Airport (Indiana), IATA airport code PLY
People
Plies (rapper), American rapper
Arts, entertainment, and media
Ply (game theory), a turn in game play
PLY (postnominal), a postnominal for athletes that participate in the Paralympic Games
Computing and technology
PLY (file format) or Polygon File Format
PLY (Python Lex-Yacc), a parsing tool for Python
Plying, a spinning technique to make yarn
|
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] |
205681
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer%20Diktonius
|
Elmer Diktonius
|
Elmer Rafael Diktonius (20 January 1896 in Helsinki – 23 September 1961 in Kauniainen) was a Finnish poet and composer, who wrote in both Swedish and in Finnish. Mainly he lived in Tuomistonoja of the Röykkä village.
Diktonius is buried in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki.
References
External links
at Nordic Authors
1896 births
1961 deaths
Writers from Helsinki
People from Uusimaa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Finnish socialists
Finnish composers
Finnish male composers
Finnish poets in Swedish
20th-century composers
20th-century poets
Burials at Hietaniemi Cemetery
20th-century male musicians
|
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] |
205683
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Fraser
|
Matthew Fraser
|
Matthew Fraser or Mathew Fraser may refer to:
Mat Fraser (actor) (born 1962), English actor and musician
Mat Fraser (athlete) (born 1990), American CrossFit Games winner
Matt Fraser (born 1990), Canadian ice hockey player
Matt Fraser (psychic) (born 1991), American medium
Matthew Fraser (journalist) (born 1958), Canadian media academic and TV presenter
Matthew Fraser, American student in 1986 Supreme Court case Bethel School District v. Fraser
See also
Matt Frazer, American racing driver 98th in 2008 ASA Midwest Tour season
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Manley
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Michael Manley
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Michael Norman Manley ON OCC (10 December 1924 – 6 March 1997) was a Jamaican politician who served as the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992. Manley championed a democratic socialist program, and has been described as a populist. According to opinion polls, he remains one of Jamaica's most popular prime ministers.
Early life
Michael Manley was the second son of premier Norman Washington Manley and artist Edna Manley. He attended the Antigua State College and then served in the Royal Canadian Air Force during World War II. In 1945, he enrolled at the London School of Economics. At the LSE, he was influenced by Fabian socialism and the writings of Harold Laski. He graduated in 1949, and returned to Jamaica to serve as an editor and columnist for the newspaper Public Opinion. At about the same time, he became involved in the trade union movement, becoming a negotiator for the National Workers Union. In August 1953, he became a full-time official of that union.
Entry into politics
When his father was elected premier of Jamaica in 1955, Manley resisted entering politics, not wanting to be seen as capitalizing on his family name. However, in 1962, he accepted an appointment to the Senate of the Parliament of Jamaica. He won election to the Jamaican House of Representatives for the Central Kingston constituency in 1967.
After his father's retirement in 1969, Manley was elected leader of the People's National Party, defeating Vivian Blake. He then served as leader of the Opposition, until his party won in the general elections of 1972.
Domestic reforms
In the 1972 Jamaican general election, Manley defeated the unpopular incumbent Prime Minister, Hugh Shearer of the Jamaica Labour Party, as his People's National Party swept to a landslide victory with 37 of 53 seats.
He instituted a series of socio-economic reforms that produced mixed results. Although he was a Jamaican from an elite family, Manley's successful trade union background helped him to maintain a close relationship with the country's poor majority, and he was a dynamic, popular leader. Unlike his father, who had a reputation for being formal and businesslike, the younger Manley moved easily among people of all strata and made Parliament accessible to the people by abolishing the requirement for men to wear jackets and ties to its sittings. In this regard he started a fashion revolution, often preferring the Kariba suit, a type of formal bush-jacket suit with trousers and worn without a shirt and tie.
Under Manley, Jamaica established a minimum wage for all workers, including domestic workers. In 1974, the PNP under Manley adopted a political philosophy of Democratic Socialism.
In 1974, Manley proposed free education from primary school to university. The introduction of universally free secondary education was a major step in removing the institutional barriers to private sector and preferred government jobs that required secondary diplomas. The PNP government in 1974 also formed the Jamaica Movement for the Advancement of Literacy (JAMAL), which administered adult education programs with the goal of involving 100,000 adults a year.
Land reform expanded under his administration. Historically, land tenure in Jamaica has been rather inequitable. Project Land Lease (introduced in 1973), attempted an integrated rural development approach, providing tens of thousands of small farmers with land, technical advice, inputs such as fertilizers, and access to credit. An estimated 14 percent of idle land was redistributed through this program, much of which had been abandoned during the post-war urban migration or purchased by large bauxite companies.
The minimum voting age was lowered to 18 years, while equal pay for women was introduced. Maternity leave was also introduced, while the government outlawed the stigma of illegitimacy. The Masters and Servants Act was abolished, and a Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act provided workers and their trade unions with enhanced rights. The National Housing Trust was established, providing "the means for most employed people to own their own homes," and greatly stimulated housing construction, with more than 40,000 houses built between 1974 and 1980.
Subsidised meals, transportation and uniforms for schoolchildren from disadvantaged backgrounds were introduced, together with free education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Special employment programmes were also launched, together with programmes designed to combat illiteracy. Increases in pensions and poor relief were carried out, along with a reform of local government taxation, an increase in youth training, an expansion of day care centres. and an upgrading of hospitals.
A worker's participation programme was introduced, together with a new mental health law and the family court. Free health care for all Jamaicans was introduced, while health clinics and a paramedical system in rural areas were established. Various clinics were also set up to facilitate access to medical drugs. Spending on education was significantly increased, while the number of doctors and dentists in the country rose. Project Lend Lease, an agricultural programme designed to provide rural labourers and smallholders with more land through tenancy, was introduced, together with a National Youth Service Programme for high school graduates to teach in schools, vocational training, and the literacy programme, comprehensive rent and price controls, protection for workers against unfair dismissal, subsidies (in 1973) on basic food items, and the automatic recognition of unions in the workplace.
Manley was the first Jamaican prime minister to support Jamaican republicanism (the replacement of the constitutional monarchy with a republic). In 1975, his government established a commission into constitutional reform, which recommended that Jamaica become a republic. In July 1977, after a march to commemorate the Morant Bay Rebellion, Manley announced that Jamaica would become a republic by 1981. This did not occur, however.
Diplomacy
Manley developed close friendships with several foreign leaders, foremost of whom were Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Olof Palme of Sweden, Pierre Trudeau of Canada and Fidel Castro of Cuba. With Cuba just north of Jamaica, he strengthened diplomatic relations between the two island nations, much to the dismay of United States policymakers.
Manley expressed support for anti-colonial African movements such as the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War, where the MPLA successfully fought off, with Cuban military help, the rival UNITA movement, which was backed by apartheid South Africa and the US. The US labelled Jamaican support for the MPLA as "hostile", and the US government was critical of the Manley government for their close relationship with Fidel Castro's Cuba. When Henry Kissinger visited Jamaica in 1975, he warned Manley against supporting the MPLA and Cuba. More broadly there was a deterioration of relations between the United States and Jamaica during Manley's tenure beginning with the Nixon administration and continuing on with the Ford Administration due to allegations of CIA activities on the island. Attempts at an improvement of relations were made during the Carter Administration.
In 1977, Manley visited President Jimmy Carter at the White House to remedy the situation. Details of the meeting, however, were never disclosed.
In a speech given at the 1979 meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement, Manley strongly pressed for the development of what was called a natural alliance between the Non-Aligned movement and the Soviet Union to battle imperialism: "All anti-imperialists know that the balance of forces in the world shifted irrevocably in 1917 when there was a movement and a man in the October Revolution, and Lenin was the man." Despite some international opposition, Manley deepened and strengthened Jamaica's ties with Cuba.
In diplomatic affairs, Manley believed in respecting the different systems of government of other countries and not interfering in their internal affairs.
Violence
Manley was Prime Minister when Jamaica experienced a significant escalation of its political culture of violence. Supporters of his opponent Edward Seaga and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) and Manley's People's National Party (PNP) engaged in a bloody struggle which began before the 1976 election and ended when Seaga was installed as Prime Minister in 1980. While the violent political culture was not invented by Seaga or Manley, and had its roots in conflicts between the parties from as early as the beginning of the two-party system in the 1940s, political violence reached unprecedented levels in the 1970s. Indeed, the two elections accompanied by the greatest violence were those (1976 and 1980) in which Seaga was trying to unseat Manley.
In response to a wave of killings in 1974, Manley oversaw the passage of the Gun Court Act and the Suppression of Crime Act, giving the police and the army new powers to seal off and disarm high-violence neighborhoods. The Gun Court imposed a mandatory sentence of indefinite imprisonment with hard labour for all firearms offences, and ordinarily tried cases in camera, without a jury. Manley declared that "There is no place in this society for the gun, now or ever."
Violence flared in January 1976 in anticipation of elections. A state of emergency was declared by Manley's party the PNP in June and 500 people, including some prominent members of the JLP, were accused of trying to overthrow the government and were detained, without charges, in the South Camp Prison at the Up-Park Camp military headquarters. Elections were held on 15 December in the 1976 Jamaican general election, while the state of emergency was still in effect. The PNP was returned to office, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.
The state of emergency continued into the next year. Extraordinary powers granted the police by the Suppression of Crime Act of 1974 continued to the end of the 1990s.
The Jamaican economy suffered as a result of spiralling oil prices in the late 1970s, and Manley felt compelled to accept the harsh terms imposed by the International Monetary Fund, which demanded a cut in the civil service, a devaluation of the currency, a lifting of price controls, and a liberalization of the economy that led to a huge capital flight.
Violence continued to blight political life in the 1970s. Gangs armed by both parties fought for control of urban constituencies. In the election year of 1980 over 800 Jamaicans were killed. Jamaicans were particularly shocked by the violence at that time.
In the 1980 Jamaican general election, Seaga's JLP won 51 of the 60 seats, and he became Prime Minister.
Opposition
As Leader of the Opposition Manley became an outspoken critic of the new conservative administration. He strongly opposed intervention in Grenada after Prime Minister Maurice Bishop was overthrown and executed. Immediately after committing Jamaican troops to Grenada in 1983, Seaga called a snap election – two years early – on the pretext that Dr Paul Robertson, General Secretary of the PNP, had called for his resignation. Manley, who may have been taken by surprise by the maneuver, led his party in a boycott of the elections, and so the Jamaica Labour Party won all seats in parliament against only marginal opposition in six of the sixty electoral constituencies.
During his period of opposition in the 1980s, Manley, a compelling speaker, travelled extensively, speaking to audiences around the world. He taught a graduate seminar and gave a series of public lectures at Columbia University in New York.
In 1986, Manley travelled to Britain and visited Birmingham. He attended a number of venues including the Afro Caribbean Resource Centre in Winson Green and Digbeth Civic Hall. The mainly black audiences turned out en masse to hear Manley speak.
Seaga's failure to deliver on his promises to the US and foreign investors, as well as complaints of governmental incompetence in the wake Hurricane Gilbert's devastation in 1988, contributed to his defeat in the 1989 elections. The PNP won 45 seats to the JLP's 15.
Re-election
By 1989, some right-wing critics had begun to assert that Manley had softened his socialist rhetoric, explicitly advocating a role for private enterprise. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, he also supposedly ceased his support for a variety of international causes. In the election of that year he campaigned on what appeared to be a more moderate platform. Seaga's Government had fallen out of favour – both with the electorate and the US – and the PNP was elected. He was sworn in as a Member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1989.
Manley's second term focused on liberalizing Jamaica's economy, with the pursuit of a neoliberal programme that stood in marked contrast to the more social democratic economic policies pursued by Manley's first government. Various measures were, however, undertaken to cushion the negative effects of austerity and structural adjustment. A Social Support Programme was introduced to provide welfare assistance for poor Jamaicans. In addition, the programme focused on creating direct employment, training, and credit for much of the population.
The government also announced a 50% increase in the amount of nutritional assistance for the most vulnerable groups (including pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children). A small number of community councils were also created. In addition, a limited land reform programme was carried out that leased and sold land to small farmers, and land plots were granted to hundreds of farmers. The government had an admirable record in housing provision, while measures were also taken to protect consumers from illegal and unfair business practices.
In 1992, citing health reasons, Manley stepped down as Prime Minister and PNP leader. His former Deputy Prime Minister, P. J. Patterson, assumed both offices.
Family
Manley was married five times. In 1946, he married Jacqueline Kamellard, but the marriage was dissolved in 1951. In 1955 he married Thelma Verity the adopted daughter of Sir Philip Sherlock OM and his wife Grace Verity; in 1960, this marriage was also dissolved. In 1966, Manley married Barbara Lewars (died in 1968); in 1972, he married Beverley Anderson, but the marriage was dissolved in 1990. Beverley wrote The Manley Memoirs in June 2008. Michael Manley's final marriage was to Glynne Ewart in 1992.
Manley had five children from his five marriages: Rachel Manley, Joseph Manley, Sarah Manley, Natasha Manley, and David Manley.
Retirement and death
Manley wrote seven books, including the award-winning A History of West Indies Cricket, in which he discussed the links between cricket and West Indian nationalism. The other books he wrote include The Politics of Change (1974), A Voice in the Workplace (1975), The Search for Solutions, The Poverty of Nations, Up the Down Escalator, and Jamaica: Struggle in the Periphery.
On 6 March 1997, Michael Manley died of prostate cancer, the same day as another Caribbean politician, Cheddi Jagan of Guyana. He is interred at the National Heroes Park, where his father Norman Manley is also interred. Photographer Maria LaYacona's portrait of Manley appears on the Jamaican $1,000 note.
References
Bibliography
Henke, Holger (2000). Between Self-Determination and Dependency: Jamaica's foreign relations, 1972–1989. Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2000.
Levi, Darrell E. (1990). Michael Manley: the making of a leader. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1990.
External links
Michael Norman Manley
The Word Is Love: Jamaica's Michael Manley – documentary on the life and career of Michael Manley
1924 births
1997 deaths
Prime Ministers of Jamaica
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Jamaican people of English descent
Jamaican people of Irish descent
Jamaican socialists
Jamaican Roman Catholics
Royal Canadian Air Force personnel of World War II
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Columbia University faculty
Deaths from cancer in Jamaica
Deaths from prostate cancer
People's National Party (Jamaica) politicians
North American democratic socialists
Members of the Order of Jamaica
Recipients of the Order of Merit (Jamaica)
Children of national leaders
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Royal Canadian Air Force officers
Jamaican expatriates in Antigua and Barbuda
Jamaican expatriates in the United Kingdom
|
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205687
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunarput%2C%20utoqqarsuanngoravit
|
Nunarput, utoqqarsuanngoravit
|
"Nunarput, utoqqarsuanngoravit" (, ) is the national anthem of Greenland, an autonomous state of the Kingdom of Denmark. Written by Henning Jakob Henrik Lund in 1912, it was officially adopted in 1916. Music for it was later composed by Jonathan Petersen in 1937.
Since 1979, "Nuna asiilasooq" ("The Land of Great Length"), an ethnic anthem used by the self-governing Kalaallit people, has also been officially recognised by the government.
History
The song was written in 1912 by Greenlandic priest Henning Jakob Henrik Lund, originally set to the melody of the Swedish national anthem, "Du gamla, du fria". It was one of the first Greenlandic national songs and has been suggested to have been written as a national battle song for politicians pushing for a bill on home rule.
In 1937, organist and piano teacher Jonathan Petersen composed a melody for the anthem. In 1916, it was translated into Danish by Eskimologist William Thalbitzer. It was the only Greenlandic song translated into Danish, and remained so for many years, and as such was given official status as the national anthem of Greenland by Denmark. It was performed in this role at the University of Copenhagen in 1921 for the 200th anniversary of missionary Hans Egede's landing in Greenland and in 1937 for King Christian X's 25-year jubilee. In 1985, Thalbitzer's Danish translation was refined by theologian Mads Lidegaard.
Lyrics
The fifth verse is more often sung after the first verse than the second verse in short versions.
Notes
References
External links
MIDI and sheet music
Greenland's regional anthem on YouTube (short version)
Danish anthems
National symbols of Greenland
North American anthems
Greenlandic music
National anthem compositions in E-flat major
Regional songs
|
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205700
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapteyn%27s%20Star
|
Kapteyn's Star
|
Kapteyn's Star is a class M1 red subdwarf about 12.83 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation Pictor; it is the closest halo star to the Solar System. With a magnitude of nearly 9 it is visible through binoculars or a telescope.
Its diameter is 30% of the Sun's, but its luminosity just 1.2% that of the Sun. It may have once been part of the globular cluster Omega Centauri, itself a likely dwarf galaxy swallowed up by the Milky Way in the distant past. The discovery of two planets—Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c—was announced in 2014 and has a mixed history of rejections and confirmations as of 2021.
History of observations
Attention was first drawn to what is now known as Kapteyn's Star by the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn in 1898. Under the name CPD-44 612 it was included in the Cape photographic Durchmusterung for the equinox 1875 (−38 to −52) by David Gill and Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn in 1897. This catalogue was based on Gill's observations from the Cape Observatory in 1885–1889 and was created in collaboration with Kapteyn. While he was reviewing star charts and photographic plates, Kapteyn noted that a star, previously catalogued in 1873 by B. A. Gould as C.Z. V 243, seemed to be missing. However, Robert T. A. Innes found an uncatalogued star about 15 arcseconds away from the absent star's position. It became clear that the star had a very high proper motion of more than 8 arcseconds per year and had moved significantly. Later, CPD-44 612 came to be referred to as Kapteyn's Star although equal credit should be accorded to Robert Innes. At the time of its discovery it had the highest proper motion of any star known, dethroning Groombridge 1830. In 1916, Barnard's Star was found to have an even larger proper motion. In 2014, two super-Earth planet candidates in orbit around the star were announced.
Characteristics
Based upon parallax measurements, Kapteyn's Star is from the Earth. It came within of the Sun about 10,900 years ago and has been moving away since that time. Kapteyn's Star is distinctive in a number of regards: it has a high radial velocity, orbits the Milky Way retrograde, and is the nearest-known halo star to the Sun. It is a member of a moving group of stars that share a common trajectory through space, named the Kapteyn moving group. Based upon their element abundances, these stars may once have been members of Omega Centauri, a globular cluster that is thought to be the remnant of a dwarf galaxy that merged with the Milky Way. During this process, the stars in the group, including Kapteyn's Star, may have been stripped away as tidal debris.
Kapteyn's Star is between one quarter and one third the size and mass of the Sun and has a much cooler effective temperature at about 3500 K, with some disagreement in the exact measurements between different observers. The stellar classification is sdM1, which indicates that it is a subdwarf with a luminosity lower than that of a main-sequence star at the same spectral type of M1. The abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium, what astronomers term the metallicity, is about 14% of the abundance in the Sun. It is a variable star of the BY Draconis type with the identifier VZ Pictoris. This means that the luminosity of the star changes because of magnetic activity in the chromosphere coupled with rotation moving the resulting star spots into and out of the line of sight with respect to the Earth.
Planetary system
In 2014, Kapteyn's Star was announced to host two planets, Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c. Kapteyn b is the oldest-known potentially habitable planet, estimated to be 11 billion years old. However, Robertson et al. (2015) noted that the orbital period of Kapteyn b is an integer fraction (1/3) of their estimated stellar rotation period and thus the planetary signal is most likely an artifact of stellar activity. The authors do not rule out the existence of Kapteyn c, calling for further observation. Guinan et al. (2016) (as well as earlier authors) found a lower value for the stellar rotation, which lends support to the original planetary finding. Additional data will be needed to confirm the rotation period and resolve the dispute.
The purported planets are close to a 5:2 period commensurability, but resonances could not be confirmed at the time. Dynamical integration of the orbits suggests that the pair of planets are in a dynamical state called apsidal co-rotation, which usually implies that the system is dynamically stable over long time scales. Guinan et al. (2016) suggest that the present day star could potentially support life on Kapteyn b, but that the planet's atmosphere may have been stripped away when the star was young (~0.5 Gyr) and highly active. The announcement of the planetary system was accompanied by a science-fiction short-story, "Sad Kapteyn", written by writer Alastair Reynolds.
In 2021, the existence of planets was questioned after the rotational period of the star was refined, with a rotational period very similar to that of candidate c.
See also
List of nearest stars
Stars named after people
References
Further reading
.
.
.
.
.
External links
SolStation.com: Kapteyn's Star
Press release on planetary system
M-type main-sequence stars
M-type subdwarfs
BY Draconis variables
High-proper-motion stars
Local Bubble
Hypothetical planetary systems
Pictor (constellation)
CD-45 01841
0191
033793
024186
Pictoris, VZ
|
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205701
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magenta%2C%20Lombardy
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Magenta, Lombardy
|
Magenta (, ) is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Milan in Lombardy, northern Italy. It became notable as the site of the Battle of Magenta in 1859. The color magenta takes its name from the battle, most likely referring to the uniforms used by Zouave French troops. Magenta is the birthplace of Saint Gianna Beretta Molla (1922-1962) and film producer Carlo Ponti (1912-2007).
History
Magenta was probably a settlement of the Insubres, a Celtic tribe, who founded it around the 5th century BC. The area was conquered by the Romans in 222 BC. The name is traditionally connected to castrum Maxentiae, meaning "castle of Maxentius". After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was ruled by the Lombards. The Celtic origins of Magenta are proved by some important archeological finds, especially in the area where now the Institute of Canossian Mothers stands; there was a Celtic necropolis in ancient times. Objects, jewelry and weapons were found here.
In the Middle Ages, it was destroyed twice, in 1162 by Frederick Barbarossa and in 1356 by the troops opposing the Visconti rule of Milan. In 1310, according to a legend, the emperor Henry VII was stopped here by a snowstorm during his march to Milan. In 1398 Gian Galeazzo Visconti donated the town territories to the monks of the Certosa di Pavia.
On June 4, 1859, it was the site of an important battle of the Second War of Italian Independence. The Franco-Piedmontese victory in the fight gave them the chance to conquer Austrian Lombardy.
Magenta received the honorary title of city with a presidential decree on May 25, 1947.
Main sights
Church of San Martino, built to commemorate the dead of the 1859 battle
Monastery of Santa Maria Assunta, probably dating from the 14th century. The church, of Romanesque origin but with Baroque interiors, houses two works by il Bergognone (1501, once attributed to Bernardino Luini's workshop).
Church of San Rocco (early 16th century)
Casa Crivelli Boisio Beretta, an example of 15th-century noble house
Casa Giacobbe
Monument to general Patrice de MacMahon
La Fagiana natural park, a former hunting resort of King Victor Emmanuel II
Transport
Twin towns
Magenta is twinned with:
Magenta, (Marne), France
Sant'Anna di Stazzema, Italy
Gallery
Notes
External links
Google Earth view
|
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205702
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon%20Indi
|
Epsilon Indi
|
Epsilon Indi, Latinized from ε Indi, is a star system located at a distance of approximately 12 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation of Indus. The star has an orange hue and is faintly visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.83. It consists of a K-type main-sequence star, ε Indi A, and two brown dwarfs, ε Indi Ba and ε Indi Bb, in a wide orbit around it. The brown dwarfs were discovered in 2003. ε Indi Ba is an early T dwarf (T1) and ε Indi Bb a late T dwarf (T6) separated by 0.6 arcseconds, with a projected distance of 1460 AU from their primary star.
ε Indi A has one known planet, ε Indi Ab, with a mass of 3.3 Jupiter masses in a nearly circular orbit with a period of about 45 years. ε Indi Ab is the closest Jovian exoplanet. The ε Indi system provides a benchmark case for the study of the formation of gas giants and brown dwarfs.
Observation
The constellation Indus (the Indian) first appeared in Johann Bayer's celestial atlas Uranometria in 1603. The 1801 star atlas Uranographia, by German astronomer Johann Elert Bode, places ε Indi as one of the arrows being held in the left hand of the Indian.
In 1847, Heinrich Louis d'Arrest compared the position of this star in several catalogues dating back to 1750, and discovered that it possessed a measureable proper motion. That is, he found that the star had changed position across the celestial sphere over time. In 1882–3, the parallax of ε Indi was measured by astronomers David Gill and William L. Elkin at the Cape of Good Hope. They derived a parallax estimate of arcseconds. In 1923, Harlow Shapley of the Harvard Observatory derived a parallax of 0.45 arcseconds.
In 1972, the Copernicus satellite was used to examine this star for the emission of ultraviolet laser signals. Again, the result was negative. ε Indi leads a list, compiled by Margaret Turnbull and Jill Tarter of the Carnegie Institution in Washington, of 17,129 nearby stars most likely to have planets that could support complex life.
The star is among five nearby paradigms as K-type stars of a type in a 'sweet spot' between Sun-analog stars and M stars for the likelihood of evolved life, per analysis of Giada Arney from NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.
Characteristics
ε Indi A is a main-sequence star of spectral type K5V. The star has only about three-fourths the mass of the Sun and 71% of the Sun's radius. Its surface gravity is slightly higher than the Sun's. The metallicity of a star is the proportion of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium, being typically represented by the ratio of iron to hydrogen compared to the same ratio for the Sun; ε Indi A is found to have about 87% of the Sun's proportion of iron in its photosphere.
The corona of ε Indi A is similar to the Sun, with an X-ray luminosity of 2 ergs s−1 (2 W) and an estimated coronal temperature of 2 K. The stellar wind of this star expands outward, producing a bow shock at a distance of 63 AU. Downstream of the bow, the termination shock reaches as far as 140 AU from the star.
This star has the third highest proper motion of any star visible to the unaided eye, after Groombridge 1830 and 61 Cygni, and the ninth highest overall. This motion will move the star into the constellation Tucana around 2640 AD. ε Indi A has a space velocity relative to the Sun of 86 km/s, which is unusually high for what is considered a young star. It is thought to be a member of the ε Indi moving group of at least sixteen population I stars. This is an association of stars that have similar space velocity vectors, and therefore most likely formed at the same time and location. ε Indi will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 17,500 years when it makes perihelion passage at a distance of around .
As seen from ε Indi, the Sun is a 2.6-magnitude star in Ursa Major, near the bowl of the Big Dipper.
Companions
In January 2003, astronomers announced the discovery of a brown dwarf with a mass of 40 to 60 Jupiter masses in orbit around ε Indi A at a distance of at least 1,500 AU. In August 2003, astronomers discovered that this brown dwarf was actually a binary brown dwarf, with an apparent separation of 2.1 AU and an orbital period of about 15 years. Both brown dwarfs are of spectral class T; the more massive component, ε Indi Ba, is of spectral type T1–T1.5 and the less massive component, ε Indi Bb, of spectral type T6.
Evolutionary models have been used to estimate the physical properties of these brown dwarfs from spectroscopic and photometric measurements. These yield masses of and times the mass of Jupiter, and radii of and solar radii, for ε Indi Ba and ε Indi Bb, respectively. The effective temperatures are 1300–1340 K and 880–940 K, while the log g (cm s−1) surface gravities are 5.50 and 5.25, and their luminosities are and the luminosity of the Sun. They have an estimated metallicity of [M/H] = –0.2.
Measurements of the radial velocity of Epsilon Indi by Endl et al. (2002) appear to show a trend that indicated a planetary companion with an orbital period of more than 20 years. A substellar object with minimum mass of 1.6 Jupiter masses and orbital separation of roughly 6.5 AU (a Jupiter-analogue) was within the parameters of the highly approximate data.
A visual search using the ESO's Very Large Telescope found one potential candidate. However, a subsequent examination by the Hubble Space Telescope NICMOS showed that this was a background object. As of 2009, a search for an unseen companion at 4 μm failed to detect an orbiting object. These observations further constrained the hypothetical object to be 5–20 times the mass of Jupiter, orbiting between 10 and 20 AU and have an inclination of more than 20°. Alternatively, it may be an exotic stellar remnant.
A longer study of radial (to or from Earth) velocity, using the HARPS Echelle spectrometer, to follow up on Endl findings, was published in a paper by M. Zechmeister et al. in 2013. The findings confirm that, quoting the paper, "Epsilon Ind A has a steady long-term trend still explained by a planetary companion". This refined the radial-velocity trend observed and indicates a planetary companion with an orbital period of 45 years. A gas giant with a minimum mass of 0.97 Jupiter masses and a minimal orbital separation of roughly 9.0 AU could explain the observed trend. 9.0 AU is about the same distance out as Saturn. This does not quite qualify the planet as a true Jupiter analogue because it orbits considerably further out than 5.0 AU. Not only does it orbit further out, but ε Indi A is also dimmer than the Sun, so it would only receive about the same amount of energy per square meter as Uranus does from the Sun. The radial-velocity trend was observed through all the observations so far taken using the HARPS spectrometer but due to the long time period predicted for just one orbit of the object around ε Indi A, more than 30 years, the astrometric phase coverage is not yet complete.
In March 2018, the existence of the planet was confirmed using radial velocity measurements. At a separation of 3.3 arcseconds from its host star, ε Indi Ab is a candidate for direct imaging by the James Webb Space Telescope.
In October 2019, Feng et al. published an updated orbit for the planet. They show that the orbit is slightly eccentric, with a semi-major axis of about 11.6 AU and an eccentricity of about 0.26. The mass of the planet is 3.25 Jupiter masses, and its orbital period is about 45 years.
No excess infrared radiation that would indicate a debris disk has been detected around ε Indi. Such a debris disk could be formed from the collisions of planetesimals that survive from the early period of the star's protoplanetary disk.
See also
List of nearest stars
Notes
References
External links
Discovery of Nearest Known Brown Dwarf (eso0303 : 13 January 2003)
Epsilon Indi Ab at The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 2018-07-02.
K-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
T-type stars
High-proper-motion stars
Local Bubble
Indus (constellation)
Indi, Epsilon
CD-57 08464
0845
209100
108870
8387
|
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205703
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eero%20J%C3%A4rnefelt
|
Eero Järnefelt
|
Erik "Eero" Nikolai Järnefelt (8 November 1863 – 15 November 1937) was a Finnish painter and art professor. He is best known for his portraits and landscapes of the area around Koli National Park. He was a medal winner at the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1889 and 1900, and he taught art at the University of Helsinki and was chairman of the Finnish Academy of Fine Arts.
Biography
He was the son of General Alexander Järnefelt and Baroness Elisabeth Järnefelt (née Clodt von Jürgensburg). He came from a Swedish-speaking Finnophile family of artists, writers and composers descended from the Baltic aristocracy. Several of his eight siblings also became well-known: (a literary critic), Arvid (a judge and writer), Armas (a composer and conductor) and Aino (wife of Jean Sibelius).
After graduating from a private academy, he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts, Helsinki from 1874 to 1878, the Imperial Academy of Arts from 1883 to 1886 (where one of his teachers was his uncle, Mikhail Clodt), and the Académie Julian in Paris from 1886 to 1888, where he studied with Tony Robert-Fleury. A major influence was the Naturalism of Jules Bastien-Lepage.
In 1889, he married the actress . In 1892, he made his first trip to the area around Koli with Juhani Aho and his wife, the painter Venny Soldan-Brofeldt. He was impressed with the scenery there and would continue to visit regularly until 1936. Later, he made several study trips; to Italy in 1894 and Crimea in 1899. That same year, he helped organize an international exhibition in Saint Petersburg, sponsored by Mir Iskusstva.
In 1901, he built a home that he named "Suviranta" (Summer Beach) at the artists' colony near Lake Tuusula, designed by Usko Nyström. He lived there only until 1917, when he moved to Helsinki, but it is still owned and used by his family.
From 1902 to 1928, he taught drawing at the University of Helsinki. He was appointed professor there in 1912 and served as chairman of the "Finnish Academy of Fine Arts". His last major work was an altarpiece for the church in Raahe, completed in 1926. A major retrospective was held in 2013, which included several previously unknown works.
Selected paintings
See also
Golden Age of Finnish Art
Finnish art
Notes
References
Further reading
Pontus Grate and Nils Göran Hökby, ed. 1880-tal i nordiskt måleri [The 1880s in Nordic painting] (exh. cat., Stockholm: Nationalmuseum, 1985)
Leena Lindqvist (ed.), Taiteilijan tiellä – Eero Järnefelt 1863–1937 (The Artist's Path), Otava, 2002
Marko Toppi (ed.), Eero ja Saimi Järnefeltin kirjeenvaihtoa ja päiväkirjamerkintöjä 1889–1914 (correspondence and diaries, vol.1), SKS, 2009
Marko Toppi (ed.), Vain tosi on pysyväistä. Eero ja Saimi Järnefeltin kirjeenvaihtoa ja päiväkirjamerkintöjä 1915–1944 (correspondence and diaries, vol.2), SKS, 2013 .
Kirk Varnedoe, ed. Northern Light: Realism and Symbolism in Scandinavian Painting, 1880–1910 (exh. cat., New York, Brooklyn Museum of Art, 1982) ISBN
Ludwig Wennervirta: Eero Järnefelt, ja hänen aikansa 1863–1937 (Helsinki: Otava, 1950)
External links
Arcadja Auctions: More works by Järnefelt
Finnish 10 Euro Coin (2013) honoring Eero Järnefelt @ the Mint of Finland
Europeana blog, from January 2020
1863 births
1937 deaths
People from Vyborg
People from Viipuri Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Finnish people of German descent
19th-century Finnish nobility
Finnish realist painters
19th-century Finnish painters
20th-century Finnish painters
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samawah
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Samawah
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Samawah or As-Samawah () is a city in Iraq, 280 kilometres (174 mi) southeast of Baghdad.
The city of Samawah is the modern capital of the Al Muthanna Governorate. The city is located midway between Baghdad and Basra, at the northern edge of the governorate. The province was established in 1975; prior to that date it was a unified province along with Qadissiya (Diwaniya) and Najaf.
History and attractions
The city was settled by the Arab tribe of Banu Quda'a around the 3rd century AD. It is built on both sides of the Euphrates river; there are four bridges in the centre of town for crossing between the two sides. The west bank of the city contains the commercial heart of the city, and includes the old town and the Jewish quarter, agd al yahood. The west bank is the site of the covered market Suq Al Masgoof, which dates to the Ottoman period. The area surrounding the market is the old city with its Byzantine maze of crowded markets and streets.
The eastern side of the city including 'Qushla' has a more modern feel and contains a number of estates of apartment blocks built during the 1970s and 1980s, As Samawah Stadium, which is home to the local Muthanna football team Samawa FC, as well as technical colleges and the polytechnic. There too is Al Qushla, the historic "Ottoman Barracks".
The most famous attraction of Samawah is the ruins of the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk which dates to 4000 BC. This was the largest city in Sumer, extending over 2 km2. Uruk was not only the largest conurbation of the first urban civilisation on earth, but it is also the place where the first written script was discovered, the oldest dating back to 3300 BC.
Samawah is built on both sides of the Euphrates and is surrounded by hundreds of palm groves that give it a tropical feel, especially in the southern and northern suburbs. These groves provide cool respite from the scorching heat of Mesopotamia and were the inspiration for the famous Iraqi folk song "The Palm of Samawah".
Samawah has a large salt lake called Sawa Lake, which once had a tourist village that has since fallen into disrepair. The lake is located 25 km (15 mi) to the north of the city centre and is accessible by road. The lake has no obvious source, neither river nor ancient link to a sea. The water is extremely salty due to heavy evaporation in the searing heat of Mesopotamia and supports no marine life. A unique feature of the lake is that the water is above ground level surrounded by natural levees. Due to the high levels of salt in the lake, the levees heal themselves if a break is made in the levee, stopping the water from flowing down to ground level. The salt levels also improve buoyancy, and many migratory birds walk on the lake.
Al Muthanna province contains one of the most notorious prisons in Iraq, which has been used since the time of the monarchy (1921–1958). Nigret Al Salman, located in the small town of Al-Salman 200 km (124 mi) south of Samawah, is a desert prison camp built in the style of a fortress where thousands have perished over the decades. It was used to house the prisoners from the Dujail Massacre before their execution as well as Kurdish prisoners since the first Kurdish revolts of the 1950s.
In 1964, the people of Samawah gained popular fame for rescuing over 1,000 political prisoners of the Iraqi Communist Party who were sent in a "Train of Death" (qutar al maut) in metal cargo rolling stock from Baghdad to Samawah en route to the Nigret Al Salman prison in 50 °C (122 °F) heat. The train was attacked by the city's people at the railway station, and the dehydrated prisoners were watered and fed. Over 100 of the prisoners had already perished.
The Saray on the east bank of Samawah is the historical seat of authority and authoritarianism in Samawah. It dates from the period of the Ottoman Turkish Occupation. It has been the focus of revolts and popular uprisings by the local population for the past century, most recently in 1991 when hundreds of prisoners, including women and children, as well as Kuwaiti hostages kidnapped by the Iraqi occupation forces in 1990, were freed from their captors by the people of Samawah.
Samawah's medical facilities have improved greatly since 2003. The renovation of the central hospital with the aid of Japanese development funds has resulted in an improvement in medical provision for the residents of the province. New facilities, such as an MRI scanner, have been added to the existing medical units.
The residents of Samawah have used some simple and low-cost means to brighten up the appearance of the grey concrete walls surrounding official buildings and schسكولion was started in the early 1970s, but was cut off during the period of Saddam Hussein's rule (1979–2003). The wall paintings put up since 2003 depict the new life achieved since the liberation.
Geography
Climate
Samawah has a hot desert climate (BWh) in the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Samawah is . About of precipitation falls annually.
Religion
Primarily Shiite, the town was cut off almost entirely by Saddam after the Gulf War. Historically, however, Samawah has been a mixed Jewish and Shia city. The terrorisation of the Jewish minority by Arab nationalists in the 1940s and '50s drove most of them into exile. The Torat Synagogue, which has been abandoned since the flight of the Jews, still exists in the qushla quarter of the east bank of Samawah.
In 1979–81 an ethnic cleansing campaign saw Shia Iraqis deemed to be of Persian origin deported by the Baathist regime of Saddam Hussein.
Today, there is still a small population of Assyrian Christians in the city.
Industries
The unemployment rate is high.
The city, in spite of the lack of high-value natural resources such as oil and gas and a lack of central government investment, has managed to maintain lively small-scale industrial, agricultural and alternative sectors.
Samawah had the largest cement factories in the Middle East during the 1970s, with a total production capacity of 2.85 million tonnes a year. These have since fallen into disrepair, exacerbating the unemployment situation, although the southern cement factory, the oldest, reopened in 2005. As of 2007, the four existing plants are producing a total of just 0.8 million tonnes a year due to the shortage of electricity. Five new cement factories with a capacity of 9 million tonnes a year are under construction on the outskirts of Samawah and will provide employment for several thousand skilled and unskilled workers as well as filling 45% of Iraq's total cement needs.
A small oil refinery was reopened in Samawah in 2005 after being idle for 15 years. The existing 10,000 bbl/d facility's capacity was doubled to in 2006 and was to have increased to by 2007. The facility is linked by pipeline to the new Kifl oil field in Samawah province that has an initial capacity of . The major advantage of the refinery is that it is designed for processing heavy crude oil, allowing the light crude to be exported.
The historical route between Mesopotamia and Saudi Arabia ran through Samawah, and it has been a main trading thoroughfare for Iraqi produce to Saudi Arabia.
Samawah is home to a rail yard for overhauling and maintaining the rolling stock and locomotives along the Baghdad-Basra rail routes. Samawah railway station is conveniently located halfway between Baghdad and Basra. Overhaul facilities for the railways are an important source of employment opportunities in this Mesopotamian city.
There was an overhaul facility for the Iraqi Armoured corps based in Samawah belonging to the military Industrial Commission.
In terms of agriculture, the staple Mesopotamian produce is grown in Samawah, such as dates, wheat, barley, citrus fruits, and tomatoes. In addition, Samawah is home to the small and rare trade in wild truffles, which grow in the desert regions of Muthanna province.
The Bahr al Milh, or Salt Sea, located 20 km (12 mi) to the southwest of Samawah, is the main source of industrial salts in Iraq, and large salt mining and processing facilities are located there to exploit this resource.
A thriving industry in traditional sun-baked brick manufacture exists on the outskirts of Samawah using primarily female labourers for forming and drying bricks. Large temporary kilns with chimney stacks as high as 30 m (98 ft) are constructed by villagers in the surrounding region to make baked bricks with the same methods used during the Sumerian and Akkadian periods.
Samawah has its own media industry, with the recently reopened Muthanna TV broadcasting terrestrial transmission to Samawah and the province. It focuses primarily on local news and issues. The station gained notoriety as the "Robin Hood of Television" when it broadcast the 2006 World Cup games without licence using a single subscription to a pay-per-view satellite channel. The central government were unable to enforce a ruling against the TV station to stop the transmissions.
There is a small cottage industry of carpet makers in the city, primarily employing women. The advantages for the local carpet makers are the availability of cheap raw materials, wool from the desert Bedu who use Samawah as their main trading post, and the availability of cheap labour in this poor city.
Reaching Samawah
Samawah is served by a highway for road traffic from Baghdad and Basra. The railway station has passenger services from both Baghdad and Basra and is the cheapest form of transport. The railway station is located approximately 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) to the west of central Samawah.
Samawah is also accessible via the Euphrates River.
Samawah artists and personalities
A number of prominent artists originate from Samawah, including poets, painters and sculptors. An indepth overview of both historical and current artists can be found in samawah artists.
Due to the preponderance of both communists as well as Shia thinkers like (Sheikh Mahdi Al-Samawi) was among the personalities and artists of Samawah, most of them ended up either being killed by the Baathists regime or lived in exile for much of their lives.
Security since 2003 US invasion
Since the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the town has had the fewest problems with Coalition forces, with insurgent activity practically non-existent.
Elements of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and 1–41 Infantry, 1st Armored Division, took the town in the Battle of Samawah, a fierce running battle with emplaced Fedayeen forces in the days after the initial invasion. After the initial combat phase ended in May 2003, the 82nd was relieved by U.S. Marines from RCT-5, 1st Marine Division. Control of the city was handed over to Dutch forces in August 2003, to the British Army (1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards) in October 2004 who in turn handed over to (The Light Dragoons) again British Army Cavalry Regiment in April 2005 and in October 2005 the 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment took over. All units took part in peacekeeping operations involving foot and vehicular patrols winning hearts and minds also they helped in training local police in crowd control and riot training, also fire arms training.
Japan Self-Defense Forces, stationed in Samawah since January 2004, left in 2006. British and Australian troops departed, making Samawah's entire province the first to be responsible for its own security, dubbed in Iraqi parlance the first "green province", meaning that it is fully independent.
On December 24, 2006, political violence between Shiite militias hit Samawah, killing 9 people, among them 4 policemen. Reportedly, local members of the Mahdi Army tried to seize the city in a failed attempt and clashed with the police, who were aided by the Badr Organization. Internal fighting and division among the local tribes was reported. Associates of Mahdi leader Muqtada al-Sadr said he was distancing himself from the Samawah militia, led by "a renegade cleric".
On May 1, 2016 a government office and bus station in the city of Samawah were attacked in a double car bombing claimed by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The attack killed at least 32 people and wounded another 85.
See also
Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group
List of places in Iraq
Iraqi conflict (2003–present)
References
External links
Iraq Image – Samawah Satellite Observation
Populated places in Muthanna Governorate
Populated places on the Euphrates River
District capitals of Iraq
Cities in Iraq
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara%20Lipinski
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Tara Lipinski
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Tara Kristen Lipinski (born June 10, 1982) is an American former competitive figure skater, actress, sports commentator and documentary film producer. A former competitor in ladies' singles, she is the 1998 Olympic champion, the 1997 world champion, a two time Champions Series Final champion (1997–1998) and the 1997 U.S. national champion. She was, until 2019, the youngest skater to win a U.S. Nationals. She was also the youngest skater to win a World Figure Skating title and the youngest to win an Olympic gold medal. She is the first woman to complete a triple loop-triple loop combination, her signature jump, in competition.
Lipinski retired from competitive figure skating in 1998. She won every competition she entered during her professional career and was the youngest skater to win the World Professional Figure Skating Championships. She performed in over 300 live shows before retiring from figure skating in 2002. Lipinski, along with sports commentator Terry Gannon and fellow figure skater and good friend Johnny Weir, commentated for skating in two Olympics; they became NBC's primary figure skating commentators in 2013.
Early life
Tara Lipinski was born on June 10, 1982, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the only child of Patricia (née Brozyniak) and oil executive and lawyer Jack Lipinski. She spent her earliest years in Sewell, New Jersey. All four of her grandparents were born in Poland.
When Lipinski was two, while watching the 1984 Summer Olympics, she stood on a Tupperware bowl and pretended to be a gold medalist. At the age of three, she began roller skating; when she was nine years old, she became a national champion in her age group. She began figure skating when she was nine, transferring her skills to the ice rink, later switching exclusively to figure skating and taking lessons at the University of Delaware. In 1991, Lipinski's father received a job promotion, so the family moved to Sugar Land, Texas near Houston. She trained at the Houston Galleria, an upscale mall with a public rink. Two years later, in 1993, her father stayed in Texas to support the family and Lipinski and her mother moved back to Delaware to resume her training there with coach Jeff DiGregorio, who worked with Lipinski, on and off, for three years before their move to Texas. In 1995, Lipinski and her mother moved to Bloomfield Hills, Michigan to train with coach Richard Callaghan at the Detroit Skating Club.
Competitive career
Early years
In 1994, Lipinski earned a silver medal in the novice women's division at the 1994 U.S. Figure Skating Championships. When she was 12, she became the youngest athlete to win a gold medal at the 1994 U.S. Olympic Festival and took first place in her first international competition, the Blue Swords in Chemnitz, Germany. According to Cosmopolitan Magazine, the media began to notice Lipinski after Blue Swords in November 1994. As a junior skater, she came in fourth place at the 1995 World Junior Figure Skating Championships and with six triples in her long program, second place at the 1995 U.S. Figure Skating Championships. In late 1995, she placed fifth at the 1996 World Junior Figure Skating Championships; according to the Washington Post, the competition marked "the end of the relationship between the Lipinskis and DiGregorio".
After what sports writer E.M. Swift called a "whirlwind coaching tour", when Lipinski and her mother interviewed and Lipinski took sample lessons from figure skating coaches around the country, they hired Richard Callaghan. In January 1996, Lipinski won a bronze medal as a senior-level skater at the 1996 U.S. Figure Skating Championships. She closed out the 1995–1996 season and gained international attention by qualifying for the 1996 World Figure Skating Championships. In what figure skating historian James Hines called "a disappointing first outing", she placed 22nd after the short program, but her long program, which included seven triple jumps and which Sports Illustrated called "sparkling", brought her up to 15th place.
1996–1997 season
Lipinski and Callaghan spent the next year making her "appear more mature"; she enrolled in ballet classes and hired choreographer Sandra Bezic to "create programs for Lipinski that expressed delight yet looked adult". In late 1996, she added the triple loop-triple loop combination, which became her signature jump and added technical difficulty to her programs. She was the first woman to complete the combination in competition. Lipinski competed in the ISU Champions Series (later renamed the ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating) during the 1996–1997 season; she finished in second place at Skate Canada, third at Trophée Lalique, and second at the 1996 Nations Cup. She won the gold medal at the Champion Series final and defeated Michelle Kwan by completing more successful jumps in her short and free programs.
In February 1997, at the age of 14, with her signature triple loop-triple loop combination, Lipinski became the youngest skater to win a U.S. Nationals title. She broke the record set by Sonya Klopfer, who was 15 when she won U.S. Nationals in 1951. She defeated Kwan, Nationals champion in 1996, who won the short program. Kwan fell twice and landed only four out of seven of her planned triples during her long program, leaving the door open for Lipinski's victory. Skating last, Lipinski had to come in first in the free skate, which she did by skating a clean program, with seven triple jumps, including "a history-making triple loop-triple-loop combination". According to Swift, the 1997 U.S. Nationals was the start of the Kwan-Lipinski rivalry.
A month later, Lipinski won the 1997 World Figure Skating Championships and became the youngest female skater to win the World Championships. She was a month younger than the previous record holder, Sonya Henie from Norway, when Henie won the first of 10 World Championships in 1927. Lipinski completed seven triple jumps, as she had done at the U.S. Nationals and the Champion Series final and finished in first place after the short program. She also completed two double axels, which one rival coach said had little elevation. Her artistic marks were mostly 5.7 or 5.8, and according to the Associated Press, were "in line" with her technical scores. Three out of four judges gave her higher artistic scores than technical scores.
Reporter Jere Longman of The New York Times called Lipinski's free skate "a light, airy performance" and said she was "composed and nearly flawless". Longman reported that Lipinski opened with a double axel, and included a triple flip and her "signature triple-loop, triple-loop combination". She received 5.8's and 5.9's in her technical scores and a 5.7 and 5.8 for her presentation scores. The final results after the free skate were close; Longman stated that the judges were unable to declare a clear winner of the free skate. Lipinski, Kwan (who was fourth after the short program), and Russian skater Irina Slutskaya all received first-place votes. In what Swift called "a split decision", Kwan's free skate came in first place because she had more first- and second-place votes, and Lipinski came in first place overall because she received more second-place votes in the free skate than Slutskaya. Longman reported that if two more judges had placed Slutskaya before Lipinski after the free skate, Kwan would have won the competition but instead came in second place. It was the first time the U.S. finished first and second at the Worlds since 1992, when Kristi Yamaguchi won the gold medal and Nancy Kerrigan won the silver medal.
1997–1998 season
Between seasons, Lipinski grew two inches and turned 15 years old. She went into the 1997–1998 season by continuing to add more "sophistication" to her routines, by improving her artistry, and by taking daily dance classes from Russian ballet teacher Marina Sheffer. She selected film scores for both her short program and free skate, both of which were choreographed by Sandra Bezic. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the American press played up "the Kwan-Lipinski rivalry for all it was worth".
At Skate America, Kwan defeated Lipinski for the first time in three competitions and won the gold medal. Lipinski came in second place after Kwan in both her short program and free skate and took second place over all. Despite performing more difficult jumps than Kwan during her short program, Lipinski received "consistently lower" required element scores. During her free skate, in "an otherwise strong and technically difficult performance", she fell while performing a triple-lutz combination jump. According to Kestnbaum, Callaghan "expressed bewilderment in why the judges had so marked down the reigning world champion, who by virtue of that position might otherwise have been expected to receive the benefit of any doubt". Lipinski came in second place at Trophée Lalique, behind French skater Laetitia Hubert, who had not won a major competition since the 1992 World Junior Championships, and who had come in eleventh place at her previous competition.
Lipinski was tied as the fourth best-ranked female figure skater in the world coming into the Champion Series Final. She won, skating her first clean program of the season. Kwan, although she was eligible, withdrew from the finals due to injuries. Mike Penner, a writer from the L.A. Times, reported that both Lipinski and Callaghan were concerned about what they considered unfair treatment by the judges at the Champion Series that season, who gave her lower technical scores than the previous season, as low as 5.3, for "an incorrectly launched lutz". Callaghan told Penner that the judges told him that Lipinski regularly performed her lutz jumps from the inside edge of her blade instead of from the correct outside edge, something skaters called "the flutz". Lipinski and Callaghan disputed the judges' scoring of her jumps, stating that she had performed them the same way the previous season, when she won both the Worlds and U.S. Nationals. Lipinski's lower scores were subject of several articles in major U.S. newspapers. According to reporter Nancy Armour of the Spokesman Review, Lipinski skated her season's best at the finals, "nailing her triple lutz".
Lipinski came in second at the 1998 U.S. Figure Skating Championships; Kwan came in first place. She had "a devastating fall" after attempting a triple flip during her short program, which Lipinski called "the lowest point" of her career. Lipinski recovered enough from her short program to climb from fourth place to second overall. She would have had to win the free skate and Kwan would have had to come in third place or lower for Lipinski to win the championship. She performed her free skate program "with determination". She completed all seven triple jumps, including her trademark triple loop-triple loop combination and a difficult triple toe loop-half loop-triple toe combination sequence. The judges awarded her all 5.8s and 5.9s, except for a pair of 5.7s for presentation. U.S. Figure Skating chose Kwan, Lipinski, and Nicole Bobek, who came in third place at Nationals, to send to the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Lipinski and Kwan entered the Olympics as "co-favorites" to win the gold medal.
At the Olympics, Kwan "easily" won the short program; eight of the nine judges put her in first place. Lipinski came in second place. Sports writer E.M. Swift called Lipinski's performance of her short program, which was technically more difficult than Kwan's, "luminous–fast and light and joyful". Lipinski's free skating program, with her triple loop-triple loop combination and seven triple jumps total, was the most technically difficult program in Olympic history. She received 5.8s and 5.9s in presentation scores. Kwan received all 5.9s in presentation scores, but she received lower technical scores than Lipinski. According to Washington Post reporter Amy Shipley, Kwan performed her free skate almost perfectly, other than "a bobble on a jump", and that Kwan "skated brilliantly and Lipinski skated better". According to Swift, Kwan's performance of her free skate "would have been enough to win at any other Olympics", but the judges, by awarding her with five 5.7s in her technical scores, left room for Lipinski to move ahead. Swift said that Lipinski "had a blast" skating her long program and "soared and spun with abandon, filling the [rink] with her joy". Like Kwan, she completed seven triples, but "the difference was her trademark triple loop-triple loop combination and a wonderful closing triple toe-half loop-triple Salchow sequence". Her jumps were not as big as Kwan's and her jump takeoffs "were not always ideal", but her landings were clean and according to Kestnbaum, seemed to increase in speed as she came out of them. Her spins were faster than Kwan's, but they were not as difficult and their positions were weaker. Kestnbaum also stated, "Nor did [Lipinski's] program demonstrate transitional steps as complex, stroking quality as nuanced, or body carriage and line as controlled and elegant". She was awarded 5.8s and 5.9s for her technical and artistic scores, and earned six out of nine first-place marks from the judges, winning the gold medal because the free skate was weighted more heavily than the short program.
Lipinski was the youngest Olympic gold medalist in figure skating history. She was the sixth American woman to win an Olympic gold medal. Kwan finished in second place, and Chinese skater Lu Chen was the "surprise bronze medal winner". Lipinski was two months younger than Sonja Henie when she came in first place at the Olympics in 1928, breaking a record that had stood for 70 years. It was the first time singles skaters from the same country won the gold and silver medals at the Olympics since Americans Tenley Albright and Carol Heiss did it in 1956.
Professional career
In March 1998, Lipinski announced her decision to withdraw from the 1998 World Figure Skating Championships, citing a serious glandular infection that required her to have two molars extracted, constant fatigue, and possible mononucleosis. In April, Lipinski announced her intention to turn professional in an interview on the Today Show, thus ending her eligibility to compete in the Olympics again. She cited a desire to end her family's separation caused by her skating career and to focus on other goals such as attending college in another two years. According to The New York Times, her decision "sent tremors through the Olympic figure skating community". According to skater Scott Hamilton, Lipinski "took an enormous amount of heat" for turning professional. He reported that USA Today criticized her decision, stating that she had taken "the easy way out" and compared it to "joining the circus". Lori Shontz of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette believed that Lipinski was treated unfairly by the figure skating establishment after her decision to leave competitive skating.
The Associated Press reported that in 1998, Lipinski's net worth, due to many endorsements and book deals, was "possibly as high as $12 million". She signed "an exclusive deal" with CBS to do some acting and to perform in skating shows and non-sanctioned competitions. She skated in over 300 live shows, including professional team competitions like Ice Wars on CBS. Also on CBS, Lipinski produced and starred in a two-hour special called "Tara Lipinski: From This Moment On". She won every competition she entered during her professional career. After the Olympics, Lipinski toured with Champions on Ice, visiting 90 U.S. cities. In August 1998, Lipinski ended her association with Champions on Ice, which she had performed with since 1995, and joined the cast of Stars on Ice in order to expand artistically and to participate in the company's group numbers, which were called "the highlight" of the tour. The Associated Press reported that Lipinski suffered from sore hips and an injured hip during rehearsals.
In 1999, Lipinski performed with Stars on Ice for a second season and on the ISU-sanctioned Grand Slam of Figure Skating, became a spokeswoman for Boys and Girls Clubs of America and an anti-drug advocate, appeared on the soap opera The Young and the Restless, and acted in television shows for the Fox Family Network and Nickelodeon. She also became the youngest skater to win the World Professional Figure Skating Championships, completing a triple flip, a triple toe loop, and a triple salchow in her free skating program. Denise Biellmann from Switzerland, who came in second place, said that Lipinski had improved in her artistry. Her scores consisted of two 10s, 11 9.9s, and one 9.8; she came in first by more than one point over Biellmann.
Lipinski had hip surgery in 2000 at the age of 18, which she believed saved her career. Her injury, a torn labrum in her hip, had been misdiagnosed for four or five years, and that it had caused her a great deal of joint pain. She became a spokesperson to increase awareness about deep vein thrombosis (DVT), "a dangerous potential side effect of surgery". The injury, which may have occurred before the Nagano Olympics, became progressively worse until she was unable to tour. The surgery, which usually lasted 45 minutes, took hours to complete because she was developing arthritis and because cartilage had grown over the bone. She was back on the ice seven days later for light practice with Stars on Ice. She was able to return to touring but had to withdraw from the 2000 World Professional Championships. In 2002, she toured 61 U.S. cities with Stars on Ice. Lipinski retired from skating in 2002.
Skating technique
Lipinski's skating influences were Kristi Yamaguchi, Scott Hamilton, and Christopher Bowman. Her skating style was often compared to her "rival" Michelle Kwan's; Jere Longman of The New York Times called Lipinski "the consistent Energizer bunny of a jumper", but called Kwan "the more sophisticated, complete artist". Frank Carroll, who coached Kwan, called Lipinski's style "wonderful" and said that she was "turning easy, jumping easy". Writer Ellyn Kestnbaum stated that compared to Kwan's "more carefully choreographed expressions of joy", Lipinski projected "unselfconsious and spontaneous joy in her own movement that projected a greater air of confidence and command of the space".
Kestnbaum discussed Lipinski's skating technique in her book Culture on Ice: Figure Skating and Cultural Meaning, to illustrate women's and girls' influence on figure skating. Kestnbaum stated, "Cynics and purists who valued the artistic possibilities of the sport or the fine points of skating technique complained that the judges who awarded Lipinski her gold medals were just counting the jumps and not paying attention to the quality of those jumps, much less to the quality of the rest of her skating". Kestnbaum used Lipinski as an example of how teenagers, especially teenage girls, dominated the sport, and how many in the press criticized the sport, and sometimes even Lipinski herself, for encouraging it. Her jumps, which Kestnbaum called "small and in some cases technically flawed", became a "topic of hot debate" in the press in 1997 and 1998. Kestnbaum said that Lipinski's early programs, choreographed by Sandra Bezik, emphasized her youth and femininity, but by the 1998 Olympics, they emphasized "greater polish or 'maturity' in her presentation skills".
Jere Longman of The New York Times said that Lipinski "has propelled the sport forward with the difficulty of her jumps". E. M. Swift of Sports Illustrated said that although Lipinski was "not a great leaper", her spins were "so fast that she seems to dematerialize, like Tinkerbell, in the midst of her jumps". In March 1997, Swift stated that Lipinski had "musicality and poise that are far beyond her years", and although he admitted that she often suffered from nerves, she was "the complete skating package, if a diminutive one, and a pleasure to watch". In 2018, U.S. Figure Skating president Sam Auxier credited Lipinski for "raising the bar technically" and for increasing the level of complexity of Olympic skating.
Broadcasting career
Lipinski spent a few years traveling and working "here and there" after her retirement from figure skating. She did some acting, but decided that it "just wasn't my thing". In 2009, longing for the "high" she felt as a figure skater, she contacted U.S. Figure Skating's streaming service Ice Network and offered to work as a commentator for competitions. She began commentating for Universal Sports in 2010 and transitioned to NBC and NBC Sports in 2011, where she covered almost every international figure skating competition broadcast by the network. For competitions not broadcast live, she would call figure skating from studios in the U.S., instead of from the competition venue. She also became a special correspondent for Extra and covered skating for WDIV in Detroit and WHDH in Boston.
Lipinski teamed with sports commentator Terry Gannon and fellow figure skater and good friend Johnny Weir at the Sochi Olympics as the network's second team of figure skating commentators for their daily live broadcasts in September 2014. At first Lipinski worked with Gannon during the women's events, and Weir worked with Gannon during the men's events. After realizing they worked well together and after recognizing their "instant chemistry", they pitched the idea of the three working together to NBC; Lipinski stated that it "was sort of meant to be". According to sports writer Tom Weir, "they had instant comedic harmony, with their casual chatter and humorous asides playing amazingly well against the staunch and exacting backdrop of figure skating". Tom Weir also reported that the trio had generated the 10 best weekday daytime audiences in NBC's history. In September 2014, Lipinski, Weir, and Gannon were promoted to NBC's primary figure skating commentators, replacing Scott Hamilton, Sandra Bezic, and Tom Hammond. Lipinski, along with Weir and Gannon, was an analyst at the 2018 Winter Olympics. She stated that she had worked for ten years to commentate during prime time during the Olympics. Lipinski, Weir, and Gannon were also slotted to host the closing ceremonies in Pyeongchang.
Lipinski and Weir were hired by NBC's Access Hollywood in 2014, to analyze fashion during the red carpet at the Oscars. She served as "a fashion, lifestyle, and social media correspondent" for NBC Sports, including, with Weir, the Beverly Hills Dog Show in 2017, the National Dog Show every year since 2015, the Kentucky Derby in 2014–2017 and 2018 (as "fashion and lifestyle experts" in 2016), and pre-game coverage for the Super Bowl in 2015 and 2017. They were named "culture correspondents" for the 2016 Summer Olympics.
According to the Houston Chronicle, Lipinski approached broadcasting "with passion, vigor and an arduous work ethic similar to what she brought to the ice". She spent hundreds of hours researching skaters. Her broadcasting influences were Peggy Fleming, Dick Button, and Scott Hamilton; she listened to tapes of Hamilton's past broadcasts to learn how to commentate. She called her broadcasting career her "second dream". In 2018, she told Entertainment Tonight, "I feel extremely grateful that Johnny and I have found this spot in our world, and it gives us opportunities outside of skating". In 2018, the Washington Post reported that viewers' response to Lipinski and Weir were mixed; some considered them "Olympic darlings–a one-stop shop for knowledge, sass and brass", while others found them "mean, obnoxious, and distracting". Scott Hamilton, who was replaced at NBC by Lipinski, Weir, and Gannon, called them a "phenomenon" and "such a breath of fresh air". GQ called their commentating style "a Gladwell-ian ability to demystify figure skating for the uninitiated and an extreme candor for which they've caught some heat". Lipinski and Weir's commentating style was honest and colorful; they used bantering and avoided "fluffy, polished performances". They tried to present figure skating in an accessible way to their viewers, keeping the more technical aspects of the sport to a minimum but emphasizing its "gossipy nuances". Dick Button told Olympic reporters he thought Lipinski and Weir were "excellent", but that Lipinski "might talk a little too much", although Tom Weir stated that when skaters were "elegant and error-free", both Lipinski and Weir had "the good sense to stay silent".
Personal life
In June 2017, after two years of dating, Lipinski married sports producer Todd Kapostasy. They met in May 2015, when Lipinski presented Kapostasy an award at the Sports Emmys. Johnny Weir was a "bridesman" and Scott Hamilton was a guest.
Lipinski is Catholic; she has had a devotion to St. Therese of Lisieux since 1994. Lipinski credited St. Therese for her Olympic win in 1998 and the recovery from her hip surgery in 2000. She wore a necklace with a good-luck charm, given to her by her uncle, that said, "Short, but good", as well as a medal of St. Therese, given to her by Rev. Vince Kolo, a Catholic priest from Pittsburgh, during the Olympics. She thanked St. Therese at the kiss and cry after her short program in Nagano, and her coach held a small statue of St. Therese during her long program. Lipinski would also place a statue of the saint on the boards before every competition. A few months after the Nagano Olympics, she donated her medal and costume to an exhibit. Ann Rogers-Melnick of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette reported in 2001 that Lipinski had established a playroom in Saint Therese's honor in the children's ward in a Detroit hospital. Lipinski told Rogers-Melnick that roses, a symbol of St. Therese, had "always appeared at her best and worst moments".
About her friendship with Weir, Lipinski stated that although their skating careers had not occurred during the same time periods and as a result, they did not know each other well when they began to work together at the Sochi Olympics, they bonded "on air and off air". She also said, "It's like a long-lost soul mate that I met late in life. I can't imagine my life without him". Both Lipinski and Weir told GQ that they would bring dozens of suitcases to the competitions they announced, and would do their best to wear matching clothes and never the same outfit twice. By the 2018 Olympics, they brought every item of clothing they owned and would "sort it out" at the event. They also reported that they assisted fellow broadcaster Terry Gannon with his on-air fashion choices.
Records and achievements
Youngest athlete (12 years old) to win a gold medal at the U.S. Olympic Festival (1995).
First woman to complete a triple loop-triple loop combination, her signature jump, in competition.
Youngest woman (14 years old) to win the World Figure Skating Championships (1997).
Sixth American woman to win an Olympic gold medal in figure skating.
Youngest skater (16 years old) to win the World Professional Figure Skating Championships (1999).
Youngest inductee into the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame.
Figure skating
Programs
Results
Eligible
GP: Champions Series (Grand Prix)
Professional
1998 Skate TV Championships: 1st
1998 Ice Wars: 1st (Team USA)
1998 Jefferson Pilot Financial Championships: 1st
1999 Team Ice Wars: 2nd (Team USA)
1999 Ice Wars: 1st (Team USA)
1999 Grand Slam Super Teams of Skating: 1st
1999 World Professional Championship: 1st
2001 World Ice Challenge: 1st (Team USA)
2002 Ice Wars: 1st (Team USA)
Television credits
Touched by an Angel (1999) - Alex Thorpe
Sabrina, the Teenage Witch (1999) - Herself
The Young and the Restless (1999) - Marnie Kowalski
Ice Angel (2000) - Tracy Hannibal
Are You Afraid of the Dark? (2000) - Ellen
Vanilla Sky (2001) - Girl at Party (uncredited)
Arliss (2002) - Herself
7th Heaven (2003) - Christine
The Metro Chase (2004) - Natalie Jordon
Still Standing (2005) - Sarah
Malcolm in the Middle (2006) - Carrie
Superstore (2016) - Herself
Kidding (2018) - Herself
Family Guthe Peacock channelFamily Guy (2018) - Herself
Scooby-Doo and Guess (2020) - Herself
Meddling (2022) - Docuseries - "The Olympic Skating Scandal That Shocked the World" - on Peacock. Tara and her husband, Todd Kapostas
Totally Tara - An Olympic Journey (1998)
Tara Lipinski: Triumph on Ice (1998)
Footnotes
References
Works cited
Kestnbaum, Ellyn (2003). Culture on Ice: Figure Skating and Cultural Meaning. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. .
Swift, E.M. (February 24, 1997). "Kid Stuff". Sports Illustrated. pp. 28–31. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
External links
1982 births
American film actresses
American female single skaters
American television actresses
Figure skaters at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Living people
Olympic figure skaters of the United States
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in figure skating
Actresses from Detroit
People from Mantua Township, New Jersey
Sportspeople from Philadelphia
People from Sugar Land, Texas
People from Washington Township, Gloucester County, New Jersey
World Figure Skating Championships medalists
Medalists at the 1998 Winter Olympics
American people of Polish descent
Figure skating commentators
Olympic Games broadcasters
Catholics from Michigan
Catholics from Pennsylvania
21st-century American women
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205708
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section%2031%20%28Star%20Trek%29
|
Section 31 (Star Trek)
|
Section 31, in the fictional universe of Star Trek, is an autonomous intelligence and defense organization that carries out covert operations for the United Federation of Planets. Created by Ira Steven Behr for the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Inquisition", the organization was intended to act as a counterbalance to the utopian portrayal of the Federation.
Section 31 settings and characters have appeared in dozens of episodes, novels and comics. In 2019, CBS announced a new series was in development about Section 31, starring Michelle Yeoh.
Production
Ira Steven Behr was inspired by a line of dialogue from Deep Space Nine episode "The Maquis" spoken by Commander Benjamin Sisko: "It's easy to be a saint in paradise." Behr said in the 1999 reference companion to the series, "Why is Earth a paradise in the twenty-fourth century? Well, maybe it's because there's someone watching over it and doing the nasty stuff that no one wants to think about." He expressed an interest of exploring what life was really like for those living the fictional 24th century, saying "Is it this paradise, or are there, as Harold Pinter said, 'Weasels under the coffee table'."
The name, Section 31, is explained in the story as being taken from the fictional Starfleet Charter: Article 14, Section 31. The article, according to agents, allowed for extraordinary measures to be taken in times of extreme threat. Such measures included malicious sabotage of enemy installations and technology, biological warfare, and preemptive assassination.
According to Ronald D. Moore there was considerable debate on the origin of the organization, in particular on how the organization was formed and how long ago.
Costume designer Bob Blackman chose the black leather costumes worn by Section 31 agents to appear fascistic. Behr had asked for dark black, severe, hostile looking costumes. In Star Trek: The Human Frontier, Michèle and Duncan Barrett explain that Section 31 agents not wearing Starfleet uniforms or dressed as Federation citizens further enhanced their role as an organization that is not constrained by ethics.
Reception
Writer David Weddle said many fans felt Section 31 betrayed the value system created by Gene Roddenberry, while others were indifferent or intrigued. "Fans would get into these long ethical and political arguments, really struggling with issues like that, which was great to see." Moore replied to criticisms of betrayal saying, "The idea that there's a rogue element within the Federation doing dark deeds outside the normal chain of command is certainly a provocative one."
Actor Jeffrey Combs, who portrayed Weyoun in Deep Space Nine, enjoyed the appearances of Section 31, saying the stories "gave everything a real flair."
Characters
In order of appearance:
Appearances
Deep Space Nine (1998–99)
"Inquisition"
"Inter Arma Enim Silent Leges"
"Extreme Measures"
Enterprise (2005)
"Affliction"
"Divergence"
"Demons"
"Terra Prime"
Films
Star Trek Into Darkness (2013)
Discovery (2018–19)
"Will You Take My Hand?" (Season 1, bonus scene)
"Point of Light"
"Saints of Imperfection"
"The Sounds of Thunder"
"Light and Shadows"
"If Memory Serves"
"Project Daedalus"
"The Red Angel"
"Perpetual Infinity"
"Through the Valley of Shadows"
"Such Sweet Sorrow"
"Such Sweet Sorrow, Part 2"
Lower Decks (2020)
"Envoys" (references to Section 31)
Tie-in media
Novels
Section 31 characters and settings appear in the following novels:
Section 31 crossover (2001–2017)
Star Trek: Section 31 is a crossover miniseries of thematically linked novels featuring Section 31. The series was relaunched in 2014 as part of the Deep Space Nine book line.
Next Generation (2004–2019)
The following Star Trek: The Next Generation novels include Section 31 characters:
Enterprise (2007–2017)
The following Star Trek: Enterprise novels include Section 31 characters:
Typhon Pact (2010–2012)
Star Trek: Typhon Pact crossover series continues events introduced in the Destiny series, by David Mack, and A Singular Destiny, by Keith DeCandido.
Section 31 relaunch (2014–2017)
Novels linked to Deep Space Nine and Next Generation relaunch book lines.
Graphic novels
All comics published by IDW Publishing.
Star Trek Online (2010–2015)
Star Trek Online is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game developed by Cryptic Studios. The game has continued to receive updates which are organized into episodes containing five to seven missions each. All Section 31 missions are introduced by Franklin Drake, a character created for the game.
See also
Starfleet
United Federation of Planets
References
Further reading
External links
Star Trek organizations
Fictional intelligence agencies
|
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205710
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achernar
|
Achernar
|
Achernar is the primary (or 'A') component of the binary system designated Alpha Eridani (α Eridani, abbreviated Alpha Eri, α Eri), which is the brightest star in the constellation of Eridanus, and the ninth-brightest in the night sky. The two components are designated Alpha Eridani A (the primary) and B (the secondary, also known informally as Achernar B). As determined by the Hipparcos astrometry satellite, it is approximately from the Sun.
Of the ten apparent brightest stars in the night-time sky, Alpha Eridani is the hottest and bluest in color, due to Achernar being of spectral type B. Achernar has an unusually rapid rotational velocity, causing it to become oblate in shape. The secondary is smaller, of spectral type A, and orbits Achernar at a distance of roughly 12 astronomical units (AU).
Nomenclature
α Eridani (Latinised to Alpha Eridani) is the system's Bayer designation. The designations of the two components—Alpha Eridani A and B—derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).
The system bears the traditional name of Achernar (sometimes spelled Achenar), derived from the Arabic , meaning "The End of the River". However, it seems that this name originally referred to Theta Eridani instead, which latterly was known by the similar traditional name Acamar, with the same etymology. The IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) approved the name with the spelling Achernar for the component Alpha Eridani A on 30 June 2016 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names.
In Chinese caused by adaptation of the European Southern Hemisphere constellations into the Chinese system, (), meaning Crooked Running Water, refers to an asterism consisting of Achernar, ζ Phoenicis and η Phoenicis. Consequently, Achernar itself is known as (, ).
The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria, Australia, named it Yerrerdetkurrk.
Namesake
USS Achernar (AKA-53) was a United States Navy attack cargo ship.
Properties
Achernar is in the deep southern sky and never rises above the horizon beyond 33°N, roughly the latitude of Dallas, Texas. It is best seen from the Southern Hemisphere in November; it is circumpolar above (i.e. south of) 33°S, roughly the latitude of Santiago. On this latitude, e.g. the south coast of South Africa (Cape Town to Port Elizabeth) when in lower culmination it is barely visible to the naked eye as it is only 1 degree above the horizon, but still circumpolar. Further south, it is well visible at all times during night.
Achernar is a bright, blue star with about seven times the mass of the Sun. It is a main-sequence star with a stellar classification of B6 Vep, but is about 3,150 times more luminous than the Sun. Infrared observations of the star using an adaptive optics system on the Very Large Telescope show that it has a companion star in a close orbit. This appears to be an A-type star in the stellar classification range A0V–A3V, which suggests a stellar mass of about double that of the Sun. The separation of the two stars is roughly and their orbital period is at least 14–15 years.
As of 2003, Achernar is the least spherical star in the Milky Way studied to date. It spins so rapidly that it has assumed the shape of an oblate spheroid with an equatorial diameter 56% greater than its polar diameter. The polar axis is inclined about 65° to the line of sight from the Earth. Since it is actually a binary star, its highly distorted shape may cause non-negligible departures of the companion's orbital trajectory with respect to a Keplerian ellipse. A similar situation occurs for the star Regulus.
Because of the distorted shape of this star, there is a significant temperature variation by latitude. At the pole, the temperature may be above , while the equator is at or below 10,000 K. The average temperature of the star is about 15,000 K. The high polar temperatures are generating a fast polar wind that is ejecting matter from the star, creating a polar envelope of hot gas and plasma. The entire star is surrounded by an extended envelope that can be detected by its excess infrared emission, or by its polarization. The presence of a circumstellar disk of ionized gas is a common feature of Be stars such as this. The disk is not stable and periodically decretes back into the star. The maximum polarization for Achernar's disk was observed in September 2014, and it is now decreasing.
Historical visibility
Due to precession, Achernar lay much farther south in ancient times than at present, being 7.5 degrees of the south pole around 3400 BCE (decl −82º 40') and still lying at declination −76º by around 1500 BCE. Hence the Ancient Egyptians could not have known it. Even in 100 CE its declination was around −67º, meaning Ptolemy could not possibly have seen it from Alexandria—whereas Theta Eridani was visible as far north as Crete. So, Ptolemy's "End of the River" was certainly Theta Eridani. Alpha Eridani was not visible from Alexandria until about 1600 CE.
Until about March 2000, Achernar and Fomalhaut were the two first-magnitude stars farthest from any other, their nearest neighbors being each other. Antares is now the most isolated first-magnitude star, although Antares is located in a constellation (Scorpius) with many bright second-magnitude stars, whereas the stars surrounding Alpha Eridani and Fomalhaut are considerably fainter.
The first star catalogue to contain Achernar in the chart of Eridanus is Johann Bayer's Uranometria. Bayer did not observe it himself, and it is attributed to Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and the first voyages of the Dutch to the East Indies ("Eerste Schipvaart"). Thus it was the only first-magnitude star not listed in Ptolemy's Almagest.
Alpha Eridani will continue to move north in the next few millennia, rising from Crete about 500 years hence before reaching its maximum northern declination between the 8th and 11th millennia, when it will be visible as far north as Germany and southern England.
Notes
References
Further reading
Eridani, Alpha
B-type main-sequence stars
Eridanus (constellation)
010144
007588
0472
Achernar
Southern pole stars
CD-57 00334
Be stars
|
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] |
205712
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20military%20commanders
|
List of Swedish military commanders
|
This is a list of Swedish military commanders. Several Swedish monarchs also acted directly as military commanders.
17th century
Jacob de la Gardie (1583-1652), Field Marshal
Gustav Horn (1592-1657), Field Marshal
Johan Banér (1596-1641), Field Marshal
Per Brahe (1602-1680)
Lennart Torstenson (1603-1651), Field Marshal
Nils Brahe (1604-1632)
Lorens von der Linde (1610-1670), Field Marshal
Carl Gustaf Wrangel (1613-1676), Field Marshal
18th century
Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten (1727-1786)
Göran Magnus Sprengtporten (1740-1819)
Johan Christopher Toll (1743-1817), Field Marshal
Axel von Fersen, senior (1755-1810)
Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt (1757-1814)
19th century
Carl Johan Adlercreutz (1757-1815)
Georg Carl von Döbeln (1758-1820)
Johan August Sandels (1764-1831)
Nils Magnus Brahe (1790-1844)
Monarchs as military commanders
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
Charles X Gustav of Sweden
Charles XI of Sweden (1655-1697)
Charles XII of Sweden (1682-1718)
Charles XIV of Sweden (1763-1844)
See also
List of Swedish field marshals
List of wars involving Sweden
Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces
Swedish military commanders
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretarybird
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Secretarybird
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The secretarybird or secretary bird (Sagittarius serpentarius) is a large, mostly terrestrial bird of prey. Endemic to Africa, it is usually found in the open grasslands and savanna of the sub-Saharan region. John Frederick Miller described the species in 1779. Although a member of the order Accipitriformes, which also includes many other diurnal birds of prey such as kites, hawks, vultures, and harriers, it is placed in its own family, Sagittariidae.
The secretarybird is instantly recognizable as a very large bird with an eagle-like body on crane-like legs that give the bird a height of as much as . The sexes are similar in appearance. Adults have a featherless red-orange face and predominantly grey plumage, with a flattened dark crest and black flight feathers and thighs.
Breeding can take place at any time of year, but tends to be late in the dry season. The nest is built at the top of a thorny tree, and a clutch of one to three eggs is laid. In years with plentiful food all three young can survive to fledgling. The secretarybird hunts and catches prey on the ground, often stomping on victims to kill them. Insects and small vertebrates make up its diet.
Although the secretarybird occurs over a large range, the results of localised surveys suggest that the total population is experiencing a rapid decline, probably as a result of habitat degradation. The species is therefore classed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It appears on the coats of arms of Sudan and South Africa.
Taxonomy
The Dutch naturalist Arnout Vosmaer described the secretarybird in 1769 on the basis of a live specimen that had been sent to Holland from the Cape of Good Hope two years earlier by an official of the Dutch East India Company. Vosmaer suggested that the species was called "sagittarius" by the Dutch settlers because its gait was thought to resemble an archer's. He also mentioned that it was known as the "secretarius" by farmers who had domesticated the bird to combat pests around their homesteads, and proposed that the word "secretarius" might be a corruption of "sagittarius". Ian Glenn of the University of the Free State suggests that Vosmaer's "sagittarius" is a misheard or mis-transcribed form of "secretarius", rather than the other way around.
In 1779 the English illustrator John Frederick Miller included a coloured plate of the secretarybird in his Icones animalium et plantarum and coined the binomial name Falco serpentarius. As the oldest published specific name, serpentarius has priority over later scientific names. The species was assigned to its own genus Sagittarius in 1783 by the French naturalist Johann Hermann in his Tabula affinitatum animalium. The generic name Sagittarius is Latin for "archer", and the specific epithet serpentarius is from Latin serpens meaning "serpent" or "snake". A second edition of Miller's plates was published in 1796 as Cimelia physica, with added text by English naturalist George Shaw, who named it Vultur serpentarius. The French naturalist Georges Cuvier erected the genus Serpentarius in 1798, and the German naturalist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger erected the (now synonymous) genus Gypogeranus from the Ancient Greek words gyps "vulture" and geranos "crane" in 1811.
In 1835 the Irish naturalist William Ogilby spoke at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London and proposed three species of secretarybird, distinguishing those from Senegambia as having broader crest feathers than those from South Africa, and reporting a distinct species from the Philippines based on the writings of Pierre Sonnerat in his Voyage à la Nouvelle-Guinée. There is no other evidence this taxon existed. Despite its large range, the secretarybird is considered monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.
The evolutionary relationship of the secretarybird to other raptors had long puzzled ornithologists. The species was usually placed in its own family Sagittariidae within the order Falconiformes. A large molecular phylogenetic study published in 2008 found that the secretarybird was sister to a clade containing the ospreys in the family Pandionidae and the kites, hawks and eagles in the family Accipitridae. The same study found that the falcons in the order Falconiformes were only distantly related to the other diurnal birds of prey. The families Cathartidae, Sagittariidae, Pandionidae and Accipitridae were therefore moved from Falconiformes to the resurrected Accipitriformes. A later molecular phylogenetic study published in 2015 confirmed these relationships.
The earliest fossils associated with the family are two species from the genus Pelargopappus. The two species, from the Oligocene and Miocene respectively, were discovered in France. The feet in these fossils are more like those of the Accipitridae; it is suggested that these characteristics are primitive features within the family. In spite of their age, the two species are not thought to be ancestral to the secretarybird. Though strongly convergent with the modern secretarybird, the extinct raptor Apatosagittarius is thought to be an accipitrid.
The International Ornithologists' Union has designated "secretarybird" the official common name for the species. In 1780 the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon suggested that the name secretary/secrétaire had been chosen because of the long quill-like feathers at the top of the bird's neck, reminiscent of a quill pen behind the ear of an ancient scribe. In 1977, C. Hilary Fry of Aberdeen University suggested that "secretary" is from the French secrétaire, a corruption of the Arabic saqr et-tair meaning either "hawk of the semi-desert" or "hawk that flies". Glenn has dismissed this etymology on the grounds that there is no evidence that the name came through French, instead supporting Buffon's etymology; namely, that the word comes from the Dutch secretaris "secretary", used by settlers in South Africa.
Description
The secretarybird is instantly recognisable as a very large terrestrial bird with an eagle-like head and body on crane-like legs. It stands about tall. It has a length of between and a wingspan of between . The weight ranges from , with a mean of . The averages and the tail is : both factor into making it both taller and longer than any other species of raptor. The neck is not especially long, and can only be lowered down to the intertarsal joint, so birds must stoop to reach down to the ground.
During flight, two elongated central feathers of the tail extend beyond the feet, and the neck stretches out like a stork. The plumage of the crown, upperparts, and lesser and median wing coverts is blue-grey, and the underparts and underwing coverts are lighter grey to grey-white. The crest is made up of long black feathers arising from the nape. The scapulars, primary and secondary flight feathers, rump and thighs are black, while the uppertail coverts are white, though barred with black in some individuals. The tail is wedge-shaped with white tipping, marbled grey and black colouring at the base, and two broad black bands, one at the base and the other at the end.
Sexes resemble one another, although the male tends to have longer tail feathers, more head plumes, a shorter head and more blue-grey plumage. Adults have a featherless red-orange face with pale brown irises and a yellow cere. The legs and feet are pinkish grey, the upper legs clad in black feathers. The toes are short—around 20% of the length of those of an eagle of the same size—and stout, so that the bird is unable to grasp objects with its feet. The rear toe is small and the three forward facing toes are connected at the base by a small web. Immature birds have yellow rather than orange bare skin on their faces, more brownish plumage, shorter tail feathers and greyish rather than brown irises.
Adults are normally silent but can utter a deep guttural croaking noise in nuptial displays or at nests. Secretarybirds make this sound when greeting their mates or in a threat display or fight against other birds, sometimes throwing their head backwards at the same time. When alarmed, the secretarybird may emit a high-pitched croak. Mated pairs at the nest make soft clucking or whistling calls. Chicks make a sharp sound heard as "chee-uk-chee-uk-chee-uk" for their first 30 days.
Distribution and habitat
The secretarybird is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and is generally non-migratory, though it may be locally nomadic as it follows rainfall and the resulting abundance of prey. Its range extends from Senegal to Somaliland and south to Cape Province, South Africa.
The species is also found at a variety of elevations, from the coastal plains to the highlands. The secretarybird prefers open grasslands, savannas and shrubland (Karoo) rather than forests and dense shrubbery that may impede its cursorial existence. More specifically, it prefers areas with grass under high and avoids those with grass over high. It is rarer in grasslands in northern parts of its range that otherwise appear similar to areas in southern Africa where it is abundant, suggesting it may avoid hotter regions. It also avoids deserts.
Behaviour and ecology
Secretarybirds are not generally gregarious aside from pairs and their offspring. They usually roost in trees of the genus Acacia or Balanites, or even introduced pine trees in South Africa. They set off 1–2 hours after dawn, generally after spending some time preening. Mated pairs roost together but may forage separately, though often remaining in sight of one another. They pace around at a speed of , taking 120 steps per minute on average. After spending much of the day on the ground, secretarybirds return at dusk, moving downwind before flying in upwind. Birds encountered singly are often unattached males, their territories generally in less suitable areas. Conversely, larger groups of up to 50 individuals may be present at an area with a localised resource such as a waterhole in a dry area or an irruption of rodents or locusts fleeing a fire.
Secretarybirds soar with their primary feathers splayed to manage turbulence. Their wings can flap, though in a slow laborious manner and requiring uplift to be sustained; otherwise they may become exhausted. In the heat of the day, they use thermals to rise up to above the ground.
The lifespan is thought to be 10 to 15 years in the wild, with the oldest confirmed by banding to be 5 years from a nestling banded on 23 July 2011 in Bloemfontein and recovered away in Mpumalanga on 7 June 2016, and up to 19 years in captivity. Secretarybirds, like all birds, have haematozoan blood parasites that include Leucocytozoon beaurepairei Dias 1954 recorded from Mozambique. Wild birds from Tanzania have been found to have Hepatozoon ellisgreineri, a genus that is unique among avian haematozoa in maturing within granulocytes, mainly heterophils. Ectoparasites include the lice Neocolpocephalum cucullare (Giebel) and Falcolipeurus secretarius (Giebel).
Breeding
Secretarybirds form monogamous pairs and defend a large territory of around . They can breed at any time of the year, more frequently in the late dry season. During courtship, they exhibit a nuptial display by soaring high with undulating flight patterns and calling with guttural croaking. Males and females can also perform a ground display by chasing each other with their wings up and back, which is also the way they defend their territory. They mate either on the ground or in trees.
The nest is built by both sexes at the top of a dense thorny tree, often an Acacia, at a height of between above the ground. The nest is constructed as a relatively flat platform of sticks across with a depth . The shallow depression is lined with grass and the occasional piece of dung.
Eggs are laid at 2- to 3-day intervals until the clutch of 1–3 eggs is complete. The elongated chalky bluish green or white eggs average and weigh . Both parents incubate the eggs, starting as soon as the first egg is laid, but it is usually the female that remains on the nest overnight. The incubating parent greets its partner when it returns with a display of bowing and bobbing its head with neck extended. The tail is held upright with feathers fanned out, and the chest feathers are puffed out.
The eggs hatch after around 45 days at intervals of 2–3 days. Both parents feed the young. The adults regurgitate food onto the floor of the nest and then pick up items and pass them to the chicks. For the first 2 or 3 weeks after the eggs hatch the parents take turns to stay at the nest with the young. Despite the difference in nestling size due to the asynchronous hatching, little sibling aggression has been observed. Under favourable conditions all chicks from a clutch of three eggs fledge, but if food is scarce one or more of the chicks will die from starvation. The young may be preyed upon by crows, ravens, hornbills, and large owls.
The young are born covered in grey-white down that becomes darker grey after two weeks. Their bare facial skin and legs are yellow. Crest feathers appear at 21 days, and flight feathers by 28 days. They can stand up and feed autonomously after 40 days, although the parents still feed the nestlings after that time. At 60 days, the now fully-feathered young start to flap their wings. Their weight gain over this period changes from at hatching, to at 20 days, at 30 days, at 40 days, at 50 days, at 60 days, and at 70 days. The time they leave the nest can be anywhere between 65 and 106 days of age, although it most typically occurs between 75 and 80 days of age. Fledging is accomplished by jumping out of the nest or using a semi-controlled glide to the ground.
Juveniles remain in their natal range before dispersing when they are between 4 and 7 months of age. The usual age at which they first breed is uncertain but there is a record of a male bird breeding successfully at an age of 2 years and 9 months, which is young for a large raptor.
Food and feeding
Unlike most birds of prey, the secretarybird is largely terrestrial, hunting its prey on foot. Adults hunt in pairs and sometimes as loose familial flocks, stalking through the habitat with long strides. Prey may consist of insects such as locusts and beetles, mammals ranging in size from mice to hares and mongoose, crabs, lizards, snakes, tortoises, small birds, bird eggs, and sometimes dead animals killed in grass or bush fires. Larger herbivores are not generally hunted, although there are some reports of secretarybirds killing young gazelles and cheetah cubs. The importance of snakes in the diet has been exaggerated in the past, although they can be locally important and venomous species such as adders and cobras are regularly among the types of snake preyed upon. Secretarybirds do not eat carrion.
The birds often flush prey from tall grass by stomping on the surrounding vegetation. Their crest feathers may raise during a hunt, which may serve to help scare the target and provide shade for the face. A bird will chase after prey with the wings spread and kill by striking with swift blows of the feet. Only with small prey items such as wasps will the bird use its bill to pick them directly. There are some reports that, when capturing snakes, a secretarybird will take flight with their prey and then drop them to their death, although this has not been verified. Even with larger prey, food is generally swallowed whole through the birds' considerable gape. Occasionally, like other raptors, they will hold down a food item with their feet while tearing it apart with their bill.
Food that cannot be digested is regurgitated as pellets in diameter and in length. These are dropped on the ground usually near the roost or nest trees. The secretarybird has a relatively short digestive tract in comparison to large African birds with more mixed diets, such as the kori bustard. The foregut is specialised for the consumption of large amounts of meat and there is little need for the mechanical breakdown of food. The crop is dilated and the gizzard is nonmuscular, as in other carnivorous birds. The large intestine has a pair of vestigial ceca as there is no requirement for the fermentative digestion of plant material.
Secretarybirds specialise in stomping their prey until it is killed or immobilised. This method of hunting is commonly applied to lizards or snakes. An adult male trained to strike at a rubber snake on a force plate was found to hit with a force equal to five times its own body weight, with a contact period of only 10–15 milliseconds. This short time of contact suggests that the secretarybird relies on superior visual targeting to determine the precise location of the prey's head. Although little is known about its visual field, it is assumed that it is large, frontal and binocular. Secretarybirds have unusually long legs (nearly twice as long as other ground birds of the same body mass), which is thought to be an adaptation for the bird's unique stomping and striking hunting method. However, these long limbs appear to also lower its running efficiency. Ecophysiologist Steve Portugal and colleagues have hypothesised that the extinct Phorusrhacidae (terror birds) may have employed a similar hunting technique to secretarybirds because they are anatomically similar, although they are not closely related.
Secretarybirds rarely encounter other predators, except in the case of tawny eagles, which will steal their kills. Eagles mainly steal larger prey and will attack secretarybirds both singly or in pairs. Secretarybird pairs are sometimes successful in driving the eagles away and may even knock them down and pin them to the ground.
Relationship with humans
Cultural significance
The secretarybird is depicted on an ivory knife handle recovered from Abu Zaidan in Upper Egypt, dating to the Naqada III culture (c. 3,200 BC). This and other knife handles indicate the secretarybird most likely occurred historically further north along the Nile.
The secretarybird has traditionally been admired in Africa for its striking appearance and ability to deal with pests and snakes. As such it has often not been disturbed, although this is changing as traditional observances have declined. It is a prominent feature on the coat of arms of South Africa, which was adopted in 2000. With its wings outstretched, it represents growth, and its penchant for killing snakes is symbolic as the protector of the South African state against enemies. It is on the emblem of Sudan, adopted in 1969. It is featured on the Sudanese presidential flag and presidential seal. The secretarybird has been a common motif for African countries on postage stamps: over a hundred stamps from 37 issuers are known, including some from stamp-issuing entities such as Ajman, Manama, and the Maldives, regions where the bird does not exist, as well as the United Nations.
The Maasai people call it ol-enbai nabo, or "one arrow", referring to its crest feathers. They have used parts of the bird in traditional medicine: its feathers could be burnt and the resulting smoke inhaled to treat epilepsy, its egg could be consumed with tea twice daily to treat headaches, and its fat could be boiled and drunk for child growth or livestock health. The Xhosa people call the bird inxhanxhosi and attribute great intelligence to it in folklore. The Zulus call it intungunono.
The German biologist Ragnar Kinzelbach proposed in 2008 that the secretarybird was recorded in the 13th-century work De arte venandi cum avibus by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Described as bistarda deserti, it was mistaken for a bustard. Frederick most likely gained knowledge of the bird from sources in Egypt. The 16th-century French priest and traveller André Thevet also wrote a description of a mysterious bird in 1558 that has been likened by Kinzelbach to this species.
In the Disney film Bedknobs and Broomsticks, one of the residents of Naboombu, the assistant to King Leonidas, is a secretarybird. Both the secretarybird and the king are voiced by Lennie Weinrib.
Threats and conservation
In 1968 the species became protected under the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed the secretarybird in 2016 as a vulnerable species and as Endangered in 2020, due to a recent rapid decline across its entire range. Although widespread, the species is thinly distributed across its range; its population has been estimated in 2016 to be anywhere between 6,700 and 67,000 individuals. Long term monitoring across South Africa between 1987 and 2013 has shown that populations have declined across the country, even in protected areas such as Kruger National Park due to bush encroachment, an increase in the tall vegetation cover, resulting in loss of open habitat that the species prefers.
As a population, the secretarybird is mainly threatened by loss of habitat due to fragmentation by roads and development and overgrazing of grasslands by livestock. Some adaptation to altered areas has been recorded but the trend is for decline.
In captivity
The first successful rearing of a secretarybird in captivity occurred in 1986 at the Oklahoma City Zoo. Although secretarybirds normally build their nests in the trees in the wild, the captive birds at the zoo built theirs on the ground, which left them open to depredation by local wild mammals. Therefore, the zoo staff removed the eggs from the nest each time they were laid so that they could be incubated and hatched at a safer location. The species has also been bred and reared in captivity at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park.
Notes
References
External links
Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the secretary bird
Birdlife Species Factsheet
Secretary Bird on postage stamps
Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Accipitriformes
Birds described in 1779
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
Birds of prey
Birds of prey of Africa
Falconiformes (sensu lato)
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Afrotropics
National symbols of South Africa
National symbols of Sudan
Taxa named by John Frederick Miller
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] |
205717
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20politicians
|
List of Swedish politicians
|
This is a list of Swedish politicians.
12th century
Earl Birger Brosa (1174–1202)
Folke the Fat
13th century
Earl Birger (1210–1266)
14th century
Saint Bridget of Sweden (1303–1373)
15th century
Karl Knutsson Bonde (1409–1470)
Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson (~1390–1436)
Sten Sture the Elder (1440–1503)
16th century
Christina Gyllenstierna (1494–1559)
Gustav Vasa (1496–1560)
Svante Nilsson Sture (1460–1512)
Jöran Persson (1530–1568)
Sten Sture the Younger (1492–1520)
17th century
Gustav Bonde (1620–1667)
Per Brahe (1602–1680)
Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1622–1686)
Axel Oxenstierna (1583–1654)
Bengt Oxenstierna (1623–1702)
Gabriel Oxenstierna (1587–1640)
Johan Oxenstierna (1611–1657)
Johann Patkul (1660–1707)
Anders Torstenson (1641–1686)
18th century
Axel von Fersen, Sr. (1755–1810)
Arvid Horn (1664–1742)
Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (1756–1813)
Göran Magnus Sprengtporten (1740–1819)
Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten (1727–1786)
19th century
Nils Magnus Brahe (1790–1844)
Axel von Fersen, Jr. (1755–1810)
Louis De Geer (1818–1896)
Carl Gustaf Nordin (1749–1812)
Johan Gabriel Richert (1784–1864)
20th century
Sven Aspling (1912–2000)
Leif Blomberg (1941–1998)
Thorwald Bergquist (1899–1972)
Carl Bildt (born 1949)
Gösta Bohman (1911–1997)
Anitha Bondestam (born 1941)
Ingvar Carlsson (born 1934)
Reidar Carlsson (born 1957)
Birgitta Dahl
Jerzy Einhorn
Birger Ekstedt
Tage Erlander (1901–1985)
Johan Friggeråker (1872–1959)
Thorbjörn Fälldin (1926–2016)
Hans Gustafsson (1923–1998)
Sture Henriksson (1917–1957)
Sven Hulterström (born 1938)
Kjell Larsson (1943–2002)
Henning Leo (1885–1953)
Torsten Nilsson (1905–1997)
Bengt Norling (1925–2002)
Olof Palme (1927–1986)
Ove Rainer (1925–1987)
Gösta Skoglund (1903–1988)
Arvid Taube (1853–1916)
Ola Ullsten (1931–2018)
Lars Werner
21st century
Jan Björklund
Inger Davidson
Peter Eriksson
Rickard Falkvinge
Laila Freivalds (born 1942) - former Minister for Foreign Affairs
Göran Hägglund
Bo Holmberg
Lars Leijonborg
Anna Lindh (1957–2003) - Minister for Foreign Affairs (1998-2003); assassinated in 2003
Bo Lundgren (born 1947)
Mats Odell
Maud Olofsson
Marit Paulsen
Göran Persson (born 1949)
Fredrik Reinfeldt - former leader of the Moderate Party
Bosse Ringholm
Gudrun Schyman
Jonas Sjöstedt
Alf Svensson
Björn von Sydow
Per Westerberg - former speaker of the Parliament
Maria Wetterstrand
Stefan Löfven - Prime minister
Jimmie Åkesson
Ulf Kristersson
Annie Lööf
Nyamko Sabuni
See also
County Governors of Sweden
Governor-General in the Swedish Realm
List of political parties in Sweden
List of Swedish monarchs
List of Swedish Ministers for Foreign Affairs
List of Swedish Prime Ministers
Oxenstierna, (1583–1654), Sture
Politics of Sweden
Viceroy of Norway
Swedish
Politicians
|
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] |
205718
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimosa%20%28star%29
|
Mimosa (star)
|
Mimosa , designated β Crucis (Latinised to Beta Crucis, abbreviated Beta Cru, β Cru), is the second-brightest object in the constellation of Crux, after Acrux (Alpha Crucis), and the 20th-brightest star in the night sky. It forms part of the prominent asterism called the Southern Cross. Mimosa is a binary star or a possible triple star system.
Nomenclature
β Crucis (Latinised to Beta Crucis) is the system's Bayer designation. Although Mimosa is at roughly −60° declination, and therefore not visible north of 30° latitude, in the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans it was visible north of 40° due to the precession of equinoxes, and these civilizations regarded it as part of the constellation of Centaurus.
It bore the traditional names Mimosa and the historical name Becrux . Mimosa, which is derived from the Latin for 'actor', may come from the flower of the same name. Becrux is a modern contraction of the Bayer designation. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Mimosa for this star.
In Chinese, (), meaning Cross, refers to an asterism consisting of Acrux, Mimosa, Gamma Crucis, and Delta Crucis. Consequently, Mimosa itself is known as (, .).
Stellar system
Based on parallax measurements, Mimosa is located at a distance of from the Earth. In 1957, German astronomer Wulff-Dieter Heintz discovered that it is a spectroscopic binary with components that are too close together to resolve with a telescope. The pair orbit each other every 5 years with an estimated separation that varies from 5.4 to 12.0 Astronomical Units. The system is only 8 to 11 million years old.
The primary, β Crucis A, is a massive star with about 16 times the Sun's mass. The projected rotational velocity of this star is about . However, the orbital plane of the pair is only about 10°, which probably means the inclination of the star's pole is also likely to be low. This suggests that the azimuthal rotational velocity is quite high, at about . With a radius of about 8.4 times the radius of the Sun, this would mean the star has a rotational period of only about 3.6 days.
β Crucis A is a known β Cephei variable, although with an effective temperature of about 27,000 K it is at the hot edge of the instability strip where such stars are found. It has three different pulsation modes, none of which are radial. The periods of all three modes are in the range of 4.03–4.59 hours. Owing to the first application of polarimetry it is the heaviest star with an age determined by asteroseismology. The star has a stellar classification of B0.5 III, with the luminosity class of 'III' indicating that this is a giant star that has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core. The high temperature of the star's outer envelope is what gives the star the blue-white hue that is characteristic of B-type stars. It is generating a strong stellar wind and is losing about per year, or the equivalent of the mass of the Sun every 100 million years. The wind is leaving the system with a velocity of 2,000 km s−1 or more.
The secondary, β Crucis B, may be a main sequence star with a stellar class of B2. In 2007, a third companion was announced, which may be a low mass, pre-main sequence star. The X-ray emission from this star was detected using the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Two other stars, located at angular separations of 44 and 370 arcseconds, are likely optical companions that are not physically associated with the system. The β Crucis system may be a member of the Lower Centaurus-Crux sub-group of the Scorpius-Centaurus Association. This is a stellar association of stars that share a common origin.
In culture
Mimosa is represented in the flags of Australia, New Zealand, Samoa and Papua New Guinea as one of five stars making up the Southern Cross. It is also featured in the flag of Brazil, along with 26 other stars, each of which represents a state. Mimosa represents the State of Rio de Janeiro.
A vessel named MV Becrux is used to export live cattle from Australia to customers in Asia. An episode dedicated to the vessel features in the television documentary series Mighty Ships.
References
External links
http://jumk.de/astronomie/big-stars/becrux.shtml
Crucis, Beta
B-type giants
Crux (constellation)
Lower Centaurus Crux
Mimosa
4843
111123
062434
Beta Cephei variables
B-type main-sequence stars
Spectroscopic binaries
Durchmusterung objects
|
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] |
205719
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta%20Centauri
|
Beta Centauri
|
Beta Centauri (Latinised from β Centauri, abbreviated Beta Cen, β Cen), officially called Hadar (), is a triple star system in the southern constellation of Centaurus. The system's combined apparent visual magnitude of 0.61 makes it the second-brightest object in Centaurus and one of the brightest stars in the night sky. According to parallax measurements from the astrometric Hipparcos satellite, the distance to this system is about .
Nomenclature
β Centauri (Latinised to Beta Centauri) is the star system's Bayer designation.
It bore the traditional names Hadar and Agena. Hadar comes from the Arabic حضار (the root's meaning is "to be present" or "on the ground" or "settled, civilized area"), while the name Agena is thought to be derived from the Latin genua, meaning "knees", from the star's position on the left knee of the centaur depicted in the constellation Centaurus. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Hadar for the star β Centauri Aa on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.
The Chinese name for the star is 马腹 (Mandarin: mǎ fù yī, "the First Star of the Horse's Abdomen").
The Boorong people indigenous to what is now northwestern Victoria, Australia named it Bermbermgle (together with α Centauri), two brothers who were noted for their courage and destructiveness, and who spear and kill Tchingal, "The Emu" (Coalsack Nebula). The Wotjobaluk people name the two brothers Bram-bram-bult.
Visibility
Beta Centauri is one of the brightest stars in the sky at magnitude 0.61. Its brightness varies by a few hundredths of a magnitude, too small to be noticeable to the naked eye. Because of its spectral type and the detection of pulsations, the Aa component has been classified as a β Cephei variable.
Beta Centauri is well known in the Southern Hemisphere as the inner of the two "Pointers" to the constellation Crux, popularly known as the Southern Cross. A line made from the other pointer, Alpha Centauri, through Beta Centauri leads to within a few degrees of Gacrux, the star at the north end of the cross. Using Gacrux, a navigator can draw a line with Acrux at the south end to effectively determine south.
Stellar system
The Beta Centauri system is made up of three stars: Beta Centauri Aa, Beta Centauri Ab, and Beta Centauri B. All the spectral lines detected are consistent with a B1-type star, with only the line profiles varying, so it is thought that all three stars have the same spectral type.
In 1935, Joan Voûte identified Beta Centauri B, giving it the identifier VOU 31. The companion is separated from the primary by 1.3 seconds of arc, and has remained so since the discovery, although the position angle has changed six degrees since. Beta Centauri B is a B1 dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 4.
In 1967, Beta Centauri's observed variation in radial velocity suggested that Beta Centauri A is a binary star. This was confirmed in 1999. It consists of a pair of stars, β Centauri Aa and β Centauri Ab, of similar mass that orbit each other over a period of 357 days with a large eccentricity of about 0.8245.
The pair were calculated to be separated by a mean distance of roughly 4 astronomical units (based on a distance to the system of 161 parsecs) in 2005.
Both Aa and Ab apparently have a stellar classification of B1 III, with the luminosity class of III indicating giant stars that are evolving away from the main sequence. Component Aa rotates much more rapidly than Ab, causing its spectral lines to be broader, and so the two components can be distinguished in the spectrum. Component Ab, the slow-rotating star, has a strong magnetic field although no detected abundance peculiarities in its spectrum. Multiple pulsations modes have been detected in component Aa, some of which correspond to brightness variations, so this star is considered to be variable. The detected pulsation modes correspond to those for both β Cephei variables and slowly pulsating B stars. Similar pulsations have not been detected in component Ab, but it is possible that it is also a variable star.
Aa is 12.02 ± 0.13 times as massive as the Sun, while Ab is 10.58 ± 0.18 times as massive.
References
Centauri, Beta
Beta Cephei variables
B-type giants
Centaurus (constellation)
122451
068702
Spectroscopic binaries
Triple star systems
Hadar
5267
Durchmusterung objects
|
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205720
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence%20Ballard
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Florence Ballard
|
Florence Glenda Chapman (née Ballard; June 30, 1943 – February 22, 1976) was an American singer and a founding member of the Motown vocal female group the Supremes. She sang on 16 top 40 singles with the group, including ten number-one hits. After being removed from the Supremes in 1967, Ballard tried an unsuccessful solo career with ABC Records before she was dropped from the label at the end of the decade.
Ballard struggled with alcoholism, depression, and poverty for three years. She was making an attempt at a musical comeback when she died of a heart attack in February 1976 at the age of 32. Ballard's death was considered by one critic as "one of rock's greatest tragedies". Ballard was posthumously inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Supremes in 1988.
Early life
Florence Glenda Ballard was born in Detroit, Michigan on June 30, 1943 to Lurlee (née Wilson) and Jesse Ballard, as the eighth of thirteen children or ninth of fifteen children. Her siblings were Bertie, Cornell, Jesse, Jr., Gilbert, Geraldine, Barbara, Maxine, Billy, Calvin, Pat, Linda and Roy. Her mother was a resident of Rosetta, Mississippi. Her father was born Jesse Lambert in Bessemer, Alabama; after his grandmother was shot and killed, he was adopted by the Ballard family. Jesse Ballard left his adoptive parents at 13, and soon engaged in an affair with Ballard's mother, who was only 14, in Rosetta. The Ballards moved to Detroit in 1929 as part of the Great Migration. Jesse soon worked at General Motors. Jesse, an amateur musician, helped inspire Florence's interest in singing; he taught her various songs and accompanied her on guitar. Financial difficulties forced the Ballard family to move to different Detroit neighborhoods; by the time Florence turned 15 they had settled at Detroit's Brewster-Douglass housing projects, and the next year Jesse Lambert Ballard died of cancer.
Named "Blondie" and "Flo" by family and friends, Ballard attended Northeastern High School and was coached vocally by Abraham Silver. Ballard met future singing partner Mary Wilson during a middle-school talent show and they became friends while attending Northeastern High. From an early age, Ballard aspired to be a singer and agreed to audition for a spot on a sister group of the local Detroit attraction, the Primes, who were managed by Milton Jenkins. After she was accepted, Ballard recruited Mary Wilson to join Jenkins' group. Paul Williams of The Primes (who would later evolve into The Temptations), in turn, enlisted another neighbor, Diana Ross, then going by "Diane". Betty McGlown completed the original lineup and Jenkins named them as "The Primettes". The group performed at talent showcases and at school parties before auditioning for Motown Records in 1960. Berry Gordy, head of Motown, advised the group to graduate from high school before auditioning again. Ballard eventually dropped out of high school though her groupmates graduated.
In 1960, Ballard was allegedly raped at knifepoint by local high-school basketball player Reggie Harding after leaving a sock hop at Detroit's Graystone Ballroom (she had attended with her brother, but they accidentally lost track of each other). The rape occurred in an empty parking lot off Woodward Avenue. Ballard responded by secluding herself in her house refusing to come outside, which worried her groupmates. Weeks later, Ballard told Wilson and Ross what had happened. Ross and Wilson were sympathetic. Both Wilson and Jesse Green, an early boyfriend of Florence's, had described her as a "generally happy if somewhat mischievous and sassy teenager." Wilson believes that the incident heavily contributed to the more self-destructive aspects of Ballard's adult personality, like cynicism, pessimism, and fear or distrust of others, but the rape was never mentioned again.
Career
The Supremes
Later in 1960, the Primettes signed a contract with Lu Pine Records, issuing two songs that failed to perform well. During that year, they kept pursuing a Motown contract and agreed to do anything that was required, including adding handclaps and vocal backgrounds. By the end of the year, Berry Gordy agreed to have the group record songs in the studio. In January 1961, Gordy agreed to sign them on the condition they change their name. Janie Bradford approached Ballard with a list of names to choose from before Ballard chose "Supremes". When the other members heard of the new name, they were not pleased. Diana Ross feared they would be mistaken for a male vocal group. Eventually Gordy agreed to sign them under that name on January 15, 1961.
The group struggled in their early years with the label, releasing eight singles that failed to crack the Billboard Hot 100, giving them the nickname "no-hit Supremes". One track, "Buttered Popcorn", led by Ballard, was a regional hit in the Midwest, but still failed to chart. During a 1962 Motortown Revue tour, Ballard briefly replaced the Marvelettes' Wanda Young while she was on maternity leave. Before the release of their 1962 debut album, Meet the Supremes, Barbara Martin, who had replaced Betty McGlown a year before they signed to Motown, left the group. Ballard, Ross and Wilson remained a trio. After the hit success of 1963's "When the Love Light Starts Shining Through His Eyes", Diana Ross became the group's lead singer.
In the spring of 1964, the group released "Where Did Our Love Go", which became their first number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100, paving the way for ten number-one hits recorded by Ross, Ballard and Wilson between 1964 and 1967. After many rehearsals with Cholly Atkins and Maurice King, the Supremes' live shows improved dramatically as well. During this time, Ballard sang lead on several songs on Supremes' albums, including a cover of Sam Cooke's "(Ain't That) Good News". During live shows, Ballard often performed the Barbra Streisand standard, "People". According to Mary Wilson, Ballard's vocals were so loud she was made to stand 17 feet away from her microphone during recording sessions. Marvin Gaye, for whom Ballard sang backing vocals on occasion, described her as "a hell of a singer, probably the strongest of the three girls." All in all, Ballard contributed vocals to ten number-one pop hits and 16 top forty hit singles between 1963 and 1967.
Exit from the Supremes and solo career
Ballard expressed dissatisfaction with the group's direction throughout its successful period. She would also claim that their schedule had forced the group members to drift apart. Ballard blamed Motown Records for destroying the group dynamic by making Diana Ross the star. Struggling to cope with the label's demands and her own bout with depression, Ballard turned to alcohol for comfort, leading to arguments with her group members. Ballard's alcoholism led to her missing performances and recording sessions. Gordy sometimes replaced Ballard on stage with the Andantes' Marlene Barrow. In April 1967, Cindy Birdsong, member of Patti LaBelle and the Blue Belles, became a stand-in for Ballard. A month later, Ballard returned to the group from what she thought was a temporary leave of absence. In June, Gordy changed the group's name to "The Supremes with Diana Ross", which was how they were billed on the marquee of Las Vegas' Flamingo Hotel.
On July 1, the day after her 24th birthday, Ballard showed up inebriated during the group's third performance at the Flamingo and stuck her stomach out from her suit. Angered, Gordy ordered her to return to Detroit, and Birdsong officially replaced her, abruptly ending her tenure with the Supremes. It had been decided as early as May that Birdsong would be Ballard's official replacement once Birdsong's contract with the Bluebelles was bought out. In August 1967, the Detroit Free Press reported that Ballard had taken a temporary leave of absence from the group due to "exhaustion". Ballard eventually married her boyfriend, Thomas Chapman, on February 29, 1968. A week earlier, on February 22, Ballard and Motown negotiated to have Ballard released from the label. Her attorney in the matter received a one-time payment of $139,804.94 in royalties and earnings from Motown. As part of the settlement, Ballard was advised to not promote her solo work as a former member of the Supremes. In March 1968, Ballard signed with ABC Records and released two unsuccessful singles. After an album for the label was shelved, her settlement money was depleted from the Chapmans' management agency, Talent Management, Inc. The agency had been led by Leonard Baun, Ballard's attorney who had helped to settle Ballard's matters with Motown. Following news that Baun was facing multiple embezzlement charges, Ballard fired him. She continued to perform as a solo artist. In January 1969, Ballard performed at one of newly elected President Richard Nixon's inaugural balls. Ballard was dropped by ABC in 1970.
Decline
In July 1971, Ballard sued Motown for additional royalty payments she believed she was due to receive; she was defeated in court by Motown. Shortly afterwards, Ballard and her husband separated following several domestic disputes and Ballard's home was foreclosed. Facing poverty and depression, Ballard became an alcoholic and shied away from the spotlight. In 1972, she moved into her sister Maxine's house. In 1974 Mary Wilson invited Ballard to rejoin the Supremes, which now included Cindy Birdsong and Scherrie Payne (Ross had left for her successful solo career in 1970). Though Ballard played tambourine, she didn't sing and told Wilson she had no ambition to sing any more. Later that year Ballard's plight started to be reported in newspapers as word got around that the singer had applied for welfare. Around that time, Ballard entered Henry Ford Hospital for rehab treatment. Following six weeks of treatment, Ballard slowly started to recover.
Comeback
In early 1975, Ballard received an insurance settlement from her former attorney's insurance company. The settlement money helped her buy a house on Shaftsbury Avenue. Inspired by the financial success, Ballard decided to return to singing and also reconciled with Chapman. Ballard's first concert performance in more than five years took place at the Henry and Edsel Ford Auditorium in Detroit on June 25, 1975. Ballard performed as part of the Joan Little Defense League and was backed by female rock group the Deadly Nightshade. Afterwards, she started receiving offers for interviews; Jet magazine was one of the first to report on Ballard and her recovery.
Death
On February 21, 1976, Ballard entered Mt. Carmel Mercy Hospital, complaining of numbness in her extremities. She died at 10:05 ET the next morning from cardiac arrest caused by a coronary thrombosis (a blood clot in one of her coronary arteries), at the age of 32. Ballard is buried in Detroit Memorial Park Cemetery in Warren, Michigan.
Legacy
Florence Ballard's story has been referenced in a number of works by other artists. The 1980 song "Romeo's Tune", from Steve Forbert's album Jackrabbit Slim is "dedicated to the memory of Florence Ballard". In his short story "You Know They Got a Hell of a Band", Stephen King, through the late disc jockey Alan Freed, includes Ballard as one of the deceased artists who performs in a town called "Rock and Roll Heaven".
Dreamgirls, a 1981 Broadway musical, chronicles a fictional group called "The Dreams," and a number of plot components parallel events in the Supremes' career. The central character of Effie White, like Florence Ballard, is criticized for being overweight, and is fired from the group. The film version of Dreamgirls released in 2006 features more overt references to Ballard's life and the Supremes' story, including gowns and album covers that are direct copies of Supremes originals. Jennifer Hudson won a Golden Globe Award and Academy Award for her portrayal of Effie White in the Dreamgirls film. In her Golden Globe acceptance speech, Hudson dedicated her win to Florence Ballard. The music video for the Diana Ross song "Missing You" pays tribute to Marvin Gaye, Ballard, and Paul Williams, all former Motown artists who had died. In 1988, Ballard was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Supremes alongside Diana Ross and Mary Wilson.
In February 2020, a new play about Ballard by Vincent Victoria entitled "Dreamgirl Deferred" premiered in Houston on the Anniversary of her death.
Personal life
Ballard began dating Thomas Chapman, a Motown Records chauffeur, in 1967; they married in a private celebration in Hawaii on February 29, 1968, and had three daughters: twins Michelle Denise, Nichole Rene and Lisa Sabrina (b. 1971). Ballard reportedly had several domestic disputes with her husband and filed for divorce in 1973, but they reconciled in late 1975, prior to her death. Besides her three daughters, Ballard's family included her cousin, rhythm and blues singer and songwriter Hank Ballard, and his grandnephew, NFL player Christian Ballard; she was also an aunt of the Detroit electronic musician Omar-S.
Discography
Album
2002: The Supreme Florence Ballard (compilation of 1968 ABC recordings and a selection of earlier Motown recordings Ballard led with The Supremes)
Singles
1968: "It Doesn't Matter How I Say It (It's What I Say That Matters)" b/w "Goin' Out of My Head" (ABC Records #45-11074A/B)
1968: "Love Ain't Love" b/w "Forever Faithful" (ABC Records #45-11144A/B)
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Wilson, Randall (1999) Forever Faithful! A Study of Florence Ballard and the Supremes, 2nd edition. San Francisco: Renaissance Sound Publications.
External links
1943 births
1976 deaths
ABC Records artists
African-American women singers
American women pop singers
American sopranos
American soul singers
Musicians from Detroit
The Supremes members
Singers with a three-octave vocal range
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
|
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205721
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulus
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Regulus
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Regulus , designated α Leonis (Latinized to Alpha Leonis, abbreviated Alpha Leo, α Leo), is the brightest object in the constellation Leo and one of the brightest stars in the night sky, lying approximately 79 light years from the Sun. Regulus appears singular, but is actually a quadruple star system composed of four stars that are organized into two pairs. The spectroscopic binary Regulus A consists of a blue-white main-sequence star and its companion, which has not yet been directly observed, but is probably a white dwarf. HD 87884 is separated from Regulus by and is itself a close pair. Regulus, along with five slightly dimmer stars (Zeta Leonis, Mu Leonis, Gamma Leonis, Epsilon Leonis, and Eta Leonis) have collectively been called 'the Sickle', which is an asterism that marks the head of Leo.
Nomenclature
α Leonis (Latinized to Alpha Leonis) is the star system's Bayer designation. The traditional name Rēgulus is Latin for 'prince' or 'little king'. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Regulus for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.
Observation
The Regulus system as a whole is the twenty-first brightest star in the night sky with an apparent magnitude of +1.35. The light output is dominated by Regulus A. Regulus B, if seen in isolation, would be a binocular object of magnitude +8.1, and its companion, Regulus C, the faintest of the three stars that has been directly observed, would require a substantial telescope to be seen, at magnitude +13.5. Regulus A is itself a spectroscopic binary; the secondary star has not yet been directly observed as it is much fainter than the primary. The BC pair lies at an angular distance of 177 arc-seconds from Regulus A, making them visible in amateur telescopes.
Regulus is 0.465 degrees from the ecliptic, the closest of the bright stars, and is often occulted by the Moon. This occurs in spates every 9.3 years, due to lunar precession. The last spate was around 2017, with occultations every month from December 2016 till July 2017, each one limited to certain areas on Earth. Occultations by Mercury and Venus are possible but rare, as are occultations by asteroids. Seven other stars which have a Bayer designation are less than 0.9° from the ecliptic (perfected, mean plane of earth's orbit and mean apparent path of the sun) the next brightest of which is δ (Delta) Geminorum, of magnitude +3.53. As Regulus closely aligns to the mean orbits of large bodies of the solar system and involves more light reaching the Earth than such other stars, the system has advanced telescopic use (to study and identify objects occulting and casting their shadow on a telescope, including known or unknown asteroids of the solar system such as Trojans, being in line by definition with their associated planetary plane).
The last occultation of Regulus by a planet was on July 7, 1959, by Venus. The next will occur on October 1, 2044, also by Venus. Other planets will not occult Regulus over the next few millennia because of their node positions. An occultation of Regulus by the asteroid 166 Rhodope was filmed in Italy on October 19, 2005. Differential bending of light was measured to be consistent with general relativity. Regulus was occulted by the asteroid 163 Erigone in the early morning of March 20, 2014. The center of the shadow path passed through New York and eastern Ontario, but no one is known to have seen it, due to cloud cover. The International Occultation Timing Association recorded no observations at all.
Although best seen in the evening in the northern hemisphere's late winter and spring, Regulus appears at some time of night throughout the year except for about a month (depending on ability to compensate for the sun's glare, ideally done so in twilight) on either side of August 22–24, when the Sun is too close. The star can be viewed the whole night, crossing the sky, in late February. Regulus passes through SOHO's LASCO C3 every August. For most Earth observers, the heliacal rising (pre-sunrise appearance) of Regulus occurs in the first week of September. Every 8 years, Venus passes very near the star system around the heliacal rising, as on 5 September 2014.
Stellar system
Regulus is a multiple star system consisting of at least four stars. Regulus A is the dominant star, with a binary companion 177" distant that is thought to be physically related. Regulus D is a 12th magnitude companion at 212", but is an unrelated background object.
Regulus A is a binary star consisting of a blue-white subgiant star of spectral type B8, which is orbited by a star of at least 0.3 solar masses, which is probably a white dwarf. The two stars take approximately 40 days to complete an orbit around their common centre of mass. Given the extremely distorted shape of the primary, the relative orbital motion may be notably altered with respect to the two-body purely Keplerian scenario because of non-negligible long-term orbital perturbations affecting, for example, its orbital period. In other words, Kepler's third law, which holds exactly only for two point-like masses, would no longer be valid for the Regulus system. Regulus A was long thought to be fairly young, only 50 – 100 million years old, calculated by comparing its temperature, luminosity, and mass. The existence of a white dwarf companion would mean that the system is at least 1 billion years old, just to account for the formation of the white dwarf. The discrepancy can be accounted for by a history of mass transfer onto a once-smaller Regulus A.
The primary of Regulus A has about 3.8 times the Sun's mass. It is spinning extremely rapidly, with a rotation period of only 15.9 hours, which causes it to have a highly oblate shape. This results in so-called gravity darkening: the photosphere at Regulus' poles is considerably hotter, and five times brighter per unit surface area, than its equatorial region. The star's surface at the equator rotates at about 320 kilometres per second (199 miles per second), or 96.5% of its critical angular velocity for break-up. It is emitting polarized light because of this.
Regulus BC is 5,000 AU from Regulus A. A and BC share a common proper motion and are thought to orbit each other taking several million years. Designated Regulus B and Regulus C, the pair has Henry Draper Catalogue number HD 87884. The first is a K2V star, while the second is about M4V. The companion pair has an orbital period of about 600 years with a separation of 2.5" in 1942.
Etymology and cultural associations
Rēgulus is Latin for 'prince' or 'little king'; its Greek equivalent (Latinised) is Basiliscus. It is also known as Qalb al-Asad, from the Arabic قلب الأسد, meaning 'the heart of the lion', a name already attested in the Greek Kardia Leontos whose Latin equivalent is Cor Leōnis. The Arabic phrase is sometimes approximated as Kabelaced. In Chinese it is known as 軒轅十四, the Fourteenth Star of Xuanyuan, the Yellow Emperor. In Indian astronomy, Regulus corresponds to the Nakshatra Magha ("the bountiful").
Babylonians called it Sharru ("the King"), and it marked the 15th ecliptic constellation. In India it was known as Maghā ("the Mighty"), in Sogdiana Magh ("the Great"), in Persia Miyan ("the Centre") and also as Venant, one of the four 'royal stars' of the Persian monarchy. It was one of the fifteen Behenian stars known to medieval astrologers, associated with granite, mugwort, and the kabbalistic symbol .
In the Babylonian MUL.APIN, Regulus is listed as Lugal, meaning king, with co-descriptor, "star of the Lion's breast".
See also
Table of stars with Bayer designations
References
External links
Portrait of a Star on the Edge
Egg-Shaped Regulus is Spinning Fast
APOD Pictures:
Regulus Occulted
Regulus & Leo 1 Dwarf Galaxy
Bright Star Regulus near the Leo I Dwarf Galaxy
Regulus, Mars & Coma Star Cluster
Leo, Alpha
B-type subgiants
?
Leo (constellation)
Stars with proper names
K-type main-sequence stars
M-type main-sequence stars
Leonis, 32
049669
3982
087884 901
Durchmusterung objects
9316
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] |
205723
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painted-snipe
|
Painted-snipe
|
The Rostratulidae, commonly known as the painted-snipes, are a family of wading birds that consists of two genera: Rostratula and Nycticryphes.
Description
The painted-snipes are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but their plumage is much more striking. There is sexual dimorphism in both size and plumage, with the males being duller overall and smaller. All three species have large forward pointing eyes.
Phylogenetics
The family Rostratulidae encompasses two genera and four species, one of which is extinct. Painted-snipes superficially resemble true snipes, but the two taxa are not closely related. Instead the similarity can be attributed to convergent evolution where both groups have been subjected to similar selective pressures, thus promoting the evolution of analogous features such as a long slender bill and legs, mottled cryptic plumage and characteristic body proportions. While less similar in general morphology, the species that are most closely related to painted-snipes are other members of the suborder Thinocori: jacanas, seedsnipes, and the plains wanderer.
The species †Rostratula minator was described in 1988 from deposits of the early Pliocene found in Langebaanweg, South Africa. This is the first fossil attributed to the family Rostratulidae. Comparisons of bone measurements with R. minator and the extant species show that it was intermediate in size, although considerable differences indicate that it may only be an endemic African species that has become extinct, rather than a direct ancestor of R. benghalensis.
The Australian painted-snipe was described as Rostratula australis by John Gould in 1838, although later lumped with the similar greater painted-snipe, R. benghalensis as subspecies R. b. australis. However, morphological and genetic differences have resulted in the species being restored in recent years. Such a similarity between the two species can be explained by a recent evolutionary divergence, and is an example of allopatric speciation where the prevention of gene flow by geographical isolation has resulted in an accumulation of differences by genetic drift and differing selective pressures.
Taxonomy
Family Rostratulidae: painted-snipes
Behaviour
All three species of painted-snipe generally inhabit reedy swamps and marshes, usually in lowlands. Outside of the breeding season painted-snipes are generally solitary in habits. Painted snipes are crepuscular or even slightly nocturnal in their habits.
Feeding
Painted-snipes are omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates and seeds. Animal prey taken includes annelid worms, snails, aquatic and marsh insects, and crustaceans. The seeds of grasses such as millet and rice are also consumed, and may form a major part of the diet of some populations.
Breeding
The breeding biology of the painted-snipes varies according to genus; the Rostratula painted-snipes are generally polyandrous whereas the South American painted-snipe is monogamous. The females of the genus Rostratula will bond with several males during a breeding season, but once the eggs are laid the males provide all the incubation and parental care. The nest of both species is a shallow cup, often built on a platform of vegetation. Clutch sizes range from 2–4 eggs, which are incubated for 15–21 days.
Conservation
At present two species, the South American and greater painted-snipes, are not considered threatened by human activities; however, the Australian painted-snipe has declined and is considered endangered in Australia.
References
External links
Painted-snipe videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Painted-snipe
Vocal calls of painted snipe on Xeno-canto
|
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205724
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s%20National%20Party
|
People's National Party
|
The People's National Party (PNP) is a social-democratic political party in Jamaica, founded in 1938 by independence campaigner Osmond Theodore Fairclough. It holds 14 of the 63 seats in the House of Representatives, as 96 of the 227 local government divisions. The party is democratic socialist by constitution.
The PNP uses the hatted head, the rising sun, the fist, the trumpet and the colours orange, red and yellow as electoral symbols.
The party is a member of COPPPAL and a Socialist International observer. From 1957 to 1962, the party was a member of the West Indies Federal Labour Party in the Federal Parliament of the West Indies Federation.
Colonial Jamaica
The PNP was founded in 1938 by Osmond Theodore Fairclough, and is the second oldest political party in Jamaica (the People's Political Party was formed earlier, on 9 September 1929, by Marcus Garvey). It is now one of the country's main two political parties, and is considered more to the left than its main rival the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). Fairclough recruited the PNP's first leader Norman Manley. The party held a majority of seats in the parliament of the Colony of Jamaica from 1955 until 1962. Following independence in 1962, it held the majority of seats in the Jamaican Parliament from 1972 to 1980, from 1989 to 2007, and from 2011 to 2016.
The PNP was defeated in the first universal elections held in Jamaica in 1944, winning only four of the 32 seats (one elected independent joined the party afterwards). The 1949 Jamaican general election was much closer. The PNP received more votes (203,048) than the JLP (199,538), but the JLP secured more seats; 17 to the PNP's 13. Two seats were won by independents. The voter turnout was 65.2%.
In 1954, the PNP expelled Richard Hart, a Marxist, and three other PNP members for their (alleged) communist views. The other three members were Frank Hill, Ken Hill and Arthur Henry, and they were collectively referred to as "the four Hs". Under "the four Hs", the unions they officered had the largest following of any union outside of the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union.
Hart and the other members of "the four Hs" were very active in the trade union movement in Jamaica. In the 1940s and 1950s. Hart worked as a member of the Executive Committee of the Trade Union Council from 1946 to 1948. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Caribbean Labour Congress from 1945 to 1946 and Assistant Secretary from 1947 to 1953.
The expulsion of the 'Four Hs' signalled a parting of ways between the PNP and the Trade Union Congress (TUC), which was aligned to the PNP. The National Workers Union (NWU) effectively filled the vacuum left by the TUC.
The PNP came to office 1955, and held power until just before independence in 1962. In the 1955 Jamaican general election, the PNP won for the first time, securing 18 out of 32 seats. The JLP ended up with 14 seats, and there were no independents. The voter turnout with 65.1%. As a result, Norman Manley became the new chief minister.
The 1959 Jamaican general election was held on 28 July 1959, and the number of seats was increased to 45. The PNP secured a wider margin of victory, taking 29 seats to the JLP's 16.
Manley was appointed Jamaica's first premier on 14 August 1959.
During this period of government, it promoted actively reformist social democratic policies, including opening secondary education to many poorer Jamaicans through state funding of scholarships.
In the 1961 Federation membership referendum Jamaica voted 54% to leave the West Indies Federation. After losing the referendum, Manley took Jamaica to the polls in April 1962, to secure a mandate for the island's independence. On 10 April 1962, of the 45 seats up for contention in the 1962 Jamaican general election, the JLP won 26 seats and the PNP 19. The voter turnout was 72.9%.
This resulted in the independence of Jamaica on 6 August 1962, and several other British colonies in the West Indies followed suit in the next decade. Bustamante had replaced Manley as premier between April and August, and on independence, he became Jamaica's first prime minister.
Independent Jamaica
On 21 February, in the 1967 Jamaican general election, the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats.
In 1972, under the leadership of Norman Manley's son Michael Manley, the PNP returned to office committed to democratic socialism and a foreign policy focused on strengthening relations with the Global South. The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16. In the 1976 Jamaican general election, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.
In 1980, after several years characterised by inflation and rising unemployment, the JLP led by Edward Seaga overwhelmingly defeated the PNP in a campaign noteworthy for its alarming level of violence. The JLP won 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.
Manley led the party in a boycott of the snap election called in 1983. The party was absent from parliament for more than five years. The PNP was returned to office under Manley's leadership in 1989, winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15.
Manley retired from politics in 1992, and was replaced as party leader by P. J. Patterson. Patterson led the PNP to victory in 1993, 1997, and 2002, becoming the first political leader in Jamaican history to win three successive general elections. In 1993, the PNP won 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats, and in 1997 the PNP won 50 of the 60 seats available.
In the 2002 election, held on 16 October 2002, the party won 52.2% of the popular vote and 34 of the 60 seats in the House of Representatives.
On 26 February 2006, Portia Simpson-Miller was elected as Patterson's successor, becoming the first female president of the PNP, and became the first female Prime Minister of Jamaica. The PNP lost the August 2007 election to the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%. This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, and Bruce Golding became the new prime minister.
In the 29 December 2011 general election, the PNP was returned to power with 42 of the 63 seats in Jamaica's parliament. At first, 41 seats were counted in favour of the PNP. A recount with official results cost the former agriculture minister, Christopher Tufton, his seat, putting the PNP at 42 and the JLP at 21. The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the voter turnout was 53.17%.
On 5 January 2012, Portia Simpson-Miller was sworn in as Prime Minister for the second time in her political career. On the following day, she assigned 20 cabinet ministers to various ministries, and eight state ministers.
In the 2016 Jamaican general election on 25 February, Simpson-Miller lost to Andrew Holness by a narrow margin. A recount granted the PNP an additional seat, resulting in a one-seat loss. The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32. As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.
Following calls from within her own party for her to step down as party leader, Simpson-Miller announced she would not seek re-election on 4 December 2016. She was replaced by Peter Phillips, the Shadow Minister of Finance and former rival, on 26 March 2017. She stepped down as an MP in June 2017.
In the September 2020 general elections, the PNP returned to the opposition benches winning a paltry 14 of the 63 seats in the Jamaican parliament in what was described as a political carnage toppling the hierarchy of the PNP. Many senior and well-established party members lost their seats, including Peter Bunting, Dayton Campbell, Fenton Ferguson, Horace Dalley, Ian Hayles, Luther Buchanan, Wykeham McNeill, Dwayne Vaz and Richard Azan. On 4 September 2020 Peter Phillips announced that he would step down as Opposition Leader and retire from representational politics. The turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic.
On 7 November 2020 the PNP elected Mark Golding as its 6th President after he defeated challenger Lisa Hanna in the 2020 People's National Party leadership election by 1,740 votes to 1,444.
Political positions
The party adheres to social democracy and republicanism, and is an observer member of the Socialist International.
Electoral performance
House of Representatives
West Indies
List of party presidents
Osmond Theodore Fairclough (Founder) (1938)
Norman Manley (1938–1969)
Michael Manley (1969–1992)
Percival James Patterson (1992–2006)
Portia Simpson-Miller (2006–2017)
Peter Phillips (2017–2020)
Mark Golding (2020 – present)
References
External links
Official PNP website
Jamaica New 2012 Cabinet Ministers
Party manifesto (PDF file; free download of reader available here)
History of the PNP and the JLP
Full member parties of the Socialist International
Political parties established in 1938
1938 establishments in Jamaica
Political parties in Jamaica
Republican parties
Republicanism in Jamaica
Social democratic parties
Socialist parties in North America
|
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] |
205734
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders%20Torstenson
|
Anders Torstenson
|
Count Anders Torstenson (20 January 16418 November 1686), Swedish statesman, son of Lennart Torstenson and member of the Privy Council, was from 1674 to 1681 Governor-General of Estonia. The family became extinct in the male line in 1727.
References
1641 births
1686 deaths
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish nobility
17th-century Swedish politicians
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
|
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] |
205735
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20Anthropology%20at%20UBC
|
Museum of Anthropology at UBC
|
The Museum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia (UBC) campus in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada is renowned for its displays of world arts and cultures, in particular works by First Nations of the Pacific Northwest. As well as being a major tourist destination, MOA is a research and teaching museum, where UBC courses in art, anthropology, archaeology, conservation, and museum studies are given. MOA houses close to 50,000 ethnographic objects, as well as 535,000 archaeological objects in its building alone.
History
The Museum's beginnings lie in the University of British Columbia's acquisition of the Frank Burnett Collection in 1927. These works, in addition to two important Musqueam house posts that were acquired and donated by the UBC graduating class of 1927, a number of salvaged totem poles acquired from Canadian anthropologist Marius Barbeau, and the Buttimer collection of First Nations basketry, were displayed in the basement of the UBC Main Library. The museum was officially founded in 1947. Harry Hawthorn served as the first director of the new museum, with his wife, Audrey Hawthorn, serving as its first curator.
In 1971, the museum received funds from the Government of Canada and UBC to begin construction of a building. In 1976, the new building, designed by renowned Canadian architect Arthur Erickson, opened under new director Michael M. Ames, who served from 1974 to 1997. Walter and Marianne Koerner's 1975 donation of their extensive collection of Northwest Coast First Nations art to the museum formed a large part of the building's contents.
In 1997, Ruth Phillips became museum director. In 2002, Ames returned as acting director. Anthony Shelton became director in 2004.
On March 9, 1999, Canada Post issued a stamp commemorating the Museum, designed by Barbara Hodgson, based on photographs by William McLennan and Jacqueline Gijssen, and prominently featuring the sculpture The Raven and the First Men by Bill Reid. The 46¢ stamps are perforated 13.5 and were printed by the Canadian Bank Note Company.
On January 23, 2010, MOA celebrated the completion of its multi-year, multimillion-dollar renovation and expansion project, "A Partnership of Peoples." The new facilities were developed with MOA by UBC Properties Trust and designed by Arthur Erickson and Stantec Architecture. The project had several complementary components, including a new wing, the MOA Centre for Cultural Research, with state-of-the-art collections storage, research rooms, archaeology labs, a community research suite, open plan offices, and the Audrey & Harry Hawthorn Library & Archives. Other components were the Multiversity Galleries, Audain Gallery, and a new Café MOA and expanded MOA Shop.
During these renovations, the MOACAT digital catalogue system, making collections information (images, audio, and video) available throughout the galleries at the touch of a screen. In the same year, the RRN (Reciprocal Research Network), created in partnership with the Musqueam Indian Band, Stó:lō Nation, Stó:lō Tribal Council, and U'mista Cultural Society.
Building
The museum is located at 6393 NW Marine Dr, on the campus of the University of British Columbia. MOA and UBC lie on the University Endowment Lands, which are not officially part of the City of Vancouver. The University Endowment Lands are located on unceded Musqueam Territory. The Arthur Erickson's building was designed in 1976, inspired by the post-and-beam architecture of northern Northwest Coast First Nations people. Like much of Erickson's work, the building is made primarily out of concrete. The building takes advantage of second world war gun emplacements, with the famous Bill Reid Raven sculpture located on a repurposed gun battery.
In 2006, the museum launched a multimillion-dollar project to create a new research wing, as well as new offices, laboratories, a culturally sensitive research room, recording studio, and a exhibition hall, the Audain Gallery. Other enhancements included MOA's new Multiversity Galleries, the creation of the RRN (Reciprocal Research Network) linking Northwest Coast collections around the world, a relocated and expanded Museum Shop, year-round cafe, and courtyard and outdoor 'events pad' suitable for facility rentals. The project was completed in January 2010. Budgeted at $55.5 million, the Renewal Project received $34.4 million in funding from the Canada Foundation for Innovation and British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund ($17.2 million each), the University of British Columbia, UBC Faculty of Arts, and the museum itself. In 2009, MOA received a major gift of $5.5 million from the Koerner Foundation, Toronto, towards the project.
In September 2010, a reflecting pool was added to the front, funded by Yosef Wosk, OBC. Arthur Erickson and landscape architect Cornelia Oberlander originally intended the pool to be opened as part of the new Museum of Anthropology in 1976; now, nearly 35 years later, their original vision for MOA has been fulfilled. Pools had been installed temporarily three times in MOA's history: for a movie shoot in 1993, for the APEC leaders’ summit in 1997, and to celebrate Arthur Erickson's 80th birthday in June 2004.
Galleries
Audain Gallery
The Audain Gallery for temporary exhibitions.
Elspeth McConnell Gallery of Northwest Coast Masterworks
The Elspeth McConnell Gallery of Northwest Coast Masterworks was unveiled on June 22, 2017. Designed by Stantec Architecture, the new gallery was converted from the former Michael M. Ames Theatre, and was funded by Montreal-based collector Elspeth McConnell, a $3-million donation from the Doggone Foundation, and a $500,000 grant from the federal government as part of the Canada 150 Community Infrastructure Program. The 210-square-metre gallery features a suite of cutting-edge technology, including exterior sensors that synchronize both the colour temperature and intensity of the interior light with the changing light conditions outside.
In a Different Light: Reflecting on Northwest Coast Art was the first exhibition held at the gallery.
Koerner European Ceramics Gallery
The Koerner European Ceramics Gallery opened in 1990 and contains over 600 European ceramics collected by Koerner, which he donated to the museum in 1987.
Multiversity Galleries
The Multiversity Galleries housing more than 9,000 objects from around the world. Multiversity Galleries showcases items from the museum's collection that would normally be stored behind the scenes, making them accessible to the public.
Collection
The Museum of Anthropology includes a number of large sculptures, totem poles, and cultural artifacts. Although MOA's focus is on the First Nations of the Northwest Coast, the collection of close to 50,000 ethnological objects includes objects from all continents. The collections include contemporary works as well as historical objects. In addition to the ethnographic collections, MOA houses an archaeological collection of approximately 535,000 pieces. These are managed by UBC's Laboratory of Archaeology. The museum also has a small wing dedicated to European ceramic art works collected by the late Walter Koerner.
The most iconic object in the museum is probably the yellow cedar sculpture The Raven and the First Men by Bill Reid, which was depicted on the Canadian twenty-dollar bill from 2004 to 2012 (the Canadian Journey Series). Other notable Bill Reid works include his Bear and Wasco (Sea Wolf) sculptures, some of his gold jewellery, and a prototype of the Haida dugout canoe he carved for Expo 86.
There are several large Musqueam artifacts in the museum from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as well as many contemporary works commissioned from Musqueam artists such as Susan Point, Joe Becker, and Robyn and Debra Sparrow. There are many fragments of totem poles from Haida and other First Nations villages along British Columbia's coast in the museum's Great Hall.
There is an extensive collection from the South Pacific in the MOA.
There are about 6000 textiles in the collection; about half of these come from Asia. Of particular note are the Cantonese opera costumes that are considered some of the world's finest. There are excellent holdings from the Northwest Coast, Oceania, Africa, and South America.
The Audrey & Harry Hawthorn Library and Archives is open to the public. The archives contain approximately 90,000 photographs that cover a wide range of cultures, ethnographic subjects, and historical events. The collection dates from the 1890s and is an important resource for researchers, writers, artists, and communities.
There are approximately 2800 belongings in the African collection. The earlier collections came to MOA via missionaries, travelers, and ex-colonial officers. The collection includes masks, Yoruba thorn carvings, over 100 Makonde figures from Tanzania, approximately 100 Asante gold weights, weaponry from South Africa and about 100 mortuary objects from Egypt.
About 40% of MOA's collection is from Asia. The Chinese collections include between 1000 and 1500 pieces of Chinese ceramics, Chinese calligraphy, and paintings (with four recently identified masterpieces from the collection of Ho Ping-ti). In addition, there is a large collection of Japanese prints, Buddhist art, Hindu art (including Gandhara sculpture), textiles and clothing, and Indian calendar prints. Other collections include 2300 Chinese coins and amulets, 200 Sichuan blue thread embroideries dating to circa 1900, rare Tibetan robes, and masks from Noe (Japan), Sunni and Kolam (Sri Lanka), and Pongsan and Yangju (Korea).
The Haida houses outside the museum were built under the direction of Bill Reid, who carved, with Doug Cranmer, many of the totem poles surrounding them. The original Reid/Cranmer totem pole mounted on the front of the big house was taken inside in 2000 due to deterioration and replaced with the new "Respect to Bill Reid Pole" by Haida artist Jim Hart.
Programs
The Museum of Anthropology works with the Irving K. Barber Learning Centre and others to support the Indigitization program, which provides funding and training for Indigenous communities and organizations to digitize cultural heritage materials. Each summer, MOA hosts the Native Youth Program (NYP), the longest running training program for Indigenous high school students in British Columbia. It provides summer employment and training to six urban Indigenous high school students and two UBC students as program manager and research assistant. NYP is co-organized by MOA and the First Nation House of Learning at UBC.
Affiliations
The museum is affiliated with Canadian Heritage Information Network, Canadian Museums Association, and Virtual Museum of Canada.
In popular culture
The Museum of Anthropology was used as a filming location for the Netflix TV Series, Altered Carbon in season 1.
It is also used as a location in the movie Intersection, starring Richard Gere.
References
Further reading
External links
University of British Columbia
University museums in Canada
Museums in Vancouver
First Nations museums in Canada
Buildings and structures in Greater Vancouver
University Endowment Lands
University of British Columbia
Arthur Erickson buildings
Modernist architecture in Canada
Museums established in 1947
1947 establishments in British Columbia
Art museums and galleries in British Columbia
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205736
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Spirit%20Regional%20Park
|
Pacific Spirit Regional Park
|
Pacific Spirit Regional Park is a park located in the University Endowment Lands, on Point Grey to the west of the city of Vancouver, British Columbia. It surrounds the endowment lands of the University of British Columbia on the shores of Georgia Strait in the Pacific Ocean. It is a nature preserve of the British Columbia government and classified under Electoral Area A.
The park contains over 73 km of walking/hiking trails, 50 km of which are designated multi-use and available for cycling and horseback riding as well. There is a Park Centre which is located on W 16th Avenue.
In 1975, BC Parks established ninety hectares of Pacific Spirit Regional Park as the UBC Endowment Lands Ecological Reserve. This area is designated for forest research, and is not open to the public.
The entire section of beach in Pacific Spirit (running from Acadia Beach in the north to Trail #7 in the south), including Wreck Beach, is designated as clothing optional.
There are free parking lots at Acadia, Spanish Banks and Jericho beaches, and at the information center on 16th Avenue. Pay parking can be found in a lot near Gate 7 to UBC (see map), at the UBC Museum of Anthropology, by the UBC Botanical gardens and in various visitor lots around UBC. Additionally, parking is available at different places along 16th Avenue, on SW Marine Drive from Gate 8 to the Museum of Anthropology, and along Old Marine Drive. Many of the UBC buses stop along the trails.
"Dogs must be under control at all times. There are on-leash and leash-optional areas in the park. Check local signs for details. Please show courtesy to other park visitors by removing your dog’s droppings."
There are washrooms at the head of Trail #7, Acadia Beach and at the head and base of Trail #6. "The washrooms and picnic table at the Park Centre on 16th Avenue are wheelchair-accessible. Other accessible facilities include Cleveland, Heron and Imperial Trails, as well as the Clinton Meadow picnic area. However, trails are subject to use and weathering which may degrade them to the point where their original accessible design has been compromised. It is advisable to take an able-bodied person with you."
"Pacific Spirit Park Society is actively involved in Pacific Spirit Regional Park. For more information or to get involved with this association, contact the Community Development Coordinator at the West Area Parks Office."
External links
Pacific Spirit Regional Park Profile
Park Map
Pacific Spirit Park Society
Pacific Spirit Walking Trail Guide
Notes
Parks in Greater Vancouver
University Endowment Lands
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAVAK
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SAVAK
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SAVAK (, abbreviation for Sāzemān-e Ettelā'āt va Amniyat-e Keshvar, ) was the secret police, domestic security and intelligence service in Iran during the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty. It was established by Mohammad Reza Shah with the help of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Mossad. SAVAK operated from 1957 until the Iranian Revolution of 1979, when the prime minister Shapour Bakhtiar ordered its dissolution during the outbreak of Iranian Revolution.
SAVAK has been described as Iran's "most hated and feared institution" prior to the revolution of 1979, because of its practice of torturing and executing opponents of the Pahlavi regime. At its peak, the organization had as many as 60,000 agents serving in its ranks according to one source, and another source by Gholam Reza Afkhami estimates SAVAK staffing at between 4,000 and 6,000.
History
1957–1971
After the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, the United States and the United Kingdom removed Mohammad Mosaddeq, who was originally focused on nationalizing Iran's oil industry, but also set out to weaken the Shah from power on August 19, 1953. After the coup, the monarch, Mohammad Reza Shah, established an intelligence service with police powers. The Shah's goal was to strengthen his regime by placing political opponents under surveillance and repressing dissident movements. According to Encyclopædia Iranica:
In March 1955, the Army colonel was "replaced with a more permanent team of five career CIA officers, including specialists in covert operations, intelligence analysis, and counterintelligence, including Major General Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf who "trained virtually all of the first generation of SAVAK personnel." In 1956, this agency was reorganized and given the name Sazeman-e Ettela'at va Amniyat-e Keshvar (SAVAK). These in turn were replaced by SAVAK's own instructors in 1965.
SAVAK had the power to censor the media, screen applicants for government jobs, and "according to reliable Western source, use all means necessary, including torture, to hunt down dissidents". After 1963, the Shah expanded his security organizations, including SAVAK, which grew to over 5,300 full-time agents and a large but unknown number of part-time informers.
In 1961 the Iranian authorities dismissed the agency's first director, General Teymur Bakhtiar and he later became a political dissident. In 1970, SAVAK agents assassinated him, disguising the deed as an accident.
General Hassan Pakravan, director of SAVAK from 1961 to 1966, had an almost benevolent reputation, for example dining on a weekly basis with Ayatollah Khomeini while Khomeini was under house arrest, and later intervened to prevent Khomeini's execution on the grounds that it would "anger the common people of Iran". After the Iranian Revolution, however, Pakravan was among the first of the Shah's officials to be executed by the Khomeini regime.
Pakravan was replaced in 1966 by General Nematollah Nassiri, a close associate of the Shah, and the service was reorganized and became increasingly active in the face of rising leftist and Islamist militancy and political unrest.
Siahkal attack and after
A turning point in SAVAK's reputation for ruthless brutality was reportedly an attack on a gendarmerie post in the Caspian village of Siahkal by a small band of armed Marxists in February 1971, although it is also reported to have tortured to death a Shia cleric, Ayatollah Muhammad Reza Sa'idi, in 1970. According to Iranian political historian Ervand Abrahamian, after this attack SAVAK interrogators were sent abroad for "scientific training to prevent unwanted deaths from 'brute force.' Brute force was supplemented with the bastinado; sleep deprivation; extensive solitary confinement; glaring searchlights; standing in one place for hours on end; nail extractions; snakes (favored for use with women); electrical shocks with cattle prods, often into the rectum; cigarette burns; sitting on hot grills; acid dripped into nostrils; near-drownings; mock executions; and an electric chair with a large metal mask to muffle screams while amplifying them for the victim. This latter contraption was dubbed the Apollo—an allusion to the American space capsules. Prisoners were also humiliated by being raped, urinated on, and forced to stand naked. Despite the new 'scientific' methods, the torture of choice remained the traditional bastinado used to beat soles of the feet. The "primary goal" of those using the bastinados "was to locate arms caches, safe houses and accomplices ..."
Abrahamian estimates that SAVAK (and other police and military) killed 368 guerrillas including the leadership of the major urban guerrilla organizations (Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas, People's Mujahedin of Iran) such as Hamid Ashraf between 1971–1977 and executed up to 100 political prisoners between 1971 and 1979—the most violent era of the SAVAK's existence.
The repression was softened thanks to publicity and scrutiny by "numerous international organizations and foreign newspapers." Jimmy Carter became President of the United States and he raised the issue of human rights in the Imperial State of Iran. Overnight prison conditions changed. Inmates dubbed this the dawn of "jimmykrasy".
Directors
Number of employees
Over the years, the question of the number of employees of SAVAK has been the subject of debate by many historians and researchers. Given the fact that Iran has never disclosed data on the number of employees of the secret agency - many historians gave conflicting figures for the number of SAVAK personnel - 6,000, 20,000, 30,000 and 60,000.
In one of his interviews, on February 4, 1974, the Shah stated that he did not know the exact number of employees of SAVAK. However, he estimated their total number to be less than 2,000 employees. To the frequently asked question about “torture and atrocities” in SAVAK, the shah answered negatively, designating newspaper reports about the “arbitrariness and cruelty of SAVAK” as a lie and slander. Leaflets circulated after the Islamic Revolution indicated that 15,000 Iranians officially served in SAVAK, not to mention the many unofficial employees.
Operations
During the height of its power, SAVAK had virtually unlimited powers. It operated its own detention centers, such as Evin Prison. In addition to domestic security, the service's tasks extended to the surveillance of Iranians abroad, notably in the United States, France, and the United Kingdom, and especially students on government stipends. The agency also closely collaborated with the CIA by sending their agents to an air force base in New York to share and discuss interrogation tactics.
Teymur Bakhtiar was assassinated by SAVAK agents in 1970, and Mansur Rafizadeh, SAVAK's United States director during the 1970s, reported that General Nassiri's phone was tapped. Mansur Rafizadeh later wrote of his life as a SAVAK man and detailed the human rights violations of the Shah in his book Witness: From the Shah to the Secret Arms Deal: An Insider's Account of U.S. Involvement in Iran. Mansur Rafizadeh was suspected to have been a double agent also working for the CIA.
According to Polish author Ryszard Kapuściński, SAVAK was responsible for
Censorship of press, books and films.
Interrogation and often torture of prisoners
Surveillance of political opponents.
Victims
Writing at the time of the Shah's overthrow, Time magazine on February 19, 1979, described SAVAK as having "long been Iran's most hated and feared institution" which had "tortured and murdered thousands of the Shah's opponents." The Federation of American Scientists also found it guilty of "the torture and execution of thousands of political prisoners" and symbolizing "the Shah's rule from 1963–79." The FAS list of SAVAK torture methods included "electric shock, whipping, beating, inserting broken glass and pouring boiling water into the rectum, tying weights to the testicles, and the extraction of teeth and nails."
Fardoust and security and intelligence after the revolution
SAVAK was closed down shortly before the overthrow of the monarchy and the coming to power of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in the February 1979 Iranian Revolution. Following the departure of the Shah in January 1979, SAVAK's more 3,000 strong central staff and its agents were targeted for reprisals. However, it is believed that Khomeini may have changed his mind and may have retained them into the new SAVAMA. Hossein Fardoust, a former classmate of the Shah, was a deputy director of SAVAK until he was appointed head of the Imperial Inspectorate, also known as the Special Intelligence Bureau, to watch over high-level government officials, including SAVAK directors. Fardoust later switched sides during the revolution and managed to salvage the bulk of the SAVAK organization. According to author Charles Kurzman, SAVAK was never dismantled but rather changed its name and leadership and continued on with the same codes of operation, and a relatively unchanged "staff."
SAVAK was replaced by the "much larger" SAVAMA, Sazman-e Ettela'at va Amniat-e Melli-e Iran, also known as the Ministry of Intelligence and National Security of Iran. After the Iranian Revolution, a museum was opened in the former Towhid Prison in central Tehran called "Ebrat". The museum displays and exhibits the documented atrocities of SAVAK.
See also
Second Bureau of Imperial Iranian Army
Prime Ministry Intelligence Office
Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)
References
External links
Ministry of Intelligence and Security VEVAK – Iran Intelligence Agencies at website of Federation of American Scientists
Defunct intelligence agencies
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Government agencies established in 1957
Human rights abuses in Iran
Political repression in Iran
Organisations of the Iranian Revolution
1957 establishments in Iran
1979 disestablishments in Iran
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] |
205742
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte
|
Glaucophyte
|
The glaucophytes, also known as glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are a small group of freshwater unicellular algae, less common today than they were during the Proterozoic. The stated number of species in the group varies from about 14 to 26. Together with the red algae (Rhodophyta) and the green algae plus land plants (Viridiplantae or Chloroplastida), they form the Archaeplastida. However, the relationships among the red algae, green algae and glaucophytes are unclear, in large part due to limited study of the glaucophytes.
The glaucophytes are of interest to biologists studying the development of chloroplasts because some studies suggest they may be similar to the original algal type that led to green plants and red algae in that glaucophytes may be basal Archaeplastida.
Unlike red and green algae, glaucophytes only have asexual reproduction.
Characteristics
The plastids of glaucophytes are known as 'muroplasts', 'cyanoplasts', or 'cyanelles'. Unlike the plastids in other organisms, they have a peptidoglycan layer, believed to be a relic of the endosymbiotic origin of plastids from cyanobacteria. Glaucophytes contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll a. Along with red algae and cyanobacteria, they harvest light via phycobilisomes, structures consisting largely of phycobiliproteins. The green algae and land plants have lost that pigment. Like red algae, and in contrast to green algae and plants, glaucophytes store fixed carbon in the cytosol.
Glaucophytes have mitochondria with flat cristae, and undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Motile forms have two unequal flagella, which may have fine hairs and are anchored by a multilayered system of microtubules, both of which are similar to forms found in some green algae.
Phylogeny
Together with red algae and Viridiplantae (green algae and land plants), glaucophytes form the Archaeplastida – a group of plastid-containing organisms that may share a unique common ancestor that established an endosymbiotic association with a cyanobacterium. The relationship among the three groups remained uncertain , although studies suggest it is most likely that glaucophytes diverged first:
The alternative that glaucophytes and red algae form a clade has been shown to be less plausible, but cannot be ruled out.
Classification
The internal classification of the glaucophytes and the number of genera and species varies considerably among taxonomic sources, . A phylogeny of the Glaucocystophyceae published in 2017 divides the group into three families, and includes five genera:
A list of the described glaucophyte species first published in 2018 has the same three subdivisions, treated as orders, but includes a further five unplaced possible species, producing a total of 14–19 possible species.
Order Cyanophorales
Genus Cyanophora – 5–6 species
Order Glaucocystales
Genus Glaucocystis – 7–8 species
Order Gloeochaetales
Cyanoptyche – 1 species
Gloeochaete – 1 species
Other possible species
?Archaeopsis monococca Skuja
?Chalarodora azurea Pascher
?Glaucocystopsis africana Bourrelly
?Peliaina cyanea Pascher
?Strobilomonas cyaneus Schiller
, AlgaeBase divided glaucophytes into only two groups, placing Cyanophora in Glaucocystales rather than Cyanophorales (however the entry was dated 2011). AlgaeBase included a total of 26 species:
Glaucocystales
Chalarodora Pascher – 1 species
Corynoplastis Yokoyama, J.L.Scott, G.C.Zuccarello, M.Kajikawa, Y.Hara & J.A.West – 1 species
Cyanophora Korshikov – 6 species
Glaucocystis Itzigsohn – 13 species
Glaucocystopsis Bourrelly – 1 species
Peliaina Pascher – 1 species
Strobilomonas Schiller – 1 species
Gloeochaetales
Cyanoptyche Pascher – 1 species
Gloeochaete Lagerheim – 1 species
None of the species of Glaucophyta is particularly common in nature.
The glaucophytes were considered before as part of family Oocystaceae, in the order Chlorococcales.
References
Algal taxonomy
Archaeplastida
|
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205747
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childwickbury%20Manor
|
Childwickbury Manor
|
Childwickbury Manor is a manor house in the hamlet of Childwickbury, Hertfordshire, England, between St Albans and Harpenden.
History
The Lomax family bought the house in 1666 and lived there until 1854 when Joshua Lomax sold it to Henry Hayman Toulmin, a wealthy ship owner, High Sheriff of Hertfordshire and mayor of St Albans. Toulmin left the property to Sir John Blundell Maple around 20 years later. Toulmin's granddaughter, the author Mary Carbery, was born at the house.
Sir John Blundell Maple, 1st Baronet bred and raced thoroughbreds and built Childwickbury Stud into a very successful horse breeding operation. Another prominent racehorse owner, Jack Barnato Joel, bought the estate including the stud farm in 1906. On his death in 1940, his son Jim Joel took over the operation. He too became a successful racehorse owner and breeder and maintained the property until 1978 when the stud and the manor were sold separately.
It was advertised thus:
"The Manor House, mainly 18th century has 12 Reception Rooms, 18 Bed and Dressing Rooms, 11 Staff Bedrooms, and 10 Bathrooms. Immaculate Timbered Grounds. Walled Garden. Courtyard with Garaging and Flat. Estate Office. Victorian Dairy House with about 19 Acres [77,000 m2]. Two Coach House Cottages with Magnificent Stable Yard with Paddock and Woodland 16 Acres [65,000 m2]. Cheapside and Shafford Farms, 2 Well Equipped Corn and Stock Farms with about 724 Acres [2.9 km2]. 146 Acres [591,000 m2] of Timbered Parkland, 37 Acres [150,000 m2] of Railed Paddock and 104 Acres [421,000 m2] of valuable Commercial Timber". In addition there were "18 Attractive Houses and Cottages, some with Paddocks. Old Mill and other Buildings for conversion, Stud Buildings, 30 Loose Boxes, Potential Riding School, and fishing in River Ver and Mill Race. Total 1,100 Acres [4.5 km2]"
The stud was sold to the Marquesa de Moratalla.
Current owner
Film director Stanley Kubrick bought the manor in 1978. He used the estate as both a home and a nerve centre for his film productions. He lived there until his death in 1999 and is interred in its grounds together with his eldest daughter Anya Kubrick, who died in 2009. His widow, Christiane Kubrick, still lives in the Manor House and one of their grandchildren runs a recording studio adjacent to it as a sound engineer.
References
External links
Childwickbury Estate
Country houses in Hertfordshire
Grade II listed buildings in Hertfordshire
Grade II listed houses
Stanley Kubrick
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eino%20Leino
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Eino Leino
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Eino Leino (born Armas Einar Leopold Lönnbohm; 6 July 1878 – 10 January 1926) was a Finnish poet and journalist who is considered one of the pioneers of Finnish poetry and a national poet of Finland. His poems combine modern and Finnish folk elements. Much of his work is in the style of the Kalevala and folk songs in general. Nature, love, and despair are frequent themes in Leino's work. He is beloved and widely read in Finland today.
Leino's birthday on 6 July was named Eino Leino Day (Eino Leinon päivä) as well as day of Finnish poetry and summer in 1992, and it is an established Finnish flag day.
Early life
Eino Leino was baptized as Armas Einar Leopold Lönnbohm in Paltamo as the seventh and youngest son in a family of ten children. Leino's father had changed his name from Antti Mustonen to Anders Lönnbohm to improve his chances of marrying his future upper-class wife, Anna Emilia Kyrenius. Eino's older brother Kasimir Leino was an important cultural figure in Finland. He was a poet, critic, and theatre director. Eino and Kasimir Leino founded a literature journal together in 1898.
Leino published his first poem at the age of 12 and a collection of poems, Maaliskuun lauluja, at 18.
Leino's parents died while he was still in school. He started school in Kajaani and continued in Oulu and Hämeenlinna, where he boarded with relatives. After graduating from the Hämeenlinna secondary school, Leino started studying at the University of Helsinki.
Writing career
Early in his career Eino Leino was much loved and praised by the critics. He joined literary and newspaper circles and became a member of the Young Finnish circle. Among Leino's friends were the artist Pekka Halonen and Otto Manninen, who gained fame as a poet and translator.
As early as November 1917, Eino Leino had annoyedly warned in the Sunnuntai magazine that the country was "on the brink of civil war," and fiercely criticized the Socialists as they set out to "pursue their cause with civil blood and the stings of a foreign conqueror" (No. 40-41 / 1917). The political situation, which escalated into the Finnish Civil War, was a bitter experience for Leino, who had always written for tolerance and also appreciated the labor movement from which he had good friends. Leino experienced the events of the spring of 1918 in the Red-conquered Helsinki, and he described his experiences in the report novel The Conquest of Helsinki (1918). He greeted the German Baltic Sea Division, which had invaded southern Finland and conquered Helsinki, as a liberator. But on the other hand, Leino later drove a general amnesty for Red Side line men and women in prisons and demanded the abolition of the death penalty. In April 1918, Leino's six-part series of articles called "For the Finnish Workers" was published in the Social Democratic magazine Työn valta ("Power of Labor"), in which he, as an impartial writer belonging to the "civilized poverty", strongly appealed for peace and mutual understanding. “Social democracy would no longer have a future in Finland unless it was able to internalize the "eternal ideals" of legitimacy, democracy and civil liberty,” he wrote.
After the Finnish Civil War, Leino's idealistic faith for national unity collapsed, and his influence as a journalist and polemicist weakened. He was granted a State writer's pension in 1918 at the age of forty. Although publishing prolifically, he had financial problems and his health deteriorated. "Life is always a struggle with eternal forces," Leino said in a letter in 1925 to his friend Bertel Gripenberg.
Leino published over 70 books of poems and stories. The most famous of these are the two poem collections Helkavirsiä (1903 and 1916), in which he extensively uses Finnish mythology and folklore.
In addition to writing poetry, Eino Leino wrote in newspapers about theatre and culture in general, and translated works of important writers such as Runeberg and Goethe. He was the first person in Finland to translate Dante's Divine Comedy into Finnish.
In the summer of 1921, Leino traveled to Estonia for a written tour organized by the Finnish-Estonian friends Aino and Gustav Suits. With his poetry evenings, presentations and celebrations in Tartu and Tallinn, the trip became a success, and Eino Leino was received everywhere as a significant poet. After his trip to Estonia, he signed his third marriage to bank clerk Hanna Laitinen. The desperate attempt to gain support and security ended almost immediately in the separation of the spouses. In 1921, Leino applied for exemption from Finnish citizenship. He wrote letters to President K. J. Ståhlberg and Estonian Head of State Konstantin Päts asking to become an Estonian citizen. Leino was tired of the lack of scholarships and the criticism he received.
Leino was married three times and had one daughter, Helka. He died in 1926 at the age of 47 and later he was buried at the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki. Already at that time as a famous man, he was buried at the expense of the state, and the funeral was attended by President L. K. Relander and other statesmen of the country.
The most detailed biography of Leino was written in 1930s by his lover and colleague L. Onerva. In the dramatic story Onerva is also writing about her own life.
There is no absolute certainty about the cause of Eino Leino's death. In the work of the writer Hannu Mäkelä, Mestari, the cause of Leino's death is described as advanced spinal cord disease and calcification of blood vessels, which is why blood had leaked into the brain. It is said that it had previously confused Leino's abdominal functions. According to Mäkelä, the cause of death was determined by both Dr. Wasastjerna and Dr. Lindén. On the other hand, the cause of Leino's death has also been suggested to be syphilis by Leino's personal doctor Väinö Lindén on the basis of L. Onerva's biographical margin.
Literary style and importance
Leino is held to be the first and most important shaper of national romanticism in Finnish literature. Actually, Leino coined the term national neoromantism by himself to characterize the works by talents of young Finland such as composer Jean Sibelius, painter Akseli Gallen-Kallela and architect Eliel Saarinen.
Leino's style developed during his 35 years long career. In his early works, including his most famous collection Helkavirsiä (1903) influence of the national epic Kalevala is visible.
In the middle of his career Leino translated classics of world literature to Finnish. At the same time he wrote his own works in several genres: poetry, plays, essays, reviews and other pieces of journalism. His work encompasses a wide emotional range, anything from profound love to misanthropy and biting criticism.
In his last years, after struggles in his personal life, Leino returned to the national romantic themes of his youth.
See also
The Eino Leino Prize
The Eino Leino Statue
Johan Ludvig Runeberg
Poet and Muse
References
External links
Poems by Eino Leino at Runosto.net
Eino Leino in 375 humanists 15.03.2015, Faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki
1878 births
1926 deaths
People from Paltamo
People from Oulu Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
20th-century Finnish poets
Finnish writers
Finnish-language poets
Finnish-language writers
Writers from Kainuu
Finnish journalists
Finnish translators
Translators to Finnish
19th-century Finnish people
Finnish male poets
Burials at Hietaniemi Cemetery
20th-century male writers
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205751
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81keh%C4%81
|
Pākehā
|
Pākehā (or Pakeha; ; ) is generally a Māori-language term for New Zealanders primarily of European descent. Pākehā is not a legal concept and has no definition under New Zealand law. The term can apply to fair-skinned persons, or to any non-Māori New Zealander. Papa'a has a similar meaning in Cook Islands Māori.
Historically before the arrival of other ethnic groups the word Māori meant 'ordinary' or 'normal'. The arrival of Europeans lead to the formation of a new term to distinguish the self-regarded 'ordinary' or 'normal' Māori from the new arrivals. The etymology of the word pākehā remains unclear, but the term was in use by the late-18th century. In December 1814 the Māori children at Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands were "no less eager to see the packaha than the grown folks".
In Māori, plural noun-phrases of the term include (the definite article) and (the indefinite article). When the word was first adopted into English, the usual plural was "pakehas". However, speakers of New Zealand English are increasingly removing the terminal "s" and treating the term as a collective noun.
Opinions of the term vary amongst European New Zealanders. A survey of 6,507 New Zealanders in 2009 showed no support for the claim that the term "Pākehā" is associated with a negative evaluation. However, some reject it on the ground that they claim it is offensive, or they object to being named in a language other than their own. In 2013 the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study carried out by the University of Auckland found no evidence that the word was widely considered to be derogatory; however, only 12 per cent of New Zealanders of European descent actively chose to be identified by the term, with the remainder preferring "New Zealander" (53 per cent), "New Zealand European" (25 per cent) and/or "Kiwi" (17 per cent).
Meaning
The Oxford general English language dictionary defines pākehā as 'a white New Zealander', The Oxford Dictionary of New Zealandisms (2010) defines pākehā as a noun '''a light-skinned non-Polynesian New Zealander, especially one of British birth or ancestry as distinct from a Māori; a European or white person'; and as an adjective 'of or relating to Pākehā; non-Māori; European, white'.
Māori in the Bay of Islands and surrounding districts had no doubts about the meaning of the word in the 19th century. In 1831, thirteen from the Far North met at Kerikeri to compose a letter to King William IV, seeking protection from the French, "the tribe of Marion". Written in Māori, the letter used the word "" to mean "British European", and the words to mean "strangers (non-British)"—as shown in the translation that year of the letter from Māori to English by the missionary William Yate. To this day, the Māori term for the English language is "". Māori also used other terms such as ("supernatural", "object of fear, strange being"), ("ghosts"), and ("metal" or referring to persons "foreign") to refer to some of the earliest visitors.
However, The Concise Māori Dictionary (Kāretu, 1990) defines the word pākehā as "foreign, foreigner (usually applied to white person)", while the English–Māori, Māori–English Dictionary (Biggs, 1990) defines Pākehā as "white (person)". Sometimes the term applies more widely to include all non-Māori. No Māori dictionary cites as derogatory. Some early Pākehā settlers who lived among Māori and adopted aspects of Māoritanga became known as "Pākehā Māori".
Etymology
The etymology of is unknown, although the most likely sources are the words or , which refer to an oral tale of a "mythical, human like being, with fair skin and hair who possessed canoes made of reeds which changed magically into sailing vessels". When Europeans first arrived they rowed to shore in longboats, facing backwards. In traditional Māori canoes or "", paddlers face the direction of travel. This is supposed to have led to the belief that the sailors were supernatural beings.
In her book The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Encounters in the South Seas, the anthropologist Anne Salmond recorded that tribal traditions held that Toiroa, a tohunga from Mahia, had predicted the coming of the Europeans. He said "", meaning "it is the pakerewhā", red and white strangers.The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Encounters in the South Seas, by Anne Salmond, Chapter 7, "Travellers from Hawaiki".
There have been several dubious interpretations given to the word. One claims that it derives from , the Māori word for "pig", and , one of the Māori words for "flea", and therefore expresses derogatory implications. There is no etymological support for this notion—like all Polynesian languages, Māori is generally very conservative in terms of vowels; it would be extremely unusual for pā- to derive from . The word itself may come from the proto-Polynesian root *puaka, known in every Polynesian language (" in Tongan, Uvean, Futunian, Rapa, Marquisian, Niuean, Rarotongan, Tokelauan, and Tuvaluan; it evolved to the later form in Samoan, Tahitian, some Rapa dialects, and Hawaiian); or it might be borrowed or mixed with the English "porker". It is hard to say, since Polynesian peoples populated their islands bringing pigs with them from East Asia, but no pigs were brought to Aotearoa by them. The more common Māori word for flea is . It is also sometimes claimed that means "white pig" or "unwelcome white stranger". However, no part of the word signifies "pig", "white", "unwelcome", or "stranger".
Attitudes to the term
New Zealanders of European ancestry vary in their attitudes toward the word when applied to themselves. Some embrace it wholeheartedly as a sign of their connection to New Zealand, in contrast to the European identity of their forebears. Others object to the word, some strongly, saying it is offensive in origin, claiming it to be derogatory or to carry implications of being an outsider, although this is often based on false information about the meaning of the term. Some believe being labelled "" compromises their status and their birthright links to New Zealand. In the 1986 census, over 36,000 respondents ignored the ethnicities offered, including "", writing-in their ethnicity as "New Zealander", or ignoring the question completely. A joint response code of "NZ European or Pakeha" was tried in the 1996 census, but was replaced by "New Zealand European" in later censuses because it drew what Statistics New Zealand described as a "significant adverse reaction from some respondents". Sociologist Paul Spoonley criticised the new version, however, saying that many would not identify as European.
The term is also sometimes used among New Zealanders of European ancestry in distinction to the Māori term ("foreigner"), as an act of emphasising their claims of belonging to the space of New Zealand in contrast to more recent arrivals. Those who prefer to emphasise nationality rather than ethnicity in relating to others living in New Zealand may refer to all New Zealand citizens only as "New Zealanders" or by the colloquial term "Kiwis".
The term is commonly used by a range of journalists and columnists from The New Zealand Herald, the country's largest-circulation daily newspaper. Historian Judith Binney called herself a and said, "I think it is the most simple and practical term. It is a name given to us by Māori. It has no pejorative associations like people think it does—it's a descriptive term. I think it's nice to have a name the people who live here gave you, because that's what I am."
New Zealand writer and historian Michael King wrote in 1985: "To say something is Pakeha in character is not to diminish its New Zealand-ness, as some people imply. It is to emphasise it."
New Zealand politicians from across the political spectrum use the term, including Don Brash, John Key, Helen Clark, and Te Ururoa Flavell.
See also
European New Zealanders
Europeans in Oceania
Gaijin
Gweilo
Haole, the analogous Hawaiian term
Palagi, a term in Samoan sometimes used to describe foreigners
Pākehā settlers
References
Further reading
Hoani Nahe, "The Origins of the Words 'Pakeha' and 'Kaipuke, Journal of the Polynesian Society'', vol. 3, December 1894
External links
New Zealand society
Māori words and phrases
Ethno-cultural designations
European New Zealander
White culture in Oceania
|
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205760
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven%20Barnes
|
Steven Barnes
|
Steven Barnes (born March 1, 1952) is an American science fiction, fantasy, and mystery writer. He has written novels, short fiction, screen plays for television, scripts for comic books, animation, newspaper copy, and magazine articles.
Career
Barnes has written several episodes of The Outer Limits and Baywatch. His "A Stitch In Time" episode of The Outer Limits won an Emmy Award. He has also written the episode "Brief Candle" for Stargate SG-1 and the Andromeda episode "The Sum of Its Parts". Barnes's first published piece of fiction, the 1979 novelette "The Locusts", was written with Larry Niven, and was a Hugo Award nominee. Barnes subsequently collaborated with Niven on several other books, including two books with both Niven and Jerry Pournelle. Barnes said he clashed politically with the two conservative writers but enjoyed working with them, calling it "a tremendous learning opportunity".
Barnes's alternate history novel Lion's Blood won the 2003 Endeavour Award. His 2004 Star Wars tie-in novel The Cestus Deception was a New York Times bestseller.
Together with his wife, Tananarive Due, and actor Blair Underwood, Barnes won the 2009 NAACP Image Award for outstanding Literary Work - Fiction for In the Night of the Heat: A Tennyson Hardwick Novel.
Early life and education
Barnes, was born on March 1, 1952 in Los Angeles, California. He has had a varied education, including a secondary education at Los Angeles High School. He continued at Pepperdine University, majoring in Communication Arts.
Personal life
Barnes is married to Tananarive Due, a writer. The couple live in Los Angeles and host a video blog together. They also taught a course together at UCLA called "The Sunken Place: Racism, Survival & Black Horror" that experienced a surprise visit from Get Out director Jordan Peele. The course is now available as a webinar. Barnes has a daughter from his first marriage and a son from his current marriage.
Barnes is also an avid practitioner of martial and physical arts. He began studying in 1969. He is a black belt in Kenpo Karate (BKF style), and Kodokan Judo. He holds an instructor certificate in Wu Ming Ta, and has an instructor candidate ranking in Filipino Kali stick and knife fighting. He is an advanced student in Jun Fan kickboxing (Bruce Lee method under Dan Inosanto), and is an instructor in Wu-style t'ai chi ch'uan under Hawkins Cheung.
He is an intermediate student in self-defense pistol shooting (preferring the Turnipseed modified Weaver method). He holds a brown belt in Shorenji Jiu Jitsu, and intermediate rankings in Tae Kwon Do and Aikido. He completed the Yoga Works basic Hatha Yoga instructor program; is studying Pentjak Silat (an Indonesian fighting system) with Guru Stevan Plinck, and Ashtanga Yoga, an aerobic form of yoga.
Bibliography
The Dream Park series:
Dream Park (1981; with Larry Niven)
The Barsoom Project (1989; with Larry Niven)
The California Voodoo Game (1992; with Larry Niven)
The Moon Maze Game (2011; with Larry Niven)
The Aubry Knight series:
Street Lethal (1983)
Gorgon Child (1989)
Firedance (1993)
The Heorot series:
The Legacy of Heorot (1987; with Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle)
Beowulf's Children (1995; with Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle)
Starborn and Godsons (2020; with Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle)
The Insh'Allah series:
Lion's Blood (2002; winner of the 2003 Endeavour Award)
Zulu Heart (2003)
The "Ibandi" series:
Great Sky Woman (2006)
Shadow Valley (2009)
The Tennyson Hardwick Novels:
Casanegra (2007; with Blair Underwood and Tananarive Due)
In the Night of the Heat (2008; with Blair Underwood and Tananarive Due)
From Cape Town with Love (2010; with Blair Underwood and Tananarive Due)
South by Southeast (September 2012; with Blair Underwood and Tananarive Due)
Stand-alone novels, screenplays, and other works:
The Descent of Anansi (1982; with Larry Niven)
"To See the Invisible Man" (1986; a television script adapting a short story by Robert Silverberg, for the 1980s revival of The Twilight Zone)
The Kundalini Equation (1986)
Fusion (1987) (issues #1–5 only)
Achilles' Choice (1991) (with Larry Niven)
Blood Brothers (1996)
Iron Shadows (1997)
Far Beyond the Stars (1998) (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine novelization)
The Lives of Dax: "The Music Between the Notes" (1999)
Saturn's Race (2000) (with Larry Niven)
Charisma (2002)
The Cestus Deception (2004) (Star Wars novel set in the Clone Wars)
Assassin and Other Stories (2010), a collection, ISFiC Press
The Invisible Imam, a novel included in Assassin and Other Stories (2010)
Devil's Wake (2012; with Tananarive Due)
Domino Falls (2013; with Tananarive Due)
Star Wars Saved My Life: Be the HERO in the adventure of your lifetime! (2015), illustrated by Trey Jackson and Angelina Greenwood
The Seascape Tattoo (2016; with Larry Niven)
Twelve Days (2017)
Short stories
"The Woman in the Wall" (2000; novelette)
"Danikil", Whose Future Is It? (2018)
References
External links
"Black Science Fiction and Fantasy" with Tananarive Due, Steven Barnes, and Sheree R. Thomas on NPR, News & Notes, August 13, 2007 (audio and transcript)
Audio Interview - Steven Barnes on the Horace J. Digby Report
Lightspeed magazine Interview with Steven Barnes, by Christian A. Coleman, in May 2017 (Issue 84)
Apex Magazine: Interview with Author Steven Barnes, by Andrea Johnson on May 16, 2019
1952 births
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
African-American novelists
American male screenwriters
American science fiction writers
American male novelists
American television writers
Black speculative fiction authors
Endeavour Award winners
Living people
American male television writers
Pepperdine University alumni
Afrofuturist writers
21st-century American male writers
American comics writers
African-American screenwriters
20th-century African-American writers
21st-century African-American writers
African-American male writers
|
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] |
205766
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Heart%20of%20the%20Matter
|
The Heart of the Matter
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The Heart of the Matter (1948) is a novel by English author Graham Greene. The book details a life-changing moral crisis for Henry Scobie. Greene, a former British intelligence officer in Freetown, British Sierra Leone, drew on his experience there. Although Freetown is not mentioned in the novel, Greene confirms the location in his 1980 memoir, Ways of Escape.
The Heart of the Matter was enormously popular, selling more than 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom upon its release. It won the 1948 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Heart of the Matter 40th on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2005, the novel was chosen by Time magazine as one of the one hundred best English-language novels from 1923 to the present. In 2012, it was shortlisted for the Best of the James Tait Black.
The book's title appears halfway through the novel: "If one knew, he wondered, the facts, would one have to feel pity even for the planets? If one reached what they called the heart of the matter?"
Plot summary
Major Scobie lives in a colony on the west coast of Africa during World War II, and is responsible for local security during wartime. His wife Louise, an unhappy, solitary woman who loves literature and poetry, cannot make friends. Scobie feels responsible for her misery, but does not love her. Their only child, Catherine, died in England several years before. Louise is a devout Catholic. Scobie, a convert, is also devout.
Throughout the novel the oppressive nature of the climate is a major backdrop. The heat and humidity act as weakening factors.
Scobie is passed over for promotion to commissioner, which upsets Louise both for her personal ambition and her hope that the local British community will begin to accept her. Louise asks Scobie if she can go to live in South Africa to escape a life she hates.
At the same time, a new inspector, named Wilson, arrives in the town. He is priggish and socially inept, and hides his passion for poetry for fear of ostracism by his colleagues. He and Louise strike up a friendship, which Wilson mistakes for love. Wilson rooms with another colleague named Harris, who has created a sport for himself of killing the cockroaches that appear in his room each night. He invites Wilson to join him, but in the first match, they end up quarrelling over the rules of engagement.
One of Scobie's duties is to lead the inspections of local passenger ships, particularly looking for smuggled diamonds, a needle-in-a-haystack problem that never yields results. A Portuguese ship, the Esperança (the Portuguese word for 'hope'), comes into port, and a disgruntled steward reveals the location of a letter hidden in the captain's quarters. Scobie finds it, and because it is addressed to someone in Germany, he confiscates as it might contain secret codes and clandestine information. The captain says it's a letter to his daughter and begs Scobie to forget the incident, offering him a bribe of one hundred pounds when he learns that they share the Catholic faith. Scobie declines the bribe and takes the letter, but having opened and read it—contrary to regulations—and finding it innocuous, he decides not to submit it to higher authorities, and burns it.
Scobie is called to a small inland town to deal with the suicide of the local inspector, a man named Pemberton, who was in his early twenties and left a note implying that his suicide was due to a loan he could not repay. Scobie suspects the involvement of the local agent of a Syrian man named Yusef, a local black marketeer. Yusef denies it, but warns Scobie that the British have sent a new inspector specifically to look for diamonds; Scobie claims this is a hoax and that he does not know of any such man. Scobie later dreams that he is in Pemberton's situation, even writing a similar note, but when he awakens, he tells himself that he could never commit suicide, as no cause is worth the eternal damnation that suicide would bring.
Scobie tries to secure a loan from the bank to pay the two hundred pound fare for Louise's passage, but is turned down. Yusef offers to lend Scobie the money at four per cent per annum. Scobie initially declines, but after an incident where he mistakenly thinks Louise is contemplating suicide, he accepts the loan and sends Louise to South Africa. Wilson meets them at the pier and tries to interfere with their parting.
Shortly afterwards, the survivors of a shipwreck arrive after forty days at sea in lifeboats. One young girl dies as Scobie tries to comfort her by pretending to be her father, who was killed in the wreck. A 19-year-old woman named Helen Rolt also arrives malnourished and dehydrated, clutching an album of postage stamps. She was married before the ship left port and is now a widow with a wedding ring too big for her finger. Scobie feels drawn to her, as much to the cherished album of stamps as to her physical presence, even though she is not beautiful. She reminds him of his daughter.
He soon starts a passionate affair with her, all the time aware that he is committing the grave sin of adultery. A letter he writes to Helen ends up in Yusef's hands, and the Syrian uses it to blackmail Scobie into sending a package of diamonds for him via the departing Esperança, thus avoiding the authorities.
After Louise unexpectedly returns, Scobie struggles to keep her ignorant of his love affair. But he is unable to renounce Helen, even in the confessional, where the priest instructs him to think it over and postpones absolution. Still, to placate his wife, Scobie attends Mass with her and receives communion in his state of mortal sin—a sacrilege according to Catholic doctrine. Soon after, Yusef's servant delivers a "gift" to Scobie, which he refuses. Scobie's servant, Ali, however, witnesses this and a romantic embrace between Scobie and Helen. Scobie visits Yusef to confront him about the gift, but also to relate his suspicion that Ali, whom he had trusted for all of their 15 years together, is disloyal. Yusef says he will take care of the matter, which within a few hours ends up with Ali being killed by local teenagers known as "wharf rats". The reader is led to believe that Yusef arranged the killing for which Scobie blames himself.
Having gone this far down the path of ruin and seeing no way out, Scobie decides to free everyone from himself—including God—and plots his death by faking a heart ailment and getting a prescription for sleeping pills. Knowing full well that suicide is the ultimate damnation according to Church doctrine, he proceeds in the end to commit suicide with the pills. The act, however, yields ambiguous results. Helen continues her dreary existence. And Louise, who knew about the affair all along, is made to realise by her suitor, Wilson, that Scobie's death was a suicide. She tells Wilson she will not marry him, but might in time.
The concluding chapter consists of a short encounter between Louise and her confessional priest. Louise tries to rationalise Scobie's suicide in relation to his Catholicism, to which the priest advises that no one can know what's in a person's heart or about God's mercy.
Characters
Major Henry Scobie – Longtime police deputy commissioner and protagonist of the novel.
Louise Scobie – Henry's devout Catholic wife.
Catherine Scobie – Deceased daughter of Henry and Louise.
Ali – Scobie's longtime African servant.
Edward Wilson – New inspector who spies on Major Scobie and is in love with his wife, Louise.
Harris – Wilson's housemate
"Dicky" Pemberton – Inspector who commits suicide due to his large debt to Yusef.
Helen Rolt – Newly arrived widow who becomes Scobie's mistress.
Yusef – Syrian local black marketeer who blackmails Scobie after finding a letter in which he expresses his love for Helen.
Tallit – Catholic Syrian, Yusef's chief competitor.
Father Rank – Local Catholic priest.
Father Clay – Catholic priest at Bamba who reads about saints.
Critical response
Anthony Burgess wrote that Graham Greene's, "...ability to encapsulate the essence of an exotic setting in a single book is exemplified in The Heart of the Matter". Burgess's contemporary, Evelyn Waugh, an admirer of the book, stated that the West Africa of that book replaced the true remembered West Africa of his own experience. The closing part of Waugh's 1952 novel Men at Arms is set in Freetown in late 1940 and includes two favourable references to The Heart of the Matter. In the first, Waugh writes of his protagonist Guy Crouchback, "Later when he came to read The Heart of the Matter Guy reflected, fascinated, that at this very time 'Scobie' was close at hand, demolishing partitions in native houses, still conscientiously interfering with neutral shipping." A little further on Waugh adds, "... later a few printed pages would create, not recall, the scene for him [Guy] and make it forever memorable. People would say to him in eight years time: 'You were there during the war. Was it like that?' and he would answer: 'Yes. It must have been.'"
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Heart of the Matter 40th on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.
George Orwell found the plot of the novel "ridiculous". Orwell charged that, "The fact that the book is set in Africa while the action takes place almost entirely inside a tiny white community gives it an air of triviality." Major Scobie, in Orwell's opinion, is not a credible character: "If he believed in Hell, he would not risk going there merely to spare the feelings of a couple of neurotic women. And one might add that if he were the kind of man we are told he is—that is, a man whose chief characteristic is a horror of causing pain—he would not be an officer in a colonial police force".
Film
The novel was made into a film in 1953, directed by George More O'Ferrall and starring Trevor Howard and Maria Schell, and a TV film version was produced in 1983, featuring Jack Hedley as Scobie.
References
External links
Novels by Graham Greene
1948 British novels
Novels set in Sierra Leone
British novels adapted into films
Adultery in novels
Catholic novels
Suicide in fiction
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205767
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Legacy%20of%20Heorot
|
The Legacy of Heorot
|
The Legacy of Heorot is a science fiction novel by American writers Larry Niven, Jerry Pournelle, and Steven Barnes, first published in 1987. Reproduction and fertility expert Dr Jack Cohen acted as a consultant on the book, designing the novel life cycle of the alien antagonists, the grendels.
This is the first book in the Heorot series. It concerns the establishment of the first human colony on Avalon, fourth planet of Tau Ceti.
Plot summary
Two hundred colonists arrive on Avalon, having made the 100-year journey from Earth in suspended animation on the starship Geographic. The colonists, selected for their outstanding physical and mental acuity, make a terrible discovery: the suspended animation has damaged their intellect and reasoning skills. Some are only mildly afflicted, while others have serious intellectual disabilities; eight cannot be reanimated at all.
The colonists build a settlement on an isolated island, and begin growing crops and stocking the nearby waters with terrestrial species to complement the samlon, a local aquatic species. The colonists become overconfident in their security, to the frustration of expedition security officer (and former soldier) Cadmann Weyland. When unsettling events begin to happen – missing animals, fences torn down – the colonists' impaired minds prevent them from properly analyzing the situation. Weyland is suspected of sabotage to further his agenda of building up defenses. He is drugged and restrained when a monster attacks the settlement, killing ten colonists.
Resenting his treatment, Weyland retreats from the colony to an isolated homestead on a mountain near the colony. Mary Ann, a colonist with a romantic interest in Weyland, convinces him to allow her to stay with him, and conceives his child. Ultimately, Weyland agrees to assist the colony in its defenses.
The colonists are confounded by the ecology of the island, as there does not seem to be a sufficient food source for the creatures to inhabit it. An autopsy reveals that grendels (as the creatures are now known, in reference to Beowulf) are crocodilian in appearance and behavior, with powerful jaws and claws, and a sense of smell better than a dog's. Its brain shows it is at least as intelligent as a gorilla. It possesses a snorkel enabling it to lurk under several feet of water. Its cardiovascular system and musculature give it strength and stamina far beyond that of humans. A grendel can release a super-oxygenated blood supplement into its blood that does to it what nitrous oxide does to internal combustion engines – enable short bursts of speed in excess of 100 miles per hour. This trait makes the grendels devastating, but is also the key to their destruction. Using the supercharger causes the grendels to heat up so rapidly that they die if they do not immediately return to water to cool off. With this knowledge and their technology and tactics, the colonists are able to wipe out the grendel population of the island within several months, making Weyland a hero to the people who previously turned on him.
Some months later, the colony's scientists come to a disturbing realization: the grendels and the aquatic samlon are the same species. Their life cycle is similar to that of terrestrial frogs – the herbivorous samlon are in fact the juvenile form of the carnivorous grendels. The juvenile samlon are male, and become female when they mature. Interaction is unnecessary, as the grendels continually lay unfertilized eggs in the water for the samlon to fertilize. Like some species of frogs, the grendels are cannibalistic – if no other prey is present, they will eat their own young. On the colony's island, all other prey sources were previously exhausted, and the grendels have turned to cannibalism as the rule rather than the exception. The colonists have exterminated the adult grendels. But as there is now no check at all on the samlon population, they all become grendels, meaning that instead of a few dozen grendels, there are now thousands.
Weyland again asserts control. The colony's pregnant women, children and essential specialists are evacuated to the Geographic. The grendels cannot hunt far from water, so most others are evacuated to Weyland's mountain camp. Combat is joined. At first, the colonists' technology and tactics serve them well. Weyland observes the grendels' behavior and discovers that packs of grendels can be sent into a shark-like feeding frenzy by spraying them with blood taken from dead grendels, especially if it is laced with the "supercharger" chemical. Tracer bullets are used to ignite the supercharger gland in their bodies.
But as the grendels' numbers fall, their individual strength rises, as every dead grendel is food for the rest. Eventually, all that remain are the strongest and fastest fully grown grendels, and the colonists make a planned retreat to Weyland's mountain retreat. As the horde approaches, the colonists spray them with more supercharger, sending them into a frenzy once more. When they begin climbing the bluff, Weyland sets off a deadfall trap, killing even more. The grendels, though not as smart as humans, are smart enough to learn, given time and much experience. Their behavior changes as they realize the remaining colonists are not worth dying to reach when there are other grendels to kill. The colony is saved.
One year later, the grendels are being driven to extinction. Now that the grendel life cycle is known, the colonists continue the hunts, but this time the samlon are targeted as well. The new tactics, supercharger spraying and recorded grendel challenges, make them almost a routine chore. The terrestrial fish are gone, and will not be reintroduced, forcing the grendels to help drive their own species to extinction through cannibalism. Now rebuilding can begin. The battle against the grendels has left the colony with surplus of women, and a new social organization based on polygamous marriage is taking shape. The mainland is being explored, and the colonists have high hopes. The colonists hope the story of their battle will inspire Earth's population to restart its nascent colonization program.
Reception
Kirkus Reviews panned the novel as "exciting for about half, thereafter increasingly gory and tedious", with "absurdly pretentious quotes and allusions" and "too much brawn, not enough brain." However, the Los Angeles Times wrote that the novel "undertakes that presumptuous exercise [reworking the Beowulf legend in science fiction] not only without disappointment but with substantial success."
Dave Langford reviewed The Legacy of Heorot for White Dwarf #91, and stated that "Despite the resulting thrill of tens of thousands of superpowered flesh-hungry newts interminably assaulting Mr Macho's survivalist stronghold, I was tormented by the nagging thought that this would have read better at one-third the length. So it goes."
J. Michael Caparula reviewed The Legacy of Heorot in Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer No. 85. Caparula commented that "this a life-or-death struggle for both species, and it is this double tension that makes the book stand out. Recommended."
References
1987 American novels
Collaborative novels
Novels by Jerry Pournelle
Novels by Larry Niven
1987 science fiction novels
Simon & Schuster books
Science fiction horror novels
Fiction set around Tau Ceti
|
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] |
205769
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spui%20%28river%29
|
Spui (river)
|
The Spui is a small tidal river in South Holland in the Netherlands, connecting the river Oude Maas and the Haringvliet estuary, separating the islands of Voorne-Putten and Hoeksche Waard. Historically, it forked off the Oude Maas at the town of Oud-Beijerland to end in the Haringvliet, but as a (planned) result from the Delta Works, its flow has been reversed. The Spui emerged as a result of a levee breach during the , a storm surge that permanently altered the surrounding landscape.
There are no bridges or tunnels crossing the Spui, but there is a car ferry from Hekelingen (municipality Nissewaard) to Nieuw-Beijerland (municipality Hoeksche Waard), and a pedestrian and bicycle ferry between Oud-Beijerland and Rhoon (in Albrandswaard).
References
Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Hoeksche Waard
Rivers of South Holland
Rivers of the Netherlands
|
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] |
205773
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dordtsche%20Kil
|
Dordtsche Kil
|
The Dordtse Kil (pre-1947 spelling: Dordtsche Kil) is a short river in South Holland in the Netherlands. The river is tidal and forms the connection between the Oude Maas river and the Hollands Diep. The river is for most part artificial in origin, since it has been a relatively small tidal creek until the 19th century.
River crossings
Connection between Hoeksche Waard island on the west and the Dordrecht island on the east:
Kiltunnel (toll tunnel)
See also
Kill (body of water)
References
Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Hoeksche Waard
Dordrecht
Rivers of South Holland
Rivers of the Netherlands
|
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205774
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollands%20Diep
|
Hollands Diep
|
Hollands Diep (pre-1947 spelling: Hollandsch Diep) is a wide river in the Netherlands and an estuary of the Rhine and Meuse rivers. Through the Scheldt-Rhine Canal it connects to the Scheldt river and Antwerp.
The Bergse Maas river and the Nieuwe Merwede river join near Lage Zwaluwe to form the Hollands Diep. The Dordtsche Kil connects to it near Moerdijk. Near Numansdorp it splits into the Haringvliet and the Volkerak.
History
The Hollands Diep was formed as a result of the extensive flood of 1216, which breached the dunes of Voorne and created a deep saltwater inlet (the current Haringvliet). During a second flood, the St. Elizabeth floods, this inlet connected to the Merwede and became an important estuary of the Rhine and Meuse rivers. From that moment on, the freshwater part of the estuary (east of the Hellegatsplein) was renamed Hollands Diep. The former river Striene, that used to connect the Meuse with the Scheldt, was completely destroyed by these floods and can no longer be recognised on maps.
River crossings
At this point where the Hollands Diep splits, there is a road traffic node on an artificial island (the Hellegatsplein), connecting to the Hoeksche Waard island on the north by the Haringvliet bridge, to the Goeree-Overflakkee on the west by the Hellegatsdam, and to the mainland on the southeast by the Volkerak Sluices.
On the east side of the Hollands Diep the Moerdijk bridges connect the Dordrecht island on the north to the mainland on the south: a road bridge, a railroad bridge; a second railroad bridge has recently been constructed for the HSL-Zuid.
References
Estuaries of Europe
Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Rivers of the Netherlands
Ramsar sites in the Netherlands
Rivers of North Brabant
Rivers of South Holland
Hoeksche Waard
Drimmelen
Moerdijk
|
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205775
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital%20speed
|
Orbital speed
|
In gravitationally bound systems, the orbital speed of an astronomical body or object (e.g. planet, moon, artificial satellite, spacecraft, or star) is the speed at which it orbits around either the barycenter or, if one object is much more massive than the other bodies in the system, its speed relative to the center of mass of the most massive body.
The term can be used to refer to either the mean orbital speed, i.e. the average speed over an entire orbit, or its instantaneous speed at a particular point in its orbit. Maximum (instantaneous) orbital speed occurs at periapsis (perigee, perihelion, etc.), while minimum speed for objects in closed orbits occurs at apoapsis (apogee, aphelion, etc.). In ideal two-body systems, objects in open orbits continue to slow down forever as their distance to the barycenter increases.
When a system approximates a two-body system, instantaneous orbital speed at a given point of the orbit can be computed from its distance to the central body and the object's specific orbital energy, sometimes called "total energy". Specific orbital energy is constant and independent of position.
Radial trajectories
In the following, it is thought that the system is a two-body system and the orbiting object has a negligible mass compared to the larger (central) object. In real-world orbital mechanics, it is the system's barycenter, not the larger object, which is at the focus.
Specific orbital energy, or total energy, is equal to Ek − Ep. (kinetic energy − potential energy). The sign of the result may be positive, zero, or negative and the sign tells us something about the type of orbit:
If the specific orbital energy is positive the orbit is unbound, or open, and will follow a hyperbola with the larger body the focus of the hyperbola. Objects in open orbits do not return; once past periapsis their distance from the focus increases without bound. See radial hyperbolic trajectory
If the total energy is zero, (Ek = Ep): the orbit is a parabola with focus at the other body. See radial parabolic trajectory. Parabolic orbits are also open.
If the total energy is negative, Ek − Ep < 0: The orbit is bound, or closed. The motion will be on an ellipse with one focus at the other body. See radial elliptic trajectory, free-fall time. Planets have bound orbits around the Sun.
Transverse orbital speed
The transverse orbital speed is inversely proportional to the distance to the central body because of the law of conservation of angular momentum, or equivalently, Kepler's second law. This states that as a body moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from the barycenter to the body sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the body traces during that period of time.
This law implies that the body moves slower near its apoapsis than near its periapsis, because at the smaller distance along the arc it needs to move faster to cover the same area.
Mean orbital speed
For orbits with small eccentricity, the length of the orbit
is close to that of a circular one, and the mean orbital speed can be approximated either from observations of the orbital period and the semimajor axis of its orbit, or from knowledge of the masses of the two bodies and the semimajor axis.
where is the orbital velocity, is the length of the semimajor axis, is the orbital period, and is the standard gravitational parameter. This is an approximation that only holds true when the orbiting body is of considerably lesser mass than the central one, and eccentricity is close to zero.
When one of the bodies is not of considerably lesser mass see: Gravitational two-body problem
So, when one of the masses is almost negligible compared to the other mass, as the case for Earth and Sun, one can approximate the orbit velocity as:
or assuming equal to the radius of the orbit
Where is the (greater) mass around which this negligible mass or body is orbiting, and is the escape velocity.
For an object in an eccentric orbit orbiting a much larger body, the length of the orbit decreases with orbital eccentricity , and is an ellipse. This can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate of the average orbital speed:
The mean orbital speed decreases with eccentricity.
Instantaneous orbital speed
For the instantaneous orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory, both the mean distance and the instantaneous distance are taken into account:
where is the standard gravitational parameter of the orbited body, is the distance at which the speed is to be calculated, and is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. This expression is called the vis-viva equation.
For the Earth at perihelion, the value is:
which is slightly faster than Earth's average orbital speed of , as expected from Kepler's 2nd Law.
Planets
The closer an object is to the Sun the faster it needs to move to maintain the orbit. Objects move fastest at perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) and slowest at aphelion (furthest distance from the Sun). Since planets in the Solar System are in nearly circular orbits their individual orbital velocities do not vary much. Being closest to the Sun and having the most eccentric orbit, Mercury's orbital speed varies from about 59 km/s at perihelion to 39 km/s at aphelion.
Halley's Comet on an eccentric orbit that reaches beyond Neptune will be moving 54.6 km/s when from the Sun, 41.5 km/s when 1 AU from the Sun (passing Earth's orbit), and roughly 1 km/s at aphelion from the Sun. Objects passing Earth's orbit going faster than 42.1 km/s have achieved escape velocity and will be ejected from the Solar System if not slowed down by a gravitational interaction with a planet.
See also
Escape velocity
Delta-v budget
Hohmann transfer orbit
Bi-elliptic transfer
References
Orbits
hu:Kozmikus sebességek#Szökési sebességek
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compress
|
Compress
|
compress is a Unix shell compression program based on the LZW compression algorithm. Compared to more modern compression utilities such as gzip and bzip2, compress performs faster and with less memory usage, at the cost of a significantly lower compression ratio.
The uncompress utility will restore files to their original state after they have been compressed using the compress utility. If no files are specified, the standard input will be uncompressed to the standard output.
In the upcoming POSIX and Single Unix Specification revision, it is planned that DEFLATE algorithm used in gzip format be supported in those utilities.
Description of program
Files compressed by compress are typically given the extension ".Z" (modeled after the earlier pack program which used the extension ".z"). Most tar programs will pipe their data through compress when given the command line option "-Z". (The tar program in its own does not compress; it just stores multiple files within one tape archive.)
Files can be returned to their original state using uncompress. The usual action of uncompress is not merely to create an uncompressed copy of the file, but also to restore the timestamp and other attributes of the compressed file.
For files produced by compress on other systems, uncompress supports 9- to 16-bit compression.
History
The LZW algorithm used in was patented by Sperry Research Center in 1983. Terry Welch published an IEEE article on the algorithm in 1984, but failed to note that he had applied for a patent on the algorithm. Spencer Thomas of the University of Utah took this article and implemented in 1984, without realizing that a patent was pending on the LZW algorithm. The GIF image format also incorporated LZW compression in this way, and Unisys later claimed royalties on implementations of GIF. Joseph M. Orost led the team and worked with Thomas et al. to create the 'final' (4.0) version of and published it as free software to the 'net.sources' USENET group in 1985. was granted in 1985, and this is why could not be used without paying royalties to Sperry Research, which was eventually merged into Unisys.
has fallen out of favor in particular user-groups because it makes use of the LZW algorithm, which was covered by a Unisys patent because of this, gzip and bzip2 increased in popularity on Linux-based operating systems due to their alternative algorithms, along with better file compression. compress has, however, maintained a presence on Unix and BSD systems and the and commands have also been ported to the IBM i operating system.
The US LZW patent expired in 2003, so it is now in the public domain in the United States. All patents on the LZW worldwide have also expired (see Graphics Interchange Format#Unisys and LZW patent enforcement).
In the up-coming POSIX and Single Unix Specification revision, it is planned that DEFLATE algorithm used in gzip format be supported in those utilities.
Special output format
Output binary consists of bit groups. Each bit group consists of codes with fixed amount of bits (9-16). Each group (except last) should be aligned by amount of bits multiplied by 8 and right padded with zeroes. Last group should be aligned by 8 and padded with zeroes. You can find more information in ncompress issue.
Example:
You want to output 10 9 bit codes, 5 10 bit codes and 13 11 bit codes. You now have 3 bit groups that you want to output: 100 bits, 50 bits and 143 bits.
First group should then be 90 bits of data + 54 zero bits of padding in order to be aligned to 72 bits (9 bits * 8).
Second group should then be 50 bits of data + 30 zero bits of padding in order to be aligned to 80 bits (10 bits * 8).
Third group should then be 143 bits of data + 1 zero bit of padding in order to be aligned to 8 bits (1 byte only, since this is the last group in the output).
It is actually a bug. LZW doesn't require any alignment. This bug is a part of original UNIX compress, ncompress, gzip and even windows port. It exists more than 35 years. All application/x-compress files were created using this bug. So we have to include it in output specification.
Some compress implementations write random bits from uninitialized buffer as alignment bits. There is no guarantee that alignment bits will be zeroes. So in terms of 100% compatibility decompressor have to just ignore alignment bit values.
See also
Data compression
Image compression
List of Unix commands
gzip
References
External links
ncompress - public domain compress/uncompress implementation for POSIX systems
compress - original Unix compress (in a compress'd archive)
compress - original Unix compress executable (gzip'd)
Source Code for compress v4.0 (gzip'd sharchives)
ZIP File containing a Windows port of the compress utility
source code to the current version of fcompress.c from compress
bit groups alignment - Explanation of bit groups alignment.
lzws - New library and CLI, implemented without legacy code.
ruby-lzws - Ruby bindings with streaming support.
compress.com - official website for file compression.
Data compression software
Unix archivers and compression-related utilities
Standard Unix programs
Unix SUS2008 utilities
|
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205780
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20J.%20Bass
|
T. J. Bass
|
T. J. Bass, real name Thomas J. Bassler, MD (July 7, 1932 – December 13, 2011) was an American science fiction author and physician, having graduated from the University of Iowa in 1959. Bassler is also known for his controversial claim that nonsmokers who are able to complete a marathon in under four hours can eat whatever they wish and never suffer a fatal heart attack.
John Robbins has noted that Jim Fixx approvingly quoted Bassler in his best-selling book, The Complete Book of Running. Fixx died from heart failure at 52 while running.
Two of Bass' novels, Half Past Human (1971) and The Godwhale (1974), were nominated for the Nebula Award. In both his books the Hive was a three trillion population of 'nebishes' - humans who had four toes and all aggressiveness bred out of them.
Bibliography
Science fiction novels (as T. J. Bass)
Half Past Human (1971, fix-up)
The Godwhale (1974)
Short stories
Star Itch (1968) If magazine
Star Seeder (1969) If magazine
Half Past Human (1969) Galaxy Science Fiction, Vol.29 No.4
G.I.T.A.R (or "Song of Kaia") (1970) If magazine, Nov–Dec
A Game of Biochess (1970) If magazine, Feb
Rorqual Maru (1972) Galaxy Science Fiction, Vol.32 No.4
Non fiction (as Thomas J. Bassler)
The Whole Life Diet: An Integrated Program of Nutrition and Exercise for a Lifestyle of Total Health (1979), with Robert E. Burger
References
External links
1932 births
2011 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Writers from Clinton, Iowa
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from Iowa
Physicians from Iowa
20th-century pseudonymous writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Kurds
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History of the Kurds
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The Kurds (Kurdish: کورد, Kurd, also the Kurdish people, Kurdish: گەلی کورد, Gelê Kurd), are an Iranian ethnic group in the Middle East. They have historically inhabited the mountainous areas to the south of Lake Van and Lake Urmia, a geographical area collectively referred to as Kurdistan. Most Kurds speak Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) or Sorani, which both belong to the Kurdish languages.
There are various hypotheses as to predecessor populations of the Kurds, such as the Carduchoi of Classical Antiquity. The earliest known Kurdish dynasties under Islamic rule (10th to 12th centuries) are the Hasanwayhids, the Marwanids, the Rawadids, the Shaddadids, followed by the Ayyubid dynasty founded by Saladin. The Battle of Chaldiran of 1514 is an important turning point in Kurdish history, marking the alliance of Kurds with the Ottomans. The Sharafnameh of 1597 is the first account of Kurdish history. Kurdish history in the 20th century is marked by a rising sense of Kurdish nationhood focused on the goal of an independent Kurdistan as scheduled by the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. Partial autonomy was reached by Kurdistan Uyezd (1923–1926) and by Iraqi Kurdistan (since 1991), while notably in Turkish Kurdistan, an armed conflict between the Kurdish insurgent groups and Turkish Armed Forces was ongoing from 1984 to 1999, and the region continues to be unstable with renewed violence flaring up in the 2000s.
Name
There are different theories about the origin of the name Kurd. According to one theory, it originates in Middle Persian as كورت kwrt-, a term for "nomad; tent-dweller".
After the Muslim conquest of Persia, this term was adopted into Arabic as kurd-, and was used specifically for nomadic tribes.
The ethnonym Kurd may ultimately derive from an ancient toponym in the upper Tigris basin. According to the English Orientalist Godfrey Rolles Driver, the term Kurd is related to the Sumerian Karda which was found in Sumerian clay tablets of the third millennium B.C. He wrote in a paper published in 1923 that the term Kurd was not used differently by different nations and by examining the philological variations of Karda in different languages, such as Cordueni, Gordyeni, Kordyoui, Karduchi, Kardueni, Qardu, Kardaye, Qardawaye, he finds that the similarities undoubtedly refer to a common descent.
As for the Middle Persian noun kwrt- originating in an ancient toponym, it has been argued that it may ultimately reflect a Bronze Age toponym Qardu, Kar-da, which may also be reflected in the Arabic (Quranic) toponym
Ǧūdī (re-adopted in Kurdish as Cûdî)
The name would be continued in classical antiquity as the first element in the toponym Corduene, and its inhabitants, mentioned by Xenophon as the tribe of the Carduchoi who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the mountains north of Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC. This view is supported by some recent academic sources which have considered Corduene as proto-Kurdish region. However, some modern scholars reject these connections. Alternatively, kwrt- may be a derivation from the name of the Cyrtii tribe instead.
According to some sources, by the 16th century, there seems to develop an ethnic identity designated by the term Kurd among various Northwestern Iranian groups, without reference to any specific Iranian language.
Kurdish scholar Mehrdad Izady argues that any nomadic groups called kurd in medieval Arabic are "bona fide ethnic Kurds", and that it is conversely the non-Kurdish groups descended from them who have "acquired separate ethnic identities since the end of the medieval period".
Sherefxan Bidlisi in the 16th century states that there are four divisions of "Kurds": Kurmanj, Lur, Kalhor and Guran, each of which speak a different dialect or language variation. Paul (2008) notes that the 16th-century usage of the term Kurd as recorded by Bidlisi, regardless of linguistic grouping, might still reflect an incipient Northwestern Iranian "Kurdish" ethnic identity uniting the Kurmanj, Kalhor, and Guran.
Early history
Kurdish is a language of the Northwestern Iranian group which has likely separated from the other dialects of Central Iran during the early centuries AD (the Middle Iranian period). Kurdish has in turn emerged as a group within Northwest Iranian during the Medieval Period (roughly 10th to 16th centuries).
The Kurdish people are believed to be of heterogeneous origins, both from Iranian-speaking and non-Iranian peoples. combining a number of earlier tribal or ethnic groups including Lullubi, Guti, Cyrtians, Carduchi.
The present state of knowledge about Kurdish allows, at least roughly, drawing the approximate borders of the areas where the main ethnic core of the speakers of the contemporary Kurdish dialects was formed. The most argued hypothesis on the localisation of the ethnic territory of the Kurds remains D.N. Mackenzie's theory, proposed in the early 1960s. Developing the ideas of P. Tedesco and regarding the common phonetic isoglosses shared by Kurdish, Persian, and Baluchi, D.N. Mackenzie concluded that the speakers of these three languages form a unity within Northwestern Iranian. He has tried to reconstruct such a Persian-Kurdish-Baluchi linguistic unity presumably in the central parts of Iran. According to his theory, the Persians (or Proto-Persians) occupied the province of Fars in the southwest (proceeding from the fact that the Achaemenids spoke Persian), the Balochs (Proto-Balochs) inhabited the central areas of Western Iran, and the Kurds (Proto-Kurds), in the wording of G. Windfuhr (1975: 459), lived either in northwestern Luristan or in the province of Isfahan.
Early Kurdish principalities
In the second half of the 10th century there were five Kurdish principalities: in the north the Shaddadid (951–1174) (in parts of Armenia and Arran) and Rawadid (955–1221) in Tabriz and Maragheh, in the East the Hasanwayhids (959–1015), the Annazid (990–1117) (in Kermanshah, Dinawar and Khanaqin) and in the West the Marwanid (990–1096) of Diyarbakır.
Later in the 12th century, the Kurdish Hazaraspid dynasty established its rule in southern Zagros and Luristan and conquered territories of Kuhgiluya, Khuzestan and Golpayegan in the 13th century and annexed Shushtar, Hoveizeh and Basra in the 14th century.
One of these dynasties may have been able, during the decades, to impose its supremacy on the others and build a state incorporating the whole Kurdish country if the course of history had not been disrupted by the massive invasions of tribes surging out of the steppes of Central Asia. Having conquered Iran and imposed their yoke on the caliph of Baghdad, the Seljuq Turks annexed the Kurdish principalities one by one. Around 1150, Ahmad Sanjar, the last of the great Seljuq monarchs, created a province out of these lands and called it Kurdistan. The province of Kurdistan, formed by Sanjar, had as its capital the village Bahar (which means lake or sea), near ancient Ecbatana (Hamadan). It included the vilayets of Sinjar and Shahrazur to the west of the Zagros mountain range and those of Hamadan, Dinawar and Kermanshah to the east of this range. An autochthonous civilization developed around the town of Dinawar (today ruined), located 75 km North-East of Kermanshah, whose radiance was later only partially replaced by that of Senna, 90 km further North.
Marco Polo (1254–1324) met Kurds in Mosul on his way to China, and he wrote what he had learned about Kurdistan and the Kurds to enlighten his European contemporaries. The Italian Kurdologist Mirella Galetti, sorted these writings which were translated into Kurdish.
Ayyubid period
One of the periods where Kurds were at the peak of their power was during the 12th century, when Saladin, who belonged to the Rawadiya branch of the Hadabani tribe, founded the Ayyubid dynasty, under which several Kurdish chieftainships were established. The dynasty ruled areas extending from the Kurdish regions to as far as Egypt and Yemen.
Kurdish principalities after the Mongol period
After the Mongol period, Kurds established several independent states or principalities such as Ardalan, Badinan, Baban, Soran, Hakkari and Badlis. A comprehensive history of these states and their relationship with their neighbors is given in the famous textbook of Sharafnama written by Prince Sharaf al-Din Biltisi in 1597. The most prominent among these was Ardalan which was established in the early 14th century. The state of Ardalan controlled the territories of Zardiawa (Karadagh), Khanaqin, Kirkuk, Kifri, and Hawraman, despite being vassals themselves of the various in Persia centred succeeding Turkic federations in the region, namely that of the Kara Koyunlu, and the Ak Koyunlu specifically. The capital city of this state of Ardalan was first in Sharazour in Iraqi Kurdistan, but was moved to Sinne (in Iran) later on. The Ardalan Dynasty was allowed to rule the region as vassals by many of the sovereign rulers over the wider territory, until the Qajar monarch Nasser-al-Din Shah (1848–1896) ended their rule in 1867.
Kurdish Quarters
In the Middle Ages, in many cities outside of Kurdistan, Kurdish quarters were formed as a result of an influx of Kurdish tribal forces, as well as scholars. In these cities, Kurds often also had mosques, madrasahs and other edifices.
In Aleppo, the Haret al-Akrad. The city of Aleppo also had Kurdish mosques like al-Zarzari, al-Mihrani, al-Bashnawayin.
In Baghdad, Darb al-Kurd, recorded since the 11th century.
In Barda, Bab al-Akrad recorded in the 10th century.
In Cairo, Haret al-Akrad, at al-Maqs.
In Damascus, Mount Qasyun at Rukn al-dîn and Suq al-Saruja. Kurdish notables had also built mosques and madrasahs by name of al-Mudjadiyya, Sab‘ al-Madjânîn, al-Mihrani. Some other notables who patronized buildings were Balâchû al-Kurdî, Musa al-Kurdi, Habib al-Kurdi. There also was a Kurdish cemetery.
In Gaza, Shuja'iyya, named after Shuja' al-Din Uthman al-Kurdi, who died in 1239.
In Hebron, Haret al-Akrad. Associated with the Ayyubid conquests.
In Jerusalem, Haret al-Akrad, thereafter known as Haret esh-Sharaf. Named after a certain Sharaf ad-Din Musa, who died in 1369. The city also had a madrasah by the name of Ribat al-Kurd, built in 1294 by Amir Kurd al-Mansuri.
Safavid period
For many centuries, starting in the early modern period with Ismail I, Shah of Safavid Persia, and Ottoman Sultan Selim I, the Kurds came under the suzerainty of the two most powerful empires of the Near East and staunch arch rivals, the Sunni Ottoman Empire and the various Shia Empires. It started off with the rule of Ismail I, who ruled over all regions that encompass native Kurdish living areas, and far beyond. During the years 1506–1510, Yazidis revolted against Ismail I (who may have had Kurdish ancestry himself). Their leader, Shir Sarim, was defeated and captured in a bloody battle wherein several important officers of Ismail lost their lives. The Kurdish prisoners were put to death "with torments worse than which there may not be".
In the mid-17th century the Kurds on the western borders disposed of firearms, According to Tavernier, the mountain people between Nineveh and Isfahan would not sell anything but for gunpowder and bullets. Even so, firearms were incorporated neither wholesale nor wholeheartedly among the Kurds, apparently for the same reasons that hindered their acceptance in iran proper. In a Persian statistical overview of tribes dating from the period of Shah sultan Husayn in the early 18th century, it is said that the Kurds of Zafaranlo tribe refused to carry the Tufang, because they considered it unmanly to do so, as a result of which most continued to fight with lance and sword, and some with arrow and bow.
Displacement of the Kurds
Removal of the population from along their borders with the Ottomans in Kurdistan and the Caucasus was of strategic importance to the Safavids. Hundreds of thousands of Kurds were moved to other regions in the Safavid empire, only to defend the borders there. Hundreds of thousands of other ethnic groups living in the Safavid empire such as the Armenians, Assyrians, Georgians, Circassians, and Turkomans, were also removed from the border regions and resettled in the interior of Persia, but mainly for other reasons such as socio-economic, and bureaucratic ones. During several periods, as the borders moved progressively eastward, with the Ottomans pushing deeper into the Persian domains, entire Kurdish regions of Anatolia were at one point or another exposed to horrific acts of despoliation and deportation. These began under the reign of the Safavid Shah Tahmasp I (ruled 1524–1576). Between 1534 and 1535, Tahmasp, using a policy of scorched earth against his Ottoman arch rivals, began the systematic destruction of the old Kurdish cities and the countryside. When retreating before the Ottoman army, Tahmasp ordered the destruction of crops and settlements of all sizes, driving the inhabitants before him into Azerbaijan, from where they were later transferred permanently, nearly 1,600 km (1,000 miles) east, into Khurasan.
Shah Abbas inherited a state threatened by the Ottomans in the west and the Uzbeks in the northeast. He bought off the former, in order to gain time to defeat the latter, after which he selectively depopulated the Zagros and Caucasus approaches, deporting Kurds, Armenians, Georgians, North Caucasians and others who might, willingly or not, supply, support or be any use in an Ottoman campaign in the region. Shah Abbas forcibly depopulated much of the Kurdish lands ahead of the Ottoman expansion. He made it lucrative and prestigious for Kurds to become military conscripts, and raised an army of tens of thousands of predominantly Kurdish soldiers. Abbas also razed villages to the ground and marched the people into the Persian heartland.
The magnitude of Safavid Scorched earth policy can be glimpsed through the works of the Safavid court historians. One of these, Iskandar Bayg Munshi, describing just one episode, writes in the Alam-ara ye Abbasi that Shah Abbas, in furthering the scorched earth policy of his predecessors, set upon the country north of the Araxes and west of Urmia, and between Kars and Lake Van, which he commanded to be laid waste and the population of the countryside and the entire towns rounded up and led out of harm's way. Resistance was met "with massacres and mutilation; all immovable property, houses, churches, mosques, crops ... were destroyed, and the whole horde of prisoners was hurried southeast before the Ottomans should counterattack". Many of these Kurds ended up in Khurasan, but many others were scattered into the Alburz mountains, central Persia, and even Balochistan. They became the nucleus of several modern Kurdish enclaves outside Kurdistan proper, in Iran and Turkmenistan. On one occasion Abbas I is said to have intended to transplant 40,000 Kurds to northern Khorasan but to have succeeded in deporting only 15,000 before his troops were defeated. While the deported Kurds became the nucleus of the modern central Anatolian Kurdish enclave, the Turkmen tribes in Kurdistan eventually assimilated.
Massacre of Ganja
According to the early 17th century Armenian historian Arak'el Davrizhetsi, the Sunni Kurdish tribe of Jekirlu inhabited the region of Ganja. In 1606, when Shah Abbas reconquered Ganja, he ordered a general massacre of the Jekirlu. Even infants were slaughtered with sharp swords.
Battle of Dimdim
There is a well documented historical account of a long battle in 1609–1610 between Kurds and the Safavid Empire. The battle took place around a fortress called "Dimdim" (DimDim) in Beradost region around Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran. In 1609, the ruined structure was rebuilt by "Emîr Xan Lepzêrîn" (Golden Hand Khan), ruler of Beradost, who sought to maintain the independence of his expanding principality in the face of both Ottoman and Safavid penetration into the region. Rebuilding Dimdim was considered a move toward independence that could threaten Safavid power in the northwest. Many Kurds, including the rulers of Mukriyan rallied around Amir Khan. After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, Dimdim was captured. All the defenders were massacred. Shah Abbas ordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan (reported by Eskandar Beg Turkoman, Safavid Historian in the Book Alam Aray-e Abbasi) and resettled the Turkish Afshar tribe in the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes to Khorasan. Although Persian historians (like Eskandar Beg) depicted the first battle of Dimdim as a result of Kurdish mutiny or treason, in Kurdish oral traditions (Beytî dimdim), literary works (Dzhalilov, pp. 67–72), and histories, it was treated as a struggle of the Kurdish people against foreign domination. In fact, Beytî dimdim is considered a national epic second only to Mem û Zîn by Ahmad Khani. The first literary account of this battle is written by Faqi Tayran.
Ottoman period
When Sultan Selim I, after defeating Shah Ismail I in 1514, annexed Western Armenia and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organisation of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzerum and Yerevan, which had lain in waste since the passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkari and Bohtan districts.
Janpulat Revolt
The Janpulat (Turkish: Canpulatoğlu, Arabic: Junblat) clan was ruled by local Kurdish feudal lords in the Jabal al-Akrad and Aleppo region for almost a century before the Ottoman conquest of Syria. Their leader, Hussein Janpulatoğlu, was appointed as governor of Aleppo in 1604, however he was executed by Çiğalzade Sinan Pasha allegedly for his late arrival at the Battle of Urmia. According to Abul Wafa Al-Urdi, Janpulat had been murdered because of his Kurdish origins. His nephew, Ali Janbulad, revolted in revenge and declared sovereignty in 1606 and was supported by the Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand I. He conquered a region stretching from Hama to Adana with 30,000 troops. Grand Vizier, Murad Pasha, marched against him with a large army in 1607. Ali Pasha managed to escape and was later pardoned and appointed governor of province of Temesvár in Hungary. He was eventually executed by Murad Pasha in Belgrade in 1610.
Rozhiki Revolt
In 1655, Abdal Khan the Kurdish Rozhiki ruler of Bidlis, formed a private army and fought a full scale war against the Ottoman troops. Evliya Çelebi noted the presence of many Yazidis in his army. The main reason for this armed insurrection was the discord between Abdal Khan and Melek Ahmad Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Diyarbakır and Abdal Khan. The Ottoman troops marched onto Bidlis and committed atrocities against civilians as they passed through Rozhiki territory. Abdal Khan had built great stone redoubts around Bitlis, and also old city walls were defended by a large army of Kurdish infantry armed with muskets. Ottomans attacked the outer defensive perimeter and defeated Rozhiki soldiers, then they rushed to loot Bidlis and attacked the civilians. Once the Ottoman force established its camp in Bidlis, in an act of revenge, Abdal Khan made a failed attempt to assassinate Melek Ahmad Pasha. A unit of twenty Kurdish soldiers rode into the tent of Yusuf Kethuda, the second-in-command and fought a ferocious battle with his guards. After the fall of Bidlis, 1,400 Kurds continued to resist from the city's old citadel. While most of these surrendered and were given amnesty, 300 of them were massacred by Melek Ahmad with 70 of them dismembered by sword and cut into pieces.
Bedr Khan of Botan
Except for the short Iranian recapture under Nader Shah in the first half of the 18th century, the system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29. But the Kurds, owing to the remoteness of their country from the capital and the decline of Turkey, had greatly increased in influence and power, and had spread westwards over the country as far as Ankara.
After the war with Russia, the Kurds attempted to free themselves from Ottoman control which resulted in the Bedr Khan clan uprising in 1834. The Ottoman Porte made the decision to then end the autonomous regions of the Eastern portion of the Empire. This was done by Rashid Pasha, also a Kurd. The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd beys were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after the Crimean War the Turks strengthened their hold on the country.
The modernizing and centralizing efforts of Sultan Mahmud II antagonized Kurdish feudal chiefs. As a result two powerful Kurdish families rebelled against the Ottomans in 1830. Bedr Khan of Botan rose up in the west of Kurdistan, around Diyarbakır, and Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz rebelled in the east and established his authority in Mosul and Erbil. At this time, Turkish troops were preoccupied with invading Egyptian troops in Syria and were unable to suppress the revolt. As a result, Bedr Khan extended his authority to Diyarbakır, Siverik (Siverek), Veransher (Viranşehir), Sairt (Siirt), Sulaimania (Sulaymaniyah) and Sauj Bulaq (Mahabad). He established a Kurdish principality in these regions until 1845. He struck his own coins, and his name was included in Friday sermons. In 1847, the Turkish forces turned their attention toward this area, and defeated Bedr Khan and exiled him to Crete. He was later allowed to return to Damascus, where he lived until his death in 1868. Bedr Khan Beg made two campaigns in 1843 and 1846 against the Assyrian Christians (Nestorians) of Hakkari and massacred 50,000 Assyrians in an attempt to Islamize the region; those Assyrians who met their fate were the mother and the two brothers of the yet to be spiritual Assyrian leader Mar Shimun.
Bedr Khan became king when his brother died. His brother's son became very upset over this, which the Turks exploited in tricking him into fighting his uncle. They told him that they would make him king if he killed Bedr Khan. Bedr Khan's nephew brought many Kurdish warriors with to attack his uncle's forces. After defeating Bedr Khan, Bedr Khan's nephew was executed instead of becoming king as the Turks had promised. There are two famous Kurdish songs about this battle, called "Ezdin Shêr" and "Ez Xelef im". After this, there were further revolts in 1850 and 1852.
Kurdistan as an administrative entity had a brief and shaky existence of 17 years between 13 December 1847 (following Bedirhan Bey's revolt) and 1864, under the initiative of Koca Mustafa Reşit Pasha during the Tanzimat period (1839–1876) of the Ottoman Empire. The capital of the province was, at first, Ahlat, and covered Diyarbekir, Muş, Van, Hakkari, Botan (Cizre) and Mardin. In the following years, the capital was transferred several times, first from Ahlat to Van, then to Muş and finally to Diyarbakır. Its area was reduced in 1856 and the province of Kurdistan within the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1864. Instead, the former provinces of Diyarbekir and Van have been re-constituted. Around 1880, Shaikh Ubaidullah led a revolt aiming at bringing the areas between Lakes Van and Urmia under his own rule, however Ottoman and Qajar forces succeeded in defeating the revolt.
Shaikh Ubaidullah's Revolt and Armenians
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 was followed by the uprising of Sheikh Ubeydullah in 1880–1881 to found an independent Kurd principality under the protection of Turkey. The attempt, at first encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the projected creation of an Armenian state under the suzerainty of Russia, collapsed after Ubeydullah's raid into Persia, when various circumstances led the central government to reassert its supreme authority. Until the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 there had been little hostile feeling between the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877–1878 the mountaineers of both races had co-existed fairly well together.
In 1891, the activity of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish irregular cavalry, who were well-armed Hamidieh soldiers after the Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, and were soon followed by a massacre and rape of Armenians at Sasun by Kurdish nomads and Ottoman troops.
20th century history
Rise of nationalism
Kurdish nationalism emerged at the end of the 19th Century around the same time as Turks and Arabs began to embrace an ethnic sense of identity in place of earlier forms of solidarity such as the idea of Ottoman citizenship or membership of a religious community, or millet. Revolts occurred sporadically but only in 1880 with the uprising led by Sheikh Ubeydullah were demands as an ethnic group or nation made. Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid responded by a campaign of integration by co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents to strong Ottoman power with prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appears successful given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye regiments during World War I.
The Kurdish ethnonationalist movement that emerged following World War I and end of the Ottoman empire was largely reactionary to the changes taking place in mainstream Turkey, primarily radical secularization which the strongly Muslim Kurds abhorred, centralization of authority which threatened the power of local chieftains and Kurdish autonomy, and rampant Turkish nationalism in the new Turkish Republic which obviously threatened to marginalize them.
Western powers (particularly the United Kingdom) fighting the Turks also promised the Kurds they would act as guarantors for Kurdish independence, a promise they subsequently broke. One particular organization, the Kurdish Teali Cemiyet (Society for the Rise of Kurdistan, or SAK) was central to the forging of a distinct Kurdish identity. It took advantage of period of political liberalization during the Second Constitutional Era (1908–1920) of Turkey to transform a renewed interest in Kurdish culture and language into a political nationalist movement based on ethnicity.
After World War I
Some Kurdish groups sought self-determination and the championing in the Treaty of Sèvres of Kurdish autonomy in the aftermath of World War I, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk prevented such a result. Kurds backed by the United Kingdom declared independence in 1927 and established so-called Republic of Ararat. Turkey suppressed Kurdist revolts in 1925, 1930, and 1937–1938, while Iran did the same in the 1920s to Simko Shikak at Lake Urmia and Jaafar Sultan of Hewraman region who controlled the region between Marivan and north of Halabja.
From 1922 to 1924 in Iraq, a Kingdom of Kurdistan existed. When Ba'athist administrators thwarted Kurdish nationalist ambitions in Iraq, war broke out in the 1960s. In 1970 the Kurds rejected limited territorial self-rule within Iraq, demanding larger areas including the oil-rich Kirkuk region. For recent developments see Iraqi Kurdistan.
In 1922, an investigation was initiated for Nihad Pasha, the commander of El-Cezire front, by Adliye Encümeni (Council of Justice) of Grand National Assembly of Turkey with allegations of fraud. During a confidential convention on the issue on 22 July, a letter of introductions by the Cabinet of Ministers and signed by Mustafa Kemal was read. The text was referring to the region as "Kurdistan" three times and providing Nihad Pasha with full authorities to support the local Kurdish administrations (idare-i mahallîyeye dair teşkilâtlar) as per the principle of self-determination (Milletlerin kendi mukadderatlarını bizzat idare etme hakkı), in order to gradually establish a local government in the regions inhabited by Kurds (Kürtlerle meskûn menatık).
In 1931, Iraqi Kurdish statesman Mihemed Emîn Zekî, while serving as the Minister of the Economy in the first Nuri as-Said government, drew the boundaries of Turkish Kurdistan as: "With mountains of Ararat and the Georgian border (including the region of Kars, where Kurds and Georgians live side by side) to the north, Iranian border to the east, Iraqi border to the south, and to the west, a line drawn from the west of Sivas to İskenderun. These boundaries are also in accord with those drawn by the Ottomans." In 1932, Garo Sassouni, formerly a prominent figure of Dashnak Armenia, defined the borders of "Kurdistan proper" (excluding whole territory of Wilsonian Armenia) as: "... with a line from the south of Erzincan to Kharput, incorporating Dersim, Çarsancak, and Malatya, including the mountains of Cebel-i Bereket and reaching the Syrian border", also adding, "these are the broadest boundaries of Kurdistan that can be claimed by Kurds."
During the 1920s and 1930s, several large-scale Kurdish revolts took place in this region. The most important ones were the Saikh Said Rebellion in 1925, the Ararat Revolt in 1930 and the Dersim Revolt in 1938 (see Kurds in Turkey). Following these rebellions, the area of Turkish Kurdistan was put under martial law and many Kurds were displaced. Government also encouraged resettlement of Albanians from Kosovo and Assyrians in the region to change the population makeup. These events and measures led to a long-lasting mutual distrust between Ankara and the Kurds.
In 1937, during the period of Stalinism, many Kurds in Armenia, along with Kurds in Azerbaijan, became victims of forced migration, and were forcibly deported to Kazakhstan.
World War II
During World War Two, the Kurds formed 10 companies in the Iraq Levies that the British had recruited in Iraq. Kurds supported the British in the defeating the pro-Nazi 1941 Iraqi coup d'état. Twenty-five percent of the Iraq Levies' 1st Parachute Company was Kurdish. The Parachute Company was attached to the Royal Marine Commando and was active in Albania, Italy, Greece, and Cyprus.
Kurds participated in the Soviet occupation of northern Iraq in 1941, creating the Persian Corridor, a vital supply line for the USSR. This led to the short-lived formation of the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad.
Despite the fact they were a tiny minority in the Soviet Union, Kurds played a significant role in the Soviet war effort. On 1 October 1941, Samand Siabandov was awarded the honour Hero of the Soviet Union. Kurds served at Smolensk, Sevastopol, Leningrad, and Stalingrad. Kurds took part in the partisan movement behind German lines. Karaseva received both the Hero of the Soviet Union medal and the medal Partisan of the Fatherland War (First Degree) for organising partisans to fight against the Germans in Volhynia Oblast in Ukraine. Kurds took part in the advance into Hungary and the invasion of Japanese-held Manchuria.
Post-WWII
Turkey
About half of all Kurds live in Turkey. According to the CIA Factbook they account for 18 percent of the Turkish population. They are predominantly distributed in the southeastern corner of the country.
The best available estimate of the number of persons in Turkey speaking the Kurdish language is about five million (1980). About 3,950,000 others speak Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) (1980). While population increase suggests that the number of speakers has grown, it is also true that the ban on the use of the language in Turkey was only lifted in 1991 and still exists in most official settings (including schools), and that many fewer ethnic Kurds live in the countryside where the language has traditionally been used. The number of speakers is clearly less than the 15 million or so persons who identify themselves as ethnic Kurds.
From 1915 to 1918, Kurds struggled to end Ottoman rule over their region. They were encouraged by Woodrow Wilson's support for non-Turkish nationalities of the empire and submitted their claim for independence to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The Treaty of Sèvres stipulated the creation of an autonomous Kurdish state in 1920, but the subsequent Treaty of Lausanne (1923) failed to mention Kurds. After the Sheikh Said rebellion was suppressed in 1925, Kemal Atatürk established a Reform Council for the East () which prepared the Report for Reform in the East () which encouraged the creation of Inspectorates-Generals (, UMs), in the areas comprising a majority Kurdish population. Following there were established three regional Inspectorates Generals comprising the Kurdish provinces, the Inspectorates General were ruled with Martial Law and Kurdish notables in the areas were meant to be resettled to the west of Turkey. The Inspectorates Generals were disestablished in 1952.
During the relatively open government of the 1950s, Kurds gained political office and started working within the framework of the Turkish Republic to further their interests but this move towards integration was halted with the 1960 Turkish coup d'état. The 1970s saw an evolution in Kurdish nationalism as Marxist political thought influenced a new generation of Kurdish nationalists opposed to the local feudal authorities who had been a traditional source of opposition to authority, eventually they would form the militant separatist PKK, or Kurdistan Workers Party in English.
Following these events, Turkey officially denied the existence of the Kurds or an other distinct ethnic groups and any expression by the Kurds of their ethnic identity was harshly repressed. Until 1991, the use of the Kurdish language – although widespread – was illegal. As a result of reforms inspired by the EU, music, radio and television broadcasts in Kurdish are now allowed albeit with severe time restrictions (for example, radio broadcasts can be no longer than sixty minutes per day nor can they constitute more than five hours per week while television broadcasts are subject to even greater restrictions). Additionally, education in Kurdish is now permitted though only in private institutions.
As late as 1994, however, Leyla Zana, the first female Kurdish representative in Grand National Assembly of Turkey, was charged with making "separatist speeches" and sentenced to 15 years in prison. At her inauguration as an MP, she reportedly identified herself as a Kurd. Amnesty International reported that "[s]he took the oath of loyalty in Turkish, as required by law, then added in Kurdish, 'I shall struggle so that the Kurdish and Turkish peoples may live together in a democratic framework.' In response to this, calls for her arrest blaming her of being a "Separatist" and "Terrorist" were heard in the Turkish parliament.
The Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK), also known as KADEK and Kongra-Gel is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self-determination for the Kurds. Turkey's military allies the US, the EU, and NATO see the PKK as a terrorist organization.
From 1984 to 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, with Kurdish civilians moving to local defensible centers such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans who they could not control, the poverty of the southeast, and the Turkish state's military operations. Human Rights Watch has documented many instances where the Turkish military forcibly destroyed houses and villages. An estimated 3,000 Kurdish villages in Turkey were virtually wiped off the map, representing the displacement of more than 378,000 people.
Nelson Mandela refused to accept the Atatürk Peace Award in 1992 because of the oppression of the Kurds, but later accepted the award in 1999.
Iraq
Kurds make up around 17% of Iraq's population. They are the majority in at least three provinces in Northern Iraq which are known as Iraqi Kurdistan. There are around 300,000 Kurds living in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 Kurds living elsewhere in Southern Iraq. Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years. However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin. The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover, in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in northern Iraq, particularly those around Kirkuk. Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq.
During the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a de facto civil war broke out. Iraq was widely condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures such as the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of civilians, the wholesale destruction of thousands of villages and the deportation of thousands of Kurds to southern and central Iraq. The campaign of Iraqi government against Kurds in 1988 was called Anfal ("Spoils of War"). The Anfal attacks led to destruction of two thousand villages and death of between 50 and 100,000 Kurds.
After the Kurdish uprising in 1991 () led by the PUK and KDP, Iraqi troops recaptured the Kurdish areas and hundreds of thousand of Kurds fled to the borders. To alleviate the situation, a "safe haven" was established by the Security Council. The autonomous Kurdish area was mainly controlled by the rival parties KDP and PUK. The Kurdish population welcomed the American troops in 2003 by holding celebrations and dancing in the streets. The area controlled by peshmerga was expanded, and Kurds now have effective control in Kirkuk and parts of Mosul. By the beginning of 2006, the two Kurdish areas were merged into one unified region. A series of referendums were scheduled to be held in 2007, to determine the final borders of the Kurdish region.
In early June 2010, following a visit to Turkey by one of the PKK leaders, the PKK announced an end to the cease fire, followed by an air attack on several border villages and rebel positions by the Turkish air force.
On 11 July 2014 KRG forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and Kirkuk oilfields, prompting a condemnation from Baghdad and a threat of "dire consequences", if the oilfields were not relinquished back to Iraq's control. The 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum took place on September 25, with 92.73% voting in favor of independence. This triggered a military operation in which the Iraqi government retook control of Kirkuk and surrounding areas, and forced the KRG to annul the referendum.
Iran
The Kurdish region of Iran has been a part of the country since ancient times. Nearly all of Kurdistan was part of the Iranian Empire until its western part was lost during the wars against the Ottoman Empire. Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, at the Paris Conferences in 1919, Tehran demanded various territories including Turkish Kurdistan, Mosul, and even Diyarbakır, but these demands were quickly rejected by Western powers. Instead, the Kurdish area was divided by modern Turkey, Syria and Iraq. Today, the Kurds inhabit mostly North-Western Iran but also parts of Khorasan, and constitute approximately 7–10% of Iran's overall population (6.5–7.9 million), compared to 10.6% (2 million) in 1956 or 8% (800,000) in 1850.
Unlike in other Kurdish-populated countries, there are very strong ethno-linguistical, historical and cultural ties between Kurds and others as Iranian peoples. Some of modern Iranian dynasties like Safavids and Zands are considered to be partly of Kurdish origin. Kurdish literature in all of its forms (Kurmanji, Sorani and Gorani) has been developed within historical Iranian boundaries under strong influence of Persian language. Due to Kurds sharing a common history, very close cultural and linguistic links as well as common origins with the rest of Iran, this is seen as a reason why Kurdish leaders in Iran do not want a separate Kurdish state.
The government of Iran has always been implacably opposed to any sign of independence for the Iranian Kurds. During and shortly after the First World War, the government of Iran was ineffective and had very little control over events in the country and several Kurdish tribal chiefs gained local political power, and established large confederations. In the same time, a wave of nationalism from the disintegrating Ottoman Empire has partly influenced some Kurdish chiefs in border region, and they posed as Kurdish nationalist leaders. Prior to this, identity in both countries largely relied upon religion i.e. Shia Islam in the particular case of Iran. In 19th century Iran, Shia–Sunni animosity and describing Sunni Kurds as Ottoman fifth column was quite frequent.
During the late 1910s and early 1920s, tribal revolt led by Kurdish chieftain Simko Shikak swept across Iranian Kurdistan. Although elements of Kurdish nationalism were present in the movement, historians agree they were hardly articulate enough to justify a claim that recognition of Kurdish identity was a major issue in Simko's movement, and he had to rely heavily on conventional tribal motives. Government forces and non-Kurds were not the only ones to have allegedly been attacked, the Kurdish population was also robbed and assaulted. The fighters do not appear to have felt any sense of unity or solidarity with fellow Kurds. Kurdish insurgency and seasonal migrations in the late 1920s, along with long-running tensions between Tehran and Ankara, resulted in border clashes and even military penetrations in both Iranian and Turkish territory. Two regional powers have used Kurdish tribes as tool for own political benefits: Turkey has provided military help and refuge for anti-Iranian Turcophone Shikak rebels in 1918–1922, while Iran did the same during Ararat rebellion against Turkey in 1930. The Iranian government's forced detribalization and sedentarization in the 1920s and 1930s resulted in many tribal revolts in Iranian regions such as Azerbaijan, Luristan and Kurdistan. In particular case of the Kurds, these policies partly contributed to developing revolts among some tribes.
As a response to growing Pan-Turkism and Pan-Arabism in region which were seen as potential threats to the territorial integrity of Iran, Pan-Iranist ideology has been developed in the early 1920s. Some of such groups and journals openly advocated Iranian support to the Kurdish opposition against Turkey. Pahlavi dynasty has endorsed Iranian ethnic nationalism which allegedly seen the Kurds as integral part of the Iranian nation. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi has supposedly praised the Kurds himself as "pure Iranians" or "one of the most noble Iranian peoples". Another significant ideology during this period was Marxism which arose among Kurds under influence of the USSR. It culminated in the Iran crisis of 1946 which included a bold attempt KDP-I and communist groups to try to gain autonomy to establish the Soviet puppet government called Republic of Mahabad. It arose along with Azerbaijan People's Government, another Soviet puppet state. The state itself encompassed a very small territory, including Mahabad and the adjacent cities, unable to incorporate the southern Iranian Kurdistan which fell inside the Anglo-American zone, and unable to attract the tribes outside Mahabad itself to the nationalist cause. As a result, when the Soviets withdrew from Iran in December 1946, government forces were able to enter Mahabad unopposed when the tribes betrayed the republic.
Several Marxist insurgencies continued for decades (1967, 1979, 1989–96) led by KDP-I and Komalah, but those two organization have never advocated a Kurdish country as did the PKK in Turkey. Still, many dissident leaders, among others Qazi Muhammad and Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, were executed or assassinated. During Iran–Iraq War, Tehran has provided support for Iraqi-based Kurdish groups like KDP or PUK, along with asylum for 1,400,000 Iraqi refugees, mostly Kurds. Although Kurdish Marxist groups have been marginalized in Iran since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, in 2004 new insurrection has been started by PJAK, separatist organization affiliated with the Turkey-based PKK and designated as terrorist by Iran, Turkey and the United States. Some analysts claim that the PJAK does not pose any serious threat to the government of Iran. Cease-fire has been established in September 2011 following the Iranian offensive on PJAK bases, but several clashes between PJAK and IRGC took place after it. Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, accusations of discrimination by Western organizations and of foreign involvement by the Iranian side have become very frequent.
Kurds have been well integrated in Iranian political life during the reign of various governments. Kurdish liberal political Karim Sanjabi has served as minister of education under Mohammad Mossadegh in 1952. During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi some members of parliament and high army officers were Kurds, and there was even a Kurdish Cabinet Minister. During Pahlavi reign Kurds allegedly received many favours from the authorities, for instance to keep their land after the land reforms of 1962. In the early 2000s, the supposed presence of thirty Kurdish deputies in the 290-strong parliament has allegedly shown that Kurds have a say in Iranian politics. Some of influential Kurdish politicians during recent years include former first vice president Mohammad Reza Rahimi and Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Mayor of Tehran and second-placed presidential candidate in 2013. Kurdish language is today used more than at any other time since the Revolution, including in several newspapers and among schoolchildren. Large numbers of Kurds in Iran show no interest in Kurdish nationalism, especially Shia Kurds, and even vigorously reject the idea of autonomy, preferring direct rule from Tehran. Iranian national identity is questioned only in the peripheral Kurdish Sunni regions.
Syria
Kurds and other Non-Arabs account for ten percent of Syria's population, a total of around 1.9 million people. This makes them the largest ethnic minority in the country. They are mostly concentrated in the northeast and the north, but there are also significant Kurdish populations in Aleppo and Damascus. Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted. No political parties are allowed for any group, Kurdish or otherwise.
Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include various bans on the use of the Kurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish. Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around 300,000 Kurds have been deprived of any social rights, in violation of international law. As a consequence, these Kurds are in effect trapped within Syria. In February 2006, however, sources reported that Syria was now planning to grant these Kurds citizenship.
On 12 March 2004, beginning at a stadium in Qamishli (a city in northeastern Syria where many Kurds live), clashes between Kurds and Syrians broke out and continued over a number of days. At least thirty people were killed and more than 160 injured. The unrest spread to other Kurdish inhabited towns along the northern border with Turkey, and then to Damascus and Aleppo.
Armenia
Between the 1920s and 1990s, Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many non-Yazidis and Kurds were forced to leave their homes. Following the end of the Soviet Union, Kurds in Armenia were stripped of their cultural privileges and most fled to Russia or Western Europe. Recently introduced Electoral System of the Armenian National Assembly reserves one seat in the parliament to the representative of the Kurdish minority.
Republic of Azerbaijan
In 1920, two Kurdish-inhabited areas of Jewanshir (capital Kalbajar) and eastern Zangazur (capital Lachin) were combined to form the Kurdistan Okrug (or "Red Kurdistan"). The period of existence of the Kurdish administration was brief and did not last beyond 1929. Kurds subsequently faced many repressive measures, including deportations. As a result of the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many Kurdish areas have been destroyed and more than 150,000 Kurds have been deported by the Armenian forces since 1988.
Kurds In Jordan, Syria, Egypt and Lebanon
The Kurdish leader Saladin along with his uncles Ameer Adil and Ameer Sherko, were joined by Kurdish fighters from the cities of Tigrit, Mosul, Erbil and Sharazur in a drive towards 'Sham' (today's Syria and Lebanon) in order to protect Islamic lands against crusader attack. The Kurdish King and his uncles ruled north Iraq, Jordan, Syria and Egypt for a short period. Salah El Din in Syria, Ameer Sherko in Egypt and Ameer Adil in Jordan, with family members ruling most of the cities of today's Iraq. The Kurds built many monumental castles in the lands which they ruled, especially in what was called 'Kurdistan of Syria' and in Damuscus, the capital of Syria. A tall building, called 'Qalha', is still standing, in the mid south-west quarter of Damascus. The Ayubian dynasty continued there for many years, all from Kurdish descent.
Genetics
Although the Kurds came under the successive dominion of various conquerors, including the Armenians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, Sassanid Persians, and Achaemenid Persians they may have remained relatively unmixed by the influx of invaders, because of their protected and inhospitable mountainous homeland.
Similarity to Europeans and peoples of the Caucasus
A study by Richards and colleagues of mitochondrial DNA in the Near East found that Kurds, Azerbaijanis, Ossetians and Armenians show a high incidence of mtDNA U5 lineages, which are common among Europeans, although rare elsewhere in the Near East. The sample of Kurds in this study came from northwest Iran and northeast Iraq, where Kurds usually predominate.
A geographically broad study of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor found that populations located west of the Indus Valley mainly harbor mtDNAs of Western Eurasian origin.
When Ivan Nasidze and his colleagues examined both mitochondrial and Y chromosome DNA, they found Kurdish groups most similar genetically to other West Asian groups, and most distant from Central Asian groups, for both mtDNA and the Y chromosome. However, Kurdish groups show a closer relationship with European groups than with Caucasian groups based on mtDNA, but the opposite based on the Y chromosome, indicating some differences in their maternal and paternal histories.
Similarity to Azerbaijanis of Iran
According to DRB1, DQA1 and DQB1 allele frequencies showed a strong genetic tie between Kurds and Azerbaijanis of Iran. According to the current results, present-day Kurds and Azerbaijanis of Iran seem to belong to a common genetic pool.
Similarity to Georgian people
David Comas and colleagues found that mitochondrial sequence pools in Georgians and Kurds are very similar, despite their different linguistic and prehistoric backgrounds. Both populations present mtDNA lineages that clearly belong to the Western Eurasian gene pool.
Similarity to Jewish people
In 2001 Nebel et al. compared three Jewish and three non-Jewish groups from the Middle East: Ashkenazim, Sephardim, and Kurdish Jews from Israel; Muslim Arabs from Israel and the Palestinian Authority Area; Bedouin from the Negev; and Muslim Kurds. They concluded that Kurdish and Sephardi Jews were indistinguishable from one another, whereas both differed slightly, yet noticeably, from Ashkenazi Jews. Nebel et al. had earlier (2000) found a large genetic relationship between Jews and Palestinian Arabs, but in this study found an even higher relationship of Jews with Iraqi Kurds. They conclude that the common genetic background shared by Jews and other Middle Eastern groups predates the division of Middle Easterners into different ethnic groups.
Nebel et al. (2001) also found that the Cohen modal haplotype, considered the most definitive Jewish haplotype, was found among 10.1% of Kurdish Jews, 7.6% of Ashkenazim, 6.4% of Sephardim, 2.1% of Palestinian Arabs, and 1.1% of Kurds. The Cohen modal haplotype and the most frequent Kurdish haplotype were the same on five markers (out of six) and very close on the other marker. The most frequent Kurdish haplotype was shared by 9.5% of Kurds, 2.6% of Sephardim, 2.0% of Kurdish Jews, 1.4% of Palestinian Arabs, and 1.3% of Ashkenazim. The general conclusion is that these similarities result mostly from the sharing of ancient genetic patterns, and not from more recent admixture between the groups.
See also
List of Kurdish dynasties and countries
History of Iraqi Kurdistan
Timeline of Kurdish uprisings
Notes
References
Further reading
Nineveh and Its Remains: A Narrative of an Expedition to Assyria 1867, Massacre of Nestorians by Bedr Khan Beg, pp. 129–174.
John Murray (1867), Nineveh and its remains: a narrative of an expedition to Assyria during the years 1845, 1846 and 1847
External links
"A Brief Survey of the History of the Kurds", by Kendal Nezan, President of the Kurdish Institute of Paris.
Yezidism: historical roots, International Journal of Kurdish Studies, January 2005.
The forced conversion of the Jewish community of Persia and the beginnings of the Kurds
Encyclopaedia of Kurdistan KURDISTANICA
History of Judaism in Kurdistan KURDISTANICA
Kurdish Institute Kurdish language, history, books and latest news articles
"Battle of DimDim", Encyclopædia Iranica
"Deportations, part III. In the Islamic Period", Encyclopædia Iranica.
Yazidi history
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] |
205782
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDDA
|
CDDA
|
CDDA may refer to:
Circularly Disposed Dipole Array – a large circular antenna used by the military
Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA) – an audio recording format
Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986 – a piece of UK company law, which sets out the procedures for company directors to be disqualified in certain cases of misconduct.
Common Database on Designated Areas – a database of the European Environment Agency (EEA) about nationally designated sites, nature protection sites such as national parks and nature reserves
Cataclysm: Dark Days Ahead – an open source post-apocalyptic survival roguelike video game
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional%20dependency
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Functional dependency
|
In relational database theory, a functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of attributes in a relation from a database. In other words, a functional dependency is a constraint between two attributes in a relation.
Given a relation R and sets of attributes , X is said to functionally determine Y (written X → Y) if and only if each X value in R is associated with precisely one Y value in R; R is then said to satisfy the functional dependency X → Y. Equivalently, the projection is a function, i.e. Y is a function of X. In simple words, if the values for the X attributes are known (say they are x), then the values for the Y attributes corresponding to x can be determined by looking them up in any tuple of R containing x. Customarily X is called the determinant set and Y the dependent set. A functional dependency FD: X → Y is called trivial if Y is a subset of X.
In other words, a dependency FD: X → Y means that the values of Y are determined by the values of X. Two tuples sharing the same values of X will necessarily have the same values of Y.
The determination of functional dependencies is an important part of designing databases in the relational model, and in database normalization and denormalization. A simple application of functional dependencies is Heath's theorem; it says that a relation R over an attribute set U and satisfying a functional dependency X → Y can be safely split in two relations having the lossless-join decomposition property, namely into where Z = U − XY are the rest of the attributes. (Unions of attribute sets are customarily denoted by mere juxtapositions in database theory.) An important notion in this context is a candidate key, defined as a minimal set of attributes that functionally determine all of the attributes in a relation. The functional dependencies, along with the attribute domains, are selected so as to generate constraints that would exclude as much data inappropriate to the user domain from the system as possible.
A notion of logical implication is defined for functional dependencies in the following way: a set of functional dependencies logically implies another set of dependencies , if any relation R satisfying all dependencies from also satisfies all dependencies from ; this is usually written . The notion of logical implication for functional dependencies admits a sound and complete finite axiomatization, known as Armstrong's axioms.
Examples
Cars
Suppose one is designing a system to track vehicles and the capacity of their engines. Each vehicle has a unique vehicle identification number (VIN). One would write VIN → EngineCapacity because it would be inappropriate for a vehicle's engine to have more than one capacity. (Assuming, in this case, that vehicles only have one engine.) On the other hand, EngineCapacity → VIN is incorrect because there could be many vehicles with the same engine capacity.
This functional dependency may suggest that the attribute EngineCapacity be placed in a relation with candidate key VIN. However, that may not always be appropriate. For example, if that functional dependency occurs as a result of the transitive functional dependencies VIN → VehicleModel and VehicleModel → EngineCapacity then that would not result in a normalized relation.
Lectures
This example illustrates the concept of functional dependency. The situation modelled is that of college students visiting one or more lectures in each of which they are assigned a teaching assistant (TA). Let's further assume that every student is in some semester and is identified by a unique integer ID.
We notice that whenever two rows in this table feature the same StudentID,
they also necessarily have the same Semester values. This basic fact
can be expressed by a functional dependency:
StudentID → Semester.
Note that if a row was added where the student had a different value of semester, then the functional dependency FD would no longer exist. This means that the FD is implied by the data as it is possible to have values that would invalidate the FD.
Other nontrivial functional dependencies can be identified, for example:
{StudentID, Lecture} → TA
{StudentID, Lecture} → {TA, Semester}
The latter expresses the fact that the set {StudentID, Lecture} is a superkey of the relation.
Employee department model
A classic example of functional dependency is the employee department model.
This case represents an example where multiple functional dependencies are embedded in a single representation of data. Note that because an employee can only be a member of one department, the unique ID of that employee determines the department.
Employee ID → Employee Name
Employee ID → Department ID
In addition to this relationship, the table also has a functional dependency through a non-key attribute
Department ID → Department Name
This example demonstrates that even though there exists a FD Employee ID → Department ID - the employee ID would not be a logical key for determination of the department ID. The process of normalization of the data would recognize all FDs and allow the designer to construct tables and relationships that are more logical based on the data.
Properties and axiomatization of functional dependencies
Given that X, Y, and Z are sets of attributes in a relation R, one can derive several properties of functional dependencies. Among the most important are the following, usually called Armstrong's axioms:
Reflexivity: If Y is a subset of X, then X → Y
Augmentation: If X → Y, then XZ → YZ
Transitivity: If X → Y and Y → Z, then X → Z
"Reflexivity" can be weakened to just , i.e. it is an actual axiom, where the other two are proper inference rules, more precisely giving rise to the following rules of syntactic consequence:
.
These three rules are a sound and complete axiomatization of functional dependencies. This axiomatization is sometimes described as finite because the number of inference rules is finite, with the caveat that the axiom and rules of inference are all schemata, meaning that the X, Y and Z range over all ground terms (attribute sets).
By applying augmentation and transitivity, one can derive two additional rules:
Pseudotransitivity: If X → Y and YW → Z, then XW → Z
Composition: If X → Y and Z → W, then XZ → YW
One can also derive the union and decomposition rules from Armstrong's axioms:
X → Y and X → Z if and only if X → YZ
Closure of functional dependency
The closure is essentially the full set of values that can be determined from a set of known values for a given relationship using its functional dependencies. One uses Armstrong's axioms to provide a proof - i.e. reflexivity, augmentation, transitivity.
Given and a set of FDs that holds in :
The closure of in (denoted +) is the set of all FDs that are logically implied by .
Closure of a set of attributes
Closure of a set of attributes X with respect to is the set X+ of all
attributes that are functionally determined by X using +.
Example
Imagine the following list of FDs. We are going to calculate a closure for A from this relationship.
1. A → B
2. B → C
3. AB → DThe closure would be as follows:
a) A → A (by Armstrong's reflexivity)
b) A → AB (by 1. and (a))
c) A → ABD (by (b), 3, and Armstrong's transitivity)
d) A → ABCD (by (c), and 2)
The closure is therefore A → ABCD. By calculating the closure of A, we have validated that A is also a good candidate key as its closure is every single data value in the relationship.
Covers and equivalence
Covers
Definition: covers if every FD in can be inferred from . covers if + ⊆ +
Every set of functional dependencies has a canonical cover.
Equivalence of two sets of FDs
Two sets of FDs and over schema are equivalent, written ≡ , if + = +. If ≡ , then is a cover for and vice versa. In other words, equivalent sets of functional dependencies are called covers of each other.
Non-redundant covers
A set of FDs is nonredundant if there is no proper subset
of with ≡ . If such an exists, is redundant. is a nonredundant cover for if is a cover for and is nonredundant.
An alternative characterization of nonredundancy is that is nonredundant if there is no FD X → Y in such that - {X → Y} X → Y. Call an FD X → Y in redundant in if - {X → Y} X → Y.
Applications to normalization
Heath's theorem
An important property (yielding an immediate application) of functional dependencies is that if R is a relation with columns named from some set of attributes U and R satisfies some functional dependency X → Y then where Z = U − XY. Intuitively, if a functional dependency X → Y holds in R, then the relation can be safely split in two relations alongside the column X (which is a key for ) ensuring that when the two parts are joined back no data is lost, i.e. a functional dependency provides a simple way to construct a lossless join decomposition of R in two smaller relations. This fact is sometimes called Heaths theorem; it is one of the early results in database theory.
Heath's theorem effectively says we can pull out the values of Y from the big relation R and store them into one, , which has no value repetitions in the row for X and is effectively a lookup table for Y keyed by X and consequently has only one place to update the Y corresponding to each X unlike the "big" relation R where there are potentially many copies of each X, each one with its copy of Y which need to be kept synchronized on updates. (This elimination of redundancy is an advantage in OLTP contexts, where many changes are expected, but not so much in OLAP contexts, which involve mostly queries.) Heath's decomposition leaves only X to act as a foreign key in the remainder of the big table .
Functional dependencies however should not be confused with inclusion dependencies, which are the formalism for foreign keys; even though they are used for normalization, functional dependencies express constraints over one relation (schema), whereas inclusion dependencies express constraints between relation schemas in a database schema. Furthermore, the two notions do not even intersect in the classification of dependencies: functional dependencies are equality-generating dependencies whereas inclusion dependencies are tuple-generating dependencies. Enforcing referential constraints after relation schema decomposition (normalization) requires a new formalism, i.e. inclusion dependencies. In the decomposition resulting from Heath's theorem, there is nothing preventing the insertion of tuples in having some value of X not found in .
Normal forms
Normal forms are database normalization levels which determine the "goodness" of a table. Generally, the third normal form is considered to be a "good" standard for a relational database.
Normalization aims to free the database from update, insertion and deletion anomalies. It also ensures that when a new value is introduced into the relation, it has minimal effect on the database, and thus minimal effect on the applications using the database.
Irreducible function depending set
A set S of functional dependencies is irreducible if the set has the following three properties:
Each right set of a functional dependency of S contains only one attribute.
Each left set of a functional dependency of S is irreducible. It means that reducing any one attribute from left set will change the content of S (S will lose some information).
Reducing any functional dependency will change the content of S.
Sets of functional dependencies with these properties are also called canonical or minimal. Finding such a set S of functional dependencies which is equivalent to some input set S' provided as input is called finding a minimal cover'' of S': this problem can be solved in polynomial time.
See also
Chase (algorithm)
Inclusion dependency
Join dependency
Multivalued dependency (MVD)
Database normalization
First normal form
References
Further readings
External links
Data modeling
|
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205785
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20B.%20Ellern
|
William B. Ellern
|
William B. Ellern (born November 30, 1933) is an American science fiction author. Ellern has worked as an engineer, including for JPL, Raytheon, Boeing, Hughes Aircraft and Northrop Corporation.
He was born in Portland, Oregon to May Eileen Ellern and William C. Ellern.
In July 1965 he asked for, and received, permission from E. E. Smith to extend the Lensman series of novels. After that he continued to produce science-fiction short stories, including "Moon Prospector" (Analog Science Fiction and Fact, 1966), "New Lensman" (serialized in 14 parts in Perry Rhodan #61-74, 1975) and "Triplanetary Agent" (serialized in 6 parts in Perry Rhodan #100-105, 1978). There is a fourth unpublished story.
In 1976 New Lensman was published, which contained "Moon Prospector" along with the "New Lensman" serial from Perry Rhodan. "Triplanetary Agent" has yet to be reprinted in book form.
Ellern served on the Board of Directors of the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society until January 2009.
Ellern married Anne Morrel.
William Ellern has four children, William A., Scott A., Gillian D. and Lorita E.
References
Cover of April 1966 issue of Analog magazine, with "Moon prospector" story by William Ellern
External links
1933 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
American male short story writers
Lensman series
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
|
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205786
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet%20Asimov
|
Janet Asimov
|
Janet Opal Asimov (née Jeppson; August 6, 1926 – February 25, 2019), usually writing as J. O. Jeppson, was an American science fiction writer, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst.
She started writing children's science fiction in the 1970s. She was married to Isaac Asimov from 1973 until his death in 1992, and they collaborated on a number of science fiction books aimed at young readers, including the Norby series. She died in February 2019 at the age of 92.
Education and career
Jeppson earned a B.A. degree from Stanford University (first attending Wellesley College), her M.D. degree from New York University Medical School, completing a residency in psychiatry at Bellevue Hospital. In 1960, she graduated from the William Alanson White Institute of Psychoanalysis, where she continued to work until 1986. After her marriage to Isaac Asimov, she continued to practice psychiatry and psychoanalysis under the name Janet O. Jeppson, and she published medical papers under that name.
Writing
Janet Asimov's first published writing was a "mystery short" sold to Hans Stefan Santesson for The Saint Mystery Magazine, which appeared in the May 1966 issue. Her first novel was The Second Experiment in 1974; Asimov wrote mostly science fiction novels for children throughout her career. As a psychiatrist she incorporated aspects of psychoanalysis, human identity, and other psychiatry-related ideas in her writing. According to Isaac Asimov, the books that Janet Asimov wrote in association with him were 90 percent Janet's, and his name was wanted on the books by the publisher "for the betterment of sales". After Isaac's death, she took on the writing of his syndicated popular-science column in the Los Angeles Times.
Husband
Janet Jeppson began dating Isaac Asimov in 1970 immediately following his separation from Gertrude Blugerman. They were married on November 30, 1973, two weeks after Asimov's divorce from Gertrude. Despite Jeppson's upbringing in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, their marriage was officiated by a leader of Ethical Culture, a humanist religious group that Janet later joined. On the same day, she learned that her first novel, The Second Experiment, would be published (under her maiden name).
Their marriage lasted until Isaac's death in 1992 from complications relating to HIV, contracted from a 1983 blood transfusion during bypass surgery. Janet reportedly consulted medical texts after Isaac began exhibiting symptoms, and she requested an HIV test be performed. His doctors insisted she was wrong and only tested Isaac for the infection after he became seriously ill. She wanted the information made public, but doctors insisted upon not disclosing it, even after Isaac died. After the doctors advising silence had all died, Janet Asimov went public with the knowledge.
Bibliography
Novels
The Second Experiment (1974) (as J. O. Jeppson)
The Last Immortal (1980) (a sequel to The Second Experiment) (as J. O. Jeppson)
Mind Transfer (1988)
The Package in Hyperspace (1988)
Murder at the Galactic Writers' Society (1994)
The House Where Isadora Danced (2009) (as J. O. Jeppson)
Norby Chronicles (with Isaac Asimov)
Norby, the Mixed-Up Robot (1983)
Norby's Other Secret (1984)
Norby and the Lost Princess (1985)
Norby and the Invaders (1985)
Norby and the Queen's Necklace (1986)
Norby Finds a Villain (1987)
Norby Down to Earth (1988)
Norby and Yobo's Great Adventure (1989)
Norby and the Oldest Dragon (1990)
Norby and the Court Jester (1991)
Norby and the Terrified Taxi (1997) Written alone, after her husband's death.
Collections
The Mysterious Cure, and Other Stories of Pshrinks Anonymous (1985) (as J. O. Jeppson hardcover, as Janet Asimov paperback)
The Touch: Epidemic of the Millennium. Edited by Patrick Merla. . (Janet Asimov contributor)
Anthologies
Laughing Space: Funny Science Fiction Chuckled Over (1982) with Isaac Asimov
Nonfiction
How to Enjoy Writing: A Book of Aid and Comfort (1987) with Isaac Asimov
Frontiers II (1993) with Isaac Asimov
It's Been a Good Life (2002) edited, with Isaac Asimov
Notes for a Memoir: On Isaac Asimov, Life, and Writing (as Janet Jeppson Asimov) (New York: Prometheus Books, 2006);
References
External links
Obituary at The Humanist website, 4 March 2019
Obituary at Locus Online, 5 March 2019
1926 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American science fiction writers
American women short story writers
American short story writers
American women novelists
Novelists from Pennsylvania
People from Ashland, Pennsylvania
New York University School of Medicine alumni
Stanford University alumni
American women psychiatrists
American psychoanalysts
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
Wellesley College alumni
Ethical movement
Former Latter Day Saints
Bellevue Hospital physicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Beebe
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William Beebe
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Charles William Beebe (; July 29, 1877 – June 4, 1962) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, marine biologist, entomologist, explorer, and author. He is remembered for the numerous expeditions he conducted for the New York Zoological Society, his deep dives in the Bathysphere, and his prolific scientific writing for academic and popular audiences.
Born in Brooklyn, New York and raised in East Orange, New Jersey, Beebe left college before obtaining a degree to work at the then newly opened New York Zoological Park, where he was given the duty of caring for the zoo's birds. He quickly distinguished himself in his work for the zoo, first with his skill in designing habitats for its bird population, and soon also with a series of research expeditions of increasing length, including an expedition around the world to document the world's pheasants. These expeditions formed the basis for a large quantity of writing for both popular and academic audiences, including an account of his pheasant expedition titled A Monograph of the Pheasants and published in four volumes from 1918 to 1922. In recognition of the research conducted on his expeditions, he was granted honorary doctorates from Tufts and Colgate University.
During the course of his expeditions, Beebe gradually developed an interest in marine biology, ultimately leading to his 1930s dives in the Bathysphere, along with its inventor, Otis Barton, off the coast of Bermuda. This was the first time a biologist observed deep-sea animals in their native environment and set several successive records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human, the deepest of which stood until it was broken by Barton 15 years later. Following his Bathysphere dives, Beebe returned to the tropics and began to focus his study on the behavior of insects. In 1949, he founded a tropical research station in Trinidad and Tobago which he named Simla, and which remains in operation as part of the Asa Wright Nature Centre. Beebe's research at Simla continued until his death from pneumonia in 1962 at the age of 84.
William Beebe is regarded as one of the founders of the field of ecology, as well as one of the early 20th century's major advocates of conservation. He is also remembered for several theories he proposed about avian evolution which are now regarded as having been ahead of their time, particularly his 1915 hypothesis that the evolution of bird flight passed through a four-winged or "Tetrapteryx" stage, which has been supported by the 2003 discovery of Microraptor gui.
Biography
Early life and education
Charles William Beebe was born in Brooklyn, New York, son of the newspaper executive Charles Beebe. Although some sources have described him as an only child, he had a younger brother named John who died in infancy. Early in his life, his family moved to East Orange, New Jersey, where he began to acquire both his fascination with the natural world and his tendency to record everything he saw. The American Museum of Natural History, which opened the year that Beebe was born, fostered Beebe's love of nature and was an early influence on him.
In September 1891, Beebe began attending East Orange High School. Although Beebe did not formally drop his first name "Charles" until 1915, before attending high school he was already commonly known as "William Beebe", as he would be known from this point onward. During his high school years Beebe developed an interest in collecting animals, particularly after receiving his first gun at the age of sixteen, and trained himself in taxidermy to preserve them. When he was unable to collect a specimen for himself, he often obtained it from a supply house known as Lattin's, or by trading with other collectors. Beebe's first article was published while he was still in high school, a description of a bird called a brown creeper, which appeared in the January 1895 issue of the magazine Harper's Young People.
In 1896, Beebe was accepted with advanced placement to Columbia University. While attending university, Beebe frequently split his time between the university and the American Museum of Natural history, many of whose researchers were also professors at Columbia. At Columbia he studied under Henry Fairfield Osborn, and developed a close relationship with him which would endure until Osborn's death in 1935.
While attending Columbia, Beebe persuaded his professors to sponsor him and several fellow students taking research trips to Nova Scotia, where he continued his hobby of collecting, as well as attempting to photograph difficult-to-observe scenes of birds and other animals. Several of Beebe's photographs from these expeditions were purchased by Columbia professors to use as slides during their lectures. During these trips, Beebe also developed an interest in dredging, the practice of using nets to haul up animals that lived deep underwater and attempting to study them before they died or disintegrated. Beebe never applied to receive a degree from Columbia, although years later he was granted honorary doctorates from both Tufts and Colgate University.
Employment at the Bronx Zoo
In November 1897, Frank Chapman sponsored Beebe to become an associate member of the American Ornithologists' Union, and the following month Beebe gave his first professional lecture on ornithology to a society called Uncle Clarence's Bergen Point Culture Club. In 1899, although he had completed all of the required courses for a degree in science from Columbia except for mathematics, he decided to forgo his studies in favor of an invitation from Osborn to work at the New York Zoological Park which was about to open. Several factors contributed to this decision, including both excitement at being part of the zoo, and the sense that his studies were putting too much of a strain on his family's finances.
Osborn appointed Beebe to the position of assistant curator of ornithology. As assistant curator, one of his principal jobs was to breed and rear the zoo's birds in order to sustain their population. Beebe placed much importance on the birds being given as much space as possible, and proposed the building of a "flying cage" the size of a football field. This was eventually built, although at less than half the size that Beebe had originally requested. While Beebe's flying cage was criticized as being based on an inaccurate understanding of birds' needs, it ultimately proved very successful.
In 1901, Beebe returned to Nova Scotia on his first expedition for the zoo, intending to collect marine animals by searching tide pools and with additional dredging. The following year he was promoted from assistant curator to the rank of a full curator, a post he held until 1918. He then went on to serve as an honorary curator from 1919 to 1962.
On August 6, 1902, Beebe was married to Mary Blair Rice, better known by her pen name Blair Niles. Blair subsequently accompanied Beebe on several of his expeditions, and as a writer herself, frequently assisted Beebe with his own writing. Beebe and Blair regarded their honeymoon, another trip to Nova Scotia, as a further opportunity for collecting.
The following February, Beebe, and Blair went on an expedition to the Florida Keys, because Beebe was suffering from a throat infection and the zoo believed that the warm climate would be beneficial to his health. This expedition was Beebe's introduction to the tropics, with which he developed a long-standing fascination. In July 1903, at the request of a lawyer named Louis Whealton whom the zoo's director William Temple Hornaday regarded as a potential donor to the zoo, Beebe and Blair went on another expedition to Virginia's Barrier Islands. Although it was intended as an expedition for the zoo, Beebe described it as "our third honeymoon this year".
By the end of 1903, at the age of 26, Beebe had published more than thirty-four articles and photographs in the past year. For his contributions to science, he was elected a fellow in the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Early exploration and expeditions
[[Image: New York World - William Beebe Bird Article Apr 8 1906.jpg|thumb|right|April 1906 cover story of New York World'''s Sunday magazine written by William Beebe, advertising the Bronx Zoo's diversity of birds]]In December 1903, to avert another bout of Beebe's throat ailment, Hornaday sent him on an expedition to Mexico which would last until the following April. Since Mexico was still largely unstable at this point, he and Blair traveled on horseback and lived mostly in tents, and both carried revolvers for self-protection. Although the purpose of the expedition was to discover, identify and collect Mexico's birds, it has also been described as yet another honeymoon between him and Blair. Beebe's first book, titled Two Bird Lovers in Mexico, was an account of this expedition. The last chapter was written by Blair and was an explanation of how to plan and execute a vacation in the wilderness. The book was enthusiastically well received.
Beebe's second book, The Bird, Its Form and Function, was published in 1906. This book was a reworking of a manuscript that Beebe had submitted to Henry Holt in 1902, but which Holt had asked him to expand into a major work on birds. In its finished form it represented a new kind of nature writing in that, although it presented technical information about bird biology and evolution, it did so in a way meant to be accessible to a general audience.. It also represented an important turning point for Beebe, because in contrast to his youthful fascination with adding animals to his collection, in this book he was beginning to emphasize the importance of wildlife conservation. Regarding the killing of animals for the sole purpose of collecting, the book states:
Although Beebe continued to shoot animals when it was necessary for examining them scientifically, he no longer regarded adding to a collection as a valid reason to take a life. In 1906 Beebe presented his own collection, which had grown to 990 specimens during his earlier years as a collector, as a gift to the zoo for educational and research purposes. For this gift, he was made a life member of the New York Zoological Society. The same year, he was also elected a fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences.
In 1907, the journal Zoologica was founded by Osborn and Hornaday specifically as a place for Beebe to publish his research. The first issue of the journal contained twenty papers, ten of which were written by Beebe, and two more of which were jointly written by him and Lee Saunders Crandall, the zoo's assistant curator of birds. The following year Beebe received a promotion from the Zoological Society, placing him on equal footing with the research scientists at the Museum of Natural History. This promotion explicitly granted him two months off each year, for further research expeditions. The first expedition conducted under his new privileges, beginning in February 1908, took him to Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela to research birds and insects. During this expedition Beebe captured 40 live birds for the zoo, belonging to 14 different species.
At this point in his life, Beebe was forming a close friendship with then-president Theodore Roosevelt, which would last until Roosevelt's death in 1919. Beebe admired Roosevelt's skill as a field naturalist as well as his advocacy of conservation, and Roosevelt's fame made his support highly valuable in Beebe's scientific endeavors. Roosevelt in turn admired Beebe's writing and his respect for the natural world. Roosevelt frequently provided praise for Beebe's books, and went on to write introductions to Beebe's books Tropical Wild Life and Jungle Peace.
In February 1909, Beebe and Blair traveled to British Guiana, in the hope that with Roosevelt's support, it might be possible to establish a permanent field research station there. Another goal of this expedition was to find and capture a hoatzin, a bird whose clawed wings caused it to be considered an important link in the evolution of birds from reptiles. Beebe made extensive documentation of hoatzin behavior through field glasses, but their plans to capture one were foiled when they had to return home early due to Blair breaking her wrist. Despite their failure to obtain their most sought-after prize, the expedition still returned with 280 live birds of 51 species, 33 of which were new to the zoo, although several of these died or escaped during the long trip back to New York. Beebe summarized this expedition in his book Our Search for a Wilderness, which was enthusiastically well-reviewed.
The pheasant expedition
In December 1909, businessman and philanthropist Anthony R. Kuser proposed to the zoo that Beebe be allowed to go on a voyage around the world to document the world's pheasants, which would be financed by Kuser. Hornaday strongly objected to this proposal, describing Kuser as an "evil genius" who was attempting to steal Beebe away from his duties at the zoo. However, the zoo ultimately decided in Kuser's favor, partly because the scientific papers produced by Beebe's trip to Guiana had been beneficial to the zoo's reputation. Hornaday appointed Crandall as the zoo's acting curator of birds, giving him the duty of caring for its birds in Beebe's absence. Beebe and Blair left for their expedition accompanied by Robert Bruce Horsfall, whose job would be to provide illustrations of the birds for the book that would hopefully result from this expedition.
After crossing the Atlantic Ocean on the RMS Lusitania to London, where they gathered the supplies they would need for their expedition, Beebe and his team traveled across the Mediterranean Sea to Egypt, through the Suez Canal, and across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon, where they began their task of documenting the native wildfowl. From Ceylon they traveled to Calcutta, with the goal of capturing the species of pheasants which live only in the Himalayas. By this point Beebe was beginning to conflict with Horsfall, who was unaccustomed to such expeditions. After Beebe had finished his documentation in the eastern part of the range, Horsfall refused to accompany Beebe in the western part of the range, causing Beebe to leave him in the town of Jorepokhri and continue his work in the Western Himalayas without him. Horsfall rejoined them in Calcutta, from which they sailed to Indonesia. The next ship took them to Singapore, where Beebe established a base of operations for the next stage of his expedition.
The expedition's next destination was Sarawak, on the island of Borneo. By the time they left Sarawak, the conflict between Beebe and Horsfall had grown to such a degree that Beebe decided Horsfall was endangering the expedition and must be sent home. In response to Beebe's dismissal, Horsfall retorted that he had been ill-treated by Beebe from the beginning of the expedition and that his subsequent actions had been for the express purpose of revenge. Continuing without Horsfall, Beebe and Blair traveled to Batavia in Java, to the island of Madura just to the north, and to Belitung between Borneo and Sumatra.
Finished in Java, Beebe and his crew sailed north from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur to begin exploring Malaya. After Malaya, the next portion of their expedition took them to Burma, where they arrived in Rangoon and traveled by rail to Myitkyina. In Burma Beebe succumbed temporarily to a bout of depression, and it was several days before he was able to resume working or continue the expedition. He attributed his recovery to the pile of penny dreadful novels he discovered in his bungalow at Pungatong, which he then read constantly for the next few days.
The last portion of Beebe's journey took him to China, from which they made an unplanned visit to Japan to escape a riot as well as a surge of bubonic plague. When the plague and riots had subsided, Beebe returned to China to document the local pheasant species, then made a second visit to Japan to study pheasants kept in the Imperial Preserves there. In Japan, Beebe was given two cranes by the Imperial Household in exchange for a pair of swans, which were unknown in Japan.
His expedition was completed after a total of 17 months, Beebe and Blair crossed the Pacific to San Francisco, then crossed the United States to return to their home in New York. Their expedition had obtained live or stuffed specimens of nearly all the pheasants he had sought, and also produced extensive notes about their behavior. Some of these pheasants, such as Sclater's impeyan or Himalayan monal, had never before been seen in the wild by Americans or Europeans. Beebe's observations of sexual dimorphism in pheasants during this expedition led him to become the first biologist to correctly understand the mechanism by which this aspect of sexual selection operates. based on his observations he also proposed a new evolutionary model of pheasant ancestry, involving a period of rapid diversification followed by more typical and gradual changes. Although this evolutionary model is now taken for granted, in William Beebe's time it was a novel idea.
In January 1913, Blair left Beebe for Reno intending to divorce him, since at this time in history it was easier to obtain a divorce in Reno than in most other areas of the United States. The divorce was granted on August 29, 1913, after Blair had spent the minimum requirement of six months as a resident in Reno. Obtaining a divorce in Reno required a person to demonstrate that their spouse had committed either adultery or extreme cruelty; Blair's complaint accused Beebe of the latter, claiming that during the pheasant expedition he had threatened to commit suicide by "throwing himself in the river, shooting himself through the roof of the mouth with a revolver, and by cutting his throat with a razor." Beebe made very little effort to contest the divorce and did not appear in court to offer any testimony. Although newspapers at the time reported Blair's accusations uncritically, with headlines such as "Naturalist was cruel", modern biographers consider it more likely that Blair resorted to hyperbole to make a divorce case. A week after her divorce from Beebe, Blair was remarried to their next-door neighbor Robin Niles, suggesting that the true reason for the divorce may have been cuckoldry. On the other hand, some biographers have suggested that Beebe suffered a nervous breakdown during the expedition and that he may have contributed his own part to Blair's alienation.
Blair's departure came as a shock to Beebe, and he was severely depressed for more than a year afterward. Despite her assistance during the pheasant expedition, Beebe excised any mention of her from the monograph he was preparing based on the data gathered during it.
By the end of 1914, Beebe's pheasant monograph was essentially complete in the manuscript. While the text was written by Beebe, the illustrations were provided by several artists: Robert Bruce Horsfall, who had accompanied Beebe on the expedition, painted the environmental scenes for the illustrations' backgrounds, while the pheasants themselves were painted by other artists including George Edward Lodge, Charles R. Knight, and Louis Agassiz Fuertes. Due to the elaborate nature of the book's color artwork, no American publisher was considered capable of reproducing it. The publisher which Beebe chose for his work was George Witherby and Sons of London, as a result of their success publishing the artwork of John James Audubon. The reproduction of the illustrations themselves was to be handled by several companies in Germany and Austria. Reproductions of the illustrations were in the process of being printed when World War I began, holding up the completion of the project for the next four years.
Return to Guiana and World War I
Beebe undertook an expedition to Brazil in 1915, to capture more birds for the zoo. This expedition was an important turning point for Beebe in several ways. Beebe had far more field experience than either of the two others accompanying him on the expedition, G. Inness Hartley and Herbert Atkins, making this his introduction to the role of a mentor. During this expedition, Beebe was also amazed to discover the number and variety of organisms living under a single tree and pioneered the method of studying a small area of wilderness for an extended amount of time. This expedition marked the beginning of a shift for Beebe from ornithology to the study of tropical ecosystems.
In 1916, Beebe traveled to Georgetown in pursuit of his earlier goal of establishing a permanent field research station in Guiana. After following several leads which came to nothing, his goal was realized when George Withers, who owned a rubber plantation on the Mazaruni River, offered him the use of a large house on his property for this purpose. Soon after Beebe and his researchers moved into the plantation house, which was known by the name of Kalacoon, they were paid a visit by Theodore Roosevelt and his family. Roosevelt subsequently wrote an article about the station for Scribner's Magazine, which helped to build public support for the station.
The establishment of the Kalacoon research station enabled Beebe to research the ecology of the surrounding jungle in far more detail than had been possible during his earlier expeditions. Using Kalacoon as his base of operations, Beebe performed a novel type of study: methodically dissecting a small area of jungle, and all of the animals which inhabit it, from the top of the canopy to below the ground. In a second study, Beebe performed the same task for a much larger area of jungle, approximately a quarter-mile (0.4 km) square. During his first season at Kalacoon in 1916, Beebe brought back 300 living specimens for the zoo. This time he succeeded at capturing a hoatzin, the bird that he had narrowly missed during his earlier trip to Guiana, although he was unable to keep it alive for the zoo during the trip back to New York.
Beebe summarized his discoveries at Kalacoon in his 1917 book Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana, which inspired many other researchers to plan trips to Kalacoon or to establish their own field research stations of the type that Beebe had pioneered.
Beebe was eager to serve in World War I, but at 40 he was considered too old for regular service. With Roosevelt's help, he secured a post-training American pilot for a flight squadron on Long Island. His training work was halted when, veering to avoid a photographer who had run in front of his airplane as he landed, he crashed on landing and severely injured his right wrist. During a second trip to Kalacoon while his wrist healed, Beebe was further devastated to discover that due to wartime demand for rubber, the entire jungle surrounding the house had been clear-cut to make room for rubber trees. Since the purpose of Kalacoon station had been to study the jungle, the jungle's destruction left Beebe with no choice but to close the station and return with its supplies to New York. Combined with his earlier loss of Blair, the effect of losing Kalacoon plunged Beebe into depression. This did not go unnoticed by Beebe's mentor Osborn, who expressed concern about it in a letter to Madison Grant, writing "I find that he is worried and far from well. [...] Without telling him so, we must take care of him."
In October 1917, Beebe had his opportunity to serve in the war. With the help of a letter of recommendation from Roosevelt, he was given the duty of flying aerial photography planes over German gun emplacements. He also spent time in trenches and accompanied a Canadian Indian platoon on a night raid. Beebe subsequently wrote several articles describing his war experience for Scribner's Magazine and Atlantic Monthly. Beebe generally did not make the exact nature of his military service clear in his writings about it, although he expressed his general dismay at the realities of the war. The best-known of these accounts is provided by the opening paragraph of his 1918 book Jungle Peace:
Beebe's position in the Zoological Society changed in 1918: He was given the title of Honorary Curator of Birds and was made the director of the newly created Department of Tropical Research. With his new position, Beebe no longer had the duty of caring for the zoo's animals, freeing him to devote himself fully to his writing and research. Beebe's duties as curator were passed to Lee Crandall, the former Assistant Curator who had worked under Beebe, although Crandall continued to rely on Beebe for help treating illness in birds, and caring for the exotic birds brought back from Beebe's expeditions.
The first volume of Beebe's pheasant monograph was published that fall, although the ongoing war made it unclear when the remaining three volumes would be published. The first volume was highly praised by reviewers, and received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1918. In January 1919 Roosevelt, who was severely ill by this point, wrote to Beebe from his hospital bed congratulating Beebe on the publication of his monograph. His letter of congratulation to Beebe was the last letter that Roosevelt wrote before his death. Volume II of the monograph was published in 1921, and volumes III and IV were published in 1922. The completed work, titled A Monograph of the Pheasants, has been considered by some reviewers to be possibly the greatest ornithological monograph of the twentieth century.
In 1919, Osborn helped secure Beebe a new research station in Guiana to replace Kalacoon: Beebe was offered Kartabo Point, an outpost of a New York-based mining corporation. Beebe was enthusiastic about the new station, and it proved very successful for conducting the same detailed analyses of wildlife within small areas that had been performed at Kalacoon. At Kartabo Beebe discovered the phenomenon known as an ant mill, a column of ants following itself in an endless loop until nearly all of them died of exhaustion.
Galápagos expeditions
Beebe was eager to undertake an expedition to the Galápagos Islands, intending to obtain more detailed data in support of evolution than Charles Darwin had been able to collect in his earlier visit. In 1923, Harrison Williams agreed to finance such an expedition, and Beebe was provided with a steam yacht called the Noma for this purpose along with a support crew. The support crew included several scientists who had worked with Beebe previously and several artists including the marine painter Harry Hoffman, as well as some of Williams' friends whose inclusion was a condition for Williams' agreement to fund the expedition. Passing through the Sargasso Sea on the way to the Galápagos, Beebe was fascinated by the diversity of life that could be found in the sargassum weed floating on the surface and spent several days scooping the weed from the water to examine the creatures that lived in it.
Beebe's first expedition to the Galápagos lasted twenty days, broken into two ten-day periods, between which the Noma was forced to return to Panama for fresh water and coal. During this expedition he documented the unique ways that animals that inhabit the Galápagos have evolved in response to the absence of predators. The Galápagos animals generally showed no fear of humans, causing the team to have a high degree of success at capturing live specimens for the zoo. Beebe also discovered a previously unknown bay on Genovesa Island (also known as Tower Island) in the Galápagos, which he named Darwin Bay, and documented the diversity of animal life that inhabited it. During the return to New York from this expedition, Beebe continued to dredge animals from the sea, using a pair of new devices he had devised to assist himself with this: a "pulpit", an iron cage affixed to the bow of the ship that enabled its occupant to examine the surface of the sea more closely; and a "boom walk", a boom jutting from the side of the ship from which he suspended himself. The book in which Beebe summarized this expedition, titled Galápagos: World's End, was an instant best-seller and remained on the New York Times top ten list for several months.
In 1924, Beebe went on another expedition to his Guiana research station of Kartabo, intending to continue the detailed documentation of the tropical ecosystem that he had begun at Kalacoon. The paper which finally resulted from this study was published in Zoologica in 1925 and was the first study of its kind in the developing field of tropical ecology. Beebe continued to battle depression during this trip to Kartabo, both over his earlier loss of Blair, and over the death of his mother Nettie, who had died shortly before the beginning of the expedition.
Despite his ongoing research in Guiana, what Beebe desired most was to return to the Galápagos, this time with a properly fitted-out scientific research vessel that possessed the ability to dredge animals from beneath the ocean. In 1925, Beebe set out on a second Galápagos expedition, The Arcturus Oceanographic Expedition, backed by Williams and several other donors. His ship for this expedition was the steam yacht Arcturus, presented to the New York Zoological Society by Executive Committee member Henry D. Whiton. Arcturus, at , was considerably larger than the Noma and was capable of being at sea for extended periods of time. The Arcturus was outfitted with Beebe's pulpit and boom walk from the Noma, as well as cages and tanks for live animals, chemicals and vials to preserve dead ones, and a darkroom for developing film and studying the bioluminescent animals they hoped to encounter.
The Arcturus did not encounter the thick mats of sargassum in the Sargasso Sea that Beebe was hoping to study, but Beebe and his crew experienced great success dredging creatures from the sea off the coast of Saint Martin and Saba. In the Pacific, they encountered a strange boundary between two currents of very different temperatures, containing a vast diversity of life on the border between the two. He sailed along the border between the currents for several days to document it, theorizing that it could be the cause of the unusual climate which South America had recently been experiencing. Beebe's study of these currents, and their effect on the climate of South America, is the earliest known study of the phenomenon known as El Niño.
Anchoring near Darwin Bay, Beebe made his first attempt at studying sea animals in their native environment by descending into the ocean in a diving helmet. Beebe continued to perform helmet dives throughout his Galápagos expedition, documenting several previously unknown sea animals. In addition to his helmet dives, Beebe applied the same method of research that he had pioneered in the tropics to a small area of ocean, sailing in circles around it for ten days to document all actions and interactions of marine life within that area. This study yielded a collection of 3,776 fish of 136 species, many of them also new to science.
While anchored off the Galápagos, Beebe and his crew noticed volcanic activity on Albemarle Island, and set out to investigate it. Anchoring in a small cove, Beebe and his assistant John Tee-Van searched for an active crater where they could observe the eruption and were nearing exhaustion by the time they found one. As he observed the crater, Beebe realized that the air surrounding it was filled with noxious gases, and narrowly avoided suffocation before staggering away from it. Observing the eruption from his ship for another two days, as well as again at a later point in the expedition, Beebe recorded how numerous birds and marine animals were killed after either failing to escape the lava or drawing too close to it in an attempt to scavenge other animals that had died.
During the return from the Galápagos through the Sargasso Sea, Beebe once again failed to find the thick mats of Sargassum whose study had been one of the primary goals of the expedition. Searching for a way to satisfy his expedition's donors, Beebe hit upon the idea of documenting the marine life of the Hudson Gorge just beyond the shore of New York City. Applying the same techniques to studying the Hudson Gorge that he had used in the Galápagos, Beebe encountered a surprising variety of sea animals, many of which had previously been thought to be exclusive to the tropics.
Shortly after Beebe's return from this expedition, Anthony Kuser requested that Beebe produce a condensed, popular version of his pheasant monograph. The book which resulted from this, titled Pheasants: Their Lives and Homes (also known by the title Pheasants of the World), was released in 1926 and received the John Burroughs Medal. During the course of writing this book, Beebe was reminded of many experiences during the pheasant expedition which he had not included in his original monograph, and wrote an additional book titled Pheasant Jungles about his adventures during this expedition. While A Monograph of the Pheasants had been a factual account of this expedition, Pheasant Jungles was a somewhat fictionalized account, in which Beebe altered some aspects of his experience to appeal to a wider audience.
Haiti and Bermuda
In 1927, Beebe went on an expedition to Haiti to document its marine life. Anchoring his ship the Lieutenant in the harbor of Port-au-Prince, he performed over 300 helmet dives examining the area's coral reefs and classifying the fish that inhabited them. These dives involved several technological innovations: a watertight brass box which could be used to house a camera for underwater photography, and a telephone which was incorporated into the diving helmet, allowing the diver to dictate observations to someone on the surface instead of having to take notes underwater. Within a hundred days, Beebe and his team had created a catalog of species inhabiting the area nearly as long as what had been assembled on the neighboring island of Puerto Rico in the past four hundred years. In 1928 Beebe and Tee-Van published an illustrated and annotated list of 270 such species, which was expanded in 1935 bringing the total to 324. Beebe provided an account of this expedition in his 1928 book Beneath Tropic Seas, which was the first of his books to receive less than enthusiastic reviews, due to its episodic structure.
As he gained experience with helmet diving, Beebe soon became an enthusiastic advocate of it, believing it to be something that should be experienced by everyone who had the opportunity to do so. He later went so far as to suggest that beachfront homes would someday contain their own underwater gardens, to be experienced with the help of diving helmets:
By this point in his life Beebe was developing a close friendship with the American romance novelist Elswyth Thane, who had met Beebe in 1925. Very little of their early correspondence survives, but Elswyth had idolized Beebe for years, and her first novel Riders of the Wind was devoted to him. The novel was an account of a young woman who falls in love with and eventually marries, a much older adventurer who strongly resembled Beebe. Beebe and Elswyth were married on September 22, 1927, when Beebe was 50. Due to Elswyth's tendency to misrepresent her age, conflicting accounts exist of how old she was when she and Beebe were married, ranging from 23 to 28. Elswyth and Beebe had an open marriage, in which neither expected sexual exclusivity from the other so long as their life together was not damaged.
Although Riders of the Wind was partially based on Beebe's pheasant expedition, Elswyth did not enjoy Beebe's current research. She disliked the heat of the tropics and was unwilling to go with Beebe to Kartabo. As a compromise, Beebe decided to continue his marine research in Bermuda, where she and Beebe had spent their honeymoon. Bermuda's governor Louis Bols introduced Beebe to Prince George, who was fascinated by Beebe's books, and Prince George persuaded Beebe to take him helmet diving. Governor Bols and Prince George subsequently offered Beebe Nonsuch Island, a island off the east coast of Bermuda, for use as a research station.
With the financial help of his sponsors, Beebe planned to use his new research station on Nonsuch Island to conduct a thorough study of an square area of ocean, documenting every living thing they could find from the surface to a depth of . However, Beebe's ability to research the deep ocean using these methods was constrained by the inherent limitations of dredging, which could only provide an incomplete picture of the animals living there. Beebe compared the knowledge that could be gained of the deep ocean from dredging to what a visitor from Mars could learn about a fog-shrouded earthly city by using a dredge to pick up bits of debris from a street. Beebe began planning to create an underwater exploration device, which he could use to descend into the depths and observe these environments directly. The New York Times carried articles describing Beebe's plans, which called for a diving bell with the shape of a cylinder.
These articles caught the attention of Otis Barton, an engineer who had long admired Beebe and who had his own ambition to become a deep-sea explorer. Barton was convinced that Beebe's design for a diving vessel would never be capable of withstanding the extreme pressure of the deep ocean, and with the help of a friend who arranged a meeting with Beebe, proposed an alternative design to him. Barton's design called for a spherical vessel, which was the strongest possible shape for resisting high pressure. Barton had the good fortune that years earlier, Theodore Roosevelt had proposed a similar idea to Beebe, and Beebe approved of Barton's design. Beebe and Barton made a deal: Barton would pay for the sphere and all of the other equipment to go with it. In return, Beebe would pay for other expenses such as chartering a ship to raise and lower the sphere, and as the owner of the sphere, Barton would accompany Beebe on his expeditions in it. Beebe named their vessel the Bathysphere, from the Greek prefix bathy- meaning "deep" combined with "sphere".
Work at Nonsuch Island
From 1930 to 1934, Beebe and Barton used the Bathysphere to conduct a series of dives of increasing depth off the coast of Nonsuch Island, becoming the first people to observe deep-sea animals in their native environment. The Bathysphere was lowered into the ocean using a steel cable, and a second cable carried a phone line which the Bathysphere's occupants used to communicate with the surface, as well as an electrical cable for a searchlight to illuminate animals outside the Bathysphere. Beebe's observations were relayed up the phone line to be recorded by Gloria Hollister, his chief technical associate who was also in charge of preparing specimens obtained from dredging. Beebe and Barton made a total of 35 dives in the Bathysphere, setting several consecutive world records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human. The record set by the deepest of these, to a depth of on August 15, 1934, lasted until it was broken by Barton in 1949.
In 1931, Beebe and Barton's Bathysphere dives were interrupted for a year due to technical problems and uncooperative weather. An additional difficulty in 1931 was the death of Beebe's father, and Beebe left Nonsuch Island for a week to attend his father's funeral. A second year-long interruption occurred in 1933, and was caused in part by a lack of funds due to the Great Depression. Although Beebe and Barton performed no dives in 1933, their work gathered a large amount of publicity when the Bathysphere was displayed in a special exhibit for the American Museum of Natural History, and later at the Century of Progress World's Fair in Chicago, where they shared the fair's Hall of Science with Auguste Piccard. Beebe and Barton also obtained publicity for their dives from several articles Beebe wrote describing them for National Geographic, and from an NBC radio broadcast in which Beebe's voice transmitted up the phone line from inside the Bathysphere was broadcast nationally over the radio.
Although Beebe attempted to ensure that Barton would receive credit as the Bathysphere's inventor and Beebe's fellow diver, the popular media tended to ignore Barton and pay attention only to Beebe. Barton was often resentful of this, believing Beebe to be deliberately hogging the fame. Beebe in turn lacked patience for Barton's unpredictable moods and felt that Barton did not display the proper respect for the natural world. Still, Beebe and Barton both had something the other needed: Beebe for his experience as a marine biologist and Barton for his mechanical skill. Out of pragmatic concern for the success of their lives, they managed to resolve their disagreements well enough to work together at Nonsuch Island, although they did not remain on good terms afterward.
Likely, Beebe became romantically involved with Hollister during his work at Nonsuch Island. An entry in Beebe's personal journal, written in a secret code that he used when describing things he wished kept secret, reads "I kissed her [Gloria] and she loves me." It is unclear whether Elswyth knew of Beebe's affair with Gloria, but if she did she appears to not have minded it. In addition to the open nature of their marriage, Elswyth described in a 1940s interview with Today's Woman magazine that she enjoyed the knowledge that Beebe was attractive to women.
Beebe continued to conduct marine research after 1934, but he felt that he had seen what he wanted to see using the Bathysphere and that further drives were too expensive for whatever knowledge he gained from them to be worth the cost. With the help of Beebe's friend the physician Henry Lloyd, Beebe conducted an expedition in the West Indies examining the stomach contents of tuna, which uncovered previously unknown larval forms of several species of fish. Shortly after returning, Beebe set out on a longer expedition to the waters around Baja California, financed by the Californian businessman Templeton Crocker on board his yacht the Zaca. The goal of this expedition was to study the area's undersea fauna utilizing dredging and helmet diving, and Beebe and his team were surprised by the diversity of animals that they encountered there. In 1937 Beebe went on a second expedition aboard the Zaca, documenting the native wildlife along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to Colombia. During this expedition, rather than focusing on either sea animals as he had at Nonsuch Island or on birds as he had earlier in his life, he attempted to document all aspects of the ecosystem. Beebe described his two expeditions onboard the Zaca in his books Zaca Venture and The Book of Bays, in which he emphasized his concern for threatened habitats and his dismay at human destruction.
During the two Zaca expeditions Beebe was accompanied by his longtime assistant John Tee-Van as well as Jocelyn Crane, a young carcinologist who had first worked for Beebe at Nonsuch Island in 1932, and who would subsequently be among Beebe's most cherished associates for the rest of his life. Like Hollister before her, Crane would eventually become Beebe's lover during the long expeditions that Beebe made without Elswyth's companionship. During this time Beebe was also forming a close friendship with Winnie-the-Pooh's creator A. A. Milne, who wrote of Half Mile Down "I don't know which I envy you most: all those moral and physical qualities which you have and I lack, or all that wonder of a new world. [...] One of the few things in the world of which I am really proud is that I know Will Beebe."
Return to the tropics
Although Beebe continued to use Nonsuch Island as his base of operations throughout the 1930s, with the onset of World War II in 1939 it was announced that the ferry linking Bermuda to New York would soon be making its final run, requiring Beebe and his team to hastily abandon their station there. Transportation to and from Bermuda resumed in 1940, and Beebe returned there in May 1941, but the environment was slowly being transformed due to the war. A large number of military ships made docking difficult, most of the island's reefs were being destroyed to construct an airfield, and the combination of construction activity and pollution observed the sea life impossible. Appalled by the destruction, Beebe finally rented his station at Nonsuch Island to a military contractor and returned to New York.
With the loss of their station in Bermuda, Beebe and Elswyth gave up on their compromise of finding a research station where they could both be happy. Elswyth, who was most content in temperate environments, began searching for a home in New England where she could continue her writing. Meanwhile, Beebe began searching for a new tropical research station to replace Kartabo, which had fallen victim to deforestation just like Kalacoon before it. Beebe eventually helped Elswyth purchase a small farm near Wilmington, Vermont, where he visited her frequently. Elswyth explained in a magazine interview that she was uncomfortable on Beebe's expeditions, so the two of them had agreed that they would keep their careers separate from their private lives.
With the financial assistance of Standard Oil and the Guggenheim Foundation, Beebe established his next research station in Caripito, a small city in Venezuela around west of Trinidad and Tobago. Beebe and his team used this station to study the ecology of the region and recorded how its inhabitants were affected by its cycle of wet and dry seasons. One important study which resulted from this region was the first documentation of rhinoceros beetles using their horns in competition between males, proving that their horns were an adaptation for sexual selection rather than for defense against predators. Although Beebe's research at Caripito was productive, he felt that the extremity of its wet-dry cycle made it impractical as a research station, and the expanding oil operations in the region were in danger of destroying the local environment. For these reasons, Beebe did not return to Caripito after his first season there.
In the spring of 1944, Jocelyn Crane returned to Venezuela to search for a location for a new field station to replace the one at Caripito. The location that she found, known as Rancho Grande, had initially been intended as a palace for Venezuela's dictator Juan Vicente Gómez in the Henri Pittier National Park. The palace's construction had been left unfinished after Gómez's death, and since then the building's vast corridors and ballrooms had become the home of jaguars, tapirs and sloths. Unlike Beebe's other tropical research stations, which had been located in lowland regions, Rancho Grande was located on a mountainside in what Beebe described as "the ultimate cloud jungle". Creole Petroleum, a Venezuelan spin-off of Standard, agreed to cover the cost of the station and finished a small portion of the vast structure for Beebe and his team to use. Beebe and his team began work there in 1945, staying as guests of the Venezuelan government.
Rancho Grande was located at a mountain pass in a branch of the Andes known as the Venezuelan Coastal Range, which was an important migration route for butterflies, and the station proved very lucrative in the study of insects. During his work at Rancho Grande, Beebe broke his leg in a fall from a ladder, and the forced immobility which resulted from having his leg in a cast presented him with a new opportunity for observing the area's wildlife. At his request, he and his chair were transported into the nearby jungle, and as he sat motionless the wild animals around him soon began to go about their business without noticing his presence. His immobility also presented him with the opportunity to spend hours at a time observing a pair of bat falcons through binoculars, documenting the behavior of their two chicks and every prey item fed to them by their parents. His observations documented several behaviors which were new to science, including the first documented example of play in birds.
Although Beebe and his team enjoyed rewarding seasons at Rancho Grande in 1945 and 1946, they did not return there in 1947. The reason they gave in their annual report was that the previous two seasons had produced so much material that they needed an additional year to analyze it, but in reality, this was more the result of insufficient funding as well as the unstable state of Venezuelan politics. Beebe returned to Rancho Grande in 1948, where he completed several technical papers about the migration patterns of birds and insects, as well as a comprehensive study of the area's ecology which he coauthored with Jocelyn Crane. Realizing that the area's politics might soon put an end to their research there, in spring of 1948 Jocelyn made a side trip to Trinidad and Tobago in hope of finding a site for a research station where the politics would be more secure. Finally, when the 1948 Venezuelan coup d'état installed Marcos Pérez Jiménez as Venezuela's dictator, Beebe decided that he could no longer continue to work in Venezuela. Beebe described his experiences at Rancho Grande in his 1949 book High Jungle, which was the last of Beebe's major books.
In January 1950, the New York Zoological Society celebrated to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Beebe's work for them. He was by this point the only remaining member of the zoo's original staff, and had produced more scholarly papers and publicity than any other employee. Letters and testimonials poured in from other scientists with whom Beebe had worked, attesting to their admiration of him and his influence on them. One letter from the Harvard biologist Ernst Mayr wrote that Beebe's work had been an inspiration to his own, particularly A Monograph of the Pheasants and Beebe's books about jungle wildlife.
Final years in Trinidad and Tobago
The product of Jocelyn Crane's search for a potential research station in Trinidad and Tobago was a house on a hill overlooking the Arima Valley, which was known as Verdant Vale. In 1949, Beebe bought this estate to use a permanent research station to replace Rancho Grande. Beebe renamed the estate Simla, after the hill in India that featured in Rudyard Kipling's writings. He later described the sense of destiny that marked his introduction to the estate:
At Simla Beebe and his team worked closely together with Asa and Newcome Wright, the owners of the adjacent Spring Hill estate, who provided accommodations for them while water and electricity were connected at Simla. Although the initial purchase of Simla had contained only the house and of the forest surrounding it, Beebe soon realized that this was insufficient for the research he wished to conduct, and purchased another neighboring estate known as St. Pat's which contained an additional . In 1953, Beebe donated both properties to the New York Zoological Society for one dollar, giving him the position of one of the society's "Benefactors in Perpetuity".
Research at Simla formally began in 1950. Beebe's research at Simla combined elements of many different earlier stages of his research, including observations of the life cycles of the area's birds, detailed analyses of every plant and animal in small areas of forest, and studies of insect behavior. Insects were the focus of the scientific papers he produced during this period, marking a transition from his past areas of study into the field of entomology. Local children periodically brought animal specimens to Beebe at Simla and asked him to classify them. Remembering the early studies of his own childhood, in which he had brought specimens to the American Museum of Natural History, he was happily working with them.
In 1952, on his seventy-fifth birthday, Beebe retired from his position as the director of the NYZS's Department of Zoological Society and became Director Emeritus, while Jocelyn Crane was promoted to Assistant Director. In honor of his lifetime of work as a naturalist, Beebe was awarded the Theodore Roosevelt Distinguished Service Medal in 1953. Beebe's last major expedition occurred in 1955, retracing the route he had taken during his pheasant expedition 45 years earlier, with the intention of discovering how the populations he had previously studied were faring in response to human encroachment. Jocelyn accompanied him on this expedition for the purpose of documenting Asia's fiddler crabs. Although Jocelyn's studies during this expedition served as part of the basis for her monograph Fiddler Crabs of the World, Beebe never published the results of his own observations during it.
During Beebe's later years, Simla was an important gathering point for researchers in many other areas of biology. Other biologists who visited to conduct studies there and exchange ideas with Beebe included myrmecologist Ted Schneirla, ethologist Konrad Lorenz, entomologist Lincoln Brower, ethologist Donald Griffin, and ornithologist David Snow. Snow became a regular visitor to Simla, and in return Beebe provided financial assistance for some of Snow's own research. Beebe devised an unusual method for determining how he would react to his visitors at Simla. His terrace there was decorated with statues of characters from Winnie-the-Pooh that had been a gift from A. A. Milne. Visitors who recognized these characters as Milne's creations were greeted by Beebe with enthusiasm, while those who did not recognize them were just endured by Beebe until they left.
Beebe remained active well into his old age. In 1957, at the age of eighty, he was still capable of climbing slippery tree trunks to study bird nests. However, by 1959 his strength had lessened enough that long hikes and tree climbing were no longer practical for him, and he contented himself with work that could be conducted in the laboratory, such as dissecting birds' nests to analyze their method of construction. Beebe also began to be afflicted with a throat ailment which may have been Sjögren's syndrome, although lacking a complete understanding of what caused it, Beebe and his doctors referred to it as "mango mouth". Beebe was reluctant to accept speaking engagements because of the effect this had on his voice, although he continued to give lectures on occasion with Jocelyn's help.
In an account of his final meeting with Beebe, Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr. describes how during Beebe's last few years he gradually succumbed to illness, eventually becoming nearly immobile and incapable of speech. However, Beebe's personal physician A. E. Hill provides a differing account, stating that Beebe remained lucid and able to move about without assistance almost until his last day, apart from the periods of time during which his "mango mouth" temporarily slurred his speech. Both accounts agree that throughout his final years Beebe remained fond of playing practical jokes on his visitors at Simla, and retained his sense of humor even within days of his death.
William Beebe died of pneumonia at Simla on June 4, 1962. According to his wishes, he was buried in Mucurapo Cemetery in Port of Spain. Memorial services were held in both Trinidad and Tobago and New York City so that Beebe's friends in both parts of the world could attend. Following Beebe's death, Jocelyn succeeded him as the director of the Department of Tropical Research and continued to run the Simla station along with the rest of Beebe's former staff.
Beebe had frequently worried that Elswyth would write a biography of him after his death. To prevent this possibility, he left all of his papers and journals to Jocelyn. After Elswyth died in 1984, Jocelyn donated Beebe's papers to the Department of Rare Books and Special Collections at Princeton University's Firestone Library. Even in the possession of Firestone Library, Beebe's papers remained inaccessible without Jocelyn's permission, and most scholars were prevented from using them until Jocelyn offered access to the writer, Carol Grant Gould, to write Beebe's biography. The Archives of the Wildlife Conservation Society also holds several collections related to the Department of Tropical Research.
Personality and cultural image
William Beebe was more famous in the United States than any other American naturalist before the days of television. As a scientific writer who participated in both the popular and academic worlds, he occupied a similar role to the role later occupied by Stephen Jay Gould. Beebe was a well-known figure in the Roaring Twenties of New York City and was friends with numerous other well-known figures of the period, including Fannie Hurst and the cartoonist Rube Goldberg. Although he was not physically handsome in the traditional sense, he tended to dominate every social and professional situation due to his enthusiasm, intelligence, and charisma. As a result of his much-publicized divorce from Blair and his later marriage to Elswyth, he was also known for his stormy relationships with women.
Beebe described his religious beliefs as a combination of Presbyterianism and Buddhism. His religion was largely the result of seeking to combine his sense of awe and wonder at the natural world with a scientific understanding of its workings. He was highly critical of efforts to use science to justify political ideologies, such as socialism or the belief that women were inferior to men. Beebe also disapproved of the eugenic ideas advocated by many biologists in the early 20th century, including some of his contemporaries at the zoo, although this was largely out of fear that these ideas would alienate friends of the zoo and cause divisions among its staff.
Beebe had a troubled relationship with some of his superiors at the zoo, particularly Hornaday, who was resentful of Beebe's constant demands for more funding and staff, as well as the fact that as Beebe's career progressed he gradually devoted less and less time to care for the zoo itself. One particular point of disagreement was Beebe's forgetfulness about returning books which he had borrowed from the Zoological Society's Library, which would occasionally go missing for years as a result. However, Hornaday never publicly expressed his disagreements with Beebe and did not hesitate to defend Beebe's work when others criticized it.
Beebe had high expectations of the people working under him on all of his expeditions, although he never revealed the exact characteristics that he looked for in potential employees. Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr. recounts one incident in which Beebe turned down a scientist who wished to work with him when the scientist described boredom with his current duties as one of his reasons for requesting this. In response to this request, Beebe retorted:
Beebe nonetheless exhibited a high degree of loyalty to those employees who were capable of meeting his standards. When he felt that the pressure of working under him had become too great, he would announce that his birthday was approaching, and his staff would have several days free from work to celebrate it. On one such occasion, when a scientist working under Beebe whispered to him that he knew it was not in fact Beebe's birthday, Beebe responded "A man should have a birthday when he needs one".
Impact of work and legacy
William Beebe was a pioneer in the field now known as ecology. His theory that organisms must be understood in the context of the ecosystems they inhabit was completely new for its time and has been highly influential. The method he invented of methodically analyzing all organisms within a small area of wilderness has become a standard method in this field. Beebe was also a pioneer in the field of oceanography, setting a precedent with his Bathysphere dives which many other researchers would follow.
E. O. Wilson, Sylvia Earle and Ernst Mayr have all described Beebe's work as an influence on their own choice of careers. Among the most significant of Beebe's influences on other researchers was Rachel Carson, who regarded Beebe as both a friend and an inspiration. Carson dedicated her 1951 book The Sea Around Us to Beebe, writing "My absorption in the mystery and meaning of the sea have been stimulated and the writing of this book aided by the friendship and encouragement of William Beebe." Due to Beebe's renewed emphasis on field research at a time when laboratory studies were becoming the dominant trend in biology, more recent field researchers such as Jane Goodall and George Schaller are also sometimes considered his intellectual descendants.
By writing for a scientific as well as the popular audience, Beebe did much to make science accessible to the general public. This was particularly significant in the area of conservation, of which he was one of the most important early advocates. With his many writings about the dangers of environmental destruction, Beebe helped to raise public awareness about this topic. However, Beebe's prolific writing for a popular audience had a downside, in that other scientists of his time were reluctant to hold him in high accord because they regarded him as a popularizer.
During the course of his career, Beebe authored over 800 articles and 21 books, including his four-volume pheasant monograph. He had a total of 64 animals named after him, and he described one new species of bird and 87 species of fish. While 83 of the fish that he described were done so in a conventional manner, the remaining four were done so based on visual observations.
A lingering controversy exists in ichthyology over the validity of the four species Beebe described based on visual descriptions only, which he had observed during his Bathysphere dives. The naming of a new species ordinarily requires obtaining and analyzing a type specimen, something which was obviously impossible from inside the Bathysphere. Some of Beebe's critics claimed that these fish were illusions resulting from condensation on the Bathysphere's window, or even that Beebe willfully made them up, although the latter would have been strongly at odds with Beebe's reputation as an honest and rigorous scientist. While many of Beebe's observations from the Bathysphere have since been confirmed by advances in undersea photography, it is unclear whether others fit the description of any known sea animal. One possibility is that although these animals indeed exist, so much remains to be discovered about life in the deep ocean that these animals have yet to be seen by anyone other than him.
Tetrapteryx
Along with his analysis of pheasant phylogeny and his studies of life in the Galápagos Islands, Beebe regarded one of his most important contributions to the field of evolutionary biology to be his hypothesis that the ancestors of birds passed through what he referred to as a “Tetrapteryx stage”, with wings on both their front and hind limbs. Beebe based this theory on his observation that the hatchlings and embryos of some modern birds possess long quill feathers on their legs, which he regarded as an atavism; he also noticed vestiges of leg-wings on one of the specimens of Archaeopteryx. Beebe described his idea in a 1915 paper published in Zoologica, titled "A Tetrapteryx Stage in the Ancestry of Birds".
Gerhard Heilmann discussed Beebe's Tetrapteryx hypothesis at considerable length in his 1926 book The Origin of Birds. Heilmann examined hatchlings of many other bird species, both closely related to those studied by Beebe and belonging to more primitive species, in hope of finding additional evidence for the leg-wings which Beebe had documented. After failing to find such evidence, Heilmann ultimately rejected Beebe's Tetrapteryx hypothesis, and this remained the consensus among ornithologists for the next several decades. Beebe, however, continued to advance his Tetrapteryx hypothesis as late as the 1940s.
In 2003, Beebe's Tetrapteryx hypothesis was supported by the discovery of Microraptor gui, a small feathered dinosaur which possessed asymmetrical flight feathers on both its front and hind limbs. Beebe's Tetrapteryx hypothesis is now regarded as prescient for its prediction of both the anatomy and likely gliding posture of Microraptor gui, which Richard O. Prum has described as "[looking] as if it could have glided straight out of the pages of Beebe’s notebooks." This animal's discovery has had the effect of resurrecting Beebe's theory that leg feathers played an important role in the origin of bird flight.
William Beebe Tropical Research Station
Following William Beebe's death in 1962, his research station at Simla remained in operation under Jocelyn Crane's management, under the new name of the William Beebe Tropical Research Station. However, because Jocelyn's research required her to travel north for extended periods, by 1965 she had little time to keep the station running. By 1971, the station had fallen into disuse and was declared closed. Meanwhile, as Asa Wright's health began to fail in her old age, her friends began to fear that after her death her neighboring estate of Spring Hill might be lost to developers and established a trust to buy the estate and convert it into the Asa Wright nature center. In 1974, Beebe's property was donated to the newly established Asa Wright Nature Center.
Now under the management of the Asa Wright Nature Center, the William Beebe Tropical Research Station has gradually been renovated. It is now once again actively involved in research and an important gathering place for scientists. It is also a popular destination for birdwatchers, who can observe the same populations of hummingbirds, tanagers and oilbirds that William Beebe studied decades earlier.
See also
:Category: Taxa named by William Beebe
References
Sources
Further reading
"William Beebe," in Tom Taylor and Michael Taylor, Aves: A Survey of the Literature of Neotropical Ornithology'', Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Libraries, 2011.
External links
The "Official William Beebe Website"
Asa Wright Nature Centre & Lodge
William Beebe Tropical Research Station
Department of Tropical Research collections finding aids, Wildlife Conservation Society Archives
Article (free access) on William Beebe's contributions to Deep-Sea Biology
1877 births
1962 deaths
American curators
American ecologists
American entomologists
American explorers
American marine biologists
American naturalists
American ornithologists
American science writers
Bermuda in World War II
John Burroughs Medal recipients
Scientists from Brooklyn
Wildlife Conservation Society people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory%20Swedish
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Mandatory Swedish
|
Swedish is a mandatory school subject for Finnish-speaking pupils in the last four years of primary education (grades 6 to 9). This other domestic language is also mandatory in high schools, vocational schools, and vocational universities. Furthermore, all university graduates must demonstrate a certain level of proficiency in Swedish (the so-called public servant's Swedish). Altogether, 89% of Finnish citizens are native Finnish speakers, whereas 5.3% of the population report Swedish as their mother tongue. It is currently possible for Finnish citizens to report a different mother tongue for themselves as many times as desired by submitting a form to the Population Register Center.
According to the Finnish constitution, both Finnish and Swedish are national languages. The employees of the national government and the bilingual municipal governments are required to be capable of serving citizens in Swedish. The official term for both mandatory Swedish and Finnish is the other domestic language. The requirement to study Swedish is often referred to as pakkoruotsi, a somewhat charged term in Finnish meaning "mandatory Swedish", or "enforced Swedish," and similarly, Finnish as a mandatory school subject for native Swedish speakers in Finland is sometimes referred to as "mandatory Finnish" or "enforced Finnish" (tvångsfinska).
In Sweden, the study of the Swedish language in Finland or elsewhere is referred to as educational Swedish or Swedish as a school subject (skolsvenska); Finnish talk of "mandatory Swedish" is seen as a bizarre phenomenon.
Overview
The status of Swedish as a national language in Finland is defined by the Finnish constitution. During the Middle Ages, Swedish-speaking peasants migrated to some Finnish coastal areas. Finland was ruled by Sweden at this time, and the Swedish language became part of the culture in those coastal areas, as well as the language of the ruling classes. The Finnish and Swedish languages was denied official status until the period of Russian rule (1809–1917) began in 1860.
In Mainland Finland, both Finnish and Swedish are mandatory subjects in primary and secondary schools. The Swedish Matriculation Examination was made voluntary in 2004, although all university graduates must demonstrate that their skills in the other official language meet the standard required of all academically educated public servants. This means the completion of a so-called public servant's Swedish test. The autonomous territory Åland (pop. 26,000, 95% Swedish, 5% Finnish) have only one official language, Swedish, and the speaking of Finnish between employees is forbidden in some public services. Protection of the Swedish language is one of the main agendas of the Swedish People's Party, which has been a minor partner in most cabinets since Finland's independence, and in all cabinets between 1972 and 2015.
Supporters of Mandatory Swedish argue that the policy brings Finland closer to the Nordic countries, since Swedish is part of the larger Scandinavian dialect continuum and mutually intelligible with both Danish and Norwegian. On the contrary, Finnish belongs to the unrelated Finnic language group. The Scandinavian languages have over 25 million speakers in the Nordic region and are the largest languages by far. They are also the working languages of the Nordic political bodies (the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers), and are spoken in all the Nordic countries as majority, official or second languages. Due to this, proponents of mandatory Swedish regard Finnish citizens' knowledge of Swedish is as essential for Finland's ability to be included in Nordic cooperation and maintain its Nordic identity. Supporters argue that knowledge of Swedish gives Finnish citizens access to the culture and labour market of Scandinavia, a region four times the size of Finland. They also believe that it gives Finnish citizens access to Finland's own history, as for 600 years, Swedish was Finland's sole language of prestige and government, used as the medium of administration, the judiciary and higher education. Lastly, they argue mandatory Swedish is necessary to ensure that Swedish-speakers can interact with governmental institutions and get service, such as health care, in their own mother tongue.
History
The area that today is Finland was an integral part of Sweden proper from the Middle Ages to the end of the Finnish War in 1809. Swedish migrants settled in coastal areas, and the language of administration was Swedish. This prompted many Finnish-speakers to learn Swedish in hopes of improving their social status, with some switching to Swedish altogether.
Following the Finnish War, Sweden ceded Finland to Russia, and the Russian tsar established the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. Although a Governor-General was installed by the Russians as the highest authority within the Grand Duchy, much of the political system remained the same: Finland was allowed to keep its ”laws, religion and language” from the Swedish time. The tsar wanted to avoid trouble in the new territory, and also used former Swedish upper class to further modernization in Russia; Finnish could not be used as an official language at this time because the administration did not know Finnish well enough and the language was undeveloped regarding such use.
When Finland became autonomous, there was a big interest in the mostly Swedish speaking upper class in creating a new national identity and exploring the Finnish language and Finnish culture. At some point, the Fennoman movement arose, arguing that the country should be a united nation, with only one language. As a reaction, the Svecoman movement began and grew in strength, representing fears that abandoning Swedish would lead to slavicisation or worse.
However, during the 1860s, under Tsar Alexander II, legal equality between Finnish and Swedish as languages of administration gradually began to be introduced. Thus, since the late 19th century, Finnish has been a co-official language of administration in Finland. Modernizations typical for the era were introduced, boosting the status of the Finnish-speaking majority: the special rights of the higher estates of the realm were abolished, and a modern parliament based on universal suffrage was introduced 1907. Eventually, in 1917, Finland became independent.
The current form of mandatory Swedish was implemented as a part of the modernization of the educational system in the 1970s. Previously, a Swedish test had been compulsory on university level and in oppikoulu, a secondary school that was a prerequisite to matriculation to a university, but not in the common kansakoulu. The introduction of the peruskoulu (student ages 7–15), compulsory for all children, introduced a course in Swedish compulsory to all pupils, while Swedish courses and standardized tests at higher levels remained mandatory. This was primarily motivated by the possibility that any student could become a public official, and would thus be required to know Swedish.
Current situation
A compulsory introductory course to Swedish for all pupils in primary education was introduced in the 1960s as a part of modernization of the primary education system, at the same time the nine-year school (peruskoulu, grundskola) was made universally compulsory. Until then, there had been mandatory courses only in secondary and tertiary education. Since the end of the 19th century, administrative services have been offered in both domestic languages; therefore, employees are proficient in both Finnish and Swedish. The reform was based on a political ambition to strengthen ties with the Western world through Scandinavia, and to show that Finland was a part of the Nordic countries, not an Eastern Bloc country. It also sought to improve social mobility by ensuring that a decision on language in the early school years would not become an obstacle for applicants to the civil service.
In the upper secondary general school all students learn at least two languages besides their mother tongue, one of which is the other domestic language, except for people studying some other language as their mother tongue (e.g. immigrants and those studying Sami). Finnish speakers take Swedish, and vice versa. According to Statistics Finland, practically all the students take English, either as a compulsory or an optional language. There is also a possibility to take one or more extra foreign languages. Despite Finland being a neighbour of Russia, Russian is not taught in most schools of Finland, and only 1.5% of Finns know some Russian. Due to relatively little cultural exchange between the Finns and Russians in the 20th century and Finland's hostile relations with the Soviet Union following the Finnish Civil War (1918) until World War II (1939–1944), tensions persist between Finland and Russia.
The arrangement of "mandatory Swedish and practically-mandatory English" has been criticized as reducing the diversity of the language skills of the population. The EU target is to teach two foreign languages; as English is an overwhelmingly popular choice, it has been suggested by, for example, the Confederation of Finnish Industries that keeping Swedish compulsory directly prevents choosing other languages.
Surveys
A number of studies into opinions regarding mandatory Swedish have been made with various results. The large differences between studies exemplifies the problems in conducting a neutral and broad study without asking leading questions on the subject. Furthermore, some of the studies have been commissioned by organizations that have politically partisan views on the subject of mandatory Swedish.
Between 1990 and 2003, Taloustutkimus Oy conducted more than ten surveys for Suomalaisuuden liitto, an organization opposing mandatory Swedish. According to these surveys, 66–72% of Finns were "in favor of voluntary Swedish education or against mandatory Swedish education".
Suomen Gallup's 2003 survey concluded that while a small majority supported "compulsory second domestic language studying", it was opposed by 42% of Finns, and 25% did not want both Finnish and Swedish to be official languages of Finland. This study was commissioned by Yle, the Finnish publicly funded national broadcasting company. The question posed to those surveyed was very verbose in comparison to the Taloustutkimus surveys on the same subject. The question did not include the word "Swedish".
In 1992, a study by Valitut Palat (the Finnish edition of Reader's Digest) concluded that 90 percent of parents of third to fourth grade pupils "supported a reduction of compulsory languages" (only Finnish and Swedish are compulsory). When Valitut Palat did a new survey in 2003 it found 64% opposed mandatory Swedish, and 25% did not desire two official languages.
An IEA study (2000) revealed that 67% of young people studying in Finnish-speaking schools wanted to make Swedish a voluntary subject. The most politically aware youths were the most critical against Swedishness in this study.
A study conducted in 1997 by Folktinget, an official consultative organization representing Finland's Swedish-speakers, concluded that 70% of the Finnish-speaking population considered "Swedish a vital and important part of Finnish society." This study also indicated that the most negative opinions about mandatory Swedish were found among those with academic degrees.
A study conducted by Taloustutkimus for Yle in 2013 indicated that 63 percent of respondents were opposed to mandatory Swedish. Further, the study indicated that among the supporters of the different political parties, only supporters of the Swedish People's Party and the Green League favoured retaining mandatory Swedish teaching. A majority of supporters in all other parties wanted Swedish teaching to be voluntary – the supporters of the Finns Party and the Social Democrats were most heavily in favor of making Swedish voluntary (76 and 73 percent respectively).
A study conducted by Åbo Akademi in 2014 indicated that 74 percent of Finnish speaking respondents agreed with the statement "The teaching of the Swedish language should be voluntary".
Opinions
In many cases, pupils have negative expectations and experiences of learning Swedish, which may foster a negative attitude towards the Swedish language and culture. This behavior is claimed to hark back to a time when Finland was a part of Sweden (see Sweden–Finland), and Swedish was the language of prestige while Finnish was looked down on by the government. Negative opinions towards studying Swedish are also grounded in the fact that mandatory Swedish is taught throughout the country, even though there are few Swedish-speakers in mainland Finland outside the coastal area by the Baltic Sea. This fact can make the policy of bilingualism seem artificial, but the basic curriculum remains the same for the entire country.
According to a study published in 2002, students are interested in the Swedish language, and find it an important part of education, but they perceived the compulsory nature of Swedish language education lessened their motivation (this argument has been made very frequently in the public debate). The experiment of making the Swedish test voluntary in the matriculation examination (the completion of which is a de facto requirement for university enrollment) was declared successful and has been made permanent. The percentage of students taking the Swedish test has since been constantly dropping and was 67% in 2009 (less than 50% of boys).
There has also been a lot of criticism of the methodology used to teach Swedish and the lack of competence in many of the teachers. This has contributed to students' lack of motivation to study Swedish, and many may not learn to speak the language beyond a very basic level. Some students argue that they will never need Swedish, as its utility in the Finnish job market is limited to a few fields. Moreover, the rationale of mandatory tuition in Swedish and other subjects is to give the students a more general knowledge base, and not to train them for a specific field.
In addition to the direct costs of the tuition, some argue that mandatory Swedish effectively replaces elective courses in languages such as French, German and Russian, which these persons argue are more important than Swedish in a globalized world. University students are required to not only master their selected field, but also to study at least two languages beside their mother tongue, one of which is obligatorily Swedish for Finnish-speakers. As study material is often in English, this effectively removes the free choice; the two "voluntarily chosen" languages must be Swedish and English. Additionally, very few Finns speak Estonian (which is not taught in most schools), a language of the same Finnic language group as Finnish, and national language of Finland's southern neighbor Estonia (although Finnish is popular in Estonia).
Sentiments toward mandatory Swedish vary. Many prominent politicians (both Finnish- and Swedish-speaking) wholeheartedly support mandatory Swedish in schools, while others oppose it. There have been numerous petitions and other similar campaigns arranged by some small but dedicated organizations to pressure lawmakers into abolishing mandatory Swedish; however, to date, they have had no significant impact on the established policy. Thus, while the ongoing debate is often heated and passionate, the support for mandatory Swedish tuition remains strong enough among politicians for the government not to consider a change of policy.
Mandatory Swedish is supported by most political parties in Finland, like the National Coalition Party, the Centre Party, the Social Democrats and the Left Alliance. The Finns Party opposes mandatory Swedish, and so does the youth wing of the National Coalition Party.
In 2013, the Confederation of Finnish Industries came out in favor of making Swedish teaching voluntary. They referred to a study which indicated that, in the future, Swedish will only be the tenth most important language to Finnish companies. According to Hufvudstadsbladet, the Confederation has subsequently changed their stance and no longer favors making Swedish voluntary, while maintaining the need for learning other languages.
In the Finnish Parliament
In the 2000s, the government dropped the requirement to take Swedish (or Finnish in the case of the Swedish-speaking minority) as part of the high school matriculation examination.
In 2014, a citizens' initiative demanding an end to mandatory Swedish teaching on all levels of education was brought to the Finnish Parliament. In 2015, the MPs voted (134 to 48) to keep mandatory Swedish. In another vote, the MPs voted (93 to 89) to demand that the government should examine whether a regional experimentation—where another language would be taught instead of Swedish—is possible.
See also
Finland's language strife
Sources
External links
IHT: In Finland, a battle of the tongues
The Language Choice Society
The Finnish Alliance
Finlex: Government regulation on classification of municipalities according to language
Linguistic rights
Swedish-language education
Languages of Finland
Finland Swedish
Education in Finland
Language education in Finland
Language policy in Finland
Majority–minority relations
Linguistic controversies
Education issues
|
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205790
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia
|
Sophia
|
Sophia means "wisdom" in Greek. It may refer to:
Sophia (wisdom)
Sophia (Gnosticism)
Sophia (given name)
Places
Niulakita or Sophia, an island of Tuvalu
Sophia, Georgetown, a ward of Georgetown, Guyana
Sophia, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in Randolph County
Sophia, West Virginia
Arts, entertainment and media
Books and publications
Sophia (journal), a periodical about religious and theological philosophy
Sophia (novel) by Charlotte Lennox (1762)
Music
Sophia (British band)
Sophia (Japanese band)
Sophia (singer) or Sophia Abrahão, pop singer from Brazil
Sophia (The Crüxshadows EP)
Sophia (Sophia EP)
"Sophia" (Nerina Pallot song)
"Sophia" (Laura Marling song)
"Sophia", a song by Good Shoes from Think Before You Speak
"Sophia", a song by Laura Nyro from Mother's Spiritual
"Sophia", a song by Six Organs of Admittance from Dust and Chimes
Other
Sophia 3rd, a fictional tank in the video game Blaster Master
Organizations
Ecclesia Pistis Sophia, a neo-Gnostic church
Society for the Promotion of Himalayan Indigenous Activities (SOPHIA), nongovernmental organization based in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India (1996)
Other uses
Sophia (robot), a humanoid robot and Saudi Arabian citizen developed in Hong Kong (2017)
251 Sophia, a main belt asteroid (1885)
Operation Sophia or EU Navfor Med, a European Union Naval Force operation in the Mediterranean (2015)
See also
Hagia Sophia (disambiguation)
Sofia (disambiguation)
Sophiology, a philosophical concept regarding wisdom, as well as a theological concept regarding the wisdom of God
|
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205791
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boven%20Merwede
|
Boven Merwede
|
The Boven Merwede is a stretch of river in the Netherlands, mainly fed by the river Rhine. The Afgedamde Maas river joins the Waal at Woudrichem to form the Boven Merwede, which at Hardinxveld-Giessendam splits into the Beneden Merwede river on the right and the Nieuwe Merwede river on the left. Its length is 8.8 km. The Merwede is part of the main shipping route between Rotterdam and Germany.
A road bridge connects the west side of Gorinchem on the north to the west side of Sleeuwijk on the south.
There are three passenger ferries.
Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Distributaries of Europe
Rivers of North Brabant
Rivers of South Holland
Rivers of the Netherlands
Alblasserwaard
Land van Heusden en Altena
Geography of Altena, North Brabant
Gorinchem
Hardinxveld-Giessendam
|
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205794
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afgedamde%20Maas
|
Afgedamde Maas
|
The Afgedamde Maas (Dammed-up Meuse) is a former distributary of the Maas River (French: Meuse) in the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Gelderland. The Maas splits near Heusden with one channel flowing north until its confluence with the river Waal (the main distributary of the river Rhine) to form the Merwede, while the other channel (the Bergse Maas) continues west as the main distributary of the Maas.
History
The current Afgedamde Maas was created in the late Middle Ages, when a major flood made a connection between the Maas and the Merwede at the town of Woudrichem. From that moment on, the current Afgedamde Maas was the main branch of the river Maas. The former main branch eventually silted up and is today called the Oude Maasje. With the completion of the Wilhelminasluis (nl) in 1896, the connection between the Maas and Rhine was closed. The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Maas reduced the risk of flooding and is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works. In 1904, the Maas was damned off at its southern end and given an artificial mouth, the Bergse Maas. The closed off portion was then named the Afgedamde Maas and was connected to the Bergse Maas via the Heusden Canal to retain shipping between the Maas and Rhine. Floods of the waterway in 1993 and 1995, however, created the need to be able to close the Heusden Canal off from the Bergse Maas and maintain a fixed water level, and the Kromme Nolkering (nl) control lock was completed in 2002.
Transport
There is a car ferry, not operating on Sundays, and a foot passenger ferry.
References
Rivers of Gelderland
Rivers of North Brabant
Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Rivers of the Netherlands
Land van Heusden en Altena
Geography of Altena, North Brabant
Zaltbommel
|
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205795
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haringvliet
|
Haringvliet
|
The Haringvliet is a large inlet of the North Sea, in the province of South Holland in the Netherlands. It is an important estuary of the Rhine-Meuse delta.
Near Numansdorp, the Hollands Diep splits into the Haringvliet and the Volkerak estuaries. It is closed off near Goedereede from the North Sea by the Haringvlietdam, which provides a road connection between the island of Voorne to the north and the island of Goeree-Overflakkee to the south. The dam with its sluices was built as part of the Delta Works sea barrier protection works.
The Haringvliet estuary contains the island of Tiengemeten, which is separated from the river island of Hoeksche Waard by the Vuile Gat strait.
History
The Haringvliet was formed as a result of the extensive flooding event of 1216, which breached the dunes of Voorne and created a deep saltwater inlet. During a second flooding event, the St. Elizabeth floods of 1421, this inlet connected to the Merwede and became an important estuary of the Rhine and Meuse rivers.
It used to be ecologically rich, and its brackish waters, fed by both rivers and sea, supported a healthy population of seals. It also provided an access point for migrating fish like salmon and sturgeon. As a result of the North Sea flood of 1953 the Haringvliet was closed off by the Haringvlietdam. The Haringvliet lost its estuarine characteristics and became a freshwater lake. Because of that, the seals are gone and migrating fish can only enter the Rhine-Meuse Delta through the busy and heavy industrialised Nieuwe Waterweg.
There are plans to permanently open a few of the Haringvliet sluices, to partly restore the ecosystem.
References
Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Ramsar sites in the Netherlands
Natura 2000 in the Netherlands
Goeree-Overflakkee
Hoeksche Waard
Lakes of the Netherlands
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valis%20%28novel%29
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Valis (novel)
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Valis (stylized as VALIS) is a 1981 science fiction novel by American writer Philip K. Dick, it is one book of a three part series. The title is an acronym for Vast Active Living Intelligence System, Dick's gnostic vision of God. Set in California during the 1970s, the book features heavy auto-biographical elements and draws inspiration from Dick's own investigations into his unexplained religious experiences over the previous decade.
It is the first book in the incomplete VALIS trilogy of novels, followed by The Divine Invasion (1981). The planned third novel, The Owl in Daylight, had not yet taken definite shape at the time of the author's death. Dick's final novel, The Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982), builds on similar themes; Dick wrote: "the three do form a trilogy constellating around a basic theme."
Synopsis
In March, 1974, Horselover Fat (the alter-personality of Philip K. Dick) experiences visions of a pink beam of light that he calls Zebra and interprets as a theophany exposing hidden facts about the reality of our universe, and a group of others join him in researching these matters. One of their theories is that there is some kind of alien space probe in orbit around Earth, and that it is aiding them in their quest; it also aided the United States in disclosing the Watergate scandal and the resignation of Richard Nixon in August, 1974. Kevin turns his friends onto a film called Valis that contains obvious references to revelations identical to those that Horselover Fat has experienced, including what appears to be time dysfunction. The film is itself a fictional account of an alternative-universe version of Nixon ("Ferris F. Fremount") and his fall, engineered by a satellite called . (The plot of the fictitious film Valis was that of Dick's then-unpublished novel Radio Free Albemuth.) In seeking the film's makers, Kevin, Phil, Fat, and David—now calling themselves the Rhipidon Society—head to an estate owned by popular musician Eric Lampton and his wife Linda. They decide the goal that they have been led toward is Sophia Lampton, who is two-years old and the Messiah or incarnation of Holy Wisdom (Pistis Sophia) anticipated by some variants of Gnostic Christianity. In addition to healing Phil's schizophrenic personality split, she tells them that their conclusions about (which Fat had previously termed "Zebra") and reality are correct, and more importantly, that we should worship, not gods, but humanity. She dies two days later due to a laser accident caused by Brent Mini. Undeterred, Fat (who has now resurged) goes on a global search for the next incarnation of Sophia.
Dick also offers a rationalist explanation of his apparent theophany, acknowledging that it might have been visual and auditory hallucinations from either schizophrenia or drug addiction sequelae.
Characters
Phil (Philip K. Dick): Narrator (first person), science fiction writer, author of Man in the High Castle, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, and Three Stigmata.
Horselover Fat: Narrator (third person), a schizophrenic modality of Phil himself. (Philip in Greek means "fond of horses"; dick is German for "fat".)
Gloria Knudson: Suicidal friend of Fat's who Fat is unable to save.
Kevin: Cynical friend of Fat's whose cat died running across the street, based on K. W. Jeter.
Sherri Solvig: Church-going friend of Fat's, eventually dies from lymphatic cancer.
David: Catholic friend of Fat's, based on Tim Powers.
Eric Lampton: Rock star, screenwriter, actor, a. k. a. "Mother Goose"; a fictionalised version of David Bowie. Name derived from that of rock star Eric Clapton.
Linda Lampton: Actress, wife of Eric Lampton.
Brent Mini: Electronic composer, a fictionalised version of Brian Eno.
Sophia Lampton: Two-year-old child (personalised incarnation of Holy Wisdom within some variants of Gnosticism), said to be the daughter of Linda Lampton and and the "Fifth Savior".
The Rhipidon Society
Phil, Fat, Kevin, and David decide to call themselves the Rhipidon Society. The motto they adopt is, "Fish cannot carry guns."
Planned trilogy
Radio Free Albemuth, a posthumously published earlier version of VALIS, is not included as a component of the VALIS trilogy. Dick completed one more novel after The Divine Invasion, The Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982), based on Dick's association with Bishop James A. Pike and which, while not referencing VALIS directly, is thematically similar; Dick wrote: "the three do form a trilogy constellating around a basic theme."
Reception
Greg Costikyan reviewed Valis in Ares Magazine #9 and commented that "The plot is minor, the characterization poor, and the prose unexciting; philosophy and deft manipulation of mood are not enough to carry the book."
Dave Langford reviewed Valis for White Dwarf #98, and stated that "Here a hard-headed Dick gently mocks the weird metaphysics of Fat through a series of wonderfully insane conversations and misadventures: a slapstick-tightrope-dance over a bit of potential insanity, a wrestle with demons in which (both inside and outside Valis) Dick is the unexpected winner."
Thomas M. Disch reported that "the fascination of the book, what's most artful and confounding about it, is the way the line between Dick and Fat shifts and wavers." Disch concludes that "as a novel, as a whole novel . . . it went off the rails sometimes. But the first half holds together wonderfully, considering how much there is to be held together."
Umberto Rossi posits that some degree of academic discomfort towards the novel has resulted from uncertainty whether Dick genuinely believed in the more fantastical aspects of the narrative (further supported by the Exegesis which followed). In detailing the many ideological shunts between skepticism and belief which occur within the plot, Rossi concludes Dick intended neither view to achieve hegemony, but that the synthesis of both effectively depict "the unyielding contradictions in [Dick's] experience of self... Being involved in a quest does not automatically confer enlightenment, but rather involves a search for the light; the condition of the quester is one of doubt, not certainty."
Dick's Exegesis
V has been described as one node of an artificial satellite network originating from the star Sirius in the Canis Major constellation. According to Dick, the Earth satellite used "pink laser beams" to transfer information and project holograms on Earth and to facilitate communication between an extraterrestrial species and humanity. Dick claimed that used "disinhibiting stimuli" to communicate, using symbols to trigger recollection of intrinsic knowledge through the loss of amnesia, achieving gnosis. Drawing directly from Platonism and Gnosticism, Dick wrote in his Exegesis: "We appear to be memory coils (DNA carriers capable of experience) in a computer-like thinking system which, although we have correctly recorded and stored thousands of years of experiential information, and each of us possesses somewhat different deposits from all the other life forms, there is a malfunction—a failure—of memory retrieval."
At one point, Dick claimed to be in a state of enthousiasmos with , where he was informed his infant son was in danger of perishing from an unnamed malady. Routine checkups on the child had shown no trouble or illness; however, Dick insisted that thorough tests be run to ensure his son's health. The doctor eventually complied, despite the fact that there were no apparent symptoms. During the examination doctors discovered an inguinal hernia, which would have killed the child if an operation was not quickly performed. His son survived thanks to the operation, which Dick attributed to the "intervention" of .
Another event was an episode of supposed xenoglossia. Supposedly, Dick's wife transcribed the sounds she heard him speak, and discovered that he was speaking Koine Greek—the common Greek dialect during the Hellenistic years (3rd century BC–4th century AD) and direct "father" of today's modern Greek language—which he had never studied. As Dick was to later discover, Koine Greek was originally used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint. However, this was not the first time Dick had claimed xenoglossia: a decade earlier, Dick insisted he was able to think, speak, and read fluent Latin under the influence of Sandoz LSD-25.
The UK edition of VALIS also included "Cosmology and Cosmogony", a chapbook containing selections from Dick's Exegesis.
Philosophical and cultural references
Theology and philosophy, especially metaphysical philosophy, play an important role in VALIS, presenting not just Dick's (and/or Horselover Fat's) own views on these subjects but also his interpretation of numerous religions and philosophies of the past. The most prominent religious references are to Valentinian Gnosticism, the Rose Cross Brotherhood, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, as well as Biblical writings including the Book of Daniel and the New Testament epistles. Many ancient Greek philosophers are discussed, including several Pre-Socratics (Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Empedocles, and Parmenides) as well as Plato and Aristotle. More recent thinkers that are mentioned include the philosophers Pascal and Schopenhauer, the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme, the alchemist Paracelsus, Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud, the Romanian historian of religion Mircea Eliade, and the author and psychologist Robert Anton Wilson. In Wilson's autobiographical Cosmic Trigger (released shortly before Dick commenced work on VALIS), Wilson describes similar musings concerning the 'Sirius Connection', contemplating the idea that alien entities are sending out waves of information that we can tune in on. VALIS specifically mentions the Dogon people, saying that they had encountered three-eyed people who had descended from Ikhnaton. References are also made to numerous deities, including Yurugu (who it associates with Yin) and Nommo (who it associates with Yang); it also suggests a blind, mad creator deity called Yaldaboath or Samael. The novel frequently references the 1945 discovery at Nag Hammadi.
The action of VALIS is set firmly in the American popular culture of its time, with references to the Grateful Dead, Frank Zappa, and Linda Ronstadt, as well as the fictional rock musicians Eric Lampton and Brent Mini (likely based on David Bowie and Brian Eno respectively). However, the novel also contains a number of high culture references such as the poets Vaughan, Wordsworth, and Goethe, and the classical composers Handel and Wagner. In particular, the novel contains several extended discussions about Wagner's metaphysical opera Parsifal.
Black Iron Prison
"The Black Iron Prison" is a concept of an all-pervasive system of social control postulated in the Tractates Cryptica Scriptura, a summary of an unpublished Gnostic exegesis included in VALIS. Dick wrote:
{{bquote|Once, in a cheap science fiction novel, Fat had come across a perfect description of the Black Iron Prison, but set in the far future. So if you superimposed the past (ancient Rome) over the present (California in the twentieth century) and superimposed the far future world of The Android Cried Me a River over that, you got the Empire, as the supra- or trans-temporal constant. Everyone who had ever lived was literally surrounded by the iron walls of the prison; they were all inside it and none of them knew it.}}
In popular cultureVALIS was adapted in 1987 as an electronic opera by composer Tod Machover, and performed at Centre Georges Pompidou, with live singers and video installations created by artist Catherine Ikam.
On February 1, 2004, Variety announced that Utopia Pictures & Television had acquired the rights to three of Philip K. Dick's works: Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said, VALIS, and Radio Free Albemuth.VALIS appeared in the TV show Lost. In the episode "Eggtown", aired February 21, 2008, the character John Locke gives Ben Linus the book to read from Ben's own book shelf, while Ben is being held captive. In "The Other Woman", aired March 6, 2008, Ben is again shown reading the novel before being interrupted by Locke.
John Alan Simon, director of the film adaptation of Radio Free Albemuth, remarked that VALIS will form the basis of a sequel to that film if it is successful: "Since Radio Free Albemuth is essentially the first draft of VALIS, we ended up with rights to both from the estate of Philip K. Dick. If Radio Free Albemuth is successful, VALIS the book would form the basis for the sequel to VALIS the movie. In other words, the story of VALIS would form the basis for VALIS 2."
British indie rock band Bloc Party has a song titled "V.A.L.I.S." on their 2012 album Four.
Progressive metal band Tacoma Narrows Bridge Disaster have songs named "Exegesis", "Valis" and "Black Iron Prison", all inspired by Dick's work, on their 2012 album Exegesis.
Portuguese double bassist Hugo Carvalhais's 3rd album Grand Valis (Clean Feed Records 2015) is inspired by Dick's book.
See also
Unreliable narrator
References
Sources
Galbreath, Robert, (1982). "Salvation-Knowledge: Ironic Gnosticism in VALIS and The Flight to Lucifer," in Science-Fiction Dialogues, Gary K. Wolfe, ed. Chicago: Academy Chicago, pp. 115–32.
___ (1983). "Redemption and doubt in Philip K. Dick's VALIS Trilogy", Extrapolation 24:2, pp. 105–15.
Palmer, Christopher, (1991). "Postmodernism and the Birth of the Author in Philip K. Dick's VALIS," Science-Fiction Studies 55, 18:3, pp. 330–42.
Stilling, Roger J., (1991). "Mystical Healing: Reading Philip K. Dick's VALIS and The Divine Invasion as Metapsychoanalytic Novels", South Atlantic Review 56: 2, pp. 91–106
Dick, Philip K., Lee, Gwen, Sauter, Doris E., What If Our World is Their Heaven (2001) pp. 49–157
External links
VALIS book cover gallery
Tractates Cryptica Scriptura The appendix of VALIS'', an extract of the Exegesis
Terence McKenna article about Philip K. Dick and VALIS
Philip K. Dick's Valis by Ted Gioia (Conceptual Fiction)
1981 American novels
1981 science fiction novels
American philosophical novels
American science fiction novels
Fictional creation stories
Gnosticism
Metafictional novels
Metaphysical fiction novels
Novels adapted into operas
Novels by Philip K. Dick
Postmodern novels
Religion in science fiction
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205805
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergse%20Maas
|
Bergse Maas
|
The Bergse Maas (pre-1947 spelling: Bergsche Maas, very often used) is a canal that was constructed in 1904 to be a branch of the river Maas (French: Meuse) in the Dutch province of North Brabant. The Maas splits near Heusden into the Afgedamde Maas and the Bergse Maas. The Afgedamde Maas flows north until its confluence with the river Waal (the main distributary of the river Rhine) to form the Merwede, while the Bergse Maas continues west as the main distributary of the Maas. Part of the Merwede (the Nieuwe Merwede) rejoins the Bergse Maas to form the Hollands Diep estuary.
History
Historically, a natural branch of the Maas flowed from Heusden to the Amer and Hollands Diep estuary; this branch silted up and now forms a stream called Oude Maasje. The Bergse Maas, which takes its name from the town of Geertruidenberg, was constructed in its basin to take over its functions, in 1904. The other main distributary of the Maas was at the same time dammed-up and renamed Afgedamde Maas ("Dammed-up Meuse"). The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Maas reduced the risk of flooding and is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works.
Transport
There are two road bridges and three car ferries. The latter are free of charge for all traffic, as promised to the people living in the area when the Bergse Maas was dug.
References
External links
Ferries in North Brabant
Canals in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Canals opened in 1904
0BergseMaas
Land van Heusden en Altena
Geography of Altena, North Brabant
Geertruidenberg
Heusden
Waalwijk
|
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] |
205809
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester%20del%20Rey
|
Lester del Rey
|
Lester del Rey (June 2, 1915 – May 10, 1993) was an American science fiction author and editor. He was the author of many books in the juvenile Winston Science Fiction series, and the editor at Del Rey Books, the fantasy and science fiction imprint of Ballantine Books, along with his fourth wife Judy-Lynn del Rey.
Birth name
Del Rey often told people his real name was Ramon Felipe Alvarez-del Rey (and sometimes even Ramon Felipe San Juan Mario Silvio Enrico Smith Heartcourt-Brace Sierra y Alvarez del Rey y de los Uerdes). However, his sister has confirmed that his name was in fact Leonard Knapp. He also claimed that his family was killed in a car accident in 1935. In reality, the accident only killed his first wife.
Career
Writing career
Del Rey first started publishing stories in pulp magazines in the late 1930s, at the dawn of the so-called Golden Age of Science Fiction. He was associated with the most prestigious science fiction magazine of the era, Astounding Science Fiction, from the time its editor John W. Campbell published his first short story in the April 1938 issue: "The Faithful", already under the name Lester del Rey. The December 1938 issue featured his story "Helen O'Loy" which was selected for the prestigious anthology The Science Fiction Hall of Fame. By the end of 1939 he had also placed stories in Weird Tales (edited by Farnsworth Wright) and Unknown (Campbell), which featured more horror and more fantasy respectively.
During a period when del Rey's work was not selling well, he worked as a short order cook at the White Tower Restaurant in New York. After he married his second wife, Helen Schlaz, in 1945, he quit that job to write full-time.
In 1952 his first three novels were published in the Winston juvenile series, one of which (Rocket Jockey) appearing in an Italian-language edition in the same year. In the 1950s, del Rey was one of the main authors writing science fiction for adolescents (along with Robert A. Heinlein and Andre Norton). During this time some of his fiction was published under multiple pseudonyms, including "Philip St. John" and "Erik van Lhin".
He continued publishing novels, as well as short fiction, both under his primary pseudonym Lester del Rey as well as a number of other pen names, at a fast pace through the 1950s and the early sixties. His novel writing slowed down toward the end of the sixties, with his last novel, Weeping May Tarry (written with Raymond F. Jones) appearing from Pinnacle Books in 1978.
Editor and critic
After meeting Scott Meredith at the 1947 World Science Fiction Convention, he began working as a first reader for the new Scott Meredith Literary Agency, where he also served as office manager.
He later became an editor for several pulp magazines and then for book publishers. During 1952 and 1953, del Rey edited several magazines: Space SF, Fantasy Fiction, Science Fiction Adventures (as Philip St. John), Rocket Stories (as Wade Kaempfert), and Fantasy Fiction (as Cameron Hall). During this period he also edited several anthologies, notably editing the "Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year" series from 1972 to 1976.
Del Rey was most successful editing with his fourth wife, Judy-Lynn del Rey, at Ballantine Books (as a Random House property, post-Ballantine) where they established the fantasy and science fiction imprint Del Rey Books in 1977. He retired from the publishing house in February 1992.
In 1957, del Rey and Damon Knight co-edited a small amateur magazine named Science Fiction Forum. During a debate about symbolism within the magazine, del Rey accepted Knight's challenge to write an analysis of the James Blish story "Common Time" that showed the story was about a man eating a ham sandwich. After science fiction gained respectability and began to be taught in classrooms, del Rey stated that academics interested in the genre should "get out of my ghetto." Del Rey stated that "to develop science fiction had to remove itself from the usual critics who viewed it from the perspective of [the] mainstream, and who judged its worth largely on its mainstream values. As part of that mainstream, it would never have had the freedom to make the choices it did – many of them quite possibly wrong, but necessary for its development."
Starting in September 1969, he wrote the "Reading Room" review column for If, and following the demise of If in 1974, switched to writing the review column for Analog Science Fiction and Fact entitled "The Reference Library".
Del Rey was a member of a literary banqueting club, the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers. Del Rey was the model for "Emmanuel Rubin".
Style
"There is no writer in this field who is more steadfast in practicing the rule that fiction is first of all entertainment", Algis Budrys said in 1965. Reporting that the stories in a collection of del Rey's fiction could not be dated by reading them, Budrys stated that he had remained a successful writer because "del Rey has remained his own individual ... he writes for himself, and his readers". Budrys said that
Awards
Del Rey was awarded the 1972 E. E. Smith Memorial Award for Imaginative Fiction (the "Skylark") by the New England Science Fiction Association for "contributing significantly to science fiction, both through work in the field and by exemplifying the personal qualities that made the late "Doc" Smith well-loved by those who knew him". He also won a special 1985 Balrog Award for his contributions to fantasy, voted by fans and organized by Locus Magazine. The Science Fiction Writers of America named him its 11th SFWA Grand Master in 1990, presented 1991.
Death
Lester del Rey died on May 10, 1993 at New York Hospital at the age of 77 after a brief illness.
Selected works
Novels
Marooned on Mars (1952)
Rocket Jockey as Philip St. John (1952)
A Pirate Flag for Monterey (1952)
Attack from Atlantis (1953)
Battle on Mercury as Erik Van Lhin (1953)
The Mysterious Planet as Kenneth Wright (1953)
Rockets to Nowhere as Philip St. John (1954)
Step to the Stars (1954)
For I Am A Jealous People (1954)
Preferred Risk (1955) with Frederik Pohl [as by Edson McCann]
Mission to the Moon (1956)
Nerves (1956)
Police Your Planet as Erik Van Lhin (1956)
Day of the Giants (1959)
Moon of Mutiny (1961)
The Eleventh Commandment (1962)
Outpost of Jupiter (1963)
The Sky Is Falling (1963)
Badge of Infamy (1963)
The Runaway Robot (1965)
The Infinite Worlds of Maybe (1966)
Rocket from Infinity (1966)
The Scheme of Things (1966)
Siege Perilous (1966)
Tunnel Through Time (1966)
Prisoners of Space (1968)
Pstalemate (1971)
Weeping May Tarry (1978) with Raymond F. Jones
Short fiction collections
... And Some Were Human (1948)
Robots and Changelings (1957)
The Sky is Falling and Badge of Infamy (1966)
Mortals and Monsters (1965)
Gods and Golems (1973)
The Early del Rey (1975)
The Early del Rey: Vol 1 (1976)
The Early del Rey: Vol 2 (1976)
The Best of Lester del Rey (1978)
War and Space (2009)
Robots and Magic (2010)
Nonfiction
Rockets Through Space (1957)
Space Flight, General Mills, Inc. 1958, 1957; Golden Press, 1959
The Mysterious Earth (1960)
The Mysterious Sea (1961)
The Mysterious Sky (1964)
The World of Science Fiction, 1926-1976: the History of a Subculture (1980)
As editor
The Year After Tomorrow with Carl Carmer & Cecile Matschat (1954)
Best Science Fiction of the Year #1-#5 (1972–1976)
References
Citations
External links
1915 births
1993 deaths
American science fiction writers
American book editors
American speculative fiction critics
American speculative fiction editors
Science fiction editors
20th-century American novelists
SFWA Grand Masters
Pulp fiction writers
Science fiction critics
American literary critics
George Washington University alumni
American male novelists
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
20th-century pseudonymous writers
|
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] |
205810
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwe%20Merwede
|
Nieuwe Merwede
|
The Nieuwe Merwede ("New Merwede") is a Dutch canal, mainly fed by the river Rhine, that was constructed in 1870 to form a branch in the Rhine–Meuse delta. It was dug along the general trajectories of a number of minor Biesbosch creeks to reduce the risk of flooding by diverting the water away from the Beneden Merwede, and to facilitate navigation and regulate river traffic in the increasingly silted-up delta.
It is one of several rivers called Merwede. The most upstream is the river Boven Merwede ("Upper Merwede"), itself the continuation of the Rhine-Waal river and, until 1904, the Meuse (now the closed-off Afgedamde Maas) as well. The Boven Merwede branches near the town of Hardinxveld-Giessendam into River Beneden Merwede ("Lower Merwede") to the northwest and the Nieuwe Merwede to the southwest. The Nieuwe Merwede joins River Bergse Maas near Lage Zwaluwe to form the Hollands Diep estuary, and separates the Island of Dordrecht from the Biesbosch National Park.
There are no bridges or tunnels crossing the Nieuwe Merwede, but there is a car ferry from the Island of Dordrecht on the west at "Kop van 't Land" to Brabantse Oever, Werkendam (Biesbosch).
References
External links
The ferry across the Nieuwe Merwede
Canals in the Netherlands
Canals in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Canals opened in 1870
Canals in North Brabant
Canals in South Holland
Drechtsteden
Land van Heusden en Altena
Geography of Altena, North Brabant
Dordrecht
|
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] |
205811
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Powell
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Dick Powell
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Richard Ewing Powell (November 14, 1904 – January 2, 1963) was an American actor, musician, producer, director, and studio head. Though he came to stardom as a musical comedy performer, he showed versatility, and successfully transformed into a hardboiled leading man, starring in projects of a more dramatic nature. He was the first actor to portray private detective Philip Marlowe on screen.
Early life
Powell was born the middle of three sons of mother Sally Rowena in Mountain View, the seat of Stone County in northern Arkansas. His brothers were Luther (the eldest) and Howard (the youngest). The family moved the boys to Little Rock in 1914, where Powell sang in church choirs and with local orchestras, and started his own band. Powell attended the former Little Rock College, before he started his entertainment career as a singer with the Royal Peacock Band, which toured throughout the Midwest.
During this time, he married Mildred Maund, a model, but she found being married to an entertainer not to her liking. After a final trip to Cuba together, Mildred moved to Hemphill, Texas, and the couple divorced in 1932. Later, Powell joined the Charlie Davis Orchestra, based in Indianapolis. He recorded a number of records with Davis and on his own, for the Vocalion label in the late 1920s.
Stardom
Powell moved to Pittsburgh, where he found great local success as the master of ceremonies at the Enright Theater and the Stanley Theater.
Warner Bros.
In April 1930, Warner Bros. bought Brunswick Records, which at that time owned Vocalion. Warner Bros. was sufficiently impressed by Powell's singing and stage presence to offer him a film contract in 1932. He made his film debut as a singing bandleader in Blessed Event.
He was borrowed by Fox Film to support Will Rogers in Too Busy to Work (1932). He was a boyish crooner, the sort of role in which he specialized for the next few years. Back at Warner Bros., he supported George Arliss in The King's Vacation, then was in 42nd Street (both 1933), playing the love interest for Ruby Keeler. The film was a massive hit.
Warner Bros. (WB) got him to basically repeat the role in Gold Diggers of 1933, another big success. So, too, was Footlight Parade (also 1933), with Keeler and James Cagney.
Powell was upped to star for College Coach (1933), then went back to more ensemble pieces including 42nd Street, Convention City (both 1933), Wonder Bar, Twenty Million Sweethearts, and Dames (all 1934).
Happiness Ahead was more of a star vehicle for Powell, as was Flirtation Walk (both 1934). He was top-billed in Gold Diggers of 1935 and Broadway Gondolier (both 1935), both with Joan Blondell. He supported Marion Davies in Page Miss Glory (1935), made for Cosmopolitan Pictures, a production company financed by Davies' lover William Randolph Hearst, who released through WB.
WB gave him a change of pace, casting him as Lysander in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935).
More typical was Shipmates Forever (1935) with Keeler. 20th Century Fox borrowed him for Thanks a Million (1935); back at WB, he did Colleen (1936) with Keeler and Blondell. Powell was reunited with Marion Davies in another for Cosmopolitan, Hearts Divided (1936), playing Napoleon's brother.
He made two films with Blondell, Stage Struck (1936) and Gold Diggers of 1937. 20th Century Fox then borrowed him again for On the Avenue (1937).
Back at WB, he appeared in The Singing Marine and Varsity Show (both 1937), Hollywood Hotel, Cowboy from Brooklyn, Hard to Get, Going Places (all 1938), and Naughty but Nice (1939). Fed up with the repetitive nature of these roles, Powell left WB and went to work for Paramount Pictures.
Paramount
At Paramount, Blondell and he were cast together again, in the drama I Want a Divorce (1940). Then, Powell got a chance to appear in another non-musical, Christmas in July (1940), a screwball comedy which was the second feature directed by Preston Sturges.
Universal borrowed him to support Abbott and Costello in In the Navy (1941), one of the most popular films of 1941. At Paramount he had a cameo in Star Spangled Rhythm and co-starred with Mary Martin in Happy Go Lucky (both 1943). He supported Dorothy Lamour in Riding High (1943).
In 1944, he was in a fantasy comedy directed by René Clair, It Happened Tomorrow, then went over to MGM to appear opposite Lucille Ball in Meet the People, which was a box-office flop.
During this period, Powell starred in the musical Campana Serenade, which was broadcast on NBC radio (1942–1943) and CBS radio (1943–1944).
"Tough guy"
By 1944, Powell felt he was too old to play romantic leading men anymore, so he lobbied to play the lead in Double Indemnity. He lost out to Fred MacMurray, another Hollywood nice guy. MacMurray's success, however, fueled Powell's resolve to pursue projects with greater range.
Powell's career changed dramatically when he was cast in the first of a series of films noir, as private detective Philip Marlowe in Murder, My Sweet (1944), directed by Edward Dmytryk at RKO. The film was a big hit, and Powell had successfully reinvented himself as a dramatic actor. He was the first actor to play Marlowe – by name – in motion pictures. (Hollywood had previously adapted some Marlowe novels, but with the lead character changed.) Later, Powell was the first actor to play Marlowe on radio, in 1944 and 1945, and on television, in a 1954 episode of Climax! Powell also played the slightly less hard-boiled detective Richard Rogue in the radio series Rogue's Gallery beginning in 1945.
In 1945, Dmytryk and Powell reteamed to make the film Cornered, a gripping, post-World War II thriller that helped define the film noir style.
For Columbia, he played a casino owner in Johnny O'Clock (1947) and made To the Ends of the Earth (1948). Also in 1948, he stepped out of the brutish type when he starred in Pitfall, a film noir in which a bored insurance-company worker falls for an innocent but dangerous woman, played by Lizabeth Scott.
He broadened his range appearing in a Western, Station West (1948), and a French Foreign Legion tale, Rogues' Regiment (1949). He was a Mountie in Mrs. Mike (1950).
From 1949 to 1953, Powell played the lead role in the NBC radio theater production Richard Diamond, Private Detective. His character in the 30-minute weekly was a likable private detective with a quick wit. Many episodes ended with Detective Diamond having an excuse to sing a little song to his date, showcasing Powell's vocal abilities. Many of the episodes were written by Blake Edwards. When Richard Diamond came to television in 1957, the lead role was portrayed by David Janssen, who did no singing in the series. Prior to the Richard Diamond series, he starred in Rogue's Gallery. He played Richard Rogue, private detective. The Richard Diamond tongue-in-cheek persona developed in the Rogue series.
Powell took a break from tough-guy roles in The Reformer and the Redhead (1950), opposite wife June Allyson. Then, he was back to tougher movies: Right Cross (1950), a boxing film, with Allyson; Cry Danger (1951), as an ex-convict; The Tall Target (1951), at MGM directed by Anthony Mann, playing a detective who tries to prevent the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.
He returned to comedy with You Never Can Tell (1951). He had a supporting role in MGM's popular melodrama, The Bad and the Beautiful (1952). His final film performance was in a romantic comedy Susan Slept Here (1954) for director Frank Tashlin.
Even when he appeared in lighter fare such as The Reformer and the Redhead and Susan Slept Here, he never sang in his later roles. The latter, his final onscreen appearance in a feature film, did include a dance number with co-star Debbie Reynolds.
Director
By this stage, Powell had turned director. His feature debut was Split Second (1953) at RKO Pictures. He followed it with The Conqueror (1956), coproduced by Howard Hughes and starring John Wayne as Genghis Khan. The exterior scenes were filmed in St. George, Utah, downwind of U.S. above-ground atomic tests. The cast and crew totaled 220, and of that number, 91 had developed some form of cancer by 1981, and 46 had died of cancer by then, including Powell and Wayne.
He directed Allyson opposite Jack Lemmon in You Can't Run Away from It (1956). Powell then made two war films at Fox with Robert Mitchum, The Enemy Below (1957) and The Hunters (1958).
Television
In the 1950s, Powell was one of the founders of Four Star Television, along with Charles Boyer, David Niven, and Ida Lupino. He appeared in and supervised several shows for that company. Powell played the role of Willie Dante in Four Star Playhouse, in episodes entitled "Dante's Inferno" (1952), "The Squeeze" (1953), "The Hard Way" (1953), and "The House Always Wins" (1955). In 1961, Howard Duff, husband of Ida Lupino, assumed the Dante role in a short-lived NBC adventure series Dante, set at a San Francisco nightclub called "Dante's Inferno".
Powell guest-starred in numerous Four Star programs, including a 1958 appearance on the Duff-Lupino sitcom Mr. Adams and Eve. He appeared in 1961 on James Whitmore's legal drama The Law and Mr. Jones on ABC. In the episode "Everybody Versus Timmy Drayton", Powell played a colonel having problems with his son. Shortly before his death, Powell sang on camera for the final time in a guest-star appearance on Four Star's Ensign O'Toole, singing "The Song of the Marines", which he first sang in his 1937 film The Singing Marine. He hosted and occasionally starred in his Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theater on CBS from 1956 to 1961, and his final anthology series, The Dick Powell Show on NBC from 1961 through 1963; after his death, the series continued through the end of its second season (as The Dick Powell Theater), with guest hosts.
Personal life
Powell was the son of Ewing Powell and Sallie Rowena Thompson.
He married three times:
Mildred Evelyn Maund (b. 1906, d. 1967). The couple married in 1925, and appear on the 1930 census in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where Powell was working in a theater, and on a 1931 passenger list for the , returning from Havana, Cuba. They divorced in 1932, although Mildred retained her married name.
Joan Blondell (married September 19, 1936, divorced 1944). He adopted her son from a previous marriage, Norman Powell, who later became a television producer; the couple also had one child together, Ellen Powell.
June Allyson (August 19, 1945, until his death, January 2, 1963), with whom he had two children, Pamela (adopted) and Richard Powell, Jr.
Powell's ranch-style house was used for exterior filming on the ABC TV series, Hart to Hart. Powell was a friend of Hart to Hart actor Robert Wagner and producer Aaron Spelling. The estate, known as Amber Hills, is on 48 acres in the Mandeville Canyon section of Brentwood, Los Angeles.
Powell enjoyed general aviation as a private pilot.
Illness and death
On September 27, 1962, Powell acknowledged rumors that he was undergoing treatment for cancer. The disease was originally diagnosed as an allergy, with Powell first experiencing symptoms while traveling east to promote his program. Upon his return to California, Powell's personal physician conducted tests and found malignant tumors on his neck and chest.
The marker on Dick Powell's niche in Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California, incorrectly identifies his year of death as 1962. Powell died at the age of 58 on January 2, 1963. His body was cremated and his remains were interred in the Columbarium of Honor at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.
It is speculated Powell developed cancer as a result of his participation in the film The Conqueror, which was filmed at St. George, Utah, near a site used by the U.S. military for nuclear testing. About a third of the actors who participated in the film developed cancer, including Powell, who directed the film, John Wayne, and Susan Hayward.
However, in a 2001 interview with Larry King, Powell's widow June Allyson stated that the cause of death was lung cancer due to his chain smoking.
During the 15th Primetime Emmy Awards on May 26, 1963, the Television Academy presented a posthumous Television Academy Trustee Award to Dick Powell for his contributions to the industry. The award was accepted by two of his former partners in Four Star Television, Charles Boyer and David Niven.
Dick Powell has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6915 Hollywood Blvd.
Filmography
As actor
Features
Short subjects
The Road Is Open Again (1933)
Just Around the Corner (1933)
Hollywood on Parade No. A-9 (1933)
And She Learned About Dames (1934)
Hollywood Newsreel (1934)
A Dream Comes True (1935)
Hollywood Hobbies (1939)
As director
Split Second (1953)
The Conqueror (1956)
You Can't Run Away from It (1956)
The Enemy Below (1957)
The Hunters (1958)
Radio appearances
Powell was the first actor to play private detective Philip Marlowe on radio, in 1944 and 1945.
Lux Radio Theatre appearances:
Partial list of recordings
"I Only Have Eyes for You" (1934) from the film Dames.
"Roses in December" (1937) words and music by Herb Magidson, Ben Oakland and George Jessel. (The song first appeared in The Life of the Party.) ISWC: T-070127274-3
"Over There"/"Captains of the Clouds" (1942–Decca 4174) Issued early in World War II, the A side brought back a patriotic song that had been popular in World War I. The B side came from a James Cagney film of the same name.
"Susan Slept Here" (Jack Lawrence)/"Hold My Hand" (Richard Myers-Jack Lawrence), Bell Records 1048. Both songs were sung (not by Powell) in the film Susan Slept Here (1954).
References
External links
Appearance On What's My Line 8/24/58
Appearance On What's My Line 9/17/61
Appearance On What's My Line 9/9/62
Dick Powell Photo Gallery
Dick Powell.net, a Fansite
Photographs and literature
Cinderella's Boyfriend – 1934 article about Powell from Radio Mirror
1904 births
1963 deaths
American chief executives
American Christian Scientists
American company founders
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male television actors
American people of Welsh descent
American television directors
American television executives
American television hosts
Bell Records artists
Big band singers
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Businesspeople from Arkansas
Businesspeople from Los Angeles
Businesspeople from Pennsylvania
California Republicans
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from lung cancer
Film directors from Arkansas
Film directors from Los Angeles
Film producers from Pennsylvania
Film directors from Pennsylvania
Film producers from California
Male actors from Arkansas
Male actors from Los Angeles
Male actors from Pittsburgh
Musicians from Pittsburgh
People from Mandeville Canyon, Los Angeles
People from Mountain View, Arkansas
People from Valley Center, California
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Television producers from Pennsylvania
University of Arkansas at Little Rock alumni
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Western (genre) television actors
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20th-century American businesspeople
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20th-century American male singers
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] |
205812
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylpheed
|
Sylpheed
|
Sylpheed is an open-source e-mail client and news client licensed under GNU GPL-2.0-or-later with the library part LibSylph under GNU LGPL-2.1-or-later. It provides easy configuration and an abundance of features. It stores mail in the MH Message Handling System. Sylpheed runs on Unix-like systems such as Linux or BSD, and it is also usable on Windows. It uses GTK+.
In 2005, Sylpheed was forked to create Sylpheed-Claws, now known as Claws Mail. As of 2020, both projects continue to be developed independently.
Sylpheed is the default mail client in Lubuntu, Damn Small Linux and some flavours of Puppy Linux.
Features
Spam filtering
Sylpheed provides support for spam filtering using either bogofilter or bsfilter, at the user's choice. Bsfilter is shipped with the Windows version of Sylpheed.
Plug-ins
Sylpheed supports the development of plug-ins. As of February 2015, Sylpheed's website notes an attachment-tool plug-in, an automatic mail forwarding plug-in, and a plug-in for determining whether or not attachments are password-protected.
Limitations
Sylpheed is unable to send HTML mail. This is intentional, since the developers consider HTML mail to be harmful. It is still possible to receive HTML mail using Sylpheed.
Password
The password is stored in plaintext in the Sylpheed configuration file, which by default is only readable by "owner" and not by "group" nor "other". A feature called "master password" prevents Sylpheed from holding plaintext passwords, but does not protect stored messages from other local users with administrator privilege.
Encryption
Sylpheed includes natively PGP Sign and PGP Encrypt options in the compose window (which requires however an encryption tool based on PGP already installed on the computer). This function is simple to handle yet not intuitive to set up.
See also
Claws Mail
List of Usenet newsreaders
Comparison of Usenet newsreaders
Comparison of e-mail clients
References
External links
Sylpheed documentation project
SourceForge project page
Free software programmed in C
Email clients that use GTK
GNOME Applications
Free email software
Email client software for Linux
Windows email clients
MacOS email clients
Usenet clients
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Fenimore%20Cooper
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James Fenimore Cooper
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James Fenimore Cooper (September 15, 1789 – September 14, 1851) was an American writer of the first half of the 19th century. His historical romances depicting colonist and Indigenous characters from the 17th to the 19th centuries created a unique form of American literature. He lived much of his boyhood and the last fifteen years of life in Cooperstown, New York, which was founded by his father William Cooper on property that he owned. Cooper became a member of the Episcopal Church shortly before his death and contributed generously to it. He attended Yale University for three years, where he was a member of the Linonian Society.
After a stint on a commercial voyage, Cooper served in the U.S. Navy as a midshipman, where he learned the technology of managing sailing vessels which greatly influenced many of his novels and other writings. The novel that launched his career was The Spy, a tale about espionage set during the American Revolutionary War and published in 1821. He also created American sea stories. His best-known works are five historical novels of the frontier period, written between 1823 and 1841, known as the Leatherstocking Tales, which introduced the iconic American frontier scout, Natty Bumppo. Cooper's works on the U.S. Navy have been well received among naval historians, but they were sometimes criticized by his contemporaries. Among his more famous works is the romantic novel The Last of the Mohicans, often regarded as his masterpiece. Throughout his career, he published numerous social, political, and historical works of fiction and non-fiction with the objective of countering European prejudices and nurturing an original American art and culture.
Early life and family
James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, in 1789 to William Cooper and Elizabeth (Fenimore) Cooper, the eleventh of 12 children, half of whom died during infancy or childhood.
Shortly after James' first birthday, his family moved to Cooperstown, New York, a community founded by his father on a large piece of land which he had bought for development. Later, his father was elected to the United States Congress as a representative from Otsego County. Their town was in a central area of New York along the headwaters of the Susquehanna River that had previously been patented to Colonel George Croghan by the Province of New York in 1769. Croghan mortgaged the land before the Revolution and after the war part of the tract was sold at public auction to William Cooper and his business partner Andrew Craig. By 1788, William Cooper had selected and surveyed the site where Cooperstown would be established. He erected a home on the shore of Otsego Lake and moved his family there in the autumn of 1790. Several years later he began construction of the mansion that became known as Otsego Hall, completed in 1799 when James was ten.
Cooper was enrolled at Yale University at age 13, but he incited a dangerous prank which involved blowing up another student's door—after having already locked a donkey in a recitation room. He was expelled in his third year without completing his degree, so he obtained work in 1806 as a sailor and joined the crew of a merchant vessel at age 17. By 1811, he obtained the rank of midshipman in the fledgling United States Navy, conferred upon him by an officer's warrant signed by Thomas Jefferson.
William Cooper died when James was 20; all five of his sons inherited a supposed-large fortune in money, securities, and land titles, which soon proved to be a wealth of endless litigation. He married Susan Augusta de Lancey at Mamaroneck, Westchester County, New York on January 1, 1811, at age 21. She was from a wealthy family who remained loyal to Great Britain during the Revolution. The Coopers had seven children, five of whom lived to adulthood. Their daughter Susan Fenimore Cooper was a writer on nature, female suffrage, and other topics. Her father edited her works and secured publishers for them. One son, Paul Fenimore Cooper, became a lawyer and perpetuated the author's lineage to the present.
Service in the Navy
In 1806 at the age of 17, Cooper joined the crew of the merchant ship Sterling as a common sailor. At the time, the Sterling was commanded by young John Johnston from Maine. Cooper served as a common seaman before the mast. His first voyage took some 40 stormy days at sea and brought him to an English market in Cowes where they sought information on where best to unload their cargo of flour. There Cooper saw his first glimpses of England. Britain was in the midst of war with Napoleon's France at the time, so their ship was immediately approached by a British man-of-war and was boarded by some of its crew. They seized one of the Sterling's best crew members and impressed him into the British Royal Navy. Cooper thus first encountered the power of his country's former colonial master, which led to a lifelong commitment to helping create an American art independent culturally as well as politically from the former mother country.
Their next voyage took them to the Mediterranean along the coast of Spain, including Águilas and Cabo de Gata, where they picked up cargo to be taken to London and unloaded. Their stay in Spain lasted several weeks and impressed the young sailor, the accounts of which Cooper later referred to in his Mercedes of Castile, a novel about Columbus.
After serving aboard the Sterling for 11 months, he joined the United States Navy on January 1, 1808, when he received his commission as a midshipman. Cooper had conducted himself well as a sailor, and his father, a former U.S. Congressman, easily secured a commission for him through his long-standing connections with politicians and naval officials. The warrant for Cooper's commission as midshipman was signed by President Jefferson and mailed by Naval Secretary Robert Smith, reaching Cooper on February 19. On February 24, he received orders to report to the naval commander at New York City. Joining the United States Navy fulfilled an aspiration he had had since his youth.
Cooper's first naval assignment came on March 21, 1808, aboard the , an 82-foot bomb ketch that carried twelve guns and a thirteen-inch mortar. For his next assignment, he served under Lieutenant Melancthon Taylor Woolsey near Oswego on Lake Ontario, overseeing the building of the brig for service on the lake. The vessel was intended for use in a war with Great Britain which had yet to begin. The vessel was completed, armed with sixteen guns, and launched in Lake Ontario in the spring of 1809. It was in this service that Cooper learned shipbuilding, shipyard duties and frontier life. During his leisure time, Cooper would venture through the forests of New York state and explore the shores of Lake Ontario. He occasionally ventured into the Thousand Islands. His experiences in the Oswego area later inspired some of his work, including his novel The Pathfinder.
After completion of the Oneida in 1809, Cooper accompanied Woolsey to Niagara Falls, who then was ordered to Lake Champlain to serve aboard a gunboat until the winter months when the lake froze over. Cooper himself returned from Oswego to Cooperstown and then New York. On November 13 of the same year, he was assigned to the under the command of Captain James Lawrence, who was from Burlington and became a personal friend of Cooper's. Aboard this ship, he met his lifelong friend William Branford Shubrick, who was also a midshipman at the time. Cooper later dedicated The Pilot, The Red Rover, and other writings to Shubrick. Assigned to humdrum recruiting tasks rather than exciting voyages, Cooper resigned his commission from the navy in spring 1810; in the same
time period he met, wooed, and became engaged to Susan Augusta de Lancey, whom be married on January 1, 1811.
Writings
First endeavors
In 1820, when reading a contemporary novel to his wife Susan, he decided to try his hand at fiction, resulting in a neophyte novel set in England he called Precaution (1820). Its focus on morals and manners was influenced by Jane Austen's approach to fiction. He anonymously published Precaution which received modestly favorable notice in the United States and England. By contrast, his second novel The Spy (1821) was inspired by an American tale related to him by neighbor and family friend John Jay. It became the first novel written by an American to become a bestseller at home and abroad, requiring several re-printings to satisfy demand. Set in the "Neutral Ground" between British and American forces and their guerrilla allies in Westchester County, New York, the action centers around spying and skirmishing taking place in and around what is widely believed to be John Jay's family home "The Locusts" in Rye, New York of which a portion still exists today as the historic Jay Estate.
Following on a swell of popularity, Cooper published The Pioneers, the first of the Leatherstocking series in 1823. The series features the inter-racial friendship of Natty Bumppo, a resourceful American woodsman who is at home with the Delaware Indians and their chief Chingachgook. Bumppo was also the main character of Cooper's most famous novel The Last of the Mohicans (1826), written in New York City where Cooper and his family lived from 1822 to 1826. The book became one of the more widely read American novels of the 19th century. At this time, Cooper had been living in New York on Beach Street in what is now downtown's Tribeca.
In 1823, he became a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. In August of that same year, his first son died. He organized the influential Bread and Cheese Club that brought together American writers, editors, artists, scholars, educators, art patrons, merchants, lawyers, politicians, and others.
In 1824, General Lafayette arrived from France aboard the Cadmus at Castle Garden in New York City as the nation's guest. Cooper witnessed his arrival and was one of the active committee of welcome and entertainment.
Europe
In 1826, Cooper moved his family to Europe, where he sought to gain more income from his books, provide better education for his children, improve his health, and observe European manners and politics firsthand. While overseas, he continued to write. His books published in Paris include The Prairie, the third Leather-Stocking Tale in which Natty Bumppo dies in the western land newly acquired by Jefferson as the Louisiana Purchase. There he also published The Red Rover and The Water Witch, two of his many sea stories. During his time in Paris, the Cooper family became active in the small American expatriate community. He became friends with painter (and later inventor) Samuel Morse and with French general and American Revolutionary War hero Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette. Cooper admired the patrician liberalism of Lafayette, who sought to recruit him to his causes, and eulogized him as a man who "dedicated youth, person, and fortune, to the principles of liberty."
Cooper's distaste for the corruption of the European aristocracy, especially in England and France, grew as he observed them manipulate the legislature and judiciary to the exclusion of other classes. In 1832, he entered the lists as a political writer in a series of letters to Le National, a Parisian journal. He defended the United States against a string of charges brought by the Revue Britannique. For the rest of his life, he continued skirmishing in print, sometimes for the national interest, sometimes for that of the individual, and frequently for both at once.
This opportunity to make a political confession of faith reflected the political turn that he already had taken in his fiction, having attacked European anti-republicanism in The Bravo (1831). Cooper continued this political course in The Heidenmauer (1832) and The Headsman: or the Abbaye of Vigneron (1833). The Bravo depicted Venice as a place where a ruthless oligarchy lurks behind the mask of the "serene republic". All were widely read on both sides of the Atlantic, though some Americans accused Cooper of apparently abandoning American life for European—not realizing that the political subterfuges in the European novels were cautions directed at his American audiences. Thus The Bravo was roughly treated by some critics in the United States.
Back to America
In 1833, Cooper returned to the United States and published A Letter to My Countrymen in which he gave his criticism of various social and political mores. Promotional material from a modern publisher summarize his goals as follows:
A Letter To My Countrymen remains Cooper's most trenchant work of social criticism. In it, he defines the role of the "man of letters" in a republic, the true conservative, the slavery of party affiliations, and the nature of the legislative branch of government. He also offers her most persuasive argument on why America should develop its own art and literary culture, ignoring the aristocratically tainted art of Europe.
Influenced by the ideals of classical republicanism, Cooper feared that the orgy of speculation he witnessed was destructive of civic virtue and warned Americans that it was a "mistake to suppose commerce favorable to liberty"; doing so would lead to a new "moneyed aristocracy." Drawing upon philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Burlamaqui, and Montesquieu, Cooper's political ideas were both democratic, deriving from the consent of the governed, and liberal, concerned with the rights of the individual.
In the later 1830s—despite his repudiation of authorship in A Letter To My Countrymen—he published Gleanings in Europe, five volumes of social and political analysis of his observations and experiences in Europe. His two novels Homeward Bound and Home as Found also criticize the flamboyant financial speculation and toadyism he found on his return; some readers and critics attacked the works for presenting a highly idealized self-portrait, which he vigorously denied.
In June 1834, Cooper decided to reopen his ancestral mansion Otsego Hall at Cooperstown. It had long been closed and falling into decay; he had been absent from the mansion nearly 16 years. Repairs were begun, and the house was put in order. At first, he wintered in New York City and summered in Cooperstown, but eventually he made Otsego Hall his permanent home.
On May 10, 1839, Cooper published History of the Navy of the United States of America, a work that he had long planned on writing. He publicly announced his intentions to author such a historical work while abroad before departing for Europe in May 1826, during a parting speech at a dinner given in his honor:
Encouraged by your kindness, ... I will take this opportunity of recording the deeds and sufferings of a class of men to which this nation owes a debt of gratitude—a class of men among whom, I am always ready to declare, not only the earliest, but many of the happiest days of my youth have been passed.
Historical and nautical work
His historical account of the U.S. Navy was well received, though his account of the roles played by the American leaders in the Battle of Lake Erie led to years of disputes with their descendants, as noted below. Cooper had begun thinking about this massive project in 1824, and concentrated on its research in the late 1830s. His close association with the U.S. Navy and various officers, and his familiarity with naval life at sea provided him the background and connections to research and write this work. Cooper's work is said to have stood the test of time and is considered an authoritative account of the U.S. Navy during that time.
In 1844, Cooper's Proceedings of the naval court martial in the case of Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, a commander in the navy of the United States, &c:, was first published in Graham's Magazine of 1843–44. It was a review of the court martial of Alexander Slidell Mackenzie who had hanged three crew members of the brig USS Somers for mutiny while at sea. One of the hanged men, 19-year-old Philip Spencer, was the son of U.S. Secretary of War John C. Spencer. He was executed without court-martial along with two other sailors aboard the Somers for allegedly attempting mutiny. Prior to this affair, Cooper and Mackenzie had disputed each other's version of the Battle of Lake Erie. However, recognizing the need for absolute discipline in a warship at sea, Cooper still felt sympathetic to Mackenzie over his pending court martial.
In 1843, an old shipmate, Ned Myers, re-entered Cooper's life. To assist him—and hopefully to cash in on the popularity of maritime biographies—Cooper wrote Myers's story which he published in 1843 as Ned Myers, or a Life before the Mast, an account of a common seaman still of interest to naval historians.
In 1846, Cooper published Lives of Distinguished American Naval Officers covering the biographies of William Bainbridge, Richard Somers, John Shaw, John T. Shubrick, and Edward Preble. Cooper died in 1851. In May 1853, Cooper's Old Ironsides appeared in Putnam's Monthly. It was the history of the Navy ship and, after European and American Scenery Compared, 1852, was one of several posthumous publication of his writings. In 1856, five years after Cooper's death, his History of the Navy of the United States of America was re-published in an expanded edition. The work was an account of the U.S. Navy in the early 19th century, through the Mexican War. Among naval historians of today, the work has come to be recognized as a general and authoritative account. However, it was criticized for accuracy on some points by some contemporaries, especially those engaged in the disputes over the roles of their relatives in Cooper's separate history of the Battle of Lake Erie. Whig editors of the period regularly attacked anything Cooper wrote, leading him to numerous suits for libel, for example against Park Benjamin, Sr., a poet and editor of the Evening Signal of New York.
Critical reaction
Cooper's writings of the 1830s related to current politics and social issues, coupled with his perceived self-promotion, increased the ill feeling between the author and some of the public. Criticism in print of his naval histories and the two Home novels came largely from newspapers supporting The Whig party, reflecting the antagonism between the Whigs and their opposition, the Democrats, whose policies Cooper often favored. Cooper's father William had been a staunch Federalist, a party now defunct but some of whose policies supporting large-scale capitalism the Whigs endorsed. Cooper himself had come to admire Thomas Jefferson, the bete-noire of the Federalists, and had supported Andrew Jackson's opposition to a National Bank. Never one to shrink from defending his personal honor and his sense of where the nation was erring, Cooper filed legal actions for libel against several Whig editors; his success with most of his lawsuits ironically led to more negative publicity from the Whig establishment.
Buoyed by his frequent victories in court, Cooper returned to writing with more energy and success than he had had for several years. As noted above, on May 10, 1839, he published his History of the U.S. Navy; his return to the Leatherstocking Tales series with The Pathfinder, or The Inland Sea (1840) and The Deerslayer (1841) brought him renewed favorable reviews. But on occasion he returned to addressing public issues, most notably with a trilogy of novels called the Littlepage Manuscripts addressing the issues of the anti-rent wars. Public sentiment largely favored the anti-renters, and Cooper's reviews again were largely negative.
Later life
Faced with competition from younger writers and magazine serialization, and lower prices for books resulting from new technologies, Cooper simply wrote more in his last decade than in either of the previous two. Half of his thirty-two novels were written in the 1840s. They may be grouped into three categories: Indian romances, maritime fiction, and political and social controversy—though the categories often overlap.
The 1840s began with the last two novels featuring Natty Bumppo, both critical and reader successes: The Pathfinder (1840) and The Deerslayer (1841). Wyandotte, his last novel set in the Revolutionary War, followed in 1843 and Oak Openings in 1848. The nautical works were Mercedes of Castile (in which Columbus appears, 1840),The Two Admirals (British and French fleets in battle, 1842), Wing-And-Wing (a French privateer fighting the British in 1799, 1842), Afloat and Ashore (two volumes exploring a young man growing up, 1844), Jack Tier (a vicious smuggler in the Mexican-American War, 1848), and The Sea Lions (rival sealers in the Antarctic, 1849).
He also turned from pure fiction to the combination of art and controversy in which he achieved notoriety in the novels of the previous decade. His Littlepage Manuscripts trilogy--Satanstoe (1845), The Chainbearer (1845), and The Redskins (1846)--dramatized issues of land ownership in response to renters in the 1840s opposing the long leases common in the old Dutch settlements in the Hudson Valley. He tried his hand with serialization with The Autobiography of a Pocket Handkerchief, first published in Graham's Magazine in 1843, a satire on contemporary nouveau riche. In The Crater, or Vulcan's Peak (1847) he introduced supernatural machinery to show the decline of an ideal society in the South Seas when demagogues prevail. The Ways of the Hour, his last completed novel, portrayed a mysterious and independent young woman defending herself against criminal charges.
Cooper spent the last years of his life back in Cooperstown. He died on September 14, 1851, the day before his 62nd birthday. He was buried in the Christ Episcopal Churchyard, where his father, William Cooper, was buried. Cooper's wife Susan survived her husband only by a few months and was buried by his side at Cooperstown.
Several well-known writers, politicians, and other public figures honored Cooper's memory with a memorial in New York, six months after his death, in February 1852. Daniel Webster gave a speech to the gathering while Washington Irving served as a co-chairman, along with William Cullen Bryant, who also gave an address which did much to restore Cooper's damaged reputation among American writers of the time.
Religious activities
Cooper's father was a lapsed Quaker; probably influenced by his wife's family, the DeLanceys, Cooper in his fiction often favorably depicted clergy of the Episcopal Church, though Calvinist ministers came in for their share of both admiring and critical treatment. In the 1840s as Cooper increasingly despaired over the United States maintaining the vision and promise of the Constitution, his fiction increasingly turned to religious themes. In The Wing-And-Wing, 1842, the hero, a French revolutionary free-thinker, loses the Italian girl he loves because he cannot accept her simple Christianity. In contrast, in the 1849 The Sea Lions the hero wins his beloved only after a spiritual transformation while marooned in the Antarctic. And the 1848 The Oak Openings features a pious Parson Amen who wins the admiration of the Indians who kill him, praying for them during torture.
After establishing permanent residence in Cooperstown, Cooper became active in Christ Episcopal Church, taking on the roles of warden and vestryman. As the vestryman, he donated generously to this church and later supervised and redesigned its interior with oak furnishings at his own expense. He was also energetic as a representative from Cooperstown to various regional conventions of the Episcopal church. But only several months before his death, in July 1851, was he confirmed in this church by his brother-in-law, the Reverend William H. DeLancey.
Legacy
Cooper was one of the more popular 19th-century American authors, and his work was admired greatly throughout the world. While on his death bed, the Austrian composer Franz Schubert wanted most to read more of Cooper's novels. Honoré de Balzac, the French novelist and playwright, admired him greatly. Henry David Thoreau, while attending Harvard, incorporated some of Cooper's style in his own work. D.H. Lawrence believed that Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, Maupassant, and Flaubert were all "so very obvious and coarse, besides the lovely, mature and sensitive art of Fennimore Cooper." Lawrence called The Deerslayer "one of the most beautiful and perfect books in the world: flawless as a jewel and of gem-like concentration."
Cooper's work, particularly The Pioneers and The Pilot, demonstrate an early 19th-century American preoccupation with alternating prudence and negligence in a country where property rights were often still in dispute.
Cooper was one of the early major American novelists to include African, African-American and Native American characters in his works. In particular, Native Americans play central roles in his Leatherstocking Tales. However, his treatment of this group is complex and highlights the relationship between frontier settlers and American Indians as exemplified in The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish, depicting a captured white girl who marries an Indian chief and has a baby with him, but after several years is eventually returned to her parents. Often, he gives contrasting views of Native characters to emphasize their potential for good, or conversely, their proclivity for mayhem. Last of the Mohicans includes both the character of Magua, who fearing the extinction of his race at the hands of the whites savagely betrays them, as well as Chingachgook, the last chief of the Mohicans, who is portrayed as Natty Bumppo's noble, courageous, and heroic counterpart.
In 1831, Cooper was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician.
According to Tad Szulc, Cooper was a devotee of Poland's causes (uprisings to regain Polish sovereignty). He organized a club in Paris to support the rebels, and brought flags of the defeated Polish rebel regiment from Warsaw to present them to the exiled leaders in Paris. With his friend the Marquis de La Fayette, he supported liberals during the regime changes in France and elsewhere in the 1830s. .
Though some scholars have hesitated to classify Cooper as a strict Romantic, Victor Hugo pronounced him greatest novelist of the century outside France. Honoré de Balzac, while mocking a few of Cooper's novels ("rhapsodies") and expressing reservations about his portrayal of characters, enthusiastically called The Pathfinder a masterpiece and professed great admiration for Cooper's portrayal of nature, only equalled in his view by Walter Scott. Mark Twain, the ultimate Realist, criticized the Romantic plots and overwrought language of The Deerslayer and The Pathfinder in his satirical but shrewdly observant essay, "Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses" (1895).
Cooper was also criticized heavily in his day for his depiction of women characters in his work. James Russell Lowell, Cooper's contemporary and a critic, referred to it poetically in A Fable for Critics, writing, "... the women he draws from one model don't vary / All sappy as maples and flat as a prairie."
Cooper's lasting reputation today rests largely upon the five Leatherstocking Tales. In his 1960 study focusing on romantic relationships, both hetero- and homo-sexual, literary scholar Leslie Fiedler opines that with the exception of the five Natty Bumppo-Chingachgook novels, Cooper's "collected works are monumental in their cumulative dullness." More recent criticism views all thirty-two novels in the context of Cooper's responding to changing political, social, and economic realities in his time period.
Cooper was honored on a U.S. commemorative stamp, the Famous American series, issued in 1940.
Three dining halls at the State University of New York at Oswego are named in Cooper's remembrance (Cooper Hall, The Pathfinder, and Littlepage) because of his temporary residence in Oswego and for setting some of his works there.
Cooper Park in Michigan's Comstock Township is named after him.
The New Jersey Turnpike has a James Fenimore Cooper service area, recognizing his birth in the state.
The gilded and red tole chandelier hanging in the library of the White House in Washington DC is from the family of James Fenimore Cooper. It was brought there through the efforts of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy in her great White House restoration. The James Fenimore Cooper Memorial Prize at New York University is awarded annually to an outstanding undergraduate student of journalism.
In 2013, Cooper was inducted into the New York Writers Hall of Fame.
Cooper's novels were very popular in the rest of the world, including, for instance, Russia. In particular, great interest of the Russian public in Cooper's work was primarily incited by the novel The Pathfinder, which the renowned Russian literary critic Vissarion Belinsky declared to be "a Shakespearean drama in the form of a novel". The author was more recognizable by his middle name, Fenimore, exotic to many in Russia. This name became a symbol of exciting adventures among Russian readers. For example, in the 1977 Soviet movie The Secret of Fenimore (), being the third part of a children's television mini-series Three Cheerful Shifts (, see ), tells of a mysterious stranger known as Fenimore, visiting a boys' dorm in a summer camp nightly and relating fascinating stories about Indians and extraterrestrials.
Works
Notes
References
Bibliography
; James Fenimore Cooper: The Later Years, Yale University Press, 2017. p. 805 .
Primary sources
Url1
Url
Url
——— (1852). The Chainbearer, Or The Littlepage Manuscripts, Stringer and Townsend, 228 pages; eBook
Further reading
Clavel, Marcel (1938). Fenimore Cooper and his critics: American, British and French criticisms of the novelist's early work, Imprimerie universitaire de Provence, E. Fourcine, 418 pages; Book
Darnell, Donald. (1993). James Fenimore Cooper: Novelist of Manners, Newark, Univ. of Delaware
Dekker, George (2017). James Fenimore Cooper the Novelist, Routledge, 2017, ISBN 9781351580014
Doolen, Andy (2005). Fugitive Empire: Locating Early American Imperialism, Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota P.
Franklin, Wayne (1982). The New World of James Fenimore Cooper, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago P, Book
–—— (2007). James Fenimore Cooper: The Early Years, New Haven: Yale UP, Book
Krauthammer, Anna. The Representation of the Savage in James Fenimore Cooper and Herman Melville. NY: Peter Lang, 2008.
Long, Robert Emmet (1990). James Fenimore Cooper, NY: Continuum. ,
MacDougall, Hugh C. (1993). Where Was James? A James Fenimore Cooper Chronology from 1789–1851. Cooperstown: James Fenimore Cooper Soc.
Rans, Geoffrey (1991). Cooper's Leather-Stocking Novels: A Secular Reading. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina
Redekop, Ernest H., ed. (1989). James Fenimore Cooper, 1789–1989: Bicentennial Essays, Canadian Review of American Studies, entire special issue, vol. 20, no. 3 (Winter 1989), pp. 1–164.
Reid, Margaret (2004). Cultural Secrets as Narrative Form: Storytelling in Nineteenth-Century America. Columbus: Ohio State UP
Ringe, Donald A. (1988). James Fenimore Cooper. Boston: Twayne.
Romero, Lora (1997). Home Fronts: Domesticity and Its Critics in the Antebellum United States. Durham: Duke UP
Smith, Lindsey C. (2008). Indians, Environment, and Identity on the Borders of American Literature: From Faulkner and Morrison to Walker and Silko. NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Verhoeven, W.M. (1993). James Fenimore Cooper: New Historical and Literary Contexts. Rodopi publishers. . Book Google.
External links
James Fenimore Cooper at Open Library
James Fenimore Cooper Society Homepage
Finding Aid for the James Fenimore Cooper Collection of Papers, 1825–1904, New York Public Library
James Fenimore Cooper Letters and Manuscript Fragments. Available online though Lehigh University's I Remain: A Digital Archive of Letters, Manuscripts, and Ephemera
"Writings of James Fenimore Cooper" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
"Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses", an essay by Mark Twain
James Fenimore Cooper Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
1789 births
1851 deaths
19th-century American novelists
American expatriates in France
American historical novelists
American male novelists
American naval historians
American people of English descent
Christian writers
Deaths from edema
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
People from Burlington, New Jersey
People from Cooperstown, New York
People from Scarsdale, New York
Romanticism
United States Navy officers
Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age
Knickerbocker Group
Novelists from New Jersey
American male non-fiction writers
Historians from New York (state)
Historians from New Jersey
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205815
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider%20Robinson
|
Spider Robinson
|
Spider Robinson (born November 24, 1948) is an American-born Canadian science fiction author and musician. He has won a number of awards for his hard science fiction and humorous stories, including the Hugo Award 1977 and 1983, and another Hugo with his co-author and wife Jeanne Robinson in 1978.
Early life and education
Robinson was born in the Bronx, New York City, New York; his father was a salesman. He was an avid reader of science fiction; his exposure in early childhood to the juvenile novels of Robert Heinlein later influenced him to become a writer. He attended a Catholic high school, spending his junior year in a seminary, followed by two years in a Catholic college, and five years at the State University of New York at Stony Brook in the 1960s, earning a Bachelor of Arts in English. While at Stony Brook, Spider entertained at campus coffeehouses and gatherings, strumming his guitar and singing in harmony with his female partner. It was at this time that his friends, at his request, stopped calling him his childhood nickname of "Robbie" (a simple contraction of his last name, Robinson) and gave him the nickname "Spider", which he eventually adopted as his official first name. Robinson adopted the name out of admiration for blues musician "Spider" John Koerner.
Career
In 1971, just out of college, Robinson took a night job guarding sewers in New York City and, wanting a career change, began writing science fiction. He made his first short-story sale in 1972 to Analog Science Fiction magazine. The story, "The Guy with the Eyes" (Analog, February 1973), was set in a bar called Callahan's Place; Robinson would, off-and-on, continue to write stories about the denizens of Callahan's into the 21st century. The stories have been collected into a number of published books.
In 1973, Robinson moved to Nova Scotia and began writing full-time. He made several short-story sales to Analog, Galaxy Science Fiction magazine and others, earning the John Campbell Award for best new writer in 1974.
In 1975, he married Jeanne Robinson, a choreographer, dancer, and Sōtō Zen monk, with whom he later co-wrote the Stardance Trilogy.
He worked as a book reviewer for Galaxy magazine during the mid-to-late 1970s. In 1978–79 he contributed book reviews to the original anthology series Destinies. For several years after he reviewed books for Analog, including reviews of Heinlein's later work.
Robinson's first published novel, Telempath (1976), was an expansion of his Hugo Award–winning novella By Any Other Name. Over the following three decades, Robinson on average released a book a year, including short story anthologies.
In 1977, Robinson released Callahan's Crosstime Saloon, a collection of short stories in his long-running Callahan's series. These stories, and later novels, make frequent reference to the works of mystery writer John D. MacDonald; his character Lady Sally McGee reflects Travis McGee, the central character in MacDonald's mystery novels. The lead character in Lady Slings the Booze frequently refers to Travis McGee as a role model. In Callahan's Key the patrons make a visit to the marina near Fort Lauderdale where the Busted Flush was usually moored in the McGee series. Similarly important to Robinson is writer Donald E. Westlake and Westlake's most famous character, John Dortmunder.
In 1992, Robinson was master-of-ceremonies for the Hugo Awards at MagiCon, the World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon) in Orlando, Florida. From 1996 to 2005, he served as a columnist in the Op-Ed section (and briefly in the technology section) of The Globe and Mail.
In 2004, Robinson began working on a seven-page 1955 novel outline by the late Robert A. Heinlein to expand it into a novel. The book, titled Variable Star, was released on September 19, 2006. Robinson had previously written of his admiration for Heinlein in his 1980 essay "Rah, Rah, R.A.H.!", in the 1998 "Mentors", and in his book The Free Lunch. In an afterword to Variable Star he recounts the story of how reading Rocket Ship Galileo and soon after Heinlein's other Heinlein juvenile novels helped set the direction for his life, and how he came to write the novel. The novel reflects the very different writing styles of both Heinlein and Robinson; reviews of the books were mixed, praising Robinson's handling of a difficult task and the lively story, but criticizing the unlikely plot twists and trite romantic scenes.
Personal life
Robinson has resided in Canada for nearly 40 years, primarily in the provinces of Nova Scotia and British Columbia. He and his wife Jeanne had a daughter, Terri Luanna da Silva, who once worked for Martha Stewart, and one granddaughter.
After living in Vancouver for a decade, he moved to Bowen Island in about 1999. He became a Canadian citizen in 2002, retaining his American citizenship. Jeanne underwent treatment for biliary cancer, and died May 30, 2010. Their daughter Terri died on December 5, 2014, of breast cancer.
Robinson suffered a heart attack on August 31, 2013, but recovered. Due to the health issues faced by his family he has not published a novel since 2008. In 2013, Robinson reported on his website that work on his next book Orphan Stars was progressing, albeit slowly. Concurrently, he has begun work on his autobiography.
He was named a Guest of Honor at the 76th World Science Fiction Convention in 2018.
Published works
Novels and collections of linked stories
Omnibus volumes
Callahan and Company (1988) – (omnibus edition of Callahan's Crosstime Saloon, Time Travelers Strictly Cash, and Callahan's Secret)
Off the Wall at Callahan's (1994) – (a collection of quotes from books in the Callahan's/Lady Sally series)
The Callahan Chronicals (1997) – (retitled republication of Callahan and Company)
The Star Dancers (1997) (with Jeanne Robinson) (omnibus edition of Stardance and Starseed)
Short story collections
Antinomy (1980)
Melancholy Elephants Penguin (1984 – Canada; 1985 – United States)
True Minds (1990)
User Friendly (1998)
By Any Other Name (2001)
God Is an Iron and Other Stories (2002)
My Favorite Shorts (2016; e-book only)
As editor
The Best of All Possible Worlds (1980) – collection of works by other authors edited and introduced by Robinson
"Compostela" Tesseracts 20 – with James Alan Gardner
Discography
Belabouring the Obvious (2000)
Collected essays
The Crazy Years: Reflections of a Science Fiction Original (2004), a collection of his articles for The Globe and Mail
Awards and honors
John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer (1974)
Hugo Awards for:
Best Novella (1977) By Any Other Name (later expanded into Telempath)
Best Novella (1978) Stardance (with Jeanne Robinson)
Best short story (1983) "Melancholy Elephants"
Nebula Award for:
Best Novella (1977) Stardance (with Jeanne Robinson)
2008 Robert A. Heinlein Award (for Lifetime Achievement)
2015 LASFS Forrest J Ackerman Award for Lifetime Achievement
Named a Guest of Honor at the 2018 World Science Fiction Convention
References
External links
Official website
Bibliography on SciFan
All of Spider Robinson's audio interviews on the podcast The Future And You (in which he describes his expectations of the future)
The Stardance Project, a computer-generated film based on Stardance
Jeanne Robinson's audio interviews on the podcast The Future And You (the history of her Stardance Project and her collaboration with Spider on the Stardance novels)
Canadian science fiction writers
Canadian speculative fiction critics
Hugo Award-winning writers
Nebula Award winners
John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer winners
Science fiction critics
Canadian men podcasters
Canadian podcasters
Canadian male novelists
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers
Living people
1948 births
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalization
|
Legalization
|
Legalization is the process of removing a legal prohibition against something which is currently not legal.
Legalization is a process often applied to what are regarded, by those working towards legalization, as victimless crimes, of which one example is the consumption of illegal drugs (see drug legalization).
Legalization should be contrasted with decriminalization, which removes criminal charges from an action, but leaves intact associated laws and regulations.
Proponents of libertarianism support legalization of what they regard as victimless crimes, such as recreational drug and alcohol use, gun ownership, and prostitution.
In U. S. immigration context, the term "legalization" is colloquially used to refer to a process whereby a person illegally present in the country can obtain lawful permanent residence. Since 1929, the US law has provided the legalization procedure known as registry, which simply requires the applicant to prove that he has continuously resided in the country since before a certain specified "registry date" (originally, 1921; presently, 1972), and is not inadmissible on other grounds (criminal history, etc.). One legalization proposal that was widely discussed recently was the DREAM Act.
See also
Drug liberalization
Notes
Criminology
Libertarian theory
es:Legalización
|
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205819
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AS-90
|
AS-90
|
The AS-90 ("Artillery System for the 1990s"), known officially as Gun Equipment 155 mm L131, is an armoured self-propelled artillery weapon used by the British Army.
History
AS-90 was designed and built by the Armaments division of Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering (VSEL), whose parent company became BAE Systems in 1999. VSEL provided 179 vehicles between 1992 and 1995 at a cost of £300 million ($480 million). The AS-90 was first deployed by the British Army in 1993. The AS-90s were acquired to re-equip six of the eight self-propelled field artillery regiments (each of 24 guns) in the I (BR) Corps, replacing the 105 mm FV433 Abbot SPG and older M109 155 mm Self Propelled Gun and FH70 towed howitzer.
In 1999, Marconi Electronic Systems was contracted to upgrade British Army AS-90s to include a 52 calibre gun in order to increase the range of the artillery. Critical to the program was a bi-modular charge system from Somchem of South Africa (selected after extensive trials of ammunition from many suppliers), which offered greatly reduced barrel wear. However, this ammunition failed to meet the requirement for insensitive munitions and the project was terminated.
It remains in UK service and will equip three field regiments supporting armoured infantry brigades for the foreseeable future. 134 were in service in 2008, reduced to 117 in 2015. The AS-90 underwent a capability enhancement program in 2008 and 2009, primarily relating to upgrades of the AS-90's electronic system.
The initial expected out-of-service date for the AS-90 was 2030, but this was later delayed to 2032, with a replacement planned to enter service in 2029.
Development
AS-90 started in the mid-1980s as a private venture on the gamble that the tri-national SP70 would fail. When this subsequently occurred, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) issued a cardinal point specification on one page for a new 155 mm self-propelled gun. The MoD was also required to consider the US "Paladin", an upgraded M109 howitzer. The MoD has undertaken studies in 2006–09 to "up-gun" the Royal Navy's main shipboard gun armament, the 4.5 inch Mark 8 naval gun, to accept 155mm ammunition from the AS-90. This would introduce a common gun calibre for the British Army and Royal Navy, helping with ammunition logistics, and encouraging joint Army-Navy development of extended-range and precision-guided shells. The Royal Navy did not adopt this gun system.
Design
In 1963 certain NATO nations, including the UK, agreed to a "Ballistics Memorandum of Understanding" for a 155 mm 39 calibre ordnance and a baseline projectile with the shape used for the US M549 rocket-assisted shell. The AS-90 uses a conforming 39 calibre barrel which fires the L15 unassisted projectile out to a range of 24.7 km. However, this was a new design of ordnance using a split sliding block breech with Crossley obturation, instead of the more usual screw breech, to permit bagged charges (no metal cartridge cases). The breech mechanism has a primer magazine holding 18 primers. The standard ammunition is that designed for FH-70 (L15 HE and associated propelling charges) although in training the less effective but cheaper M107 with Green and White propelling charges is used.
It is fitted with an auxiliary power unit to eliminate the need to run the main engine to keep the batteries charged while stationary; electrical servos drive the automated elevation, traverse, magazine, shell transfer arm and loader as well as power for electronics and communications.
The vehicle is fitted with an autonomous navigation and gun laying dynamic reference unit (DRU) mounted on the trunnion. All main turret functions are controlled by a Turret Control Computer (TCC) with control and display units for the No 1 (Detachment Commander), No 2 (loader) and No 3 (layer). The combination of the DRU, TCC and powered laying controls provide autolaying. Every gun is fitted with a radar Muzzle Velocity Measuring Device. Reversionary mode laying uses deflection laying via the direct fire sight.
The gun can be brought into action fully closed down; the barrel can be clamped and unclamped from within the vehicle. In-to and out-of action times are less than 1 minute.
Specifications
Crew: 5, on board when moving (driver plus 4 gun detachment), full gun detachment 10 including driver, 4 detachment members in the turret.
Length: 9.07 m
Width: 3.3 m
Height: 3.0 m
Armour: 17 mm (maximum, steel)
Weight: 45 tons
Calibre: 155 mm
Range: 25 km (39 cal), 30 km (52 cal) standard charges
Rate of fire: 3 rounds in 10 seconds (burst), 6 rounds per minute for 3 minutes (intense), 2 rounds per minute for 60 minutes (sustained)
Secondary armament: 7.62 mm L7 GPMG
Ammunition carried: 48 projectiles and charges (31 turret and 17 hull), 1000 MG rounds
Main Engine: Cummins VTA903T 660 bhp 90 degree V8, 4 stroke, liquid cooled, turbo diesel,
Max Speed: 55 km/h (Road)
Range: 370 km or 231 mi (Road)
Ground clearance: 0.41 m; Gradient: 60°; Vertical obstacle: 0.75 m; Trench crossing: 2.8 m; Fording depth: 1.5 m
Variants
AS-90D - Modified for desert use. Thermal protection for crew and extra cooling for engine and machinery. Tracks adapted for reduced wear in sandy conditions.
AS-90 "Braveheart" - Basically the AS-90, but fitted with the 52 calibre length gun. This project was terminated due to non-compliant propellant charges.
Armatohaubica "Krab" - (eng. Cannon-howitzer Crab) Licensed "Braveheart" turret on a K9 Thunder chassis, with modern "Azalia" BMS. Designed and integrated in Poland, by Huta Stalowa Wola and WB Electronics. Two Krab ("Crab") prototypes were built in 2001, and successfully completed all required evaluations and state acceptance trials. Initial serial production started in 2008, with eight units delivered to Polish Land Forces for testing. In 2014 production of Krab chassis was forwarded to Korean Samsung Techwin, which will provide 120 units, replacing Polish build UPG chassis in serial vehicles.
Operators
British Army - Royal Artillery
1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery.
19th Regiment Royal Artillery.
See also
Panzerhaubitze 2000, German 155mm artillery from Rheinmetall in service since 1998
M109 howitzer
K9 Thunder
Type 99 155 mm self-propelled howitzer
AHS Krab - the Polish variant using the AS-90 turret
G6 howitzer - A South African 155mm self-propelled howitzer from Denel land systems
References
Self-propelled howitzers of the United Kingdom
Self-propelled artillery of the Cold War
155 mm artillery
Tracked self-propelled howitzers
Military vehicles introduced in the 1990s
|
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205824
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%20in%20sports
|
1930 in sports
|
1930 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
American football
NFL championship – Green Bay Packers (10–3–1)
College football national championship – Notre Dame Fighting Irish
Association football
FIFA World Cup
The inaugural World Cup is held in Uruguay and is won by the host nation as Uruguay defeats Argentina 4–2 in the final.
England
The Football League – Sheffield Wednesday 60 points, Derby County 50, Manchester City 47, Aston Villa 47, Leeds United 46, Blackburn Rovers 45
FA Cup final – Arsenal 2–0 Huddersfield Town at Empire Stadium, Wembley, London
Germany
National Championship – Hertha BSC 5–4 Holstein Kiel at Düsseldorf
Spain
La Liga won by Athletic Bilbao
Italy
The inaugural Serie A is won by Ambrosiana
Athletics
Czechoslovakia
the third Women's World Games, Prague
Australian rules football
VFL Premiership
Collingwood wins the 34th VFL Premiership, beating Geelong 14.16 (100) to 9.16 (70) at Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG)
Brownlow Medal
The annual Brownlow Medal is awarded to Stan Judkins (Richmond), Allan Hopkins (Footscray) and Harry Collier (Collingwood)
South Australian National Football League
4 October: North Adelaide 9.13 (67) defeats Port Adelaide 9.9 (63) for its fifth SA(N)FL premiership
Magarey Medal won by Walter Scott (Norwood)
West Australian Football League
4 October: East Fremantle 12.15 (87) defeats South Fremantle 7.9 (51) to win its third consecutive premiership.
Sandover Medal won by Ted Flemming (West Perth)
Bandy
Sweden'
Championship final – SK Tirfing 1-0 Djurgårdens IF
Baseball
World Series
1–8 October — Philadelphia Athletics defeats St Louis Cardinals to win the 1930 World Series by 4 games to 2
Basketball
ABL Championship
Cleveland Rosenblums win four games to one over the Rochester Centrals
Events
The South American Basketball Championship 1930 is the first major international basketball competition when four South American teams play in Montevideo and the host nation Uruguay wins the tournament.
Europe
Olimpia Milan, most successful professional basketball club in Italy, officially founded.
Club Joventut Badalona was founded in Spain
Bobsleigh
World Bobsleigh Championships
Inaugural world championship is held at Caux-sur-Montreux in Switzerland. It features a four-man bob event only, which is won by Italy.
Boxing
Events
Max Schmeling defeats Jack Sharkey by a controversial fourth round foul punch decision to take the vacant World Heavyweight Championship title
Lineal world champions
World Heavyweight Championship – vacant → Max Schmeling
World Light Heavyweight Championship – vacant → Maxie Rosenbloom
World Middleweight Championship – Mickey Walker
World Welterweight Championship – Jackie Fields → "Young" Jack Thompson → Tommy Freeman
World Lightweight Championship – Sammy Mandell → Al Singer → Tony Canzoneri
World Featherweight Championship – Bat Battalino
World Bantamweight Championship – "Panama" Al Brown
World Flyweight Championship – vacant
Canadian football
Grey Cup
18th Grey Cup – Toronto Balmy Beach 11–6 Regina Roughriders
Cricket
Events
January — New Zealand plays its inaugural Test match, losing to England at Christchurch by eight wickets. England goes on to win the series 1–0 with three matches drawn.
Having scored 1586 runs in the 1929–30 Australian season at an average of 113.28 and including a world record individual innings of 452*, Don Bradman continues in the same vein through the Australian tour of England in 1930. Australia regains The Ashes, winning the Test series by 2–1 with two matches drawn. Bradman, with 974 runs in the series (still a world record), is the main difference between two strong teams. The highlight of the tour is Bradman's remarkable innings at Headingley in the Third Test when he makes 309 not out in a single day (his final score is 334).
England
County Championship – Lancashire
Minor Counties Championship – Durham
Most runs – Don Bradman 2960 @ 98.66 (HS 334)
Most wickets – Tich Freeman 275 @ 16.84 (BB 10–53)
Wisden Cricketers of the Year – Donald Bradman, Clarrie Grimmett, Beverley Lyon, Ian Peebles, Maurice Turnbull
Australia
Sheffield Shield – Victoria
Most runs – Don Bradman 1586 @ 113.28 (HS 452*)
Most wickets – Clarrie Grimmett 82 @ 23.69 (BB 7–136)
India
Bombay Quadrangular – Hindus
New Zealand
Plunket Shield – Wellington
South Africa
Currie Cup – Transvaal
West Indies
Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested
Cycling
Tour de France
André Leducq (France) wins the 24th Tour de France
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
World Men's Champion – Karl Schäfer (Austria)
World Women's Champion – Sonja Henie (Norway)
World Pairs Champions – Andreé Joly-Brunet and Pierre Brunet (France)
Golf
Events
Bobby Jones becomes the first man to win the golfing Grand Slam
Major tournaments
British Open – Bobby Jones
U.S. Open – Bobby Jones
PGA Championship – Tommy Armour
Other tournaments
British Amateur – Bobby Jones
U.S. Amateur – Bobby Jones
Women's professional
Women's Western Open – Lucia Mida
Handball
25 November – The Swedish Handball Federation is established.
Horse racing
England
Champion Hurdle – Brown Tony
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Easter Hero
Grand National – Shaun Goilin
1,000 Guineas Stakes – Fair Isle
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Diolite
The Derby – Blenheim
The Oaks – Rose of England
St. Leger Stakes – Singapore
Australia
Melbourne Cup – Phar Lap
Canada
Queen's Plate – Aymond
France
Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Motrico
Ireland
Irish Grand National – Fanmond
Irish Derby Stakes – Rock Star
USA
Kentucky Derby – Gallant Fox
Preakness Stakes – Gallant Fox
Belmont Stakes – Gallant Fox
Ice hockey
Stanley Cup
28–29 March — Montreal Canadiens defeats Boston Bruins by 2 games to 0 in the 1930 Stanley Cup Finals
Motorsport
Multi-sport events
British Empire Games
Inaugural British Empire Games, precursor of the Commonwealth Games are held at Hamilton, Ontario
Far Eastern Championship Games
9th Far Eastern Championship Games are held at Tokyo, Empire of Japan
Nordic skiing
FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
5th FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1930 are held at Oslo-Holmenkollen ski jump, Norway
Rowing
The Boat Race
12 April — Cambridge wins the 82nd Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race
Rugby league
The Australia national rugby league team completed on the 1929–30 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain.
England
Championship – Huddersfield
Challenge Cup final – Widnes 10–3 St. Helens at Empire Stadium, Wembley, London
Lancashire League Championship – St. Helens
Yorkshire League Championship – Huddersfield
Lancashire County Cup – Warrington 15–2 Salford
Yorkshire County Cup – Hull Kingston Rovers 13–7 Hunslet
Australia
NSW Premiership – Western Suburbs 27–2 St George (grand final)
Rugby union
Five Nations Championship
43rd Five Nations Championship series is won by England
Snooker
World Championship
4th World Snooker Championship is won by Joe Davis who defeats Tom Dennis 25–12
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Michael Staksrud (Norway)
Tennis
Australia
Australian Men's Singles Championship – Edgar Moon (Australia) defeats Harry Hopman (Australia) 6–3 6–1 6–3
Australian Women's Singles Championship – Daphne Akhurst Cozens (Australia) defeats Sylvia Lance Harper (Australia) 10–8 2–6 7–5
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Bill Tilden (USA) defeats Wilmer Allison (USA) 6–3 9–7 6–4
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Helen Wills Moody (USA) defeats Elizabeth Ryan (USA) 6–2 6–2
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Henri Cochet (France) defeats Bill Tilden (USA) 3–6 8–6 6–3 6–1
French Women's Singles Championship – Helen Wills Moody (USA) defeats Helen Jacobs (USA) 6–2 6–1
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – John Doeg (USA) defeats Frank Shields (USA) 10–8 1–6 6–4 16–14
American Women's Singles Championship – Betty Nuthall Shoemaker (Great Britain) defeats Anna McCune Harper (USA) 6–1 6–4
Davis Cup
1930 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – 4–1 at Stade Roland Garros (clay) Paris, France
Yacht racing
America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Enterprise defeats British challenger Shamrock V, of the Royal Ulster Yacht Club by 4 races to 0
Notes
Awarded retrospectively by the VFL in 1989.
References
Sports by year
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Balaclava
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Battle of Balaclava
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The Battle of Balaclava, fought on 25 October 1854 during the Crimean War, was part of the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55), an Allied attempt to capture the port and fortress of Sevastopol, Russia's principal naval base on the Black Sea. The engagement followed the earlier Allied victory in September at the Battle of the Alma, where the Russian General Menshikov had positioned his army in an attempt to stop the Allies progressing south towards their strategic goal. Alma was the first major encounter fought in the Crimean Peninsula since the Allied landings at Kalamita Bay on 14 September, and was a clear battlefield success; but a tardy pursuit by the Allies failed to gain a decisive victory, allowing the Russians to regroup, recover and prepare their defence.
The Russians split their forces. Defending within the allied siege lines was primarily the Navy manning the considerable static defenses of the city and threatening the allies from without was the mobile Army under General Menshikov.
The Allies decided against a slow assault on Sevastopol and instead prepared for a protracted siege. The British, under the command of Lord Raglan, and the French, under Canrobert, positioned their troops to the south of the port on the Chersonese Peninsula: the French Army occupied the bay of Kamiesch on the west coast whilst the British moved to the southern port of Balaclava. However, this position committed the British to the defence of the right flank of the Allied siege operations, for which Raglan had insufficient troops. Taking advantage of this exposure, the Russian General Liprandi, with some 25,000 men, prepared to attack the defences around Balaclava, hoping to disrupt the supply chain between the British base and their siege lines.
The battle began with a Russian artillery and infantry attack on the Ottoman redoubts that formed Balaclava's first line of defence on the Vorontsov Heights. The Ottoman forces initially resisted the Russian assaults, but lacking support they were eventually forced to retreat. When the redoubts fell, the Russian cavalry moved to engage the second defensive line in the South Valley, held by the Ottoman and the British 93rd Highland Regiment in what came to be known as the "Thin Red Line". This line held and repelled the attack; as did General James Scarlett's British Heavy Brigade who charged and defeated the greater proportion of the cavalry advance, forcing the Russians onto the defensive. However, a final Allied cavalry charge, stemming from a misinterpreted order from Raglan, led to one of the most famous and ill-fated events in British military history – the Charge of the Light Brigade.
Prelude
On to Sevastopol
The British and French fleets departed from the Bulgarian port of Varna on 5 September 1854, heading towards Kalamita Bay in the Crimea. By the 14th, the troops began to land; within four days the Allied force of 61,400 infantry, 1,200 cavalry and 137 guns, was ashore. Thirty-three miles (~53 km) to the south of the landing zone, beyond the Bulganak, lma, Katcha and Belbek rivers, lay the Russian naval base and fortress of Sevastopol, the key Allied objective in the Crimea. General Menshikov, aware of the Allied presence, prepared his troops on the banks of the River Alma in an effort to halt the Franco-British advance, but on 20 September he was soundly defeated in what was the first major battle in the Crimea. News of Menshikov's defeat was met with disbelief by Tsar Nicholas I in St. Petersburg – it seemed it would only be a matter of time before Sevastopol fell. But Allied hesitation, first from the French commander-in-chief, Saint-Arnaud, then by Lord Raglan, allowed the dispirited Russians to escape the battlefield in relative order, allowing Menshikov and his army to reach Sevastopol, reorganise and rebuild their morale. "It is frightful to think what might have happened," wrote Vice-Admiral Kornilov, "had it not been for this cardinal error of the enemy's."
The Allied march south finally recommenced on the morning of 23 September 1854, but there was as yet no definite plan of action; it was not until they had passed the River Katcha in sight of Sevastopol itself, that the Allied commanders discussed their options. The original plan had envisaged a move across the River Belbek before attacking the north side (the Severnaya) of Sevastopol harbour, defended by the Star Fort; but recent naval intelligence had revealed that the position was much stronger than had first been realised. John Burgoyne, the British Army's most experienced engineer, advocated an attack on Sevastopol from the south which, from all reports, was still an imperfectly entrenched position. This was a view shared by Saint-Arnaud who, having received his own intelligence of Russian reinforcements, had refused to agree to an attack from the north. Burgoyne's proposed 'flank march' required the Allies to go round the city to the east in order to attack the harbour from the south where the defences were weakest. Raglan was inclined to agree, arguing that he had always been disposed to such an operation; he knew, too, that the problem of re-supply would be eased with the seizing of the southern ports on the Chersonese Peninsula.
On 24 September, Menshikov began to move his army out of Sevastopol towards Bakchi Serai and Simferopol, leaving Admirals Kornilov and Nakhimov to organise the 18,000-strong garrison (mainly sailors and marines) and prepare the port's defences. By venturing into the interior of the Crimea, Menshikov would not only keep open his communications with Russia, but would also be in touch with reinforcements from Odessa or Kertch; moreover, he would be free to operate in the field and threaten the Allied flank. Whilst Menshikov moved east, the Anglo-French-Turkish army, with the British in the vanguard, continued its march towards the southern coast of the peninsula. The heat was oppressive, the water sparse, and cholera rife, taking a heavy toll on the men including Saint-Arnaud who was already ill with cancer. The march had been a real trial and was not without incident. At one point, on 25 September near MacKenzie's Farm, Raglan and his staff in front of the British column stumbled across the rear of the retreating Russians; with the rest of his army strung out behind in hopeless disorder, Menshikov missed a chance to inflict a major reverse on the British. By the 26th, however, Raglan had reached the village of Kadikoi, and was able to look down on the narrow inlet of Balaclava. That same day Saint-Arnaud, now critically ill, surrendered his command to General Canrobert.
Opposing forces
Allied deployment
The harbor at Balaclava was too small for both Allied armies to use. By rights, the French, who had claimed the honor of holding the right of the line, should have occupied Balaclava whilst the British should have moved west to the ports of Kazatch and Kamiesch. Canrobert offered the British the choice, but badly advised by Admiral Lyons, Raglan chose Balaclava for his base, not realizing that the two western bays offered far better facilities as supply ports. Moreover, Raglan committed the British Army to the defense of the right flank of the Allied operation and would have to ensure the security of both Anglo-French armies against the threat posed by Menshikov's forces to the east. The decision by Raglan was a bad mistake and one for which the British Army was to pay a terrible price.
For many, the only justification for the 'flank march' was an immediate assault upon Sevastopol. George Cathcart, commander of the British 4th Division, pleaded with Raglan for instant action. "I am sure I could walk into it, with scarcely the loss of a man," wrote Cathcart to Raglan on 28 September from the heights above the eastern approach to the city. "We could leave our packs, and run into it even in open day … We see people walking about the streets in great consternation ..." But caution prevailed, and plans by Burgoyne for a formal siege, backed by Canrobert, were prepared. When Raglan told Cathcart that nothing would happen until the Allied siege trains had been landed, Cathcart could not hide his irritation, "Land the siege trains! But my dear Lord Raglan, what the devil is there to knock down?"
Having decided upon which port they would occupy the Allies set about deploying their forces on the Chersonese Peninsula. The peninsula is bounded to the north by Sevastopol Harbour, at the head of which the River Chernaya flows from the south-east. The eastern boundary is formed by a long escarpment, the Sapouné Heights, averaging 600 feet high, and pierced by two passes only: the metalled Worontsov road, and, at the southern end of the heights, the Col, through which ran a steeper and more difficult road leading from the west end of Sevastopol to Balaclava. Sevastopol itself was divided in two by the Dockyard Creek. Two of Canrobert's four divisions, supervised by General Forey, were allotted the western siege operations around the city, from the Black Sea to the Dockyard Creek; the other two divisions, under General Bosquet, would act as a covering force along the Sapouné Heights. To Bosquet's north lay the camp of the British 1st Division, and beyond this De Lacy Evans' 2nd Division guarding the extreme right of the Allied line with the Inkerman Heights to its front and the Chernaya Valley to its right.
The port of Balaclava lay outside the main Allied perimeter and had to be provided with a defensive system of its own. The Vorontsov Road ran down from the Sapouné Heights along a ridge, running east-west, known as the Causeway Heights, dividing the plain into two sections – the North Valley and the South Valley. Redoubts upon the Causeway Heights offered Balaclava its first line of defense: five were built upon the heights – approximately 500 yards (~450 m) apart – and one upon what came to be known as Canrobert's Hill, slightly to the south and covering the extreme right of the British defenses (see map below). The redoubts housed a total of nine naval guns, all 12-pounders from HMS Diamond: three in No.1 redoubt on Canrobert's Hill; two each in redoubts 2, 3, and 4. Redoubts 5 and 6 (the two at the western end of the Causeway Heights), were still unfinished and without any guns. These defenses were hastily constructed, but they were not small works: No.1 redoubt held a garrison of 600 Turks, whilst redoubts 2, 3, and 4 each held 300; all were accompanied by one British artillery NCO. The inner line of defense of the British base was supplied by the 93rd Highlanders and a Royal Artillery field battery stationed at the village of Kadikoi to the north of Balaclava. These were supported by Royal Marines and artillery positioned along the heights above the port, as well as additional Ottoman troops. In addition to these defenses, Raglan could call upon the 1,500 men of Lord Lucan's Cavalry Division camped on the western end of the South Valley, along with a troop of Royal Horse Artillery. The total force available for the immediate defense of the British base at Balaclava numbered around 4,500 men, supported by 26 guns.
Russian plan
As the Allied siege guns bombarded Sevastopol the Russian reserves were moving to the Crimea. The Russians sought to relieve Sevastopol from bombardment by marching newly arrived reinforcements from the Danubian front. This force of Russian reinforcements would strike at the allies' main port of supply—Balaclava. At the forefront of these reinforcements was the 12th Infantry Division – part of the Russian 4th Corps – under General Pavel Liprandi. This division, consisting of the Azovsky, Dnieper, Ukraine and Odessa regiments, along with four batteries of artillery, had arrived from Bessarabia; by the time the division had reached the Crimea, Menshikov had decided on the plan to use them to attack the Allied rear from Chorgun, and march on Balaclava.
The vulnerability of Balaclava was well known to both sides. Undertaking the siege operations around Sevastopol whilst securing the Allies' eastern flank was stretching the resources of Raglan's dwindling forces – British casualties at the Alma had been high, and many were still suffering from the cholera epidemic; others simply fell sick from exhaustion. With the arrival of further Russian reinforcements, Menshikov's total force in theatre (including 12 Division) numbered around 65,000. The remainder of 4th Corps – 10 and 11 Divisions – were also heading towards the Crimea, but Menshikov, under pressure from Nicholas I to strike back at the Allies, decided not to wait for these troops before beginning the attack.
The first move by the Russians came on the early morning of 18 October 1854, when Lieutenant Colonel Rakovitch moved against the village of Chorgun with three infantry battalions, 200 Cossacks and four guns. From here, Liprandi, Rakovitch and Major General Semyakin were able to reconnoitre the Allied redoubts along the Causeway Heights. To the Russian commanders, and, belatedly, to the Royal Engineers, the redoubts were recognised to be too far forward of the inner defensive line of Balaclava to be adequately defended and supported by the British. Russian reconnaissance reports had also indicated that these outer defences were occupied by a mixture of Tunisians, raw recruits and militia, and not of the same calibre of men that had defeated them on the Danube at the beginning of the war. To Liprandi and his generals it seemed a swift strike against the redoubts was certain of success.
By 23 October Liprandi had gathered 16,000 men, known as the 'Detachment of Chorgun', comprising 17 battalions, 30 squadrons and 64 guns. The left column, commanded by Major General Gribbe, was to advance across the Chernaya River and towards the village of Kamara. The centre column, under Major General Semyakin, was divided into two wings: Semyakin himself, commanding the left wing, was to lead his troops south from Chorgun before moving against Canrobert's Hill and No.1 redoubt; Major General Levutsky, commanding the right wing of the centre column, was tasked to assault No.2 redoubt farther to the west. Meanwhile, the right column, under Colonel Skyuderi, was to advance across the Chernaya via the Tractir Bridge before moving south through the Fedyukhin Heights and across the North Valley to attack No.3 redoubt. The attacks were to be supported by Lieutenant General Ryzhov's cavalry. A further force, numbering 4,500 men and 14 guns under Major General Zhabokritsky, protected Liprandi's right from Allied interference. Once the redoubts had been captured, Zhabokritsky was to occupy the Fedioukine Heights. In total (including Zhabokritsky's force and a reserve held back at the Tractir Bridge) Liprandi had at his disposal around 25,000 men and 78 guns – not enough to threaten the siege lines, but more than enough to compromise the defences at Balaclava whose loss to the Allies would be tremendous. (See map below).
Battle
Recent intelligence received by the British had indicated a major Russian attack was imminent. After a considerable number of false alarms the previous week, however, Raglan failed to act, believing that they were needlessly exhausting his men who were turned out on every report. But this latest intelligence proved accurate, and early on 25 October, just before 05:00, Liprandi's troops of the 'Chorgun Detachment' left their camp and marched off in silence towards the Balaclava valleys.
The village of Kamara was the most easterly picket for Allied soldiers, providing a useful observation point for Lucan's vedettes. In the dark dawn, a squadron of Russian Cossacks, followed by a host of uhlans, rode slowly towards the village. These troops were the leading elements of Gribbe's force. First to discover that the Russians had moved up under cover of dark was the duty field officer of the day, Captain Alexander Low of the 4th Light Dragoons. The picket in Kamara had not seen the advancing Cossacks (there is some suggestion that they were sleeping), and it was only through Low's timely arrival and his shouts that they managed to escape and make their way to the nearest redoubt on the Causeway Heights. Behind the Cossacks and uhlans came the Dnieper Regiment along with the artillery. Immediately, Gribbe positioned his ten guns on the slopes to the west of Kamara, leaving his gunners with a clear view of No.1 redoubt on Canrobert's Hill.
In accordance with his usual practice Lucan had gone forward at daybreak to inspect the redoubts and outposts, accompanied by his staff: Lord George Paget, Lord William Paulet, and Major Thomas McMahon. As they approached Canrobert's Hill, two signal flags were observed, signifying the approach of the Russians. Paget, commanding officer of the 4th Light Dragoons (and commanding officer of the Light Brigade in Cardigan's absence), later recalled the moment when they realized something was wrong:
"Hello," said Lord William, "there are two flags flying; what does it mean?" "Why, that surely is the signal that the enemy is approaching," said Major McMahon. "Are you quite sure?" we replied. Hardly were the words out of McMahon's mouth, when bang went a cannon from the redoubt in question, fired on the advancing masses of the enemy.
Redoubts
The Ottoman guns from No.1 redoubt on Canrobert's hill fired on the Russians at around 06:00 – the Battle of Balaclava had begun. Lucan despatched Captain Charteris to inform Raglan that the redoubts were under attack. Charteris arrived at around 07:00, but those at the British headquarters had already heard the sound of the guns. Lucan himself rode quickly back towards Kadikoi to confer with Sir Colin Campbell, commander of the Balaclava defences. The two men agreed that this was not another Russian feint, but an attack in force with the intention of taking the British base. Campbell prepared his 93rd Highlanders to meet the enemy, whilst Lucan returned to the cavalry. Leaving the Light Brigade where it stood, Lucan led the Heavy Brigade towards the redoubts, hoping his presence might discourage any further Russian advance on Balaclava. Realizing his show of strength had little impact, however, Lucan led the Heavies back to their original position alongside the Light Brigade. The Ottoman forces were left to face the full force of the Russian assault almost alone.
While Gribbe's artillery continued to shell No.1 redoubt, the Russian columns under Levutsky, Semyakin, and Skyuderi began to move into the North Valley. Although the Heavy Brigade had pulled back, the British did send forward their available artillery to assist the Ottoman forces on the Causeway Heights. Captain George Maude's troop of horse artillery, I Troop, unlimbered its four 6-pounder and two 12-pounder guns between redoubts 2 and 3, whilst Captain Barker's battery, W Battery, of the Royal Artillery, moved out of Balaclava and took its position on Maude's left. However, the artillery duel was a very one sided affair. The heavier Russian guns (some 18-pounders), particularly No.4 battery under Lieutenant Postikov, together with the riflemen of the Ukraine regiment, took their toll on both men and ordnance. Running short of ammunition and taking hits, Maude's troop was forced to retire (Maude himself was severely wounded). Their place taken by two guns from Barker's battery. As the British artillery fire slackened, Semyakin prepared to storm No. 1 redoubt, personally leading the assault together with three battalions of the Azovsky Regiment under Colonel Krudener. "I waved my hat on both sides," recalled Semyakin. "Everybody rushed after me and I was protected by the stern Azovs." The Ottoman forces on Canrobert's Hill resisted stubbornly. Although the attack had begun at 06:00, it was not until 07:30 when No.1 redoubt fell. During that time the 600 Ottoman defenders had suffered from the heavy artillery bombardment; in the ensuing fight in the redoubt and subsequent pursuit by the Cossacks, an estimated 170 Ottomans were killed. In his first report of the action for The Times, William Russell wrote that the Turks 'received a few shots and then bolted', but afterwards admitted that he had not been a witness to the start of the battle, confessing, 'Our treatment of the Turks was unfair ... ignorant as we were that the Turkish in No.1 redoubt lost more than a fourth of their number ere they abandoned it to the enemy'. Later Lucan and Campbell too acknowledged the firmness with which the assault on No 1 redoubt, which was not visible from their vantage point, had been resisted; it was not until this had been overwhelmed did the defenders abandon redoubts 2, 3 and 4. Of the estimated 2,500 Russians who took part in the assault the Azovsky Regiment lost two officers and 149 men killed.
The remaining redoubts were now in danger of falling into the hands of the oncoming Russians. The battalions of the Ukraine Regiment under Colonel Dudnitsky-Lishin, attacked redoubts Nos.2 and 3, while the Odessa Regiment under Skyuderi advanced on redoubt No.4. The Ottoman forces in these positions, having already watched their compatriots flee the first redoubt and realizing that the British were not coming to their aid, retreated towards Balaclava, pursued by the Cossacks who had little trouble dispatching any stray or isolated men. The few British NCOs could do nothing but spike the guns, rendering them unusable. The Ottoman forces had gained some time for the Allies, but in the end the Turks were forced to abandon the redoubts. By 08:00 the Russians had occupied redoubts 1, 2 and 3, and, considering it too close to the enemy, had razed redoubt No.4.
South Valley
Canrobert had been informed of the Russian attack at about 07:30, and had immediately ridden off to join Raglan. Bosquet, having been aroused by the sound of the cannon, had ordered the 2nd Brigade of the French 1st Division (under General Vinoy) to march towards Balaclava in support of the British. Additionally, the 1st Brigade under General Espinasse began to move, along with the divisional artillery and the Chasseurs d'Afrique. The French 3rd Division was put on alert, and the horse artillery of the reserve harnessed. Raglan had at first thought the Russian advance a feint, possibly designed to occupy him whilst the enemy stormed out of Sevastopol to attack his army overlooking the heights above the city; but now he saw that he had been wrong. With the first four redoubts on the Causeway Heights either captured or out of action, all that protected Balaclava were Lucan's Cavalry Division, together with the 550 men of the 93 Highlanders, Barker's W Battery, 100 invalids under Colonel Daveney, and some Ottomans, reinforced by their countrymen from the redoubts who had rallied and formed up alongside them. It was only now that Raglan ordered the British 1st Division under the Duke of Cambridge, and Cathcart's 4th Division, to move into the plain. The 1st Division got away promptly, but when Raglan's staff officer informed Cathcart that the Russians were marching on Balaclava, he at first refused to comply, complaining that his men had only just finished their shift in the trenches before Sevastopol. In the end he did move, but the delay brought his division down 40 minutes after the Duke's. It would take a least two hours to march an infantry division down from the heights overlooking Sevastopol into the plain of Balaclava. The Russians appeared to have the intentions and the means to capture the British base in a much shorter time.
At approximately 07:45, the commander of the Light Brigade, Lord Cardigan, reached his cavalry, having arrived from his yacht moored in Balaclava harbour. Raglan, meanwhile, had taken up his position on the Sapouné Heights, 650 feet (~200 m) above the plain. Unwilling at this point to risk his cavalry without infantry support (as he had done throughout the whole campaign), Raglan issued his first order to the Cavalry Division at 08:00 – "Cavalry to take ground to the left of the second line of redoubts occupied by the Turks". The order was ambiguous and misleading (there was no 'second line of redoubts' and the word 'left' is dependent on the perspective of the viewer), but on this occasion Lucan had interpreted the order correctly, and moved his cavalry to the west, placing them between No. 6 redoubt and the foot of the Sapouné Heights where they could not be seen by, or engage with, the Russians. The new position placed the Light Brigade near, but to one side, of the mouth of the North Valley; the Heavy Brigade sat on their right. However, 30 minutes after issuing his first order, Raglan now changed his mind and issued his second order at 08:30 – "Eight squadrons of heavy Dragoons to be detached towards Balaclava to support the Turks who are wavering". There was no evidence that the Turks formed up alongside the Highlanders were wavering, but Raglan thought they were, or might soon do so. As each regiment comprised two squadrons, Lucan, with growing frustration, was required to move four of his five Heavy Brigade regiments back onto the open plain and the defensive line of Kadikoi. Although this order meant he had to divide his cavalry – thus reducing the effectiveness of each part – Lucan complied, and ordered General Scarlett to lead four regiments back to where they had just come from.
Ryzhov's advance
Liprandi now brought forward Ryzhov's cavalry to press home his advantage. Ryzhov's force consisted of eight squadrons of the 11th Kiev Hussars, six of the 12th Ingermanland Hussars, three of the 53rd Don Cossack Regiment, and the 1st Ural Cossacks, totalling between 2,000 and 3,000 men (sources vary), and 16 guns. The Russian cavalry crossed in a south-westerly direction across the Chernaya river and, at about 09:00, streamed into the North Valley. When level with the empty No.4 redoubt, Ryzhov wheeled to the left, crested the Causeway Heights, and came to a halt; before him, he could see the Heavy Brigade moving east across his front, while away to the south he could discern the Highlanders and Turks immediately to the north of Kadikoi. Ryzhov detached 400 men of the Ingermanland Hussars to turn and head straight for the Allied infantry position. Sir Colin Campbell, commander of the Highland Brigade and thus the 93rd Highlanders, brought his men forward from behind the hillock that had sheltered them from the Russian artillery. With only Balaclava and the Black Sea to their backs, he rode quickly along the line expressing his determination to resist – "Men, remember there is no retreat from here. You must die where you stand." Campbell's aide, John Scott, replied "Aye Sir Colin. Needs be we'll do that." Campbell had such a poor opinion of the Russian cavalry that he did not bother telling his men to form square; instead, he lined them up in the normal two-deep firing line. Raglan on the Sapouné Heights had a grandstand view, as did William Russell, who wrote furiously in his notebook:
The Russians dash at the Highlanders. The ground flies beneath their horses' feet; gathering speed at every stride, they dash on towards that thin red streak topped with a line of steel.
The British delivered their first volley at long range and failed to fell a single Russian. A second volley thundered, supported by fire from guns of Barker's battery and those of the Marines. This caused the Russians to swerve to their left, which Campbell took as an attempt to turn his right. He sternly checked an inclination to charge with the bayonet, and instead threw forward the 93rd's right-hand, grenadier company, under Captain Ross. This delivered a third volley which decided the issue. Barely five minutes after it had begun the Ingermanland Hussars were in retreat, and heading towards the Causeway Heights: the Russian commander of the brigade had reasoned that such a small, unsquared line of British infantry could not hope to hold out a cavalry charge, therefore there must be a larger force behind them. It was not until later accounts that Russell's 'thin red streak', became the famous 'Thin Red Line'.
Meanwhile, the main part of Ryzhov's cavalry remained static on the southern slopes of the Causeway Heights, some 800 yards (~730 m) from Scarlett's Heavy Brigade still moving south-east in the South Valley. The eight squadrons of the Heavy Brigade consisted of two each from the Scots Greys, the 6th Dragoons, 4th Dragoon Guards, and the 5th Dragoon Guards; the brigade's remaining two squadrons from the 1st Royal Dragoons were left in their original position to the west of No.6 redoubt. Although outnumbering the British by two or three to one and having the advantage of the high ground, the Russians seemed shaken by the unexpected presence of Scarlett's cavalry.
Scarlett, notoriously short-sighted, remained unaware that the Russians were there. However, once he had negotiated a vineyard and the sprawling tented camp of the Light Brigade, he was notified by his ADC, Lieutenant Elliot, of the proximity of the Russian cavalry on their left flank. Scarlett gave the order 'Left wheel into line' which turned the two advanced regiments into line to face the enemy; these were shortly followed by the other two regiments forming a second line. Had the Russians charged at this moment they would have caught Scarlett's men completely disorganised, yet Ryzhov let the chance slip. Lucan, who had also seen the Russians, rode across with his staff from the Light Brigade to join the Heavies. So impatient was he to attack that he ordered his duty trumpeter, Trumpet Major Joy, to sound the charge – but nothing happened. An attempt to attack before his men were in perfect alignment was contrary to every precept that the officers had learnt back in England, and it was only when the dressing had been completed to his satisfaction did Scarlett order his trumpeter, Trumpet Major Monks, to sound the charge. The Heavy Brigade began to move against the Russian cavalrymen.
Charge of the Heavy Brigade
The charge of the Heavy Brigade was anything but a charge – the brigade had launched uphill from a standing start, and the short distance between the two combatants had hardly allowed their horses to reach the trot. Moreover, the Russians were at last moving to meet them. Scarlett was first into Ryzhov's cavalry, closely followed by his staff, and, initially, just three squadrons – two of the Scots Greys on the left, and one of the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons on the right, totalling 300 men. The first to feel the force of the British attack were the Ingermanland Hussars, under the command of Major General Khaletsky. Staff-captain Arbuzov later described how they " … had to fight with the regiment of Queen Victoria's Dragoon Guards in their red coats … Neither we nor the English wanted to yield." A British Dragoon later described the action from his own perspective – "They were so superior in numbers, they outflanked us, and we were in the middle of them … I hope God will forgive me, for I felt more like a devil than a man."
Shortly, the second squadron of the Inniskillings attacked the left flank of the Russians, followed by the 5th Dragoon Guards who crashed into the Russians as they folded around the rear of the Scots Greys. Beyond them the 4th Dragoon Guards, in one unbroken line and to cries of Faugh A Ballagh, attacked the right rear of the Russian cavalry; the force of their impact was such that they were able to hack their way from one flank to the other with the loss of only one man. Finally came the Royal Dragoons who, ignoring their orders to remain behind, attacked on their own initiative, striking the right front of the Russians. Ryzhov had been caught flat-footed, allowing Scarlett's cavalry to push ahead, heaving and hacking at their opponents from all sides before gaining the ascendancy. "At length they turned and well they might," wrote Lieutenant Godman. "We pursued about 300 yards, and then called off with much difficulty, the gunners opened on them, and gave them a fine peppering." These guns were from C Troop, Royal Horse Artillery under Captain Brandling, whose 24-pounders dissuaded Ryzhov's cavalry from reforming and charging again. The Russians retreated in the direction of the Causeway Heights before halting at the east end of the North Valley.
The Charge of the Heavy Brigade had lasted no more than 10 minutes. Ryzhov's cavalry suffered 40–50 killed and over 200 wounded; the British lost 10 killed and 98 wounded. Scarlett's attack had been a remarkable success, yet it could have been a greater victory. When the Heavies attacked, the Earl of Cardigan's Light Brigade was less than 500 yards (~450 m) from Ryzhov's cavalry. The spectators on the Sapouné Heights, and the officers and men in the Light Brigade watching the Russians retreat in disorder, expected Cardigan to lead a pursuit and finish them off. Captain William Morris of the 17th Lancers urged his commander on, but Cardigan claimed he could not advance given the orders he had received from Lucan to remain in his position 'and to defend it against any attack'. Lucan later gave a different version from Cardigan's. He confirmed he had ordered Cardigan to defend his position, but maintained that his parting orders made it quite clear that he had permission to take advantage of so obvious an opportunity. Whatever the differences the Light Brigade had done nothing but look on. When Morris rode back to his regiment after confronting Cardigan, he could not hide his frustration – "My God, my God, what a chance we are losing."
North Valley
It was approaching 09:30, and the first part of the battle was over. So far Liprandi had enjoyed mixed fortunes: although his cavalry had been repelled by Campbell's 'Thin Red Line' and Scarlett's Heavies, his troops under Gribbe, Semyakin, Levutsky, and Skyuderi were still in possession of redoubts Nos. 1–3, and had destroyed redoubt No.4. In all, the Russians had 11 infantry battalions and 32 guns on the Causeway Heights, while to the north, on the Fedioukine Heights, Zhabokritsky had positioned eight battalions, four squadrons, and 14 guns (some sources state 10 guns). In front of Ryzhov's cavalry – drawn up across the eastern end of the North Valley – Liprandi placed the eight guns of the 3rd Don Cossack Battery, commanded by Prince Obolensky. These guns, 6- and 9-pounders, served by 200 men, stared straight down the North Valley. Liprandi now also had at his disposal six squadrons of Lancers divided into two bodies: three squadrons on the Fedioukine Heights; three others in a ravine on the side of the Causeway Heights.
Raglan was anxious to exploit Scarlett's success and drive the Russians off the Causeway Heights, but Cathcart's and Cambridge's infantry divisions had still not arrived; every minute that passed gave the Russians more time to prepare their defences for the expected British counter-attack. The British commander believed that the enemy had retreated in such disorder that a show of force by his cavalry – in advance of the infantry's arrival – would be enough to persuade the Russians to abandon the Causeway Heights. At 10:00, therefore, he gave his third order of the day to the Cavalry Division: Cavalry to advance and take advantage of any opportunity to recover the Heights. They will be supported by infantry which have been ordered. Advance on two fronts. Raglan wished his cavalry to advance immediately, but the ambiguity of the order had again resulted in a misunderstanding. Lucan had assumed he was first to wait for the infantry before moving forward. Accordingly, he ordered the Light Brigade into the North Valley, while the Heavy Brigade held the entrance of the South Valley, perhaps in response to the order 'Advance on two fronts'. Lucan believed he had complied with the order as far as he could until the infantry arrived, but Raglan looked on with growing impatience at his immobile cavalry. It was at this moment when a staff officer (identity unknown) shouted out that the Russians in the redoubts on the Causeway Heights were dragging away the captured British guns. The British infantry divisions were now only minutes away, but only the cavalry could move fast enough and prevent the loss of the guns. With growing impatience Raglan dictated to General Richard Airey the fourth and final order to Lord Lucan. This order was to be understood in conjunction with the third as an instruction to do immediately what had been previously ordered:
10:45. Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front – follow the enemy and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns – Troop Horse Artillery may accompany – French cavalry is on your left. R Airey. Immediate.
Having read the order scribbled down by Airey, Raglan summoned Captain Louis Nolan of the 15th The King's Hussars, Airey's hot-tempered aide-de-camp, to deliver it to Lucan. As he turned his horse to head directly down the escarpment, Raglan called after him, "Tell Lord Lucan the cavalry is to attack immediately." These words sealed the fate of the Light Brigade.
Charge of the Light Brigade
Lucan was puzzled by Raglan's imprecise order. There was no mention of heights – it referred instead to the front – and gone were all references to infantry. He was to try to 'prevent the enemy carrying away the guns' but from his position he could not see any guns being carried away. When Lucan questioned the order an excited Nolan told him he was to attack immediately.
"Attack, sir!"
"Attack what? What guns, sir?"
"There, my Lord, is your enemy!" said Nolan indignantly, vaguely waving his arm eastwards. "There are your guns!"
Nolan's gesture was imprecise, and pointed not to the redoubts and the captured British guns but, it seemed – at least to Lucan and his staff officers present – to the Russian battery guarding Ryzhov's cavalry at the end of the valley. Seeing Lucan's confusion, Nolan could have explained what Raglan intended, perhaps making the link – if he himself knew of the connection – between the third and fourth order; however, taken aback by Nolan's insolence, Lucan refused further discussion, and rode over to Cardigan standing in front of his brigade. Both cavalry commanders knew the dangers of attacking down the valley. When Cardigan learned what was expected of his brigade, he questioned the sanity of the order as conveyed to him by Lucan: "… allow me to point out to you that there is a battery in front, battery on each flank, and the ground is covered with Russian riflemen."
"I know it," said Lucan. "But Lord Raglan will have it. We have no choice but to obey."
The Light Brigade had formed up in two lines. The 13th Light Dragoons, the 17th Lancers, and the 11th Hussars, formed the first line (the latter regiment was soon moved behind the Lancers to reduce the width of the front). Paget commanded the second line formed by the 4th Light Dragoons and the 8th Hussars. Once the brigade had moved off, Lucan would follow with the Heavy Brigade in support.
At 11:10 the Light Brigade began their advance towards the Russians guns over a mile (~ 2 km) away. When the first line was clear of the second, the order was given to 'Trot'. Initially there was nothing to indicate that Cardigan was not going to conform to Raglan's intentions, and it was only after he had travelled some 200 yards (~180 m) that the enormity of the misconstrued order became apparent to the spectators on the Sapouné Heights. Instead of inclining to the right towards the redoubts on the Causeway Heights and the captured British guns, the Light Brigade continued towards Obolensky's battery at the end of the valley but it was too late to do anything. Nolan was the first to be killed when he dashed forward ahead of Cardigan, either in an effort to force the pace, or, suddenly realising the terrible mistake that was being made (and his part in it), in an attempt to change the direction of the brigade towards Raglan's intended objective. Whatever the reason, Nolan was hit by a splinter from a shell fired from one of the guns positioned on the Fedioukine Heights.
When the proper interval between themselves and the Lights had developed, Lucan led the Heavy Brigade forward. The Heavies were also hit—Lucan himself was slightly wounded, and his horse hit twice – but these men would have suffered more casualties had it not been for the charge of the 150 men of the Chasseurs d'Afrique. The French cavalry had formed up to the left of the British position. When they had seen the Light Brigade cut up, Major Abdelal led an attack up the Fedioukine Heights to charge the flank of the Russian battery, forcing them to drag away their guns. Yet it was now that Lucan – concluding that the Light Brigade would be wiped out before they reached the Russians at the end of the valley – ordered the Heavy Brigade to halt their advance and retire, leaving Cardigan's men without support. Turning to Lord Paulet, he justified his action and his desire to preserve at least half of his cavalry division, "They have sacrificed the Light Brigade; they shall not have the Heavy, if I can help it."
At 11:15, the eight Russian guns on the Causeway Heights opened up on the Light Brigade, whose front line was now more than halfway down the valley; for the next 400 yards (~365 m) the men also came under fire from the guns to their front. At a distance of 250 yards (~ 230 m) from Obolensky's battery, Cardigan ordered his bugler to sound the 'Gallop'. "And so we went through this scene of carnage," reported Paget, "wondering each moment which would be our last … It required a deal of closing in, by this time, to fill up the vacant gaps." Cardigan now ordered the 'Charge'. Some amongst the gun crews now doubted they could stop the advance – they could now see the lowered lances of the 17th Lancers. Having fired their last shot of canister some of the Russian artillerymen turned to run; others, knowing the consequences of turning their backs on cavalry, drew their swords.
Mêlée and retreat
At 11:17, half of the original 250 men of the 17th and 13th reached Obolensky's battery. Some of the survivors fought with the Russians and tried to capture their guns; others reformed into small groups and prepared to charge the Russian cavalry standing 100 yards (~90 m) to the rear. Ryzhov had expected to mop up any Light Brigade survivors but his hussars and Cossacks, unnerved by the British horsemen, panicked and wheeled to escape. "Some of the men fired on their own comrades to clear a passage for themselves," wrote Lieutenant Kubitovich. "Our hussars were pressed as far as the Chernaya river where there was only one bridge by which they could escape." The 11th Hussars now joined the mêlée. Colonel Douglass, with 80 survivors, charged and pushed other Russian cavalry back to the Chernaya. Paget's 4th Light Dragoons were next to reach the line of cannon, engaging in some 'fierce hand-to-hand encounters' with the surviving gunners, before he too led his regiment after the fleeing Russians. Last to reach the objective were Colonel Shewell and the 8th Hussars. The regiment missed the battery altogether, except for few on the extreme left who went amongst the remaining artillerymen stubbornly resisting; but the bulk of the regiment halted behind the guns and formed up in line.
All the survivors of the Light Brigade were now behind the Russian guns in the valley, yet the turning point of the action was the realisation that Lucan and the Heavy Brigade was not following in support. Russian officers, noticing how vastly superior their numbers were, managed to halt their retreat near the Chernaya, and edge forward their men. The Russian lancer regiments waiting on heights were now ordered down into the valley to form a line behind the British (the 13th, 17th, and 8th on the right of the valley, the 11th and 4th on the left) and block their route of escape. Those watching with Raglan thought the Light Brigade completely lost, but unexpectedly the two groups of survivors managed to break through the Russian trap. Still far from the British line, however, they once again came under fire from the guns and marksmen on the Causeway Heights. "The truth must be told," recorded Lieutenant Koribut Kubitovich, "that this fire hit us just as it did the enemy," but admitted that, "The English fought with astounding bravery, and when we approached their dismounted and wounded men, even these refused to surrender and continued to fight till the ground was soaked with their blood."
Most of the survivors were back at the British lines by 12:00; the whole affair had lasted no more than 20 minutes. For those that returned there was a mixture of elation and anger, and questions as to what had happened to the Heavy Brigade. "And who I ask is answerable for all this?" wrote Troop Sergeant Major George Smith of the 11th Hussars. "… it was not unlike leaving the forlorn hope, after storming a town, to fight their own way out again instead of pushing on the supports. We cut their army completely in two, taking their principal battery, driving their cavalry far to the rear. What more could 670 men do?" But as they thought over what had occurred, the recriminations between Raglan, Lucan, and Cardigan had already begun.
Aftermath
The loss of the Light Brigade had been such a traumatic event that the allies were incapable of further action that day. Of the 666 men known to have ridden in the charge (sources vary slightly), 271 became casualties: 110 killed (less than 17%), 129 wounded, plus another 32 wounded and taken prisoner. Additionally, 375 horses were killed. Raglan could not now risk using his infantry divisions in any attempt to move Liprandi's forces from the Causeway Heights. Even if the redoubts were retaken, they would have to be defended by men whose priority was the siege of Sevastopol, and he dared not expose his supply base at Balaclava to further Russian attacks. The British 1st and 4th Infantry Divisions, therefore, returned to the plateau, the former without its Highland regiments who were ordered to remain in the valley under Campbell's command.
To the Russians the Battle of Balaclava was a victory and proved a welcome boost in morale—they had captured the Allied redoubts (from which seven guns were removed and taken to Sevastopol as trophies), and had gained control of the Worontsov Road. The loss of the outer ring of defences severely restricted Allied movements and confined them to a narrow area between Balaclava and Sevastopol. Nearly all officers received awards. General Semyakin received the Order of St. George of the 3rd degree. Gribbe and Levutsky became cavaliers of the Order of St Stanislav of the 1st degree, and Colonel Krudener was promoted to Major General. General Liprandi was awarded a golden sabre encrusted with diamonds, and inscribed 'For Bravery'. Semyakin wrote home with news of the action at Balaclava, and what he considered a great success – "Many Turks and English were killed by our Russian bayonets, and many English were pierced with lances of our Uhlans and Cossacks, and by sabres of our Hussars … God grant that the heart of the Tsar rejoices."
All three armies would soon be reinforced: the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, The Duke of Newcastle, promised Raglan that the 3rd, 62nd, and 90th Regiments, would be despatched to the Crimea with a third battery train; Canrobert, meanwhile, was promised an additional three divisions of infantry from France. The Russians were also receiving reinforcements with the arrival of 10 and 11 Divisions which finally arrived at the beginning of November. These troops brought the strength of Menshikov's field army to some 107,000 men, but the Russian commander was under severe pressure from St Petersburg to attack the Allied lines and break the siege of Sevastopol. The failure of the British and French to beat the Russians at Balaclava immediately set the stage for a much bloodier battle. For weeks it had been known that the Russians would soon begin a full-scale attack on the besiegers. As a preliminary Menshikov launched a reconnaissance in force on the extreme right of the Allied line (against the British 2nd Division) on the Inkerman Heights overlooking the Chernaya river. The attack on 26 October (the battle became known as 'Little Inkerman') proved a successful action for the British, but the Russians had gleaned all they needed to know about the position. Using this intelligence, Menshikov launched his main attack on the same position one week later on 5 November in what came to be known as the Battle of Inkerman.
In popular culture
Rudyard Kipling's poem The Last of the Light Brigade
Alfred Tennyson's poems The Charge of the Light Brigade and The Charge of the Heavy Brigade
The Charge of the Light Brigade 1936 film
The Charge of the Light Brigade 1968 film
George MacDonald Fraser's 1973 novel, Flashman at the Charge
Pearls Before Swine's album Balaklava was inspired by the Battle of Balaclava, and the Charge of the Light Brigade in particular.
"The Trooper" by Iron Maiden
The song "Thin Red Line" from Canadian pop group Glass Tiger's album of the same name.
See also
List of Crimean War Victoria Cross recipients
References
Citations
Sources
Primary sources
Bazancourt, the Baron de (1856). The Crimean Expedition, to the Capture of Sebastopol 2 vols. London.
Kinglake, A. W (1863–87). The Invasion of the Crimea, 8 vols. Edinburgh
Secondary sources
Blake, R.L.V ffrench (1973). The Crimean War. Sphere Books.
Brighton, Terry (2005). Hell Riders: The Truth about the Charge of the Light Brigade. Penguin Books.
Figes, Orlando (2010). The Crimean War: A History. Picador Publishing.
Fletcher, Ian & Ishchenko, Natalia (2004). The Crimean War: A Clash of Empires. Spellmount Limited.
Hibbert, Christopher (1963). The Destruction of Lord Raglan: A tragedy of the Crimean War 1854–55. Pelican Books
Pemberton, W. Baring (1962). Battles of the Crimean War. Pan Books Ltd.
Royle, Trevor (2007). Crimea: The Great Crimean War 1854–1856. Abacus.
Warner, Philip (2001). The Crimean War: A Reappraisal. Wordsworth Editions.
External links
Battles of the Crimean War
Battles involving the United Kingdom
Battles involving France
Battles involving the Ottoman Empire
Conflicts in 1854
1854 in the Russian Empire
Taurida Governorate
October 1854 events
Military history of Sevastopol
Second French Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnans%20in%20Excelsis
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Regnans in Excelsis
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Regnans in Excelsis ("Reigning on High") is a papal bull that Pope Pius V issued on 25 February 1570. It excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I of England, referring to her as "the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime", declared her a heretic, and released her subjects from allegiance to her, even those who had "sworn oaths to her", and excommunicated any who obeyed her orders: "We charge and command all and singular the nobles, subjects, peoples and others afore said that they do not dare obey her orders, mandates and laws. Those who shall act to the contrary we include in the like sentence of excommunication." Among the queen's alleged offences, "She has removed the royal Council, composed of the nobility of England, and has filled it with obscure men, being heretics."
The bull, written in Latin, is named from its incipit, the first three words of its text.
Background
The Papacy had previously reconciled with Mary I, who returned the Church of England and Church of Ireland to Catholicism. After Mary's death in November 1558, Elizabeth's Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy of 1559, which re-established the Church of England and Church of Ireland's independence from papal authority. This bull can be seen as an act of retaliation for the religious settlement, but it was delayed by eleven years, caused in part by a number of royal Catholic suitors who hoped to marry Elizabeth, and because she had tolerated Catholic worship in private.
Content
Pius V issued the bull in support of, but following, the failed Rising of the North of 1569, by which Catholic nobles attempted to depose Elizabeth and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, and the first Desmond Rebellion in Ireland, which broke out in June 1569. Although the Desmond Rebellion's main goal was to preserve the independence of feudal lords from the English throne, it developed religious overtones as James FitzMaurice FitzGerald sought support from Catholic Europe.
The bull declared Queen Elizabeth excommunicated and absolved her subjects from any allegiance to her. It also excommunicated any that obeyed her orders. Its argument drew on the hierocratic theory of the papacy established by medieval canonists.
Pius did not consult any Catholic rulers. Both Philip II of Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II disagreed with his approach. Philip thought, correctly, that it would only harden the Crown's treatment of English Catholics. According to Evelyn Waugh, It provided a convenient pretext for those in Elizabeth's court, looking for an excuse to do so, to persecute Roman Catholics, and they took full advantage of it.
To take effect in church law the bull had to be promulgated. This logistical effort relied on individuals such as John Felton.
Aftermath
The bull provoked the English government into taking more repressive actions against the Jesuits, whom they feared to be acting in the interests of Spain and the papacy. This reaction soon seemed justified: it was the publication in England of Pius's exhortation that gave the impetus in 1571 to the Ridolfi plot, in which the Duke of Norfolk was to kidnap or murder Queen Elizabeth, install Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne, and then become de facto king by marrying her.
Heinrich Bullinger of Zurich published a critique of the bull in 1571.
Suspension from 1580–84
At the request of the Jesuits and to relieve the pressures on Catholics in England, Pope Gregory XIII issued a clarification or suspension in 1580, explaining that Catholics should obey the queen outwardly in all civil matters, until such time as a suitable opportunity presented itself for her overthrow. How widely this was communicated to, and understood by, Catholics in England and Ireland is unknown. Later that year Pope Gregory sponsored an abortive expedition to Ireland in support of the Second Desmond Rebellion that ended in the Siege of Smerwick, so the suggestion that the Bull was suspended earlier in 1580 cannot be taken seriously. Soon after the start of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), an English Act "against Jesuits, seminary priests and other such like disobedient persons" was passed into law.
Renewal in 1588
In 1588, Pope Sixtus V, in support of the Spanish Armada, renewed the solemn bull of excommunication against Queen Elizabeth I, for the regicide of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 as well as the previously catalogued offences against the Catholic Church. During the threat of invasion by the Spanish Armada, it transpired that most of the Catholic residents in England remained loyal, and that those who were a real threat to the throne, like William, Cardinal Allen and Robert Persons, were already exiles.
While the bull had little impact in England, it caused a rift in Elizabeth's Kingdom of Ireland where most of the population remained Roman Catholic; Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond, had used the bull as justification for the Second Desmond Rebellion. While divisions had existed before 1570, after the bull the official world based in Dublin conformed to Anglicanism while the majority of the Parliament of Ireland were Catholics until 1613.
See also
John Felton (martyr)
Religion in the United Kingdom
Cuius regio, eius religio
References
Further reading
Jardine, Lisa (2004). Gloriana Rules the Waves: or, The Advantage of Being Excommunicated (and Being a Woman), in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Volume 14, Sixth Series, pp. 209–222.
External links
Text of Regnans in Excelsis of Pope Saint Pius V
1570 in England
1570 works
16th-century papal bulls
16th-century anti-Protestantism
Documents of Pope Pius V
Elizabeth I
Foreign relations of the Holy See
History of Catholicism in the United Kingdom
1570 in Christianity
England–Holy See relations
Reformation in Ireland
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] |
205830
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL
|
HSL
|
HSL may refer to:
Science, technology and computing
HSL (Fortran library), a numerical software library
HSL and HSV color space
Health and Safety Laboratory, UK
Hormone-sensitive lipase, a protein
Hybrid solar lighting
Transport
Bell HSL, a 1050s antisubmarine helicopter
Haslemere railway station in England
Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (Helsingin seudun liikenne), Finland
Hindustan Shipyard, in Visakhapatnam, Andra Pradesh, India
Hispania Líneas Aéreas, a defunct Spanish airline
HSL Logistik, a German train operator
Huslia Airport, in Alaska, US
High-speed rail lines in Benelux HSL 1, HSL 2 HSL 3 HSL 4, and HSL-Zuid
HSL-34 to HSL-94: Former US Navy helicopter Anti-submarine (Light) squadrons
Other uses
Hausa Sign Language, Kano, Nigeria
Hawaiʻi Sign Language, Hawaii, United States
Hamburg School of Logistics, now Kühne Logistics University, Germany
|
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205834
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humiliation
|
Humiliation
|
Humiliation is the abasement of pride, which creates mortification or leads to a state of being humbled or reduced to lowliness or submission. It is an emotion felt by a person whose social status, either by force or willingly, has just decreased. It can be brought about through intimidation, physical or mental mistreatment or trickery, or by embarrassment if a person is revealed to have committed a socially or legally unacceptable act. Whereas humility can be sought alone as a means to de-emphasize the ego, humiliation must involve other person(s), though not necessarily directly or willingly.
Humiliation is currently an active research topic, and is now seen as an important – and complex – core dynamic in human relationships, having implications at intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional and international levels.
Psychological effects
A person who suffers from severe humiliation could experience major depressions, suicidal states, and severe anxiety states such as post-traumatic stress disorder. The loss of status, like losing a job or being labeled as a liar or discredited unfairly, could cause people inability to behave normally in their communities. Humiliated individuals could be provoked and crave for revenge, and some people could feel worthless, hopeless and helpless, creating suicidal thoughts if justice is not met. It also can lead to new insights, activism and a new kinship with marginalized groups.
Feelings of humiliation can produce 'humiliated fury', which when turned inward can result in apathy and depression, and when turned outward can give rise to paranoia, sadistic behaviour and fantasies of revenge. Klein explains, "When it is outwardly directed, humiliated fury unfortunately creates additional victims, often including innocent bystanders. When it is inwardly directed, the resulting self-hate renders victims incapable of meeting their own needs, let alone having energy available to love and care for others." He goes on to say, "In either case, those who are consumed by humiliated fury are absorbed in themselves or their cause, wrapped in wounded pride..."
A study by researchers at the University of Michigan revealed that "the same regions of the brain that become active in response to painful sensory experiences are activated during intense experiences of social rejection." In other words, humiliation and loneliness are experienced as intensely as physical pain.
Punishments and interrogation tactics
Humiliating of one person by another (the humiliator) is often used as a way of asserting power over them, and is a common form of oppression or abuse used in a police, military, or prison context during legal interrogations or illegal torture sessions. Many now-obsolete public punishments were deliberately designed to be humiliating, e.g. tarring and feathering lawbreakers, pillory, "mark of shame" (stigma) as a means of "making an example" of a person and presenting a deterrent to others. Some practices, such as tarring and feathering, became tools of unofficial mob justice. In folk customs such as the English skimmington rides and rough music (and their continental equivalents, such as the French Charivari), dramatic public demonstrations of moral disapproval were enacted to humiliate transgressors and drive them out of the community.
Some U.S. states have experimented with humiliating or shaming lawbreakers by publishing their names and indicating their offense (e.g., with soliciting prostitutes or drinking and driving). In 2010, there was public outcry about reports showing police in Dongguan and Guangdong in China leading a parade of arrested prostitutes for the purpose of humiliating them. The national Ministry of Public Security reprimanded the local police and affirmed that such punishments are not allowed.
A wider human perspective
Donald Klein described humiliation as "a powerful factor in human affairs that has, for a variety of reasons, been overlooked by students of individual and collective behavior. It is a pervasive and all too destructive influence in the behavior of individuals, groups, organizations, and nations."
Though it is a subjective emotion, humiliation has a universal aspect which applies to all human beings: "it is the feeling of being put down, made to feel less than one feels oneself to be."
A society that suffers from humiliation is an unstable one. The cognitive dissonance between the way in which the society is perceived and the way in which it sees itself can be so great that violence can result on a massive scale against people belonging to an out group. According to Jonathan Sacks, "By turning the question 'What did we do wrong?' into 'Who did this to us?', [hate against an out group] restores some measure of self-respect and provides a course of action. In psychiatry, the clinical terms for this process are splitting and projection; it allows people to define themselves as victims."
See also
References
Further reading
Henryson, Dean (2014). ″Girl Fighting Exposed.″ Createspace. .
External links
Human Dignity and Humiliation Studies
Emotional Competency article on Humiliation
Silvan Tomkins Site Resources on Shame and Humiliation Studies
German football team humiliate Brazil 7-1 during World Cup
Femenia, Nora. Healing Humiliation and the Need for Revenge
Pain
Morality
Emotions
Sexual acts
Bullying
Abuse
Psychological abuse
Domestic violence
Sexual fetishism
Terrorism tactics
|
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205836
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Waldo
|
Daniel Waldo
|
Daniel Waldo (September 10, 1762 – July 30, 1864) was an American clergyman. Born in Windham, Connecticut, Waldo served in the American Revolutionary War and later became a missionary and clergyman. In 1856, at the age of 94, Waldo was named Chaplain of the House of Representatives.
It is recorded that he was in good health during his service to the House; he was also one of seven Revolutionary War veterans who, having survived into the age of photography, were featured in the 1864 book The Last Men of the Revolution (which gives many more details of his life). Waldo died in Syracuse, New York at the advanced age of 101, of injuries sustained after falling down a flight of stairs, and he was given a memorial in the House itself.
References
Reverend E.B. Hillard, The Last Men of the Revolution (1864), republished 1968 with additional notes by Wendell Garrett.
External links
"Father Waldo's America"
1762 births
1864 deaths
American centenarians
Men centenarians
People of colonial Connecticut
Yale University alumni
People from Windham, Connecticut
Chaplains of the United States House of Representatives
Burials in New York (state)
Deaths from falls
People of Connecticut in the American Revolution
Clergy in the American Revolution
|
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] |
205839
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Finland
|
Air Finland
|
Oy Air Finland was an airline with its head office and base at Helsinki Airport in Vantaa, Finland, which was operating chartered and scheduled flights to holiday destinations, as well as aircraft lease services. The company was founded in 2002 and filed for bankruptcy in 2012.
History
The airline was established in January 2002 and started flight operations on 3 April 2003. It was owned by three individuals from the aviation, finance and travel marketing industries: Harri Naivo (Chairman and Chief Financial Officer), Mika Helenius (Chief Executive Officer), and Lauri Komi. At March 2007, the company had 210 employees. On 26 June 2012, Air Finland announced that it would immediately cancel all flights and filed for bankruptcy.
Destinations
As of March 2011, Air Finland operated scheduled flights to the following destinations. The broad range of charter flights offered by the airline is not included.
Cyprus
Larnaca – Larnaca International Airport seasonal
Finland
Helsinki – Helsinki Airport base
Greece
Chania – Chania International Airport seasonal
Heraklion - Heraklion International Airport seasonal
Rhodes – Rhodes International Airport, "Diagoras" seasonal
Spain
Alicante – Alicante Airport
Fuerteventura – Fuerteventura Airport seasonal
Gran Canaria – Gran Canaria Airport
Lanzarote – Lanzarote Airport seasonal
Málaga – Málaga Airport
Tenerife – Tenerife South Airport seasonal
Turkey
Antalya – Antalya Airport seasonal
United Arab Emirates
Dubai – Dubai International Airport seasonal
Fleet
As of June 2012, the Air Finland fleet consisted of three Boeing 757-200 aircraft with an average age of 18 years. They provided space for 219–235 passengers in an all-economy class cabin layout.
References
External links
Official website
Official website
Defunct airlines of Finland
Airlines established in 2002
Airlines disestablished in 2012
2012 disestablishments in Finland
Finnish companies established in 2002
|
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205840
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sleeping%20Beauty%20Quartet
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The Sleeping Beauty Quartet
|
The Sleeping Beauty Quartet is a series of four novels written by American author Anne Rice under the pseudonym of A. N. Roquelaure. The quartet comprises The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty, Beauty's Punishment, Beauty's Release, and Beauty's Kingdom, first published individually in 1983, 1984, 1985, and 2015, respectively, in the United States. They are erotic BDSM novels set in a medieval fantasy world, loosely based on the fairy tale of Sleeping Beauty. The novels describe explicit sexual adventures of the female protagonist Beauty and the male characters Alexi, Tristan and Laurent, featuring both maledom and femdom scenarios amid vivid imageries of bisexuality, homosexuality, ephebophilia and pony play.
In 1994, the abridged audio versions of the first three books were published in cassette form. The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty was read by actress Amy Brenneman. Beauty's Punishment was read by Elizabeth Montgomery (known for her role in the ABC situation comedy Bewitched) as Beauty with Michael Diamond as Tristan, and Beauty's Release was by Montgomery with actor Christian Keiber reading as Laurent. A compact disc version of the audiobooks was read by Genviere Bevier and Winthrop Eliot.
Background
After the success of Interview with the Vampire (1976), Anne Rice wrote two extensively researched historical novels, The Feast of All Saints (1979) and Cry to Heaven (1982). Neither of them gave her the critical acclaim or the commercial success of her first novel; the main complaints about The Feast of All Saints were that it was too heavy and dense to read easily, and most of the reviews for Cry to Heaven were so savagely negative that Rice felt devastated. She had been thinking about a story set during the time of Oscar Wilde for the next novel, but decided to abandon it and go back to the erotic writing she had explored in the 1960s. Her idea was "to create a book where you didn't have to mark the hot pages" and "to take away everything extraneous, as much as could be done in a narrative". To gain a creative freedom for the new work, Rice adopted the nom de plume A.N. Roquelaure from the French word Roquelaure, referring to a cloak worn by men in the 18th-century Europe. Rice only finally came out as the author of the trilogy during the later 1990s.
The trilogy was written in the 1980s when many feminists denounced pornography as violation of women's rights, but Rice firmly believed that women should have the freedom to read and write whatever they pleased, and considered the trilogy her political statement.
A fourth book in the series, Beauty's Kingdom, was published in April 2015.
Plot summary
The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty
In the first chapter of the story, Beauty is awakened from her hundred-year sleep by the Prince, not with a kiss, but through copulation, initiating her into a Satyricon-like world of sexual adventures. After stripping her naked he takes her to his kingdom, ruled by his mother Queen Eleanor, where Beauty is trained as a slave and a plaything. The rest of the naked slaves, dozens of them, in the Queen's castle are princes and princesses sent by their royal parents from the surrounding kingdoms as tributes. In this castle they spend several years learning to become obedient and submissive sexual property, accepting being spanked and forced to have sex with nobles and slaves of both sexes, being publicly displayed and humiliated, and crawling around on their hands and knees like animals until they return to their own lands "being enhanced in wisdom."
In the castle Beauty meets another slave, Prince Alexi, with whom she copulates passionately. After that he tells her about the long adventurous journey he had in the castle. Alexi previously had been a stubborn prince who fought back all the attempts to break him, until the Queen sent him to the kitchen to have him tortured by crude kitchen servants. Alexi received such a savage and merciless punishment there that he began to lose his senses and, after some particularly humiliating training at the hands of a strong stable boy, Alexi became a totally surrendered slave, playing various sexual games at the Queen's commands.
The moral of Alexi's story notwithstanding, Beauty willfully disobeys, and the book closes with her being sentenced to brutal slavery in the neighboring village while her master weeps.
Beauty's Punishment
The second book starts as Beauty and another naked slave from the castle, Prince Tristan, are sold at auction in the village square. Beauty is purchased by the inn keeper Mistress Lockely while Tristan is bought by Nicholas, the Queen's chronicler. At Lockely's inn Beauty meets the Captain of the Guard, who forces her to pleasure him and then takes her to a drunken orgy with his soldiers. Tristan is bound and harnessed as a pony with a tail plugged in his rear, and made to pull Nicholas' cart while being whipped. When the cart arrives at an orchard, he is ordered to collect apples with his mouth, and trained to "satisfy" other human ponies in the stable. Afterward, Nicholas has Tristan paddled at the Public Turntable, which devastates the prince, and forcibly copulates with him in the bed.
The next day, after having made Tristan march through the crowded streets, which included a short but intense meeting with the Captain of the Guard, Nicholas asks Tristan a series of questions as to what makes a strong, highborn prince obey with such a complete submission. Tristan answers, after some hesitation, that he loves anyone who punishes him no matter how crude or lowly they are and desires the loss of his self amid all the punishments, eventually "becoming" the punishments himself. Nicholas is moved by the answer and, after a frantic intercourse, confesses to him that he is in love with Tristan.
Beauty witnesses the harsh punishment of a runaway slave, Prince Laurent, as he is bound to a wooden cross and the Captain whips him all over his muscular body, and later sees Tristan pulling a cart carrying Laurent in a penitential procession. Tristan begs Nicholas to be allowed to meet Beauty and they reunite in Nicholas' house. Beauty and Tristan copulate as Nicholas watches behind a one-way mirror. Suddenly, Arab soldiers raid the village and several naked slaves, including Beauty, Tristan and Laurent, are kidnapped. The book closes as they are sent across the sea to serve in the palace of the Sultan.
Beauty's Release
The third book begins with the captured slaves' journey on the ship to the Sultan's realm. While being imprisoned in a cage, Laurent contemplates the recent punishments he received as a runaway on a wooden cross, recalling its pain, degradation and undeniable pleasure. After their arrival at the exotic land of the Sultan, the captured slaves are groomed by a group of young boys and examined by Lexius, the Sultan's steward. Beauty is taken to the harem and is mounted on the phallus of a bronze statue. She is then greeted by Innana, one of the Sultan's wives, with whom she copulates and is shocked to discover that Innana's clitoris has been surgically removed.
Laurent and Tristan are taken to an all-male sadomasochistic orgy, being mounted on a cross and whipped. However, in private, Laurent overpowers Lexius and rapes him. Afterward Laurent and Tristan are taken to the Sultan, made to perform a mutual fellatio on each other in his presence, and then the Sultan anally copulates with Laurent. Laurent and Tristan retire from the Sultan's bedroom and when they are beginning to train Lexius as their secret slave, a rescue team led by the Captain of the Guard arrives and Laurent takes Lexius with him to their ship along with Beauty and Tristan. During the last leg of the voyage, the Captain tells Beauty that she is to be released from the servitude because of her parents' demands and, to her great dismay, sent back home to get married—she hysterically protests, but to no avail.
Back at the castle, the Queen takes Lexius as her slave and sends him to the merciless kitchen servants who trained Prince Alexi earlier in the first book. She then sentences both Laurent and Tristan to the village stable for Laurent's rebelliousness and Tristan's failure to become a good slave. They are made to live and work as ponies, pulling all sorts of carts and drawing plows in the fields during the daytime, and having homosexual orgies with other human ponies at night. Tristan, as a pony, reunites with his former owner Nicholas on a temporary basis. However, Laurent's father unexpectedly dies and he is summoned back to his own kingdom against his wish, to become the new ruler. The book ends as Laurent marries Beauty, saying that they shall live happily ever after, or perhaps "a good deal happier" than anyone else could ever guess—hinting that they will continue the pleasure of dominance and submission with each other.
Beauty's Kingdom
20 years after the events of Beauty's Release, Beauty and Laurent take over the throne following the death of Queen Eleanor and strive to continue the sensual surrender legacy of the kingdom, albeit now in a state of voluntary servitude.
Theme
The fairy tale of Sleeping Beauty has been analyzed by folklorists and other scholars of various types, and many of them have noticed prominent erotic elements of the story. Some versions of the tale have Beauty raped and pregnant while sleeping, and only waking up after childbirth. The child psychologist Bruno Bettelheim commented that the tale "abounds with Freudian symbolism" and that the princes who try to reach Sleeping Beauty before the appropriate time only to perish in the thorns surrounding her castle serves as a warning that premature sexual encounters are destructive. Feminist theorists have focused on Sleeping Beauty's extreme passivity and the sexual nature of her awakening in the fairy tale. Anne Rice literalized these symbolic sexual elements—particularly, the passive sexual awakening or rape of Beauty that has been denounced by feminists—in the story by rewriting it into an explicit sadomasochistic erotica. However, Rice's cross-gender identification with the submissive male characters with receptive capacity in the trilogy—Alexi, Tristan and Laurent—enabled her to circumvent the equation of the female gender and masochism and, via their homoerotic interactions with the dominant male characters, she could exploit the erotic potential of phallic power while at the same time going beyond its boundary and "turning it against itself".
Another foremost difference in Rice's rewriting is that the story takes Beauty to a series of far harsher trials after her period of extreme passivity in a coma-like sleep. In the beginning of the first book, the Prince takes Beauty with her parents' consent, having persuaded them that, after completing the sexual servitude in his castle, the slaves emerge with "wisdom, patience, and self-discipline", as well as a full acceptance of their innermost desires and an understanding of the suffering of the humankind. Her royal parents, although saddened by the absence of their daughter, are promised that she will return "greatly enhanced in wisdom and beauty". However, this unconventional education in sexual hardship and liberation ends in a monogamous, patriarchal marriage between Beauty and Laurent. In the 1994 issue of Feminist Review, Professor Amalia Ziv of Ben-Gurion University described the trilogy as "definitely more of a comedy" when compared to darker BDSM novels such as Story of O, and commented that "like all comedies, it ends in marriage".
Reception
The trilogy was a commercial success and gained a significant cult following. Anne Rice was able to secure the publishing contract for her next erotic novel Exit to Eden (1985) with an advance of US$35,000 from Arbor House. There were allegations that Rice was a dominatrix in real life since the trilogy deals with the BDSM practice so exclusively, but her husband Stan Rice replied that "she's no more sadomasochistic than she's a vampire". When the director of the Columbus Metropolitan Library declared the trilogy "hardcore pornography" and removed all print and audiocassette copies from the library shelves in 1996, Rice objected, arguing that the trilogy was "elegantly sensual" and harmless to readers. The trilogy is included in the American Library Association's list of "100 most frequently challenged books" of the 1990s, with the term "challenge" defined in American literature as "an attempt to remove or restrict materials, based upon the objections of a person or group".
Professor Linda Badley of Middle Tennessee State University wrote in her 1996 book Writing Horror and the Body on the trilogy, that rewriting the myth of Sleeping Beauty as sadomasochistic fantasies enabled Anne Rice to explore "liminal areas of experience that could not be articulated in conventional literature, extant pornography, or politically correct discourse".
Television adaptation
It was announced in September 2014 that Televisa U.S.A had obtained the rights to adapt the trilogy into a television series. Rice was to serve as executive producer alongside Rachel Winter, producer of the film Dallas Buyers Club. Winter had previously approached Anne in 2012 regarding such plans that did not materialize at the time. As of 2016, the series was still in early development.
See also
List of BDSM fiction
List of most commonly challenged books in the United States
References
Literary tetralogies
BDSM literature
Works based on Sleeping Beauty
American erotic novels
American LGBT novels
Novels by Anne Rice
Works published under a pseudonym
LGBT speculative fiction novels
E. P. Dutton books
Novels based on fairy tales
1980s LGBT novels
LGBT-related horror literature
Novels with bisexual themes
|
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205842
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Albany%20%28CL-23%29
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USS Albany (CL-23)
|
The third USS Albany (later PG-36 and CL-23) was a United States Navy protected cruiser of the New Orleans class. She saw service in the Philippine–American War and World War I.
Construction and acquisition
Albany was originally laid down at Newcastle upon Tyne, England, by Armstrong Whitworth on 8 December 1897 for the Brazilian Navy as Almirante Abreu, but was purchased while still on the ways by the United States Navy on 16 March 1898 to prevent her from being acquired by the Spanish Navy during the Spanish–American War. She was renamed Albany and launched in February 1899, sponsored by Mrs. John C. Colwell, the wife of the American naval attaché in London. She was commissioned in the River Tyne, England, on 29 May 1900. Cost $1,207,644.13 (hull and machinery).
Service history
Philippine Squadron
On 26 June 1900, Albany put to sea bound for service in the Philippines with the Philippine–American War. Steaming via Gibraltar, the Mediterranean Sea, the Suez Canal, and the Indian Ocean, the cruiser arrived at Cavite in the Philippines on 22 November. She served with the Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines for the next seven months. During that tour of duty, the protected cruiser visited Hong Kong, from 28 December 1900 to 17 February 1901, for repairs in drydock. On 3 July 1901, she departed Cavite to return to the European Station. Retracing the path of her maiden voyage, Albany transited the Suez Canal early in September and reentered the Mediterranean on 15 September.
Europe
For the following nine months, the warship cruised the warm waters of the Mediterranean visiting ports in Greece, France, Italy, Spain and Egypt. She entered the Atlantic on 18 June 1902 and, after stops at Cherbourg, France, and Southampton, England, rendezvoused with USS Illinois (Battleship No. 7) and protected cruisers USS Chicago and USS San Francisco (Cruiser No. 5) off Galloper light vessel on 12 July. She exercised with those ships until 20 July at which time she set a course for the Baltic Sea. During her sojourn in the waters of northern Europe, she visited Stockholm, Sweden; Kronstadt, Russia; and Copenhagen, Denmark. Early in September, she exited the Baltic and, after a visit to Plymouth, reentered the Mediterranean on the 12th. After almost two months of duty in the "middle sea," Albany set a course for the western hemisphere early in November. She arrived in the West Indies in late November and ended the year in fleet tactical maneuvers which she concluded early in January 1903. On the 5th, the ship set a course for Boston. After repairs at Boston and at the New York Navy Yard, Albany got underway on 15 February 1903 to return to European waters.
Asiatic Fleet
At the end of a brief tour of duty in the Mediterranean, she transited the Suez Canal at the end of May 1903, and set a course for the Far East. She stopped for coal at Hong Kong and then joined the Asiatic Fleet at Chefoo in northern China. She spent most of the remainder of 1903 operating with that fleet in the waters of northern China, Korea, and Japan. Upon returning to Kobe and proceeding thence to Yokohama, the protected cruiser embarked upon a voyage to Hawaii on 3 December. She arrived in Honolulu on the 16th and remained there until the 29th at which time she headed back toward the western Pacific.
She made a stop at Guam in the Ladrone (now Marianas) Islands before arriving at Cavite in the Philippines on 20 January 1904. She operated in the Philippines for about a month and headed for the coast of China on 19 February. The warship reached Shanghai four days later and remained in the vicinity for a month before getting underway for the Philippines on 22 March. She laid over at Cavite from 26 March to 18 April. The cruiser made another brief voyage to Shanghai and back to the Philippines between 18 and 30 April. Following a week at Cavite, she put to sea, bound for the United States. She made stops en route at Guam and Honolulu and arrived in port at Bremerton, Washington, on 16 June. Soon thereafter, Albany was placed out of commission at the Puget Sound Navy Yard. The protected cruiser remained inactive for almost three years.
Pacific Fleet
On 10 June 1907, she was placed in full commission, Comdr. Henry T. Mayo in command. Assigned to the Pacific Fleet, Albany spent the next three years cruising the western coasts of North and Central America. Her duty on the west coast of North America consisted primarily of training evolutions but also included surveillance missions along the coast of Central America in protection of United States citizens and their interests in the perennially unsettled republics there. She visited ports in Mexico, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.
Special Service Squadron
By January 1909, Albany was transferred from the Pacific Fleet to the Special Service Squadron, signifying her patrol mission and readiness to disembark landing forces to protect American interests in Mexico and Central America.
In April 1909, while rendez-vousing with other Navy ships at Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Albany assisted in the rescue of passengers from the stricken mail steamship Indiana that had run aground off Isla Santa Margarita.
On the evening of 16 April, Albany, Commander Henry T. Mayo, commanding, received expedited orders to immediately prepare to depart Mare Island and proceed to San Diego to embark "special peace envoy" William I. Buchanan and then on to Central America for a two-month "peace-keeping" cruise. Albany departed Mare Island on 20 April. For the next fifteen months, she cruised the west coast of North and Central America and conducted surveillance missions to protect U.S. citizens and property in the perennially unsettled republics of Mexico, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua, returning to Mare Island on 18 July 1909.
From 8–10 September 1909, Albany and the protected cruiser along with three torpedo boats were anchored at Santa Monica Bay for dedication ceremonies of the Santa Monica Municipal Pier to coincide with California Admission Day. Visitors toured the warships and four companies of bluejackets, two from each cruiser, marched in a parade from the Santa Monica, California city hall to the new pier.
In October 1909, while Albany was at Mare Island undergoing repairs and preparing to steam south to Magdalena Bay, she and other U.S. and foreign warships, participated in the Portola Festival at San Francisco, a city-wide fair held on 19–23 October to mark the 140th anniversary of the Portolá expedition, the first recorded Spanish (and European) land entry and exploration of present-day California, and to proclaim to the world that San Francisco was recovered from its devastating 1906 earthquake.
Duties in Pacific and Mexican waters
Nicaragua proved to be her primary area of operations during the first part of 1910 when she was attached to Rear Admiral William W. Kimball's Nicaraguan expeditionary force. She returned north to the Puget Sound Navy Yard in May to begin preparations to deploy once more to the Asiatic Fleet. On 4 August, she departed the navy yard on her way to Chinese waters. After stops at Honolulu in Hawaii and Yokohama in Japan, Albany arrived at Woosung, China, on 15 September. For almost three years, the protected cruiser plied Far Eastern waters visiting ports from the Philippines to China to Japan.
On 20 September 1913, the warship left Yokohama, bound for home. She stopped at Honolulu from 31 October to 5 November and arrived in San Francisco on 12 November. She moved north to Puget Sound at mid-month and was placed in reserve there on 23 December. Following repairs, she was recommissioned on 17 April 1914. That summer and fall, she cruised Mexican waters in the wake of the incident at Tampico and the resultant landing at Veracruz. She concluded that duty late in November and, on 4 December 1914, was placed out of commission at Bremerton, for a general overhaul. At the conclusion of those repairs late in the spring of 1915, Albany was assigned training duty with the state naval militias of Washington and Oregon. On 12 May 1916, she was returned to full commission, Lt. Comdr. Orin G. Murfin in command. Upon returning to active service, she once again headed for Mexican waters – this time as part of the United States' response to the massacre of American citizens in Columbus, New Mexico, perpetrated by Pancho Villa and his band of marauders.
World War I
By early 1917, Albany was operating with the U.S. Atlantic Fleet off the coast of Virginia. This change in assignment came as a result of worsening relations between the United States and the German Empire over the latter country's unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. In February and March relations deteriorated rapidly; and, early in April, the United States entered World War I on the side of the Allied Powers.
On 5 July, Albany received orders to report to New York for convoy duty. She was assigned duties as flagship for Squadron 6, Patrol Force, Atlantic Fleet. As such, she carried the flag of Rear Admiral William C. Watts. For the duration of World War I, the cruiser escorted convoys of merchant ships, cargomen, and troop transports back and forth across the Atlantic. Between July 1917 and the end of the war on 11 November 1918, she shepherded 11 such convoys safely between the United States and Europe.
Later career
In 1919, Albany was once more assigned to the Asiatic Fleet. At that time, the Russian Civil War was being fought between Bolshevik and non-Bolshevik (a diverse group made up of people whose only common ground was opposition to the Bolsheviks) factions. Various Allied powers sent military contingents to several Russian ports. The United States landed troops at Vladivostok in Siberia, possibly to check Japanese pretensions in that area and to secure that port as an exit for the Czech Legion then transiting the Trans-Siberian railway. In 1919 and early 1920, Albany did several tours of duty at Vladivostok in support of American troops ashore. She also sent armed landing parties ashore on several occasions in further support of those troops and to evacuate sick and wounded men.
American troops were withdrawn in the spring of 1920, and Albany resumed normal peacetime duty with the Asiatic Fleet. That service included the usual summers in Chinese waters alternated with winters in the Philippines. Reclassified as a gunboat as PG-36 on 17 July 1920, Albany was again reclassified as a light cruiser as CL-23 on 8 August 1921.
Decommissioning and disposal
In July 1922, Albany departed Chinese waters for the last time and headed home. She arrived at the Mare Island Navy Yard on 6 August and was placed out of commission on 10 October 1922. She was berthed at Mare Island until 3 November 1929, when her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register. On 11 February 1930, Albany was sold for scrapping.
Armament
Albany was originally armed with six 6"/50 caliber (152 mm) guns and four 4.7"/50 caliber (120 mm) guns. These were British-made export-model guns built by Elswick Ordnance Company, a subsidiary of Armstrong. These guns were unique in the US Navy to Albany and her sister , and they were designated as "6"/50 caliber Mark 5 Armstrong guns" and "4.7"/50 caliber Mark 3 Armstrong guns". To reduce supply difficulties, during refits at the Cavite Navy Yard in the Philippines in 1903, both ships had their 4.7-inch guns replaced with standard /50 caliber Mark 5 guns; the 6-inch guns were replaced with 5-inch guns in 1907. Their torpedo tubes were also removed in the 1903 refits. At least some of the guns from these ships were emplaced in the Grande Island/Subic Bay area 1907-1910 and operated by the United States Marine Corps until the Coast Artillery Corps' modern defenses centered on Fort Wint were completed. During World War I the 5-inch guns were reduced from ten to eight and a 3"/50 caliber (76 mm) anti-aircraft gun was added. Two 4.7-inch guns (one from each ship of the class) are preserved at the Kane County, Illinois Soldier and Sailor Monument at the former courthouse in Geneva, Illinois. The gun from Albany was the No. 5 gun, presented on 1 April 1925.
References
External links
Mare Island Navy Yard — 1928. Elbridge Ayer Burbank pencil sketch.
Navy photos of USS Albany at Naval History & Heritage Command
NavSource Online: Cruiser Photo Archive USS ALBANY (Protected Cruiser/PG 36/CL 23)
Protected cruisers of the United States Navy
New Orleans-class cruisers (1896)
Ships built on the River Tyne
1899 ships
World War I cruisers of the United States
Philippine–American War ships of the United States
Albany
United States Navy New York (state)-related ships
Ships built by Armstrong Whitworth
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tris%20Speaker
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Tris Speaker
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Tristram Edgar Speaker (April 4, 1888 – December 8, 1958), nicknamed "The Gray Eagle", was an American professional baseball player. Considered one of the greatest offensive and defensive center fielders in the history of Major League Baseball (MLB), he compiled a career batting average of .345 (sixth all-time). His 792 career doubles represent an MLB career record. His 3,514 hits are fifth in the all-time hits list. Defensively, Speaker holds career records for assists, double plays, and unassisted double plays by an outfielder. His fielding glove was known as the place "where triples go to die."
After playing in the minor leagues in Texas and Arkansas, Speaker debuted with the Boston Red Sox in 1907. He became the regular center fielder by 1909 and led the Red Sox to World Series championships in 1912 and 1915. In 1915, Speaker's batting average dropped to .322 from .338 the previous season; he was traded to the Cleveland Indians when he refused to take a pay cut. As player-manager for Cleveland, he led the team to its first World Series title. In ten of his eleven seasons with Cleveland, he finished with a batting average greater than .350. Speaker resigned as Cleveland's manager in 1926 after he and Ty Cobb faced game fixing allegations; both men were later cleared. During his managerial stint in Cleveland, Speaker introduced the platoon system in the major leagues.
Speaker played with the Washington Senators in 1927 and the Philadelphia Athletics in 1928, then became a minor league manager and part owner. He later held several roles for the Cleveland Indians. Late in life, Speaker led a short-lived indoor baseball league, ran a wholesale liquor business, worked in sales and chaired Cleveland's boxing commission. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937. He was named 27th in the Sporting News 100 Greatest Baseball Players (1999) and was also included in the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.
Early life
Speaker was born on April 4, 1888, in Hubbard, Texas, to Archie and Nancy Poer Speaker. As a youth, Speaker broke his arm after he fell from a horse; the injury forced him to become left-handed. In 1905, Speaker played a year of college baseball for Fort Worth Polytechnic Institute. Newspaper reports have held that Speaker suffered a football injury and nearly had his arm amputated around this time; biographer Timothy Gay characterizes this as "a story that the macho Speaker never ." He worked on a ranch before beginning his professional baseball career.
Speaker's abilities drew the interest of Doak Roberts, owner of the Cleburne Railroaders of the Texas League, in . After losing several games as a pitcher, Speaker converted to outfielder to replace a Cleburne player who had been struck in the head with a pitch. He batted .318 for the Railroaders. Speaker's mother opposed his participation in the major leagues, saying that they reminded her of slavery. Though she relented, for several years Mrs. Speaker questioned why her son had not stayed home and entered the cattle or oil businesses.
He performed well for the Texas League's Houston Buffaloes in 1907, but his mother stated that she would never allow him to go to the Boston Americans. Roberts sold the youngster to the Americans for $750 or $800 (equal to $ or $ today). Speaker played in seven games for the Americans in , with three hits in 19 at-bats for a .158 average. In 1908, Boston Americans owner John I. Taylor changed the team's name to the Boston Red Sox after the bright socks in the team's uniform. That year, the club traded Speaker to the Little Rock Travelers of the Southern League in exchange for use of their facilities for spring training. Speaker batted .350 for the Travelers and his contract was repurchased by the Red Sox. He logged a .224 batting average in 116 at-bats.
Major league career
Early years
Speaker became the regular starting center fielder for Boston in 1909 and light-hitting Denny Sullivan was sold to the Cleveland Naps. Speaker hit .309 in 143 games as the team finished third in the pennant race. Defensively, Speaker was involved in 12 double plays, leading the league's outfielders, and had a .973 fielding percentage, third among outfielders. In the Red Sox signed left fielder Duffy Lewis. Speaker, Lewis and Harry Hooper formed Boston's "Million-Dollar Outfield", one of the finest outfield trios in baseball history. Speaker was the star of the Million-Dollar Outfield. He ran fast enough that he could stand very close to second base, effectively giving the team a fifth infielder, but he still caught the balls hit to center field. In 1910 and 1911, Boston finished fourth in the American League standings.
Speaker's best season came in 1912. He played every game and led the American League (AL) in doubles (53) and home runs (10). He set career highs with 222 hits, 136 runs, 580 at-bats, and 52 stolen bases. Speaker's stolen base tally was a team record until Tommy Harper stole 54 bases in 1973. He batted .383 and his .567 slugging percentage was the highest of his dead-ball days. Speaker set a major league single-season record with three hitting streaks of 20 or more games (30, 23, and 22). He also became the first major leaguer to hit 50 doubles and steal 50 bases in the same season. In August, Speaker's mother unsuccessfully attempted to convince him to quit baseball and come home. In Fenway Park's first game, Speaker drove in the winning run in the 11th inning, giving Boston the 7–6 win.
The 1912 Red Sox won the AL pennant, finishing 14 games ahead of the Washington Senators and 15 games ahead of the Philadelphia Athletics. In the 1912 World Series, Speaker led the Red Sox to their second World Series title by defeating John McGraw's New York Giants. After the second game was called on account of darkness and ended in a tie, the series went to eight games. The Red Sox won the final game after Fred Snodgrass dropped an easy fly ball and later failed to go after a Speaker pop foul. After the pop foul, Speaker tied the game with a single. The Red Sox won the game in the bottom of the tenth inning. He finished the series with a .300 batting average, nine hits and four runs scored. Speaker was named the AL Most Valuable Player (MVP) for 1912. Though he did not lead the league in any offensive categories in 1913, Speaker finished fourth in AL MVP voting.
Speaker batted .338 and tied his career high of 12 double plays as an outfielder in . He hit .322 in . The Red Sox beat the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1915 World Series. The Red Sox were led by pitcher Babe Ruth, who was playing in his first full season. Ruth won 18 games and hit a team-high four home runs. Speaker got five hits, including a triple, in 17 at-bats during the series. He scored twice but did not drive in any runs.
Traded to the Indians
After 1915, Red Sox president Joseph Lannin wanted Speaker to take a pay cut from about $15,000 (equal to $ today) to about $9,000 (equal to $ today) because of the drop in his batting average; Speaker refused and offered $12,000 ($ today). On April 8, 1916, Lannin traded Speaker to the Cleveland Indians. In exchange, Boston received Sad Sam Jones, Fred Thomas and $50,000 ($ today). The angry Speaker held out until he received $10,000 (equal to $ today) of the cash that Boston collected.
For many years, this was considered the worst trade in Red Sox history, and was thought to be far more damaging to the Red Sox than the sale of Babe Ruth more than four years later. In his book about the Red Sox-Yankees rivalry, Emperors and Idiots, Mike Vaccaro recalled that for some time, "Red Sox fans shook their head(s) in fury" when recalling the trade. Vaccaro recalled that no one knew in the winter of 1919-20 that Ruth would blossom into a superstar. In contrast, Speaker had established himself as "indisputably the best player in the American League" by 1916.
With an annual salary of $40,000 (equal to $ today), Speaker was the highest paid player in baseball. Speaker hit over .350 in nine of his eleven years with Cleveland. In , he led the league in hits, doubles, batting average, slugging percentage and on-base percentage. Cobb had won the previous nine consecutive AL batting titles; Speaker outhit him with a .386 batting average compared to Cobb's .371.
The center field fence at Cleveland's Dunn Field was from home plate until it was shortened to in 1920. Even so, Speaker played so shallow in the outfield that he was able to execute six career unassisted double plays at second base, catching low line drives on the run and then beating baserunners to the bag. At least once he was credited as the pivot man in a routine double play. He was often shallow enough to catch pickoff throws at second base. At one point, Speaker's signature move was to come in behind second base on a bunt and make a tag play on a baserunner who had passed the bag.
While in Cleveland, Speaker participated in diverse activities off the baseball field. Speaker enrolled in an aviator training program in 1918. Though World War I ended less than two months after he enrolled, Speaker completed his training and served in the naval reserves for several years. He also owned a ranch in Texas and competed in roping events during the baseball offseason.
Stint as player-manager
From the day that Speaker arrived in Cleveland, he was effectively assistant manager to Lee Fohl, who rarely made an important move without consulting him. George Uhle recalled an incident from 1919 during his rookie year with the Indians. Speaker often signaled to Fohl when he thought that a pitcher should be brought in from the bullpen. One day, Fohl misread Speaker's signal and brought in a different pitcher than Speaker had intended. To avoid the appearance of overruling his manager, Speaker let the change stand. Pitcher Fritz Coumbe lost the game, Fohl resigned that night and Speaker became manager. Uhle said that Speaker felt bad for contributing to Fohl's departure.
Speaker guided the 1920 Indians to their first World Series win. In a crucial late season game against the second-place White Sox, Speaker caught a hard line drive hit to deep right-center field by Shoeless Joe Jackson, ending the game. On a dead run, Speaker leaped with both feet off the ground, snaring the ball before crashing into a concrete wall. As he lay unconscious from the impact, Speaker still held the baseball. In the 1920 World Series against Brooklyn, Speaker hit an RBI triple in the deciding game, which the Indians won 3–0. Cleveland's 1920 season was also significant due to the death of Ray Chapman on August 17. Chapman died after being hit in the head by a pitch from Carl Mays. Chapman had been asked about retirement before the season, and he said that he wanted to help Speaker earn Cleveland's first World Series victory before thinking of retirement.
During that championship season, Speaker is credited with introducing the platoon system, which attempted to match right-handed batters against left-handed pitchers and vice versa. Sportswriter John B. Sheridan was among the critics of the system, saying, "The specialist in baseball is no good and won't go very far... The whole effect of the system will be to make the players affected half men... It is farewell, a long farewell to all that player's chance of greatness... It destroys young ball players by destroying their most precious quality – confidence in their ability to hit any pitcher, left or right, alive, dead, or waiting to be born." Baseball Magazine was supportive, pointing out that Speaker had results that backed up his system.
The 1921 Indians remained in a tight pennant race all year, finishing games behind the Yankees. The Indians did not seriously contend for the pennant from 1922 through 1925. Speaker led the league in doubles eight times, including every year between 1920 and 1923. He led the league's outfielders in fielding percentage in 1921 and 1922. On May 17, 1925, Speaker became the fifth member of the 3,000 hit club when he hit a single off pitcher Tom Zachary of the Washington Senators. Only Napoleon Lajoie had previously accomplished the feat as a member of the Indians.
AL President Ban Johnson asked Speaker and Detroit manager Cobb to resign their posts after a scandal broke in . Pitcher Dutch Leonard claimed that Speaker and Cobb fixed at least one game between Cleveland and Detroit. In a newspaper column published shortly before the hearings were to begin, Billy Evans characterized the accusations as "purely a matter of personal revenge" for Leonard. The pitcher was said to be upset with Cobb and Speaker after a trade ended with Leonard in the minor leagues. When Leonard refused to appear at the January 5, 1927, hearings to discuss his accusations, Commissioner Landis cleared both Speaker and Cobb of any wrongdoing. Both were reinstated to their original teams, but each team declared its manager free to sign elsewhere. Speaker did not return to big league managing and he finished his MLB managerial career with a 617–520 record.
At the time of his 1926 resignation, news reports described Speaker as permanently retiring from baseball to pursue business ventures. However, Speaker signed to play with the Washington Senators for . Cobb joined the Philadelphia Athletics. Speaker joined Cobb in Philadelphia for the season; he played part time and finished with a .267 average. Prior to that season, Speaker had not hit for a batting average below .300 since 1908.
Speaker's major league playing career ended after 1928. He retired with 792 doubles, an all-time career record. Defensively, Speaker holds the all-time career records for assists as an outfielder and double plays as an outfielder. He remains the last batter to hit 200 triples in a career.
Later life
In Speaker replaced Walter Johnson as the manager of the Newark Bears of the International League. In two seasons with Newark, he also appeared as a player in 59 games. When Speaker resigned during his second season, the Bears were in seventh place after a sixth-place finish in 1929. In January 1933 he became a part owner and manager of the Kansas City Blues. By May, Speaker had been replaced as manager but remained secretary of the club. By 1936, he had sold his share of the team. In 1937, Speaker was voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame during its second year of balloting. He was honored at the hall's first induction ceremony in 1939.
After his playing and managing days, Speaker was an entrepreneur and salesman. By 1937, Speaker had opened a wholesale liquor business and worked as a state sales representative for a steel company. He chaired Cleveland's boxing commission between 1936 and 1943. Newspaper coverage credited Speaker with several key reforms to boxing in Cleveland, including the recruitment of new officials and protections against fight fixing. Under Speaker, fight payouts went directly to boxers rather than managers. Speaker sorted out a scheduling conflict for a 1940 boxing match in Cleveland involving former middleweight champion Teddy Yarosz. Yarosz defeated Jimmy Reeves in ten rounds and the fight attracted over 8,300 spectators.
In 1937, Speaker sustained a 16-foot fall while working on a flower box near a second-story window at his home. Upon admission to the hospital, he underwent facial surgery. He was described as having "better than an even chance to live" and was suffering from a skull fracture, a broken arm and possible internal injuries. He ultimately recovered.
In 1939, Speaker was president of the National Professional Indoor Baseball League. The league had teams in New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston, Cleveland, Chicago, Cincinnati and St. Louis. The league shut down operations due to poor attendance only two months after its formation. Speaker was one of the founders of Cleveland's Society for Crippled Children and he helped to promote the society's rehabilitation center, Camp Cheerful. Speaker served as vice president of the society, ran fundraising campaigns and received a distinguished service award from the organization. He became seriously ill with pneumonia in 1942. Speaker ultimately recovered, but Gay characterized Speaker's condition as "touch-and-go for several days".
In 1947, Speaker returned to baseball as "ambassador of good will" for Bill Veeck and the Cleveland Indians. He remained in advisory, coaching or scouting roles for the Indians until his death in 1958. In an article in the July 1952 issue of SPORT, Speaker recounted how Veeck hired him in 1947 to be a coaching consultant to Larry Doby, the first black player in the AL and the second in the major leagues. Before the Indians had signed Doby, he was the star second baseman of the Newark Eagles of the Negro leagues. A SPORT photograph that accompanied the article shows Speaker mentoring five members of the Indians: Luke Easter, Jim Hegan, Ray Boone, Al Rosen and Doby. Speaker was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame in 1951. Texas was the first state to establish a state sports hall of fame and Speaker was in its inaugural induction class.
Death
Speaker died of a heart attack on December 8, 1958, at the age of 70, at Lake Whitney, Texas. He collapsed as he and a friend were pulling their boat into the dock after a fishing trip. It was his second heart attack in four years. Speaker was buried at Fairview Cemetery in Hubbard, Texas.
After Speaker's death, Cobb said, "Terribly depressed. I never let him know how much I admired him when we were playing against each other... It was only after we finally became teammates and then retired that I could tell Tris Speaker of the underlying respect I had for him." Lajoie said, "He was one of the greatest fellows I ever knew, both as a baseball player and as a gentleman." Former Boston teammate Duffy Lewis said, "He was a team player. As great a hitter as he was, he wasn't looking out for his own average ... Speaker was the bell cow of our outfield. Harry Hooper and I would watch him and know how to play the hitters."
Legacy
Immediately after Speaker's death, the baseball field at the city park in Cleburne, Texas, was renamed in honor of Speaker. In 1961, the Tris Speaker Memorial Award was created by the Baseball Writers' Association of America to honor players or officials who make outstanding contributions to baseball. In 1999, he ranked number 27 on the Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players. He was named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Speaker is mentioned in the poem "Line-Up for Yesterday"'' by Ogden Nash.
In 2008, former baseball players' union chief Marvin Miller, trying to defend the recently retired catcher Mike Piazza against claims that he should not be elected to the Hall of Fame because of association with the use of steroids, on the basis that the Hall of Fame has various unsavory people in it, opined that Speaker should be removed from the Hall of Fame because of alleged membership in the Ku Klux Klan. Miller said, "Some of the early people inducted in the Hall were members of the Ku Klux Klan: Tris Speaker, Cap Anson, and some people suspect Ty Cobb as well. I think that by and large, the players, and certainly the ones I knew, are good people. But the Hall is full of villains." Miller's comment about Anson has no basis, other than speculating that he could have been a Klansman since he was a racist during his playing career, which ended in 1897, although he was umpiring games with black players by 1901, including featuring the all-black Columbia Giants. Miller, age 91 at the time the 2008 article appeared, is the earliest source for declaring that it is factual that Anson was a member of the Klan, based purely on an Internet search of sources that try to link Anson to the Klan. By contrast, Speaker-Cobb-Rogers Hornsby biographer Charles C. Alexander, a Klan expert in his general history writings, told fellow baseball author Marty Appel, apparently referring to the 1920s (Anson died in 1922), “As I’ve suggested in the biographies, it’s possible that they [Speaker, Cobb and Hornsby] were briefly in the Klan, which was very strong in Texas and especially in Fort Worth and Dallas. The Klan went all out to recruit prominent people in all fields, provided they were native born, Protestant and white.”
Baseball historian Bill James does not dispute this claim in apparently referring to Speaker and possibly Cobb, but says that the Klan had toned down its racist overtures during the 1920s and pulled in hundreds of thousands of men, including Hugo Black. James adds that Speaker was a staunch supporter of Doby when he broke the American League color barrier, working long hours with the former second baseman on how to play the outfield.
Regular season statistics
Managerial record
See also
Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame
List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle
List of Major League Baseball batting champions
List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball doubles records
List of Major League Baseball hit records
List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball player-managers
List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball triples records
Notes
References
Further reading
Tris Speaker at the Encyclopedia of Cleveland History
External links
1888 births
1958 deaths
American League batting champions
American League home run champions
Baseball players from Texas
Boston Americans players
Boston Red Sox players
Cleburne Railroaders players
Cleveland Indians coaches
Cleveland Indians managers
Cleveland Indians players
Houston Buffaloes players
Kansas City Blues (baseball) managers
Little Rock Travelers players
Major League Baseball player-managers
Major League Baseball center fielders
Minor league baseball managers
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Newark Bears (IL) players
People from Hubbard, Texas
Philadelphia Athletics players
Texas Wesleyan Rams baseball players
Washington Senators (1901–1960) players
Sp
Baseball coaches from Texas
|
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205847
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna-Leena%20H%C3%A4rk%C3%B6nen
|
Anna-Leena Härkönen
|
Anna-Leena Härkönen (born 10 April 1965) is a Finnish writer and actress.
She was born in Liminka and studied acting at the college of drama and the University of Tampere's program of drama studies, which she concluded in 1989. She won the J. H. Erkko Award in 1984 for her debut novel How to Kill a Bull ().
Currently Anna-Leena Härkönen lives in Helsinki and works as freelance writer; novelist and actress.
A few dramatic productions, including one movie, have been adapted from Härkönen's works. Häräntappoase was made into a six-part television series and stage productions in Turku and Kotka and summer 2010 in Pyynikin kesäteatteri in Tampere. Scriptwriter Tove Idström and director Claes Olsson made a full-length movie based on Akvaariorakkautta ("Aquarium Love") which was released internationally as an art-house movie.
References
External links
Author bio at publisher's site (in Finnish)
Anna-Leena Härkönen at International Movie Database (IMDb.com)
1965 births
Living people
People from Liminka
Finnish actresses
20th-century Finnish novelists
Finnish dramatists and playwrights
Finnish screenwriters
Finnish television writers
Finnish women novelists
Writers from Northern Ostrobothnia
20th-century Finnish women writers
Women dramatists and playwrights
21st-century Finnish novelists
21st-century Finnish women writers
Women television writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Union%20of%20Students%20%28United%20Kingdom%29
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National Union of Students (United Kingdom)
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The National Union of Students of the United Kingdom (NUS) is a confederation of student unions in the United Kingdom. Around 600 student unions are affiliated, accounting for more than 95% of all higher and further education unions in the UK. Although the National Union of Students is the central organization for all affiliated unions in the UK, there are also the devolved national sub-bodies NUS Scotland in Scotland, NUS Wales (UCM Cymru) in Wales and NUS-USI in Northern Ireland (the latter being co-administered by the Union of Students in Ireland). NUS current President is Larissa Kennedy.
NUS is a member of the European Students' Union.
Membership
Constituent membership is granted to students' unions by National Conference or National Executive Council by a two-thirds majority vote
Individual membership is granted automatically to members of students' unions with constituent membership, sabbatical officers of constituent members, members of the National Executive Council and sabbatical conveners of NUS Areas
Associate membership is granted by a two-thirds majority vote of National Executive Council to:
Student Organisations in Association - any national student organisations
Partner Organisations in Association - non-student organisations which sympathise with the NUS
Individuals in Association - any individual who supports the objects of the NUS
NUS Areas - geographically-defined associations of students' unions
Honorary membership is granted by National Conference to "any person or organisation as it sees fit"
Of these types of membership, only constituent members may vote on or submit policy proposals to the National Conference. Constituent members and associate members are required to pay a subscription fee as a condition of their membership.
History
Origins and early history
The NUS was formed on 10 February 1922 at a meeting held at the University of London. At this meeting, the Inter-Varsity Association and the International Students Bureau (which organised student travel and had been lobbying for a national body) agreed to merge.
Founding members included the unions of University of Birmingham, Birkbeck, University of London, London School of Economics, Imperial College (who first left in 1923 and have subsequently rejoined and left three times, the last time being in June 2008), King's College London (who supplied the first President, Sir Ivison Macadam) and the University of Bristol.
Politicisation and Broad Left, 1968–1982
In the aftermath of the Second World War and with the onset of the Cold War, the National Union of Students had adopted a "no politics" clause in its charter in an attempt to distance itself from its 1930s flirtations with communism. During the 1950s it had thus concerned itself with collective bargaining over student grants, teaching salaries and education. This apolitical consensus was challenged in concert with the international protests of 1968 and as the Cold War intensified. At the 1969 NUS conference, then president Trevor Fisk came up against Jack Straw (then close to Bert Ramelson of the Communist Party of Great Britain, but much later Foreign Secretary under the New Labour government of Tony Blair) over the issue. Straw supported student protests against US military involvement in the Vietnam War, while Fisk advocated neutrality; Straw's side won and the "no politics" clause was removed.
A new era began for the NUS, where political agitation and protest became institutionalized. Straw was followed up as president by Digby Jacks, also representing the Radical Student Alliance (formed in 1966 by Fergus Nicholson) and a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain. According to contemporary British government reports, the RSA was connected to the Trotskyist-led Vietnam Solidarity Campaign and had close links with the Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (organising a protest following Rudi Dutschke's shooting). The government report stated "If they have an ideological bible it consists of the work of Professor Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man." In line with the Marcusian viewpoint of championing politicised minority groups, throughout the 1970s, the NUS came to support what it called "liberation campaigns", including; homosexual rights (the first national group to do so in 1973), radical feminism and black nationalism. At the same time, the NUS adopted a No Platform policy; a concept pioneered by the IMG in 1972; to stifle the campus organisation and speech of nationalistic British groups that it declared to be "racist or fascist". At the time this was aimed at the National Front and the Monday Club (a faction in the Federation of Conservative Students).
The union was also involved in affairs in Northern Ireland, where most higher education establishments there were members of both the NUS and the Union of Students in Ireland, though this differed from case to case. Indeed, two presidents of the NUS earlier on in the 1960s were from Queen's University, Belfast; T. William Savage and T. Geoff Martin. The 1968-69 unrest in Northern Ireland saw the onset of The Troubles and a sectarian divisiveness come to the fore. After members of the QUBSU organised a protest against politician Bill Craig, some members such as Bernadette Devlin, Eamonn McCann and Michael Farrell decided to found the Trotskyist group People's Democracy in 1968, which played a role in the Northern Ireland civil rights movement. Following a meeting in Galway in 1972, to combat divisions it was agreed that a group called the NUS-USI would be founded with dual-membership to cover Northern Ireland.
One of the NUS' protest campaigns which was of particular significance during the 1970s and the 1980s was the boycott campaign against National Party governed South Africa as part of the Anti-Apartheid Movement. In 1970, NUS vice president Tony Klug visited South Africa and met with Steve Biko of the SASO among others. Members also attempted to disrupt South African rugby and cricket matches in the United Kingdom during the 1970s. In the 1980s, the NUS played a significant role in getting Barclay's Bank to divest from South Africa, attacking it as "Boerclay Bank".
Throughout this period, the NUS presidency was dominated by the Broad Left, within which the Communist Party of Great Britain (where Eurocommunism was most popular among students rather than the pro-Soviet "Tankie" anti-revisionists) predominated and usually supplied the president, but were backed up Labour and the Liberals. They did so to work as a voting bloc against both the Conservatives and Militant. The first of these Broad Left presidents was Charles Clarke (later a Home Secretary under Blair) who as a member of the Clause Four Group, won the National Organisation of Labour Students back from Militant influence. Other presidents included Sue Slipman (who began on the Eurocommunist wing on the Communist Party of Great Britain but ended up a founding member of the Social Democratic Party by 1981), Trevor Phillips (a Broad Left independent and the first black NUS president, who later led the race relations group the Runnymede Trust) and David Aaronovitch (who was then a Eurocommunist, but later a journalist aligned to neoconservatism).
Labour Students presidency, 1982–2000
From 1982 with the election of Neil Stewart, until Andrew Pakes stood down in 2000, the presidency of the National Union of Students was controlled by the National Organisation of Labour Students, which shortened its name to Labour Students in 1994.
History in the 21st century
Fairtrade
The campaign has since been extended into Students Organising for Sustainability (SOS-UK), an educational charity responding to the climate emergency and ecological crisis.
The Fairtrade Foundation collaborated with the NUS in awarding The Fairtrade Universities and Colleges Award, which started as a pilot in 2017. As of 2020, twelve universities had achieved Fairtrade status.
Education finance
Under the leadership of Wes Streeting the NUS abandoned its long-standing commitment to free education and backed a graduate tax as its preferred outcome of the Browne Review into higher education funding. Before the 2010 General Election, the NUS invited candidates sign a pledge not to raise tuition fees, receiving over 1000 signatories from prospective parliamentary candidates. This became a very high-profile campaign when many Liberal Democrat MPs, who all signed individual NUS pledges stating they would vote against any rise in tuition fees if elected, had to abstain or do the opposite as part of their coalition agreement.
The NUS, under new leader Aaron Porter, organised a national protest attended by thousands in November 2010, demanding an end to education cuts. The march route passed Whitehall and the Conservative Party headquarters at Millbank Tower. As they marched past the building, some protesters diverted in to the courtyard of Millbank Tower and began an occupation of the building.
With an attendance of over 50,000 people, it was the largest British demonstration since the Iraq War protest. This led to various more demos until the rise in tuition fees was passed.
The day before the vote to allow a rise in tuition fees, the Daily Telegraph reported that they had seen emails that suggested Aaron Porter had supported, rather than increase tuition fees, cuts of up to 80% should be made to student support packages including grants and loans. Porter responded to the claims on NUS Connect that "In all of these meetings and communications we stated our firm and clear opposition to cuts" and that the distortion of the discussions was "political desperation from a coalition government losing the arguments on its own policies".
On 9 April 2014 the National Union of Students passed policy at its national conference to reverse its position on education funding. The call for a graduate tax was abandoned in favour of calls for free education funded through progressive taxation.
Governance review
The 2008 Conference in Blackpool was dominated by the governance review debate and vote. The proposals were for a restructuring of the running of the Union but the vote was lost by 25 votes (a two-thirds majority was required). The review was criticised for what was felt by detractors to be an attack on the organisation's democratic accountability. Its supporters however defended the review as providing a more 'innovative' corporate structure which was hoped to make it more credible in negotiating policy, rather than simply 'reactive'. This was not well received by many in the executive with President, Gemma Tumelty, vowing to press ahead with reform. The perceived lack of progress on governance reform also prompted Imperial College Union to hold a referendum on disaffiliation.
ISIS, Malia Bouattia, and disaffiliations
In October 2014, NUS National Executive Committee rejected a motion to condemn the militant group Islamic State because some executive members "felt that the wording of the motion being presented would unfairly demonise all Muslims rather than solely the group of people it set out to rightfully condemn." NUS received criticism for this stance given its previous condemnation of the UKIP political party. Despite a statement from NUS confirming that "a new motion will be taken to the next NUS National Executive Committee meeting, which will specifically condemn the politics and methods of ISIS and offer solidarity for the Kurdish people," media coverage of the vote caused some students' union members to speculate that the NUS itself has been infiltrated by extremist sympathisers. At the following executive meeting on 3 December 2014, a similar motion, which condemned ISIS, expressed solidarity with the Kurdish people, and called on NUS to challenge "Islamophobia and all forms of racism being whipped up" was resubmitted and easily passed.
At the 2016 NUS conference, Malia Bouattia was elected president with 50.9% of the vote. Bouattia was soon subject to several allegations of antisemitism; an October 2016 report by the House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee described her comments as "outright racism", and said that she was not taking issues of antisemitism on university campuses seriously enough. Bouattia was condemned by over 300 Jewish student leaders, the Union of Jewish Students and Oxford University Student Union. In response to her election, students at Durham, Loughborough, Hull, Aberystwyth, Oxford, Cambridge, Manchester, Essex, York, King's College London, Nottingham, UWE, Leicester, Queen Mary University of London and Reading University began campaigning to disaffiliate from the NUS. Newcastle, Portsmouth, Hull and Loughbrough disaffiliated; the remainder maintained affiliation, although NUS reportedly broke campaigning rules at Oxford, Cambridge, and Christ Church.
In April 2017, Bouattia was defeated in her re-election by Shakira Martin, the union's vice-president for further education, who received 56% of the vote.
Martin pledged "unity", "pragmatism", and putting "NUS back into the hands of its membership". Moderate groups such as the Organised Independents and Union of Jewish Students sought to reform the organisation to prevent further disaffiliations, passing major democratic reform motions. The changes, developed from "two [years] of consultation with hundreds of students' unions, [as well as] legal and expert advice," were described as "the most comprehensive and wide-ranging structural reforms in NUS history".
Threat of bankruptcy
On 2 November 2018, it was reported that the NUS faced bankruptcy. The 2017 reforms had not been delivered, and several years of financial mismanagement had created a significant decline in resources. Martin wrote to members that the union would be "taking urgent action to stabilise", with reforms being developed for "consideration and refinement with the help of our members". Martin faced criticism for developing a drastic programme of financial, governance and campaigning reforms for approval by the 2019 National Conference; however after around five hours of debate, 700 delegates voted in favour of the package. Martin welcomed the vote, calling it a "momentous decision to endorse reform and deliver the vision of members".
New NUS
In 2020, NUS official split into two organisations: NUS UK and NUS Charity. NUS UK focuses on campaigning with students while NUS Charity focuses on supporting Students' Unions.
Democracy
The NUS holds national conferences once a year. National Conference is the sovereign body of NUS, and is where NUS policy is decided. Other conferences, such as Regional Conferences, Women's Conference, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Trans Students' Conference (changed as of 2004), Disabled Students' Conference, Black Students' Conference, Mature and Part-Time Students' Conference and the International Students' Conference (created in 2004) are run to enhance the representation of the specific members they include.
In July 2014, due to the creation of a new NUS London area, the first NUS London conference was held. Most of these conferences, and in particular the elections held at them, are contested by factions including Conservative, Labour Students, the Young Liberals, National Campaign Against Fees and Cuts, the Organised Independents, Young Independence, Socialist Students, Socialist Workers' Student Society, Student RESPECT and Liberation Left. In addition to these political factions, interest groups such as the Federation of Student Islamic Societies and the Union of Jewish Students are deeply involved in the internal democratic processes of the NUS.
NUS Services
The Association for Managers in Students' Unions voted to merge with NUS and NUS Services in 2010.
TOTUM
TOTUM, formerly known as NUS Extra, is a discount card which can be purchased by students. It is produced by NUS Services in conjunction with NUS, and affiliated students' unions receive a commission on every card sold to their members, however the card is available to all students regardless of whether they are members of an affiliated student union or not. TOTUM users are also eligible to apply for a NUS PASS-approved identification card.
NUS Charitable Services
NUS has established a new charity to drive improvement in students' unions. It will focus on students' union quality, talent management, equality and diversity, strategic development and turnaround, ethical and environmental work, and fundraising.
Ethical and environmental work
In 2019, this department became an independent organisation called Students Organisation for Sustainability UK
Criticisms
The NUS has come in for criticism from those students' unions who are not affiliated. Sen Ganesh, then president of Imperial College Union, said in 2002 that "NUS's claim to be representative of students is not borne out by their work", especially as "the NUS is dominated by Labour students and this diminishes the ability to address student issues in an impartial fashion".
Another criticism leveled at NUS is the absence of direct democracy in electing national offices. Officers of NUS are elected at conferences by delegates chosen by affiliated unions of NUS. Critics, from both within and outside the student movement, have argued that consultation by unions with their members over who should represent the students' union at national conferences is often minimal, and some have argued in favour of changes to the NUS constitution that would result in a one-member-one-vote policy.
The NUS has also been criticised for prioritisation of NUS Extra over campaigning on issues which affect students. Despite it being NUS policy that none of the discounts on the original free NUS card would be moved to NUS Extra, proposed by Cambridge University Students' Union, NUS Treasurer Dave Lewis did not follow policy and removed the discounts from the original free NUS card.
Other critics have focussed on the organisation's perceived failure to campaign effectively on student issues such as tuition fees and prescription costs, and have advocated that students and unions coordinate independently of the NUS to campaign on the national stage.
Financial crisis
In the mid-2000s, NUS faced a financial crisis, caused by a coinciding of spiraling expenditure and decreasing income. A series of measures were proposed to address this, of which the most controversial included a series of changes to the constitutional and democratic processes. In 2004, two emergency conferences passed some of the changes proposed, albeit not without fierce dispute between those claiming the proposals were necessary reforms to maintain the existence of the organisation and those arguing that they were aimed at curbing democracy and involvement. The 2006 NUS Conference passed a policy which enabled NUS to launch NUS Extra in September 2006.
Durham censorship controversy
In February 2010, the NUS came under criticism after two of its officers forced a proposed debate on multiculturalism at the University of Durham to be cancelled. The debate, organised by the Durham Union Society – a debating society entirely separate from Durham Students' Union – was to have featured two prominent British National Party members: Yorkshire and the Humber MEP Andrew Brons and Leeds City Councillor Chris Beverley. Upon hearing of BNP involvement in the debate, NUS Black Students' Officer Bell Ribeiro-Addy and NUS LGBT Officer Daf Adley jointly sent a letter to both the Durham Union Society and the university demanding its cancellation. The pair stated that the debate would be illegal and threatened to organise a "colossal demonstration" in tandem with Unite Against Fascism, adding that "if any students are hurt in and around this event responsibility will lie with you".
The subsequent cancellation of the debate by Durham Union Society President Anna Birley on safety grounds was met with fierce backlash. NUS President Wes Streeting was prompted to personally appear before the Durham Union Society to apologise for the actions of the officers concerned, though outrage among Durham students was sufficient that a significant number protested outside the debating chamber at the time. A protest group on Facebook quickly amassed over 2,500 members. An official petition was lodged with Durham Students' Union to call for a referendum on disaffiliation from NUS. On 12 March 2010, the referendum concluded with a majority of voting students choosing to disaffiliate.
Another referendum by those in favour of NUS membership was called shortly following the "no" result, and in January 2011, 60% of Durham students taking part in the referendum voted to reaffiliate with the NUS on a turnout of 21.6% (compared with 14.5% turnout to disaffiliate the previous year).
Liar Liar Campaign
In the run up to the 2015 general election the NUS launched its Liar Liar campaign aimed at unseating MPs who broke promises regarding the cost of education. At an estimated cost of £40,000 and consisting of a social media campaign alongside billboards, the campaign was well received by many students, however also came under criticism for being politically motivated specifically against Liberal Democrat MPs as opposed to members of all parties.
Posters promoting the campaign were also removed from several railway stations on the grounds that Network Rail is an "arms length public sector body" and must therefore remain politically neutral. The NUS claimed that the removal of the posters was an attempt to "gag" the union.
NUS president Toni Pearce defended the union's actions saying that the breach of a promise regarding tuition fees: "Wasn't a minor misdemeanour. It was an outright lie. We have an obligation to hold them to account for this, and we will."
See also
National Union of Students Disabled Students' Campaign
National Union of Students LGBT+ Campaign
National Union of Students Women's Campaign
Governance of the National Union of Students
References
External links
NUS website
Groups of students' unions
Higher education in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the London Borough of Camden
Purchasing consortia
Student organizations established in 1922
1922 establishments in the United Kingdom
All articles with unsourced statements
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] |
205853
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NUS
|
NUS
|
NUS or Nus may refer to:
National University of Singapore
Nus, a town in the Aosta Valley of Italy
Neglected and Underutilized Species, or Neglected and Underutilized Crops
National Union of Students (Australia)
National Union of Students (Canada) (disbanded)
National Union of Students (United Kingdom)
National Union of Seamen
National University of Samoa
NUS High School of Math and Science
NUS, the product code used by Nintendo for Nintendo 64 hardware and software, a reference to the platform's preliminary name of Nintendo Ultra 64
Norrland's University Hospital Umeå, Sweden
Nu Skin Enterprises (ticker code)
Nuussuaq Heliport (IATA airport code), in Nuussuaq, Greenland
|
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] |
205855
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Uppsala%20County
|
Governor of Uppsala County
|
This is a list of governors for Uppsala County of Sweden. Uppsala County and Stockholm County separated from Uppland County, the first time from 1641 to 1654, and then finally in 1719.
First Period
Göran Gyllenstierna, the elder (1640–1646)
Bengt Skytte (1646–1649)
Svante Larsson Sparre (1649–1652)
Svante Svantesson Banér (1652–1654)
Second Period
Footnotes
References
Uppsala
Governors of Uppsala County
|
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60933310
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komsomol%2C%20Baymaksky%20District%2C%20Republic%20of%20Bashkortostan
|
Komsomol, Baymaksky District, Republic of Bashkortostan
|
Komsomol () is a rural locality (a village) in Zilairsky Selsoviet, Baymaksky District, Bashkortostan, Russia. The population was 222 as of 2010. There are 5 streets.
Geography
Komsomol is located 64 km southeast of Baymak (the district's administrative centre) by road. Urgaza is the nearest rural locality.
References
Rural localities in Baymaksky District
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar%20Micheaux
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Oscar Micheaux
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Oscar Devereaux Micheaux (; January 2, 1884 – March 25, 1951) was an author, film director and independent producer of more than 44 films. Although the short-lived Lincoln Motion Picture Company was the first movie company owned and controlled by black filmmakers, Micheaux is regarded as the first major African-American feature filmmaker, a prominent producer of race films, and has been described as "the most successful African-American filmmaker of the first half of the 20th century". He produced both silent films and sound films.
Early life and education
Micheaux was born on a farm in Metropolis, Illinois, on January 2, 1884. He was the fifth child born to Calvin S. and Belle Michaux, who had a total of 13 children. In his later years, Micheaux added an "e" to his last name. His father was born a slave in Kentucky. Because of his surname, his father's family appears to have been enslaved by French-descended settlers. French Huguenot refugees had settled in Virginia in 1700; their descendants took slaves west when they migrated into Kentucky after the American Revolutionary War.
In his later years, Micheaux wrote about the social oppression he experienced as a young boy. His parents moved to the city so that the children could receive a better education. Micheaux attended a well-established school for several years before the family eventually ran into money troubles and were forced to return to the farm. The discontented Micheaux became rebellious and his struggles caused problems within his family. His father was not happy with him and sent him away to do marketing in the city. Micheaux found pleasure in this job because he was able to speak to many new people and learned social skills that he would later reflect in his films.
When Micheaux was 17 years old, he moved to Chicago to live with his older brother, then working as a waiter. Micheaux became dissatisfied with what he viewed as his brother's way of living "the good life". He rented his own place and found work in the stockyards, which he found difficult. He moved from the stockyards to the steel mills, holding down many different jobs.
After being "swindled out of two dollars" by an employment agency, Micheaux decided to become his own boss. His first business was a shoeshine stand, which he set up at a wealthy African American barbershop, away from Chicago competition. He learned the basic strategies of business and started to save money. He became a Pullman porter on the major railroads, at that time considered prestigious employment for African Americans because it was relatively stable, well paid, and secure, and it enabled travel and interaction with new people. This job was an informal education for Micheaux. He profited financially, and also gained contacts and knowledge about the world through traveling as well as a greater understanding for business. When he left the position, he had seen much of the United States, had a couple of thousand dollars saved in his bank account, and had made a number of connections with wealthy white people who helped his future endeavors.
Micheaux moved to Gregory County, South Dakota, where he bought land and worked as a homesteader. This experience inspired his first novels and films. His neighbors on the frontier were predominately blue collar whites. "Some recall that [Micheaux] rarely sat at a table with his blue collar white neighbors." Micheaux's years as a homesteader allowed him to learn more about human relations and farming. While farming, Micheaux wrote articles and submitted them to the press. The Chicago Defender published one of his earliest articles.
Marriage and family
In South Dakota, Micheaux married Orlean McCracken. Her family proved to be complex and burdensome for Micheaux. Unhappy with their living arrangements, Orlean felt that Micheaux did not pay enough attention to her. She gave birth while he was away on business, and was reported to have emptied their bank accounts and fled. Orlean's father sold Micheaux's property and took the money from the sale. After his return, Micheaux tried unsuccessfully to get Orlean and his property back. He married Alice Russell in 1926. Oscar and Alice remained married until his death.
Writing and film career
Micheaux decided to concentrate on writing and, eventually, filmmaking, a new industry. He wrote seven novels. In 1913, 1,000 copies of his first book, The Conquest: The Story of a Negro Pioneer, were printed. He published the book anonymously, for unknown reasons. He based it on his experiences as a homesteader and the failure of his first marriage and it was largely autobiographical. Although character names have been changed, the protagonist is named Oscar Devereaux. His theme was about African Americans realizing their potential and succeeding in areas where they had not felt they could. The book outlines the difference between city lifestyles of Negroes and the life he decided to lead as a lone Negro out on the far West as a pioneer. He discusses the culture of doers who want to accomplish and those who see themselves as victims of injustice and hopelessness and who do not want to try to succeed, but instead like to pretend to be successful while living the city lifestyle in poverty. He had become frustrated with getting some members of his race to populate the frontier and make something of themselves, with real work and property investment. He wrote over 100 letters to fellow Negroes in the East beckoning them to come West, but only his older brother eventually took his advice. One of Micheaux's fundamental beliefs was that hard work and enterprise would make any person rise to respect and prominence no matter his or her race.
In 1918, his novel The Homesteader, dedicated to Booker T. Washington, attracted the attention of George Johnson, the manager of the Lincoln Motion Picture Company in Los Angeles. After Johnson offered to make The Homesteader into a new feature film, negotiations and paperwork became inharmonious. Micheaux wanted to be directly involved in the adaptation of his book as a movie, but Johnson resisted and never produced the film.
Instead, Micheaux founded the Micheaux Film & Book Company of Sioux City in Chicago; its first project was the production of The Homesteader as a feature film. Micheaux had a major career as a film producer and director: He produced over 40 films, which drew audiences throughout the U.S. as well as internationally. Micheaux contacted wealthy academic connections from his earlier career as a porter, and sold stock for his company at $75 to $100 a share. Micheaux hired actors and actresses and decided to have the premiere in Chicago. The film and Micheaux received high praise from film critics. One article credited Micheaux with "a historic breakthrough, a creditable, dignified achievement". Some members of the Chicago clergy criticized the film as libelous. The Homesteader became known as Micheaux's breakout film; it helped him become widely known as a writer and a filmmaker.
In addition to writing and directing his own films, Micheaux also adapted the works of different writers for his silent pictures. Many of his films were open, blunt and thought-provoking regarding certain racial issues of that time. He once commented: "It is only by presenting those portions of the race portrayed in my pictures, in the light and background of their true state, that we can raise our people to greater heights." Financial hardships during the Great Depression eventually made it impossible for Micheaux to keep producing films, and he returned to writing.
Films
Micheaux's first novel The Conquest was adapted to film and re-titled The Homesteader. This film, which met with critical and commercial success, was released in 1919. It revolves around a man named Jean Baptiste, called the Homesteader, who falls in love with many white women but resists marrying one out of his loyalty to his race. Baptiste sacrifices love to be a key symbol for his fellow African Americans. He looks for love among his own people and marries an African-American woman. Relations between them deteriorate. Eventually, Baptiste is not allowed to see his wife. She kills her father for keeping them apart and commits suicide. Baptiste is accused of the crime, but is ultimately cleared. An old love helps him through his troubles. After he learns that she is a mulatto and thus part African, they marry. This film deals extensively with race relationships.
Micheaux's second silent film was Within Our Gates, produced in 1920. Although sometimes considered his response to the film The Birth of a Nation, Micheaux said that he created it independently as a response to the widespread social instability following World War I. Within Our Gates revolved around the main character, Sylvia Landry, a mixed-race school teacher played by actress Evelyn Preer. In a flashback, Sylvia is shown growing up as the adopted daughter of a sharecropper. When her father confronts their white landlord over money, a fight ensues. The landlord is shot by another white man, but Sylvia's adoptive father is accused and lynched with her adoptive mother.
Sylvia is almost raped by the landowner's brother but discovers that he is her biological father. Micheaux always depicts African Americans as being serious and reaching for higher education. Before the flashback scene, we see that Sylvia travels to Boston, seeking funding for her school, which serves black children. They are underserved by the segregated society. On her journey, she is hit by the car of a rich white woman. Learning about Landry's cause, the woman decides to give her school $50,000.
In the film, Micheaux depicts educated and professional people in black society as light-skinned, representing the elite status of some of the mixed-race people who comprised the majority of African Americans free before the Civil War. Poor people are represented as dark-skinned and with more undiluted African ancestry. Mixed-race people also feature as some of the villains. The film is set within the Jim Crow era. It contrasted the experiences for African Americans who stayed in rural areas and others who had migrated to cities and become urbanized. Micheaux explored the suffering of African Americans in the present day, without explaining how the situation arose in history. Some feared that this film would cause even more unrest within society, and others believed it would open the public's eyes to the unjust treatment of blacks by whites. Protests against the film continued until the day it was released. Because of its controversial status, the film was banned from some theaters.
Micheaux adapted two works by Charles W. Chesnutt, which he released under their original titles: The Conjure Woman (1926) and The House Behind the Cedars (1927). The latter, which dealt with issues of mixed race and passing, created so much controversy when reviewed by the Film Board of Virginia that he was forced to make cuts to have it shown. He remade this story as a sound film in 1932, releasing it with the title Veiled Aristocrats. The silent version of the film is believed to have been lost.
Themes
Micheaux's films were made during a time of great change in the African-American community. His films featured contemporary black life. He dealt with racial relationships between blacks and whites, and the challenges for blacks when trying to achieve success in the larger society. His films were used to oppose and discuss the racial injustice that African Americans received. Topics such as lynching, job discrimination, rape, mob violence, and economic exploitation were depicted in his films. These films also reflect his ideologies and autobiographical experiences.
Micheaux sought to create films that would counter white portrayals of African Americans, which tended to emphasize inferior stereotypes. He created complex characters of different classes. His films questioned the value system of both African-American and white communities as well as caused problems with the press and state censors.
Style
Critic Barbara Lupack described Micheaux as pursuing moderation with his films and creating a "middle-class cinema". His works were designed to appeal to both middle- and lower-class audiences.
Micheaux said,
My results ... might have been narrow at times, due perhaps to certain limited situations, which I endeavored to portray, but in those limited situations, the truth was the predominate characteristic. It is only by presenting those portions of the race portrayed in my pictures, in the light and background of their true state, that we can raise our people to greater heights. I am too imbued with the spirit of Booker T. Washington to engraft false virtues upon ourselves, to make ourselves that which we are not.
Death
Micheaux died on March 25, 1951, in Charlotte, North Carolina, of heart failure. He is buried in Great Bend Cemetery in Great Bend, Kansas, the home of his youth. His gravestone reads: "A man ahead of his time".
Legacy and honors
The Oscar Micheaux Society at Duke University continues to honor his work and educate about his legacy.
1987, Micheaux was recognized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
1989 the Directors Guild of America honored Micheaux with a Golden Jubilee Special Award.
The Producers Guild of America created an annual award in his name.
In 1989, the Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame gave him a posthumous award.
Gregory, South Dakota holds an annual Oscar Micheaux Film Festival.
In 2001 Oscar Micheaux Golden Anniversary Festival (March 24–25) Great Bend, Kansas
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Oscar Micheaux on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.
On June 22, 2010, the US Postal Service issued a 44-cent, Oscar Micheaux commemorative stamp.
In 2011, the Taubman Museum of Art in Roanoke, Virginia created a category for donors, the Micheaux Society, in honor of Micheaux.
Midnight Ramble: Oscar Micheaux and the Story of Race Movies (1994) is a documentary whose title refers to the early 20th-century practice of some segregated cinemas of screening films for African-American audiences only at matinees and midnight. The documentary was produced by Pamela Thomas, directed by Pearl Bowser and Bestor Cram, and written by Clyde Taylor. It was first aired on the PBS show The American Experience in 1994, and released in 2004.
In 2019, Micheaux's film Body and Soul was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
The Oscar Micheaux Award for excellence was established.
The Academy Museum of Motion Pictures has an exhibition devoted to his works.
The Czar of Black Hollywood
In 2014, Block Starz Music Television released The Czar of Black Hollywood, a documentary film chronicling the early life and career of Oscar Micheaux using Library of Congress archived footage, photos, illustrations and vintage music. The film was announced by American radio host Tom Joyner on his nationally syndicated program, The Tom Joyner Morning Show, as part of a "Little Known Black History Fact" on Micheaux. In an interview with The Washington Times, filmmaker Bayer Mack said he read the 2007 biography Oscar Micheaux: The Great and Only by Patrick McGilligan and was inspired to produce The Czar of Black Hollywood because Micheaux's life mirrored his own. Mack told The Huffington Post he was shocked that, in spite of Micheaux's historical significance, there was "virtually nothing out there about [his] life". The film's executive producer, Frances Presley Rice, told the Sun Sentinel that Micheaux was the first "indie movie producer." In 2018, Mack was interviewed by the news site Mic for its "Black Monuments Project", which named Oscar Micheaux as one of its 50 African-Americans deserving of a statue. He said Micheaux embodied "the best of what we all are as Americans" and that the filmmaker was "an inspiration."
A historical marker in Roanoke, Virginia commemorates his time living and working in the city as a film producer.
Works
Filmography
The Homesteader (1919)
Within Our Gates (1920)
The Brute (1920)
The Symbol of the Unconquered (1920)
The Gunsaulus Mystery (1921)
The Dungeon (1922)
The Hypocrite (1922)
Uncle Jasper's Will (1922)
The Virgin of the Seminole (1922)
Deceit (1923)
Birthright (1924)
A Son of Satan (1924)
Body and Soul (1925)
Marcus Garland (1925)
The Conjure Woman (1926), adapted from novel by Charles W. Chesnutt
The Devil's Disciple (1926)
The Spider's Web (1926)
The Millionaire (1927)
The Broken Violin (1928)
The House Behind the Cedars (1927), adapted from novel by Charles W. Chesnutt
Thirty Years Later (1928)
When Men Betray (1929)
The Wages of Sin (1929)
Easy Street (1930)
A Daughter of the Congo (1930)
Darktown Revue (1931)
The Exile (1931)
Veiled Aristocrats (1932)
Ten Minutes to Live (1932)
Black Magic (1932)
The Girl from Chicago (1932)
Ten Minutes to Kill (1933)
Phantom of Kenwood (1933)
Harlem After Midnight (1934)
Murder in Harlem (1935)
Temptation (1936)
Underworld (1937)
God's Step Children (1938)
Swing! (1938)
Lying Lips (1939)
Birthright (1939)
The Notorious Elinor Lee (1940)
The Betrayal (1948)
Books
See also
Deanna Michaux
References
Further reading
Howard, John R. (2009). Faces in the Mirror: Oscar Micheaux and Spike Lee. Fireside Publications. .
External links
Oscar Micheaux Committee (formerly made by Don Shorock)
UC Berkeley: Moffitt Library: Media Resources Center: "Oscar Micheaux: A Bibliography of Materials in the UC Berkeley Library"
J.D. Walker, Ph.D.: Oscar Micheaux: Pioneer Negro (Feature Film)
Time: "Black Cinema: Micheaux Must Go On" (an article by Richard Corliss)
(features clips from some of Micheaux's films)
Stace England & The Salt Kings (recorded an album of songs about Micheaux)
United States Postal Service: Oscar Micheaux commemorative stamp (page archived at Internet Archive)
1884 births
1951 deaths
20th-century American novelists
African-American film directors
African-American screenwriters
American male screenwriters
American film studio executives
Film directors from Illinois
People from Metropolis, Illinois
Race films
American male novelists
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
People from Gregory County, South Dakota
20th-century American male writers
Film directors from South Dakota
Screenwriters from Illinois
Screenwriters from South Dakota
20th-century American screenwriters
African-American novelists
20th-century African-American writers
African-American male writers
|
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] |
205858
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Stockholm%20County
|
Governor of Stockholm County
|
This is a list of governors for Stockholm County of Sweden. Stockholm County separated from Uppland County, the first time from 1641 to 1654, and then finally in 1719. The City of Stockholm was separately governed by the Governor of Stockholm until 1967, when it was integrated into Stockholm County. The governors reside in Tessin Palace.
Governors
First period
Second period
Including the City of Stockholm
Footnotes
References
External links
www.lansstyrelsen.se/stockholm
Stockholm
Governors of Stockholm County
Stockholm County
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven%20Weinberg
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Steven Weinberg
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Steven Weinberg (; May 3, 1933 – July 23, 2021) was an American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in physics for his contributions with Abdus Salam and Sheldon Glashow to the unification of the weak force and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles.
He held the Josey Regental Chair in Science at the University of Texas at Austin, where he was a member of the Physics and Astronomy Departments. His research on elementary particles and physical cosmology was honored with numerous prizes and awards, including the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics and the 1991 National Medal of Science. In 2004, he received the Benjamin Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society, with a citation that said he was "considered by many to be the preeminent theoretical physicist alive in the world today." He was elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Britain's Royal Society, the American Philosophical Society, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Weinberg's articles on various subjects occasionally appeared in The New York Review of Books and other periodicals. He served as a consultant at the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, president of the Philosophical Society of Texas, and member of the Board of Editors of Daedalus magazine, the Council of Scholars of the Library of Congress, the JASON group of defense consultants, and many other boards and committees.
Early life
Steven Weinberg was born in 1933 in New York City. His parents were Jewish immigrants; his father, Frederick, worked as a court stenographer, while his mother, Eva (Israel), was a housewife. Becoming interested in science at age 16 through a chemistry set handed down by a cousin, he graduated from Bronx High School of Science in 1950. He was in the same graduating class as Sheldon Glashow, whose research, independent of Weinberg's, resulted in their (and Abdus Salam's) sharing the 1979 Nobel in physics.
Weinberg received his bachelor's degree from Cornell University in 1954. There he resided at the Telluride House. He then went to the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen, where he started his graduate studies and research. After one year, Weinberg moved to Princeton University, where he earned his Ph.D. in physics in 1957, completing his dissertation, "The role of strong interactions in decay processes", under the supervision of Sam Treiman.
Career and research
After completing his Ph.D., Weinberg worked as a postdoctoral researcher at Columbia University (1957–59) and University of California, Berkeley (1959) and then was promoted to faculty at Berkeley (1960–66). He did research in a variety of topics of particle physics, such as the high energy behavior of quantum field theory, symmetry breaking, pion scattering, infrared photons and quantum gravity. It was also during this time that he developed the approach to quantum field theory described in the first chapters of his book The Quantum Theory of Fields and started to write his textbook Gravitation and Cosmology, having taken up an interest in general relativity after the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation. He was also appointed the senior scientist at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. The Quantum Theory of Fields spanned three volumes and over 1,500 pages, and is often regarded as the leading book in the field.
In 1966, Weinberg left Berkeley and accepted a lecturer position at Harvard. In 1967 he was a visiting professor at MIT. It was in that year at MIT that Weinberg proposed his model of unification of electromagnetism and nuclear weak forces (such as those involved in beta-decay and kaon-decay), with the masses of the force-carriers of the weak part of the interaction being explained by spontaneous symmetry breaking. One of its fundamental aspects was the prediction of the existence of the Higgs boson. Weinberg's model, now known as the electroweak unification theory, had the same symmetry structure as that proposed by Glashow in 1961: both included the then-unknown weak interaction mechanism between leptons, known as neutral current and mediated by the Z boson. The 1973 experimental discovery of weak neutral currents (mediated by this Z boson) was one verification of the electroweak unification. The paper by Weinberg in which he presented this theory is one of the most cited works ever in high-energy physics.
After his 1967 seminal work on the unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions, Weinberg continued his work in many aspects of particle physics, quantum field theory, gravity, supersymmetry, superstrings and cosmology. In the years after 1967, the full Standard Model of elementary particle theory was developed through the work of many contributors. In it, the weak and electromagnetic interactions already unified by the work of Weinberg, Salam and Glashow, are made consistent with a theory of the strong interactions between quarks, in one overarching theory. In 1973, Weinberg proposed a modification of the Standard Model that did not contain that model's fundamental Higgs boson. Also during the 1970s, he proposed a theory later known as technicolor, in which new strong interactions resolve the hierarchy problem.
Weinberg became Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics at Harvard University in 1973, a post he held until 1983. In 1979 he pioneered the modern view on the renormalization aspect of quantum field theory that considers all quantum field theories effective field theories and changed the viewpoint of previous work (including his own in his 1967 paper) that a sensible quantum field theory must be renormalizable. This approach allowed the development of effective theory of quantum gravity, low energy QCD, heavy quark effective field theory and other developments, and is a topic of considerable interest in current research.
In 1979, some six years after the experimental discovery of the neutral currents—i.e. the discovery of the inferred existence of the Z boson—but after the 1978 experimental discovery of the theory's predicted amount of parity violation due to Z bosons' mixing with electromagnetic interactions, Weinberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics with Glashow and Salam, who had independently proposed a theory of electroweak unification based on spontaneous symmetry breaking.
In 1982 Weinberg moved to the University of Texas at Austin as the Jack S. Josey-Welch Foundation Regents Chair in Science, and started a theoretical physics group at the university that now has eight full professors and is one of the leading research groups in the field in the U.S.
Weinberg is frequently listed among the top scientists with the highest research effect indices, such as the h-index and the creativity index. The theoretical physicist Peter Woit called Weinberg "arguably the dominant figure in theoretical particle physics during its period of great success from the late sixties to the early eighties", calling his contribution to electroweak unification "to this day at the center of the Standard Model, our best understanding of fundamental physics". Science News named him along with fellow theorists Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman the leading physicists of the era, commenting, "Among his peers, Weinberg was one of the most respected figures in all of physics or perhaps all of science". Sean Carroll called Weinberg one of the “best physicists we had; one of the best thinkers of any variety” who “exhibited extraordinary verve and clarity of thought through the whole stretch of a long and productive life”, while John Preskill called him "one of the most accomplished scientists of our age, and a particularly eloquent spokesperson for the scientific worldview". Brian Greene said that Weinberg had an “astounding ability to see into the deep workings of nature” that “profoundly shaped our understanding of the universe". Upon the awarding of the Breakthrough Prize in 2020, one of the founders of the prizes, Yuri Milner, called Weinberg a “key architect” of “one of the most successful physical theories ever”, while string theorist Juan Maldacena, the chair of the selection committee, said, “Steven Weinberg has developed many of the key theoretical tools that we use for the description of nature at a fundamental level".
Other contributions
Besides his scientific research, Weinberg was a public spokesman for science, testifying before Congress in support of the Superconducting Super Collider, writing articles for The New York Review of Books, and giving various lectures on the larger meaning of science. His books on science written for the public combine the typical scientific popularization with what is traditionally considered history and philosophy of science and atheism. His first popular science book, The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe (1977), described the start of the universe with the Big Bang and enunciated a case for its expansion.
Although still teaching physics, in later years he turned his hand to the history of science, efforts that culminated in To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (2015). A hostile review in the Wall Street Journal by Steven Shapin attracted a number of commentaries, a response by Weinberg, and an exchange of views between Weinberg and Arthur Silverstein in the NYRB in February 2016.
In 2016, Weinberg became a default leader for faculty and students opposed to a new law allowing the carrying of concealed guns in UT classrooms. He announced that he would prohibit guns in his classes, and said he would stand by his decision to violate university regulations in this matter even if faced with a lawsuit. Weinberg never retired and taught at UT until his death.
Personal life
In 1954 Weinberg married Louise Goldwasser and they had a daughter, Elizabeth. Louise Weinberg went on to become a law professor at the University of Texas.
Weinberg died on July 23, 2021, at age 88 at a hospital in Austin, where he had been undergoing treatment for several weeks.
Worldview
Weinberg identified as a liberal.
Views on religion
Weinberg was an atheist. Before he was an advocate of the Big Bang theory, Weinberg stated: "The steady-state theory is philosophically the most attractive theory because it least resembles the account given in Genesis."
Views on Israel
Weinberg was known for his support of Israel, which he characterized as "the 'most exposed salient' in a war between liberal democracies and Muslim theocracies." He wrote the 1997 essay "Zionism and Its Adversaries" on the issue.
In the 2000s, Weinberg canceled trips to universities in the United Kingdom because of the British boycotts of Israel. At the time, he explained: "Given the history of the attacks on Israel and the oppressiveness and aggressiveness of other countries in the Middle East and elsewhere, boycotting Israel indicated a moral blindness for which it is hard to find any explanation other than antisemitism."
Honors and awards
Honorary Doctor of Science degrees from eleven institutions: University of Chicago, Knox College, University of Rochester, Yale University, City University of New York, Dartmouth College, Weizmann Institute, Clark University, Washington College, Columbia University, Bates College.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, elected 1968
Fellow of the American Physical Society, elected 1971
National Academy of Sciences, elected 1972
J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize, 1973
Richtmyer Memorial Award (1974)
Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, 1977
Steel Foundation Science Writing Award, 1977, for writing The First Three Minutes
Elliott Cresson Medal (Franklin Institute), 1979
Nobel Prize in Physics, 1979
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1981
Elected to American Philosophical Society (1982)
James Madison Medal of Princeton University, 1991
National Medal of Science, 1991
President of the Philosophical Society of Texas, 1992
Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, 1999
Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association, 2002
Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences, American Philosophical Society, 2004
James Joyce Award, University College Dublin, 2009
Breakthrough Prize, 2020
Selected publications
A list of Weinberg's publications can be found on arXiv and Scopus.
Bibliography: books authored / coauthored
Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity (1972)
The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe (1977, updated with new afterword in 1993, )
The Discovery of Subatomic Particles (1983)
Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures (1987; with Richard Feynman)
Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of Nature (1993),
The Quantum Theory of Fields (three volumes: I Foundations 1995, II Modern Applications 1996, III Supersymmetry 2000, Cambridge University Press, , , )
Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries (2001, 2003, HUP)
Glory and Terror: The Coming Nuclear Danger (2004, NYRB)
Cosmology (2008, OUP)
Lake Views: This World and the Universe (2010), Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, .
Lectures on Quantum Mechanics (2012, second edition 2015, CUP)
To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (2015), Harper/HarperCollins Publishers,
Third Thoughts (2018), Belknap Press,
Lectures on Astrophysics (2019, CUP, )
Foundations of Modern Physics (2021, CUP, )
Scholarly articles
Weinberg, S. & G. Feinberg. "Law of Conservation of Muons", Columbia University, University of California-Berkeley, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (Feb. 1961).
Pais, A., Weinberg, S., Quigg, C., Riordan, M., Panofsky, W.K.H. & V. Trimble. "100 years of elementary particles", Stanford Linear Accelerator Center United States Department of Energy, Beam Line, vol. 27, issue 1, Spring 1997. (April 1, 1997).
Popular articles
A Designer Universe?, a refutation of attacks on the theories of evolution and cosmology (e.g., those conducted under the rubric of intelligent design) is based on a talk given in April 1999 at the Conference on Cosmic Design of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C. This and other works express Weinberg's strongly held position that scientists should be less passive in defending science against anti-science religiosity.
Beautiful Theories, an article reprinted from Dreams of a Final Theory by Steven Weinberg in 1992 which focuses on the nature of beauty in physical theories.
The Crisis of Big Science, May 10, 2012, New York Review of Books. Weinberg places the cancellation of the Superconducting Super Collider in the context of a bigger national and global socio-economic crisis, including a general crisis in funding for science research and the provision of adequate education, healthcare, transportation, and communication infrastructure, and criminal justice and law enforcement.
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1979, "Conceptual Foundations of the Unified Theory of Weak and Electromagnetic Interactions"
1933 births
2021 deaths
20th-century atheists
21st-century American physicists
21st-century atheists
American atheism activists
American Nobel laureates
American skeptics
American string theorists
Historians of physics
American Zionists
The Bronx High School of Science alumni
Columbia University alumni
Cornell University alumni
Critics of religions
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Harvard University staff
Jewish American scientists
Jewish American atheists
Jewish physicists
Members of JASON (advisory group)
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
MIT Center for Theoretical Physics faculty
National Medal of Science laureates
Nobel laureates in Physics
Princeton University alumni
Scientists from New York City
University of California, Berkeley faculty
University of Texas at Austin faculty
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] |
205861
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20%C3%96rebro%20County
|
List of governors of Örebro County
|
This is a list of governors for Örebro County in Sweden, from 1634 to present. In 1779 Värmland County separated from Närke and Värmland County and the county was renamed into Örebro County.
Footnotes
References
Orebro
|
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205866
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accipitriformes
|
Accipitriformes
|
The Accipitriformes (; from Latin accipiter/accipitri- "hawk", and New Latin -formes "having the form of") are an order of birds that includes most of the diurnal birds of prey, including hawks, eagles, vultures, and kites, but not falcons.
For a long time, the majority view was to include them with the falcons in the Falconiformes, but many authorities now recognize a separate Accipitriformes. A DNA study published in 2008 indicated that falcons are not closely related to the Accipitriformes, being instead more closely related to parrots and passerines. Since then, the split and the placement of the falcons next to the parrots in taxonomic order has been adopted by the American Ornithological Society's South American Classification Committee (SACC), its North American Classification Committee (NACC), and the International Ornithological Congress (IOC). The British Ornithologists' Union already recognized the Accipitriformes, and has adopted the move of Falconiformes. The DNA-based proposal and the NACC and IOC classifications include the New World vultures in the Accipitriformes, while the SACC classifies the New World vultures as a separate order, the Cathartiformes.
Characteristics
The Accipitriformes are known from the Middle Eocene and typically have a sharply hooked beak with a soft cere housing the nostrils. Their wings are long and fairly broad, suitable for soaring flight, with the outer four to six primary feathers emarginated.
They have strong legs and feet with raptorial claws and opposable hind claws. Almost all Accipitriformes are carnivorous, hunting by sight during the day or at twilight. They are exceptionally long-lived, and most have low reproductive rates.
The young have a long, very fast-growing fledgling stage, followed by 3–8 weeks of nest care after first flight, and 1 to 3 years as sexually immature adults. The sexes have conspicuously different sizes and sometimes a female is more than twice as heavy as her mate. This sexual dimorphism is sometimes most extreme in specialized bird-eaters, such as the Accipiter hawks. Monogamy is the general rule, although an alternative mate is often selected if one dies.
Taxonomy
Accipitriformes, currently with 262 species and 75 genera in 4 extant families and possibly 1 extinct family, is the largest diurnal raptor order. DNA sequence analyses suggest that divergences within Accipitriformes began around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary about 34 mya, with the split of the group including genera Elanus and Gampsonyx from the other Accipitriformes genera.
The order includes the following families:
Order Accipitriformes
Accipitridae (vultures, eagles, harriers, hawks, kites)
Pandionidae (ospreys) (1 or 2 species)
Sagittariidae (secretarybird)
Possibly includes the extinct Teratornithidae as well.
For a complete list of species, see list of Accipitriformes species.
Footnotes
References
Full text via AOU, COPO, BioOne.
Includes a review of recent literature on the controversy.
Falconiformes was resequenced in version 4.1 (Jan 7, 2014)
External links
Extant Lutetian first appearances
Bird orders
Eocene taxonomic orders
Oligocene taxonomic orders
Miocene taxonomic orders
Pliocene taxonomic orders
Pleistocene taxonomic orders
Holocene taxonomic orders
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Kent
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University of Kent
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The University of Kent (formerly the University of Kent at Canterbury, abbreviated as UKC) is a semi-collegiate public research university based in Kent, United Kingdom. The University was granted its Royal Charter on 4 January 1965 and the following year Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, was formally installed as the first Chancellor.
The university has its main campus north of Canterbury situated within of park land, housing over 6,000 students, as well as campuses in Medway and Tonbridge in Kent and European postgraduate centres in Brussels, Athens, Rome and Paris. The University is international, with students from 158 different nationalities and 41% of its academic and research staff being from outside the United Kingdom. It is a member of the Santander Network of European universities encouraging social and economic development.
History
Origins
A university in the city of Canterbury was first considered in 1947, when an anticipated growth in student numbers led several residents to seek the creation of a new university, including Kent. However, the plans never came to fruition. A decade later both population growth and greater demand for university places led to a re-consideration. In 1959 the Education Committee of Kent County Council explored the creation of a new university, formally accepting the proposal unanimously on 24 February 1960. Two months later the Education Committee agreed to seek a site at or near Canterbury, given the historical associations of the city, subject to the support of Canterbury City Council.
By 1962 a site was found at Beverley Farm, straddling the then boundary between the City of Canterbury and the administrative county of Kent. The university's original name, chosen in 1962, was the University of Kent at Canterbury, reflecting the fact that the campus straddled the boundary between the county borough of Canterbury and Kent County Council. At the time it was the normal practice for universities to be named after the town or city whose boundaries they were in, with both "University of Kent" and "University of Canterbury" initially proposed. The name adopted reflected the support of both the city and county authorities; as well as the existence of the University of Canterbury in New Zealand, which officially opposed the use of a name too similar to its own. The abbreviation "UKC" became a popular abbreviation for the university.
1965 to 2000
The University of Kent at Canterbury was granted its Royal Charter on 4 January 1965 and the first batch of 500 students arrived in the October of that year. On 30 March 1966 Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent was formally installed as the first Chancellor.
The University was envisaged as being a collegiate establishment, with most students living in one of the colleges on campus, and as specialising in inter-disciplinary studies in all fields. Over the years, changes in government policy and other changing demands have largely destroyed this original concept, leading to the present state, which is nearer the norm for a British university. However, the four original colleges – Darwin, Eliot, Keynes and Rutherford – remain, together with the newer Woolf and Turing colleges, each with their own masters.
The university grew at a rapid rate throughout the 1960s, with three colleges and many other buildings on campus being completed by the end of the decade. The 1970s saw further construction, but the university also encountered the biggest physical problem in its history. The university had been built above a tunnel on the disused Canterbury and Whitstable Railway. In July 1974 the tunnel collapsed, damaging part of the Cornwallis Building, which sank nearly a metre within about an hour on the evening of 11 July. Fortunately, the university had insurance against subsidence, so it was able to pay for the south-west corner of the building to be demolished and replaced by a new wing at the other end of the building.
Unix computers arrived in 1976 and UKC set up the first Unix to Unix copy (UUCP) test service to Bell Labs in the U.S. in 1979. UKC provided the first UUCO connections to non-academic users in the UK in the early 1980s.
In 1982 the university opened the University Centre at Tonbridge (now the University of Kent at Tonbridge) for its School of Continuing education, helping to enhance the availability of teaching across the county. Building elsewhere included the Park Wood accommodation village and the Darwin houses in 1989.
During the 1990s and 2000s the University expanded beyond its original campus, establishing campuses in Medway, Tonbridge and Brussels, and partnerships with Canterbury College, West Kent College, South Kent College and MidKent College.
2000 to present
In the 2000s the university entered a collaboration named Universities at Medway with the University of Greenwich, MidKent College and Canterbury Christ Church University to deliver university provision in the Medway area. This led to the development of the University of Kent at Medway, opened from 2001. Initially based at Mid-Kent College, a new joint campus opened in 2004. Small postgraduate centres opened in Paris in 2009, and later in Rome and Athens.
As a consequence of the expansion outside Canterbury the university's name was formally changed to the University of Kent on 1 April 2003. Part of the original reasoning for the name disappeared when local government reforms in the 1970s resulted in the Canterbury campus falling entirely within the City of Canterbury, which no longer has county borough status, and Kent County Council.
In 2007 the university was rebranded with a new logo and website. The logo was chosen following consultation with existing university students and those in sixth forms across the country.
The University of Kent set its tuition fees for UK and European Union undergraduates at £9,000 for new entrants in 2012, which was approved by the Office for Fair Access (OFFA). The fee was approved by Council on 1 April 2011 and was confirmed by OFFA in July 2011. The proposed changes to UK and EU undergraduate tuition fees did not apply to international student fees.
Following the extension of Keynes College in 2001, two new colleges opened on the Canterbury campus, Woolf College for postgraduates in 2008 and Turing College for undergraduates in 2015. Several other new buildings were also added, including the Jarman School of Arts Building in 2009, the Colyer-Fergusson Music Building, a performing arts space, in 2012, and the Sibson building, housing maths and the business school, in 2017. A major £27m project to extend and refurbish the Templeman Library began in 2013, was completed in 2017 and formally opened in 2018. Additional accommodation was provided for students at the Medway Campus with the completion of Liberty Quays in 2009.
In 2015, the University held a number of events to celebrate its 50th anniversary. Festivals were held in Canterbury and Medway, a summer festival, the funding of twelve Beacon Projects and the temporary erection of a Ferris Wheel on the Canterbury campus. In 2016, a consultation was launched on a masterplan for future development of the Canterbury campus. In March 2017 it was announced that, in partnership with Canterbury Christ Church University, the University of Kent had been given funding to develop Kent and Medway Medical School.
Campuses
Canterbury campus
The main Canterbury campus covers and is situated in parkland in an elevated position just over two miles (3 km) from the city centre, with views over the city and Canterbury Cathedral UNESCO world heritage site. The campus currently has approximately 12,000 full-time and 6,200 part-time students, with accommodation for over 5000, in addition to 600 academic and research staff. Residential and academic buildings are intermingled in the central part of the campus, science building are clustered west of Giles Lens and there is a dedicated student village on the western edge, several minutes’ walk from the main campus. The campus is ecologically diverse and home to a number of protected species, including Great Crested Newts. The North West of the site is heavily forested, including pockets of ancient woodland, while the Southern Slopes contain a mix of wildflower and hay meadows, and there are seven ponds spread across the campus.
Facilities
The campus has a selection of shops, including a grocery store, bookshop, pharmacy and launderettes. Food and drink is provided by range of cafes and bars run either by the University or the student union. Bars include K-bar, in Keynes College, Mungo's, in Eliot College, Origins, in Darwin College, and Woody's in the Park Wood Student Village. Cafeteria style food is available in Rutherford College, fine dining at the Beagle Restaurant in Darwin College, and food is served at the bars and other cafes around campus.
The campus nightclub, The Venue, was refurbished and modernised in 2010 and is open Wednesday to Saturday. The upstairs area was originally used a live music venue, known as The Lighthouse and then the Attic, but has since been replaced with the Student Media Centre which hosts Inquire, KTV and CSR. Club nights and live music are also held at various bars on campus.
Sporting facilities are spread across two main sites: the sports centre, which contains several multi-purpose sports halls, a fitness suite, squash courts and climbing wall, and the Sports Pavilion site, with a variety of indoor and outdoor sports pitches and training facilities, including 3G and astroturf.
The Gulbenkian arts complex includes a theatre and cinema, as well as a small stage which hosts monthly comedy nights as well as occasional shows such as Jazz at Five and The Chortle Student Comedy Awards. The adjacent Colyer-Fergusson Building, which opened in 2013, includes an adaptable format concert/rehearsal hall with retractable seating and variable acoustics and practice rooms. The Gulbenkian Theatre seats 340 and presents student, professional and amateur shows throughout the year. The theatre was opened in 1969 and was named after the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation which helped fund its construction. The Gulbenkian Cinema is an independent cinema in the Gulbenkian complex open to students and the general public. It is Kent's regional film theatre showing new mainstream and non-mainstream releases as well as archive and foreign language films. In the daytime the cinema is used as a lecture theatre for University students. The Gulbenkian complex also hosts a cafe/ bar and restaurant facility open to students, staff and the general public.
Transport and access
The campus is accessed by road from either the West, with two entrances on the A290 Whitstable Road, or the East, via St Stephen's Hill. An off-road foot and cycle route connects the central campus to the Northern edge of the city, and a regular bus services (‘UniBus’) is also in operation, although with a more limited service outside of term time. The A2 dual carriageway links the campus and city to London, the port at Dover and the national motorway network. The campus also lies at the southern end of the Crab and Winkle Way, a 7-mile off-road foot and cycle path running through farm and woodland to the coastal fishing town of Whitstable, providing a link for cycle commuters.
The closest railway station to the campus is Canterbury West which is, as of 2009, served by Southeastern services to London St Pancras. These services stop at Ashford International en route, thus providing a direct connection to Eurostar services to France and Belgium. Southeastern services also connect Canterbury West and Canterbury East stations with London Victoria and Charing Cross. Both of the Canterbury stations can be accessed by the UniBus service. The nearest international air services are provided from the London airports, Gatwick and Heathrow, with indirect National Express coach services to both from Canterbury Bus Station with one transfer at London Victoria Coach Station. The campus is also served by two coach services (Route 007) to/from London each day, with further services operating from Canterbury bus station.
Medway campus
In 2000 the University joined with other educational institutes to form the "Universities for Medway" initiative, aimed at increasing participation in higher education in the Medway Towns. The following year the University of Kent at Medway formally opened, initially based at Mid-Kent College. By 2004 a new campus for the university had been established in the old Chatham Dockyard, sharing a campus with Canterbury Christchurch University and University of Greenwich.
The University of Kent and Medway Park Leisure Centre have gone into a multimillion-pound partnership to provide high-quality leisure facilities for university students and the general public. Medway Park (formerly the Black Lion Leisure Centre) was re-opened in 2011 by Princess Anne for use as a training venue for the 2012 London Olympics, as well as a training venue for the Egyptian and Congo National teams.
The campus accommodation, called Pier Quays, formerly named Liberty Quays until 2019 when Unite Group acquired Liberty Living, was finished in late 2009, and caters for over 600 students. The accommodation building includes a Tesco Express, Subway, and Domino's Pizza, and Cargo, a bar showing sports, live music, and entertainment.
Tonbridge campus
In 1982 the university established the School of continuing education in the centre of Tonbridge, extending its coverage to the entire county of Kent. Many buildings were added in the 1980s and 1990s. The campus is now called the University of Kent at Tonbridge. It collaborates with the Kent Business School and Kent Innovation and Enterprise.
Organisation and administration
Faculties, departments and schools
Until 2020, the University was divided into three faculties, humanities, sciences and social sciences, which are further sub-divided into 20 schools:
The original plan was to have no academic sub-divisions within the three faculties (initially Humanities, Social Sciences and Natural Sciences) and to incorporate an interdisciplinary element to all degrees through common first year courses ("Part I") in each faculty, followed by specialist study in the second and final years ("Part II"). The lack of Departments encouraged the development of courses that crossed traditional divides, such as Chemical Physics, Chemistry with Control Engineering, Biological Chemistry and Environmental Physical Science.
However, the interdisciplinary approach proved increasingly complex for two reasons. The levels of specialisation at A Levels meant that many students had not studied particular subjects for some years and this made it impossible to devise a course that both covered areas unstudied by some and did not bore others. This proved an especial problem in Natural Sciences, where many Mathematics students had not studied Chemistry at A Level and vice versa.
Additionally many subjects, particularly those in the Social Sciences, were not taught at A Level and required the first year as a grounding in the subject rather than an introduction to several different new subjects. Problems were especially encountered in the Faculty of Natural Sciences where the differing demands of Mathematics and physical sciences led to two almost completely separate programmes and student bases. In 1970 this led to the creation of the School of Mathematical Studies, standing outside the Faculties. The addition of other subjects led to increased pressure on common Part I programmes and increasingly students took more specialised Part I courses designed to prepare them for Part II study.
Substantial change to this structure did not come until the 1990s, driven more by national government policy than curricular demands, which were, after all, very flexible by nature. In 1989 the Universities Funding Council, which was merged into the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) in 1992, was charged by the UK Government to determine the cost for teaching each subject. To meet these accountancy requirements, Kent required for the first time that each member of staff declare a single discipline they would be affiliated with in future. When departments were formed in the early 1990s this led to a great deal of reorganisation of staff, and destroyed many existing inter-disciplinary relationships. Following the formation of departments, finance was devolved to departments based on how many students were taught. This quickly evolved into undermining the interdisciplinary context further, as departments sought to control finance by increasing the amount of specialist teaching in the first year.
The university now has the Faculties further divided into 18 Departments and Schools, ranging from the School of English to the Department of Biosciences, and from the Kent Law School to the Department of Economics. Also of note is the University's Brussels School of International Studies, located in Brussels, Belgium. The school offers master's degrees in international relations theory and international conflict analysis, along with an LLM in international law. In 2005 a new department, the Kent School of Architecture, began teaching its first students. In 2008, Wye College came under Kent's remit, in joint partnership with Imperial College London.
In 2020, because of financial pressures caused by a combination of the 2000 demographic dip and the 2020/21 COVID-19 pandemic, the university abolished the faculties and reorganised itself into 6 divisions (see below).
Colleges
The University is divided into seven colleges, six colleges named after distinguished scholars and one college after a town. Colleges have academic schools, lecture theatres, seminar rooms and halls of residence. Each college has a Master, who is responsible for student welfare within their college. In chronological order of construction they are:
The university also has an associate college named Chaucer College.
There was much discussion about the names adopted for most of the colleges with the following alternative names all in consideration at one point or another: for Eliot: Caxton, after William Caxton; for Keynes: Richborough, a town in Kent; Anselm, a former archbishop of Canterbury; and for Darwin: Anselm (again); Attlee, after Clement Attlee, the post-war Prime Minister; Becket, after Thomas Becket, another former archbishop (this was the recommendation of the college's provisional committee but rejected by the Senate); Conrad; Elgar, after Edward Elgar; Maitland; Marlowe, after Christopher Marlowe; Russell, after Bertrand Russell (this was the recommendation of the Senate but rejected by the council); Tyler, after both Wat Tyler and Tyler Hill on which the campus stands. The name for the College proved especially contentious and was eventually decided by a postal ballot of members of the Senate, choosing from: Attlee, Conrad, Darwin, Elgar, Maitland, Marlowe and Tyler.
(Both Becket and Tyler were eventually used as the names for residential buildings on campuses and the building housing both the Architecture and Anthropology departments is named Marlowe.)
Each college has residential rooms, lecture theatres, study rooms, computer rooms and social areas. The intention of the colleges was that they should not be just Halls of residence, but complete academic communities. Each college (except Woolf) has its own bar, all rebuilt on a larger scale, and originally its own dining hall (only Rutherford still has a functioning dining hall; Darwin's is hired out for conferences and events; Keynes's was closed in 2000 and converted into academic space, but in 2011 Dolche Vita was expanded and became the dining hall for Keynes students in catered accommodation after Keynes's expansion in 2011; and Eliot's was closed in 2006). It was expected that each college (more were planned) would have around 600 students as members, with an equivalent proportion of staff, with half the students living within the college itself and the rest coming onto campus to eat and study within their colleges. Many facilities, ranging from accommodation, tutorials and alumni relations, would be handled on a college basis. With no planned academic divisions below the Faculty level, the colleges would be main focus of students' lives and there would be no units of a similar or smaller size to provide a rival focus of loyalties.
This vision of a collegiate university has increasingly fallen away. The funding for colleges did not keep pace with the growth in student numbers, with the result that only four colleges were built. In later years when there was heavy student demand for scarce accommodation in Canterbury the solution was found in building additional on-campus accommodation but not in the form of further colleges. The hopes that students living off campus would stay around to eat dinner in their colleges were not met, whilst the abolition of college amenities fees removed students' direct stake in their colleges. With the growth of specialist subject departments as well as of other university wide facilities, more and more of the role of colleges was transferred to the central university. Accommodation and catering were transferred to the centralised University of Kent at Canterbury Hospitality (UKCH).
Today the University does not operate as a traditional collegiate university – applications are made to the University as a whole, and many of the colleges rely on each other for day-to-day operation. Academic departments have no formal ties to colleges other than those that are located within particular college buildings due to availability of space, with lectures, seminars and tutorials taking place wherever there is an available room rather than on a college basis. Many students are allocated accommodation in their respective college, but some are housed in developments with no defined collegiate link whilst others are housed in different colleges.
Despite this the six College Student Committees, volunteer groups made up of elected officers and supporting volunteers, have retained a reasonably strong presence on campus. They run fundraising events and welfare campaigns throughout the academic year, and organise student events for their colleges during Welcome Week. Every student in the University retains a college affiliation to either Keynes, Eliot, Rutherford, Darwin or Park Wood even if they do not live in college accommodation. Students are encouraged to stay engaged with their College Committees throughout their time at the University.
Finances
In the financial year ended 31 July 2013, the University of Kent had a total income (including share of joint ventures) of £201.3 million, grew by 5.8% with an additional £21.4 million of fee income (2011/12 – £190.2 million) and total expenditure of £188.7 million (2011/12 – £175.9 million). Key sources of income included £98.5 million from tuition fees and education contracts (2011/12 – £77.2 million), £48.9 million from Funding Council grants (2011/12 – £62.5 million), £13.4 million from research grants and contracts (2011/12 – £11.4 million) and £1.2 million from endowment and investment income (2011/12 – £1.09 million). During the 2012/13 financial year the University of Kent had a capital expenditure of £28.2 million (2011/12 – £16.1 million).
At year end the University of Kent had endowment assets of £6.3 million (2011/12 – £6.04 million) and total net assets of £175.9 million (2011/12 – £165.1 million).
Coat of arms and logo
The University of Kent's coat of arms was granted by the College of Arms in September 1967. The white horse of Kent is taken from the arms of the County of Kent (and can also be seen on the Flag of Kent). The three Cornish choughs, originally belonging to the arms of Thomas Becket, were taken from the arms of the City of Canterbury. The Crest depicts the West Gate of Canterbury with a symbolic flow of water, presumably the Great Stour, below it. Two golden Bishops' Crosiers in the shape of a St. Andrews Cross are shown in front of it. The supporters – lions with the sterns of golden ships – are taken from the arms of the Cinque Ports.
The Coat of Arms is now formally used only for degree certificates, degree programmes and some merchandise, as a result of the University seeking a consistent identity branding.
Academic profile
Research
Kent is a research-led university with 24 schools and 40 specialist research centres spanning the sciences, technology, medical studies, the social sciences, arts and humanities. In the 2014 Research Assessment Exercise the University of Kent was ranked 40th out of 128 participating institutions in a 'grade point average' league table in The Times Higher Education Supplement (falling from 31st in 2008), 30th in terms of 'Research Power' (rising from 40th in 2008), and 19th in terms of 'Research Intensity' (rising from 49th in 2008). The University had a total research income of £17 million in 2016.
Rankings
For 2020 The Guardian newspaper ranked Kent 65th in the UK, while The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2018 put Kent in 25th place, as does The Independent's Complete University Guide. QS places Kent 46th in the UK and 366th in the world, while Times Higher Education places it 44th in the UK and in the 301-350 group worldwide. In The Sunday Times 10-year (1998–2007) average ranking of British universities based on consistent league table performance, Kent was ranked 48th overall in the UK. In 2015, Kent ranked ahead of 10 Russell Group universities according to the ranking of The Complete University Guide. In research, both The Guardian and The Times newspapers rank Kent 29th, with The Independent rating the university 28th for its overall research activity in 2014.
The Complete University Guide shows that the average tariff points for entry were 353 UCAS points (old tariff) in 2017.
The National Student Survey in 2017 placed Kent joint 20th in the UK, with an overall satisfaction of 90%.
Library
The Templeman Library (named after Geoffrey Templeman, the University's first Vice-Chancellor) contains over a million items in stock including books, journals, videos, DVDs, and archive materials (for example, a full text of The Times from 1785 onwards), yet it is still only half its planned size. It has a materials fund of approximately £1million a year, and adds 12,000 items every year. It is open every day in term time, on a 24/7 basis. It receives 800,000 visits a year, with approximately half a million loans per annum.
The library also houses the British Cartoon Archive, (established 1975) a national collection of, mainly, newspaper cartoons, with over 90,000 images catalogued.
In 2013 work began to extend, refurbish and completely modernise the Templeman Library, including the addition of study space, along with the creation of a new purpose built lecture theatre. Additionally, the Library facade underwent major renovation. This work was completed in 2017, with additional refurbishment work planned for 2018.
Franco-British programme
The bilingual Franco-British double-degree programme combines subjects in one degree and is taught in two countries. The first year is spent at the Institut d'études politiques de Lille (IEP), the second and third years at the University of Kent, the fourth year at the IEP of Lille and the fifth is spent in Canterbury, Brussels or Lille.
The students of the Franco-British double-degree programme receive, at the end of the fourth year, the Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree from the University of Kent, the Diplôme by the IEP of Lille and, at the end of the fifth year, either the Master of Arts (MA) degree in Canterbury or in Brussels or the Master delivered by the IEP of Lille, chosen between 14 parcours de formation by the IEP of Lille.
Student life
The student population is mixed, with around 15,000 undergraduates and 4,000 postgraduates, with approximately 22% of students coming from overseas. Approximately 128 different nationalities are currently represented, and the female to male ratio is 55 women to every 45 men.
Students' Union
The Students' Union, officially known as "Kent Union", is the student representative body for students at the university. It is led by five elected full-time officers (the 'sabbatical team'), a Board of trustees, part-time student officers and 'lay' members of the local community and business selected for their specialist expertise.
The University boasts two Co-Op shops on campus - one in the main campus area, and the other in the Park Wood student village. The two all-purpose food and essentials stores were previously known Essentials and Parkwood Essentials. The Union also operates the Park Wood bar Woody's and a 1,500 capacity nightclub The Venue which, unusually, is located on the central campus. Essentials, the Venue and other shops and Union offices are located in purpose-made buildings completed in 1998. Kent Union also co-ordinates over 200 sports clubs and societies, as well as media outlets, volunteering and charity activities, and provides student welfare services.
Demonstrations
In early March 1970 a General Meeting of the University of Kent at Canterbury Students' Union voted to occupy the Cornwallis Building as part of a national student movement to open personal records to individual student scrutiny. The occupation lasted about two weeks, with a majority vote ending the occupation on 18 March. Approximately 400 students marched out of the Cornwallis Building to present a set of demands that were handed by Union President David Lawrence to the University Registrar Mr Eric Fox. The demands had been drawn up and debated by groups of up to 300 students at a time in meetings and seminars held throughout the occupation.
In the early to mid-1970s, along with other plate-glass universities, the Union had a reputation for revolutionary politics, leading to demands for law changes from some staff trade unionists. It was active in anti-poll tax, anti-student loans and anti-racism campaigns as well as safety campaigns on campus in the late 1980s.
In 2003, ahead of the 'Top Up Fees' vote, the Union took 300 students to take part in the NUS UK Student Demonstrations on three double decker buses. The Union covered all the transport costs to the demonstration. In 2010, ahead of a parliamentary vote on issues concerning raising tuition fees, the Union took part in the national demonstrations. The union heavily subsidised the transport for 500 students to get to London.
Chaplaincy
Whilst the University is secular, there is a chaplaincy consisting of permanent Anglican and Catholic priests and a Pentecostal minister, as well as part-time chaplains from other denominations and faiths. The chaplaincy runs the annual Carol Service that takes place every year in Canterbury Cathedral at the end of Autumn Term.
Student housing
In addition to the student housing in the colleges, the University also has the following student housing:
Darwin Houses, a set of 26 student houses next to Darwin College, opened in 1989
Becket Court, next to Eliot College, opened in 1990
Tyler Court, three blocks of halls of residence. Block A was opened in 1995 mostly for postgraduates; Blocks B and C were completed in 2004 for undergraduates.
Parkwood, a mini student village comprising 262 two-storey houses and a recently built apartment complex, about 10 minutes walk from the main campus. The initial houses were opened in 1980. A large addition to the Parkwood area was completed in 2005, comprising a number of en-suite fitted rooms grouped into four, five and six bedroom flats.
Turing College was officially opened in September 2015; 9 buildings of 3 to 4 floors each.
Student media
CSR 97.4FM
University of Kent and Canterbury Christ Church University, as well as their associated Student Unions, fund Canterbury's only student and community radio station: CSR 97.4FM. The radio station broadcasts from studios at both universities 24 hours a day, with live broadcasting from 7am – 12am. CSR 97.4FM replaced UKC Radio, the original student-run radio station at the University.
InQuire
The University has a student newspaper named InQuire and an online news website InQuire Media (launched in January 2008). The newspaper is published every two weeks and is edited by a group of student volunteers. Content is edited by volunteers and is focused on campus issues and national news that affects students. Funded by Kent Union, the newspaper is subject to moderation before publication.
Kent Television
Kent Television (KTV), founded in 2012, is the volunteer-run television studio at the University.
Notable alumni
References
External links
University of Kent website
University of Kent Students' Union
Educational institutions established in 1965
University
University
1965 establishments in England
Internet mirror services
Universities UK
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Grinstead
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East Grinstead
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East Grinstead is a town in West Sussex, England, near the East Sussex, Surrey, and Kent borders, south of London, northeast of Brighton, and northeast of the county town of Chichester. Situated in the extreme northeast of the county, the civil parish has an area of . The population at the 2011 Census was 26,383.
Nearby towns include Crawley and Horley to the west, Tunbridge Wells to the east and Redhill and Reigate to the northwest. The town is contiguous with the village of Felbridge to the northwest. Until 1974 East Grinstead was in East Sussex, before joining together with Haywards Heath and Burgess Hill as the Mid-Sussex district of West Sussex.
The town is on the Greenwich Meridian. It has many historic buildings, and the Weald and Ashdown Forest lie to the south-east.
Geography
There are many facilities for mental healthcare in East Grinstead, including Springvale Community Mental Health Centre and Charters Court.
History
The Queen Victoria Hospital was founded as a cottage hospital in 1863, and was rebuilt on its current site in the 1930s. During the Second World War, the hospital was developed as a specialist burns unit by Sir Archibald McIndoe. It became world-famous for pioneering treatment of RAF and allied aircrew who were badly burned or crushed, and required reconstructive plastic surgery. Most famously, it was where the Guinea Pig Club was formed in 1941, as a club which then became a support network for the aircrew and their family members. The club remained active after the end of the war, and its annual reunion meetings at East Grinstead continued until 2007, when the club was wound down in view of the increasing frailty of its surviving members. Queen Victoria Hospital remains at the forefront of specialist care today, and is renowned for its burns treatment facilities and expertise.
During the War, a German bombing run had targeted the town and a bomb hit the Whitehall Cinema where the town's school children were watching a film, killing 108 and injuring 235. The town was devastated; almost everyone in the town knew someone who lost or had a child injured. As such, the townspeople became very supportive of the patients at the Queen Victoria Hospital. Even though many of the victims were horribly disfigured (often missing limbs, and in the worst cases faces, their faces made up of burn tissue), the townspeople would go out of their way to make the men feel normal. Families invited the men to dinner, and girls asked them to go on dates. Patients of the burn units remember, and cherish, the charity received from the townspeople of East Grinstead.
In the winter of 2010, Claque Theatre produced the East Grinstead Community Play, which focussed on the bombing of the town in 1943, the work of Archibald McIndoe and his team at the hospital, and the Guinea Pig Club and its members. It was performed by local residents. On 9 June 2014 The Princess Royal unveiled a monument to Sir Archibald McIndoe and the Guinea Pigs. It stands in front of Sackville College at the east end of the High Street. It was funded by a public appeal and sculpted by Martin Jennings, whose own father was a Guinea Pig. It depicts a burned airman looking to the sky, with McIndoe placing reassuring hands on his shoulders. The stone ring around the statue is for visitors to sit and reflect and in doing so become part of the story representing "The town that did not stare".
Places of interest
The High Street contains one of the longest continuous runs of 14th-century timber-framed buildings in England. Other notable buildings in the town include Sackville College, the sandstone almshouse, built in 1609, where John Mason Neale wrote the Christmas carol "Good King Wenceslas". The college has sweeping views towards Ashdown Forest. The adjacent St Swithun's Church stands on the highest ground in the town and was rebuilt in the eighteenth century (the tower dating from 1789) to a perpendicular design by James Wyatt. The imposing structure dominates the surrounding countryside for many miles around. In the churchyard are commemorated the East Grinstead Martyrs, and in the south-east corner is the grave of John Mason Neale.
The Greenwich Meridian runs through the grounds of the historic 1769 East Court mansion, home of the Town Council, giving the visitor an opportunity to stand with a foot in both the east and west. The mansion stands in a parkland setting. In 1968, the East Grinstead Society was founded as an independent body, both to protect the historically important buildings of East Grinstead (and its environs) and to improve the amenities for future generations.
east of the town, in Hammerwood, is Hammerwood Park, a country house built by Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1792, and once owned by the rock band Led Zeppelin. On the outskirts of the town is Standen, a country house belonging to the National Trust, containing one of the best collections of arts and crafts movement furnishings and fabrics. East Grinstead House is the headquarters of the (UK and Ireland) Caravan Club.
The town is the site of Queen Victoria Hospital, where famed plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe treated burns victims of World War II and formed the Guinea Pig Club. A statue of Sir Archibald McIndoe caring for an injured airman was erected in June 2014 outside Sackville College and was unveiled by The Princess Anne, the Princess Royal. Kidbrooke Park (today Michael Hall School), a home of the Hambro family, was restored by the noted Sussex architect and antiquarian, Walter Godfrey, as was Plawhatch Hall.
During the Second World War, the town became a secondary target for German bombers which failed to make their primary target elsewhere. On the afternoon of Friday 9 July 1943, a Luftwaffe bomber became separated from its squadron, followed the main railway line and circled the town twice, then dropped eight bombs. Two bombs, one with a delayed-action fuse, fell on the Whitehall Theatre, a cinema on the London Road, where 184 people at the matinée show were watching a Hopalong Cassidy film before the main feature. A total of 108 people were killed in the raid, including children in the cinema, many of whom were evacuees; and some twenty Canadian servicemen stationed locally, who were either in the cinema when it was hit, or arrived minutes later to help with rescuing survivors. A further 235 were injured. This was the largest loss of life of any single air raid in Sussex.
In 2006, the East Grinstead Town Museum was moved to new custom-built premises in the historic centre of the town, and successfully re-opened to the public. Chequer Mead Theatre includes a modern 320-seat purpose-built auditorium, which stages professional and amateur plays/musicals and music (local rock groups to chamber music orchestras), opera, ballet, folk music, tribute bands, film, event cinema and talks. The venue also has a popular spacious cafe with outdoor seating.
In addition to the nearby Ashdown Forest, East Grinstead is served by the Forest Way and Worth Way linear Country Parks which follow the disused railway line from Three Bridges all the way through to Groombridge and which are part of the Sustrans national cycle network.
Places of worship
East Grinstead has an unusually diverse range of religious and spiritual organisations for a town of its size.
A broad range of mainstream Christian denominations have places of worship in the town, and several others used to be represented; Protestant Nonconformism has featured especially prominently for the last two centuries, in common with other parts of northern Sussex. Several other religious groups have connections with the town, from merely owning property to having national headquarters there.
In 1994, a documentary, Why East Grinstead?, was produced for Channel 4's Witness strand of documentaries. It sought to examine and explain the convergence of such a wide variety of religious organisations in the East Grinstead area. The documentary, produced by Zed Productions and directed by Ian Sellar, reached no definite conclusion: explanations ranged from the local presence of ley lines to the more prosaic idea that religious leaders had settled there because they liked the views.
Church of England
The Church of England has four places of worship in the town. St Swithun's Church was founded in the 11th century. Architect James Wyatt rebuilt it in local stone in 1789 after it became derelict and collapsed. Near the entrance to the church, three stones mark the supposed ashes of Anne Tree, Thomas Dunngate and John Forman who were burned as martyrs on 18 July 1556 because they would not renounce the Protestant faith. John Foxe wrote about them in his 1,800-page Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Two other churches are in St Swithun's parish.
St Luke's Church, in Holtye Avenue on the Stone Quarry estate, was built in 1954 to serve the northeast of the town. The church was demolished around 2014 and flats have been built at the location. St Barnabas' Church in Dunnings Road serves the south of the town. The present wooden structure of 1975 replaced an older church built in 1912. The fourth church, in the northwest of the town, is dedicated to St Mary the Virgin. Built by W.T. Lowdell over a 21-year period beginning in 1891, the Decorated Gothic Revival church was consecrated in 1905 and has its own parish. It was established by adherents of the Oxford Movement, and services still follow a more Anglo-Catholic style than East Grinstead's other Anglican churches.
Non-Conformist
East Grinstead's first Nonconformist church was the Zion Chapel, built in 1810 for the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion. The small evangelical Calvinistic group owned the church until 1980; it is now used by Baptists and is called West Street Baptist Church. Trinity Methodist Church is the much-expanded successor to older places of Methodist worship in the town; the community dates back to 1868. The United Reformed Church community meets in the Moat Church, a former Congregational chapel built in the Early English Gothic Revival style in 1870.
A 2007 book also noted the New Life Church—a Newfrontiers evangelical charismatic church—the Kingdom Faith Church, another independent charismatic congregation, and the Full Gospel Church.
Other places of worship
Roman Catholics worship at the Church of Our Lady and St Peter, founded in 1898 by Edward Blount of the Blount baronetcy, a resident of nearby Worth.
Jehovah's Witnesses worship at a modern Kingdom Hall. The community, established in 1967, previously used a former Salvation Army building.
The meetinghouse of the LDS Church on Ship Street was built in 1985. Opus Dei has a conference centre at Wickenden Manor near the town, and Rosicrucians also have a presence in nearby Greenwood Gate. The London England Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is just over the Surrey border at Newchapel.
The United Kingdom (and former world) headquarters of the Church of Scientology is at Saint Hill Manor on the southwestern edge of East Grinstead. Scientology's founder L. Ron Hubbard bought the Georgian mansion and its of grounds from the Maharaja of Jaipur in 1959, and lived in the town until 1967.
Proposed redevelopment
The East Grinstead Town Centre Master Plan was adopted on 10 July 2006 as a Supplementary Planning Document (SPD). The scheme proposed regeneration of the town centre in association with Thornfield Properties PLC. Thornfield Properties had submitted plans to the council for the start of an ambitious development of the Queens Walk and West Street area. It was expected that other redevelopment companies would fulfil targets outlined in the SPD over the next 20 years.
Transport
Air
Gatwick Airport is from the town, whilst Redhill Aerodrome and Biggin Hill Airport are both within half an hour's drive. Hammerwood Park has a helicopter landing site for visiting pilots ( from the town).
Rail
East Grinstead became a railway terminus in 1967, after the line from Three Bridges to Royal Tunbridge Wells was closed under the Beeching Axe, a rationalisation of British Railways' branch lines based on a report by Dr Richard Beeching, a resident of the town at that time. The line to Lewes, part of the Bluebell Railway, closed in 1958.
In the late 1970s, the town's inner relief road was built along a section of one of the closed railway lines and is named "Beeching Way". Because the road runs through a cutting, it has been nicknamed "Beeching Cut". Much of rest of the trackbed of the disused Three Bridges to Groombridge line now forms the route of the Worth Way and Forest Way, linear Country Parks allowing access to the Wealden countryside.
A part of the Lewes line was re-constructed by the Bluebell Railway, a nearby preserved standard gauge railway. The extension work was carried out in stages. The first paid-passenger service departed from East Grinstead station at 9:45 on Saturday 23 March 2013, and the first train left Sheffield Park for East Grinstead at 9:30 a.m. with services running each way every 45 minutes thereafter.
Road
The town lies on the junction of the A22 and A264 roads. For just over , from just to the north of the Town Centre to Felbridge village in Surrey, the two routes use the same stretch of single carriageway road. This is one of the principal causes of traffic congestion in the town.
The town is within commuting distance of London (about ) and Crawley/Gatwick (about ) by road. According to the 2001 Census, one in eight residents commuted to Crawley and Gatwick Airport for work with over 98% travelling by car.
Education
Education in the town is provided through both state and independent schools. West Sussex County Council provides seven primary schools along with two secondary schools. All these schools are co-educational and comprehensive. Private secondary education is provided by several day and boarding schools in the surrounding areas straddling Kent and Sussex.
State secondary schools
Imberhorne School
Sackville School
Preparatory schools
Brambletye School
Ashdown House
Twin towns
East Grinstead is twinned with:
Bourg-de-Péage, France
Sant Feliu de Guíxols, Spain
Mindelheim, Germany
Schwaz, Austria
Verbania, Italy
Sports and social clubs
East Grinstead is served by local sports and social clubs. Municipal facilities include the King George's Field, which was left to the town by a local benefactor and was named as a memorial to King George V. The King's Centre leisure centre, currently owned and operated by Mid Sussex District Council is on this land. The centre includes an indoor swimming pool and other facilities such as a gym and sports hall.
There are floodlit tennis courts and bowling green at Mount Noddy and also tennis courts and a variety of pitches at East Court where Non-League football club East Grinstead Town F.C. play. The athletics club, East Grinstead AC, which was formed in 1978 train at Imberhorne School. The senior team competes in the Southern Athletics League Division 3 and has young athletes teams competing in regional leagues. East Grinstead Rugby Football Club currently play in Harvey's of Sussex 1. EGRFC are supported by a junior section which fields teams from Under 18's down to Under 7's. East Grinstead is also home to East Grinstead Hockey Club and East Grinstead Lacrosse Club established in 2004, with two men's teams and a women's team catering to a variety of skill levels.
Culture, music and arts
Chequer Mead
Chequer Mead Theatre (formerly Chequer Mead Community Arts Centre) was built in the 1990s and is a 320-seat theatre. It is home to the East Grinstead Music & Arts Festival, which exists to encourage and promote dancing, singing and speech and drama in Sussex and neighbouring counties. The honorary vice-president of the festival is former ballerina Beryl Grey. Local groups include the East Grinstead Choral Society and the East Grinstead Operatic Society.
Media
Newspapers
The local weekly newspaper is the East Grinstead Courier, published each Tuesday by Local World Ltd.
Another local weekly newspaper is the East Grinstead Gazette, published each Wednesday by the Johnston Press.
Local Radio
The local community radio station is 107 Meridian FM, found on 107 FM and also online.
In popular culture
East Grinstead is the destination of the adulterous lovers Norman and Annie in Alan Ayckbourn's trilogy of plays entitled The Norman Conquests. It was chosen because Norman, after some effort, couldn't get in at Hastings. In the 1978 Thames Television version of the trilogy, Norman and Annie were portrayed by Tom Conti and Penelope Wilton.
East Grinstead also features in Christopher Fowler's novel, Psychoville (1995), in which the town features as harbouring the fictional Invicta Cross, as well as the eventual New Invicta. The town of New Invicta was later used by Jo Amey in Heist as a safehouse.
East Grinstead is the home of Harry Witherspoon, one of the lead characters in a musical comedy by Stephen Flaherty and Lynn Ahrens called Lucky Stiff.
East Grinstead is mentioned a couple of times in Monty Python's Flying Circus. It was mentioned that several letters come from the "East Grinstead Friday."
East Grinstead is mentioned and has scenes set in the town in Torchwood: Children of Earth.
East Grinstead is mentioned in the 2015 Blur song Lonesome Street.
The cold war spy thriller The Whistle Blower (1986), starring Michael Caine, mentions East Grinstead as the home of retired spy "Mr X".
References
Bibliography
- Total pages: 480
External links
East Grinstead Town Council
Towns in West Sussex
Market towns in West Sussex
Mid Sussex District
Archibald McIndoe
Ashdown Forest
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] |
205877
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20V%C3%A4sternorrland%20County
|
List of governors of Västernorrland County
|
This is a list of governors for Västernorrland County of Sweden, from 1658 to present. Västernorrland was created from the briefly existing Härnösand and Hudiksvall Counties in 1654, which in turn had been separated from Norrland County in 1645.
Footnotes
References
Vasternorrland
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate
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Methylphenidate
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Methylphenidate, sold under the brand name Ritalin and Concerta among others, is a stimulant drug used to treat attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It is a first-line medication for ADHD. It may be taken by mouth or applied to the skin, and different formulations have varying durations of effect. It is also used recreationally as a performance-enhancer and/or as a euphoriant.
Common side effects of methylphenidate include: anxiety, paranoia, irritability, euphoria, difficulty sleeping, loss of appetite, and weight loss. More serious side effects may include addiction and dependence, substance abuse, psychosis (delusions and/or hallucinations), delirium, mania, panic attacks, agitation, aggression, seizures, and prolonged erections. Withdrawal symptoms include: dysphoria, depression, exhaustion, drowsiness, lethargy, weakness, dizziness, apathy, irritability, restlessness, headaches, chills, suicidal thoughts, and nightmares.
Methylphenidate is believed to work by blocking dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake by neurons. Methylphenidate is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the phenethylamine and piperidine classes. It is not a cocaine derivative nor analog.
Cocaine is an analgesic and ligand channel blocker with SNDRI action while Methylphenidate is an NDRI with 2-3 fold selectivity for Dopamine transporter (DAT) over Norepinephrine transporter (NET). Cocaine is also more potent in Serotonin transporters (SERT) than NDRI sites.
Methylphenidate was first synthesized in 1944 and was approved for medical use in the United States in 1955. It was originally sold by Swiss company CIBA, now Novartis Corporation. It is estimated that in 2013, the number of doses of methylphenidate used globally increased by 66% compared to 2012. In 2019, it was the 51st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 14 million prescriptions.
Uses
Methylphenidate is most commonly used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Methylphenidate is used for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The addition of behavioural modification therapy can have additional benefits on treatment outcome. The dosage may vary and is titrated to effect, with some guidelines recommending initial treatment with a low dose. Immediate release methylphenidate is used daily along with the longer-acting form to achieve full-day control of symptoms. Methylphenidate is not approved for children under six years of age.
In children over the age of 6 and adolescents, the short-term benefits and cost effectiveness of methylphenidate are well established. A number of reviews have established the safety and effectiveness for individuals with ADHD over several years.
Approximately 70% of those who use methylphenidate see improvements in ADHD symptoms. Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans. There is evidence to suggest that children diagnosed with ADHD who do not receive treatment will have an increased risk of substance use disorders as adults.
The precise magnitude of improvement in ADHD symptoms and quality of life that are produced by methylphenidate treatment remains uncertain as of November 2015. Methylphenidate is not included in the World Health Organization Essential Medicines List, as findings by the World Health Organization indicate that evidence of benefit versus harm to be unclear in the treatment of ADHD. A 2021 systematic review concluded that there is no clear evidence for using IR Methylphenidate (immediate-release) for adults.
Since ADHD diagnosis has increased around the world, methylphenidate may be misused as a "study drug" by some populations, which may be harmful. This also applies to people who may be experiencing a different issue and are misdiagnosed with ADHD. People in this category can then experience negative side-effects of the drug which worsen their condition.
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy, a chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and uncontrollable sleep, is treated primarily with stimulants. Methylphenidate is considered effective in increasing wakefulness, vigilance, and performance. Methylphenidate improves measures of somnolence on standardized tests, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT), but performance does not improve to levels comparable to healthy people.
Other medical uses
Methylphenidate may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. It can also improve depression in several groups including stroke, cancer, and HIV-positive patients. However, the use of stimulants such as methylphenidate in cases of treatment-resistant depression is controversial. Stimulants may have fewer side-effects than tricyclic antidepressants in the elderly and medically ill. In individuals with terminal cancer, methylphenidate can be used to counteract opioid-induced somnolence, to increase the analgesic effects of opioids, to treat depression, and to improve cognitive function. A 2018 review found low quality evidence supporting its use to treat apathy as seen in Alzheimer's Disease in addition to slight benefits for cognition and cognitive performance.
Enhancing performance
A 2015 review found that therapeutic doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate result in modest improvements in cognition, including working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control, in normal healthy adults; the cognition-enhancing effects of these drugs are known to occur through the indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D1 and adrenoceptor α2 in the prefrontal cortex. Methylphenidate and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency and increase arousal. Stimulants such as amphetamine and methylphenidate can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks, and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, performance-enhancing use rather than use as a recreational drug, is the primary reason that students use stimulants.
Excessive doses of methylphenidate, above the therapeutic range, can interfere with working memory and cognitive control. Like amphetamine and bupropion, methylphenidate increases stamina and endurance in humans primarily through reuptake inhibition of dopamine in the central nervous system. Similar to the loss of cognitive enhancement when using large amounts, large doses of methylphenidate can induce side effects that impair athletic performance, such as rhabdomyolysis and hyperthermia. While literature suggests it might improve cognition, most authors agree that using the drug as a study aid when ADHD diagnosis is not present does not actually improve GPA. Moreover, it has been suggested that students who use the drug for studying may be self-medicating for potentially deeper underlying issues.
Contraindications
Methylphenidate is contraindicated for individuals using monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine, and tranylcypromine), or individuals with agitation, tics, glaucoma, or a hypersensitivity to any ingredients contained in methylphenidate pharmaceuticals.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gives methylphenidate a pregnancy category of C, and women are advised to only use the drug if the benefits outweigh the potential risks. Not enough human studies have been conducted to conclusively demonstrate an effect of methylphenidate on fetal development. In 2018, a review concluded that it has not been teratogenic in rats and rabbits, and that it "is not a major human teratogen".
Adverse effects
Overall, adverse events associated with long-acting MPH formulations are similar with the most common adverse effects including appetite loss, dry mouth, anxiety/nervousness, nausea, and insomnia. Gastrointestinal adverse effects may include abdominal pain and weight loss. Nervous system adverse effects may include akathisia (agitation/restlessness), irritability, dyskinesia (tics), oromandibular dystonia, lethargy (drowsiness/fatigue), and dizziness. Cardiac adverse effects may include palpitations, changes in blood pressure and heart rate (typically mild), and tachycardia (rapid heart rate). Smokers with ADHD who take methylphenidate may increase their nicotine dependence, and smoke more often than before they began using methylphenidate, with increased nicotine cravings and an average increase of 1.3 cigarettes per day. Ophthalmologic adverse effects may include blurred vision caused by pupil dilatation and dry eyes, with less frequent reports of diplopia and mydriasis.
There is some evidence of mild reductions in height with prolonged treatment in children. This has been estimated at or less per year during the first three years with a total decrease of over 10 years.
Hypersensitivity (including skin rash, urticaria, and fever) is sometimes reported when using transdermal methylphenidate. The Daytrana patch has a much higher rate of skin reactions than oral methylphenidate.
Methylphenidate can worsen psychosis in people who are psychotic, and in very rare cases it has been associated with the emergence of new psychotic symptoms. It should be used with extreme caution in people with bipolar disorder due to the potential induction of mania or hypomania. There have been very rare reports of suicidal ideation, but some authors claim that evidence does not support a link. Logorrhea is occasionally reported. Libido disorders, disorientation, and visual hallucinations are very rarely reported. Priapism is a very rare adverse event that can be potentially serious.
US Food and Drug Administration-commissioned studies in 2011 indicate that in children, young adults, and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, heart attack, and stroke) and the medical use of methylphenidate or other ADHD stimulants.
Because some adverse effects may only emerge during chronic use of methylphenidate, a constant watch for adverse effects is recommended.
A 2018 Cochrane review found that methylphenidate might be associated with serious side effects such as heart problems, psychosis, and death. The certainty of the evidence was stated as very low.
A 2018 review found tentative evidence that it may cause both serious and non-serious adverse effects in children.
Overdose
The symptoms of a moderate acute overdose on methylphenidate primarily arise from central nervous system overstimulation; these symptoms include: vomiting, nausea, agitation, tremors, hyperreflexia, muscle twitching, euphoria, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, hyperthermia, sweating, flushing, headache, tachycardia, heart palpitations, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, mydriasis, and dryness of mucous membranes. A severe overdose may involve symptoms such as hyperpyrexia, sympathomimetic toxidrome, convulsions, paranoia, stereotypy (a repetitive movement disorder), rhabdomyolysis, coma, and circulatory collapse. A methylphenidate overdose is rarely fatal with appropriate care. Following injection of methylphenidate tablets into an artery, severe toxic reactions involving abscess formation and necrosis have been reported.
Treatment of a methylphenidate overdose typically involves the administration of benzodiazepines, with antipsychotics, α-adrenoceptor agonists and propofol serving as second-line therapies.
Addiction and dependence
Methylphenidate is a stimulant with an addiction liability and dependence liability similar to amphetamine. It has moderate liability among addictive drugs; accordingly, addiction and psychological dependence are possible and likely when methylphenidate is used at high doses as a recreational drug. When used above the medical dose range, stimulants are associated with the development of stimulant psychosis. As with all addictive drugs, the overexpression of ΔFosB in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is implicated in methylphenidate addiction.
Biomolecular mechanisms
Methylphenidate has the potential to induce euphoria due to its pharmacodynamic effect (i.e., dopamine reuptake inhibition) in the brain's reward system. At therapeutic doses, ADHD stimulants do not sufficiently activate the reward system, or the reward pathway in particular, to the extent necessary to cause persistent increases in ΔFosB gene expression in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; consequently, when taken as directed in doses that are commonly prescribed for the treatment of ADHD, methylphenidate use lacks the capacity to cause an addiction. However, when methylphenidate is used at sufficiently high recreational doses through a bioavailable route of administration (e.g., insufflation or intravenous administration), particularly for use of the drug as a euphoriant, ΔFosB accumulates in the nucleus accumbens. Hence, like any other addictive drug, regular recreational use of methylphenidate at high doses eventually gives rise to ΔFosB overexpression in D1-type neurons which subsequently triggers a series of gene transcription-mediated signaling cascades that induce an addiction.
Interactions
Methylphenidate may inhibit the metabolism of vitamin K anticoagulants, certain anticonvulsants, and some antidepressants (tricyclic antidepressants, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). Concomitant administration may require dose adjustments, possibly assisted by monitoring of plasma drug concentrations. There are several case reports of methylphenidate inducing serotonin syndrome with concomitant administration of antidepressants.
When methylphenidate is coingested with ethanol, a metabolite called ethylphenidate is formed via hepatic transesterification, not unlike the hepatic formation of cocaethylene from cocaine and ethanol. The reduced potency of ethylphenidate and its minor formation means it does not contribute to the pharmacological profile at therapeutic doses and even in overdose cases ethylphenidate concentrations remain negligible.
Coingestion of alcohol (ethanol) also increases the blood plasma levels of d-methylphenidate by up to 40%.
Liver toxicity from methylphenidate is extremely rare, but limited evidence suggests that intake of β-adrenergic agonists with methylphenidate may increase the risk of liver toxicity.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Methylphenidate primarily acts as a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI). It is a benzylpiperidine and phenethylamine derivative which also shares part of its basic structure with catecholamines.
Methylphenidate is a psychostimulant and increases the activity of the central nervous system through inhibition on reuptake of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. As models of ADHD suggest, it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly those involving dopamine in the mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways and norepinephrine in the prefrontal cortex and locus coeruleus. Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine may be effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems. When reuptake of those neurotransmitters is halted, its concentration and effects in the synapse increase and last longer, respectively. Therefore, methylphenidate is called a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor. By increasing the effects of norepinephrine and dopamine, methylphenidate increases the activity of the central nervous system and produces effects such as increased alertness, reduced fatigue, and improved attention.
Methylphenidate is most active at modulating levels of dopamine (DA) and to a lesser extent norepinephrine (NE). Methylphenidate binds to and blocks dopamine transporters (DAT) and norepinephrine transporters (NET). Variability exists between DAT blockade, and extracellular dopamine, leading to the hypothesis that methylphenidate amplifies basal dopamine activity, leading to nonresponse in those with low basal DA activity. On average, methylphenidate elicits a 3–4 times increase in dopamine and norepinephrine in the striatum and prefrontal cortex. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with ADHD stimulants (specifically, amphetamine and methylphenidate) decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD.
Both amphetamine and methylphenidate are predominantly dopaminergic drugs, yet their mechanisms of action are distinct. Methylphenidate acts as a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor, while amphetamine is both a releasing agent and reuptake inhibitor of dopamine and norepinephrine. Methylphenidate's mechanism of action in the release of dopamine and norepinephrine is fundamentally different from most other phenethylamine derivatives, as methylphenidate is thought to increase neuronal firing rate, whereas amphetamine reduces firing rate, but causes monoamine release by reversing the flow of the monoamines through monoamine transporters via a diverse set of mechanisms, including TAAR1 activation and modulation of VMAT2 function, among other mechanisms. The difference in mechanism of action between methylphenidate and amphetamine results in methylphenidate inhibiting amphetamine's effects on monoamine transporters when they are co-administered.
Methylphenidate has both dopamine transporter and norepinephrine transporter binding affinity, with the dextromethylphenidate enantiomers displaying a prominent affinity for the norepinephrine transporter. Both the dextrorotary and levorotary enantiomers displayed receptor affinity for the serotonergic 5HT1A and 5HT2B subtypes, though direct binding to the serotonin transporter was not observed. A later study confirmed the d-threo-methylphenidate (dexmethylphenidate) binding to the 5HT1A receptor, but no significant activity on the 5HT2B receptor was found.
Methylphenidate may protect neurons from the neurotoxic effects of Parkinson's disease and methamphetamine use disorder. The hypothesized mechanism of neuroprotection is through inhibition of methamphetamine-DAT interactions, and through reducing cytosolic dopamine, leading to decreased production of dopamine-related reactive oxygen species.
The dextrorotary enantiomers are significantly more potent than the levorotary enantiomers, and some medications therefore only contain dexmethylphenidate. The studied maximized daily dosage of OROS methyphenidate appears to be 144 mg/day.
Pharmacokinetics
Methylphenidate taken orally has a bioavailability of 11–52% with a duration of action around 2–4 hours for instant release (i.e. Ritalin), 3–8 hours for sustained release (i.e. Ritalin SR), and 8–12 hours for extended release (i.e. Concerta). The half-life of methylphenidate is 2–3 hours, depending on the individual. The peak plasma time is achieved at about 2 hours. Methylphenidate has a low plasma protein binding of 10-33% and a volume of distribution of 2.65 L/kg.
Dextromethylphenidate is much more bioavailable than levomethylphenidate when administered orally, and is primarily responsible for the psychoactivity of racemic methylphenidate.
Contrary to the expectation, taking methylphenidate with a meal speeds absorption. The effects of a high fat meal on the observed Cmax differ between some extended release formulations, with combined IR/ER and OROS formulations showing reduced Cmax levels while liquid-based extended release formulations showed increased Cmax levels when administered with a high fat meal, according to some researchers. A 2003 study, however, showed no difference between a high fat meal administration and a fasting administration of oral methylphenidate.
Methylphenidate is metabolized into ritalinic acid by CES1A1, enzymes in the liver. Dextromethylphenidate is selectively metabolized at a slower rate than levomethylphenidate. 97% of the metabolised drug is excreted in the urine, and between 1 and 3% is excreted in the faeces. A small amount, less than 1%, of the drug is excreted in the urine in its unchanged form.
Chemistry
Four isomers of methylphenidate are possible, since the molecule has two chiral centers. One pair of threo isomers and one pair of erythro are distinguished, from which primarily d-threo-methylphenidate exhibits the pharmacologically desired effects. The erythro diastereomers are pressor amines, a property not shared with the threo diastereomers. When the drug was first introduced it was sold as a 4:1 mixture of erythro:threo diastereomers, but it was later reformulated to contain only the threo diastereomers. "TMP" refers to a threo product that does not contain any erythro diastereomers, i.e. (±)-threo-methylphenidate. Since the threo isomers are energetically favored, it is easy to epimerize out any of the undesired erythro isomers. The drug that contains only dextrorotatory methylphenidate is sometimes called d-TMP, although this name is only rarely used and it is much more commonly referred to as dexmethylphenidate, d-MPH, or d-threo-methylphenidate. A review on the synthesis of enantiomerically pure (2R,2'R)-(+)-threo-methylphenidate hydrochloride has been published.
Detection in biological fluids
The concentration of methylphenidate or ritalinic acid, its major metabolite, may be quantified in plasma, serum or whole blood in order to monitor compliance in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.
History
Methylphenidate was first made in 1944, and was identified as a stimulant in 1954.
Methylphenidate was synthesized by Ciba (now Novartis) chemist Leandro Panizzon. He named the drug after his wife Margarita, nicknamed Rita, who used Ritalin to compensate for low blood pressure.
Originally it was marketed as a mixture of two racemates, 80% (±)-erythro and 20% (±)-threo. Subsequent studies of the racemates showed that the central stimulant activity is associated with the threo racemate and were focused on the separation and interconversion of the erythro isomer into the more active threo isomer.
Methylphenidate was first used to allay barbiturate-induced coma, narcolepsy and depression. It was later used to treat memory deficits in the elderly. Beginning in the 1960s, it was used to treat children with ADHD based on earlier work starting with the studies by American psychiatrist Charles Bradley on the use of psychostimulant drugs, such as Benzedrine, with then called "maladjusted children". Production and prescription of methylphenidate rose significantly in the 1990s, especially in the United States, as the ADHD diagnosis came to be better understood and more generally accepted within the medical and mental health communities.
In 2000, ALZA Corporation received US FDA approval to market "Concerta", an extended-release form of methylphenidate.
Society and culture
Names
Methylphenidate is produced in the United States, Switzerland, Canada, Mexico, Spain, Sweden, Pakistan, and India. It is also sold in the majority of countries worldwide. Brand names for methylphenidate include Ritalin (in honor to Rita, the wife of the molecule discoverer), Rilatin (in Belgium to avoid a conflict of commercial name with the RIT pharmaceutical company), Concerta, Medikinet, Adaphen, Addwize, Inspiral, Methmild, Artige, Attenta, Cognil, Equasym, Methylin, Penid, Phenida, Prohiper, and Tradea. Generic forms are produced by numerous pharmaceutical companies throughout the world.
Available forms
Methylphenidate is available in numerous forms, and a doctor will determine the appropriate formulation of the drug to prescribe based on the patient's history, the doctor's experiences treating other patients with methylphenidate products, and product pricing or availability. Currently available forms include a variety of tablets and capsules, an adhesive-based matrix transdermal system (transdermal patch), and an oral suspension (liquid syrup).
The dextrorotary enantiomer of methylphenidate, known as dexmethylphenidate, is sold as a generic and under the brand names Focalin and Attenade in both an immediate-release and an extended-release form. In some circumstances it may be prescribed instead of methylphenidate, however it has no significant advantages over methylphenidate at equipotent dosages and so it is sometimes considered to be an example of an evergreened drug.
Immediate-release
Methylphenidate was originally available as an immediate-release racemic mixture formulation under the Novartis trademark name Ritalin, although a variety of generics are now available, some under other brand names. Generic brand names include Ritalina, Rilatine, Attenta, Medikinet, Metadate, Methylin, Penid, Tranquilyn, and Rubifen.
Extended-release
Extended-release methylphenidate products include:
Concerta tablets are marked with the letters "ALZA" and followed by: "18", "27", "36", or "54", relating to the mg dosage strength. Approximately 22% of the dose is immediate release, and the remaining 78% of the dose is released over 10–12 hours post-ingestion, with an initial increase over the first 6 to 7 hours, and subsequent decline in released drug.
Ritalin LA capsules are marked with the letters "NVR" (abbrev.: Novartis) and followed by: "R20", "R30", or "R40", depending on the (mg) dosage strength. Ritalin LA provides two standard doses – half the total dose being released immediately and the other half released four hours later. In total, each capsule is effective for about eight hours.
Metadate CD capsules contain two types of beads; 30% are immediate release, and the other 70% are evenly sustained release.
Medikinet Retard/CR/Adult/Modified Release tablets is an extended-release oral capsule form of Methylphenidate. It delivers 50% of dosage as IR MPH and the remaining 50% in 3-4 Hours. They're not equal in pharmacology but however Medikinet Retard usually referenced as German version of Ritalin LA.
Skin patch
A methylphenidate skin patch is sold under the brand name Daytrana in the United States. It was developed and marketed by Noven Pharmaceuticals and approved in the US in 2006. It is also referred to as methylphenidate transdermal system (MTS). It is approved as a once daily treatment in children — ages 6 to 17 — with ADHD. It is mainly prescribed as a second-line treatment when oral forms are not well tolerated or if people have difficulty with compliance. Noven's original FDA submission indicated that it should be used for 12 hours. When the FDA rejected the submission they requested evidence that a shorter time period was safe and effective, Noven provided such evidence and it was approved for a 9-hour period.
Orally administered methylphenidate is subject to first-pass metabolism, by which the levo-isomer is extensively metabolized. By circumventing this first-pass metabolism, the relative concentrations of l-threo-methylphenidate are much higher with transdermal administration (50-60% of those of dexmethylphenidate instead of about 14-27%).
A 39 nanograms/mL peak serum concentration of methylphenidate be has been found to occur between 7.5 and 10.5 hours after administration. However the onset to peak effect is 2 hours and the clinical effects remain up to 2 hours after patch has been removed. The absorption is increased when the transdermal patch is applied onto inflamed skin or skin that has been exposed to heat. The absorption lasts for approximately 9 hours after application (onto normal, unexposed to heat and uninflamed skin). 90% of the medication is excreted in the urine as metabolites and unchanged drug.
Cost
Brand-name and generic formulations are available. The most expensive brand-name extended-release tablets may retail for as much as $12.40 per defined daily dose, per a 2016 source.
There are two main reasons for this price difference:
Generic formulations are less expensive than brand-name formulations.
Immediate-release tablets are less expensive than 8-hour extended-release tablets, which are much less expensive than 12-hour extended-release tablets.
Legal status
Internationally, methylphenidate is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
In the United States, methylphenidate is classified as a Schedule II controlled substance, the designation used for substances that have a recognized medical value but present a high potential for misuse.
In the United Kingdom, methylphenidate is a controlled 'Class B' substance. Possession without prescription carries a sentence up to 5 years or an unlimited fine, or both; supplying methylphenidate is 14 years or an unlimited fine, or both.
In Canada, methylphenidate is listed in Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and is illegal to possess without a prescription, with unlawful possession punishable by up to three years imprisonment, or (via summary conviction) by up to one year imprisonment and/or fines of up to two thousand dollars. Unlawful possession for the purpose of trafficking is punishable by up to ten years imprisonment, or (via summary conviction) by up to eighteen months imprisonment.
In New Zealand, methylphenidate is a 'class B2 controlled substance'. Unlawful possession is punishable by six-month prison sentence and distribution by a 14-year sentence.
In Australia, methylphenidate is a 'Schedule 8' controlled substance. Such drugs must be kept in a lockable safe until dispensed and possession without prescription is punishable by fines and imprisonment.
In Russia, methylphenidate is a List I controlled psychotropic substance without recognized medical value. The Constant Committee for Drug Control of the Russian Ministry of Health has put methylphenidate and its derivatives on the National List of Narcotics, Psychotropic Substances and Their Precursors and the Government banned methylphenidate for any use on 25 October 2014.
In Sweden, methylphenidate is a List II controlled substance with recognized medical value. Possession without a prescription is punishable by up to three years in prison.
In France, methylphenidate is covered by the "narcotics" schedule, prescription and distribution conditions are restricted with hospital-only prescription for the initial treatment and yearly consultations.
In India, methylphenidate is a schedule X drug and is controlled by the Drugs and Cosmetics Rule, 1945. It is dispensed only by physician's prescription. Legally, 2 grams of methylphenidate are classified as a small quantity, and 50 grams as a large or commercial quantity.
In Hong Kong, methylphenidate is controlled under the schedule 1 of the Dangerous Drugs Ordinance (Cap. 134).
Controversy
Methylphenidate has been the subject of controversy in relation to its use in the treatment of ADHD. The prescription of psychostimulant medication to children to reduce ADHD symptoms has been a major point of criticism. The contention that methylphenidate acts as a gateway drug has been discredited by multiple sources, according to which abuse is statistically very low and "stimulant therapy in childhood does not increase the risk for subsequent drug and alcohol abuse disorders later in life". A study found that ADHD medication was not associated with increased risk of cigarette use, and in fact stimulant treatments such as Ritalin seemed to lower this risk. People treated with stimulants such as methylphenidate during childhood were less likely to have substance use disorders in adulthood.
Among countries with the highest rates of use of methylphenidate medication is Iceland, where research shows that the drug was the most commonly used substance among people who inject drugs. The study involved 108 people who inject drugs and 88% of them had injected methylphenidate within the last 30 days and for 63% of them, methylphenidate was the most preferred substance.
Treatment of ADHD by way of methylphenidate has led to legal actions, including malpractice suits regarding informed consent, inadequate information on side effects, misdiagnosis, and coercive use of medications by school systems.
Research
Methylphenidate may have benefit as a treatment of apathy in patients with Alzheimer's disease. It may be useful in losing weight.
Methylphenidate may provide possible protection from methamphetamine-induced dopamine neuron damage and possible protection from Parkinson's disease.
Methylphenidate has been studied in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.
Replacement therapy
Methylphenidate has shown some benefits as a replacement therapy for individuals who are addicted to and dependent upon methamphetamine. Methylphenidate and amphetamine have been investigated as a chemical replacement for the treatment of cocaine addiction in the same way that methadone is used as a replacement drug for physical dependence upon heroin. Its effectiveness in treatment of cocaine or psychostimulant addiction, or psychological dependence has not been proven and further research is needed.
References
External links
2-Benzylpiperidines
Biology of bipolar disorder
Carboxylate esters
Euphoriants
Novartis brands
Methyl esters
Nootropics
Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors
Sigma agonists
Stimulants
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management
Vasoconstrictors
Ergogenic aids
World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadzia%20Dax
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Jadzia Dax
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Jadzia Dax , played by Terry Farrell, is a fictional character from the science-fiction television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
Jadzia Dax is a joined Trill. Though she appears to be a young woman, Jadzia lives in symbiosis with a long-lived creature, known as a symbiont, named Dax. The two share a single, conscious mind, and her personality is a blending of the characteristics of both the host and the symbiont. As such, Jadzia has access to all the skills and memories of the symbiont's seven previous hosts. Prior to the symbiotic joining, Jadzia earned academic degrees in exobiology, zoology, astrophysics, and exoarchaeology.
Jadzia Dax is the station's chief science officer, and is close friends with commander Benjamin Sisko and Bajoran first officer Kira Nerys. Later in the series, she becomes involved with the Klingon character Worf, and they marry during the sixth season of the show. In the sixth-season finale Jadzia dies but the Dax symbiote survives, and in the seventh-season premiere returns with a new host Ezri Dax.
Development
Make-up
When selecting the characters for Deep Space Nine, the production staff knew that they would have humans, Bajorans, and a changeling; for other characters, they wanted to pick "a species that had already been established" on TNG. They decided on a Trill, as seen in the form of Odan in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Host".
Although Michael Westmore's alterations to make the Odan headpiece more feminine was as good as all of his work, the writers simply did not like it. Apparently, after she had put on the Odan forehead appliance, Rick Berman looked at Terry Farrell and said to Westmore, "What did you do to her head, she used to be beautiful?" Instead of changing species, as they had already come to like the idea of an "old man", a person with centuries of experience to guide Sisko, Westmore suggested, "just give her spots like we gave Famke", who played a Kriosian in TNG: "The Perfect Mate". This make-up was used on all Trill afterwards, comprising lines of dark spots that run from the temples and down both sides of the head, neck, and body.
Characterization
When the show began, the writers had difficulty defining the character of Dax. Michael Piller explained, "Having a Trill seemed like a really, really good idea at the time, but it was the most difficult character for us to define. Jadzia Dax escaped us. At first we thought she was going to be ethereal, a Grace Kelly/Audrey Hepburn kind of goddess, and ultimately I think Ira Behr really figured it out, probably not until the second season, when he really made her a smart-talking, wise-cracking tough cookie." In 2014, Farrell admitted she found the character initially frustrating. "The writers didn't know what to do with the character they created", saying she was asked to portray the character as a cross between Grace Kelly and Yoda. She was also annoyed by a scene written where Dax gossiped about who was dating whom on the station, questioning "Why would a 350-year-old person care about who you're going out with?" Piller explained, "The more we've written her, the more we're finding that she is not what she appears to be. That underneath this placid exterior, there's all these various personalities that she's gone through that are in turmoil and there's a lot of inner conflict. You know all the voices we hear inside ourselves are all made up of different subpersonalities; well she's got them all screaming at her in a variety of different ways."
Ira Behr spoke further on the character, announcing that they had intentionally changed the character by Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. He said, "We changed Dax in year two. Originally, she was going to be the Spock character, the wise old owl, the wise old man. And then we realized that she could be the one who's ready to go out and kick anyone's butt, and go out and have an adventure and have fun, and be kind of witty and mercurial. And that turned out to be great. When we found that part of the character, we just ran with it."
Speaking in 2002, Terry Farrell said of playing Dax, "It was a character who had lived seven lifetimes, been a man and a woman. Before I walked in and actually met everybody, I felt a little bit intimidated about this, I thought 'Oh my God, I need to meet them so they're going to tell me what I need to know.' And when I actually got here and spoke to everyone, they kind of didn't really know. And I was 28, and they kind of wanted me to be wiser than my years, just have the physicality of a 28-year-old, but have a 350-year-old wise person inside me. They tried to find what they wanted in adjusting me here and there, and I think really what happened was surrender to that it was all new for this Dax, Jadzia Dax, this experience of the seven lifetimes, and Michael Piller made the decision that she was trying to come to terms with all of these entities, all of these memories that were inside of herself. And I think that helped me a lot as an actress to try to assimilate the job, period, and in a lot of ways, made me feel a little lost and uncomfortable as Terry, which got played out as Jadzia, so it was okay that she slowly felt more comfortable, so did I, and by the time they decided to make me a little bit more roguish in the second or third season, I felt much more comfortable about the dialogue and the other actors, and my lack of stage experience. And when I had to start doing action sequences, and work with Michael Dorn, I felt a lot more comfortable. I had my own voice."
When asked how she would like Jadzia Dax to be remembered, Terry Farrell said, "wisely mischievous."
Rejected ideas
Following the confirmation of Farrell's departure and plans to kill the character off, Michael Piller wanted to add a few lines to Star Trek: Insurrection (which was still in development) acknowledging Jadzia's death and the impact it had on Worf. Rick Berman eventually overruled this, arguing that this would confuse film audience members who did not follow the show regularly.
Early in the run of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Michael McGreevey pitched a story to the writers that featured Jadzia and Bashir falling in love. McGreevey commented, "It was a love story, a simple concept. I don't know why they didn't want to do it. The symbiont inside Dax becomes ill, making her ill, and Dr. Bashir must separate them in order to treat the symbiont. We would come to see the personality of Jadzia, which of course is different from Dax. Bashir falls in love with her, and she feels for him, too, but the most important thing in life is to be joined with the symbiont. Bashir realizes that the only way to save the symbiont is to put it back into Jadzia, and thereby lose the girl he loves".
Joined nature
Jadzia Dax is a joined Trill. "Jadzia" is the name of the young Trill woman, while "Dax" refers to a slug-like symbiont that resides in her abdomen; Jadzia's actual family name was never revealed on the show. In the novels, her original name is said to be Jadzia Idaris. While Jadzia is 28 years old at the beginning of the series, the creature Dax is roughly 300 years old, having previously been hosted by seven other Trills. As a result, Dax may be considered the oldest crewmate on Deep Space Nine.
Prior to Jadzia, the Dax symbiont had been hosted by Lela, Tobin, Emony, Audrid, Torias, Joran, and Curzon.
The burden of seven lifetimes' worth of memories is not always a positive one; several episodes of Deep Space Nine focus on Dax's struggle with her dual nature:
In the first-season episode "Dax", the previous host Curzon Dax is accused of murder. This leads to an extradition hearing to determine whether Jadzia can be held responsible for crimes committed during another lifetime. While the moral question remains unanswered, the legal issue is resolved when evidence arises of Curzon's innocence.
In the second-season episode "Invasive Procedures", an unjoined Trill named Verad attempts to steal the Dax symbiont. Verad is upset that his application for a joining has been rejected by the Trill Symbiosis Commission, and he plans to steal the Dax symbiont and escape into the Gamma quadrant. He manages to remove the Dax symbiont from Jadzia and partially join with it before his escape is thwarted.
Later that season, Dax mentors a Trill initiate in the episode "Playing God". Dax is responsible for training the young Trill, and for evaluating his suitability for joining. During the episode, Jadzia and Sisko discuss her own training under Curzon Dax, as well as the role that joining plays in Trill society.
In the third-season episode "Equilibrium", Dax begins to experience unsettling mental problems. She travels back to Trill to discover the source of the problems. On her homeworld, she visits the "Caves of Mak'ala", a place on Trill where unjoined symbionts swim in pools carefully and lovingly tended by Trill Guardians. Eventually, she learns that Dax had previously been joined with an unsuitable host known as Joran, and that her memories of this trauma had been suppressed. Her mental problems subside after the other Trill help her to regain these memories.
Later that season in the episode "Facets", Jadzia encounters each of Dax's previous hosts in the Trill "rite of closure", including the insane Joran. This episode reveals much of the backstory for the Dax character, and explores the relationship between Jadzia Dax, Curzon Dax, and Benjamin Sisko.
In the fourth-season episode "Rejoined", Jadzia Dax encounters Lenara Kahn, the current host of the symbiont Kahn, who had been previously joined to Nilani Kahn, the wife of Torias Dax. Because Torias died suddenly, Dax's relationship with Kahn through its previous host was never resolved, and the two current hosts struggle in the episode with their feelings towards one another. This is complicated by a taboo in Trill culture against romantic relationships with partners of previous hosts.
Portrayal
At the beginning of the series, Jadzia has just recently been joined with the symbiont Dax after the natural death of the previous host, Curzon Dax. Curzon had been a friend and mentor to station Commander Benjamin Sisko, and as Jadzia Dax, they continue this friendship despite the change in circumstances. Throughout the series, Sisko refers to Jadzia Dax by the affectionate nickname "Old Man". She begins the series at the rank of lieutenant; at the start of the fourth season, she becomes a lieutenant commander and remains one until her death in the sixth-season finale.
During the early seasons, Jadzia Dax is pursued romantically by Dr. Julian Bashir. Dax consistently but politely rebuffs him, though she later admits that she somewhat enjoyed the attention (cf. "Starship Down"). After Jadzia's death, Dax's new host Ezri begins dating Bashir.
During the first season of the show, Jadzia Dax is often portrayed as somewhat reserved and aloof. In the early second-season episode "The Siege", she is ill-at-ease in the spider-filled caverns of a Bajoran moon, and is later disoriented by Kira's reckless piloting of a Bajoran starfighter. The writers' portrayal of the character begins to change in the second season, as they emphasize Jadzia Dax's gusto for life and extensive knowledge of other cultures:
The second-season episode "Rules of Acquisition" begins with a scene in which Jadzia Dax plays tongo with a group of Ferengi. She seems surprisingly at home in this setting, calmly ignoring their sexist overtures and showing considerable skill at the game. Later in the episode, she remarks that the Ferengi are among the most interesting races she has encountered.
Later that season, Jadzia Dax joins a group of Klingons in a revenge quest ("Blood Oath"). In this episode, the Curzon Dax is revealed to have been a Federation diplomat to the Klingon Empire, and swore a blood oath against "the Albino" with the Klingons Kang, Koloth, and Kor. Jadzia takes up the blood oath, and against Sisko's wishes, she travels to the Albino's planet and participates in the revenge killing of the Albino and his minions.
Jadzia Dax's connection to the Klingon culture became increasingly important as the series progressed, especially after the fourth-season arrival of Worf. In the episode "The Sword of Kahless", Dax joins Worf and Kor in the search for the titular Klingon artifact. In "Sons of Mogh", she becomes aware of and subsequently warns Captain Sisko of Worf's attempt to kill his brother Kurn, and in "Soldiers of the Empire", Worf and she go on a tense mission aboard a Klingon ship. Jadzia Dax eventually married Worf and joined him as a member of the Klingon House of Martok.
Sexuality
Writers on Deep Space Nine had previously hinted at a potential same-sex relationship in the first-season episode "Dax", when Jadzia Dax says goodbye to Enina Tandro, a former lover of Dax's previous male host, Curzon. The first take of the scene resulted in a situation in which whether Dax and Enina were about to kiss was unclear. It was decided at the time to be inappropriate, although the writers had hoped that a time would come when the viewers would accept such a relationship. This theme was eventually realized in "Rejoined".
The episode "Rejoined", in which Jadzia is reunited with the wife of a former host of the Dax symbionts, features one of the first televised kisses between two female characters. Terry Farrell was happy with the story line, saying that it made sense for Dax to have this issue because the symbiont had been in both male and female hosts, adding, "Gender wasn't the issue. For the worm/symbiont, it was a matter of the being it was embodied in." She was pleased to be able to "stand up" for the LGBT community.
In August 2019, Terry Farrell said that she regarded Jadzia as pansexual.
Romantic interests
Jadzia Dax was initially pursued by Dr. Julian Bashir aboard the station. The Ferengi bar owner, Quark, also has a special affection for the Trill scientist, even after the Dax symbiont was transferred to Ezri. However, her most notable and serious suitors include:
Deral, played by Brett Cullen, a resident of the planet Meridian ("Meridian")
Dr. Lenara Kahn, played by Susanna Thompson, a Trill theoretical quantum physicist and the current host of the symbiont Kahn, who was previously joined to Nilani, the widow of Torias Dax ("Rejoined").
Lt. Commander Worf, a Klingon: Dax and Worf connected over their mutual love of Klingon traditions, including Klingon opera and martial arts. Their intimate relationship began in "Looking for par'Mach in All the Wrong Places", and in "You Are Cordially Invited..." , they were married and Jadzia Dax formally joined the House of Martok. Their attempts at parenthood (despite the difficulties faced by biological incompatibilities between Klingons and Trills) were cut short when Jadzia Dax was murdered.
Captain Boday, an unseen former lover of Jadzia's, is occasionally referenced. Boday is a Gallamite, and like all Gallamites, has a transparent skull. Worf becomes angry with Jadzia when he learns she had lunch with Boday.
Relationship with Worf
In the fourth season, Michael Dorn joined the cast of Deep Space Nine as the Klingon character Worf. Perhaps because of her past interactions with Klingons, Dax is fairly flirtatious with Worf. He appears at first to be oblivious to this attention, and in the fifth-season episode "Looking for par'Mach in All the Wrong Places", he becomes enamored with a female Klingon named Grilka. This is resolved by the end of the episode, with Quark ironically winning the heart of Grilka, and Worf becoming romantically involved with Dax.
In the beginning, their relationship is very sexual, with the strong implication that their encounters are somewhat rough (the above episode ends with Worf and Dax visiting the infirmary with various bruises and other injuries). In the season-five finale "Call to Arms", the station is overrun by Dominion forces, and Dax and Worf are assigned to different starships for the Dominion War. Near the end of the episode, they agree to get married after the war is over. Worf and Dax's marriage is the centerpiece of season-six episode "You Are Cordially Invited...". During the episode, Dax must obtain permission from the lady Sirella to join the House of Martok. At first, Dax is loath to pay Sirella the required respect, and the lady is unwilling to accede to Dax's request. The situation is resolved by the conclusion, with Sirella admitting during the ceremony that nothing can stand between "the beating of two Klingon hearts".
Death
Jadzia is murdered in "Tears of the Prophets", the finale of the sixth season. Worf and she had decided to attempt to conceive, despite the doubts of Dr. Bashir that such a pregnancy was possible. After Major Kira tells Jadzia she has been praying for a conception, Jadzia receives encouraging test results from Julian, saying that the enzyme modification would allow her to become pregnant with Worf’s child. While the federation leads an attack on Cardassia with the Defiant, Jadzia remains on the station for some unclear reason. As the attack proceeds, the Cardassian Dukat takes advantage of the moment to plant the Pan-wraith in the Orbs, the orb-like Bajoran artifacts known as the "Tears of the Prophets", thereby destroying them. It just so happens that Jadzia goes to the station's temple to thank the Prophets for the good news of the potential pregnancy. The Cardassian arrives, possessed by the Pah-wraith just when Jadzia is there and unleashes his power onto her. Jadzia has no chance to resist and is mortally wounded. Jadzia dies shortly after in the infirmary. Sisko, devastated by her death along with the severed link to the prophets, leaves the station in despair and in search of answers.
Though the host Jadzia is dead, the symbiont Dax survives and is removed and sent to Trill to be implanted into a new host. During the journey, Dax is quickly implanted into a Trill named Ezri Tigan. The resulting joined Trill, Ezri Dax, becomes a main character during the seventh and last season of the series.
Reception
In 2016, Screen Rant rated Jadzia Dax as the 19th-best character in Star Trek overall. In 2018, TheWrap placed Jadzia Dax as 26th of 39 in a ranking of main cast characters of the Star Trek franchise prior to Star Trek: Discovery.
In 2017, CBR ranked Jadzia Dax the 13th-fiercest female character of the Star Trek universe.
In 2018, CBR ranked Jadzia the 18th-best Starfleet character of Star Trek.
In 2019, Jadzia was ranked the 12th-sexiest Star Trek character by Syfy.
References
Further reading
Stengel, Wendy A F G. "Intimacy & Sex on Deep Space Nine." Some Fantastic, Issue 6 (Fall 2005).
Geraghty, Lincoln. "Homosocial Desire on the final frontier: kinship, the American romance, and Deep Space Nine's 'erotic triangles'." Journal of Popular Culture. 36:3 Winter:2003 pp. 441–465.
Ferguson, Kathy. "This Species Which Is Not One: Identity Practices in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine," Strategies'' 15.2 (Fall, 2002): 181–195.
External links
Jadzia Dax at StarTrek.com
Lenara Kahn and Jadzia Dax kiss from 'Rejoined'
Star Trek alien characters
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters
Fictional gamblers
Fictional lieutenant commanders
Fictional lieutenants
Fictional female musicians
Fictional female scientists
Fictional women soldiers and warriors
Starfleet captains
Starfleet officers
Starfleet lieutenant commanders
Starfleet lieutenants
Television characters introduced in 1993
Merged fictional characters
Fictional pansexuals
LGBT Star Trek characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aylesbury
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Aylesbury
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Aylesbury ( ) is the county town of Buckinghamshire, South East England. It is home to the Roald Dahl Children's Gallery and the Waterside Theatre. The town is recognised as the spiritual cradle of the Paralympic Games. It is in central Buckinghamshire, midway between High Wycombe and Milton Keynes.
Aylesbury was awarded Garden Town status in 2017. The housing target for the town is set to grow with 16,000 homes set to be built by 2033.
History
The town name is of Old English origin. Its first recorded name Æglesburgh is thought to mean "Fort of Ægel", though who Ægel was is not recorded. It is also possible that Ægeles-burh, the settlement's Saxon name, means "church-burgh", from the Welsh word eglwys meaning "a church" (<Latin ecclesia).
Excavations in the town centre in 1985 found an Iron Age hill fort dating from the early 4th century BC. Aylesbury was one of the strongholds of the ancient Britons, from whom it was taken in the year 571 by Cutwulph, brother of Ceawlin, King of the West Saxons; and had a fortress or castle "of some importance, from which circumstance probably it derives its Saxon appellation".
Aylesbury was a major market town in Anglo-Saxon times, the burial place of Saint Osgyth, whose shrine attracted pilgrims. The Early English parish church of St. Mary (which has many later additions) has a crypt beneath. Once thought to be Anglo-Saxon, it is now recognised as being of the same period as the medieval chapel above. At the Norman conquest, the king took the manor of Aylesbury for himself, and it is listed as a royal manor in the Domesday Book, 1086. Some lands here were granted by William the Conqueror to citizens upon the tenure that the owners should provide straw for the monarch's bed, sweet herbs for his chamber and two green geese and three eels for his table, whenever he should visit Aylesbury.
In 1450, a religious institution called the Guild of St Mary was founded in Aylesbury by John Kemp, Archbishop of York. Known popularly as the Guild of Our Lady it became a meeting place for local dignitaries and a hotbed of political intrigue. The guild was influential in the final outcome of the Wars of the Roses. Its premises at the Chantry in Church Street, Aylesbury, are still there, though today the site is used mainly for retail.
Aylesbury was declared the new county town of Buckinghamshire in 1529 by King Henry VIII: Aylesbury Manor was among the many properties belonging to Thomas Boleyn, the father of Anne Boleyn, and it is rumoured that the change was made by the King to curry favour with the family. The plague decimated the population in 1603/4.
The town played a large part in the English Civil War when it became a stronghold for the Parliamentarian forces, like many market towns a nursing-ground of Puritan sentiment and in 1642 the Battle of Aylesbury was fought and won by the Parliamentarians. Its proximity to Great Hampden, home of John Hampden has made of Hampden a local hero: his silhouette is on the emblem used by Aylesbury Vale District Council and his statue stands prominently in the town centre. Aylesbury-born composer, Rutland Boughton (1878–1960), possibly inspired by the statue of John Hampden, created a symphony based on Oliver Cromwell.
On 18 March 1664, Robert Bruce, 2nd Earl of Elgin in the Peerage of Scotland was created 1st Earl of Ailesbury.
The grade II* listed Jacobean mansion of Hartwell adjoining the southwest of the town was the residence of Louis XVIII during his exile (1810–1814). Bourbon Street in Aylesbury is named after the king. Louis's wife, Marie Josephine of Savoy died at Hartwell in 1810 and is the only French queen to have died on English soil. After her death, her body was carried first to Westminster Abbey, and one year later to Sardinia, where the Savoy King of Sardinia had withdrawn during Napoleonic occupation of Turin and Piedmont; she is buried in the Cathedral of Cagliari.
Aylebury's heraldic crest displays the Aylesbury duck, which has been bred here since the birth of the Industrial Revolution, although only one breeder of true Aylesbury ducks, Richard Waller, remains today.
The town also received international publicity in 1963 when the culprits responsible for the Great Train Robbery (1963) were tried at Aylesbury Rural District Council Offices in Walton Street and sentenced at Aylesbury Crown Court. The robbery took place at Bridego Bridge, a railway bridge at Ledburn, about six miles (10 km) from the town.
A notable institution is Aylesbury Grammar School which was founded in 1598. The original building is now part of the County Museum buildings in Church Street and has grade II* architecture; other grammar schools now include Sir Henry Floyd Grammar School and Aylesbury High School. Other notable buildings are the King's Head Inn, (which, with the Fleece Inn at Bretforton, is one of the few public houses in the country owned by the National Trust and still run as a public house) and the Queens Park Centre.
James Henry Govier, the British painter and etcher, lived at Aylesbury and produced a number of works relating to the town including the church, canal, Walton, Aylesbury Gaol, the King's Head Inn and views of the town during the 1940s and 1950s, examples of which can be seen in the Buckinghamshire County Museum in Aylesbury.
Demography
The town's population has grown from 28,000 in the 1960s to almost 72,000 in 2011 due in the main to new housing developments, including many London overspill housing estates, built to ease pressure on the capital. Indeed, Aylesbury, to a greater extent than many English market towns, saw substantial areas of its own heart demolished in the 1950s/1960s as 16th–18th century houses (many in good repair) were demolished to make way for new, particularly retail, development.
Aylesbury's population in the ten-year period since 2001 has grown by two thousand primarily related to the development of new housing estates which will eventually cater for eight thousand people on the north side, between the A41 (Akeman Street) and the A413 and the expansion of Fairford Leys estate.
According to the 2011 Census, the religious groupings in Aylesbury were: Christianity (55.7%), no religion (26.9%), Islam (8.3%), Hinduism (1.4%), other (0.4%). 6.7% of respondents did not state their religion.
Geography
Neighbourhoods
Housing estates in or neighbourhoods of the modern Aylesbury include:
Bedgrove
Berryfields
Broughton
Buckingham Park
Coppice
Crown Leys
Elm Farm
Elmhurst
Fairford Leys
Haydon Hill
Hawkslade Farm
Kingsbrook
Mandeville Estate
Mandeville Park
Meadowcroft
Prebendal Farm
Quarrendon
Queens Park
Shakespeare Estate
Southcourt
Stoke Farm
Stoke Grange
Walton Court
Watermead
The Willows
Farms and hamlets
Aylesbury has also been extended to completely surround the hamlets and former farms at:
Bedgrove
California
Fairford Leys
New Zealand
Prebendal Farm
Quarrendon
Turnfurlong
Walton
Future developments
Distinct whole areas that have a notably high property price in the town are Bedgrove, the conservation area around St. Mary's Church and Queens Park, particularly facing onto the canal. Anticipated developments are expected to raise the urban population of Aylesbury from its current approximation of 75,000 to over 100,000 between 2018 and 2023. London is centred southeast, over the Chilterns.
Elevations, soil and geology
Aylesbury is immediately southeast of the upper River Thame that flows past Thame to Dorchester on Thames and is partly sited on the two northernmost outcrops of Portland (lime)stone in England bisected by a small stream, Bear Brook which gives a relatively prominent position in relation to the terrain of all near, lower, fields and suburbs, which have largely slowly permeable Oxford Clay and Kimmeridge Clay soils. Elevations range from 72.5m above mean sea level to 95m AOD in contiguous parts of the town, however nearest villages range from 85m-90m to the north or from 85m to 115m on a narrow ridge to the southwest at Stone and towards the Chilterns to the southeast (Weston Turville, Stoke Mandeville and North Lee).
The town centre's higher terrain is accurately described by Samuel Lewis in 1848 as a "gentle eminence".
The county's oldest rocks of Jurassic age cover the whole of the northern half of Buckinghamshire, succeeded continuously by younger rocks to the south of the Chilterns.
Culture and community
The town centre is home to many pubs and bars. The Queens Park Centre, which is the UK's largest independent arts centre is also based in the town centre.
The local newspaper is the Bucks Herald, which started publishing in January 1832. The local radio station is Mix 96, which first broadcast in April 1994.
One of the more prominent buildings in Aylesbury is the "Blue Leanie" office block, home to Lloyds Bank. When first built it was thought to be a potential hazard to passing motorists, due to the sun reflecting off its large mirrored surface. As a result, a line of mature trees was planted alongside the main road to prevent dazzling.
Aylesbury Waterside Theatre, a new £42 million theatre, with 1,200-seat auditorium, opened in October 2010. In addition to this, the surrounding area is being redeveloped as part of the £100 million Waterside project. When this is completed, originally planned for June 2010, there will be of new retail floor space and 1,100 new jobs created, although when this will be completed now is unclear. A Waitrose supermarket opened opposite the theatre in August 2013, along with a Travelodge Hotel. Branches of Wagamama and Nando's restaurants opened on 'The Exchange' in February 2014, next to the Odeon cinema on Exchange Street. A branch of Zizzi was expected to open in early 2015, as part of a council plan to revitalise the 'Waterside' area. The Zizzi opening turned out to be a rumour and in fact a Gourmet Burger Kitchen (GBK) opened instead. This branch of GBK has since closed.
The Bourg Walk Bridge (also called the Southcourt Bridge or the Roberts Bridge after a local councillor) opened in March 2009 connecting Southcourt to Aylesbury town centre. The focus of the footbridge is a central concrete pillar with four suspension cables supporting the structure. This bridge forms a central part of the Aylesbury Hub project. Bourg Walk was nominated and won the Engineering Excellence Award 2009 awarded by the Institution of Civil Engineers – South East England branch .
Administration
Aylesbury Town Council is the parish council for the town. As at May 2021 it comprises 25 councillors, 20 of whom are Liberal Democrats and 5 Conservative. The council represents only the constituents of Aylesbury town itself. Surrounding villages and some recent developments on the outskirts of Aylesbury like Fairford Leys & Watermead have their own parish council. In 2010 the district council decided that the new developments of Berryfields and Weedon Hill, both to the north of Aylesbury, should also join to form a new parish as of May 2011.
The Town Council also elects the Town Mayor from the serving Town Councillors every year. The process culminates in a formal "Mayor Making" ceremony where the new Mayor takes over from the preceding Mayor. The role of mayor is mainly a ceremonial role representing the town at various events and acting as an ambassador for the town.
Buckinghamshire Council is the Unitary authority incorporating and administered from Aylesbury.
Since April 2020, when Aylesbury Vale District Council was abolished, it has been responsible for almost all statutory local government functions across the county.
Education
Aylesbury is home to one college of general further education (Aylesbury College on Oxford Road), three grammar schools, two community upper schools, an academy, a university technical college and a host of primary schools.
The secondary schools are:
Aylesbury Grammar School (boys only)
Aylesbury High School (girls only)
The Aylesbury Vale Academy
Buckinghamshire University Technical College
The Grange School
Sir Henry Floyd Grammar School
Mandeville School
There are also the following special schools:
The PACE Centre
Pebble Brook School
Stocklake Park Community School, formerly Park School
The Aylesbury Vale Secondary Support Centre is a Pupil referral unit (PRU), which caters for permanently excluded pupils.
Aylesbury Music Centre is a large educational establishment, which has its own premises adjoining Aylesbury High School and rivals the Royal College of Music, having produced members of national orchestras.
Health
Stoke Mandeville Hospital is a large National Health Service hospital to the south of the town centre. Its National Spinal Injuries Centre is one of the largest specialist spinal units in the world, and the pioneering rehabilitation work carried out there by Sir Ludwig Guttmann led to the development of the Paralympic Games. Stoke Mandeville Stadium was developed alongside the hospital and is the National Centre for Disability Sport in the United Kingdom.
Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital is a private hospital specialising in spinal cord injury.
Aylesbury has for mental health therapy and treatments the Tindal Centre on Bierton Road. The Tindal Centre closed in early 2014 and Mental Health therapy and treatments along with Adult and Older Adult Mental Health Team's moved across the road to the new purpose built hospital the Whiteleaf Centre. The former site of Tindal Centre has been transformed into a new housing development Bierton Place which has maintained the architecture of the original building and enhanced its beauty
Trade and industry
Traditionally the town was a commercial centre with a market dating back to the Saxon period. This is because it was established on the main Akeman Street which became an established trade route linking London to the southwest. In 1180 a gaol was established in the town .
15th century
By 1477 flour was being ground in the town for surrounding parishes. By the modern period this had grown into a huge established industry: the last mill in Aylesbury was closed in the 1990s (Hills & Partridge on the canal behind Tesco). By 1560 the manufacture of needles had become a large industry in Long Crendon a village close by which was an important production centre.
17th century – lace making
In 1672 poor children in Buckinghamshire were taught to make lace as a way to make a living. Bucks lace as it became known quickly became very sought after and production boomed as the lace was mainly made by poor women and children. The lace-making industry had died out by Victorian times, however, as new machine-made lace became cheaper.
In 1764 Euclid Neale opened his clockmaking workshop in Aylesbury. In the 18th century, he was one of the best clock makers in the country.
19th century – canals
In 1814, the Aylesbury arm of the Grand Union Canal from Marsworth was opened bringing major industry to the town for the first time. At the same time the Wendover arm was built leading to nearby Wendover.
20th century – motor manufacture
From 1919 until 1925 the Cubit Engineering Works on Bicester Road was a volume manufacturer of motor vehicles. Approximately 3,000 cars were built, but a somewhat slow and heavy design could not survive the onslaught from cheap American competition. Their robust design and high ground clearance made them popular in less developed parts of the British Empire which lacked paved roads like Australia and South Africa. The works have been demolished for a domestic housing development. The marque is commemorated by Cubitt Street (and Edge Street) which traverses the old works.
By the late 20th century, the printers and bookbinders, Hazell, Watson and Viney and the Nestlé dairy were the two main employers in the town, employing more than half the total population. These factories have long since been demolished and replaced by a Tesco supermarket which opened in 1994, and a housing development, respectively.
21st century
Today, the town is still a major commercial centre and the market still meets on the cobbles of the old Market Square four days a week. Nestle and Hazell, Watson and Viney and US automotive parts producer TRW have gone – the last left the town in 2006. However three major industrial and commercial centres make sure the town has one of the lowest unemployment rates in the country.
A £150 million Arla Foods 'megadairy' opened just off the A41 in nearby Aston Clinton in November 2013, roughly from the town centre and is a major employer in the area. Traffic improvement measures were paid for by Arla in order to reduce the impact of congestion and pollution.
Sport and leisure
Aylesbury has two local semi-professional football teams, Aylesbury Vale Dynamos F.C. which plays at Haywood Way and Aylesbury United F.C. which currently shares a ground with Chesham United. There is a strong cricket club in the town, that was formed in 1837 with success in the 1950s and 1980s and is again emerging as one of the strong clubs in mid- to north Buckinghamshire. Since 2013, Aylesbury has been host to a free 5 km run called the Aylesbury Parkrun.
Aylesbury is represented in Rugby Union by Aylesbury Rugby Football Club, situated at Ostler's Field in the nearby village of Weston Turville; 'The Ducks' play in the 7th tier of English Rugby.
Aylesbury’s recent sporting success comes in Gymnastics with the Aylesbury Gymnastics Academy, training out of the lynx gym centre, producing two Olympians and both coming away with bronze medals in the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games for Great Britain.
Transport
Rail
The town is served by Aylesbury railway station and Aylesbury Vale Parkway railway station; the latter is terminus of passenger services of the London to Aylesbury Line from London Marylebone. Stoke Mandeville also lies in the town's urban area.
Railways came to Aylesbury early, in 1839 when the Aylesbury Railway opened from Cheddington on Robert Stephenson's London and Birmingham Railway. The Wycombe Railway (later Great Western Railway) arrived via Princes Risborough on 1 October 1863, and on 23 September 1868 the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway (later Metropolitan Railway) was opened from to almost connect a loop with the Wycombe Railway. The Metropolitan Railway (MetR) from Baker Street arrived via Amersham in 1892. The Great Central Railway (GCR) connected from Nottingham Victoria to London Marylebone via the MetR in 1899. Between 1899 and 1953, Aylesbury had railway links to four London termini: Marylebone, Baker Street, Paddington and Euston. The Aylesbury Railway closed in 1953, the MetR, which later became the Metropolitan line of the London Underground withdrew north of Aylesbury in 1936 and withdrew from the town in 1961. The GCR was dismantled north of Aylesbury in 1966. As a result, there were no regular passenger services north of Aylesbury until the opening of Aylesbury Vale Parkway railway station in December 2008. Now only the GCR south of Aylesbury Vale Parkway to Marylebone is used for regular London services.
A rail scheme to extend passenger services northwestwards to a new station, Aylesbury Vale Parkway, was completed in December 2008. This is sited on the formerly goods-only line towards Quainton at the point where the line crosses the A41 near Berryfields Farm on the north-west outskirts of the town, some north of the main Aylesbury station. This area is to be known as Berryfields, a major development area and will include park and ride facilities for Aylesbury.
A further expansion of rail services to a new Winslow railway station, , Bedford and Oxford via the Claydon LNE Junction (see East West Rail) is due to be opened by 2030.}
Until then connections are available to Oxford and Birmingham by changing at Princes Risborough.
Roads
Aylesbury is served by the A41 from London to Birkenhead, which becomes the M40 however at Bicester west (by north) of Aylesbury. The A413 and A418 roads also run through the town. The M40 motorway at junction 9 is away and the M25 motorway is just over 's drive.
Buses
Aylesbury is served by Aylesbury bus station. In 2006, work commenced on the public transport hub, a scheme comprising a one-way loop of bus lanes around the town's inner ring road, which includes improvements to the connectivity between bus and rail services. The first two phases of this scheme were completed in 2007, providing new bus lanes on Exchange Street, New Street, Friarage Road and White Hill, and also opened up High Street to buses. The final two phases, including the Bourg Walk Bridge and Station Boulevard were officially opened in April 2009.
Aylesbury is well connected to local destinations by bus services. Run by Arriva Shires & Essex, these services run every 20–30 minutes to Milton Keynes (150), Oxford (280), High Wycombe (300), Thame (110/280), Tring (500), Hemel Hempstead (500) and Watford (500). Hourly services also run to Luton (61) and Leighton Buzzard (150/164). Arriva also runs services to RAF Halton via Weston Turville and Wendover (50); Chesham via Wendover, Great Missenden and Amersham (55); Steeple Claydon via Waddesdon and Quainton (with some services to Twyford and Marsh Gibbon) (16); Thame via Cuddington, Long Crendon and Worminghall (110); Buckingham and Maids Moreton via Whitchurch, North Marston, Winslow and Padbury (60).
Aylesbury is served by Buckinghamshire's first 'Rainbow Routes' network of bus services. The colour-coded routes were set up by Buckinghamshire County Council, and bus operators:
Orange Route 3 – Star Travel, every 20 minutes to Elmhurst, Haydon Hill and Quarrendon (Monday-Saturday);
Green Route 4 – Redline Buses, every 20 minutes to the Coppice, Elmhurst, Berryfields and Aylesbury Vale Parkway railway station (Monday-Saturday);
Water Rider 6 – Redline Buses, every 15 minutes to Elmhurst and Watermead (Monday-Saturday);
Pink Route 8 – Arriva Shires & Essex, every 20 minutes to Broughton and Bedgrove (Monday-Saturday);
Red Route 9 – Arriva Shires & Essex, every 12 minutes to Stoke Mandeville Hospital, Hawkslade Farm, Walton Court and Southcourt (daily).
Also unofficially but on the Rainbow Routes website:
Route 2 – Redline Buses, every 30 minutes to Quarrendon and Meadowcroft (Monday-Saturday);
Route 5 – Star Travel, every 15 minutes to Quarrendon and Meadowcroft (daily).
Cycling demonstration town
In 2005, the town won £1million funding to be one of six Cycling Demonstration towns in England, which was match-funded by Buckinghamshire County Council. This allows Buckinghamshire County Council to promote the use of cycling amongst the general public, as well as provide facilities for cyclists, such as bike lockers, bike stands, and Tiger and Toucan road crossings.
Cycle Aylesbury, the team created to undertake the Cycling Demonstration town work, recently opened the first of their Gemstone Cycleways, which are a network of routes running from Aylesbury town centre to various locations around the town, including Stone, Bierton, Wendover and Watermead. A second brochure/magazine was published to accompany the routes, along with a redesigned website, CycleAylesbury.co.uk.
Notable people
Aylesbury is or has been home to a whole range of notable people. In the latter part of the 20th century, the main maternity unit in the district was located in Aylesbury at the Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital; hence a large number of people were born in Aylesbury who may not have had any other association with the town. For a full list see People from Aylesbury. In alphabetic order of surname those who live or have lived in Aylesbury include:
Barns Courtney, singer and songwriter was born in Aylesbury in 1990
Sir David Jason, Actor, Lives in a hamlet on the outskirts of Aylesbury.
Michael Apted, film director and producer was born in Aylesbury in 1941
Benjamin Bates, physician
Lynda Bellingham, actress and television presenter
Rutland Boughton, English composer was born in the town
Emmerson Boyce, footballer, born in Aylesbury
Ernest Bullock, organist and composer, died in Aylesbury
Brendan Cole, professional dancer
Mathilde Carré, French double agent, was once a detainee at Aylesbury Prison
Sir Alexander Croke, British judge and Colonial Administrator in Nova Scotia, born in Aylesbury 1758
Jennifer Gadirova Team GB gymnast who won Bronze at the Tokyo Olympics and twin sister of Jessica.],
Jessica Gadirova Team GB gymnast who won Bronze at the Tokyo Olympics.
Liam Gillick artist, born in Aylesbury, 1964
Martin Grech, singer-songwriter
Ludwig Guttmann, founder of the Stoke Mandeville Games, later to become the Paralympic Games, lived and died in the town
John Hampden, politician and Parliamentarian during the English Civil War, lived in Hartwell House.
John Junkin, television performer and scriptwriter, died in Aylesbury
Andrea Leadsom, Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for South Northamptonshire; Minister of State for Energy at the Department of Energy and Climate Change; candidate for the leadership of the Conservative Party in 2016
Samantha Lewthwaite, terrorist, grew up in Aylesbury
John Otway, singer-songwriter
Nicholas Parsons, TV presenter and actor (1923-2020) lived in Aylesbury and died at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in the town.
Charles William Pearson, missionary
Matt Phillips, footballer, born in Aylesbury
James Clark Ross, naval explorer, died in Aylesbury
Vernon Scannell, poet
William of Sherwood, logician and teacher
Mike Smith, musician, of the Dave Clark Five lived in Aylesbury
Pete Trewavas, musician, member of Marillion
Mark Webber, former Formula 1 driver who raced for Red Bull Racing, Jaguar Racing and Williams F1, with nine career wins. Born in Queanbeyan, Australia; resides in Aston Clinton (among other places)
Ellen White, England women's national football team, former Chelsea Ladies, Arsenal Ladies, Notts County Ladies, Birmingham City, and current Manchester City football player was born and brought up in Aylesbury
John Wilkes, radical MP for Aylesbury 1757 & 1761, lived at Prebendal House in the town
The Anchoress grew up in Aylesbury from the age of four.
Popular culture
A live music nightclub in Aylesbury was prominent in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s and renamed the Friars' Club in 1969. The venue hosted many of the top artists of the time, including Jimi Hendrix, the Rolling Stones, Cream, Otis Redding, the Clash, Hawkwind, Queen, Genesis, U2, David Bowie, Talking Heads, Marillion & the Ramones. Friars' Club celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2009 by holding three special concerts that reflected the various phases of the club's musical history. The first concert in June featured the Edgar Broughton Band, the Groundhogs and the Pretty Things.
The rock band Marillion have a close association with Aylesbury. They originally formed there, with the band's first single, 1982's "Market Square Heroes", taking its title inspiration from Aylesbury's Market Square. The band continue to be based in the area, with their Racket Records studio still close to Aylesbury, and in 2007 the band performed together with their original lead singer, Fish, for the first time in 19 years at Aylesbury.
Aylesbury Methodist Church holds an annual organ recital, which attracts prominent national organists. The Roald Dahl Children's Gallery in Church Street, Aylesbury, is a children's museum in honour of novelist Roald Dahl that opened on 23 November 1996. Aylesbury hosts the Roald Dahl Festival, a procession of giant puppets based on his characters, on 2 July.
Comedian and actor Ronnie Barker (1929–2005) began his acting career in the town in the late 1940s and in September 2010, almost five years after his death, a bronze statue of him was unveiled by actor David Jason and Barker's one time co-star Ronnie Corbett (the other half of the Two Ronnies) on a new public place in Exchange Street.
Shown in productions
Scenes from the film A Clockwork Orange were filmed in Friars Square in Aylesbury but did not make it to the final cut. This is the 'Librarian Scene' where outtakes from the shoot and rehearsal can be seen in Alison Castle's The Stanley Kubrick Archives published by Taschen. The opening scene, in which the droogs beat up an elderly Irishman, is mistakenly cited as being filmed in the underpass linking Friars Square Shopping Centre with the railway station. However, Christiane Kubrick's book Stanley Kubrick – A Life in Pictures states that the underpass in the film has a different shape to the one in Aylesbury and these sequences were actually filmed in Wandsworth.
The County Court building and Aylesbury Market Square regularly feature in the BBC Television series Judge John Deed.
Twin town
Aylesbury is twinned with the French town of Bourg-en-Bresse, which is in the east of the country, from Paris.
Places of interest with established encyclopaedia entries
Buckinghamshire County Museum
St. Mary the Virgin, Aylesbury
King's Head Inn
Roald Dahl Children's Gallery
Waterside Theatre, opened October 2010.
Closest cities, towns and villages
Gallery
See also
Architecture of Aylesbury
Aylesbury (UK Parliament constituency)
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Aylesbury Town Council
Aylesbury Vale District Council
Aylesbury.info Regional Website
County towns in England
Hill forts in Buckinghamshire
Local government in Buckinghamshire
Towns in Buckinghamshire
Market towns in Buckinghamshire
Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dax%20%28Star%20Trek%29
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Dax (Star Trek)
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Dax is a xenomorphic character in the fictional Star Trek universe. The Dax life form is a symbiont—one that lives inside & bonds to Trill humanoid hosts. The first appearance of a Trill was in the episode "The Host" from the fourth season of Star Trek: The Next Generation; in that early version, the personality of the being was entirely that of Odan, the symbiont within the host, whereas the personalities of the Trills in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine are a blending of the symbiont Dax and its sequential Trill hosts. Two of Dax's hosts, Jadzia Dax and Ezri Dax, appear as major characters in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Others are only seen in flashbacks and when taking over others' bodies in the DS9 season 3 episode "Facets". Dax's hosts also appear in spin-offs such as Star Trek: The Human Frontier and The Lives of Dax.
Throughout the franchise's timeline, Dax has been joined with four men and five women, living for more than three hundred years in total. Dax has been present for many important events in Star Trek history, such as the negotiation and signing of the Khitomer Accords (while joined with Curzon), the discovery of the Bajoran wormhole (while joined with Jadzia), and the end of the Dominion War (while joined with Ezri).
Official hosts
Lela Dax
Lela Dax is the first host of the Dax symbiont. Lela appears in the "Facets" Deep Space Nine episode where her consciousness takes over the body of Kira Nerys (Nana Visitor) at Jadzia's zhian'tara ceremony. She is the first Dax incarnation to which Jadzia speaks. Lela is shown as very sociable and easy-going. She comforts Jadzia and dispels her worries as Jadzia was anxious of what she might experience at the ceremony. When talking about herself, Lela says she was one of the first women to be elected to the Trill legislature. She says she took the habit of clasping her hands behind her back to curb excessive hand gesturing while speaking publicly. Jadzia finds she has inherited this behavior.
Tobin Dax
Tobin Dax is an engineer and mathematician in the Trill history and is the second host of the Dax symbiont. In the "Facets" episode, Tobin possesses Miles O'Brien (Colm Meaney). He is shown as extremely timid and shy in social situations. He is very nervous, biting O'Brien's fingernails and continuously making apologies for no real reason. Jadzia tells him she was able to recall his own proof of Fermat's Last Theorem and was fascinated by its original approach.
In the same episode, Curzon Dax tells Jadzia that at his own zhian'tara when his friends and family temporarily embodied past Dax hosts, he gleefully got Tobin's host roaring drunk.
In "The Siege" DS9 season 2 episode, Jadzia uses Tobin's knowledge of sub-impulse thrusters to repair one on an old Bajoran fighter. She describes Tobin as having "barely a sex life and no imagination, but he knew phase coil inverters like no one else".
In the non-canon short story "Dead Man's Hand" (written by Jeffrey Lang and collected into The Lives of Dax), Tobin Dax is involved in the creation of an early transporter and encountered the Vulcan scientist Skon (Spock's grandfather) during an altercation with enemy Romulans.
He is also featured in the novel Star Trek Enterprise : Rise of the Federation - A Choice of Futures as the leader of a team from the Cochrane Institute working on integrating multi-species technology in an emerging Federation.
Emony Dax
Emony Dax is the third host of the Dax symbiont. She is an Olympic gymnast. In the "Facets" episode, she inhabits the body of Leeta (Chase Masterson). Emony thanks Jadzia for finding such a splendid host for her as Leeta's body is well-trained and flexible, able to perform acrobatic tricks. She tells Jadzia that she was afraid her concentration and physical coordination would be impaired due to the join, but it turned out just the opposite.
In the "Trials and Tribble-ations" DS9 season 5 episode, Jadzia recalls that Emony traveled to Earth once to judge a gymnastics competition at the University of Mississippi where she met a young Leonard McCoy. She says Emony had a feeling that Leonard would become a doctor: "He had the hands of a surgeon". The story of their meeting appears in the non-canon short story "Old Souls" (written by Michael Jan Friedman and collected into The Lives of Dax).
Audrid Dax
Audrid Dax is the fourth host of the Dax symbiont. During her lifetime, she rises to become the head of the Trill Symbiosis Commission and gives birth to at least two children, Neema and Gran.
In the "Facets" episode, Audrid borrows the body of Quark (Armin Shimerman). Quark only agrees to the ceremony very reluctantly and Jadzia "forgets to mention" that Quark would be embodying one of Dax's female hosts. Being possessed by Audrid is doubly embarrassing for him as she mainly speaks on womanly subjects such as her feelings of love and motherhood. Audrid says that her election and the birth of her first child were the happiest days of her life.
In the non-canon short story "Sins of the Mother" (written by S.D. Perry and collected into The Lives of Dax), Audrid Dax is part of a joint Trill-Starfleet scientific task force led by Fleet Captain Christopher Pike which investigates a rogue comet which seems to contain Trill life signs. The comet proves to contain a member of an evil parasitic species instead (TNG: "Conspiracy") that seizes control of Audrid's husband, Jayvin Vod. To ensure that the parasite dies, Dax is forced to let her husband die as well which is the cause for her daughter Neema's estrangement from her. The two meet again later in the non-canon novel Unity when Dax is in Ezri and Neema's symbiont Cyl is joined with a Trill enforcement officer Taulin.
Torias Dax
Torias Dax is the first Dax host to join Starfleet, serving as a shuttle test pilot. He is piloting a new Starfleet shuttle when it suffers a catastrophic system failure and crashes, costing Torias his life. After Torias' death, official Trill records indicate that Dax is held in stasis for six months and is then transplanted into Curzon ("Equilibrium" DS9 episode); this is actually a cover-up by the Trill government since Dax's next host is Joran, a psychopath and a murderer.
In the "Facets" episode, Torias’ consciousness takes over the body of Julian Bashir (Alexander Siddig). Torias is depicted as brash, opinionated and a thrill-seeker, who liked to indulge in "the simple pleasures". He also had extensive experience in battle ("The Siege of AR-558").
Torias' widow, Nilani Kahn, later appears in the fourth-season episode "Rejoined" as the same symbiont in a new host: Lenara Kahn. With Dax in a new host too, the two maintain a strained working relationship since Trill societal rules prohibit the re-association of past hosts, the penalty being a permanent exile from the Trill home world. However, their relationship soon becomes romantic. Lenara chooses to call it off, for she is unwilling to accept the punishment.
In the non-canon short story "Infinity" (written by Susan Wright and collected into The Lives of Dax), the shuttle in which Torias Dax dies is testing a prototype version of the transwarp drive (as seen in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock) with the assistance of Lieutenant Saavik and under the command of Captain Styles (both appear in The Search for Spock).
Joran Dax
Joran Dax (born Joran Belar) is a noted musician on the Trill planet and is chosen to host the Dax symbiont after the untimely death of the previous host, Torias. However, at that time it's not known that Joran is a psychopath and a murderer.
Most information about Joran is given in the "Equilibrium" season 3 DS9 episode. There, Jadzia Dax plays a melody Joran has composed and then begins experiencing hidden memories of him as hallucinations and aggressive outbursts. In the visions, a strange music is heard from nowhere, Joran is shown as a serial killer, wearing a mask, eager to kill anyone who his twisted imagination portrays as inappropriate. The visions endanger Jadzia and the symbiont's life so she, Sisko and Bashir travel to the Trill homeworld for treatment. There, Sisko and Bashir find out who Joran was and that all the information on his joining was erased. Jadzia remembers Joran murdering the doctor who recommended to expel him from the symbiosis program. Considering this, Sisko and Bashir deduce that Joran's joining was considered a failure and covered up to hide the fact that an obviously "unsuitable" subject was nevertheless capable of joining (the official party line and the whole idea behind the Commission's existence was that only the few "best of the best" were capable). Jadzia's doctor denies all this and is going to let Jadzia die. Only when Sisko threatens to reveal the truth to the public does she confess. She reveals that in fact about half of the Trill population is capable of joining and the Commission hides this fact fearing that symbionts would be in danger: "It would mean chaos. There aren't nearly enough symbionts for that many hosts. The potential danger to the symbionts would be enormous—they would become commodities to be purchased... prizes to be fought over." She then unseals Dax's memories of Joran to save Jadzia's life.
In the "Field of Fire" season 7 episode, Ezri Dax calls upon her memories of Joran in order to catch a murderer who has killed several people on the Deep Space Nine. Joran strives to entice her to kill someone to "know how it feels" which she is able to resist.
Joran is portrayed by Jeff McBride in the "Equilibrium" episode and Leigh McCloskey in the "Field of Fire" episode. In the "Facets" episode, he possesses Benjamin Sisko (Avery Brooks). Due to the danger of allowing Joran to act freely, Sisko is placed in a holding cell with a force field before Joran is allowed to take over. He has a short and terse conversation with Jadzia, then begins slamming Sisko's head repeatedly into the force field, injuring him. He then tricks Jadzia into turning off the force field and catches her by the throat to "show her how to use his power". Jadzia knocks him down, and Sisko finally reasserts himself.
Curzon Dax
Curzon Dax is a negotiator in the Khitomer Accords whose activities result in the Klingon Empire entering an alliance with the United Federation of Planets. After this, Curzon becomes revered and admired among the Klingon people.
For Jadzia's zhian'tara in the "Facets" episode, Curzon is temporarily embodied into Odo, with a unique result—a blending of Curzon's and Odo's personalities, not unlike the blending of a Trill symbiont with its host. "Curzon Odo" takes advantage of Odo's shapeshifting abilities to transform his face to more closely resemble Curzon's while still retaining recognizable traces of Odo's features. Curzon is shown a very bright personality, extremely charismatic yet arrogant and neglectful at times where he starts behaving selfishly and manipulatively.
Jadzia asks him why he recommended to drop her from the program, yet when she re-applied, advised accepting her, making her the first candidate to ever be re-accepted. Curzon manipulates her, saying he did it out of pity, feeding her fear that he didn't see her as a good enough candidate. Finalizing his blow, he declares he wishes to remain with Odo and not return to Dax. With Sisko's advice, Jadzia manages to bring Curzon down a peg and he finally confesses that he was in fact in love with her. He dropped her to cover his feelings and re-accepted her because he felt guilty. He says that, after all these years, he still loves Jadzia and she convinces him to return to her so that they could be together forever.
In the season 2 episode "Blood Oath", it is revealed that one of Curzon's friends, a Klingon named Kang, named his firstborn Dax and asked Curzon to be the child's godfather. When the young Dax was murdered by an alien known as "The Albino", Curzon joined Kang, Kor and Koloth (whose firstborns have also been murdered by the Albino) in their oath of blood vengeance. The oath is fulfilled by Jadzia and the three Klingons in that episode.
Curzon died of "jah-ma haron" on Risa suffering a heart attack while in the company of a beautiful young woman. Upon his death, the Dax symbiont was transferred into Jadzia. This moment is shown during Jadzia's orb-induced flashback in "Emissary", the first DS9 episode, although Curzon is shown as being conscious during the transferral.
Curzon and Benjamin Sisko were very good friends, with Sisko even often calling Jadzia Dax "old man", the same nickname he used for Dax's previous host. Curzon also frequently played the Ferengi game Tongo.
Jadzia Dax
Jadzia Dax, portrayed by Terry Farrell in the TV series, is a main character in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine seasons 1 to 6.
The station's chief science officer, she marries her fellow DS9 officer Lieutenant Commander Worf but their happiness only lasts a short time when she is fatally injured by a Cardassian, Gul Dukat, who was possessed by a Pah-wraith at the time.
Ezri Dax
Ezri Dax (portrayed by Nicole de Boer) is a major character in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine season 7. After joining, she serves as the station's counselor. She briefly resumes Jadzia's relationship with Worf and later begins a romance with Julian Bashir.
Alternate hosts
Verad Dax
Verad Dax, portrayed by John Glover, steals the Dax symbiont for a few hours in the episode "Invasive Procedures". Verad is a rejected candidate for joining. He makes Bashir remove the Dax symbiont surgically from Jadzia and implant it into him. Dax is later returned to Jadzia before the symbiont and the host integrate. When joined with Verad, Dax is highly motivated to continue Verad's immoral plan despite a continued feeling of friendship with Sisko and others on DS9. Jadzia, on the other hand, comments on how lonely and unconfident she feels once separated from Dax.
Yedrin Dax
Yedrin Dax, portrayed by Gary Frank, is a host of the Dax symbiont in an alternate timeline that is created when the USS Defiant travels two hundred years backwards in time in the "Children of Time" DS9 season 5 episode 22. He is the great-grandson of Jadzia Dax and Worf. His existence is erased when the Defiant avoids the crash and that timeline is averted.
Others named Dax
Dax, son of Kang is a Klingon named after his godfather, Curzon Dax (see above).
Dax (played by Michael Snyder) is also the name of a crewman aboard the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-A) in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.
References
External links
Star Trek alien characters
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional androgynes
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205886
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calouste%20Gulbenkian
|
Calouste Gulbenkian
|
Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian (, Western ; 23 March 1869 – 20 July 1955), nicknamed "Mr Five Per Cent", was a British-Armenian businessman and philanthropist. He played a major role in making the petroleum reserves of the Middle East available to Western development and is credited with being the first person to exploit Iraqi oil. Gulbenkian travelled extensively and lived in a number of cities including Istanbul, London, Paris and Lisbon.
Throughout his life, Gulbenkian was involved with many philanthropic activities including the establishment of schools, hospitals, and churches. The Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, a private foundation based in Portugal, was created in 1956 by his bequest and continues to promote arts, charity, education, and science throughout the world. It is now among the largest foundations in Europe. By the end of his life he had become one of the world's wealthiest people and his art acquisitions one of the greatest private collections.
Biography
Family background
Gulbenkian's family are believed to be descendants of the Rshtunis, an Armenian noble family centred around Lake Van in the 4th century AD. In the 11th century, the Rshtunis settled in Kayseri, taking the name Vart Badrik, a Byzantine noble title. With the arrival of the Ottoman Turks, the Turkish equivalent of the name, Gülbenk, was adopted. The family had established themselves in the town of Talas and lived in the region until the mid-1800s, when they ultimately moved to Istanbul. Their property in Talas was ultimately confiscated and is currently owned by the Turkish Government.
Gulbenkian's family established close relations with the House of Osman. By 1860, his father Sarkis Gulbenkian was an Armenian oil importer and exporter already heavily involved in the oil industry. Sarkis was an owner of several oil fields in the Caucasus, mainly in Baku, and was a representative of Alexander Mantashev's oil company. Sarkis Gulbenkian also provided oil to the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. During Hagop Pasha's Directorship, and, subsequently, Ministry of the Privy Treasury under Sultan Abdulhamid II in 1879, Sarkis acquired the lucrative collection of taxes for the Privy Purse of Mesopotamia.
Early life
Calouste Gulbenkian was born on 23 March 1869 in Scutari (Üsküdar), in the Ottoman Empire capital Constantinople (now Istanbul). He received his early education at Aramyan-Uncuyan, a local Armenian school. He then attended the Lycée Saint-Joseph French school and continued his studies at Robert College. These studies were cut short in 1884, when he moved to Marseilles at the age of 15 to perfect his French at a high school there.
Oil business
Immediately afterwards his father sent him to be educated at King's College London, where he studied petroleum engineering. He was a brilliant student and graduated in 1887 at the age of 18 with a first-class degree in engineering and applied sciences. A year later, he went to Baku to examine the Russian oil industry and to further his knowledge of the oil industry. Gulbenkian later wrote an article entitled La Transcaucasie et la péninsule d'Apchéron; souvenirs de voyage ("Transcaucasia and the Absheron Peninsula – Memoirs of a Journey") which appeared in the Revue des deux Mondes, a French language monthly literary and cultural affairs magazine. The article described his travels to Baku and the state of the oil industry in the region. It was eventually published as a book in 1891 in Paris.
After Hagop Pasha's appointment as the Ottoman Minister of Finance in 1887, he had Calouste prepare an oil survey of Mesopotamia. To develop the oil survey, Calouste merely read travel books and interviewed railroad engineers that were surveying and building the Baghdad Railway. Gulbenkian's oil survey led Hagop Pasha to believe that vast oil deposits lay in Mesopotamia (modern Syria and Iraq), to acquire tracts of land for the Sultan's oil reserves, and to establish the Ottoman oil industry in Mesopotamia.
By 1895, he started his oil operation business. He had to return to the Ottoman Empire, but in 1896, Gulbenkian and his family fled the empire due to the Hamidian massacres of Armenians. They ended up in Egypt, where Gulbenkian met Alexander Mantashev, a prominent Armenian oil magnate and philanthropist. Mantashev introduced Gulbenkian to influential contacts in Cairo. These new acquaintances included Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer. Still in his twenties, Gulbenkian moved to London in 1897 where he arranged deals in the oil business. He became a naturalised British citizen in 1902. In 1907, he helped arrange the merger of Royal Dutch Petroleum Company with "Shell" Transport and Trading Company Ltd. Gulbenkian emerged as a major shareholder of the newly formed company, Royal Dutch Shell. His policy of retaining five percent of the shares of the oil companies he developed earned him the nickname "Mr Five Per Cent".
After the royalist countercoup of 1909, Gulbenkian became a financial and economic adviser to the Turkish embassies in London and Paris, and later, chief financial adviser to the Turkish government. He was a member of a British technical team to Turkey and, later, a director of the National Bank of Turkey, which was established to support British designs.
In 1912 Gulbenkian was the driving force behind the creation of the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC)—a consortium of the largest European oil companies aimed at cooperatively procuring oil exploration and development rights in the Ottoman territory of Mesopotamia, while excluding other interests. The German interests would be limited to a 25% share, with a 35% share for the British, and the remaining for Gulbenkian to choose. So, he gave Royal Dutch Shell 25% and kept 15% for himself as "the conceiver, the founder, and the artisan of the Turkish Petroleum combine." A promise of these rights was made to the TPC, but the onset of World War I interrupted their efforts. At first, the British Foreign Office supported the d'Arcy group to gain a share and replace Calouste's share, but Gulbenkian worked closely with French concerns, arranged for the French to receive the German's share as part of the spoils of victory, and, in return, the French protected his interest.
During the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire after the war, most of Ottoman Syria came under the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and most of Ottoman Iraq came under British mandate. Heated and prolonged negotiations ensued regarding which companies could invest in the Turkish Petroleum Company. The TPC was granted exclusive oil exploration rights to Mesopotamia in 1925. The discovery of a large oil reserve at Baba Gurgur provided the impetus to conclude negotiations and in July 1928 an agreement, called the "Red Line Agreement", was signed which determined which oil companies could invest in TPC and reserved 5% of the shares for Gulbenkian. The name of the company was changed to the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929. The Pasha had actually given Gulbenkian the entire Iraqi oil concession. Gulbenkian, however, saw advantage in divesting the vast majority of his concession so that corporations would be able to develop the whole. Gulbenkian grew wealthy on the remainder. He reputedly said, "Better a small piece of a big pie, than a big piece of a small one."
In 1938, before the beginning of World War II, Gulbenkian incorporated a Panamanian company to hold his assets in the oil industry. From this "Participations and Explorations Corporation" came the "Partex Oil and Gas (Holdings) Corporation", now a subsidiary of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation headquartered in Lisbon.
Art collection
Gulbenkian amassed a huge fortune and an art collection which he kept in a private museum at his Paris house. An art expert said in a 1950 issue of Life magazine that "Never in modern history has one man owned so much." His four-story, three-basement house on Avenue d'Iéna was said to be crammed with art, a situation ameliorated in 1936 when he lent thirty paintings to the National Gallery, London and his Egyptian sculpture to the British Museum.
Throughout his lifetime, Gulbenkian managed to collect over 6,400 pieces of art. From René Lalique alone, Gulbenkian commissioned more than 140 works over nearly 30 years. The collection includes objects from antiquity to the 20th century. Some of the works in the collection were bought during the Soviet sale of Hermitage paintings.
While Gulbenkian's art collection may be found in many museum across the world, most of his art is exhibited at the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian in Lisbon, Portugal. The museum was founded according to his will, in order to accommodate and display his collection, now belonging to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. Of the roughly 6,000 items in the museum's collections, a selection of around 1000 is on permanent display.
Philanthropy
Throughout his life, Gulbenkian donated large sums of money to churches, scholarships, schools, and hospitals. Many of his donations were to Armenian foundations and establishments. He required that proceeds from his 5% share of profits from oil should go to Armenian families. He also demanded that 5% of his workers in his oil production for the Iraq Petroleum Company should be of Armenian descent.
He established and built the St Sarkis Armenian church in Kensington, central London, England, built in 1922–23 as a memorial to his parents, to the design of the architect Arthur Davis. Gulbenkian wanted to provide "spiritual comfort" to the Armenian community and a place of gathering for "dispersed Armenians," according to a message written by Gulbenkian to the Catholicos of All Armenians.
In 1929, he was the chief benefactor to the establishment of an extensive library at the St. James Cathedral, the principal church of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The library is called the Gulbenkian Library and contains more than 100,000 books.
Among many of his significant donations was to the Surp Pırgiç Armenian Hospital located in Istanbul. A large property called the Selamet Han was donated to the Surp Pırgiç foundation in 1954. The property was confiscated by the state in 1974, but returned to the foundation in 2011. He also helped establish a nurses' home at the hospital after selling his wife's jewellery
He was president of the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) from 1930–1932, resigning as a result of a smear campaign by Soviet Armenia, an Armenian newspaper based in Armenia SSR. He was also a major benefactor of Nubarashen and Nor Kesaria, which were newly founded settlements consisting of refugees from the Armenian genocide.
Later life and death
In 1937, Gulbenkian purchased a property near Deauville and called it Les Enclos. It was a place of repose for him. Nobel prize-winning writer and friend Saint-John Perse nicknamed him the Sage of Les Enclos and remarked in a letter to Gulbenkian that Les Enclos was "the cornerstone of your work, because it is the most alive, the most intimate and sensitive, the best guarded secret for your dreams."
By the onset of the Second World War, having acquired diplomatic immunity as the economic adviser of the Persian legation in Paris, he followed the French government when it fled to Vichy, where he became the minister for Iran. In consequence, he was, despite his links to the UK, temporarily declared an enemy alien by the British Government, and his UK oil assets sequestered, though returned with compensation at the end of the war. He left France in late 1942 for Lisbon and lived there until his death, in a suite at the luxurious Aviz Hotel, on 20 July 1955, aged 86.
In 1952 he refused being appointed as Knight Commander, and therefore the possibility of being styled as Sir, to the Order of the British Empire. In this same year his wife Nevarte died in Paris. They had two children, a son Nubar and a daughter Rita, who would become the wife of Iranian diplomat of Armenian descent Kevork Loris Essayan.
His ashes were buried at St Sarkis Armenian Church in London.
Legacy and fortune
At the time of his death, Gulbenkian's fortune was estimated at between US$280 million and US$840 million. Undisclosed sums were willed in trust to his descendants; the remainder of his fortune and art collection were willed to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian), with US$400,000 to be reserved to restore the Etchmiadzin Cathedral, Armenia's mother church, when relations with the Soviet Union permitted. The foundation was to act for charitable, educational, artistic, and scientific purposes, and the named trustees were his long-time friend Baron Radcliffe of Werneth, Lisbon attorney José de Azeredo Perdigão, and his son-in-law Kevork Loris Essayan. In Lisbon the foundation established its headquarters and the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (Museu Calouste Gulbenkian) to display his art collection.
William Saroyan wrote a short story about Gulbenkian in his 1971 book, Letters from 74 rue Taitbout or Don't Go But If You Must Say Hello To Everybody.
There are rooms and buildings at the University of Oxford named after Gulbenkian, including the Gulbenkian Reading Room in St. Antony's College, Oxford's old library and the Gulbenkian Lecture Theater in the St. Cross Building on Manor Road.
Awards
Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (Portugal) – 1950
Published works
La Transcaucasie et la péninsule d'Apchéron; souvenirs de voyage, Éditeur: Paris, Librairie Hachette, 1891. .
See also
Re Gulbenkian's Settlements
Museu Calouste Gulbenkian
Gulbenkian commission
Gulbenkian Park
Gulbenkian Orchestra
Gulbenkian Science Institute
Museum of the Year, formerly the Gulbenkian Prize
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Biography
Conlin, Jonathan. Mr Five Per Cent: The Many Lives of Calouste Gulbenkian. London: Profile Books, 2019.
For detailed background concerning Gulbenkian and the Red Line Agreement controlling Middle East Oil see
Black, Edwin. Banking on Baghdad: Inside Iraq's 7,000-Year History of War, Profit, and Conflict. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2004. .
For general background concerning the development of the petroleum industry in the Middle East see
Blair, John Malcolm. The Control of Oil. New York: Pantheon, 1976. .
Yergin, Daniel. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991. .
Sampson, Anthony. The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies and the World They Made. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991. .
For Gulbenkian as a collector see
Azeredo Perdigão, José de, and Ana Lowndes Marques. Calouste Gulbenkian, Collector. Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1979.
Articles
External links
Videos
In Memoriam Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian (Part 1), Part 2, Part 3, Part 4
Martin Essayan on his great-grandfather: Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian
Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian – recollections of his grandson (by Mikhael Essayan)
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, a foundation in the world
Books
Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian: The Man and His Work by the Gulbenkian Foundation (full view)
The Gulbenkians in Jerusalem by the Gulbenkian Foundation (full view)
La Transcaucasie et la péninsule d'Apchéron: souvenirs de voyage by Calouste Gulbenkian (full view; in French)
Official websites
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation
Armenian General Benevolent Union
Parc des Enclos
1869 births
1955 deaths
Alumni of King's College London
Armenian billionaires
Armenian businesspeople in the oil industry
Armenian businesspeople
Armenian expatriates in the United Kingdom
Armenians of the Ottoman Empire
Associates of King's College
Art collectors from Paris
British people of Armenian descent
British art collectors
British businesspeople
British philanthropists
Businesspeople in the oil industry
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation
Collectors of Asian art
Ethnic Armenian businesspeople
Ethnic Armenian philanthropists
Fellows of King's College London
Founders of the petroleum industry
Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)
Iraqi people of Armenian descent
Iraqi businesspeople
Museum founders
People from Istanbul
People from Üsküdar
People of the Iraq Petroleum Company
People of the Ottoman Empire
Armenian expatriates in Portugal
Presidents of the Armenian General Benevolent Union
St. Joseph High School Istanbul alumni
Survivors of the Hamidian massacres
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammy%20Wynette
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Tammy Wynette
|
Tammy Wynette (born Virginia Wynette Pugh; May 5, 1942 – April 6, 1998) was an American country music singer-songwriter and musician and was one of country music's best-known artists and biggest-selling female singers during the late 1960s and first half of the 1970s.
Wynette was called the "First Lady of Country Music", and her best-known song is "Stand by Your Man." Many of her hits dealt with themes of loneliness, divorce, and the difficulties of life and relationships. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Wynette charted 20 number-one songs on the Billboard Country Chart. Along with Loretta Lynn, Lynn Anderson, and Dolly Parton, she is credited with having defined the role of women in country music during the 1970s.
Wynette's marriage to country music singer George Jones in 1969 created a country music supercouple, following the earlier success of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash. Though they divorced in 1975, the couple recorded a series of albums and singles together that hit the charts throughout the 1970s and early 1980s.
Early years
Wynette was born near Tremont, Mississippi, the only child of Mildred Faye (née Russell; 1921–1991) and William Hollice Pugh (1916–1943). Her father was a farmer and local musician who died of a brain tumor when Wynette was nine months old. Her mother worked in an office, as a substitute school teacher, and on the family farm. At Pugh's death, Mildred left her daughter in the care of her parents, Thomas and Flora Russell, and moved to Memphis, Tennessee to work in a defense plant during World War II. In 1946, Mildred married Foy Lee, a farmer.
The Russell home had no indoor toilets or running water. Wynette was raised with an aunt, Carolyn Russell, who was only five years older, more like a sister than an aunt. As a girl, Wynette taught herself to play a variety of musical instruments her father had left behind.
Wynette attended Tremont High School, class of 1960, where she was a star basketball player. A month before graduation, several months before her 18th birthday, she wed her first husband, Euple Byrd. He was a construction worker, but had trouble keeping a job, and they moved several times. Wynette worked as a waitress, a receptionist, and a barmaid, and also in a shoe factory. In 1963, she attended beauty college in Tupelo, Mississippi where she learned to be a hairdresser. She continued to renew her cosmetology license every year for the rest of her life – just in case she ever had to go back to a daily job.
She left Euple before the birth of their third daughter, who developed spinal meningitis. Wynette tried to earn extra money by performing at night. Euple did not support her ambition to become a country singer, and according to Wynette, as she drove away he told her, "Dream on, Baby". Years later, he appeared at one of her concerts as she was signing autographs and asked for one. She signed it "Dream on, Baby."
Musical career
1965-66: A start
While working as a hairdresser in Midfield, Alabama, in 1965, Wynette sang on the Country Boy Eddie Show on WBRC-TV in Birmingham, which led to performances with country music star Porter Wagoner. In 1966, she moved with her three daughters (Gwen, Tina, and Jackie) from Birmingham to Nashville, Tennessee, in hopes of landing a recording deal. After being turned down repeatedly she auditioned for Epic Records producer Billy Sherrill. Initially reluctant to sign her, Sherrill found himself in need of a singer for a tune written by Bobby Austin and Johnny Paycheck, "Apartment No. 9". Upon hearing Wynette's version he was impressed and put her under contract.
1966-1967: Breakthrough
Once she was signed to Epic, Sherrill suggested she change her name to make more of an impression. According to her 1979 memoir, Stand by Your Man, during their meeting, Wynette was wearing her long, blonde hair in a ponytail, and Sherrill noted that she reminded him of Debbie Reynolds in the film Tammy and the Bachelor. He suggested "Tammy" as a possible name, so she became Tammy Wynette.
Her first single, "Apartment No. 9" , was released in December 1966, and just missed the top 40 on the Country charts, peaking at number 44. It was followed by "Your Good Girl's Gonna Go Bad", which became a big hit, peaking at number three. The song launched a string of top-ten hits that ran through the end of the 1970s, interrupted only by three singles that didn't crack the Top Ten. After "Your Good Girl's Gonna Go Bad" was a success, "My Elusive Dreams", a duet with David Houston, became her first number one in the summer of 1967, followed by "I Don't Wanna Play House" later that year. "I Don't Wanna Play House" won Wynette a Grammy award in 1967 for Best Female Country Vocal Performance, one of two wins for Wynette in that category.
1968-1979: On top
During 1968 and 1969, Wynette had five number-one hits: "Take Me to Your World", "D-I-V-O-R-C-E", "Stand by Your Man" (all 1968), "Singing My Song", and "The Ways to Love a Man" (both 1969). "Stand by Your Man" was reportedly written in the Epic studio in just 15 minutes by Billy Sherrill and Wynette, and was released at a time when the women's-rights movement was beginning to stir in the U.S. The message in the song stated a woman should stay with her man, despite his faults and shortcomings. It stirred up controversy and was criticized initially, and it became a lightning rod for feminists. Nevertheless, the song became very successful, reaching the top spot on the Country charts, and was also a top-20 pop hit, peaking at number 19 on the Billboard pop charts in 1968, Wynette's only top-40 hit as a solo artist on the pop charts. In 1969, Wynette won the Grammy award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for "Stand by Your Man", which is now, according to critics, considered a "classic" or country music "standard". She earned a gold record (awarded for albums selling in excess of 500,000 copies) for Tammy's Greatest Hits which was certified in 1970 by the RIAA. The album was awarded platinum record status (awarded for albums selling in excess of one million copies) in June 1989. In 1970, director Bob Rafelson used a number of her songs in the soundtrack of his 1970 film Five Easy Pieces.
During the early 1970s, Wynette, along with singer Loretta Lynn, ruled the country charts and was one of the most successful female vocalists of the genre. During the early 1970s, number-one singles included "He Loves Me All the Way", "Run Woman Run" and "The Wonders You Perform" (all from 1970), "Good Lovin' (Makes it Right)", "Bedtime Story" (both 1971) "My Man (Understands)", "'Til I Get it Right" (1972), and "Kids Say the Darndest Things" (1973). One of them, "The Wonders You Perform", was a hit in Italy in 1971, thanks to Ornella Vanoni, who recorded the song in an Italian version, "Domani è un altro giorno" ("Tomorrow is another day"). Concurrent to her solo success, a number of her duets with fellow country singer George Jones reached the top ten on the U.S. country singles charts during this time, including "The Ceremony" (1972), "We're Gonna Hold On" (1973), and "Golden Ring" (1976). In 1968, Wynette became the second female vocalist to win the Country Music Association Awards' "Female Vocalist of the Year" award, later winning an additional two other times (1969, 1970). For nearly two decades, Wynette held the record for most consecutive wins, until 1987 when Reba McEntire won the award for the fourth consecutive time.
Tammy Wynette divorced her second husband, Don Chapel (1931-2015) in 1968. Tammy married George Jones on February 16, 1969, in Ringgold, Georgia. They were married for six years, residing in south Lakeland, Florida, until their divorce, which was finalized on March 21, 1975. Even after their 1975 divorce (due largely to Jones' alcoholism), their professional collaboration continued with regularity through 1980; years later in 1995, they made a reunion album entitled One. It was well received, although it did not achieve their earlier chart success. Jones and Wynette had one daughter together, Tamala Georgette, born in 1970. Georgette Jones has, in recent years, become a successful country music artist who frequently pays tribute to her mother at her shows.
In 1976, after having her public divorce from Jones the previous year, Wynette recorded "'Til I Can Make It on My Own". Often said by music critics to be about her break-up from Jones and moving on with her life, the song reached No. 1 on the U.S. country singles charts, and No. 84 on the pop singles charts, becoming her first single in three years to enter the pop charts. Often considered to be one of her signature songs, it more or less helped Wynette's career after her divorce, showing she could remain popular. It was recorded two years later as a duet by Kenny Rogers and Dottie West, whose version reached No. 3 on the country singles charts in 1979. In 1976, Wynette had another No. 1 as a solo artist, "You and Me", which became her final No. 1 as a solo artist. Her last No. 1 came as a duet with George Jones in early 1977 titled, "Near You".
Following 1976, Wynette's popularity slightly slowed, however, she continued to reach the Top 10 until the end of the decade, with such hits as "Let's Get Together (One Last Time), "One of a Kind" (both 1977), "Womanhood" (1978) "No One Else in this World" and "They Call It Makin' Love" (both 1979). She had a total of 20 number one hits on the U.S. country singles charts (16 solo, three with Jones, and one with Houston). Along with Loretta Lynn, Dolly Parton, Barbara Mandrell, Dottie West, and Lynn Anderson, she helped redefine the role and place of female country singers.
1980-1990: A fading icon in the 1980s
In 1981, a TV movie about Wynette's life was aired called Stand by Your Man, which was based on her memoir of the same title. Actress Annette O'Toole portrayed Wynette in the film.
Beginning in the early 1980s, her chart success began to wane, though she did continue to have top-20 hits during this period, including "Starting Over" and "He Was There (When I Needed You)" (both 1980), a cover of the Everly Brothers' hit "Crying in the Rain" (1981), "Another Chance", "You Still Get to Me in My Dreams" (both 1982) and "A Good Night's Love" (1983). A 1985 cover of the '70s Dan Hill hit "Sometimes When We Touch", performed with Mark Gray, reached No. 6 in 1985.
In 1982 she recorded a track with The Ray Conniff Singers, a rendition of "Delta Dawn", to be included in the Conniff's duets album "The Nashville Connection", but ultimately the track did not enter. Meanwhile, her medical problems continued, including inflammations of her bile duct. In 1986, she acted on the CBS TV soap opera Capitol, playing beautician/singer Darlene Stankowski. In 1988, she filed for bankruptcy as a result of a bad investment in two Florida shopping centers.
Wynette's 1987 album Higher Ground featured a neotraditional country sound and was both a critical and relative commercial success. The album featured contributions from Larry Gatlin, Vince Gill, Ricky Van Shelton, Rodney Crowell, Ricky Skaggs, Emmylou Harris and The O'Kanes. Two of the singles released from the album, "Your Love" and "Talkin' to Myself Again", reached the top 20 on the U.S. country singles charts; a third single, "Beneath a Painted Sky" (featuring duet vocals from Emmylou Harris) reached No. 25 in early 1988. It would ultimately be Wynette's final top-40 country single)
1990-1998: Curtain calls
In 1990, Heart Over Mind was released and showed Wynette's popularity on radio was declining. The album yielded no Top 40 Country hits, although numerous singles were released between 1990 and 1991, including a duet with Randy Travis titled, "We're Strangers Again".
She recorded a song with the British group The KLF in late 1991 titled "Justified and Ancient (Stand by the JAMs)", which became a No. 1 hit in eighteen countries the following year, and reached No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The song gave Wynette a new following, and was her highest-charting single on the Billboard Pop charts. In the video, scrolling electronic titles said "Miss Tammy Wynette is the first lady of country music" and listed a number of her accomplishments in the recording industry. Wynette appeared in the video wearing a crown and seated on a throne.
In 1992, future First Lady Hillary Clinton said during a 60 Minutes interview "I'm not sitting here as some little woman standing by my man like Tammy Wynette". The end of this quotation has also appeared as "some little woman, standing by my man and baking cookies, like Tammy Wynette." However, the reference to cookie baking more likely comes from an unrelated remark by Hillary Clinton: "I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do was to fulfill my profession which I entered before my husband was in public life.") The remark set off a firestorm of controversy. Wynette wrote to Clinton, saying, "With all that is in me, I resent your caustic remark. I believe you have offended every true country-music fan and every person who has made it on their own with no one to take them to the White House." Clinton then called Wynette to apologize after she saw the large negative reaction she received, and asked Wynette to perform at a fundraiser. Wynette agreed to do so.
The 1993 album Honky Tonk Angels gave her a chance to record with Dolly Parton and Loretta Lynn for the first time; though yielding no hit singles (mainstream country radio had long since stopped playing artists approaching or over 50), the album did well on the country charts and even reached number 42 on the Billboard Pop chart. The one single that was released from the album, a cover of "Silver Threads and Golden Needles" peaked outside the Country Top 40 in 1993. The following year, she released Without Walls, a collection of duets with a number of country, pop and rock and roll performers, including Wynonna Judd, Elton John, Lyle Lovett, Aaron Neville, Smokey Robinson, Sting and a number of others. An album cut titled "Girl Thang", a duet with Wynonna Judd, reached No. 64 in 1994, but no singles were released from this album. She also appeared as a celebrity contestant on Wheel of Fortune during that same year.
Wynette also designed and sold her own line of jewelry in the 1990s. In 1995, she and George Jones recorded their first new duet album in fifteen years titled One, which spawned a single of the same name. The single was the duo's first music video together. They last performed together in 1997 at Lanierland Music Park.
She recorded a cover version of The Beach Boys' "In My Room", a duet with Brian Wilson, for the group's 1996 comeback album Stars and Stripes Vol. 1. The track was held back for a proposed second volume, which never appeared, but Wynette's performance is included in the TV documentary Beach Boys: Nashville Sounds. "In My Room" can be found on the album Tammy Wynette Remembered, posthumous tribute album to Wynette. It was released on September 8, 1998. Wynette lent her vocals on the UK No. 1 hit "Perfect Day" in 1997, which was written by Lou Reed.
Wynette was also the voice for the character Tilly Hill (Hank Hill's mother) on the animated series King of the Hill until her death. Actress K Callan took over the voice role.
She appeared as herself in the Married... with Children episode "The Juggs Have Left The Building", which originally aired on December 1, 1996.
Wynette's last concert was given on March 5, 1998, stepping in for Loretta Lynn, who was ill at the time. Wynette's last television appearance was on the TNN series Prime Time Country on March 9, 1998, performing "Stand by Your Man" and "Take Me to Your World". Wynette's last Grand Ole Opry appearance was on May 17, 1997; she performed "Your Good Girl's Gonna Go Bad" which was her first top five hit, and "Stand by Your Man" her No. 1 song and signature song, and her first single "Apartment #9" which had gone to No. 44 on the Billboard Country Charts but had become a classic to her loyal fan base and to Country Music. Lorrie Morgan and Jan Howard, appeared on the Opry too, helping Wynette out; she was one of Morgan's idols growing up (also friends) and Jan, another one of Wynette's close friends, also had a successful career in Country and Western music during the 1960s.
Personal life
Marriages and children
Wynette was married five times: to Euple Byrd (married April 1960 – divorced 1966), with whom she had three daughters; to Don Chapel, born Lloyd Franklin Amburgey (m. 1967 – annulled 1968); to George Jones (m. February 16, 1969 – divorced March 21, 1975); to Michael Tomlin (m. July 18, 1976 – a. September 1976) 44 days; and to singer-songwriter George Richey (m. July 6, 1978 – her death April 6, 1998). Richey was her manager throughout much of the 1980s. In her autobiography Stand By Your Man, Wynette claimed Jones used to beat her and at one point fired a shotgun at her, allegations he denied. In the mid-1970s, Wynette was linked romantically with actor Burt Reynolds and they were good friends up to Wynette's sudden death.
Wynette had three children with Byrd; she gave birth to two daughters by the time she was 20. Gwendolyn Lee ("Gwen") Byrd (born April 15, 1961), Jacquelyn Faye ("Jackie") Byrd (born August 2, 1962) and Tina Denise Byrd (born March 27, 1965). According to Tammy's autobiography Stand by Your Man, Tina was born three months prematurely, and spent her first three months in an incubator. Tina weighed an estimated two pounds at birth. She was not quite five pounds when she arrived home at three months old, and was home for only three weeks when a relative whom Tammy lived with at the time said "Every time I try to pick her up, she screams in pain and I think it's her back." Tina was diagnosed with spinal meningitis, and was given a slim chance to live through it. Tina spent two and a half weeks in an isolation room and finally after 17 days was taken off the quarantine list. She spent seven weeks in the hospital overcoming all odds. All the doctors, nurses everyone in the hospital called her the "Miracle Baby". Tina, in 1975, is featured on one of Jones and Wynette's duet albums, George and Tammy and Tina. She appeared on two songs "The Telephone Call" with George and "No Charge" with her mom, Tammy.
Wynette also had a daughter with George Jones, Tamala Georgette Jones (born October 5, 1970), who is also a country singer. George Jones legally adopted Tammy's oldest daughters Gwen, Jackie and Tina shortly after Jones and Wynette got married.
Alleged kidnapping
Wynette was reported to be kidnapped at gunpoint at a Nashville shopping mall on October 4, 1978. She claimed the masked attacker physically assaulted and abandoned her south of Nashville. Wynette was documented with bruises and a broken cheekbone. One of Wynette's children, Jackie Daly, in her 2000 memoir, published that her mother had confessed to her that the kidnapping was a hoax to cover up domestic violence from her fifth husband, George Richey. He denied the allegation. While the kidnapping's events remained ambiguous, Wynette's children later sued Richey, along with Care Solutions of Nashville and Wynette's doctor, for their mother's wrongful death; however, they subsequently dismissed the suit against Richey, a court dismissed Care Solutions, and they reached a confidential settlement with the doctor.
Health problems
Wynette had many serious physical ailments beginning in the 1970s. She had at least 26 major surgeries during her lifetime. Although some of these problems were very serious, Wynette was still able to pursue her singing career and regularly toured to promote her work.
In October 1970, after giving birth to Georgette, Wynette had an appendectomy and a hysterectomy. Complications from the hysterectomy included adhesions which later formed into keloids. She developed a chronic inflammation of the bile duct and was intermittently hospitalized, from 1970 until her death on April 6, 1998. During her brief marriage to Michael Tomlin, she was in the hospital for half of their time together as a couple, including surgeries on her gallbladder, kidney and on the nodules on her throat.
Wynette also developed a serious addiction to painkiller medication in the 1980s, which became quite a problem in her life during that time. However, in 1986, she sought help, entering the Betty Ford Center for drug treatment that year. In spite of the time away for treatment, she joined the cast of the CBS now-defunct soap opera Capitol on March 25, 1986, playing the role of a hair stylist-turned-singer, Darlene Stankowski.
Just after Christmas 1993, Wynette woke in the middle of the night with severe pain and was rushed to The Baptist Hospital in Nashville, Tennessee. She was comatose five days as a result of a bile duct infection. Once she was out of the coma she underwent an intestinal bypass operation. She resumed touring not long afterwards.
Pamela Lansden of People quoted Wynette's personal spin on life's tribulations as "The sad part about happy endings is there's nothing to write about."
Death
After years of medical problems which resulted in numerous hospitalizations, roughly 26 major operations and an addiction to pain medication, Wynette died on April 6, 1998, at the age of 55 while sleeping on her couch in her Nashville, Tennessee, home. Wynette's doctor from Pennsylvania said she died of a blood clot in her lung. Despite her persistent illnesses, she continued to perform until shortly before her death and had other performances scheduled.
A public memorial service, attended by about 1,500 people, was held at Nashville's historic Ryman Auditorium on April 9, 1998. A private, grave-side service had been held earlier with a crypt entombment at Nashville's Woodlawn Memorial Park Cemetery. Her death elicited reactions such as that of songwriter Bill Mack, quoted in the Dallas Morning News, who said she was a "class act" and "irreplaceable" and that "she never knew a flat note." Lee Ann Womack was quoted also; she said of Wynette, whose songs often evoked strength and controlled passion, "You knew she knew what she was singing about. You can put her records on and listen and learn so much." Wynette was survived by her husband George Richey, four daughters and eight grandchildren.
In April 1999, her body was exhumed from her crypt in an attempt to settle a dispute over how she died. A new autopsy was conducted on her a week after three of her daughters filed a wrongful death lawsuit against her doctor and her husband/manager, George Richey, claiming they were responsible for her death 12 months earlier. The coroner declared she died from cardiac arrhythmia. In May 1999, George Richey was dropped from the wrongful death lawsuit because he was preparing to sue them for frivolous litigation. Wynette's daughter, Jackie Daly, sold her story to Star magazine before asking Richey the "questions" she wanted answered about her mother's death. Richey never was personally asked these questions; the daughters sought solace in the press to garner these intimate personal details of their mother. Wynette was reinterred in the Woodlawn Cross Mausoleum, at Woodlawn Memorial Park Cemetery, Nashville, Tennessee. She rests in the same Nashville cemetery as other country music luminaries such as former husband, George Jones who died in April 2013, Webb Pierce, Jerry Reed, Marty Robbins, Bobby Russell, Porter Wagoner, Red Foley and Eddy Arnold, among many others.
In March 2012, the name on Wynette's tomb was changed from "Tammy Wynette" to "Virginia W. Richardson", her final legal married name. In March 2014, the name on the tomb was changed back.
Legacy
Tammy Wynette is considered by numerous music critics from Allmusic and Rolling Stone to be one of the greatest and most influential singers in country music history. Many other country singers have been influenced by Wynette, including Reba McEntire, Sara Evans, Faith Hill, and Lee Ann Womack. In 1998, following Wynette's death, she was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame, one of the highest honors of her career. A special CD collection titled Tammy Wynette: Collector's Edition was released in 1998, that included Wynette's signature "Stand by Your Man", which even charted outside the Top 40 on the Country charts that year.
Wynette's signature song "Stand by Your Man" has been covered by both men and women alike. Fellow country singers, including Lynn Anderson, Dottie West, Loretta Lynn, Elton John and Lyle Lovett have covered the song, as well as rock bands, including Me First and the Gimme Gimmes, Lemmy of Motörhead with Wendy O. Williams of The Plasmatics, Martina McBride covered Wynette's 1976, "'Til I Can Make It on My Own" for her 2005, Timeless album, which was a cover album of Country music standards. It was covered comedically in the 1980 film "The Blues Brothers". "Stand by Your Man" placed at No. 48 on RIAA's 1997 list of Songs of the Century, which consisted of the 300 of their considered-to-be greatest and best-known songs of the 20th century.
The musical Stand by Your Man: The Tammy Wynette Story, which premiered at the Ryman Auditorium in 2001 and later toured, is a biographical treatment of Wynette's life and music, and features several songs recorded by Wynette and/or George Jones.
In 2002, she was ranked No. 2 on CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music. Patsy Cline was ranked No. 1 (one of Wynette's biggest inspirations) and at No. 3 was fellow Country star, Loretta Lynn. Wynette's former husband, George Jones was ranked No. 3 on CMT's special 40 Greatest Men of Country Music in 2003.
In 2003, a survey of country music writers, producers and stars listed "Stand by Your Man" as the top country song of all time. Country Music Television broadcast a special for the top 100 songs, with the No. 1 song performed by Martina McBride.
Judson Baptist Church, which neighbors Wynette's house, purchased the house and land, which belonged to Hank Williams before he died, for a little over a million dollars. The Wynette house is used as a Youth Center as well as a guest house.
In April 2008, the CD Stand by Your Man – The Best of Tammy Wynette, released by Sony BMG to mark the 10th anniversary of her death, entered the UK Official Album chart at number 23.
In April 2011, Wynette's 1968 original recording of "Stand by Your Man" was selected by the U.S. Library of Congress to be preserved as one of that year's 25 recordings chosen for their cultural significance.
In 2010, the Germany-based independent record label Bear Family Records released a box set by George Jones, which showcased his recordings for Musicor and included the earliest duets with Wynette.
A group of friends and volunteers are currently planning a Tammy Wynette Museum in Tremont, Mississippi. The State of Mississippi will provide part of the funding. There are also efforts to produce a Tammy Wynette stamp through the US Postal Service.
In 2010 the State of Mississippi passed a law declaring a segment of Mississippi Highway 23 to be designated the Tammy Wynette Memorial Highway. The 17-mile stretch of road is in Itawamba County, where Wynette was born in 1942.
Discography
Studio albums
Your Good Girl's Gonna Go Bad (1967)
My Elusive Dreams (1967)
Take Me to Your World / I Don't Wanna Play House (1968)
D-I-V-O-R-C-E (1968)
Stand by Your Man (1969)
Inspiration (1969)
The Ways to Love a Man (1970)
Tammy's Touch (1970)
The First Lady (1970)
Christmas with Tammy (1970)
We Sure Can Love Each Other (1971)
We Go Together (1971)
Bedtime Story (1972)
Me and the First Lady (1972)
My Man (1972)
We Love to Sing About Jesus (1972)
Let's Build a World Together (1973)
We're Gonna Hold On (1973)
Another Lonely Song (1974)
Woman to Woman (1974)
George & Tammy & Tina (1975)
I Still Believe in Fairy Tales (1975)
'Til I Can Make It on My Own (1976)
Golden Ring (1976)
You and Me (1976)
Let's Get Together (1977)
One of a Kind (1977)
Womanhood (1978)
Just Tammy (1979)
Only Lonely Sometimes (1980)
Together Again (1980)
You Brought Me Back (1981)
Soft Touch (1982)
Good Love & Heartbreak (1982)
Even the Strong Get Lonely (1983)
Sometimes When We Touch (1985)
Higher Ground (1987)
Next to You (1989)
Heart Over Mind (1990)
Honky Tonk Angels (1993)
Without Walls (1994)
One (1995)
Awards and nominations
See also
Academy of Country Music
Country Music Association
Country Music Hall of Fame
List of country music performers
Starlight Express – a musical in which a character, Dinah the Dining Car, sings a number based on her song, "D.I.V.O.R.C.E."
References
Bibliography
External links
1942 births
1998 deaths
20th-century American singers
American country singer-songwriters
American women country singers
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Country musicians from Mississippi
Epic Records artists
Grammy Award winners
Grand Ole Opry members
Musicians from Nashville, Tennessee
People from Itawamba County, Mississippi
Singer-songwriters from Tennessee
Singer-songwriters from Mississippi
20th-century American women singers
Country musicians from Tennessee
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%20Grimond
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Jo Grimond
|
Joseph Grimond, Baron Grimond, (; 29 July 1913 – 24 October 1993), known as Jo Grimond, was a British politician, leader of the Liberal Party for eleven years from 1956 to 1967 and again briefly on an interim basis in 1976.
Grimond was a long-term supporter of Scottish home rule; and, during his leadership, he successfully argued that the Liberal Party support the abolition of Britain's nuclear arsenal.
Early life
Grimond was born in St Andrews, Fife, and was educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford. He was at school and university with, among others, cricket commentator Brian Johnston and playwright William Douglas-Home. He received a first-class honours degree in Politics, Philosophy and Economics. He later became a barrister, being admitted to the bar as a member of Middle Temple.
Member of Parliament
After serving as a Major in World War II, he was selected by the Liberal Party to contest Orkney and Shetland, the most northerly constituency in the United Kingdom. He narrowly missed capturing the seat in 1945 but entered Parliament at the 1950 general election for the constituency. The Liberals and their successors, the Liberal Democrats, have continuously retained the seat to the present day.
Grimond continued to represent the constituency until he retired from politics in 1983, and regularly polled more than 60% of the votes cast in the northern Scottish archipelagos.
Leader of the Liberal Party
The party Grimond inherited from former leader Clement Davies had commanded barely 2.5% of the vote at the general election of 1955, but even that figure amounted to a modest revival in Liberal Party fortunes compared with 1951. This progress increased under the leadership of Grimond who proved himself to be a man of considerable personal charm and intelligence, with substantial gifts as public speaker and as an author. Widely respected as well as trusted, he ensured that by the time he left the leadership in 1967, the Liberals had once again become a notable political force.
It was during his tenure that the first post-war Liberal revival took place: under Grimond's leadership, the Liberals doubled their seat tally and won historic by-elections at Torrington in 1958 (the first by-election gain by the Liberal Party for 29 years), Orpington in 1962, and Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles in 1965.
In 1962, the Liberals almost succeeded in capturing Blackpool North, West Derbyshire and Chippenham from the Conservatives and Leicester North East from Labour. Grimond's dynamic and principled leadership proved attractive to many young aspiring politicians, including John Pardoe and three future party leaders, David Steel, Paddy Ashdown and Sir Menzies Campbell.
In 1967, having led the party through three general elections, he made way for a younger leader, the charismatic Jeremy Thorpe. In 1976, when Thorpe was forced to resign because of a scandal, Grimond stepped in as interim leader until the election of a replacement, David Steel.
Among other posts, Grimond was a barrister and publisher in the 1930s, an army major during World War II, Secretary of the National Trust for Scotland from 1947 to 1949, and held the Rectorships of the University of Edinburgh and the University of Aberdeen and the Chancellorship of the University of Kent at Canterbury (elected in 1970). His many books include The Liberal Future (1959, credited with reinvigorating radical liberalism as a coherent modern ideology), The Liberal Challenge (1963), and Memoirs (1979).
He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1983 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.
Retirement and death
Upon leaving the House of Commons, he was created a life peer as Baron Grimond, of Firth in the County of Orkney on 12 October 1983. He remained devoted to his former parliamentary constituency, and was buried in Finstown on Orkney.
Marriage and children
In 1938, Grimond married liberal politician Laura Bonham Carter (1918–1994). His wife was the granddaughter of the former Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, and the daughter of the influential Liberal politician and peer Violet Asquith (1887–1969) and her politician and civil servant husband, Maurice Bonham Carter. Laura Grimond was also the sister of another life peer, Mark Bonham Carter, (1922–1994) who was the victor of the 1958 by-election at Torrington.
The couple had four children:
(Joseph) Andrew Grimond (26 March 1939 – 23 March 1966), a sub-editor of The Scotsman, lived in Edinburgh until his suicide at the age of 26.
Grizelda "Gelda" (Jane) Grimond (1942–2017), who had a daughter Katherine (born 1973) by the film and stage director Tony Richardson. Her daughter Katherine Hess is married to Steven Hess, and had three children as of 2017.
John (Jasper) Grimond (born October 1946), a former foreign editor of The Economist as Johnny Grimond, now writer at large for the publication, who in 1973 married Kate Fleming (born 1946), eldest daughter of the writer Peter Fleming and actress Celia Johnson, and the couple have three children together. He is the main author of The Economist Style Guide.
(Thomas) Magnus Grimond (born 13 June 1959), journalist and financial correspondent, married to travel author Laura Grimond (née Raison), and has four children.
Writings
The Liberal Future (Faber and Faber, London, 1959)
The Liberal Challenge (Hollis and Carter, London, 1963)
(with Brian Nevel) The Referendum (Rex Collings, London, 1975)
The Common Welfare (Temple Smith, London, 1978)
Memoirs (Heinemann, London, 1979)
A Personal Manifesto (Martin Robertson, Oxford, 1983)
The St. Andrews of Jo Grimond (Alan Sutton, St. Andrew's, 1992)
Grimond was also a prolific writer of pamphlets: see the McManus biography (below) for a complete list of publications.
References
Sources
Peter Barberis, Liberal Lion: Jo Grimond, A Political Life (I.B. Tauris, London, 2005)
Jo Grimond (Lord Grimond) 1913–93 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group
Further reading
Michael McManus, Jo Grimond: Towards the Sound of Gunfire (Birlinn, Edinburgh, 2001)
Peter Sloman, "Jo Grimond and the Liberal Revival, 1956–64," in The Liberal Party and the Economy, 1929–1964 (2014)
External links
1913 births
1993 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Asquith family
British Army personnel of World War II
Chancellors of the University of Kent
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fife and Forfar Yeomanry officers
Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK)
Liberal Democrats (UK) life peers
Members of the Middle Temple
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Scottish Liberal Party MPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Orkney and Shetland
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Gibbs School
People educated at Eton College
People from St Andrews
Rectors of the University of Aberdeen
Rectors of the University of Edinburgh
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
20th-century Scottish lawyers
People associated with Shetland
|
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