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206208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish-speaking%20population%20of%20Finland	Swedish-speaking population of Finland	The Swedish-speaking population of Finland (whose members are called by many names—see below; ; ) is a linguistic minority in Finland. They maintain a strong identity and are seen either as a separate cultural or ethnic group, while still being Finns, or as a distinct nationality. They speak Finland Swedish, which encompasses both a standard language and distinct dialects that are mutually intelligible with the dialects spoken in Sweden and, to a lesser extent, other Scandinavian languages. According to Statistics Finland, Swedish is the mother tongue of about 260,000 people in mainland Finland and of about 26,000 people in Åland, a self-governing archipelago off the west coast of Finland, where Swedish speakers constitute a majority. Swedish-speakers comprise 5.2% of the total Finnish population or about 4.9% without Åland. The proportion has been steadily diminishing since the early 19th century, when Swedish was the mother tongue of approximately 15% of the population and considered a prestige language. According to a statistical analysis made by Fjalar Finnäs, the population of the minority group is today stable, and may even be increasing slightly in total numbers since more parents from bilingual families tend to register their children as Swedish speakers. It is estimated that 70% of bilingual families—that is, ones with one parent Finnish-speaking and the other Swedish-speaking—register their children as Swedish-speaking. Terminology The Swedish term finlandssvensk (literally Finland-Swede), which is used by the group itself, does not have an established English translation. The Society of Swedish Authors in Finland and the main political institutions for the Swedish-speaking minority, such as the Swedish People's Party and Swedish Assembly of Finland, use the expression Swedish-speaking population of Finland, but Swedish-speaking NGOs often use the term Finland-Swedes. The Research Institute for the Languages of Finland proposes Swedish-speaking Finns, Swedish Finns, or Finland-Swedes, the first of which is the sole form used on the institute's website. Some debators insist for the use of the more traditional English-language form, Finland-Swedes, as they view the labelling of them as Swedish-speaking Finns as a way of depriving them their ethnic affiliation, reducing it to merely a matter of language and de-emphasising the "Swedish part" of Finland-Swedish identity, i.e. their relations to Sweden. Among Finnish Americans the term Swede-Finn became dominant before the independence of Finland in 1917, and the term has remained common to the present, despite later immigrants tending to use different terms such as Finland-Swede. The expressions Swedish-speaking Finns, Swedes of Finland, Finland Swedes, Finnish Swedes, and Swedish Finns are all used in academic literature. History Medieval Swedish colonisation The first Swedish arrivals in Finland have often been linked to the putative First Swedish Crusade (ca. 1150) which, if it took place, served to expand Christianity and annex Finnish territories to the kingdom of Sweden. Simultaneously the growth of population in Sweden, together with lack of land, resulted in Swedish settlements in Southern and Western coastal areas of Finland. The Second Swedish Crusade against the Tavastians in the 13th century extended the Swedish settlements to Uusimaa. During the 14th century, the population expansion from Sweden proper increasingly took the form of organised mass migration: the new settlers came in large numbers in large ships from various parts of Sweden's Eastern coast, from Småland to Hälsingland. Their departure from Sweden proper to Finland was encouraged and organized by the Swedish authorities. The coast of Ostrobothnia received large-scale Swedish settlements during the 13th and 15th centuries, in parallel with events that resulted in Swedish expansion to Norrland and Estonia's coastal area. Debate about the origin of the Swedish-speaking population in Finland The origin of the Swedish-speaking population in the territory that today constitutes Finland was a subject of fierce debate in the early 20th century as a part of the Finland's language strife. Some Finland-Swede scholars, such as , and Tor Karsten, used place names in trying to prove that the Swedish settlement in Finland dates back to prehistoric times. Their views were opposed mainly by in the 1920s. In 1966, the historian Hämäläinen (as referenced by McRae 1993) addressed the strong correlation between the scholar's mother-tongue and the views on the Scandinavian settlement history of Finland. "Whereas Finnish-speaking scholars tended to deny or minimize the presence of Swedish-speakers before the historically documented Swedish expeditions starting from the 12th century, Swedish-speaking scholars have found archeological and philological evidence for a continuous and Swedish or Germanic presence in Finland from pre-historic times." Since the late 20th century, several Swedish-speaking philologists, archaeologists and historians from Finland have criticized the theories of Germanic/Scandinavian continuity in Finland. Current research has established that the Swedish-speaking population and Swedish place names in Finland date to the Swedish colonisation of Uusimaa and Ostrobothnia coastal regions of Finland in the 12th and 13th centuries. Nationalism and language strife The proportion of Swedish speakers in Finland has declined since the 18th century, when almost 20% spoke Swedish (these 18th-century statistics excluded Karelia and Kexholm County, which were ceded to Russia in 1743, and the northern parts of present-day Finland were counted as part of Norrland). When the Grand Duchy of Finland was formed and Karelia was reunited with Finland, the share of Swedish speakers was 15% of the population. During the 19th century a national awakening occurred in Finland. It was supported by the Russian central administration for practical reasons, as a security measure to weaken Swedish influence in Finland. This trend was reinforced by the general wave of nationalism in Europe in the mid-19th century. As a result, under the influence of the German idea of one national language, a strong movement arose that promoted the use of the Finnish language in education, research and administration. Many influential Swedish-speaking families learned Finnish, fennicized their names and changed their everyday language to Finnish, sometimes not a very easy task. This linguistic change had many similarities with the linguistic and cultural revival of 19th century Lithuania where many former Polish speakers expressed their affiliation with the Lithuanian nation by adopting Lithuanian as their spoken language. As the educated class in Finland was almost entirely Swedish-speaking, the first generation of the Finnish nationalists and Fennomans came predominantly from a Swedish-speaking background. The language issue was not primarily an issue of ethnicity, but an ideological and philosophical issue as to what language policy would best preserve Finland as a nation. This also explains why so many academically educated Swedish speakers changed to Finnish: it was motivated by ideology. Both parties had the same patriotic objectives, but their methods were completely the opposite. The language strife would continue up until World War II. The majority of the population – both Swedish and Finnish speakers – were farmers, fishermen and other workers. The farmers lived mainly in unilingual areas, while the other workers lived in bilingual areas such as Helsinki. This co-existence gave birth to Helsinki slang – a Finnish slang with novel slang words of Finnish, local and common Swedish and Russian origin. Helsinki was primarily Swedish-speaking until the late 19th century, see further: Fennicization of Helsinki. The Swedish nationality and quest for territorial recognition The Finnish-speaking parties, under the lead of Senator E. N. Setälä who played a major role in the drafting the language act (1922) and the language paragraphs (1919) in the Finnish constitution, interpreted the language provisions so that they are not supposed to suggest the existence of two nationalities. According to this view Finland has two national languages but only one nationality. This view was never shared in the Swedish-speaking political circles and paved the way for a linguistic conflict. Contrary to the Finnish-speaking view the leaders of the Swedish nationality movement (Axel Lille and others) maintained that the Swedish population of Finland constituted a nationality of its own and the provisions of the constitution act were seen to support the view. The Finnish-speaking political circles denoted the cultural rights of Finland-Swedes as minority rights. The Finland-Swedish political view emphasized the equality of the Swedish nationality next to the Finnish-speaking nationality and the fact the national languages of Finland were the languages of the respective nationalities of the country, not the languages of the state itself. The concept of minority, although de facto the case for Swedish speakers, was perceived as being against the spirit of the constitution. However, gradually after the Second World War, the concept of minority has been increasingly applied to Swedish speakers, even within the Finland-Swedish political discourse. The Swedish nationality movement was effectively mobilized during the aftermath of Finnish independence and the civil war that shortly followed. The Swedish assembly of Finland was founded to protect the linguistic integrity of Swedish-speakers and seek fixed territorial guarantees for the Swedish language for those parts of the country where Swedish speakers made up the local majority. The Finnish-speaking parties and leadership studiously avoided self-government for Swedish speakers in the Finnish mainland. Of the broader wishes of the Swedish-speaking political movement only cultural concessions—most notably administrative autonomy for Swedish schools and a Swedish diocese—were realized, which nevertheless were sufficient to prevent more thorough conflict between the ethno-linguistic groups. Developments since the late 19th century The urbanization and industrialization that began in the late 19th century increased the interaction between people speaking different languages with each other, especially in the bigger towns. Helsinki (Helsingfors in Swedish and dominantly used until the late 19th century), named after medieval settlers from the Swedish province of Hälsingland, still mainly Swedish speaking in the beginning of the 19th century, attracted Finnish-speaking workers, civil servants and university students from other parts of Finland, as did other Swedish-speaking areas. As a result, the originally unilingual Swedish-speaking coastal regions in the province of Nyland Uusimaa were cut into two parts. There was a smaller migration in the opposite direction, and a few Swedish-speaking "islands" emerged in towns like Tampere, Oulu and Kotka. According to official statistics, Swedish speakers made up 12.9% of the total population of Finland of 2.6 million in 1900. By 1950 their proportion had fallen to 8.6% of a total of 4 million people, and by 1990 they formed 5.9% of the country's 5 million people. This sharp decline has since levelled off to more modest annual declines. An important contribution to the decline of Swedish speakers in Finland during the second half of the 20th century was that many Swedish speakers emigrated to Sweden. An estimated 30–50% of all Finnish citizens who moved to Sweden were Swedish-speaking Finns. Reliable statistics are not available, as the Swedish authorities, as opposed to their Finnish counterpart, do not register languages. Another reason is that the natural increase of the Finnish-speakers has been somewhat faster than that of the Swedish-speakers until recent times, when the trend has reversed. During most of the 20th century, marriages across language borders tended to result in children becoming Finnish speakers, and knowledge of Swedish declined. During the last decades the trend has been reversed: many bilingual families chose to register their children as Swedish speakers and put their children in Swedish schools. One motive is the language skills needed during their professional lives. Population statistics do not recognize bilingualism. Historical relationship of the Swedish- and Finnish-speaking populations The Finnish substrate toponyms (place names) within today's Swedish-speaking areas have been interpreted as indicative of earlier Finnish settlements in the area. A toponymical analysis from e.g. the Turunmaa archipelago—today largely Swedish-speaking—suggests the existence of a large population of native Finnish speakers up until the early modern age. Whether the Finnish settlements prior to the arrival of the Swedes have been permanent or seasonal is debated. According to another toponymic study, some Finnish villages and farms on the south-western coast and the archipelago became Swedish-speaking by assimilation. According to another view (e.g. Tarkiainen 2008) the two major areas of Swedish language speakers (Uusimaa and Ostrobothnia) were largely uninhabited at the time of the arrival of Swedes. According to an interpretation based on the results of recent (2008) genome-wide SNP scans and on church records from the early modern period, Swedish-speaking peasantry has been overwhelmingly endogamous. Historian Tarkiainen (2008) presents that from the late Middle Ages onwards until relatively recent times, Swedish-speaking peasants tended to select their marriage partners from the same parish, often from the same village as themselves. This tends to be the rule among traditional peasant communities everywhere. As tightly-knit peasant communities tend to assimilate potential newcomers very quickly, this has meant that most marriages within the Swedish-speaking peasantry during this period were contracted with members of the same language group. During the time of early immigration by Swedes to the coastal regions (approximatively between 1150 and 1350), the situation was different and according to a study from the 1970s (as referenced by Tarkiainen, 2008) the intermarriage rate between local Finns and Swedish newcomers was considerable. According to Tarkiainen, in the areas of initial Swedish immigration, the local Finns were assimilated into the Swedish-speaking population. Culture, literature and folklore The Finland-Swedish folklore at the coast has been traditionally maritime influenced. The themes for the folklore are typical in the Nordic context. Stories and tales involving the evil water-spirit are in central. The origins of the tales have been German and French from where they have adapted to the Nordic-milieu. The (Finland)-Swedish folklore has had a significant impact also to the folklore of Finnish-speakers. Finland-Swedish literature has a rich legacy. Under the lead of Edith Södergran, who also captivated audiences in English-speaking world, Gunnar Björling and Elmer Diktonius, the Finland-Swedish modernists of the early 20th century had a significant impact for the whole Scandinavian modernism. Tove Jansson is perhaps the most renowned example of Finland-Swedish prose. Her Moomin books have fascinated children and adults throughout the world. On 6 November, Finnish Swedish Heritage Day, a general flag flying day, is celebrated in Finland; that day celebrates the Swedish-speaking population of Finland, their culture, and the bilinguality of Finland. Genetics In a 2008 study a joint analysis was performed for the first time on Swedish and Finnish autosomal genotypes. Swedish-speakers from Ostrobothnia (reference population of the study representing 40% of all Swedish-speakers in Finland) did not differ significantly from the neighbouring, adjacent Finnish-speaking populations but formed a genetic cluster with the Swedes and also the amount of genetic admixture between the groups which have taken place historically. According to a 2008 Y-DNA study, a Swedish-speaking reference group from Larsmo, Ostrobothnia, differed significantly from the Finnish-speaking sub-populations in the country in terms of Y-STR variation. This study however was comparing one small Swedish-speaking municipality of 4652 inhabitants to Finnish-speaking provinces and only tells about the origin of two different Y-DNA haplotypes. Identity According to a sociological study published in 1981, the Swedish-speaking Finns meet the four major criteria for a separate ethnic group: self-identification of ethnicity, language, social structure, and ancestry. However, not all Swedish-speaking Finns are willing to self-identify as representatives of a distinct ethnicity. The major political organisation representing the Swedish-speakers in Finland, the Swedish People's Party, has defined the Swedish-speaking Finns as a people who express Finnish identity in the Swedish language. The issue is debated: an opposite view is still that the Swedish-speaking Finns are a sub-group of the ethnic Swedes, östsvenskar or "East Swedes". Despite these varying viewpoints, the Swedish-speaking population in Finland in general have their own identity distinct from that of the majority, and they wish to be recognized as such. In speaking Swedish, Swedish-speaking Finns predominantly use the Swedish word finländare (approximately translatable as Finlanders) when referring to all Finnish nationals. The purpose is to use a term that includes both themselves and Finnish-speaking Finns because the Swedish word finnar, in Finland-Swedish usage, implies a Finnish-speaking Finn. In Sweden, this distinction between finländare and finnar is not widely understood and often not made. In literature regarding to international law and minority rights, a view that the Swedish-speakers in Finland not only constitute an ethnic minority but a distinct nationality has also been presented. Marriages between Swedish- and Finnish-speakers are nowadays very common. According to a study commissioned by the Swedish Assembly of Finland in 2005, 48.5% of all families with children where at least one of the parents was Swedish-speaking were bilingual in the sense of one parent being Swedish- and the other Finnish-speaking (only families living in those municipalities where Swedish was at least a co-official language were included in this study). 67.7% of the children from these bilingual families were registered as Swedish-speaking. The proportion of those who attended schools where Swedish was the language of instruction was even higher. The Finnish authorities classify a person as a Swedish- or Finnish-speaker based only upon that person's (or parent's) own choice, which can be changed at any time. It is only possible to be registered either as Swedish- or Finnish-speaking, not both as in Canada, for example. It is significantly more common nowadays than it used to be for children from bilingual families to be registered as Swedish-speaking. Historical predominance of the Swedish language among the gentry Areas of modern-day Finland were integrated into the Swedish realm in the 13th century, at a time when that realm was still in the process of being formed. At the time of Late Middle Ages, Latin was still the language of instruction from the secondary school upwards and in use among the educated class and priests. As Finland was part of Sweden proper for 550 years, Swedish was the language of the nobility, administration and education. Hence the two highest estates of the realm, i.e. nobles and priests, had Swedish as their language. In the two minor estates, burghers and peasants, Swedish also held sway, but in a more varying degree depending on regional differences. Most noble families of the medieval period arrived directly from Sweden. A significant minority of the nobility had foreign origins (predominantly German), but their descendants normally adopted Swedish as their first language. The clergy in the earlier part the formation of the Lutheran Church (in its High Church form) was constituted most often of the wealthier strata of the peasantry with the closely linked medieval Finnish nobility and the rising burgher class in the expanding cities. The Church required fluency in Finnish from clergymen serving in predominantly or totally Finnish-speaking parishes (most of the country); consequently clerical families tended to maintain a high degree of functional bilingualism. Clerical families in the whole seem to have been more fluent in Finnish than the burghers as whole. In the Middle Ages, commerce in the Swedish realm, including Finland, was dominated by German merchants who immigrated in large numbers to the cities and towns of Sweden and Finland. As a result, the wealthier burghers in Sweden (and in cities as Turku (Åbo) and Vyborg (Viborg)) during the late Middle Ages tended to be of German origin. In the 19th century, a new wave of immigration came from German-speaking countries predominantly connected to commercial activities, which has formed a notable part of the grand bourgeoisie in Finland to this day . After the Finnish war, Sweden lost Finland to Russia. During the period of Russian sovereignty (1809–1917) the Finnish language was promoted by the Russian authorities as a way to sever the cultural and emotional ties with Sweden and to counter the threat of a reunion with Sweden. Consequently, the Finnish language began to replace Swedish in the administrative and cultural sphere during the later part of the 19th century. The rise of the Finnish language to an increasingly prevalent position in society was, at the outset, mainly a construct of eager promoters of the Finnish language from the higher strata of society, mainly with Swedish-speaking family backgrounds. A later development, especially at the beginning of the 20th century, was the adoption or translation or modification of Swedish surnames into Finnish (fennicization). This was generally done throughout the entire society. In upper-class families it was predominantly in cadet branches of families that the name translations took place. Opposition to the Swedish language was partly based around historical prejudices and conflicts that had sprung up during the 19th century. The intensified language strife and the aspiration to raise the Finnish language and Finnic culture from peasant status to the position of a national language and a national culture gave rise to negative portrayals of Swedish speakers as foreign oppressors of the peaceful Finnish-speaking peasant. Even though the proportional distribution of Swedish-speakers among different social strata closely reflects that of the general population, there is still a lingering conception of Swedish as a language of the historical upper class culture of Finland. This is reinforced by the fact that Swedish-speakers are statistically overrepresented among "old money" families as well as within the Finnish nobility consisting of about 6000 persons, of which about two thirds are Swedish-speakers. Still the majority of the Swedish-speaking Finns have traditionally been farmers and fishermen from the Finnish coastal municipalities and archipelago. Bilingualism Finland is a bilingual country according to its constitution. This means that members of the Swedish language minority have the right to communicate with the state authorities in their mother tongue. On the municipal level, this right is legally restricted to municipalities with a certain minimum of speakers of the minority language. All Finnish communities and towns are classified as either monolingual or bilingual. When the proportion of the minority language increases to 8% (or 3000), then the municipality is defined as bilingual, and when it falls below 6%, the municipality becomes monolingual. In bilingual municipalities, all civil servants must have satisfactory language skill in either Finnish or Swedish (in addition to native-level skill in the other language). Both languages can be used in all communications with the civil servants in such a town. Public signs (such as street and traffic signs, as illustrated) are in both languages in bilingual towns and municipalities the name in majority language being on the top. The Swedish-speaking areas in Finnish Mainland do not have fixed territorial protection, unlike the languages of several national minorities in Central Europe such as German in Belgium and North Italy. This has caused a heated debate among Swedish-speaking Finns. The current language act of Finland has been criticized as inadequate instrument to protect the linguistic rights of Swedish-speaking Finns in practice. The criticism was partly legitimized by the report (2008) conducted by Finnish government which showed severe problems in the practical implementation of the language act. The recent administrative reforms in Finland have caused harsh criticism in the Swedish-speaking media and created fear over the survival of Swedish as an administrative language in Finland. A special status in the form partial self-determination and fixed protection for Swedish language in Swedish-speaking municipalities have been proposed in Finland's Swedish-speaking media. Following an educational reform in the 1970s, both Swedish and Finnish became compulsory school subjects. The school subjects are not called Finnish or Swedish; the primary language in which lessons are taught depends upon the pupil's mother tongue. This language of instruction is officially and in general practice called the mother tongue ( in Finnish, in Swedish). The secondary language, as a school subject, is called the other domestic language ( in Finnish, in Swedish). Lessons in the "other domestic language" usually start in the third, fifth or seventh form of comprehensive school and are a part of the curriculum in all secondary education. In polytechnics and universities, all students are required to pass an examination in the "other domestic language" on a level that enables them to be employed as civil servants in bilingual offices and communities. The actual linguistic abilities of those who have passed the various examinations however vary considerably. Being a small minority usually leads to functional bilingualism. Swedish-speaking Finns are more fluent in Finnish than Finnish-speakers are in Swedish due to the practical matter of living in a predominantly Finnish-speaking country. In big cities with a significant Swedish-speaking population such as Helsinki and Turku, most of them are fluent in both Swedish and Finnish. Although in some municipalities Swedish is the only official language, Finnish is the dominant language in most towns and at most employers in Finland. In areas with a Finnish-speaking majority, Finnish is most often used when interacting with strangers and known Finnish speakers. However, 50% of all Swedish speakers live in areas in which Swedish is the majority language and in which they can use Swedish in all or most contexts (see demographics below). Demographics Of the Swedish-speaking population of Finland, 44% live in officially bilingual towns and municipalities where Finnish dominates, 41% live in officially bilingual towns and municipalities where Swedish dominates, 9% live in Åland, of whose population about 90% was Swedish-speaking in 2010, 6% live in officially monolingual Finnish-speaking towns and municipalities. Swedish-speaking immigrants There is a small community of Swedish-speaking immigrants in Finland. Many of them come from Sweden, or have resided there (about 8,500 Swedish citizens live in Finland and around 30,000 residents in Finland were born in Sweden), while others have opted for Swedish because it is the main language in the city in which they live, or because their partners are Swedish-speaking. About one quarter of immigrants in the Helsinki area would choose to integrate in Swedish if they had the option. According to a report by Finland's Swedish think tank, Magma, there is a widespread perception among immigrants that they are more easily integrated in the Swedish-speaking community than in the majority society. However, some immigrants also question whether they ever will be fully accepted as Finland Swedes. Swedish-speaking immigrants also have their own association, Ifisk, and in the capital region there is a publicly financed project named Delaktig aimed at facilitating integration of immigrants who know or wish to learn Swedish. Most if not all immigrants also wish to be fluent in Finnish due to the fact that it is the dominant language in Finnish society. Diaspora Swedish speakers have migrated to many parts of the world. For a number of reasons, such as geographic and linguistic among others, Sweden has traditionally been the number one destination for Swedish-speaking emigrants and about 65,000 Finland-Swedes live in Sweden, according to Finlandssvenskarnas Riksförbund i Sverige. Notable Swedish-speakers from Finland Lars Ahlfors, mathematician, Fields Medal winner Antti Ahlström, industrialist and founder of the Ahlstrom Corporation Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt, courtier and diplomat, and in Finland, he is considered one of the great Finnish statesmen Niklas Bäckström, ice hockey goaltender for the Minnesota Wild of the NHL Hjalmar von Bonsdorff, Admiral, first governor of Åland and politician Jörn Donner, writer, film director, actor, producer and politician Albert Edelfelt, painter Johan Albrecht Ehrenström, architect and chairman of the committee in charge of rebuilding the city of Helsinki Johan Casimir Ehrnrooth, soldier in the service of Imperial Russia, who also acted as Prime Minister of Bulgaria Arvid Adolf Etholén, Naval officer employed by the Russian-American Company Karl-August Fagerholm, three times Prime Minister of Finland Kaj Franck, leading figure in Finnish design Akseli Gallen-Kallela, painter best known for his illustrations of the Kalevala (the Finnish national epic) Ragnar Granit, scientist, Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine in 1967 Marcus Grönholm, rally driver, two-time world champion Bengt Holmström, Nobel laureate in economic sciences Fredrik Idestam, mining engineer and businessman, best known as a founder of Nokia Tove Jansson, painter, illustrator, writer, creator of Moomin characters Eero Järnefelt, realist painter Pernilla Karlsson, singer Linda Lampenius, classical violinist Kevin Lankinen, ice hockey goaltender for the Chicago Blackhawks of the NHL Mathias Lillmåns, vocalist of folk/black metal band Finntroll Magnus Lindberg, composer Isak Elliot Lundén, singer-songwriter Gustaf Mannerheim, Marshal and President of Finland, commander-in-chief during the Winter War Gustaf Nordenskiöld, explorer of the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde, Colorado; son of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Arctic explorer, first to conquer the Northeast passage and circumnavigate Eurasia; father of Gustaf Nordenskiöld Paradise Oskar, singer-songwriter (real name: Axel Ehnström) , keyboard player, songwriter, producer (real name: Sebastian Teir) Emil von Qvanten, poet and politician Johan Ludvig Runeberg, romantic writer and Finland's national poet Helene Schjerfbeck, painter André Linman, musician Jean Sibelius, classical composer Krista Siegfrids, pop musician Janina Orlov, translator Johan Vilhelm Snellman, influential Fennoman philosopher and Finnish statesman Lars Sonck, architect Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, 1st President of Finland Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, 3rd President of Finland Edith Södergran, modernist poet Eric Tigerstedt, Finnish inventor at the beginning of the 20th century, often referred to as the "Thomas Edison of Finland" Zacharias Topelius, journalist, historian and author Linus Torvalds, software engineer, creator of the Linux kernel Michael Widenius, software programmer and the main author of the original version of the open source MySQL relational database management system Rudolf Walden, industrialist and general Martin Wegelius, composer, musicologist, and founder of the Sibelius Academy Georg Henrik von Wright, philosopher See also Demographics of Finland Svenskfinland Finland Swedish – the language spoken by the Finland Swedes Finnish people – the ethnic groups of Finns Swedish people – the ethnic group of Swedes Sweden Finns – people of Finnish descent in Sweden Diocese of Borgå Swedish unit of the Finnish Broadcasting Company Swedish Assembly of Finland List of Swedish-speaking Finns List of Swedish-speaking and bilingual municipalities of Finland Svecoman movement Fennoman movement Fennicization Finlandssvensk samling Yle FSR Notes References External links The Finland-Swedish information and cultural center Swedish People's Party Society of Swedish Literature in Finland	[ 0.08760181069374084, 0.2519635856151581, -0.006312301382422447, -0.11657940596342087, -0.3201024830341339, 0.45243993401527405, 0.7154537439346313, 0.6521247029304504, 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206209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arun%20Shourie	Arun Shourie	Arun Shourie (born 2 November 1941) is an Indian economist, journalist, author and politician. He has worked as an economist with the World Bank, a consultant to the Planning Commission of India, editor of the Indian Express and The Times of India and a Minister of Communications and Information Technology in the Vajpayee Ministry (1998–2004). He was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1982 and the Padma Bhushan in 1990. Popularly perceived as one of the main Hindu nationalist intellectuals during the 90s and early 2000s, for instance writing controversial works on Islam and Christianity apart from attacks on left-wing ideologues, he now considers himself skeptical of religions in general while having affinities for Buddhism that he considers "closest to reason." This skepticism was born out of the contemplation of bringing up his disabled son and taking care of his ailing wife, experiences he shared in the 2011-book Does He Know a Mother's Heart: How Suffering Refutes Religion, suggesting that "for dealing with life and what it sends us, the Buddha's position is the most helpful." Early life Arun Shourie was born in Jalandhar, British India, on 2 November 1941. He studied at Modern School, Barakhamba and did his bachelor's in Economics(H) from St. Stephen's College, Delhi University. He obtained his doctorate in Economics from the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University in 1966. Personal life Shourie is married to Anita, and they have a son. His sister is the journalist Nalini Singh. Arun Shourie speaks about his personal life and reviews his life events as case diaries "My writing is like the case diary of an advocate which is aimed at winning a case" and his opinions on journalism. Career Economist Shortly after receiving PhD in economics from Syracuse University Shourie joined World Bank as an economist in 1967 where he worked for more than 10 years. Simultaneously, between 1972–74, he was a consultant to the Indian Planning Commission and it was around this time that he began writing articles as a journalist, criticising economic policy. Journalism In 1975, during The Emergency imposed by then prime minister, Indira Gandhi, Shourie began writing for the Indian Express in opposition to what he saw as an attack on civil liberties. The newspaper, owned by Ramnath Goenka, was a focal point for the government's efforts at censorship. He became a fellow of the Indian Council of Social Science Research in 1976. In January 1979, Goenka appointed Shourie as executive editor of the newspaper, giving him a carte blanche to do with it as he saw fit. He developed a reputation as an intelligent, fearless writer and editor who campaigned for freedom of the press, exposed corruption and defended civil liberties such that, in the words of Martha Nussbaum, "his dedication to the truth has won admiration throughout the political spectrum". Shourie has been called a "veteran journalist". Shourie was a winner of the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1982, in the Journalism, Literature and Creative Communication Arts category as "a concerned citizen employing his pen as an effective adversary of corruption, inequality and injustice." In 2000, he was named as one of the International Press Institute's World Press Freedom Heroes. He has also been named International Editor of the Year Award and was awarded The Freedom to Publish Award. Politics He was nominated from the state of Uttar Pradesh as a BJP representative for two successive tenures in the Rajya Sabha, thus being a Member of Parliament for 1998–2004 and 2004–2010. He held the office of the Minister of Disinvestment, Communication and Information Technology in the government of India under Vajpayee's prime ministership. As Disinvestment Minister, he led the sale of Maruti, VSNL, Hindustan Zinc among others. Shourie was among many who objected to The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986, which the government headed by Rajiv Gandhi proposed to alleviate communal violence and retain Muslim votes. Claimed by the government to be a reinforcement of India's constitutional secularism, it was widely criticised by both Muslims and Hindus. The liberals among them, says Ainslie Embree, saw it as "a capitulation to the forces of Islamic obscurantism, a return ... to the thirteenth century"; the Hindu revivalist critics thought it was "weakening Indian unity". Shourie wrote articles that tried to show that the treatment of women as required by the Quran would in fact offer them protection, although the application of Islamic law in practice was oppressing them. He was in turn criticised for what was perceived as a thinly-veiled attack on Islam itself, with Rafiq Zakaria, the Muslim scholar, saying that Shourie's concern for reform of Islam was in fact demonstrative of Hindu contempt that used the plight of Muslim women as an example of the backwardness of the community. Vir Sanghvi termed it "Hindu chauvinism with a liberal face". After the defeat of the BJP in 2009 general elections, Shourie asked for introspection and accountability within the party. He deplored factionalism within the party and those who brief journalists to aid their own agenda. Shourie has been described by Christophe Jaffrelot, a political scientist, as "a writer sympathetic to militant Hindu themes" and has publicly voiced support for the aims of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a nationalist Hindutva organisation. This has caused unease among some of those who admire his journalism. He has said that, although he sees a danger from perceived Muslim violence such as the Godhra train burning incident of 2002, people have tended to redefine the "Hindutva" term. He says that prominent members of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), of which he is a member and which has ties to the RSS — specifically, L. K. Advani and Atal Bihari Vajpayee — have shown their opposition to sectarian hatred and in their attempts to make the BJP inclusive have tried to marginalise those on both the Muslim and Hindu extremes who promote such hatred. As a political scientist he views that present electoral system does not concern competency and integrity. He emphasised his views in a cultural conference called Tomorrow’s India Global Summit and added that the pressure to bring about change in the present electoral system should come from the society. Writer Arun Shourie has written numerous books. According to Martha Nussbaum, the traits of his writings are: With the exception of Gandhi, he has little time for any religious thinker and, says Nussbaum, his books "nowhere ... seek to provide balance; nowhere is there a sense of complexity. All have the same mocking, superior tone." Historian D.N. Jha criticized Shourie's book Eminent Historians, which concerned the NCERT controversy, that it contains "slander" and "has nothing to do with history." IIT Kanpur In 2000, Shourie pledged the entire amount (Rs. 12 crore) of discretionary spending available to him under Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS) to setting up of Bio-Sciences & Bio-engineering Department at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. In 2005, he again pledged Rs. 11 crore for developing a separate building for Environmental Sciences and Environmental Engineering at the institute. Books Author Symptoms of fascism, New Delhi : Vikas, 1978, 322 p. Hinduism : essence and consequence : a study of the Upanishads, the Gita and the Brahma-Sutras, Sahibabad : Vikas House, 1979, 414 p. Institutions in the Janata phase, Bombay : Popular Prakashan, 1980, 300 p. Mrs Gandhi's second reign, New Delhi : Vikas ; New York : Distributed by Advent Books, 1983, 532 p. The Assassination & after, New Delhi : Roli Books Internat., 1985, 160 p. On the current situation : new opportunities, new challenges, Pune : New Quest, 1985, 57 p. Religion in Politics, New Delhi : Roli Books, 1987, 334 p. Individuals, institutions, processes : how one may strengthen the other in India today, New Delhi, India ; New York, N.Y., U.S.A. : Viking, 1990, 239 p. The State as charade: V.P. Singh, Chandra Shekhar & the rest, New Delhi : Roli Books, 1991, 425 p. "The Only fatherland" : communists, "Quit India", and the Soviet Union, New Delhi : ASA Publications, 1991, 204 p. These lethal, inexorable laws: Rajiv, his men, and his regime, New Delhi : Roli Books, 1991, 433 p. A Secular Agenda: For Saving Our Country, for Welding It, New Delhi : ASA Publications, 1993, 376 p. Indian Controversies: Essays on Religion in Politics, New Delhi : Rupa & Co., 1993, 522 p. Missionaries in India : continuities, changes, dilemmas, New Delhi : ASA Publications, 1994, 305 p. World of Fatwas: Shariah in Action, New Delhi : ASA Publications, 1995, 685 p. Worshipping False Gods: Ambedkar, and the facts which have been erased, New Delhi : ASA Publ., 1997, 663 p. Eminent Historians: Their Technology, Their Life, Their Fraud, New Delhi : ASA Publ., 1998, 271 p. Harvesting Our Souls: Missionaries, Their Design, Their Claims, New Delhi : ASA Publ., 2000, 432 p. Courts and Their Judgments: Premises, Prerequisites, Consequences, New Delhi : Rupa & Co., 2001, 454 p. Governance And The Sclerosis That Has Set In, New Delhi : ASA Publ., 2005, 262 p. Will the Iron Fence Save a Tree Hollowed by Termites?: Defence Imperatives Beyond the Military, New Delhi : ASA Publications, 2005, 485 p. Falling Over Backwards: An Essay on Reservations, and on Judicial Populism, New Delhi : ASA : Rupa & Co., 2006, 378 p. The Parliamentary System: What We Have Made Of It, What We Can Make Of It, New Delhi : Rupa & Co., 2006, 264 p. Where Will All this Take Us?: Denial, Disunity, Disarray, New Delhi : Rupa & Co., 2006, 604 p. Are We Deceiving Ourselves Again?: Lessons the Chinese Taught Pandit Nehru But which We Still Refuse to Learn, New Delhi : ASA Publ., 2008, 204 p. We Must Have No Price: National Security, Reforms, Political Reconstruction, New Delhi : Express Group : Rupa & Co., 2010, 343 p. Does He Know A Mothers Heart : How Suffering Refutes Religion, Noida : HarperCollins, 2011, 444 p. Two Saints: Speculations Around and About Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Ramana Maharishi, Noida : HarperCollins, 2017, 496 p. Anita Gets Bail: What Are Our Courts Doing? What Should We Do About Them?, Noida : HarperCollins, 2018, 288 p. Preparing For Death, India Viking, 2020, 528 p. Co-author with Amarjit Kaurn, Raghu Rai et al., The Punjab story, New Delhi : Roli books international, 1984, 199 p. with Sita Ram Goel, Harsh Narain, Jay Dubashi and Ram Swarup, Hindu Temples - What Happened to Them Vol. I : A Preliminary Survey, New Delhi : Voice of India, 1990, 191 p. with Sita Ram Goel, Koenraad Elst, Ram Swarup, Freedom of expression — Secular Theocracy Versus Liberal Democracy, Voice of India (1998). with Arun Jaitley, Swapan Dasgupta, Rama J Jois, Harsh Narain-The Ayodhya Reference:Suprema Court judgment and commentaries, Voice of India(1994) References Citations Bibliography External links The Arun Shourie site Interview at rediff.com Interview from December 2013 at rediff.com 1941 births Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Delhi Indian anti-communists Indian investigative journalists Living people Rajya Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh People from Jalandhar Punjab, India politicians Ramon Magsaysay Award winners Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in 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206210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete%20Hartley%20transform	Discrete Hartley transform	A discrete Hartley transform (DHT) is a Fourier-related transform of discrete, periodic data similar to the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), with analogous applications in signal processing and related fields. Its main distinction from the DFT is that it transforms real inputs to real outputs, with no intrinsic involvement of complex numbers. Just as the DFT is the discrete analogue of the continuous Fourier transform (FT), the DHT is the discrete analogue of the continuous Hartley transform (HT), introduced by Ralph V. L. Hartley in 1942. Because there are fast algorithms for the DHT analogous to the fast Fourier transform (FFT), the DHT was originally proposed by Ronald N. Bracewell in 1983 as a more efficient computational tool in the common case where the data are purely real. It was subsequently argued, however, that specialized FFT algorithms for real inputs or outputs can ordinarily be found with slightly fewer operations than any corresponding algorithm for the DHT. Definition Formally, the discrete Hartley transform is a linear, invertible function H: Rn → Rn (where R denotes the set of real numbers). The N real numbers x0, ..., xN−1 are transformed into the N real numbers H0, ..., HN−1 according to the formula The combination is sometimes denoted , and should not be confused with , or which appears in the DFT definition (where i is the imaginary unit). As with the DFT, the overall scale factor in front of the transform and the sign of the sine term are a matter of convention. Although these conventions occasionally vary between authors, they do not affect the essential properties of the transform. Properties The transform can be interpreted as the multiplication of the vector (x0, ...., xN−1) by an N-by-N matrix; therefore, the discrete Hartley transform is a linear operator. The matrix is invertible; the inverse transformation, which allows one to recover the xn from the Hk, is simply the DHT of Hk multiplied by 1/N. That is, the DHT is its own inverse (involutory), up to an overall scale factor. The DHT can be used to compute the DFT, and vice versa. For real inputs xn, the DFT output Xk has a real part (Hk + HN−k)/2 and an imaginary part (HN−k − Hk)/2. Conversely, the DHT is equivalent to computing the DFT of xn multiplied by 1 + i, then taking the real part of the result. As with the DFT, a cyclic convolution z = x∗y of two vectors x = (xn) and y = (yn) to produce a vector z = (zn), all of length N, becomes a simple operation after the DHT. In particular, suppose that the vectors X, Y, and Z denote the DHT of x, y, and z respectively. Then the elements of Z are given by: where we take all of the vectors to be periodic in N (XN = X0, et cetera). Thus, just as the DFT transforms a convolution into a pointwise multiplication of complex numbers (pairs of real and imaginary parts), the DHT transforms a convolution into a simple combination of pairs of real frequency components. The inverse DHT then yields the desired vector z. In this way, a fast algorithm for the DHT (see below) yields a fast algorithm for convolution. (This is slightly more expensive than the corresponding procedure for the DFT, not including the costs of the transforms below, because the pairwise operation above requires 8 real-arithmetic operations compared to the 6 of a complex multiplication. This count doesn't include the division by 2, which can be absorbed e.g. into the 1/N normalization of the inverse DHT.) Fast algorithms Just as for the DFT, evaluating the DHT definition directly would require O(N2) arithmetical operations (see Big O notation). There are fast algorithms similar to the FFT, however, that compute the same result in only O(N log N) operations. Nearly every FFT algorithm, from Cooley–Tukey to prime-factor to Winograd (1985) to Bruun's (1993), has a direct analogue for the discrete Hartley transform. (However, a few of the more exotic FFT algorithms, such as the QFT, have not yet been investigated in the context of the DHT.) In particular, the DHT analogue of the Cooley–Tukey algorithm is commonly known as the fast Hartley transform (FHT) algorithm, and was first described by Bracewell in 1984. This FHT algorithm, at least when applied to power-of-two sizes N, is the subject of the United States patent number 4,646,256, issued in 1987 to Stanford University. Stanford placed this patent in the public domain in 1994 (Bracewell, 1995). As mentioned above, DHT algorithms are typically slightly less efficient (in terms of the number of floating-point operations) than the corresponding DFT algorithm (FFT) specialized for real inputs (or outputs). This was first argued by Sorensen et al. (1987) and Duhamel & Vetterli (1987). The latter authors obtained what appears to be the lowest published operation count for the DHT of power-of-two sizes, employing a split-radix algorithm (similar to the split-radix FFT) that breaks a DHT of length N into a DHT of length N/2 and two real-input DFTs (not DHTs) of length N/4. In this way, they argued that a DHT of power-of-two length can be computed with, at best, 2 more additions than the corresponding number of arithmetic operations for the real-input DFT. On present-day computers, performance is determined more by cache and CPU pipeline considerations than by strict operation counts, and a slight difference in arithmetic cost is unlikely to be significant. Since FHT and real-input FFT algorithms have similar computational structures, neither appears to have a substantial a priori speed advantage ( and Šević, 1994). As a practical matter, highly optimized real-input FFT libraries are available from many sources (e.g. from CPU vendors such as Intel), whereas highly optimized DHT libraries are less common. On the other hand, the redundant computations in FFTs due to real inputs are more difficult to eliminate for large prime N, despite the existence of O(N log N) complex-data algorithms for such cases, because the redundancies are hidden behind intricate permutations and/or phase rotations in those algorithms. In contrast, a standard prime-size FFT algorithm, Rader's algorithm, can be directly applied to the DHT of real data for roughly a factor of two less computation than that of the equivalent complex FFT (Frigo and Johnson, 2005). On the other hand, a non-DHT-based adaptation of Rader's algorithm for real-input DFTs is also possible (Chu & Burrus, 1982). Multi-Dimensional Discrete Hartley Transform (MD-DHT) The rD-DHT (MD-DHT with "r" dimensions) is given by with and where Similar to the 1-D case, as a real and symmetric transform, the MD-DHT is simpler than the MD-DFT. For one, the inverse DHT is identical to the forward transform, with the addition of a scaling factor; and second, since the kernel is real, it avoids the computational complexity of complex numbers. Additionally, the DFT is directly obtainable from the DHT by a simple additive operation (Bracewell, 1983). The MD-DHT is widely used in areas like image and optical signal processing. Specific applications include computer vision, high-definition television, and teleconferencing, areas that process or analyze motion images (Zeng, 2000). Fast algorithms for the MD-DHT As computing speed keeps increasing, bigger multidimensional problems become computationally feasible, requiring the need for fast multidimensional algorithms. Three such algorithms follow. In pursuit of separability for efficiency, we consider the following transform (Bracewell, 1983), It was shown in Bortfeld (1995), that the two can be related by a few additions. For example, in 3-D, For , row-column algorithms can then be implemented. This technique is commonly used due to the simplicity of such R-C algorithms, but they are not optimized for general M-D spaces. Other fast algorithms have been developed, such as radix-2, radix-4, and split radix. For example, Boussakta (2000) developed the 3-D vector radix, It was also presented in Boussakta (2000) that this 3D-vector radix algorithm takes multiplications and additions compared to multiplications and additions from the row-column approach. The drawback is that the implementation of these radix-type of algorithms is hard to generalize for signals of arbitrary dimensions. Number theoretic transforms have also been used for solving the MD-DHT, since they perform extremely fast convolutions. In Boussakta (1988), it was shown how to decompose the MD-DHT transform into a form consisting of convolutions: For the 2-D case (the 3-D case is also covered in the stated reference), , can be decomposed into 1-D and 2-D circular convolutions as follows, where Developing further, At this point we present the Fermat number transform (FNT). The tth Fermat number is given by , with . The well known Fermat numbers are for ( is prime for ), (Boussakta, 1988). The Fermat number transform is given by with . and are roots of unity of order and respectively . Going back to the decomposition, the last term for will be denoted as , then If and are primitive roots of and (which are guaranteed to exist if and are prime) then and map to So, mapping and to and , one gets the following, . Which is now a circular convolution. With , , and , one has where denotes term by term multiplication. It was also stated in (Boussakta, 1988) that this algorithm reduces the number of multiplications by a factor of 8–20 over other DHT algorithms at a cost of a slight increase in the number of shift and add operations, which are assumed to be simpler than multiplications. The drawback of this algorithm is the constraint that each dimension of the transform has a primitive root. References Further reading (NB. Contains extensive bibliography.) 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206211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%20Summers	Lawrence Summers	Lawrence Henry Summers (born November 30, 1954) is an American economist who served as the 71st United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1999 to 2001 and as the 8th Director of the National Economic Council from 2009 to 2010. He is a former president of Harvard University (2001–2006), where he is currently () a professor and director of the Mossavar-Rahmani Center for Business and Government at Harvard's Kennedy School of Government. Born in New Haven, Connecticut, Summers became a professor of economics at Harvard University in 1983. He left Harvard in 1991, working as the Vice President of Development Economics and Chief Economist at the World Bank from 1991 to 1993. In 1993, Summers was appointed Under Secretary for International Affairs of the United States Department of the Treasury under President Bill Clinton's administration. In 1995, he was promoted to Deputy Secretary of the Treasury under his long-time political mentor Robert Rubin. In 1999, he succeeded Rubin as Secretary of the Treasury. While working for the Clinton administration, Summers played a leading role in the American response to the 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and the Russian financial crisis. He was also influential in the Harvard Institute for International Development and American-advised privatization of the economies of the post-Soviet states, and in the deregulation of the U.S financial system, including the repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act. Following the end of Clinton's term, Summers served as the 27th President of Harvard University from 2001 to 2006. Summers resigned as Harvard's president in the wake of a no-confidence vote by Harvard faculty, which resulted in large part from Summers's conflict with Cornel West, financial conflict of interest questions regarding his relationship with Andrei Shleifer, and a 2005 speech in which he offered three reasons for the under-representation of women in science and engineering, including the possibility that there exists a "different availability of aptitude at the high end", in addition to patterns of discrimination and socialization. After his departure from Harvard, Summers worked as a managing partner at the hedge fund D. E. Shaw & Co., and as a freelance speaker at other financial institutions, including Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, Merrill Lynch and Lehman Brothers. Summers rejoined public service during the Obama administration, serving as the Director of the White House United States National Economic Council for President Barack Obama from January 2009 until November 2010, where he emerged as a key economic decision-maker in the Obama administration's response to the Great Recession. After his departure from the NEC in December 2010, Summers worked in the private sector and as a columnist in major newspapers. In mid-2013, his name was widely floated as the potential successor to Ben Bernanke as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve, though Obama eventually nominated Federal Reserve Vice-Chairwoman Janet Yellen for the position. As of 2017, Summers retains his Harvard University status as former president emeritus and Charles W. Eliot University Professor. He also regularly writes opinion columns for The Washington Post. Family and education Summers was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on November 30, 1954, into a Jewish family, the son of two economists, Robert Summers (who changed the family surname from Samuelson) and Anita Summers (of Romanian-Jewish ancestry), who are both professors at the University of Pennsylvania. He is also the nephew of two Nobel laureates in economics: Paul Samuelson (brother of Robert Summers) and Kenneth Arrow (brother of Anita Arrow Summers). He spent most of his childhood in Penn Valley, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Philadelphia, where he attended Harriton High School. At age 16, he entered Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he originally intended to study physics but soon switched to economics (S.B., 1975). He was also an active member of the MIT debating team and qualified for participation in the annual National Debate Tournament three times. He attended Harvard University as a graduate student (Ph.D., 1982). In 1983, at age 28, Summers became one of the youngest tenured professors in Harvard's history. It was also during this time that Summers was diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma. He underwent treatment and has since remained cancer-free. He was a visiting academic at the London School of Economics in 1987. Summers has three children (older twin daughters Ruth and Pamela and son Harry) with his first wife, Victoria Joanne (Perry). In December 2005, Summers married English professor Elisa New, who has three daughters (Yael, Orli and Maya) from a previous marriage. He lives in Brookline, Massachusetts. Career Academic economist As a researcher, Summers has made important contributions in many areas of economics, primarily public finance, labor economics, financial economics, and macroeconomics. Summers has also worked in international economics, economic demography, economic history and development economics. He received the John Bates Clark Medal in 1993 from the American Economic Association. In 1987, he was the first social scientist to win the Alan T. Waterman Award from the National Science Foundation. Summers is also a member of the National Academy of Sciences. Some of his popular courses today, as Charles W. Eliot University Professor at Harvard University, include American Economic Policy and The Political Economy of Globalization. Public official Summers was on the staff of the Council of Economic Advisers under President Reagan in 1982–1983. He also served as an economic adviser to the Dukakis Presidential campaign in 1988. Chief Economist at the World Bank Summers left Harvard in 1991 and served as Vice President of Development Economics and Chief Economist for the World Bank until 1993. According to the World Bank's Data & Research office (March, 2017), Summers returned to Washington, D.C. in 1991 as the World Bank's Vice President of Development Economics and Chief Economist. As such, Summers played a "key role" in designing strategies to aid developing countries, worked on the bank's loan committee, guided the bank's research and statistics operations, and guided external training programs. The World Bank's official site also reports that Summer's research included an "influential" report that demonstrated a very high return from investments in educating girls in developing nations. According to The Economist, Summers was "often at the centre of heated debates" about economic policy, to an extent exceptional for the history of the World Bank in recent decades. "Dirty industries" controversy In December 1991, while at the World Bank, Summers signed a memo that was leaked to the press. Lant Pritchett has claimed authorship of the private memo, which both he and Summers say was intended as sarcasm. The memo stated that "the economic logic behind dumping a load of toxic waste in the lowest wage country is impeccable and we should face up to that. ... I've always thought that under-populated countries in Africa are vastly underpolluted." According to Pritchett, the memo, as leaked, was doctored to remove context and intended irony, and was "a deliberate fraud and forgery to discredit Larry and the World Bank." Service in the Clinton Administration In 1993, Summers was appointed Undersecretary for International Affairs and later in the United States Department of the Treasury under the Clinton Administration. In 1995, he was promoted to Deputy Secretary of the Treasury under his long-time political mentor Robert Rubin. In 1999, he succeeded Rubin as Secretary of the Treasury. Much of Summers's tenure at the Treasury Department was focused on international economic issues. He was deeply involved in the Clinton administration's effort to bail out Mexico and Russia when those nations had currency crises. Summers set up a project through which the Harvard Institute for International Development provided advice to the Russian government between 1992 and 1997. Later there was a scandal when it emerged that some of the Harvard project members had invested in Russia, and were therefore not impartial advisors. Summers encouraged then-Russian leader Boris Yeltsin to use the same "three-'ations'" of policy he advocated in the Clinton Administration – "privatization, stabilization, and liberalization." Summers pressured the Korean government to raise its interest rates and balance its budget in the midst of a recession, policies criticized by Paul Krugman and Joseph Stiglitz. According to the book The Chastening, by Paul Blustein, during this crisis, Summers, along with Paul Wolfowitz, pushed for regime change in Indonesia. Summers was a leading voice within the Clinton Administration arguing against American leadership in greenhouse gas reductions and against US participation in the Kyoto Protocol, according to internal documents made public in 2009. As Treasury Secretary, Summers led the Clinton Administration's opposition to tax cuts proposed by the Republican Congress in 1999. During the California energy crisis of 2000, then-Treasury Secretary Summers teamed with Alan Greenspan and Enron executive Kenneth Lay to lecture California Governor Gray Davis on the causes of the crisis, explaining that the problem was excessive government regulation. Under the advice of Kenneth Lay, Summers urged Davis to relax California's environmental standards in order to reassure the markets. Summers hailed the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act in 1999, which lifted more than six decades of restrictions against banks offering commercial banking, insurance, and investment services (by repealing key provisions in the 1933 Glass–Steagall Act): "Today Congress voted to update the rules that have governed financial services since the Great Depression and replace them with a system for the 21st century," Summers said. "This historic legislation will better enable American companies to compete in the new economy." Many critics, including President Barack Obama, have suggested the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis was caused by the partial repeal of the 1933 Glass–Steagall Act. Indeed, as a member of President Clinton's Working Group on Financial Markets, Summers, along with U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Chairman Arthur Levitt, Fed Chairman Greenspan, and Secretary Rubin, torpedoed an effort to regulate the derivatives that many blame for bringing the financial market down in Fall 2008. Views on banking regulation On May 7, 1998, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) issued a Concept Release soliciting input from regulators, academics, and practitioners to determine "how best to maintain adequate regulatory safeguards without impairing the ability of the OTC (over-the-counter) derivatives market to grow and the ability of U.S. entities to remain competitive in the global financial marketplace." On July 30, 1998, then-Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Summers testified before the U.S. Congress that "the parties to these kinds of contract are largely sophisticated financial institutions that would appear to be eminently capable of protecting themselves from fraud and counterparty insolvencies." At the time Summers stated that "to date there has been no clear evidence of a need for additional regulation of the institutional OTC derivatives market, and we would submit that proponents of such regulation must bear the burden of demonstrating that need." In 1999 Summers endorsed the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act which removed the separation between investment and commercial banks, saying "With this bill, the American financial system takes a major step forward towards the 21st Century." When George Stephanopoulos asked Summers about the financial crisis in an ABC interview on March 15, 2009, Summers replied that "there are a lot of terrible things that have happened in the last eighteen months, but what's happened at A.I.G. ... the way it was not regulated, the way no one was watching ... is outrageous." In February 2009, Summers quoted John Maynard Keynes, saying "When circumstances change, I change my opinion", reflecting both on the failures of Wall Street deregulation and his new leadership role in the government bailout. On April 18, 2010, in an interview on ABC's "This Week" program, Clinton said Summers was wrong in the advice he gave him not to regulate derivatives. President of Harvard In 2001, when George W. Bush became President, Summers left the Treasury Department and returned to Harvard as its 27th president, serving from July 2001 until June 2006. He is considered Harvard's first Jewish president, though his predecessor Neil Rudenstine had Jewish ancestry, and received praise from Harvard's Jewish community for his support. A number of Summers's decisions at Harvard have attracted public controversy, either at the time or since his resignation. Cornel West affair In an October 2001 meeting, Summers criticized African American Studies department head Cornel West for allegedly missing three weeks of classes to work on the Bill Bradley presidential campaign, and complained that West was contributing to grade inflation. Summers also claimed that West's "rap" album was an "embarrassment" to the university. West pushed back strongly against the accusations. "The hip-hop scared him. It's a stereotypical reaction", he said later. West, who later called Summers both "uninformed" and "an unprincipled power player" in describing this encounter in his book Democracy Matters (2004), subsequently returned to Princeton University, where he had taught prior to Harvard University. Differences between the sexes In January 2005, at a Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce sponsored by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Summers sparked controversy with his discussion of why women may have been underrepresented "in tenured positions in science and engineering at top universities and research institutions". The conference was designed to be off-the-record so that participants could speak candidly without fear of public misunderstanding or disclosure later. Summers had prefaced his talk, saying he was adopting an "entirely positive, rather than normative approach" and that his remarks were intended to be an "attempt at provocation." Summers then began by identifying three hypotheses for the higher proportion of men in high-end science and engineering positions: The high-powered job hypothesis Different availability of aptitude at the high end Different socialization and patterns of discrimination in a search The second hypothesis, the generally greater variability among men (compared to women) in tests of cognitive abilities, leading to proportionally more males than females at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions, caused the most controversy. In his discussion of this hypothesis, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]". Summers referenced research that implied differences between the standard deviations of males and females in the top 5% of twelfth-graders under various tests. He then went on to argue that, if this research were to be accepted, then "whatever the set of attributes ... that are precisely defined to correlate with being an aeronautical engineer at MIT or being a chemist at Berkeley ... are probably different in their standard deviations as well". Summers then concluded his discussion of the three hypotheses by saying: So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special case of science and engineering, there are issues of intrinsic aptitude, and particularly of the variability of aptitude, and that those considerations are reinforced by what are in fact lesser factors involving socialization and continuing discrimination. I would like nothing better than to be proved wrong, because I would like nothing better than for these problems to be addressable simply by everybody understanding what they are, and working very hard to address them. Summers then went on to discuss approaches to remedying the shortage of women in high-end science and engineering positions. This lunch-time talk drew accusations of sexism and careless scholarship, and an intense negative response followed, both nationally and at Harvard. Summers apologized repeatedly. Nevertheless, the controversy is speculated to have contributed to his resigning his position as president of Harvard University the following year, as well as costing Summers the job of Treasury Secretary in Obama's administration. Summers's protégée Sheryl Sandberg has defended him, saying that "Larry has been a true advocate for women throughout his career" at the World Bank and Treasury. Referring to the lunch talk, Sandberg said, "What few seem to note is that it is remarkable that he was giving the speech in the first place – that he cared enough about women's careers and their trajectory in the fields of math and science to proactively analyze the issues and talk about what was going wrong". In 2016, remarking upon political correctness in institutions of higher education, Summers said: There is a great deal of absurd political correctness. Now, I'm somebody who believes very strongly in diversity, who resists racism in all of its many incarnations, who thinks that there is a great deal that's unjust in American society that needs to be combated, but it seems to be that there is a kind of creeping totalitarianism in terms of what kind of ideas are acceptable and are debatable on college campuses. Summers' opposition and support at Harvard On March 15, 2005, members of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences, which instructs graduate students in Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and undergraduates in Harvard College, passed 218–185 a motion of "lack of confidence" in the leadership of Summers, with 18 abstentions. A second motion that offered a milder censure of the president passed 253 to 137, also with 18 abstentions. The members of the Harvard Corporation, the University's highest governing body, are in charge of the selection of the president and issued statements strongly supporting Summers. FAS faculty were not unanimous in their comments against Summers. Influential psychologist Steven Pinker defended the legitimacy of Summers's January lecture. When asked if Summers's talk was "within the pale of legitimate academic discourse," Pinker responded "Good grief, shouldn't everything be within the pale of legitimate academic discourse, as long as it is presented with some degree of rigor? That's the difference between a university and a madrassa. There is certainly enough evidence for the hypothesis to be taken seriously." Summers had stronger support among Harvard College students than among the college faculty. One poll by The Harvard Crimson indicated that students opposed his resignation by a three-to-one margin, with 57% of responding students opposing his resignation and 19% supporting it. In July 2005, a board member of Harvard Corporation, Conrad K. Harper, resigned saying he was angered both by the university president's comments about women and by Summers being given a salary increase. The resignation letter to the president said, "I could not and cannot support a raise in your salary, ... I believe that Harvard's best interests require your resignation." Support of economist Andrei Shleifer Harvard and Andrei Shleifer, a close friend and protégé of Summers, controversially paid $28.5 million to settle a lawsuit by the U.S. government over the conflict of interest Shleifer had while advising Russia's privatisation program. The US government had sued Shleifer under the False Claims Act, as he bought Russian stocks while designing the country's privatisation. In 2004, a federal judge ruled that while Harvard had violated the contract, Shleifer and his associate alone were liable for treble damages. In June 2005, Harvard and Shleifer announced that they had reached a tentative settlement with the US government. In August, Harvard, Shleifer, and the Department of Justice reached an agreement under which the university paid $26.5 million to settle the five-year-old lawsuit. Shleifer was also responsible for paying $2 million worth of damages. Because Harvard paid almost all of the damages and allowed Shleifer to retain his faculty position, the settlement provoked allegations of favoritism on Summers. His continued support for Shleifer strengthened Summers's unpopularity with other professors, as reported in The Harvard Crimson: In an 18,000-word article "How Harvard lost Russia" in Institutional Investor by David McClintick (January 2006), the magazine detailed Shleifer's alleged efforts to use his inside knowledge of and sway over the Russian economy in order to make lucrative personal investments, all while leading a Harvard group, advising the Russian government, that was under contract with the U.S. The article suggests that Summers shielded his fellow economist from disciplinary action by the University, and it noted that Summers had forewarned Shleifer and his wife Nancy Zimmerman about the conflict-of-interest regulations back in 1996. Summers's friendship with Shleifer was well known by the Corporation when it selected him to succeed Rudenstine and Summers recused himself from all proceedings with Shleifer, whose case was actually handled by an independent committee led by former Harvard President Derek Bok. Connection to Jeffrey Epstein An article in The Harvard Crimson in 2003, during Summers's tenure as president, detailed a reportedly "special connection" between Summers and Jeffrey Epstein. Epstein pledged to donate at least $25 million to Harvard during Summers's tenure to endow Harvard's Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, and Epstein was given an office at Harvard for his personal use. Epstein otherwise had no formal connection to Harvard. Summers's ties to Epstein reportedly began "a number of years...before Summers became Harvard’s president and even before he was the Secretary of the Treasury." Flight records introduced as evidence in the 2021 trial of Epstein associate Ghislaine Maxwell show that Summers flew on Jeffrey Epstein's private plane on at least four occasions, including once in 1998 when Summers was United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury and at least three times while Harvard president. A charity funded by Epstein also donated to the production of a PBS show hosted by Summers's wife and Harvard professor Elisa New. Winklevoss twins and Facebook In February 2004, the Winklevoss twins requested a meeting with Summers in order to ask him to intervene on their behalf in an ongoing dispute they had with Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg. The Winklevosses believed that Zuckerberg had stolen their idea for a social networking website and launched Facebook on his own, after they had asked him to be a part of their project, then called HarvardConnection. Summers believed that the matter was outside the university's jurisdiction, and advised the twins to take their complaint to the courts. Resignation as Harvard President On February 21, 2006, Summers announced his intention to step down at the end of the school year effective June 30, 2006. Harvard agreed to provide Summers on his resignation with a one-year paid sabbatical leave, subsidized a $1 million outstanding loan from the university for his personal residence, and provided other payments. Former University President Derek Bok acted as Interim President while the University conducted a search for a replacement which ended with the naming of Drew Gilpin Faust on February 11, 2007. Post-Harvard presidency career After a one-year sabbatical, Summers subsequently accepted Harvard University's invitation to serve as the Charles W. Eliot University Professor, one of 20 select University-wide professorships, with offices in the Kennedy School of Government and the Harvard Business School. In 2006 he was also a member of the Panel of Eminent Persons which reviewed the work of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. He is a member in the Group of Thirty. He also currently serves on the Berggruen Institute's 21st Century Council, and was part of a 2015 Berggruen-organized meeting with Chinese president Xi Jinping. Business interests On October 19, 2006, Summers was hired as a part-time managing director of the New York-based hedge fund D. E. Shaw & Co. for which he received $5 million in salary and other compensation over a 16-month period. At the same time Summers earned $2.7 million in speaking fees from major financial institutions, including Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, Merrill Lynch and Lehman Brothers. Upon being nominated Treasury Secretary by President Clinton in 1999, Summers listed assets of about $900,000 and debts, including a mortgage, of $500,000. By the time he returned in 2009 to serve in the Obama administration, he reported a net worth between $17 million and $39 million. He is a former member of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group. In 2013, Summers became an early angel investor in India's first car rental company, Zoomcar, which was started by his former Harvard Teaching Fellow. National Economic Council Upon the inauguration of Barack Obama as president in January 2009, Summers was appointed to the post of director of the National Economic Council. In this position Summers emerged as a key economic decision-maker in the Obama administration, where he attracted both praise and criticism. There had been friction between Summers and former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, as Volcker accused Summers of delaying the effort to organize a panel of outside economic advisers, and Summers had cut Volcker out of White House meetings and had not shown interest in collaborating on policy solutions to the economic crisis. On the other hand, Obama himself was reportedly thrilled with the work Summers did in his first few weeks on the job. And Peter Orszag, another top economic advisor, called Summers "one of the world's most brilliant economists." According to Henry Kissinger Larry Summers should "be given a White House post in which he was charged with shooting down or fixing bad ideas." In January 2009, as the Obama Administration tried to pass an economic stimulus spending bill, Representative Peter DeFazio (D-OR.) criticized Summers, saying that he thought that President Barack Obama is "ill-advised by Larry Summers. Larry Summers hates infrastructure." DeFazio, along with liberal economists including Paul Krugman and Joseph Stiglitz, had argued that more of the stimulus should be spent on infrastructure, while Summers had supported tax cuts. In late 2008, Summers and economic advisors for then-President-elect Obama presented a memo with options for an economic stimulus package ranging from $550 billion to $900 billion. According to The New Republic, economic advisor Christina Romer initially recommended a $1.8-trillion package, which proposal Summers quickly rejected, believing any stimulus approaching $1 trillion would not pass through Congress. Romer revised her recommendation to $1.2 trillion, which Summers agreed to include in the memo, but Summers struck the figure at the last minute. According to the Wall Street Journal, Summers called Senator Chris Dodd (D-CT) asking him to remove caps on executive pay at firms that have received stimulus money, including Citigroup. On April 3, 2009 Summers came under renewed criticism after it was disclosed that he was paid millions of dollars the previous year by companies which he now had influence over as a public servant. He earned $5 million from the hedge fund D. E. Shaw, and collected $2.7 million in speaking fees from Wall Street companies that received government bailout money. Post-NEC career Since leaving the NEC in December 2010, Summers has worked as an advisor to hedge fund D. E. Shaw & Co, Citigroup and the NASDAQ OMX Group while resuming his role as a tenured Harvard professor. In June 2011 Summers joined the board of directors of Square, a company developing an electronic payment service, and became a special adviser at venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz. He joined the board of person-to-person lending company Lending Club in December 2012. In July 2015 Summers joined the Board of Directors of Premise Data, a San Francisco-based data and analytics technology company that sources data from a global network of on-the-ground contributors. In April 2016, he was one of eight former Treasury secretaries who called on the United Kingdom to remain a member of the European Union ahead of the June 2016 Referendum. Summers referred to the United Kingdom's "Brexit" vote on June 23, 2016—which concluded in favor of leaving the European Union—as the "worst self-inflicted policy wound that a country has done since the Second World War". However, Summers cautioned that the result was a "wake up call for elites everywhere" and called for "responsible nationalism" in response to simmering public sentiment. In June 2016, Summers also wrote, "I believe the risks to the US and global economies of Mr Trump’s election as president are far greater [than passage of Brexit]. If he is elected, I would expect a protracted recession to begin within 18 months. The damage would be felt far beyond the United States." 2020 presidential election A coalition of progressive groups called on Joe Biden's 2020 presidential campaign to no longer use Summers as an advisor, after reports surfaced that Summers was advising the campaign on economic policy. Progressive groups like the Sunrise Movement and Justice Democrats petitioned the campaign to disavow Summers, saying, "Summers's legacy is advocating for policies that contributed to the skyrocketing inequality and climate crisis we’re living with today." Following the outcry, Summers stated he would not be joining a future Biden administration, in the event that Biden defeated Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election. Candidacy for chairmanship of the Federal Reserve In 2013, Summers emerged as one of two leading candidates, along with Janet Yellen, to succeed Ben Bernanke as head of the Federal Reserve System in 2014. The possibility of his nomination created a great deal of controversy with some Senators of both parties declaring opposition. On September 15, Summers withdrew his name from consideration for the position, writing: "I have reluctantly concluded that any possible confirmation process for me would be acrimonious and would not serve the interest of the Federal Reserve, the Administration or, ultimately, the interests of the nation's ongoing economic recovery." Criticism of the Biden Administration Summers emerged as an early opponent of the macroeconomic policy employed by President Joe Biden, charging the $1.9 trillion American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 as "the least responsible macroeconomic policy we’ve had in the last 40 years." The macroeconomic framework, Summers holds, risks an economic recession and market destabilization. In popular culture The 2010 film The Social Network, which deals with the founding of the social networking site Facebook, shows Summers (played by Douglas Urbanski), in his then-capacity as President of Harvard, meeting with Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss to discuss their accusations against Mark Zuckerberg. In the 2010 documentary Inside Job, Summers is presented as one of the key figures behind the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Charles Ferguson points out the economist's role in what he characterizes as the deregulation of many domains of the financial sector. In The Simpsons episode "E My Sports" (S30 E17), the character Principal Seymour Skinner looks at a $100 bill and remarks "$100 bill, autographed by Lawrence Summers. Such a carefree signature, before the great recession." See also Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration References External links Faculty page at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University Profile at the U.S. Treasury Department Lawrence Summers at Big Think Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Lawrence Summers from the US Holocaust Museum, February 15, 2007 Robert Scheer on Resignation of Lawrence Summers – video report by Democracy Now!, September 22, 2010 Summers' policy proposals to ameliorate the "devastating consequences" of the capacity of capital employing robots, 3-D printing, artificial intelligence, and similar technologies "to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work," Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, Issue #32, Spring 2014 Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1954 births 20th-century American economists 21st-century American economists 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American politicians Fellows of the Econometric Society Goldman Sachs people Group of Thirty Harvard University alumni Jeffrey Epstein Jewish American members of the Cabinet of the United States Jewish American social scientists Harvard Kennedy School faculty JPMorgan Chase people Citigroup people Lehman Brothers people Living people Merrill (company) people MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences alumni Members of the Council on Foreign Relations Members of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Scientists from New Haven, Connecticut Politicians from Brookline, Massachusetts Presidents of Harvard University United States Secretaries of the Treasury World Bank Chief Economists Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Center for Global Development Politicians from New Haven, Connecticut American officials of the United Nations Harriton High School alumni American columnists The Washington Post people	[ -0.5032373070716858, -0.10759948194026947, -0.5393508672714233, 0.25210464000701904, 0.252376914024353, 0.5580906867980957, -0.15425580739974976, -0.029951823875308037, 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206213	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20and%20Tan%20Coonhound	Black and Tan Coonhound	The Black and Tan Coonhound is a breed of hunting dog. Developed in the United States from crosses between the Bloodhound and the Black and Tan Virginia Foxhound, this scent hound runs its game entirely by scent and is used primarily for raccoon hunting. Description According to the FCI breed standard Black and Tan Coonhound males should be in height with females slightly smaller at although it does not specify a weight range. The United Kennel Club does however include guideline weights of males with females ranging from . The height proportions quoted by the UKC differ from the FCI and allow males to be and females . The coat is short, dense and glossy. The eyes are hazel to brown, the ears are long, wide, and thin, are set low and far back on the dog's head, and hang well down the neck. The black and tan markings are similar to the Doberman's and the Rottweiler's. The Black and Tan Coonhound's bark is loud and baying; it has been described as a deep howl. The breed standard includes muscular legs that are long in proportion to body length. The tail is set slightly below the natural line of the back. If the dog is alert or excited it carries its tail at a right angle. Temperament The Black and Tan Coonhound makes a suitable pet: it is mellow, amiable, calm, and unobtrusive indoors; outdoors, its strong hunting instinct takes over and it can be difficult to turn it from tracking after it starts trailing. As befitting a dog with its heritage, it is strong, independent, and stubborn. The Black and Tan Coonhound is gentle and tolerant with children, but it may be too independent to satisfy a playful child. It is reserved with strangers and in their presence may bay and howl. The Black and Tan Coonhound can run for miles although it is usually content with a moderate jog or long walk, with an occasional excursion into the field. It can wander if it catches a scent, so a safe area is mandatory. Use The courage of the Coonhound also makes it proficient on the hunt for deer, bear, wolf, cougar and other big game although many US states have restricted the hunting of antlered animals with dogs. However, the primary purpose of the Black and Tan Coonhound is as a raccoon hunting dog. The general impression is that of power, agility and alertness, as well as the ability to cover ground swiftly with powerful rhythmic strides. Each hound has its own distinctive voice which is often recognizable to its owners from a great distance. General care Its coat needs only occasional brushing. Most Coonhounds drool to some extent, and the face may need regular wiping. The ears should also be checked regularly to ensure against ear infections. Health Black and Tan Coonhounds are generally healthy, although there is some risk of hip dysplasia, ear cancer and other ear infections, and eye problems. Litter size is generally eight puppies. Expected longevity is 10–12 years. History The Black and Tan Coonhound is descended from the Talbot Hound, found in medieval England after the 11th century. Its ancestry is then traced through the Bloodhound and the Foxhound to the Black and Tan Virginia Foxhound. In 1945, the Black and Tan Coonhound became the first of the six breeds of coonhounds to be recognized by the American Kennel Club, in the Hound Group. The other breeds, which were not recognized until the 2010s, are the Redbone Coonhound, Plott Hound, Bluetick Coonhound, the American English Coonhound, and the Treeing Walker Coonhound. See also Dogs portal List of dog breeds References External links www.abtcc.com/ American Black and Tan Coonhound Club (AKC Parent club) American Black And Tan Coonhound Association American Black And Tan Coonhound Rescue FCI breeds Scent hounds Dog breeds originating in the United States	[ 0.26512113213539124, 0.4366554915904999, -0.8812123537063599, -0.2753257751464844, 0.15001723170280457, 0.4374888837337494, 0.36789512634277344, 0.20472873747348785, -0.5593680143356323, -0.08267587423324585, -0.6178662776947021, 0.4475577771663666, -0.8199436068534851, 0.565093994140625, -0.13385102152824402, 0.5073232054710388, 0.2678222358226776, 0.4330865740776062, 0.3064625859260559, -0.5317592620849609, -0.246504545211792, -0.9160498976707458, -0.44589459896087646, -0.22197918593883514, 0.2970593571662903, 0.43084093928337097, 0.6596787571907043, 0.252034455537796, 0.3902154564857483, 0.2971161901950836, 0.2904287874698639, 0.7498133778572083, 0.06088131666183472, -0.03897319361567497, 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206214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer%20Knapp	Jennifer Knapp	Jennifer Lynn Knapp (born April 12, 1974) is an American-Australian folk rock, and formerly contemporary Christian musician. She is best known for her first single "Undo Me" from her debut album, Kansas (1998), and the song "A Little More" from her Grammy Award-nominated album, Lay It Down (2000). The Way I Am (2001), was also nominated for a Grammy. In total, the three albums have sold approximately 1 million copies. After taking a seven-year hiatus, Knapp announced in September 2009 that she was returning to music. On May 11, 2010 she released Letting Go with the single "Dive In". The album debuted at No. 73 on the Billboard 200 chart. Knapp's memoir Facing the Music (Howard Books / Simon & Schuster) and new album Set Me Free (Righteous Babe Records) came out in October 2014. Early life Knapp was born in Chanute, Kansas on April 12, 1974, and was brought up irreligiously along with her twin sister Lori. Knapp's parents divorced when she was three and she spent an unhappy childhood with her remarried father until leaving home at 18. As a classically trained musician Knapp played trumpet in high school, and attended Pittsburg State University on a music scholarship. It was there that she converted to Christianity and eventually incorporated spiritual themes into her music. From there, Knapp began performing throughout the Midwest selling her two custom recordings at shows. Her second indie album, Wishing Well, attracted the attention of Nashville label Gotee Records, who signed her the following year. Musical career Kansas, her critically acclaimed debut release, was received widely and eventually sold over 500,000 copies, becoming Gold-certified by the RIAA. She began touring America, singing primarily in churches, but also appeared at festivals such as the 1999 Lilith Fair, and at large venues including during her 2000 tour in which she opened for Christian music headliner Third Day. She won Dove Awards in 1999 for New Artist of the Year and Rock Song of the Year for her song Undo Me. Lay It Down, her 2000 release, garnered a Grammy Award nomination in 2001. In addition to her own releases, she has collaborated with a number of artists on various studio projects and releases including lending an early studio version of the song A Little More from Lay It Down on Sparrow Records' 1999 compilation album Listen Louder. Hiatus In an interview from the January/February 2004 issue of Relevant Magazine, Knapp stated that she was taking a break from music for a while, leaving the future of her career in God's hands. She had released two albums, Lay It Down and The Way I Am, in 2000 and 2001 respectively, which Knapp said caused a stressful touring schedule. She said she'd already made the decision to take a break in mid-2001, but her schedule did not allow her to stop performing until September 2002, when she played the last concert of her tour. "It was definitely time for a break," she said. "I was touring Lay It Down while recording The Way I Am, then went directly into touring that record. It got to where I was just doing shows to support the record, rather than having a record support the heart of the people I was supposed to be serving." Knapp gave no indication of when new material would surface. "Truly, no plans and no promises of when," she said. "At this time, there's really not enough material and I don't want to force anything just for the sake of getting a record finished." On January 24, 2006, Gotee Records issued the album Jennifer Knapp Live with tracks from her three studio albums recorded live in concert. On February 26, 2008, Gotee Records re-issued a 10th anniversary edition of Kansas with re-mastered and additional tracks, including "Jesus Loves Me (Wishing Well version)" and other tracks from her 2006 live album. Return to music On August 28, 2009, Patrol Magazine reported that Knapp's management confirmed she is "starting to write and record again." On September 18, Knapp issued a personal letter to fans on her website in which she discussed her hiatus and her plans to return to music. Knapp returned from her hiatus on September 24 with a concert at the Hotel Cafe in Los Angeles, California. On February 4, 2010, Knapp announced that her new album Letting Go would be released on May 11. She also announced spring 2010 tour dates with Derek Webb and summer appearances on the revived Lilith Fair tour. Knapp began recording a new album in Nashville with producer Jacob Lawson in early 2014. The album Set Me Free was released on October 14, 2014, on Righteous Babe Records. Personal life Following the end of her 2002 tour, Knapp moved to Australia and has since taken up Australian citizenship. In simultaneous interviews with Christianity Today, Reuters, and The Advocate published on April 13, 2010, Knapp announced that she is a lesbian, and has been in a same-sex relationship since 2002. She has said that her decision to leave the Christian music industry was not due solely to her coming out but to a number of factors including stress and burnout. Despite criticisms based on her sexual orientation, Knapp says that she not only still holds to her Christian faith, but feels that by being honest about her sexuality that her faith is actually enhanced. However, she stated that Letting Go would not be marketed towards Christian radio. The controversy surrounding her coming out made her the featured subject of an episode of Larry King Live, where she discussed her orientation and faith with Larry King, Bob Botsford, and Ted Haggard. Advocacy In 2011, Jennifer launched Inside Out Faith, an advocacy organization for LGBT people of faith. Through Inside Out Faith, Knapp speaks at churches and universities about her journey coming out to her faith community. Facing the Music Jennifer's memoir, Facing the Music: My Story, was released on Howard Books / Simon & Schuster on October 7, 2014. Howard Books, an evangelical publisher, received some pushback for publishing Knapp's memoir; however, Howard's VP and Publisher, Jonathan Merkh, stated that the company was not trying to take sides but simply "help [people] understand where someone may be coming from as they open up about their sexuality and their faith." Discography Albums 1994: Circle Back 1996: Wishing Well 1998: Kansas 2000: Lay It Down 2001: The Way I Am 2010: Letting Go 2012: The Hymns of Christmas (with Margaret Becker) 2014: Set Me Free 2017: Love Comes Back Around EPs 2010: Evolving EP - Six tracks, five of which were later released on Letting Go Live albums 2006: Jennifer Knapp Live Compilations 2003: The Collection 2004: 8 Great Hits Singles 1997: "Undo Me" – No. 1 CHR, No. 4 Rock 1998: "Romans" – No. 1 CHR 1999: "A Little More" 2001: "Breathe on Me" Charts Certification for Kansas References External links 1974 births Living people 20th-century American singers 20th-century Protestants 20th-century American women singers 21st-century American singers 21st-century Protestants American emigrants to Australia American expatriates in Australia American folk rock musicians American performers of Christian music Australian Protestants Converts to Protestantism from atheism or agnosticism EMI Records artists Gotee Records artists 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206215	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal%20integration	Horizontal integration	Horizontal integration is the process of a company increasing production of goods or services at the same part of the supply chain. A company may do this via internal expansion, acquisition or merger. The process can lead to monopoly if a company captures the vast majority of the market for that product or service. Horizontal integration contrasts with vertical integration, where companies integrate multiple stages of production of a small number of production units. Horizontal alliance Horizontal integration is related to horizontal alliance (also known as horizontal cooperation). However, in the case of a horizontal alliance, the partnering companies set up a contract, but remain independent. For example, Raue & Wieland (2015) describe the example of legally independent logistics service providers who cooperate. Such an alliance relates to competition. Aspects Benefits of horizontal integration to both the firm and society may include economies of scale and economies of scope. For the firm, horizontal integration may provide a strengthened presence in the reference market. It may also allow the horizontally integrated firm to engage in monopoly pricing, which is disadvantageous to society as a whole and which may cause regulators to ban or constrain horizontal integration. Media terms Media critics, such as Robert W. McChesney, have noted that the current trend within the entertainment industry has been toward the increased concentration of media ownership into the hands of a smaller number of transmedia and transnational conglomerates. Media is seen to amass in center where wealthy individuals have the ability to purchase such ventures (e.g., Rupert Murdoch). That emerged are new strategies for content development and distribution designed to increase the "synergy" between the different divisions of the same company. Studios seek content that can move fluidly across media channels. Examples An example of horizontal integration in the food industry was the Heinz and Kraft Foods merger. On 25 March 2015, Heinz and Kraft merged into one company, the deal valued at $46 billion. Both produce processed food for the consumer market. On 9 December 2013, Sysco agreed to acquire US Foods but on 24 June 2015, the federal judge ruled against the deal saying that such merger would control 75% of the U.S. foodservice industry and that will stifle competition. It would have been horizontal integration, as both distribute food to restaurants, healthcare, and educational facilities. On 16 November 2015, Marriott International announced that it would acquire Starwood for $13.6 billion, creating the world's largest hotel chain. The merger was finalized on 23 September 2016. The AB-Inbev acquisition of SAB Miller for $107 Billion which completed in 2016, is one of the biggest deals of all time. On 1 November 2017, Centurylink bought Level 3 Communications for $34 billion, and incorporated Level 3 as part of Centurylink. On 14 December 2017, The Walt Disney Company announced a $52.4 billion bid in stock to acquire 21st Century Fox along with its bulk of assets, which included the famed 20th Century Fox film studio and other assets such as FX Networks and 30% stake in Hulu. Both companies produced and distributed films and television series, as well as each owning a 30% stake in Hulu. See also Economies of scale Horizontal market List of economics topics List of management topics List of marketing topics Monopoly Strategic management Target market Vertical integration References Market structure Business terms Strategic management Marketing strategy	[ 0.17474952340126038, -0.02866894006729126, 0.1799958050251007, 0.204360693693161, 0.22547751665115356, 0.5567076206207275, -0.18673476576805115, 0.30885446071624756, -0.31746402382850647, -0.8047720193862915, -0.7039433717727661, 0.34809836745262146, -0.2674112319946289, 0.5363880395889282, -0.1751895397901535, 0.09701927751302719, 0.11487416177988052, 0.40777045488357544, 0.07284129410982132, 0.06334264576435089, -0.542479932308197, 0.21849903464317322, 0.25725892186164856, 0.18431594967842102, 0.19370925426483154, -0.4644228518009186, -0.00816091988235712, 0.10367336869239807, 0.24118004739284515, 0.19186553359031677, 0.567934513092041, 0.19938063621520996, 0.023105796426534653, -0.34899136424064636, 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206216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelecaniformes	Pelecaniformes	The Pelecaniformes are an order of medium-sized and large waterbirds found worldwide. As traditionally—but erroneously—defined, they encompass all birds that have feet with all four toes webbed. Hence, they were formerly also known by such names as totipalmates or steganopodes. Most have a bare throat patch (gular patch), and the nostrils have evolved into dysfunctional slits, forcing them to breathe through their mouths. They also have a pectinate nail on their longest toe. This is shaped like a comb and is used to brush out and separate their feathers. They feed on fish, squid, or similar marine life. Nesting is colonial, but individual birds are monogamous. The young are altricial, hatching from the egg helpless and naked in most. They lack a brood patch. The pelicans, shoebill and hamerkop form a clade within the order, with their next closest relatives being a clade containing the herons, ibises and spoonbills. The Fregatidae (frigatebirds), Sulidae (gannets and boobies), Phalacrocoracidae (cormorants and shags), Anhingidae (darters), and Phaethontidae (tropicbirds) were traditionally placed in the Pelecaniformes, but molecular and morphological studies indicate they are not such close relatives. They have been placed in their own orders, Suliformes and Phaethontiformes, respectively. Systematics and evolution Classically, bird relationships were based solely on morphological characteristics. The Pelecaniformes were traditionally, but erroneously, defined as birds that have feet with all four toes webbed (totipalmate), as opposed to all other birds with webbed feet where only three of four were webbed. Hence, they were formerly also known by such names as totipalmates or steganopodes. The group included frigatebirds, gannets, cormorants, anhingas, and tropicbirds. Sibley and Ahlquist's landmark DNA-DNA hybridisation studies (see Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy) led to them placing the families traditionally contained within the Pelecaniformes together with the grebes, cormorants, ibises and spoonbills, New World vultures, storks, penguins, albatrosses, petrels, and loons together as a subgroup within a greatly expanded order Ciconiiformes, a radical move which by now has been all but rejected: their "Ciconiiformes" merely assembled all early advanced land- and seabirds for which their research technique delivered insufficient phylogenetic resolution. Morphological study has suggested pelicans are sister to a gannet-cormorant clade, yet genetic analysis groups them with the hamerkop and shoebill, though the exact relationship between the three is unclear. Mounting evidence pointed to the shoebill as a close relative of pelicans. This also included microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995, who found that the shells of pelecaniform eggs (including those of the shoebill but not the tropicbirds) were covered in a thick microglobular material. Reviewing genetic evidence to date, Cracraft and colleagues surmised that pelicans were sister to the shoebill with the hamerkop as the next earlier offshoot. Ericson and colleagues sampled five nuclear genes in a 2006 study spanning the breadth of bird lineages, and came up with pelicans, shoebill and hamerkop in a clade. Hackett and colleagues sampled 32 kilobases of nuclear DNA and recovered shoebill and hamerkop as sister taxa, pelicans sister to them, and herons and ibises as sister groups to each other with this heron and ibis group a sister to the pelican/shoebill/hamerkop clade. The current International Ornithological Committee classification has pelicans grouped with the shoebill (Balaenicipitidae), hamerkop (Scopidae), ibises and spoonbills (Threskiornithidae), and herons, egrets and bitterns (Ardeidae). Recent research strongly suggests that the similarities between the Pelecaniformes as traditionally defined are the result of convergent evolution rather than common descent, and that the group is paraphyletic. All families in the traditional or revised Pelecaniformes except the Phalacrocoracidae have only a few handfuls of species at most, but many were more numerous in the Early Neogene. Fossil genera and species are discussed in the respective family or genus accounts; one little-known prehistoric Pelecaniforms, however, cannot be classified accurately enough to assign them to a family. This is "Sula" ronzoni from Early Oligocene rocks at Ronzon, France, which was initially believed to be a sea-duck and possibly is an ancestral Pelecaniform. The pelecaniform lineages appear to have originated around the end of the Cretaceous. Monophyletic or not, they appear to belong to a close-knit group of "higher waterbirds" which also includes groups such as penguins and Procellariiformes. Quite a lot of fossil bones from around the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary cannot be firmly placed with any of these orders and rather combine traits of several of them. This is, of course, only to be expected, if the theory that most if not all of these "higher waterbird" lineages originated around that time is correct. Of those apparently basal taxa, the following show some similarities to the traditional Pelecaniformes: Lonchodytes (Lance Creek Late Cretaceous of Wyoming, US) Torotix (Late Cretaceous) Tytthostonyx (Late Cretaceous/Early Palaeocene) Cladornis (Deseado Early Oligocene of Patagonia, Argentina) "Liptornis"—a nomen dubium The proposed Elopterygidae—supposedly a family of Cretaceous Pelecaniformes—are neither monophyletic nor does Elopteryx appear to be a modern bird. References Further reading Bourdon, Estelle; Bouya, Baâdi & Iarochene, Mohamed (2005): Earliest African neornithine bird: A new species of Prophaethontidae (Aves) from the Paleocene of Morocco. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 25(1): 157–170. DOI: 10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0157:EANBAN]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract Mayr, Gerald (2003): The phylogenetic affinities of the Shoebill (Balaeniceps rex). Journal für Ornithologie 144(2): 157–175. [English with German abstract] HTML abstract Mortimer, Michael (2004): The Theropod Database: Phylogeny of taxa. Retrieved 2013-MAR-02. 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206217	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMART-1	SMART-1	SMART-1 was a Swedish-designed European Space Agency satellite that orbited around the Moon. It was launched on 27 September 2003 at 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. "SMART-1" stands for Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-1. On 3 September 2006 (05:42 UTC), SMART-1 was deliberately crashed into the Moon's surface, ending its mission. Spacecraft design SMART-1 was about one meter across (3.3 ft), and lightweight in comparison to other probes. Its launch mass was 367 kg or 809 pounds, of which 287 kg (633 lb) was non-propellant. It was propelled by a solar-powered Hall effect thruster (Snecma PPS-1350-G) using 82 Kg of xenon gas contained in a 50 litres tank at a pressure of 150 bar at launch. The ion engine thruster used an electrostatic field to ionize the xenon and accelerate the ions achieving a specific impulse of 16.1 kN·s/kg (1,640 seconds), more than three times the maximum for chemical rockets. One kg of propellant (1/350 to 1/300 of the total mass of the spacecraft) produced a delta-v of about 45 m/s. The electric propulsion subsystem weighted 29 kg with a peak power consumption of 1,200 watts. SMART-1 was the first in the program of ESA's Small Missions for Advanced Research and Technology. The solar arrays made capable of 1850W at the beginning of the mission, were able to provide the maximum set of 1,190 W to the thruster, giving a nominal thrust of 68 mN, hence an acceleration of 0.2 mm/s2 or 0.7 m/s per hour (i.e., just under 0.00002 g of acceleration). As with all ion-engine powered craft, orbital maneuvers were not carried out in short bursts but very gradually. The particular trajectory taken by SMART-1 to the Moon required thrusting for about one third to one half of every orbit. When spiraling away from the Earth thrusting was done on the perigee part of the orbit. At the end of the mission, the thruster had demonstrated the following capability: Thruster operating time: 5000 h Xenon throughput: 82 kg Total Impulse: 1.2 MN-s Total ΔV: 3.9 km/s As part of the European Space Agency's strategy to build very inexpensive and relatively small spaceships, the total cost of SMART-1 was a relatively small 110 million euros (about 170 million U.S. dollars). SMART-1 was designed and developed by the Swedish Space Corporation on behalf of ESA. Assembly of the spacecraft was carried out by Saab Space in Linköping. Tests of the spacecraft were directed by Swedish Space Corporation and executed by Saab Space. The project manager at ESA was Giuseppe Racca until the spacecraft achieved the moon operational orbit. He was then replaced by Gerhard Schwehm for the Science phase. The project manager at the Swedish Space Corporation was Peter Rathsman. The Principal Project Scientist was Bernard Foing. The Ground Segment Manager during the preparation phase was Mike McKay and the Spacecraft Operations manager was Octavio Camino. Instruments AMIE The Advanced Moon micro-Imager Experiment was a miniature colour camera for lunar imaging. The CCD camera with three filters of 750, 900 and 950 nm was able to take images with an average pixel resolution of 80 m (about 260 ft). The camera weighed 2.1 kg (about 4.5 lb) and had a power consumption of 9 watts. D-CIXS The Demonstration of a Compact X-ray Spectrometer was an X-ray telescope for the identification of chemical elements on the lunar surface. It detected the x-ray fluorescence (XRF) of crystal compounds created through the interaction of the electron shell with the solar wind particles to measure the abundance of the three main components: magnesium, silicon and aluminium. The detection of iron, calcium and titanium depended on the solar activity. The detection range for x-rays was 0.5 to 10 keV. The spectrometer and XSM (described below) together weighed 5.2 kg and had a power consumption of 18 watts. XSM The X-ray solar monitor studied the solar variability to complement D-CIXS measurements. SIR The Smart-1 Infrared Spectrometer was an infrared spectrometer for the identification of mineral spectra of olivine and pyroxene. It detected wavelengths from 0.93 to 2.4 μm with 256 channels. The package weighed 2.3 kg and had a power consumption of 4.1 watts. EPDP The Electric Propulsion Diagnostic Package was to acquire data on the new propulsion system on SMART-1. The package weighed 0.8 kg and had a power consumption of 1.8 watts. SPEDE The Spacecraft Potential, Electron and Dust Experiment. The experiment weighed 0.8 kg and had a power consumption of 1.8 watts. Its function was to measure the properties and density of the plasma around the spacecraft, either as a Langmuir probe or as an electric field probe. SPEDE observed the emission of the spacecraft's ion engine and the "wake" the Moon leaves to the solar wind. Unlike most other instruments that have to be shut down to prevent damage, SPEDE could keep measuring inside radiation belts and in solar storms, such as the Halloween 2003 solar storms. It was built by Finnish Meteorological Institute and its name was intentionally chosen so that its acronym is the same as the nickname of Spede Pasanen, a famous Finnish movie actor, movie producer, and inventor. The algorithms developed for SPEDE were later used in the ESA lander Philae. KATE Ka band TT&C (telemetry, tracking and control) Experiment. The experiment weighed 6.2 kg and had a power consumption of 26 watts. The Ka-band transponder was designed as precursor for Bepi Colombo to perform radio science investigations and to monitor the dynamical performance of the electric propulsion system. Flight SMART-1 was launched 27 September 2003 together with Insat 3E and eBird 1, by an Ariane 5 rocket from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana. After 42 minutes it was released into a geostationary transfer orbit of 7,035 × 42,223 km. From there it used its Solar Electric Primary Propulsion (SEPP) to gradually spiral out during thirteen months. The orbit can be seen up to 26 October 2004 at spaceref.com, when the orbit was 179,718 × 305,214 km. On that date, after the 289th engine pulse, the SEPP had accumulated a total on-time of nearly 3,648 hours out of a total flight time of 8,000 hours, hence a little less than half of its total mission. It consumed about 58.8 kg of xenon and produced a delta-v of 2,737 m/s (46.5 m/s per kg xenon, 0.75 m/s per hour on-time). It was powered on again on 15 November for a planned burn of 4.5 days to enter fully into lunar orbit. It took until February 2005 using the electric thruster to decelerate into the final orbit 300–3,000 km above the Moon's surface. The end of mission performance demonstrated by the propulsion system is stated above. After its last perigee on 2 November, on 11 November 2004 it passed through the L1 Lagrangian Point and into the area dominated by the Moon's gravitational influence, and at 1748 UT on 15 November passed the first periselene of its lunar orbit. The osculating orbit on that date was 6,704 × 53,208 km, with an orbital period of 129 hours, although the actual orbit was accomplished in only 89 hours. This illustrates the significant impact that the engine burns have on the orbit and marks the meaning of the osculating orbit, which is the orbit that would be travelled by the spacecraft if at that instant all perturbations, including thrust, would cease. ESA announced on 15 February 2005 the to extend the mission of SMART-1 by one year until August 2006. This date was later shifted to 3 September 2006 to enable further scientific observations from Earth. Lunar impact SMART-1 impacted the Moon's surface, as planned, on 3 September 2006 at 05:42:22 UTC, ending its mission. Moving at approximately 2,000 m/s (4,500 mph), SMART-1 created an impact visible with ground telescopes from Earth. It is hoped that not only will this provide some data simulating a meteor impact, but also that it might expose materials in the ground, like water ice, to spectroscopic analysis. ESA originally estimated that impact occurred at . In 2017, the impact site was identified from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter data at . At the time of impact, the Moon was visible in North and South America, and places in the Pacific Ocean, but not Europe, Africa, or western Asia. This project has generated data and know-how that will be used for other missions, such as the ESA's BepiColombo mission to Mercury. Important events and discoveries 27 September 2003: SMART-1 launched from the European Spaceport in Kourou by an Ariane 5 launcher. 17 June 2004: SMART-1 took a test image of Earth with the camera that would later be used for Moon closeup pictures. It shows parts of Europe and Africa. It was taken on 21 May with the AMIE camera. 2 November 2004: Last perigee of Earth orbit. 15 November 2004: First perilune of lunar orbit. 15 January 2005: Calcium detected in Mare Crisium. 26 January 2005: First close up pictures of the lunar surface sent back. 27 February 2005: Reached final orbit around the Moon with an orbital period of about 5 hours. 15 April 2005: The search for PELs begins. 3 September 2006: Mission ends with a planned crash into the Moon during orbit number 2,890. Smart-1 Ground Segment and Operations Smart-1 operations were conducted from the ESA European Space Operations Center ESOC in Darmstadt Germany led by the Spacecraft Operations Manager Octavio Camino. The ground segment of Smart-1 was a good example of infrastructure reuse at ESA: Flight Dynamics infrastructure and Data distribution System (DDS) from Rosetta, Mars Express and Venus Express. The generic mission control system software SCOS 2000, and a set of generic interface elements use at ESA for the operations of their missions. The use of CCSDS TLM and TC standards permitted a cost effective tailoring of seven different terminals of the ESA Tracking network (ESTRACK) plus Weilheim in Germany (DLR). The components that were developed specifically for Smart-1 were: the simulator; a mix of hardware and software derived from the Electrical Ground Support Equipment EGSE equipment, the Mission Planning System and the Automation System developed from MOIS (this last based on a prototype implemented for Envisat) and a suite of engineering tools called MUST. This last permitted the Smart-1 engineers to do anomaly investigation through internet, pioneering at ESA monitoring of spacecraft TLM using mobile phones and PDAs and receiving spacecraft alarms via SMS. The Mission Control Team was composed of seven engineers in the Flight Control Team FCT, a variable group between 2–5 Flight Dynamics engineers and 1–2 Data Systems engineers. Unlike most ESA missions, there were no Spacecraft Controllers (SPACONs), and all operations and mission-planning activities were done by the FCT. This concept originated overtime and night shifts during the first months of the mission but worked well during the cruise and the moon phases. The major concern during the first 3 months of the mission was to leave the radiation belts as soon as possible in order to minimize the degradation of the solar arrays and the star tracker CCDs. The first and most critical problem came after the first revolution when a failure in the onboard Error Detection and Correction (EDAC) algorithm triggered an autonomous switch to the redundant computer in every orbit causing several reboots, finding the spacecraft in SAFE mode after every pericenter passage. The analysis of the spacecraft telemetry pointed directly to a radiation-triggered problem with the EDAC interrupt routine. Other anomalies during this period were a combination of environmental problems: high radiation doses, especially in the star trackers and onboard software anomalies: the Reed Solomon encoding became corrupt after switching data rates and had to be disabled. It was overcome by procedures and changes on ground operations approach. The star trackers were also subject of frequent hiccups during the earth escape and caused some of the Electric Propulsion (EP) interruptions. They were all resolved with several software patches. The EP showed sensitivity to radiation inducing shutdowns. This phenomenon identified as the Opto-coupler Single Event Transient (OSET), initially seen in LEOP during the first firing using cathode B, was characterized by a rapid drop in Anode Current triggering the alarm 'Flame Out' bit causing the shutdown of the EP. The problem was identified to be radiation induced Opto-coupler sensitivity. The recovery of such events was to restart the thruster. This was manually done during several months until an On Board Software Patch (OBSW) was developed to detect it and initiate an autonomous thruster restart. Its impact was limited to the orbit prediction calculation used for the Ground Stations to track the spacecraft and the subsequent orbit corrections. The different kind of anomalies and the frequent interruptions in the thrust of the Electric Propulsion led to an increase of the ground stations support and overtime of the flight operations team who had to react quickly. Their recovery was sometimes time consuming, especially when the spacecraft was found in SAFE mode. Overall, they impeded to run the operations as originally planned having one 8 hours pass every 4 days. The mission negotiated the use the ESTRACK network spare capacity. This concept permitted about eight times additional network coverage at no extra cost but originated unexpected overheads and conflicts. It ultimately permitted additional contacts with the spacecraft during the early stage of the mission and an important increase of science during the moon phase. This phase required a major reconfiguration of the on-board stores and its operation. This change designed by the flight control team at ESOC and implemented by the Swedish Space Corporation in a short time required to re-write part of the Flight Control Procedures FOP for the operations at the moon. The Operations during the moon phase become highly automated: the flight dynamics pointing was "menu driven" allowing more than 98% of commanding being generated by the Mission Planning System MPS. The extension of the MPS system with the so called MOIS Executor, became the Smart-1 automation system. It permitted to operate 70% of the passes unmanned towards the end of the mission and allowed the validation of the first operational "spacecraft automation system" at ESA. The mission achieved all its objectives: getting out of the radiation belts influence 3 months after launch, spiraling out during 11 months and being captured by the moon using resonances, the commissioning and operations of all instruments during the cruise phase and the optimization of the navigation and operational procedures required for Electric Propulsion operation. The efficient operations of the Electric Propulsion at the moon allowed the reduction of the orbital radius benefiting the scientific operations and extending this mission by one extra year. A detailed chronology of the operations events is provided in ref. Smart- 1 Mission Phases Launch and Early Orbit Phase: Launch on 27 September 2003, initial orbit 7,029 x 42263 km. Van Allen Belt Escape: Continuous thrust strategy to raise the perigee radius. Escape phase completed by 22 December 2003, orbit 20000 x 63427 km. Earth Escape Cruise: Thrust around perigee only to raise the apogee radius. Moon resonances and Capture: Trajectory assists by means of Moon resonances. Moon capture on 15 November 2004 at 310,000 km from the Earth and 90,000 km from the Moon. Lunar Descent: Thrust used to lower the orbit, operational orbit 2,200 x 4,600 km. Lunar Science: Until the end of lifetime in September 2006, interrupted only by a one-month re-boost phase in September 2005 to optimize the lunar orbit. Orbit re-boost: Phase in June/July 2006 using the attitude thrusters to adjust the impact date and time. Moon Impact: Operations from July 2006 until the impact on 3 September 2006. The full mission phases from the operations perspective is documented in including the performance of the different subsystems. See also List of artificial objects on the Moon References General Kaydash V., Kreslavsky M., Shkuratov Yu., Gerasimenko S., Pinet P., Chevrel S., Josset J.-L., Beauvivre S., Almeida M., Foing B. (2007). "PHOTOMETRIC CHARACTERIZATION OF SELECTED LUNAR SITES BY SMART-1 AMIE DATA". Lunar Planetary Science, XXXVIII, abstract 1535, . External links ESA SMART-1 scientific website SMART-1 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Observation of the Impact of Smart-1 SMART 1 on Serbian science portal Viva fizika SMART-1, Europe at the Moon Missions to the Moon Hall effect European Space Agency space probes Space programme of Sweden Space probes launched in 2003 Spacecraft that impacted the Moon 2003 establishments in South America 2006 on the Moon	[ 0.12070269137620926, -0.2601333558559418, 0.2548936903476715, 0.5047377943992615, -0.04604675620794296, 0.08983339369297028, -0.2050587385892868, 0.047946423292160034, -0.05688529089093208, 0.17767378687858582, -0.16123798489570618, -0.0104594137519598, -0.8083018660545349, -0.5204916596412659, -0.18617483973503113, -0.6593832969665527, 0.6978424191474915, 0.26055464148521423, -0.5374072790145874, -0.38785314559936523, 0.09112280607223511, 0.220121830701828, 0.7838429808616638, -0.25363045930862427, 0.1522998958826065, 0.1191469207406044, -0.031339380890131, 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206220	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier%20general	Brigadier general	Brigadier general is a general officer rank who commands an army brigade and is used by a number of countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general (or divisional general). Variants Brigadier general Brigadier general (Brig. Gen.) is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops (four battalions). In some countries, this rank is given the name of brigadier, which is usually equivalent to brigadier general in the armies of nations that use the rank. The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a "brigadier general", or simply a "brigadier", would command a brigade in the field. In the first quarter of the 20th century, British and Commonwealth armies used the rank of brigadier general as a temporary appointment, or as an honorary appointment on retirement; in the 1920s this practice changed to the use of brigadier, which was not classed as a general officer. Some armies, such as Japan and Taiwan, use major general as the equivalent of brigadier general (See also #Japan & Taiwan for details.). Some of these armies then use the rank of colonel general to make four general-officer ranks. Mexico uses the ranks of both and . Brigade general Brigade general is the rank of a brigade commander in countries where the French Revolutionary System's general officer rank designation is used. The rank name () was first used in the French revolutionary armies. It is used both brigadier general and major general because it is used for the designated rank of the general officers that the country stipulates as brigade commanders' class by law. Brigadier general & Brigade general ranks by country Argentina The rank of brigadier general (with some local variations) is used in the Argentine Air Force. Unlike other armed forces of the World, the rank of brigadier general is actually the highest rank in the Air Force. This is due to the use of the rank of brigadier and its derivatives to designate all general officers in the Air Force: brigadier (lowest general officer); brigadier-major (middle); and brigadier-general (highest). The rank of brigadier general is reserved for the Chief General Staff of the Air Force, as well as the Chief of the Joint General Staff if he should be an Air Force officer. The Argentine Army does not use the rank of brigadier-general, instead using brigade general () which in turn is the lowest general officer before Divisional General () and Lieutenant General (). Australia In the Australian Imperial Force during World War I, the rank of brigadier general was always temporary and held only while the officer was posted to a particular task, typically the command of a brigade. (Until 1915, Australian brigades were commanded by colonels.) When posted elsewhere, the rank would be relinquished and the former rank resumed. This policy prevented an accumulation of high-ranking general officers brought about by the relatively high turnover of brigade commanders. Brigadier general was also used as an honorary rank on retirement. The rank insignia was like that of the current major general, but without the star/pip. Brigadier generals wore the same gorget patches (a line of gold oak leaf embroidery down the centre), cap badge (crossed sword and baton within a laurel wreath, surmounted by a crown in gold embroidery) and cap visor (two rows of gold oakleaf embroidery) as other generals. As in the United Kingdom, the rank was later replaced by colonel commandant in 1922 and brigadier in 1928. However, those holding the rank of brigadier general continued to do so throughout the inter-war period, until the last of them retired or was promoted during the Second World War. A brigadier general was a general officer, but brigadiers were not generals, which is shown by the rank insignia being like that of a colonel, but with an extra (third) star/pip, and a brigadier wore the same gorget patches (scarlet cloth with a line of crimson gimp), cap badge (the Royal Crest in gold embroidery), and cap visor (one row of gold oakleaf embroidery) as a colonel. Bangladesh Prior to 2001, the Bangladesh Army rank was known as brigadier, in conformity with the rank structure of the Commonwealth Nations. In 2001 the Bangladesh Army introduced the rank of brigadier general, however "the grade stayed equivalent to brigadier", and although classified as a "one-star rank", a brigadier general is not considered to be a general officer – the lowest ranking general officer is Major General. Brigadier general is equivalent to commodore of the Bangladesh Navy and air commodore of the Bangladesh Air Force. It is still more popularly called brigadier. Belgium The Belgian Army uses the rank of (French) and (Dutch, 'brigade general'). However, in this small military there are no permanent promotions to this rank, and it is only awarded as a temporary promotion to a full colonel who assumes a post requiring the rank, notably in an international context (e.g. as military attaché in a major embassy). Brazil (Brigade general) is the lowest rank amongst general officers of the Brazilian Army – i.e. like in most British Commonwealth counties, the lowest general officer rank is a two-star rank, and a General de Brigada wears a two-star insignia. Hence, it is equivalent to the major general rank of many counties. In the Brazilian Air Force, all of the senior ranks include "Brigadeiro" – the two-star rank is Brigadeiro (Brigadier), the three-star rank is Major-Brigadeiro (Major-Brigadier) and the four-star rank is Tenente-Brigadeiro-do-Ar (Lieutenant-Air-Brigadier). (See Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier#Latin America for more information.) Burma (Myanmar) The rank of brigadier general is known in Burma as bo hmu gyoke and is often the deputy commander of one of Burma's Regional Military Commands, commander of the light infantry division (LID) or Military Operation Commands. In civil service, a brigadier general often holds the office of deputy minister or director general of certain ministries. Canada In the Canadian Forces, the rank of brigadier-general (BGen) ( or in French) is a rank for members who wear army or air force uniform, equal to a commodore for those in navy uniform. A brigadier-general is the lowest rank of general officer. A brigadier-general is senior to a colonel or naval captain, and junior to a major-general or rear-admiral. The rank title brigadier-general is still used notwithstanding that brigades in the army are now commanded by colonels. Until the late 1990s brigades were commanded by brigadier-generals. In the air force context, brigadier-generals used to command air force groups until these bodies were abolished in the late 1990s. The rank insignia for a brigadier-general on air force uniforms is a single wide braid on the cuff, as well as a single silver maple leaf beneath crossed sabre and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown, worn on the shoulder straps of the service dress jacket, and on slip-ons on other uniforms. The rank insignia on army uniforms is a gold maple leaf beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown, on the shoulder straps. On the visor of the service cap are two rows of gold oak leaves; the air force wedge cap features silver braid on the edges of the ear flaps. The cap insignia for a general officer is a modified version of the Canadian Forces insignia. Army brigadier-generals wear gorget patches on the collar of the service uniform tunic. Brigadier-generals are initially addressed verbally as "General" and name; thereafter by subordinates as "Sir" or "Ma'am" in English or in French. They are normally entitled to staff cars. Until unification in 1968 of the Royal Canadian Air Force, Canadian Army, and the Royal Canadian Navy, rank structure and insignia followed the British pattern. This system of rank insignia was reinstated in 2014. In army usage, the term "brigadier" was used to denote what is now known as a brigadier-general while the air force used the rank of air commodore. Chile In the Chilean Army, is a one-star rank and is the immediately superior two-star rank. While the Chilean Air Force uses for its one-star rank, two-star Air Force officers hold the rank of literally 'air brigade general'. Colombia The rank of brigadier general is the first general officer rank in the Fuerzas Militares, and the National Police. Estonia In the Estonian military, the rank is called Brigaadikindral. France France uses the rank of "brigade general" (). The rank contrasts with the French sub-officer rank of . As with all French general officers, a French brigade general is titled "general" without any implication that he is an army general; for instance General Charles de Gaulle never rose higher than brigade general. Until 1793, the rank of ("brigadier of the armies") existed in the French Army, which could be described as a senior colonel or junior brigade commander. The normal brigade command rank was (literally "camp marshal"). When rank insignia were introduced, wore one star and a wore two stars. During the French Revolution, the revolutionaries' drive to rationalise the state led to a change in the system of ranks. The rank of was abolished and the normal brigade command rank, , was replaced by brigade general. The rank of brigade general inherited the two stars of the rank of , explaining the absence since 1793 of a French rank with only one star. Nowadays, a French generally commands a brigade. The rank can also be awarded in an honorary fashion to retiring colonels. The insignia are two stars, worn on the shoulder or at the sleeve of the uniform, depending on the order of dress. Two different kepis are issued: the service kepi sports the two stars, while the formal kepi features a large band of oak leaves (the kepi of a division general has two smaller such bands). Charles de Gaulle held the rank of brigade general. He was given a temporary promotion to this rank in May 1940 as commander of the 4th Armoured Division (). However his initial authority as head of the Free French really came from being the only cabinet member (Under-Secretary of State for National Defence and War) outside occupied France, not from his military rank. As a reminder of his war position, he refused any further promotion. Germany The equivalent modern German OF6-rank is Brigadegeneral. The concept of a brigadier general rank is relatively new, as prior to 1945 the lowest German general officer OF6-rank was Generalmajor, which was often considered equivalent to brigadier general in other armies. Iran The equivalent rank for brigadier general in the Iranian army and air force is called . In Persian the word means brigade, and means head or commander. After 1987 the rank (second brigadier general) was introduced between and (colonel or literally head of regiment). There is no equivalent for in other countries. The rank above is . Lashgar means division so, means divisional general (major general). The Iranian Revolutionary Guards also use this rank; the difference is in salutation. One refers an army or air force brigadier general as , while a revolutionary guard general is referred to as . The only branch not using those two ranks is the Iranian Navy. Instead the equivalents are and for the higher and lower rank, respectively, usually translated as rear admiral and rear admiral 2 (or flotilla admiral). Ireland The country is divided into two areas for administrative and operational reasons, and in each area there is an infantry brigade. The two brigade group structure envisages distinct operational areas of responsibility for each of the brigades and is supported in its responsibilities by the Naval Service and Air Corps. Each of the brigade formations and the Air Corps is commanded by a brigadier general, while the Naval Service is commanded by a commodore. Italy In the Italian Armed Forces the rank has different denominations. In the Army, the rank for combat arms officers is whilst for the logistics and technical corps is called . The rank is also present in the other armed forces, police corps and other services of Italy, with different denominations, and it is associated with the lowest level within the government top management. Japan & Taiwan Because no brigadier general rank is used in the armies of various countries including Japan and Taiwan, major general is used as rank for brigade commanders instead. For this reason, the rank designation for a major general in the French Revolutionary System is brigade general, also used in other countries like Brazil and Chile. In that sense, Japan and Taiwan use major general as the equivalent of brigadier general. Mexico In Mexico, general brigadier wears the arms of Mexico with one star, and is the rank below general de brigada who wears as rank insignia the arms of Mexico with two stars. Nepal In Nepal, Brigadier General () is the lowest ranking general officer sitting between Colonel () and Major General (), with one star. Philippines In the Philippines, Brigadier General (Philippine Army Philippine Air Force and Philippine Marines)/ Commodore (Philippine Navy and Philippine Coast Guard)/ Chief Superintendent (Bureau of Fire Protection and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology) / Police Brigadier General (Chief Superintendent before) (Philippine National Police)/ Gial De Brigada (1890-1902) (Philippine Revolutionary Army) is the lowest rank of generals but already eligible in the promotion to become Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines or PNP Chief of the Philippine National Police surpassing the Major General and Lieutenant General ranks. Poland Prior to 2002, the Polish rank of was equivalent to both the ranks of major general and brigadier general. Portugal In the Portuguese Army and Air Force, brigadeiro-general is a temporary general rank for the colonels that have to exercise a special command. It is the equivalent of the commodore rank in the Portuguese Navy. The rank was reintroduced in 1999. Before that, simply as brigadeiro, it existed from 1707 to 1864 and again from 1929 to 1947, not being considered a general rank. From 1947 to 1999, brigadeiro become the two-star general rank in the Portuguese Army. As two-star rank, it was substituted by the rank of major-general in 1999. Spain In the Spanish Army, Spanish Air Force, and Spanish Marine Infantry (, a branch of the ) is the lowest rank of general officers. Its equivalent in the Navy () is . Sweden In the Swedish Army, Swedish Air Force and Swedish Amphibious Corps brigadgeneral is the lowest rank of general officers. Its equivalent in the Navy is flottiljamiral. Turkey In the Turkish Army and the Turkish Air Force, the equivalent rank is tuğgeneral (the Turkish Navy equivalent would be tuğamiral). The name is derived from tugay, the Turkish word for a brigade. Both tugay and tuğ- as military terms may owe their origins to the older Turkish word tuğ, meaning horsetail, which was used as a symbol of authority and rank in Ottoman and pre-Ottoman times. United Kingdom Brigadier-general was formerly a rank or appointment in the British Army and Royal Marines, and briefly in the Royal Air Force. The appointment was abolished in both the Army and the Marines in 1921 and the equivalent rank today is simply Brigadier. United States In the United States Army, United States Air Force and United States Marine Corps, a brigadier general is a one-star general officer. It is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral (lower half) in the other uniformed services. Insignia Army insignia Air force insignia This gallery displays Air Force brigadier general insignia if they are different from the Army brigadier general insignia. (They usually are.) Note that in many Commonwealth countries, the equivalent air force rank is Air Commodore (and in the Netherlands, it is simply Commodore). Naval infantry insignia Other insignia See also British Army officer rank insignia Comparative military ranks History of Russian military ranks Military unit NATO Air Force officers NATO Army officers U.S. Army officer rank insignia United Kingdom and United States military ranks compared Notes References External links Military insignia Military ranks of Australia Military ranks of Canada Military ranks of Romania Former military ranks of the Royal Air Force Military ranks of Pakistan Titles Military ranks One-star officers Military ranks of Singapore Military ranks of the Nepali Army	[ -0.2287193089723587, 0.5204309225082397, 0.0023384862579405308, -0.18424086272716522, -0.23626315593719482, 0.1838233917951584, 0.6382341980934143, 0.2666371166706085, -0.673098623752594, -0.13130676746368408, -1.0790045261383057, 0.09712912142276764, -0.038294218480587006, 0.6351190209388733, 0.3298719823360443, 0.5201116800308228, 0.2874079942703247, 0.4472205340862274, -0.6209120154380798, 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206221	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20H.%20Arnold	Henry H. Arnold	Henry Harley Arnold (June 25, 1886 – January 15, 1950) was an American general officer holding the ranks of General of the Army and later, General of the Air Force. Arnold was an aviation pioneer, Chief of the Air Corps (1938–1941), commanding general of the United States Army Air Forces, the only United States Air Force general to hold five-star rank, and the only officer to hold a five-star rank in two different U.S. military services. Arnold was also the founder of Project RAND, which evolved into one of the world's largest non-profit global policy think tanks, the RAND Corporation, and one of the founders of Pan American World Airways. Instructed in flying by the Wright Brothers, Arnold was one of the first military pilots worldwide, and one of the first three rated pilots in the history of the United States Air Force. He overcame a fear of flying that resulted from his experiences with early flight, supervised the expansion of the Air Service during World War I, and became a protégé of General Billy Mitchell. Arnold rose to command the Army Air Forces immediately prior to the American entry into World War II and directed its hundred-fold expansion from an organization of little more than 20,000 men and 800 first-line combat aircraft into the largest and most powerful air force in the world. An advocate of technological research and development, his tenure saw the development of the intercontinental bomber, the jet fighter, the extensive use of radar, global airlift and atomic warfare as mainstays of modern air power. Arnold's most widely used nickname, "Hap", was short for "Happy", attributed variously to work associates when he moonlighted as a silent film stunt pilot in October 1911, or to his wife, who began using the nickname in her correspondence in 1931 following the death of Arnold's mother. His family called him Harley during his youth, and his mother and wife called him "Sunny". His West Point classmates called Arnold "Pewt" or "Benny" and his immediate subordinates and headquarters staff referred to him as "The Chief". Early life and career Born June 25, 1886, in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, Arnold was the son of Dr. Herbert Alonzo Arnold (1857–1933), a physician and a member of the prominent political and military Arnold Family. His mother was Anna Louise ("Gangy") Harley (1857–1931), from a "Dunker" farm family and the first female in her family to attend high school. Arnold was Baptist in religious belief but had strong Mennonite ties through both families. However, unlike her husband, "Gangy" Arnold was "fun-loving and prone to laughter," and not rigid in her beliefs. When Arnold was eleven, his father responded to the Spanish–American War by serving as a surgeon in the Pennsylvania National Guard, of which he remained a member for the next 24 years. Arnold attended Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1903. The athletic fields at Lower Merion are named after him. Arnold had no intention of attending West Point (he was preparing to attend Bucknell University and enter the Baptist ministry) but took the entrance examination after his older brother Thomas defied their father and refused to do so. Arnold placed second on the list and received a delayed appointment when the nominated cadet confessed to being married, prohibited by academy regulations. Arnold entered the United States Military Academy at West Point as a "Juliette" (one month late), having just turned 17. His cadet career was spent as a "clean sleeve" (cadet private). At the academy he helped found the "Black Hand", a group of cadet pranksters, and led it during his first class year. He played second-team running back for the varsity football team, was a shot putter on the track and field team, and excelled at polo. Arnold's academic standing varied between the middle and the lower end of his class, with his better scores in mathematics and science. He wanted assignment to the Cavalry but an inconsistent demerit record and a cumulative general merit class standing of 66th out of 111 cadets resulted in his being commissioned on June 14, 1907, as a second lieutenant, Infantry. He initially protested the assignment (there was no commissioning requirement for USMA graduates in 1907), but was persuaded to accept a commission in the 29th Infantry, at the time stationed in the Philippines. Arnold arrived in Manila on December 7, 1907. Arnold disliked infantry troop duties and volunteered to assist Captain Arthur S. Cowan of the 20th Infantry, who was on temporary assignment in the Philippines mapping the island of Luzon. Cowan returned to the United States following completion of the cartography detail, transferred to the Signal Corps, and was assigned to recruit two lieutenants to become pilots. Cowan contacted Arnold, who cabled his interest in also transferring to the Signal Corps but heard nothing in reply for two years. In June 1909, the 29th Infantry relocated to Fort Jay, New York, and en route to his new duty station by way of Paris, France, Arnold saw his first airplane in flight, piloted by Louis Blériot. In 1911, Arnold applied for transfer to the Ordnance Department because it offered an immediate promotion to first lieutenant. While awaiting the results of the required competitive examination, he learned that his interest in aeronautics had not been forgotten. Military aviation pioneer Arnold immediately sent a letter requesting a transfer to the Signal Corps and on April 21, 1911, received Special Order 95, detailing him and 2nd Lt. Thomas DeWitt Milling of the 15th Cavalry, to Dayton, Ohio, for a course in flight instruction at the Wright brothers' aviation school at Simms Station, Ohio. While individually instructed, they were part of the school's May 1911 class that included three civilians and Lt. John Rodgers of the United States Navy. Beginning instruction on May 3 with Arthur L. Welsh, Arnold made his first solo flight May 13 after three hours and forty-eight minutes of flight in 28 lessons. On May 14, he and Milling completed their instruction. Arnold received Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) pilot certificate No. 29 on July 6, 1911, and Military Aviator Certificate No. 2 a year later. He also was recognized by a general order in 1913 as one of the first 24 rated military aviators, authorized to wear the newly designed Military Aviator badge. After several more weeks of solo flying in Dayton to gain experience, Arnold and Milling were sent on June 14 to the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps station established at College Park, Maryland, to be the Army's first flight instructors. There Arnold set an altitude record of on July 7 and thrice broke it (August 18, 1911, to ; January 25, 1912, to ; and June 1, 1912, ). In August 1911, he experienced his first crash, trying to take off from a farm field after getting lost. In September Arnold became the first U.S. pilot to carry mail, flying a bundle of letters five miles (8 km) on Long Island, New York, and he is credited as the first pilot to fly over the U.S. Capitol and the first to carry a United States Congressman as a passenger. The following month, Arnold moonlighted as a pilot in the filming of two silent movies, doubling for the leads in The Military Air-Scout and The Elopement. The flight school moved in November 1911 to a farm leased near Augusta, Georgia, hoping to continue flying there during the winter. Training was limited by rain and flooding, and they returned to Maryland in May 1912. Arnold began to develop a phobia about flying, intensified by Al Welsh's fatal crash at College Park on June 11. In August Arnold was at Marblehead, Massachusetts, with 1st Lt. Roy C. Kirtland conducting acceptance tests of the Burgess Model H, an enclosed-fuselage tandem-seat seaplane and the Army's first tractor (front-mounted propeller and engine). The pair received orders to fly the new aircraft to Bridgeport, Connecticut, to participate in maneuvers but high winds forced them to land on Massachusetts Bay on August 12. Attempting to take off again, Arnold caught a wing tip in the water turning into the wind and crashed into the bay off Plymouth. Arnold suffered a lacerated chin during the mishap but the aircraft was salvaged and repaired. Another crash at College Park on September 18 killed 2nd Lt. Lewis Rockwell, an academy classmate of Arnold's. In October, Arnold and Milling were ordered to enter the competition for the first MacKay Trophy for "the most outstanding military flight of the year." Arnold won when he located a company of cavalry from the air and returned safely despite high turbulence. As a result, he and Milling were sent to Fort Riley, Kansas, to experiment with radio and other communications from the air with the field artillery. Arnold's flight on November 2 in Wright C Speed Scout S.C. No. 10, with 1st Lt. Follett Bradley as his wireless operator, successfully sent the first radio telegraph message, at a distance of , from an aircraft to a receiver on the ground, manned by 1st Lt. Joseph O. Mauborgne of the Signal Corps. Three days later, Arnold flew on an artillery spotting exercise with 1st Lt. Alfred L.P. Sands of the 6th Field Artillery as an observer. Spiraling down to land in S.C. No. 10, the plane stalled, went into a spin, and they narrowly avoided a fatal crash. He immediately grounded himself and applied for a leave of absence. Flying was considered so dangerous that no stigma was attached for refusing to fly, and his request was granted. During his leave of absence he renewed an acquaintance with Eleanor "Bee" Pool, the daughter of a banker, and one of his father's patients. On December 1, Arnold took a staff assignment as assistant to the new head of the Aeronautical Division in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer in Washington, D.C. In the spring he was assigned the task of closing the flying school at College Park. Although promoted to 1st lieutenant on April 10, 1913, Arnold was unhappy and requested a transfer to the Philippines. While awaiting a response, he received orders to the 9th Infantry on July 10. In August, still awaiting transfer, he testified before the House Military Affairs Committee against HR5304, a bill to remove aviation from the Signal Corps and make it a semi-autonomous "Air Corps." Arnold, like fellow flyer Captain Benjamin Foulois, argued that the action was premature, and like his Signal Corps boss, Major Edgar Russel (a non-flyer), that the Signal Corps was doing all that could be done to develop military use of the airplane. He was assigned to a company at Fort Thomas, Kentucky, on September 1, where he was stationed until transferred to the 13th Infantry on November 1. Marriage and return to aviation On September 10, 1913, he and Bee married, with Milling acting as his best man. Sent back to the Philippines in January 1914, he was quartered near 1st Lieutenant George C. Marshall, who became his mentor, friend and patron. Soon after their arrival Bee miscarried, but on January 17, 1915, their first child, Lois Elizabeth Arnold, was born at Fort William McKinley in Manila. After eight months of troop duty, Arnold became battalion adjutant. In January 1916, completing a two-year tour with the 13th Infantry, Arnold was attached to the 3rd Infantry and returned to the United States. En route to Madison Barracks, New York, he exchanged telegrams from Hawaii with an assistant executive of the Aviation Section, Signal Corps, Major William "Billy" Mitchell, who alerted him that he was being detailed to the Signal Corps again, as a first lieutenant if he chose non-flying status. However, if he volunteered to requalify for a rating of Junior Military Aviator, a temporary promotion to captain was mandated by law. On May 20, 1916, Arnold reported to Rockwell Field, California, on flying status but as supply officer at the Signal Corps Aviation School. He received a permanent establishment promotion to captain, Infantry, on September 23. Between October and December 1916, encouraged by former associates, Arnold overcame his fear of flying by going up fifteen to twenty minutes a day in a Curtiss JN trainer, a much safer aircraft with a simpler flight control system than the Speed Scout of just four years' before. On November 26, he flew solo, and on December 16 qualified again for his JMA. Before he could be reassigned to flying duties, however, he was involved as a witness in a controversial service dispute in January 1917. Over the objections of Captain Herbert A. Dargue, the Aviation School's director of training, and with Arnold present, Captain Frank P. Lahm, the school secretary (adjutant), authorized on January 6 an excursion flight for a non-aviator that took place on January 10, again over Dargue's protests, resulting in the loss of the airplane in Mexico and the disappearance of the crew for nine days. After testifying to army investigators on January 27, confirming that Lahm had authorized the flight in writing, Arnold was sent to Panama on January 30, 1917, one day after the birth of his second child, Henry H. Arnold, Jr. Arnold collected the men who would make up his first command, the 7th Aero Squadron, in New York City on February 5, 1917, and was ordered to find a suitable location for an airfield in the Panama Canal Zone. When the military in Panama could not agree on a site, Arnold was ordered back to Washington, D.C., to resolve the dispute and was en route by ship when the United States declared war on Germany. Arnold requested to be sent to France, but his presence in Washington worked against him, since the Aviation Section needed qualified officers for headquarters duty. Beginning May 1, 1917, he received a series of assignments, as officer in charge of the Information Division, with a promotion to major on June 27, as assistant executive officer of the Aeronautical Division, and then as executive officer after it became the Air Division on October 1. On August 5, 1917, he was promoted again, becoming the youngest full colonel in the Army. Arnold gained significant experience in aircraft production and procurement, the construction of air schools and airfields, and the recruitment and training of large numbers of personnel, as well as learning political in-fighting in the Washington environment, all of which helped him significantly 25 years later. When the Division of Military Aeronautics superseded the Air Division in April 1918, Arnold continued as executive assistant to its director, Major General William Kenly, and advanced to assistant director when the DMA was removed from the Signal Corps in May 1918. Arnold's third child, William Bruce Arnold, was born July 17, 1918. Shortly after, Arnold arranged to go to France to brief General John Pershing, commanding the American Expeditionary Force, on the Kettering Bug, a weapons development. Aboard a ship to France in late October he developed Spanish influenza and was hospitalized on his arrival in England. He did reach the front on November 11, 1918, but the Armistice ended the war on the same day. Between the wars Acolyte of Billy Mitchell The Air Service separated from the Signal Corps on May 20, 1918. However control of aviation remained with the ground forces when its post-war director was a field artillery general, Major General Charles T. Menoher, who epitomized the view of the War Department General Staff that "military aviation can never be anything other than simply an arm of the (Army)". Menoher was followed in 1921 by another non-aviator, Maj.Gen. Mason M. Patrick. Patrick, however, obtained a rating of Junior Airplane Pilot despite being 59 years old and became both an airpower advocate and a proponent of an independent air force. Both Menoher and Patrick clashed often with Assistant Chief of Air Service Billy Mitchell, who had become radical in his desire for a single unified Air Force to control and develop all military airpower. Arnold supported Mitchell's highly publicized views, the consequence of which was a mutual dislike with Patrick. Arnold was sent to Rockwell Field on January 10, 1919, as District Supervisor, Western District of the Air Service, to oversee the demobilization of 8,000 airmen and surplus aircraft. There he first established relationships with the men who became his main aides, executive officer Captain Carl A. Spaatz and adjutant 1st Lieutenant Ira C. Eaker. Five months later Arnold became Air Officer of the Western Department (after June 1920 the Ninth Corps Area) in San Francisco and de facto commander of Crissy Field, being developed on a site determined by a board chaired by Arnold. Arnold's promotion to colonel expired June 30, 1920, and he reverted to his permanent establishment rank of captain. Even though he received an automatic promotion to major because of his Military Aviator rating, he became junior to officers serving under him, including Spaatz, whose promotion received while in France was not rescinded. On August 11, 1920, Arnold was one of 21 Infantry majors formally transferred to the Air Service by War Department Special Orders No. 188-0. Of Arnold, the National Park Service history of Crissy Field wrote: "During his tour of duty, Arnold had been instrumental both in bringing Crissy Field into existence, and establishing the pattern of its operations." In October 1922 he was sent back to Rockwell, now a service depot, as base commander and there encouraged an aerial refueling, the first in history, that took place eight months later. Arnold experienced several serious illnesses and accidents requiring hospitalization, including recurring stomach ulcers and the amputation of three fingertips on his left hand in 1922. His wife and sons also experienced serious health problems, including a near fatal case of scarlet fever for son Bruce. His fourth child, John Linton Arnold, born in the summer of 1921, died on June 30, 1923, of acute appendicitis. Both Arnold and wife Bee needed almost a year to recover psychologically from the loss. In August 1924, Arnold was unexpectedly assigned to attend a five-month course of study at the Army Industrial College. After completing the course he was hand-picked by Patrick, despite their mutual dislike, to head the Air Service's Information Division, working closely with Mitchell. When Mitchell was court-martialed, Arnold, Spaatz, and Eaker were all warned that they were jeopardizing their careers by vocally supporting Mitchell, but they testified on his behalf anyway. After Mitchell was convicted on December 17, 1925, his supporters including Arnold continued to use Information Division resources to promote his views to airpower-friendly congressmen and Air Service reservists. In February, Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis ordered Patrick to find and discipline the culprits. Patrick was already aware of the activity and chose Arnold to set an example. He gave Arnold the choice of resignation or a general court-martial, but when Arnold chose the latter, Patrick decided to avoid another public fiasco and instead transferred him to Ft. Riley, far from the aviation mainstream, where he took command of the 16th Observation Squadron on March 22, 1926. Patrick's press release on the investigation stated that Arnold was also reprimanded for violating Army General Order No. 20 by attempting "to influence legislation in an improper manner." Despite this setback, which included a fitness report that stated "in an emergency he is liable to lose his head", Arnold made a commitment to remain in the service, turning down an offer of the presidency of the soon-to-be operating Pan American Airways, which he had helped bring into being. Arnold made the best of his exile and in May 1927, his participation in war games at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, impressed Major General James E. Fechet, successor to Patrick as Chief of the U.S. Army Air Corps. He also received outstanding fitness reports from his commanders at Ft. Riley, Brigadier General Ewing E. Booth (who had been a member of the Mitchell court) and his successor, Brig. Gen. Charles J. Symmonds. Repairs to Arnold's service reputation may also have been aided by a professional article he wrote for the Cavalry Journal in January 1928, showing the influence of his association with the Cavalry School at Fort Riley. Arnold urged a strong combined arms team be developed between the Air Corps and the Cavalry; and by extension, all ground forces. This opportunity for development of the concept in both theory and practice was lost however, by the effects of cultural differences between the two service branches and the dominance of American isolationism. It did not develop until the United States was engaged in World War II. On February 24, 1927, his son David Lee Arnold was born at Ft. Riley. In 1928 Arnold wrote and published six books of juvenile fiction, the "Bill Bruce Series," whose objective was to interest young people in flying. Air Corps mid-career Fechet intervened with Army Chief of Staff Gen. Charles P. Summerall to have Arnold's exile ended by assigning him in August 1928 to the Army's Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth. The year-long course was unpleasant for Arnold because of doctrinal differences with the school's commandant, Major General Edward L. King, but Arnold graduated with high marks in June 1929. Arnold was slated for assignment to the Air Corps Training Center in San Antonio following graduation, but Brigadier General Lahm, the commander of the ACTC, strongly opposed it, possibly recalling their 1917 dispute. Instead Arnold commanded the Fairfield Air Service Depot, Ohio. In 1930 he also became Chief of the Field Service Section, Air Corps Materiel Division, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on February 1, 1931. Arnold's parents were made destitute by the bank collapses in 1929, and on January 18, 1931, his mother died of a sudden heart attack. Arnold struggled emotionally with being absent from his parent's 50th wedding anniversary celebration the year before and with the depression afflicting his father after her death. A contemporary biographer of Arnold notes that not until after his mother's funeral did Bee begin use of the sobriquet "Hap" in place of "Sunny" when addressing him, apparently to avoid the "constant reminder" of his mother that the latter name might bring. Arnold himself eschewed the use of "Sunny" in his personal correspondence after May 1931, signing himself as "Hap" Arnold from that point forward. Arnold took command of March Field, California, where Spaatz had just assumed command of the grandiose-sounding but tiny 1st Wing, on November 27, 1931. Arnold's responsibilities included refurbishing the base into a showcase installation, which required that he resolve strained relations with the community. He accomplished this by having his officers join local social service organizations and by a series of well-publicized relief efforts. Arnold took command of the 1st Wing himself on January 4, 1933, which flew food-drops during blizzards in the winter of 1932–33, assisted in relief work during the Long Beach earthquake of March 10, 1933, and established camps for 3,000 boys of the Civilian Conservation Corps. He organized a high-profile series of aerial reviews that featured visits from Hollywood celebrities and aviation notables. In August 1932, Arnold began acquisition of portions of Rogers Dry Lake as a bombing and gunnery range for his units, a site that later became Edwards Air Force Base. In 1934, Chief of Air Corps Benjamin D. Foulois named Arnold to command one of the three military zones of the controversial Army Air Corps Mail Operation, with a temporary headquarters in Salt Lake City, Utah. Arnold's pilots performed well and his own reputation was untouched by the fiasco. Later that same year he won his second Mackay Trophy, when he led ten Martin B-10B bombers on an flight from Bolling Field to Fairbanks, Alaska, and back. Overly credited with its success, he nonetheless lobbied for recognition of the other airmen who took part, but the deputy chief of staff ignored his recommendations. His reputation among some of his peers was tarnished by resentment when he was belatedly awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for the flight in 1937. On March 1, 1935, General Headquarters Air Force was activated to control all combat aviation units of the Air Corps based in the United States, although it was not subordinate to the Chief of Air Corps. While a significant step towards an independent air force, this dual authority created serious problems of unity of command for the next six years. GHQAF commander Major General Frank Andrews tapped Arnold to retain command of its 1st Wing, which now carried with it a temporary promotion to the rank of brigadier general, effective March 2, 1935. On December 23, 1935, new Army Chief of Staff General Malin Craig summoned Arnold to Washington. He and Arnold had become personal friends and golfing partners during Craig's command of the Ninth Corps Area in 1933. Foulois had retired under fire in the wake of the Air Mail scandal and allegations of corruption in Air Corps procurement, and the new chief, Major General Oscar Westover, had asked Craig for Arnold to fill the vacant assistant chief position. Over Arnold's protests, and despite a left-handed recommendation by Secretary of War George Dern, who recalled Arnold's close association with Billy Mitchell, Craig made him Assistant Chief of Air Corps, responsible for procurement and supply, to deal with the political struggles over them from the Foulois years. In effect, however, Arnold had "switched sides" in the struggle between GHQ Air Force and the Air Corps. Chief of Air Corps Westover was killed in an air crash at Burbank, California, on September 21, 1938. Prior vacancies in the office had been filled by an incumbent assistant chief, and Arnold's appointment to succeed Westover seemed automatic since he was well qualified. Yet the appointment was delayed when a faction developed supporting the appointment of Andrews that included two members of the White House staff, press secretary Stephen Early and military adviser Colonel Edwin M. Watson. A rumor circulated through the White House that Arnold was a "drunkard". In his memoirs, Arnold recorded that he enlisted the help of Harry Hopkins to attack the drinking rumors, but more recent research asserts that Craig threatened to resign as Army chief of staff if Arnold was not appointed. President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Arnold as Chief of Air Corps on September 29, which carried with it the rank of major general. To repair his relationship with the Andrews faction, most of whom were part of GHQ Air Force, he selected its chief of staff, Colonel Walter G. Kilner, to fill the Assistant Chief of Air Corps vacancy. After Charles Lindbergh publicly lent his support in April 1939 for production of a very long range bomber in large numbers to counter Nazi production, development of which had been prohibited since June 1938 by the Secretary of War, Arnold appointed Kilner to head a board to make appropriate recommendations to end the R&D moratorium. Arnold encouraged research and development efforts, among his projects the B-17 and the concept of Jet-assisted takeoff. To encourage the use of civilian expertise, the California Institute of Technology became a beneficiary of Air Corps funding and Theodore von Kármán of its Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory developed a good working relationship with Arnold that led to the creation of the Scientific Advisory Group in 1944. Arnold characterized his wartime philosophy of research and development as: "Sacrifice some quality to get sufficient quantity to supply all fighting units. Never follow the mirage, looking for the perfect airplane, to a point where fighting squadrons are deficient in numbers of fighting planes." To that end he concentrated on rapid returns from R&D investments, exploiting proven technologies to provide operational solutions to counter the rising threat of the Axis Powers. Arnold also pushed for jet propulsion, especially after the British shared their plans of Whittle's turbojet during his visit to Britain in April 1941. The proposal was immediately opposed by the General Staff in all respects. He and Eaker collaborated on three books promoting airpower: This Flying Game (1936, reprinted 1943), Winged Victory (1941), and Army Flyer (1942). In March 1939 Arnold was appointed to head the Air Board by Secretary of War Harry Woodring, to recommend doctrine and organization of Army airpower to the chief of staff. While the board's report concluded that airpower was indispensable to the defense of the hemisphere, stressed the need for long-range bombers, and became the basis for the first Air Corps field manual, it was a "considerable attenuation" of the doctrine being developed at the Air Corps Tactical School. Arnold submitted the findings to George C. Marshall, newly appointed as chief of staff, on September 1, 1939, the day Nazi Germany invaded Poland. When Marshall requested a reorganization study from the Air Corps, Arnold submitted a proposal on October 5, 1940, that would create an air staff, unify the air arm under one commander, and grant it autonomy with the ground and supply forces. Congress repealed the Neutrality Act in November 1939 to permit the selling of aircraft to the belligerents, causing Arnold concern that shipments of planes to the Allies would slow delivery to the Air Corps, particularly since control of the allotment of aircraft production had been given to the Procurement Division of the Treasury Department in December 1938, and by extension, to Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr., a White House favorite. Arnold experienced two years of difficulties with Morgenthau, who was prone to denigrate the leadership of the War Department and Air Corps. Their conflict peaked on March 12, 1940, when Arnold's public complaint about increases in shipments brought a personal warning from Roosevelt that "there were places to which officers who did not 'play ball' might be sent, such as Guam," and got him banished from the White House for eight months. The disfavor shown Arnold by Roosevelt reached a turning point in March 1941 when new Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, a supporter of Arnold, submitted his name with two others for promotion to the permanent rank of major general. Roosevelt refused to send the list to the Senate for confirmation because of Arnold's nomination, and his forced retirement from the service seemed imminent to both Stimson and Marshall. Stimson and Harry Hopkins arranged for Arnold, accompanied by Maj. Elwood "Pete" Quesada, to travel to England for three weeks in April to evaluate British aircraft production needs and to provide an up-to-date strategic analysis. One outcome of the visit was the setting up of a program for training British pilots in the US, which subsequently became known as the Arnold Scheme. Arnold's meeting with Roosevelt to report his findings was judged as impressively cogent and optimistic, but the president ruminated on Arnold's future for three weeks before submitting his name and the others to the Senate. From that point on, however, Arnold's "position in the White House was secure." His importance to Roosevelt in setting an airpower agenda was demonstrated when Arnold was invited to the Atlantic Conference in Newfoundland in August, the first of seven such summits that he, not Morgenthau, would attend. World War II Reorganization, autonomy, and strategic plans The division of authority between the Air Corps and the GHQ Air Force was removed with promulgation of Army Regulation 95–5, creating the United States Army Air Forces on June 20, 1941, only two days before Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union. Arnold became Chief of the Army Air Forces and acting "Deputy Chief of Staff for Air" with authority over both the Air Corps and Air Force Combat Command (successor to GHQAF). While this provided the air arm with a staff of its own and brought the entire organization under the command of one general, it failed to grant the degree of autonomy sought. By consensus between Marshall and Arnold, debate on separation of the Air Force into a service co-equal with the Army and Navy was postponed until after the war. In July Roosevelt asked for production requirements to defeat potential enemies, and Arnold endorsed a request by his new Air War Plans Division to submit an air war plan. The assessment, designated AWPD/1, defined four tasks for the AAF: defense of the Western Hemisphere, an initial defensive strategy against Japan, a strategic air offensive against Germany, and a later strategic air offensive against Japan in prelude of invasion. It also planned for an expansion of the AAF to 60,000 aircraft and 2.1 million men. AWPD/1 called for 24 groups (approximately 750 airplanes) of very long range B-29 bombers to be based in Northern Ireland and Egypt for use against Nazi Germany, and for production of sufficient Consolidated B-36s for intercontinental bombing missions of Germany. Soon after U.S. entry in the war, Arnold was promoted to lieutenant general on December 15, 1941. On March 9, 1942, after the creation of the AAF failed to define clear channels of authority for the air forces, the Army adopted the functional reorganization that Arnold had advocated in October 1940. Acting on an executive order from Roosevelt, the War Department granted the AAF full autonomy, equal to and entirely separate from the Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply. The Air Force Combat Command and the Office of the Chief of Air Corps were abolished, and Arnold became AAF Commanding General and an ex officio member of both the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combined Chiefs of Staff. In response to an August 1942 directive, Arnold had the AWPD revise its estimates. AWPD/42 resulted, calling for 75,000 aircraft and 2.7 million men, and increased the production of aircraft for use by other allies. AWPD/42 reaffirmed earlier strategic priorities, but increased the list of industrial targets from 23 to 177, ranking the German Luftwaffe first and its submarine force second in importance of destruction. It also directed that the B-29 bomber not be employed in Europe because of problems in its development, but instead that the B-29 program's deployment be concentrated in the Far East to destroy Japanese military power and combustible cities. Arnold was responsible for approving the Army Air Forces Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD). It was approved by September 14, 1942, and directed by aviator Jacqueline Cochran. Strategic bombing in Europe Immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor Arnold began to carry out AWPD/1. The primary strategic bombing force against Nazi Germany would be the Eighth Air Force, and he named Spaatz to command it and Eaker to head its Bomber Command. Other Arnold protégés eventually filled key positions in the strategic bombing forces, including Haywood S. Hansell, Laurence S. Kuter, and James H. Doolittle. Despite protecting his strategic bombing force from demands of other services and allies, Arnold was forced to divert resources from the Eighth to support operations in North Africa, crippling the Eighth in its infancy and nearly killing it. Eaker (now Eighth Air Force commander) found from experience that the pre-war doctrine of daylight precision bombing, developed at the Air Corps Tactical School as a foundation for separating the Air Force from the Army, was mistaken in its tenet that heavily armed bombers could reach any target without the support of long-range escort fighters. Early in 1943 he began requesting more fighters and jettisonable fuel tanks to increase their range, in addition to repeated requests to increase the size of his small bombing force. Heavy losses in the summer and fall of 1943 on deep penetration missions intensified Eaker's requests. Arnold, under pressure and impatient for results, ignored Eaker's findings and placed the blame on a lack of aggressiveness by bomber commanders. This came at a time when General Dwight D. Eisenhower was putting together his command group for the invasion of Europe, and Arnold approved Eisenhower's request to replace Eaker with his own commanders, Spaatz and Doolittle. Ironically, the very items Eaker requested—a larger bomber force, drop tanks, and P-51 fighters—accompanied the change of command and made the Eighth Air Force decisive in defeating Germany using the daylight bombing doctrine. The change in command at Eighth Air Force, particularly involving the relief of a friend or protégé, was just one of many that exemplified a ruthlessness Arnold developed to get results. In 1942, Brigadier General Walter R. Weaver, acting chief of the Air Corps, had his job eliminated and was relegated to a technical training command. George C. Kenney relieved Jacob E. Fickel in command of Fourth Air Force and later that same year replaced former Chief of the Air Corps George H. Brett as Southwest Pacific air commander. In the B-29 campaign, Curtis E. LeMay relieved Kenneth B. Wolfe in India in July 1944, and later Hansell on Guam in January 1945. B-29 operations against Japan With the strategic bombing crisis resolved in Europe, Arnold placed full emphasis on completion of the development and deployment of the B-29 Very Long Range (VLR) bomber to attack Japan. As early as 1942, Arnold planned to make himself commanding general of the Twentieth Air Force. This unique command arrangement may also have contributed to his health problems (see below), but after the negative experiences of building an effective bombing force against Germany, and realizing the consequences of failure against Japan, Arnold concluded that, absent any unity of command in the Pacific theaters, administrative decisions regarding B-29 bomber operations could best be handled personally. However, theater commanders Douglas MacArthur, Chester Nimitz, and Joseph Stilwell all coveted the B-29s for tactical support, to which Arnold was adamantly opposed as a diversion from strategic policy. He convinced not only Marshall, but also Chief of Naval Operations Ernest J. King, that the Twentieth was unique in that its operations cut across the jurisdiction of all three theaters, and thus should report directly to the Joint Chiefs with Arnold acting as their executive agent. In February 1944 President Roosevelt agreed and approved the arrangement. The VLR program had been plagued with a seemingly unending series of development problems, subjecting it and Arnold to much criticism in the press and from skeptical field commanders. The B-29 was the key component of the AAF's fourth strategic priority, since no other land-based bomber was capable of reaching the Japanese homeland, but by February 1944, the XX Bomber Command, slated to begin Operation Matterhorn on June 1, had virtually no flight time yet above an altitude of . With a designated overseas deployment date of April 15, 1944, Arnold intervened in the situation personally by flying to Kansas on March 8, 1944. For three days he toured training bases involved in the modification program. He was distressed at his findings of shortages, and of work failures. On the spot he made Maj. Gen. Bennett E. Meyers, a military procurement officer accompanying him, the coordinator of the program. Meyers succeeded in the "Battle of Kansas." Despite labor problems, and blizzard weather, a complete bomb group was ready for deployment by April 9. The mechanical problems of the B-29, however, had not been resolved. During early combat operations many new ones were identified. Arnold felt the pressure of achieving the goals of AWPD/1, and of justifying, by results, a very expensive technological project. Arnold needed the B-29 to provide the delivery platform for the highly classified atomic bomb, if the Manhattan Project succeeded. B-29 operations against Japanese targets in China and Southeast Asia began in June 1944, and from the outset produced far less positive results than expected. The difficulties of the Twentieth Air Force's campaign against Japan mirrored those of the Eighth Air Force's against Germany. With characteristic impatience, Arnold quickly relieved Wolfe, the B-29 commander in China, after less than a month of operations, and replaced him with LeMay. A second B-29 command began operations from bases in the Mariana Islands in November. Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell, one of the architects of AWPD/1 and AWPD/42, encountered even more command problems than had Wolfe or LeMay. After two months of ostensibly poor results, but mostly because he resisted a campaign of firebombing attacks against Japanese population centers favored by Arnold and his chief of staff, Lauris Norstad, Arnold decided he too needed replacing. He shut down operations from China, consolidated all the B-29s in the Marianas, and replaced Hansell with LeMay in January 1945 as commander of XXI Bomber Command. Final years Health problems Between 1943 and 1945 Arnold experienced four heart attacks severe enough to require hospitalization. In addition to being by nature intensely impatient, Arnold considered that his personal presence was required wherever a crisis might be, and as a result he traveled extensively and for long hours under great stress during the war, aggravating what may have been a pre-existing coronary condition. His extended trips and inspection tours were to the United Kingdom in April 1941 and again in May 1942; the South Pacific in September 1942, North Africa and China in January–February 1943; the Middle East and Italy (where his party came under artillery fire) in November–December 1943; London and Normandy accompanying Marshall in June 1944; Germany and Italy in April–May 1945; the Western Pacific in June 1945; and Potsdam in July 1945. A lesser but more frequent factor may have been his difficulty in handling inter-service politics, particularly with the Navy, which steadfastly refused to recognize him as a chief of staff or his subordinate staff as equals. On Guam, with knowledge of the approaching atomic bomb decision, he negotiated with Nimitz over the Navy's objections to basing the headquarters of the strategic air forces on the island. Arnold's first heart attack occurred February 28, 1943, just after his return from the Casablanca Conference and China. During that trip, Argonaut, the B-17 bomber transporting his party, became lost for several hours over Japanese-held territory trying to "fly the Hump" at night. He was hospitalized at Walter Reed Army Hospital for several days, then took three weeks leave at the Coral Gables Biltmore Hotel in Florida, which had been converted into a convalescent hospital. U.S. Army regulations then required that he leave the service, but President Roosevelt waived the requirement in April after he demonstrated his recovery, and on the condition that the President be provided with monthly updates on Arnold's health. Arnold's second heart attack occurred just a month later, on May 10, 1943, and resulted in a 10-day stay in Walter Reed. Against the wishes of Marshall, he gave the commencement address for the Class of June 1943 at West Point, where his son Bruce was graduating. His third heart attack, less severe than the first two, occurred exactly a year after the second, on May 10, 1944, under the strain of the B-29 problems. Arnold took a month's leave, returning to duty by flying with Marshall to London on June 7 for a conference and an inspection of Omaha Beach. Arnold's last wartime heart attack came on January 17, 1945, just days after he replaced Hansell with LeMay. Arnold had not gone into his office for three days, and refused to permit the Air Force's chief flight surgeon to examine him. The flight surgeon enlisted a general and personal friend of Arnold's to inquire on his condition, after which Arnold was again flown to Coral Gables, Florida, and placed under 24-hour care for nine days. Arnold again was allowed to remain in the service, but under conditions that amounted to light duty. He continued to tour air bases in both theaters. Arnold was returning by C-54 from Italy to Miami for a checkup when he received the news of the German surrender on May 7, 1945. On July 16 he relinquished command of the Twentieth Air Force to LeMay. Promotion and retirement Arnold received honorary doctorates from Pennsylvania Military College and the University of Southern California in 1941, and from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1942. Post-war honors included doctorates from Hahnemann College, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Columbia University, the University of California, and Ursinus College. Arnold also received 26 decorations and awards from foreign countries honoring his service in World War II. On March 19, 1943, Arnold was promoted (wartime) to full general, and on December 21, 1944, appointed a five-star General of the Army under Public Law 78–482, placing him fourth in Army rank seniority, behind only Marshall, MacArthur, and Eisenhower. In 1945, Arnold directed the founding of Project RAND (which became the RAND Corporation, a non-profit think tank) with $10,000,000 of funding left over from World War II. Initially tasked "to connect military planning with research and development decisions," RAND widely expanded in its scope beyond its original mission. After a trip to South America in January 1946, in which he developed a heart arrhythmia severe enough to cancel the remainder of the trip, Arnold left active duty in the AAF on February 28, 1946, (his official date of retirement was June 30, 1946). On March 23, 1946, Public Law 79–333 made the promotion to General of the Army permanent for all those holding it, and awarded full pay and allowances for those on the retired list. He was succeeded by Spaatz, who also became first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force when it became a separate service on September 18, 1947. Arnold retired to a ranch near Sonoma, California, and signed a contract with Harper & Brothers to write his memoirs, Global Mission. Unlike George S. Patton, who enjoyed independent wealth, or colleagues who had taken positions in government, such as Marshall (appointed Secretary of State), Arnold had no source of income beyond his retirement pay and allowances, and was not healthy enough to continue service. His autobiography was an attempt to provide financial security for his wife after his death, and during the writing of it he suffered his fifth heart attack in January 1948, hospitalizing him for three months. Death On May 7, 1949, changed the designation of Arnold's final rank and grade to that of General of the Air Force, and he remains the only person to have held the rank. He is also the only person to hold five-star rank in two U.S. military services. He died on January 15, 1950, at his home in Sonoma. He was given a state funeral in Washington, D.C. that included rare services held in Arlington Memorial Amphitheater, and he was buried in Section 34, plot number 44-A, of Arlington National Cemetery. Robert A. Lovett, with whom Arnold worked closely during the war in his capacity as Assistant Secretary of War for Air, stated that Arnold had been as much a casualty of war as if he had been injured in the line of duty. All three of Arnold's surviving sons were graduates of West Point (Henry Harley Jr., 1939; Willam Bruce, June 1943; and David Lee, 1949) and reached the grade of colonel. The two youngest served in the United States Air Force and are interred near their father's burial site at Arlington National Cemetery. Legacy General H. H. Arnold Field (Athletic Field) at Lower Merion High School, Ardmore, Pennsylvania, 19003, is named for Arnold. Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee, and the Arnold Engineering Development Complex are named for Arnold. The Air Force Research Laboratory generally recognizes Arnold as the visionary who first articulated that superior research and development capabilities are essential to deterring and winning wars. Arnold's ideas underpin the Laboratory's modern-day role within the Air Force. The cadet social center at the United States Air Force Academy, Arnold Hall, and the Arnold Hall Community Center at Lackland Air Force Base near San Antonio, Texas, are both named for Arnold. The Civil Air Patrol has named an award that accompanies the rank of Cadet Airman First Class after him, being known as the Hap Arnold Award. The Air Force Association recognizes the "most significant contribution by a military member for national defense" with its H. H. Arnold Award. The top honorary organization in Air Force ROTC, the Arnold Air Society, is named for him, and The George C. Marshall Foundation awards the George C. Marshall/Henry "Hap" Arnold ROTC Award annually to the top senior cadet at each college or university with an AFROTC program. The Air Force Aid Society, which he founded, awards a college scholarship in his name to the dependents of Air Force members or retirees. On December 21, 1944, Arnold was appointed to the rank of General of the Army, placing him in the company of Dwight D. Eisenhower, George Marshall, and Douglas MacArthur, the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II, and along with Omar Bradley, one of only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888 death of Philip Sheridan, and the only five men to hold the rank as a Five-star general. The rank was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis when Public Law 78–482 was passed on December 14, 1944, as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was then declared permanent March 23, 1946 by Public Law 333 of the 79th Congress, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list. It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet. This second General of the Army rank is not the same as the post-Civil War era version because of its purpose and five stars. In 1972, Arnold was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame. On May 18, 2006, the Department of the Air Force introduced prototypes of two new service dress uniforms, one resembling those worn by Air Service officers prior to 1926, called the "Billy Mitchell heritage coat," and another, resembling the U.S. Army Air Forces' Uniform of World War II and named the "Hap Arnold heritage coat". In 2007, the Air Force decided in favor of the "Hap Arnold" prototype, but in 2009 the new chief of staff of the Air Force directed that "no further effort be made on the Hap Arnold Heritage Coat" and the uniform change was suspended indefinitely. During the last mission of the Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-134, a five-star insignia of Arnold's preserved in the National Museum of the United States Air Force was carried into space by shuttle pilot Gregory H. Johnson as a commemorative gesture to Arnold's legacy. Arnold was then the featured honoree of the museum's National Aviation Day celebration of August 20, 2011, when Johnson returned the insignia to the museum. The United States Department of Defense high school at the former Wiesbaden Air Base in Wiesbaden, Germany, was named General H. H. Arnold High School in 1949. The school was renamed Wiesbaden High School in 2006 after the installation was transferred to the United States Army. On November 7, 1988, the United States Postal Service released the H. H. "Hap" Arnold 65 cent postage stamp bearing the likeness of Arnold, in his honor, as part of the Great Americans series. Arnold Heights, California is named in his honor, as is Arnold Drive, a main arterial road running through Sonoma Valley near his ranch. Hap Arnold Boulevard, the main access road to Tobyhanna Army Depot in Tobyhanna, Pennsylvania, is named in his honor. General Arnold was the class exemplar of the United States Air Force Academy Class of 2012. Film In a rare depiction on film, Arnold was sympathetically portrayed in the 1954 film The Glenn Miller Story, played by Barton MacLane. In 1977, he was again portrayed on film by actor Walter O. Miles in the two-part opus The Amazing Howard Hughes, starring Tommy Lee Jones as Hughes. Arnold appeared in a speaking role as himself in Men of the Sky, a Technicolor propaganda short made by Warner Brothers and released on July 25, 1942. He appears as himself in the first eight minutes of the twenty-minute short, filmed in May 1942 at Merced Army Air Field, California. In the short, he alights from his C-42 staff transport at the training base to preside at a graduation ceremony for pilots completing their flight training. Arnold delivers a short address and speaks with each of four pilots (actors Tod Andrews, Don DeFore, Ray Montgomery, and Dave Willock) as he pins on their wings. Summary of service Dates of rank Awards and decorations Source: AF Historical Study No. 91. Published works Non-fiction books Children's books See also List of United States Air Force four-star generals List of United States Army four-star generals Notes Footnotes Citations References (Part I) (Part II) Huston's introductory biography is 108 pages in length, and is a detailed account of Arnold's life, both professional and personal, to 1941. USAF Historical Studies No. 89: No. 91: No. 98: No. 112: Further reading External links NMUSAF fact sheet: Gen. Henry H. "Hap" Arnold General Henry H. Arnold (official USAF biography) General of the Air Force, Henry H. "Hap" Arnold Air University biography Arnold Air Society biography National Aviation Hall of Fame enshrinement page 1886 births 1950 deaths Aerial warfare pioneers American five-star officers American aviation record holders United States Army Air Forces generals United States Army personnel of World War I United States Air Force generals Members of the Early Birds of Aviation United States Army Air Forces generals of World War II Operation Overlord people Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Recipients of the Air Medal Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath 2 Arnold, Henry H. Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium) Recipients of the Order of Military Merit (Brazil) Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Grand Crosses of the Order of George I with Swords Recipients of the Military Order of Italy Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Mackay Trophy winners RAND Corporation people Stunt pilots United States Military Academy alumni Lower Merion High School alumni United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni Air Corps Tactical School alumni Aviators from Pennsylvania Military personnel from Pennsylvania People from Lower Merion Township, Pennsylvania People from Sonoma, California Baptists from California Baptists from Pennsylvania Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Military personnel from California	[ -0.2692977488040924, 0.3922377824783325, -0.5256704092025757, 0.37934496998786926, 0.13874192535877228, 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206223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberst%20%28disambiguation%29	Oberst (disambiguation)	Oberst is a military rank corresponding to Colonel OF-5 in Anglophone countries, or Polkovnik in Slavophone armed forces. Oberst may also refer to: People Oberst (surname), a surname of Germanic origin Bill Oberst Jr. (born 1965), American stage, film and television actor Conor Oberst (born 1980), American singer-songwriter Eugene Oberst (1901–1991), American athlete Jack Oberst (1918–2009), American professional basketball player Maximilian Oberst (1849–1925), German physician and surgeon Robert Oberst (born 1984), American strongman Places Oberst, locality in the city of Wuppertal, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany Oberst Glacier, a glacier in the Sor Rondane Mountains, Antarctica See also Ober (disambiguation)	[ -0.2172124683856964, 0.33497434854507446, 0.059031568467617035, -0.17818735539913177, -0.6455986499786377, -0.2468004822731018, 0.8851251602172852, 0.08624231070280075, -0.2610483169555664, -0.28999021649360657, -0.976872444152832, -0.29834961891174316, -0.08671260625123978, 0.728141725063324, 0.17599229514598846, 0.5186843872070312, 0.21386386454105377, 0.6551632881164551, -0.6940541863441467, 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206230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coonhound	Coonhound	A coonhound, colloquially a coon dog, is a type of scenthound, a member of the hound group. They are an American type of hunting dog developed for the hunting of raccoons and also for feral pigs, bobcats, cougars, and bears. There are six distinct breeds of coonhound. History In the colonial period, hounds were imported into the United States for the popular sport of fox hunting. Various breeds of foxhounds and other hunting hounds were imported from England, Ireland, and France. Foxhounds were found to be inadequate for hunting American animals that did not hide near the ground, but instead climbed trees, such as raccoons, opossums, bobcats, and even larger prey like cougars and bears. The dogs were often confused or unable to hold the scent when this occurred, and would mill about. This led to the development of treeing hounds by hunters and dog breeders. Foundation dogs were chosen for a keen sense of smell, the ability to track an animal independent of human commands and, most importantly, to follow an animal both on the ground and when it took to a tree. Bloodhounds specifically were added to many coonhound lines to enhance the ability to track. Coonhounds can hunt individually or as a pack. Often, hunters do not chase their quarry along with the hounds, unlike organized foxhunting, but wait and listen to the distinctive baying to determine if the prey has been treed. Coonhounds are excellent at hunting all manner of prey if trained properly. Memorial Established in 1937, the Key Underwood Coon Dog Memorial Graveyard is located in Colbert County, Alabama. It is used specifically for the burial of coonhounds. Breeds There are six breeds of coonhound, all of which were first recognized by the United Kennel Club: The first to be officially registered was the Black and Tan Coonhound in 1900. It was followed by the solid red Redbone Coonhound in 1902. The third is the English Coonhound, recognized by the UKC in 1905. The English has the widest color variation of the coonhound breeds, coming in redtick, bluetick, and tricolor patterns. The Bluetick Coonhound and tricolored Treeing Walker Coonhound were originally considered varieties of the English, but were split off and recognized as different breeds by 1946 and 1945, respectively. The Plott Hound, a dark brindle in color, was the last to be recognized, in 1946. It is the only coonhound that does not descend from foxhounds; instead, its ancestry traces back to German boar-hunting dogs. The Black and Tan Coonhound was the first to be recognized by the American Kennel Club, in 1946. The other coonhound breeds were not able to be AKC-registered until the 2000s; the Redbone and Bluetick Coonhounds were both recognized in 2009, the English in 2011 (as the American English), and the Treeing Walker in 2012. In 2008, the UKC recognized the American Leopard Hound as a scenthound breed. It is used for hunting raccoons, as well as other game animals. See also Dogs portal List of dog breeds References Dog types Scent hounds	[ 0.011467370204627514, 0.23825496435165405, -0.25939178466796875, -0.504465639591217, 0.2346361130475998, -0.1812535524368286, 0.4956137537956238, -0.1750379055738449, -0.03354775160551071, 0.3859114646911621, -0.6949499845504761, 0.2628549039363861, -0.6335249543190002, 0.2742061913013458, -0.27620893716812134, 0.43529030680656433, 0.7624481320381165, 0.6318739652633667, 0.20475716888904572, -1.0374164581298828, -0.5144516825675964, -0.7728309035301208, -0.5926042199134827, -0.3821693956851959, 0.6631298661231995, 0.3775297701358795, 0.33215638995170593, 0.28910380601882935, -0.009542633779346943, -0.050358034670352936, 0.2667219340801239, 0.8123767971992493, 0.21170610189437866, -0.013324260711669922, 0.059242747724056244, 0.4069731533527374, 0.02689965069293976, -0.499948114156723, -0.4791223108768463, -0.695760190486908, -0.0858573392033577, 0.29628536105155945, -0.10137923061847687, 0.8475133776664734, 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206234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical%20Society	Analytical Society	The Analytical Society was a group of individuals in early-19th-century Britain whose aim was to promote the use of Leibnizian notation for differentiation in calculus as opposed to the Newton notation for differentiation. The latter system came into being in the 18th century as a convention of Sir Isaac Newton, and was in use throughout Great Britain. According to a mathematical historian: In 1800, English mathematics was trapped in the doldrums of fluxional notation and of an intuitive geometric-physical approach to mathematics designed to prepare the student for reading Newton's Principia...The study of any mathematics not pertinent to the traditional questions of Tripos was not only ignored, but actually discouraged. Cambridge was isolated, and its students remained ignorant of continental developments. The Society was first envisioned by Charles Babbage as a parody on the debate of whether Bible texts should be annotated, with Babbage having the notion that his textbook by Sylvestre Lacroix was without need for interpretation once translated. Its membership originally consisted of a group of Cambridge students led by Babbage and including Edward Bromhead. The Cambridge mathematician Robert Woodhouse had brought the Leibniz notation to England with his book Principles of Analytical Calculation in 1803. While Newton's notation was unsuitable for a function of several variables, Woodhouse showed, for instance, how to find the total differential of where φ is a function of p and q: The slow uptake of the continental methods in calculus led to the formation of the Analytical Society by Charles Babbage, John Herschel and George Peacock. Though the Society was disbanded by 1814 when most of the original members had graduated, its influence continued to be felt. The evidence of Analytical Society work appeared in 1816 when Peacock and Herschel completed the translation of Sylvestre Lacroix's textbook An Elementary Treatise on Differential and Integral Calculus that had been started by Babbage. In 1817 Peacock introduced Leibnizian symbols in that year's examinations in the local senate-house. Both the exam and the textbook met with little criticism until 1819, when both were criticised by D.M. Peacock, vicar of Sedbergh, 1796 to 1840. He wrote: The University should be more on its guard ... against the introduction of merely algebraic or analytical speculations into its public examinations. Nevertheless, the reforms were encouraged by younger members of Cambridge University. George Peacock successfully encouraged a colleague, Richard Gwatkin of St John's College at Cambridge University, to adopt the new notation in his exams. Use of Leibnizian notation began to spread after this. In 1820, the notation was used by William Whewell, a previously neutral but influential Cambridge University faculty member, in his examinations. In 1821, Peacock again used Leibnizian notation in his examinations, and the notation became well established. The Society followed its success by publishing two volumes of examples showing the new method. One was by George Peacock on differential and integral calculus; the other was by Herschel on the calculus of finite differences. They were joined in this by Whewell, who in 1819 published a book, An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics, which used the new notation and which became a standard textbook on the subject. John Ainz, a pupil of Peacock's, published a notable paper in 1826 which showed how to apply Leibnizian calculus on various physical problems. These activities did not go unnoticed at other universities in Great Britain, and soon they followed Cambridge's example. By 1830, Leibniz notation was widely adopted and used alongside the traditional denotation of differentiation by use of dots as Newton had done. See also History of calculus Notation for differentiation Notes Organizations disestablished in 1814 History of mathematics Mathematical societies 1814 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Student organizations established in the 1810s Clubs and societies of the University of Cambridge	[ -0.14784082770347595, 0.3354220390319824, -0.33253809809684753, 0.060593340545892715, -0.2375028282403946, 0.15668249130249023, 0.18710501492023468, 0.013154914602637291, 0.1718890368938446, -0.342942476272583, 0.003522654762491584, -0.0328964963555336, -0.15464402735233307, 0.17483387887477875, -0.27692434191703796, 0.3154942989349365, 0.19071930646896362, -0.20897820591926575, -0.08342988789081573, -0.14375054836273193, -0.30719199776649475, 0.44333499670028687, 0.18281714618206024, -0.9031912088394165, 0.13135148584842682, 0.045270100235939026, 0.31995463371276855, -0.26980558037757874, -0.49114516377449036, -0.058078259229660034, 0.2751533091068268, 0.7156850695610046, -0.042059678584337234, 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206238	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Japanese%20prefectures%20by%20population	List of Japanese prefectures by population	This is a list of Japanese prefectures by population. For details of administrative divisions of Japan, see Prefectures of Japan. Prefectures of Japan ranked by population as of October 1, 2015 Prefectures of Japan ranked by population as of October 1, 2011 Figures here are according to the official estimates of Japan as of October 1, 2011, except for the census population held on October 1, 2010. Population is given according to the de jure population concept for enumerating the people. That is, a person was enumerated at the place where they usually lived, and was counted as the population of the area including the place. Ranks are given by the estimated population as of October 1, 2011. Historical demography of prefectures of Japan Population before 1920 was calculated based on information of , while door-to-door censuses have been held every 5 years as of October 1 since 1920 in Japan except for the year of 1945. As for prefectural population before 1945, prefectures that constituted are only given. or Southern Sakhalin was officially incorporated into Japan Proper since March 26, 1943 until the end of the World War II, while Taiwan, Kwantung Leased Territory, Korea and South Pacific Mandate were treated as . At the end of war, Japan lost possessions of Southern Sakhalin (Karafuto-fu), Kuril Islands (part of Hokkaidō), Ogasawara Islands (part of Tōkyō-to), Amami and Tokara Islands (part of Kagoshima-ken), Daitō Islands and Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa-ken). For the population of the colonies of the former Empire of Japan, see Demographics of Imperial Japan. 1948 to 2010 Population in the following table is given according to the de jure population concept for enumerating the people. Source: Census of Japan (as of October 1 for the years of 2015,2010, 2005, 2000, 1995, 1990, 1985, 1980, 1975, 1970, 1965, 1960, 1955 and 1950), De jure Population Census of Japan (as of August 1, 1948), Census of Ryūkyū (as of October 1, 1970, December 1, 1960 and December 1, 1950), Extraordinary Census of Ryūkyū (as of October 1, 1965 and December 1, 1955). 1920 to 1947 Population in the following table is given according to the de facto population concept for enumerating the people. Source: Extraordinary Census of Japan (as of October 1, 1947), Population Census of Japan (as of April 26, 1946, November 1, 1945 and February 22, 1944), Census of Japan (as of October 1 for the years of 1940, 1935, 1930, 1925 and 1920). 1884 to 1918 Population in the following tables is given according to the A-type de facto population concept for enumerating the people, based on koseki registration systems. Source: Imperial Japan Static Population Statistics (as of December 31 for the years of 1918, 1913, 1908 and 1903), Imperial Japan Population Statistics (as of December 31, 1898), Imperial Japan Registered Household Tables (as of December 31 for the years of 1897, 1896, 1895, 1894, 1893, 1892, 1891, 1890, 1889, 1888, 1887 and 1886), Japan Registered Household Tables (as of January 1, 1886), Japan Household Tables (as of January 1 for the years of 1885 and 1884). 1872 to 1883 Population in the following table is given according to the population concept for enumerating the people, based on koseki registration system. Source: Japan Household Tables (as of January 1 for the years of 1883, 1882, 1878 and 1877), Japan Population Tables (as of January 1 for the years of 1881 and 1880), Japan Gun Ku Population Tables (as of January 1, 1879), Japan Registered Population Tables (as of January 1, for the years of 1876, 1875, 1874 and 1873; and as of March 8, 1872). 1868 to 1871 Several demographic data remain for three ,(i.e. Kyōto-fu, Ōsaka-fu and Tōkyō-fu), 266 , 40 and one (i.e. Kaitaku-shi only in Hokkaidō) that existed for short time between Meiji Restoration and the Abolition of the han system, though not thoroughly surveyed. Prefectural system was only introduced to which the Meiji government gained from Tokugawa shogunate or the revolted , while many areas still belonged to local lordship governments. The table below summarizes demographic data from three sources. Source: (ref.1): Table of households for shi, fu and ken (Meiji-shi-yō).(ref.2): Kokudaka and Population Table of fu, han and ken (Ōkuma Shigenobu collection).(ref.3)''': Bunzo Kure, "Estate population Table of fu, han and ken" Tōkei Shūshi (Statistics Bulletin) no. 8 pp. 96–107 (1882). Estate populations were also given. Statistical data were given as of August 29, 1871 (29th day of the 8th month, Meiji 4) for (1), as of February 2, 1869 (1st day of the 1st month, Meiji 2), for (2) or uncertain for (3), although all these populations seemed to be collected from several koseki populations surveyed in 1869 and 1870. Naotarō Sekiyama noted that the population of Japan as of August, 1870 (7th month, Meiji 3) was 32,794,897 (Kinsei Nihon jinkō-no kenkyū (Study of the Population of Japan in the Early Modern Period) (1948)). It is quite apparent that the above demographic data contain many textual errors, but could not be corrected because the original unpublished reports preserved at the office of the Ministry of Interior of Japan were burned by a fire after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. For demographic data during the Edo period, see Demographics of Japan before Meiji Restoration. See also Government of Japan Prefectures of Japan List of Japanese prefectures ranked by area List of Japanese prefectures by GDP List of Japanese prefectures by GDP per capita List of Japanese prefectures by life expectancy List of Japanese cities by population List of Provinces of Japan ISO 3166-2 codes for Japan External links Statistics Bureau of Japan Kindai Digital Library at the National Diet Library of Japan (original texts in Japanese) [tp://kindai.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/966032/8 Imperial Japan Static Population Statistics as of December 31, 1918] (with French notations) Imperial Japan Static Population Statistics as of December 31, 1913 (with French notations) Imperial Japan Static Population Statistics as of December 31, 1908 (de facto'' populations since 1885 with French notations) Japan Registered Population Tables as of January 1, 1874 (Japanese only) Population of Japan as of August 29, 1871 (Japanese only) DSpace at Waseda University Kokudaka and population Table (Okuma Shigenobu Collection, original text in Japanese) References and notes Population Prefectures By Population Japanese prefectures Population	[ -0.22414728999137878, 0.2951708137989044, -0.9365193247795105, 0.228988915681839, -1.2944648265838623, 0.6580687165260315, 1.3134102821350098, 1.1621309518814087, -0.5112757682800293, -0.17395378649234772, -0.1891206055879593, -0.4090155363082886, -0.28898048400878906, 0.9465958476066589, -0.04706829786300659, 0.2411380559206009, 0.0008765703532844782, 0.8615690469741821, 0.0283663347363472, 0.09290479868650436, -0.1620713472366333, 0.08516859263181686, 0.018624497577548027, -0.11994921416044235, 0.23940005898475647, 0.013920003548264503, 0.7997215986251831, 0.29280728101730347, -0.1089026927947998, -0.3572671115398407, -0.02239753119647503, 1.2534245252609253, -0.3891320824623108, 0.2565230429172516, 0.3519439399242401, -0.7982609272003174, -0.15633395314216614, -0.4278930425643921, 0.23659935593605042, -0.22898635268211365, 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206242	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential%20%28mechanical%20device%29	Differential (mechanical device)	A differential is a gear train with three drive shafts that has the property that the rotational speed of one shaft is the average of the speeds of the others, or a fixed multiple of that average. Functional description The following description of a differential applies to a traditional rear-wheel-drive car or truck with an open or limited slip differential combined with a reduction gearset using bevel gears (these are not strictly necessary; see spur-gear differential): Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has farther to travel, and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The sun gears (which drive the axle half-shafts) will rotate at different speeds relative to the ring gear (one faster, one slower) by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations. The rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the side sun gears. This is why if the driven roadwheels are lifted clear of the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (say, leaving the transmission in gear preventing the ring gear from turning inside the differential), manually rotating one driven roadwheel causes the opposite roadwheel to rotate in the opposite direction by the same amount. When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line there will be no differential movement of the planetary system of gears other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight differences in wheel diameter, undulations in the road which make for a longer or shorter wheel path, etc. Applications In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational speed of the drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the speed of the other. When used in this way, a differential couples the longitudinal input propeller shaft to the pinion, which in turn drives the transverse ring gear of the differential. This also usually works as reduction gearing. On rear wheel drive vehicles the differential may connect to half-shafts inside an axle housing, or drive shafts that connect to the rear driving wheels. Front wheel drive vehicles tend to have the engine crankshaft and the gearbox shafts transverse, and with the pinion on the end of the counter-shaft of the gearbox and the differential enclosed in the same housing as the gearbox. There are individual drive-shafts to each wheel. A differential consists of one input (the drive shaft) and two outputs, which are connected to the two drive wheels; however the rotations of the drive wheels are coupled to each other by their connection to the roadway. Under normal conditions, with small tyre slip, the ratio of the speeds of the two driving wheels is defined by the ratio of the radii of the paths around which the two wheels are rolling, which in turn is determined by the track-width of the vehicle (the distance between the driving wheels) and the radius of the turn. Non-automotive uses of differentials include performing analog arithmetic. Two of the differential's three shafts are made to rotate through angles that represent (are proportional to) two numbers, and the angle of the third shaft's rotation represents the sum or difference of the two input numbers. The earliest known use of a differential gear is in the Antikythera mechanism, circa 80 BCE, which used a differential gear to control a small sphere representing the moon from the difference between the sun and moon position pointers. The ball was painted black and white in hemispheres, and graphically showed the phase of the moon at a particular point in time. An equation clock that used a differential for addition was made in 1720. In the 20th Century, large assemblies of many differentials were used as analog computers, calculating, for example, the direction in which a gun should be aimed. History There are many claims to the invention of the differential gear, but it is possible that it was known, at least in some places, in ancient times. Confirmed historical milestones of the differential include: 100 BCE–70 BCE: The Antikythera mechanism has been dated to this period. It was discovered in 1902 on a shipwreck by sponge divers, and modern research suggests that it used a differential gear to determine the angle between the ecliptic positions of the Sun and Moon, and thus the phase of the Moon. c. 250 CE: Chinese engineer Ma Jun creates the first well-documented south-pointing chariot, a precursor to the compass that uses differential gears to discern direction rather than a magnet. 1720: Joseph Williamson uses a differential gear in a clock. 1810: Rudolph Ackermann of Germany invents a four-wheel steering system for carriages, which some later writers mistakenly report as a differential. 1827: modern automotive differential patented by watchmaker Onésiphore Pecqueur (1792–1852) of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers in France for use on a steam wagon. 1832: Richard Roberts of England patents "gear of compensation", a differential for road locomotives. 1874: Aveling and Porter of Rochester, Kent list a crane locomotive in their catalogue fitted with their patent differential gear on the rear axle. 1876: James Starley of Coventry invents chain-drive differential for use on bicycles; invention later used on automobiles by Karl Benz. 1897: first use of differential on an Australian steam car by David Shearer. 1958: Vernon Gleasman patents the Torsen dual-drive differential, a type of limited-slip differential that relies solely on the action of gearing, instead of a combination of clutches and gears. Epicyclic differential An epicyclic differential can use epicyclic gearing to split and apportion torque asymmetrically between the front and rear axles. An epicyclic differential is at the heart of the Toyota Prius automotive drive train, where it interconnects the engine, motor-generators, and the drive wheels (which have a second differential for splitting torque as usual). It has the advantage of being relatively compact along the length of its axis (that is, the sun gear shaft). Epicyclic gears are also called planetary gears because the axes of the planet gears revolve around the common axis of the sun and ring gears that they mesh with and roll between. In the image, the yellow shaft carries the sun gear which is almost hidden. The blue gears are called planet gears and the pink gear is the ring gear or annulus. Ring gears are also used in starter motors. Spur-gear differential A spur-gear differential has two equal-sized spur gears, one for each half-shaft, with a space between them. Instead of the Bevel gear, also known as a miter gear, assembly (the "spider") at the centre of the differential, there is a rotating carrier on the same axis as the two shafts. Torque from a prime mover or transmission, such as the drive shaft of a car, rotates this carrier. Mounted in this carrier are one or more pairs of identical gears, generally longer than their diameters, and typically smaller than the spur gears on the individual half-shafts. Each pinion pair rotates freely on pins supported by the carrier. Furthermore, the pinion pairs are displaced axially, such that they mesh only for the part of their length between the two spur gears, and rotate in opposite directions. The remaining length of a given pinion meshes with the nearer spur gear on its axle. Therefore, each pinion couples that spur gear to the other pinion, and in turn, the other spur gear, so that when the drive shaft rotates the carrier, its relationship to the gears for the individual wheel axles is the same as that in a bevel-gear differential. A spur gear differential is constructed from two identical coaxial epicyclic gear trains assembled with a single carrier such that their planet gears are engaged. This forms a planetary gear train with a fixed carrier train ratio R = -1. In this case, the fundamental formula for the planetary gear train yields, or Thus, the angular velocity of the carrier of a spur gear differential is the average of the angular velocities of the sun and annular gears. Non-automotive applications Chinese south-pointing chariots may also have been very early applications of differentials. The chariot had a pointer which constantly pointed to the south, no matter how the chariot turned as it travelled. It could therefore be used as a type of compass. It is widely thought that a differential mechanism responded to any difference between the speeds of rotation of the two wheels of the chariot, and turned the pointer appropriately. However, the mechanism was not precise enough, and, after a few miles of travel, the dial could have very well been pointing in the completely opposite direction. The earliest definitely verified use of a differential was in a clock made by Joseph Williamson in 1720. It employed a differential to add the equation of time to local mean time, as determined by the clock mechanism, to produce solar time, which would have been the same as the reading of a sundial. During the 18th Century, sundials were considered to show the "correct" time, so an ordinary clock would frequently have to be readjusted, even if it worked perfectly, because of seasonal variations in the equation of time. Williamson's and other equation clocks showed sundial time without needing readjustment. Nowadays, we consider clocks to be "correct" and sundials usually incorrect, so many sundials carry instructions about how to use their readings to obtain clock time. In the first half of the twentieth century, mechanical analog computers, called differential analyzers, were constructed that used differential gear trains to perform addition and subtraction. The U.S. Navy Mk.1 gun fire control computer used about 160 differentials of the bevel-gear type. A differential gear train can be used to allow a difference between two input axles. Mills often used such gears to apply torque in the required axis. Differentials are also used in this way in watchmaking to link two separate regulating systems with the aim of averaging out errors. Greubel Forsey use a differential to link two double tourbillon systems in their Quadruple Differential Tourbillon. Application to vehicles A vehicle with two drive wheels has the problem that when it turns a corner the drive wheels must rotate at different speeds to maintain traction. The automotive differential is designed to drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds. In vehicles without a differential, such as karts, both driving wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, usually on a common axle driven by a simple chain-drive mechanism. When cornering, the inner wheel travels a shorter distance than the outer wheel, so without a differential either the inner wheel rotates too quickly or the outer wheel rotates too slowly, which results in difficult and unpredictable handling, damage to tires and roads, and strain on (or possible failure of) the drivetrain. In rear-wheel drive automobiles the central drive shaft (or prop shaft) engages the differential through a hypoid gear (ring and pinion). The ring gear is mounted on the carrier of the planetary chain that forms the differential. This hypoid gear is a bevel gear that changes the direction of the drive rotation. Loss of traction One undesirable side effect of an open differential is that it can limit traction under less than ideal conditions. The amount of traction required to propel the vehicle at any given moment depends on the load at that instant—how heavy the vehicle is, how much drag and friction there is, the gradient of the road, the vehicle's momentum, and so on. The torque applied to each driving wheel is the result of the engine, transmission and drive axle applying a twisting force against the resistance of the traction at that roadwheel. In lower gears, and thus at lower speeds, and unless the load is exceptionally high, the drivetrain can supply as much torque as necessary, so the limiting factor becomes the traction under each wheel. It is therefore convenient to define traction as the amount of force that can be transmitted between the tire and the road surface before the wheel starts to slip. If the torque applied to one of the drive wheels exceeds the threshold of traction, then that wheel will spin, and thus provide torque only at the other driven wheel equal to the sliding friction at the slipping wheel. The reduced net traction may still be enough to propel the vehicle slowly. An open (non-locking or otherwise traction-aided) differential always supplies close to equal torque to each side. To illustrate how this can limit torque applied to the driving wheels, imagine a simple rear-wheel drive vehicle, with one rear roadwheel on asphalt with good grip, and the other on a patch of slippery ice. It takes very little torque to spin the side on slippery ice, and because a differential splits torque equally to each side, the torque that is applied to the side that is on asphalt is limited to this amount. Based on the load, gradient, etc., the vehicle requires a certain amount of torque applied to the drive wheels to move forward. Since an open differential limits total torque applied to both drive wheels to the amount used by the lower traction wheel multiplied by two, when one wheel is on a slippery surface, the total torque applied to the driving wheels may be lower than the minimum torque required for vehicle propulsion. Active differentials Fully integrated active differentials are used on the Ferrari F430, Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, Lexus RC F and GS F, and on the rear wheels in the Acura RL. A version manufactured by ZF is also being offered on the B8 chassis Audi S4 and Audi A4. The Volkswagen Golf GTI Mk7 in Performance trim also has an electronically controlled front-axle transverse differential lock, also known as VAQ. The 2016 Ford Focus RS has a different type of differential setup. This essentially gives each wheel its own differential. This allows Torque vectoring and can send power to any wheel that needs it. Enthusiast interest Drifting is a popular motorsport style that has its origins in the mountains of Japan. This style of driving is known for sliding a car through a corner without leaving the road surface. To easily get the car into a slide the driver can use a limited-slip differential or a welded differential. A limited slip differential makes the wheels of the vehicle turn at the same speed. Since the inside wheel of the car is going a shorter distance than the outside wheel, this causes slippage. This slippage is what makes it easier to slide the car around a turn. See also Anti-lock braking system Ball differential Equation clock Locking differential Torque vectoring Traction control system Whippletree References External links A video of a 3D model of an open differential Popular Science, May 1946, How Your Car Turns Corners, a large article with numerous illustrations on how differentials work Articles containing video clips Auto parts Automotive transmission technologies Gears Mechanisms (engineering) Vehicle technology	[ -0.014595367014408112, 0.1620781421661377, 0.4312784969806671, 0.5485315918922424, -0.3196217119693756, 0.5314001441001892, -0.025098679587244987, -0.38808584213256836, -0.08615349233150482, -0.30505409836769104, -0.19107098877429962, 0.8513405919075012, -0.11489971727132797, 0.5288506150245667, -0.1852622628211975, 0.32841798663139343, 0.4546653926372528, -0.20716647803783417, -0.4336160123348236, -0.15557023882865906, -0.344664990901947, 0.22724542021751404, 0.9134981632232666, -0.007082626689225435, 0.0024673533625900745, 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206243	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocoenosis	Biocoenosis	A biocenosis (UK English, biocoenosis, also biocenose, biocoenose, biotic community, biological community, ecological community, life assemblage), coined by Karl Möbius in 1877, describes the interacting organisms living together in a habitat (biotope). The use of this term has declined in the 21st сentury. In the palaeontological literature, the term distinguishes "life assemblages", which reflect the original living community, living together at one place and time. In other words, it is an assemblage of fossils or a community of specific time, which is different from "death assemblages" (thanatocoenoses). No palaeontological assemblage will ever completely represent the original biological community (i.e. the biocoenosis, in the sense used by an ecologist); the term thus has somewhat different meanings in a palaeontological and an ecological context. Based on the concept of biocenosis, ecological communities can take in various forms Zoocenosis for the faunal community, Phytocenosis for the flora community, Microbiocenosis for the microbial community. The geographical extent of a biocenose is limited by the requirement of a more or less uniform species composition. Ecosystems An ecosystem, originally defined by Tansley (1935), is a biotic community (or biocenosis) along with its physical environment (or biotope). In ecological studies, biocenosis is the emphasis on relationships between species in an area. These relationships are an additional consideration to the interaction of each species with the physical environment. Biotic communities Biotic communities vary in size, and larger ones may contain smaller ones. Species interactions are evident in food or feeding relationships. A method of delineating biotic communities is to map the food network to identify which species feed upon which others and then determine the system boundary as the one that can be drawn through the fewest consumption links relative to the number of species within the boundary. Mapping biotic communities is important identifying sites needing environmental protection, such as the British Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). The Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage maintains a register of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). See also Community (ecology) Hylozoism Population biology References Further reading Kendeigh, S. Charles. 1961. Animal Ecology. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 468 p. Tansley, A. G. 1935. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology, 16(3): 284-307. 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206246	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolition%20of%20monarchy	Abolition of monarchy	The abolition of monarchy involves the ending of monarchical elements in government, usually hereditary. Abolition has been carried out in various ways, including via abdication leading to the extinction of the monarchy, legislative reform, revolution, coup d'état, and decolonisation. Abolition became more frequent in the 20th century, with the number of monarchies in Europe falling from 22 to 12 between 1914 and 2015, and the number of republics rising from 4 to 34. Decolonisation and independence have resulted in an abolition of monarchies in a number of former colonies such as those created by the United Kingdom. Motivations for abolition include egalitarianism and anti-class views, eliminating a rival system potentially opposed to another incoming system (as had occurred in Romania in 1947), opposition to undemocratic and hereditary institutions, perception of monarchy as anachronistic or outdated, and opposition to a particular monarch or dynasty. In many colonies and former colonies, abolishing the influence of the monarchy of a colonising state is considered part of decolonisation. In many Commonwealth realms, the monarchy may be viewed as a foreign institution running counter to the national identity or national sovereignty. In the 21st century, some countries that are monarchies have significant republican movements, such as Spain and Australia. Since the beginning of the 20th century, restorations of monarchies have been comparatively rare. Examples are the monarchy of Spain, which since 1947 had been nominally a regency with a vacant throne but the Bourbon dynasty was restored in 1975; the reinstatement in 1991 of the Emir of Kuwait following abolition in 1990 and the Gulf War; and a 1993 transition of Cambodia from a Marxist-Leninist republic to an elective monarchy. 17th century Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, in 1649, King Charles I was tried for high treason, convicted and executed. This marked the conclusion of the English Civil War which resulted in the Parliament of England overthrowing the English monarchy, and initiating a period of an English republic (known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms). After eleven years, in 1660, a limited monarchy was restored but moderated by an independent Parliament. 18th century American Revolution Organized anti-monarchism in what is now the United States developed out of a gradual revolution that began in 1765, as colonists resisted a stamp tax through boycott and condemnation of tax officials. While they were subject to the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain (as the monarchy was a limited monarchy since 1660), the North American citizens increasingly clashed with the Parliament that did not provide seats for parliamentary representatives from North America. With the Declaration of Independence in 1776, anti-monarchical propaganda resulted in violent protests that systematically removed symbols of monarchy. For instance, an equestrian statue of George III in New York City was toppled. Parliamentary loyalists were particularly affected by partisan attacks, with tens of thousands leaving for British Canada. Property that remained was confiscated by each of thirteen newly created States through newly passed laws. Artifacts from the colonial period depicting the British monarchy are seldom found in the United States. However, not all sentiment equated to anti-monarchism. A normality of a monarchy at the head of a polity remained, that some Americans saw a presidency in monarchical terms, a Caesar of the republic, was an early debate in the new republic. Europe One of the most significant abolitions of monarchy in history – along with the Dutch Republic of 1581–1795 – involved the French monarchy in 1792 in the French Revolution. The French monarchy was later restored several times with differing levels of authority. Napoleon, initially a hero of the Republican revolution, crowned himself emperor in 1804, only to be replaced by the Bourbon Restoration in 1815, which in turn was replaced by the more liberal July Monarchy in 1830. The 1848 Revolution was a clearer anti-monarchic uprising that replaced the succession of royal leaders with the short-lived Second French Republic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte established the Second French Empire (1852–1870), retaining republican aspects while placing himself in the center of the state until the losses in the Franco-Prussian War led to his fall, resulting in the French Third Republic and the definitive end of the monarchy in France. Monarchism, which had held a majority in the National Assembly after the 1871 election, slowly fizzled out over the course of the rest of the century. 19th century Africa Madagascar The monarchy of Madagascar, known as the Merina Kingdom, came to an end in 1897 when France made it a colony and overthrew Queen Ranavalona III. Zimbabwe In 1629 the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and in turn he himself was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation of Mavura Mhande Felipe on the throne. In 1917 Mambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese. Americas Mexico The First Mexican Empire existed from the September 1821 Declaration of Independence until the emperor's abdication in March 1823. The Provisional Government took power and the First Mexican Republic was proclaimed in 1824. Due to French intervention under Napoleon III, the Second Mexican Empire lasted from 1864 to 1867, when it collapsed and its Emperor, Maximilian I of Mexico, was executed. Brazil In Brazil, the monarchy was formally established in 1815 through the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (of which the Kingdom of Brazil was a constituent state), it evolved into the Empire of Brazil in 1822, and was abolished in 1889, when Emperor Pedro II was overthrown by a republican military coup (the status of the republic was confirmed by a plebiscite in 1993 that resulted in 86% of the votes to the republican government). Asia Burma The monarchy of Burma was abolished in 1885 when the last king, Thibaw Min, lost his throne and the country was annexed by Britain. South Asia In 1858 the Mughal Empire came to an end after losing a war against Britain, and its Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, lost his throne. Europe Italy Between 1859 and 1861, four monarchies in Southern Europe ceased to exist (Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Two Sicilies) when they all became part of the new Kingdom of Italy. Spain In Spain monarchy was abolished from 1873 to 1874 by the First Spanish Republic, but then restored until 1931. Pacific Hawaii In 1893 foreign business leaders overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani of the Kingdom of Hawaii. They established a republic, which was annexed by the United States in 1898. Tahiti The monarchy of Tahiti came to an end in 1880 when France made it a colony and overthrew King Pōmare V. Manu'a After ceding sovereignty of the Manu'a islands of modern-day American Samoa to the United States in 1904, the last King of Manu'a, Tui Manu'a Elisara, died on 2 July 1909. All attempts to revive the position since his death have been met with opposition by the United States Government. 20th century Nationalism China The monarchy of China ceased to exist in 1912 when the Xinhai Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen succeeded in overthrowing the young Xuantong Emperor; this marked the end of the Qing dynasty and the start of the Republic of China. In 1915, Yuan Shikai briefly proclaimed the Empire of China with himself as the emperor; the regime failed to gain legitimacy and collapsed three months later. In 1917, the Qing loyalist Zhang Xun sought to revive the Qing dynasty and briefly reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne; this attempt is known as the "Manchu Restoration" in historiography. During the Xinhai Revolution, Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty of China in the Mongolian Revolution of 1911. The Bogd Khanate of Mongolia was subsequently proclaimed, although the Republic of China laid claims to Outer Mongolia and was widely recognized by the international community as having sovereignty over it. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was established, bringing an end to the monarchy in Mongolia. Greece Throughout Greece's eventful modern history, the monarchy was toppled and restored several times between and after the two World Wars. The last king, Constantine II, was forced into exile after a coup when he tried to stage a counter-coup later that year. In 1967 and the republic was proclaimed in 1973 by the then-ruling military dictatorship. The final abolition of the monarchy was confirmed overwhelmingly after constitutional legality was restored, by free referendum in 1974. World War I and aftermath Russian Empire World War I led to perhaps the greatest spate of abolitions of monarchies in history. The conditions inside the Russian Empire and the poor performance in the war gave rise to a revolution which toppled the entire institution of the monarchy, followed by a second revolution against that government in October of the same year that executed Tsar (Imperator (Императоръ)) Nicholas II and implemented a Marxist-Leninist government. The Russian civil war saw various monarchist, Republican, anarchist, nationalist and socialist factions fight each other with bourgeois independence movements winning in the Baltic States, Poland and Finland and the Bolsheviks winning everywhere else. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Montenegro The defeated German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires saw the abolition of their monarchies in the close aftermath of the war, ending the reigns of Wilhelm II, Charles I and Mehmed VI respectively. The monarchs of the constituent states within the German Empire, most importantly Ludwig III of Bavaria, Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Wilhelm II of Württemberg, soon abdicated. During the war, monarchies were planned for Poland (Kingdom of Poland), the Grand Duchy of Finland (to have a Finnish King), and Lithuania (Mindaugas II of Lithuania), with a protectorate-like suzerainty exercised by the German Empire. Both intended kings renounced their thrones after Germany's defeat in November 1918. King Nicholas I of Montenegro lost his throne when the country became a part of Yugoslavia in 1918. World War II and aftermath Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Croatia World War II saw another spate of abolition. In 1922, Benito Mussolini's March on Rome led to King Victor Emmanuel III appointing Mussolini Prime Minister. In 1939 Italy invaded Albania and removed the reigning self-proclaimed King Zog and instated their own King Victor Emmanuel III as its new monarch. Italy, along with the eastern European monarchies of Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania were forced to join with Germany by their dictators in World War II against the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Western allies and the Soviet Union. When Yugoslavia fell in 1941 the Independent State of Croatia was established under a nominal monarchy, but it was in fact a one party state under Ante Pavelić and a puppet state of Nazi Germany. With the fall of Mussolini in July 1943, the monarchy in Croatia was abolished. As the Axis powers were defeated in the war, communist partisans in occupied Yugoslavia and occupied Albania seized power and ended the monarchies. Communists in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania removed their monarchies with strong backing by the Soviet Union, which had many troops and supporters placed there during the course of the war. Through this, Peter II of Yugoslavia, Simeon II of Bulgaria and Michael I of Romania all lost their thrones. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy had remained King after the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy but transferred most of his powers to his son after the Armistice of Cassibile. After Victor Emmanuel abdicated to save the monarchy, a narrow referendum in 1946 ended the short reign of his son King Umberto II and the Italian monarchy ceased to exist. Republicanism Australia (monarchy kept after referendum) In a 1999 referendum, the voters of Australia rejected a proposal to replace the constitutional monarchy with a republic with a president appointed by Parliament. The proposal was rejected in all states, with only the Australian Capital Territory voting in favor. Though polling consistently showed a majority in favour of a republic, the result of the referendum was attributed to a split among republicans between those who supported the presented model and those who supported a directly elected president. Spain In Spain, the monarchy was again abolished in 1931 by the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939). In 1947, Francisco Franco declared Spain a Monarchy but kept himself as regent for life with the constitutional setup essentially unchanged. Per the right the 1947 law granted him to decide who would be the future Spanish monarch, he appointed Juan Carlos of Bourbon his successor in 1969. The "Prince of Spain" became king at Franco's death in 1975, and during the Spanish transition to democracy, the Spanish constitution of 1978 put the monarchy on a new constitutional basis. The existence of monarchy in Spain is an entrenched clause with much stricter rules for constitutional amendment than other constitutional provisions. Portugal The monarchy of Portugal was also overthrown in 1910 (5 October), two years after the assassination of King Carlos I, ending the reign of Manuel II, who died in exile in England (1932), without issue. Communism, socialism, and Islamism Afghanistan In 1973, the monarchy of King Mohammed Zahir Shah of Afghanistan was abolished after a socialist-supported coup d'état led by Mohammad Daoud Khan, from the same Musahiban royal family. Ethiopia Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown in 1974 as a result of the Ethiopian Revolution, ending almost 3000 years of monarchical rule in Ethiopia. Indochina In 1945, during the August Revolution, Bảo Đại abdicated under the pressure of the Việt Minh led by Ho Chi Minh. This marked the end of the Nguyễn dynasty and the Vietnamese monarchy. From 1949 to 1955, Bảo Đại served as the Quốc Trưởng (lit. "Chief of State") of the State of Vietnam and did not receive the title of Hoàng Đế (lit. "Emperor"). Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchies of Indochina after World War II: a short-lived attempt to leave a monarchical form of government in post-colonial South Vietnam came to naught in a fraudulent 1955 referendum, a military coup overthrew the kingless monarchy in Cambodia in 1970 and a Communist takeover ended the monarchy in Laos in 1975. Cambodia's monarchy later saw an unexpected rebirth under an internationally mediated peace settlement with a former king Norodom Sihanouk being restored as a figurehead in 1993. Iran The monarchy of Iran was abolished by the Islamic revolution of 1979 overthrowing Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Sikkim King Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim lost his throne in 1975 when the country became a state of India following a referendum. Dictatorship Egypt The monarchy of Egypt was abolished in 1953, after the revolution of 1952, which caused King Farouk I to abdicate in favor of his infant son Fuad II. Tunisia The monarchy of Tunisia ended in 1957 when Muhammad VIII al-Amin lost his throne. Iraq The monarchy of Iraq ended in 1958 when King Faisal II was killed and a republic proclaimed. Yemen The monarchy of Yemen was abolished in 1962 when King Muhammad al-Badr was overthrown in a coup, although he continued to resist his opponents until 1970. Libya King Idris of Libya was overthrown by a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969. Imperialism expansion and decolonisation Commonwealth of Nations Many monarchies were abolished in the middle of the 20th century or later as part of the process of decolonization. The monarchies of India, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Guyana, and Malawi were abolished shortly after they became independent of the United Kingdom, while remaining within the Commonwealth. The monarchy of Ireland was not abolished following the Irish war of independence in the 1920s. The Irish Free State was nominally a monarchy but transitioned towards more and more Republican forms of government throughout its existence. The Irish Constitution that came into force in 1937 left the question of Republic or monarchy vague, but established a President of Ireland, an office usually absent in monarchies. The monarchy was officially abolished by the Republic of Ireland Act of 1948, which came into force in 1949. Some Commonwealth realms waited a little longer before abolishing their monarchies: Pakistan became a republic in 1956 and South Africa in 1961. Gambia abolished its monarchy in 1970, while Sierra Leone became a republic in 1971, as did Sri Lanka in 1972, Malta in 1974, Trinidad and Tobago in 1976, and Fiji in 1987. The latest country to become a republic within the Commonwealth was Barbados in 2021. With the exemption of Ireland, in each case the deposed monarch was Elizabeth II. Korea In 1910 the last emperor of Korea, Sunjong, lost his throne when the country was annexed by Japan. However, the Korean royal family was mediatized as a puppet family within the Japanese imperial family. Many of the Korean royals were forcibly re-educated in Japan and forced to marry Japanese royalty and aristocrats to meld the ruling families of the two empires. With the abolition of the Japanese aristocracy and cadet branches of the imperial family, the Korean royals officially lost their remaining status. South Asia The independence of the Indian subcontinent from the British Raj in 1947 posed a unique problem. From 1858, when the British government had replaced Company Rule in India with the Raj, it had been governed as a quasi-federation, with most of the subcontinent under the rule of the British monarch. The remainder of the subcontinent, however, was under a form of indirect rule through its division and subdivision into over 500 subnational monarchies, known as princely states; each was ruled by a prince in a subsidiary alliance with the British government. The princely states ranged from powerful and largely independent principalities such as Hyderabad or Mysore, with a high level of autonomy, to tiny fiefdoms a few dozen acres (in the low tens of hectares) in size. In 1947, it was agreed that the Indian subcontinent would be partitioned into the independent British dominions of India and Pakistan, with the princely states acceding to one nation or the other. The accession process proceeded smoothly, with the notable exception of four of the most influential principalities. The Muslim ruler of the Hindu-majority state of Junagadh acceded to Pakistan, but his decision was overruled by the Indian government, while Hyderabad chose to be independent, but was forcibly annexed to India in 1948. The Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, among the largest and most powerful of the principalities, but with a Muslim-majority population, initially held off on a decision. In the autumn of 1947, an invading force from Pakistan frightened the ruler into acceding to India. The ruler of Kalat, in Baluchistan, declared his independence in 1947, after which the state was forcibly merged with Pakistan, resulting in an insurgency persisting to this day. With the promulgation of the Indian constitution in 1950, India abolished its monarchy under the British crown and became a Republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, followed by Pakistan in 1956; as a result of both developments, the majority of the princes formally lost their sovereign rights. A few remaining principalities in Pakistan retained their autonomy until 1969 when they finally acceded to Pakistan. The Indian government formally derecognized its princely families in 1971, followed by Pakistan in 1972. 21st century The Kingdom of Nepal was transformed into a Republic by the 1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly in 2008. Following a constitutional amendment, Barbados became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations in 2021. Monarchism in former monarchies In a referendum in Brazil in 1993, voters rejected an attempt to restore the country's monarchy. Unsuccessful efforts to restore the monarchies of some of the Balkan states in the former Eastern Bloc continue. Former King Michael of Romania and Prince Alexander of Serbia have been allowed to return, gained some popularity, played largely apolitical public roles, but never came close to being restored to their ancestral thrones. However, in Bulgaria, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who was deposed from the Bulgarian throne in 1946, was elected and recently served as the Prime Minister of his country from 2001 to 2005. The only formerly socialist country to have held a referendum on the monarchy was Albania where the claimant to his father's throne, the self-styled Leka I, lost by a 2/3 majority, though it was later revealed upon Leka's death in 2011 by the Albanian government that the referendum had been rigged in favour of the republic. New monarchies in the 20th century The 20th century also saw the formation of a number of new monarchies that still exists to this day such as: Bhutan (1907), Jordan (1921), Saudi Arabia (1932) & Malaysia (1957). Summary table since the 20th century Monarchies that were abolished, restored, and continue to exist in the 21st century Many other monarchies continue to exist in the 21st century, never having been abolished. See also Alliance of European Republican Movements Criticism of monarchy Democratization List of Abdications by Date List of countries by date of transition to republican system of government List of monarchy referendums List of monarchs who lost their thrones before the 17th century List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 17th century List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 18th century List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 19th century List of former sovereign states Debate on the monarchy in Canada Republicanism in the United Kingdom Republicanism in Norway 2009 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines constitutional referendum 2008 Tuvaluan constitutional referendum Notes References Monarchy Republicanism Monarchy	[ 0.19039498269557953, -0.10848824679851532, 0.01763397641479969, 0.45462754368782043, -0.1151290014386177, -0.318142831325531, 1.0248111486434937, 0.25191372632980347, -0.6006614565849304, -0.16695405542850494, -0.919380247592926, -0.12570755183696747, 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206258	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominions%20of%20Sweden	Dominions of Sweden	The Dominions of Sweden or Svenska besittningar ("Swedish possessions") were territories that historically came under control of the Swedish Crown, but never became fully integrated with Sweden. This generally meant that they were ruled by Governors-General under the Swedish monarch, but within certain limits retained their own established political systems, essentially their diets. Finland was not a dominion, but an integrated part of Sweden. The dominions had no representation in the Swedish Riksdag as stipulated by the 1634 Instrument of Government paragraph 46: "No one, who is not living inside the separate and old borders of Sweden and Finland, have anything to say at Riksdags and other meetings..." Baltic Dominions Between 1561 and 1629 Sweden made conquests in the Eastern Baltic. All of them were lost in accordance with the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, which concluded the Great Northern War. Estonia Estonia placed itself under Swedish rule in 1561 to receive protection against Russia and Poland as the Livonian Order lost their foothold in the Baltic provinces. Territorially it represented the northern part of present-day Estonia. The area was significantly populated by Estonian Swedes, who inhabited the area for centuries after Sweden lost control of it. After the Soviet Baltic Offensive and re-occupation of Estonia in 1944, nearly all the Estonian Swedes fled to Sweden proper. Kexholm Kexholm was a sparsely inhabited part of Karelia on the Western and Northern shores of Lake Ladoga, annexed by Sweden in 1605. At that time, most inhabitants were Finnish-speaking Orthodox Christians. During the 17th century, Lutheran persecution of Orthodox Christianity and an influx of Lutheran Finns from neighbouring province of Savonia converted most of the area into Lutheran faith. The Swedish law and the Swedish structure of local administration were used in the area which does not seem to have had any prior written legal tradition. Nowadays the county is divided between Finnish regions of North Karelia and South Karelia and the Russian Republic of Karelia. Ingria Russia ceded Ingria and southern Karelia to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbova in 1617, following the Ingrian War. A century later Russia reconquered the area, providing an opportunity for Peter the Great to lay the foundations of his new capital, Saint Petersburg, in 1703. The area was then formally ceded in 1721 by the Treaty of Nystad. Riga The Hanseatic town of Riga fell under Swedish control in the late 1620s. During its bare century in the Swedish Realm it was the second largest town after Stockholm. Livonia Livonia was conquered from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1629 in the Polish-Swedish War. By the Treaty of Oliva between the Commonwealth and Sweden in 1660 following the Northern Wars the Polish-Lithuanian king renounced all claims to the Swedish throne and Livonia was formally ceded to Sweden. Swedish Livonia represents the southern part of present-day Estonia and the northern part of present-day Latvia (Vidzeme region). Ösel By the Treaty of Brömsebro (1645), following the Torstenson War, Denmark-Norway ceded Jämtland, Härjedalen, Idre & Särna, Gotland, Halland and Ösel to Sweden. Ösel and Dagö, islands off the coast of Estonia, were ceded to Russia in 1721 by the Treaty of Nystad. The other territories remained part of Sweden. Scanian Dominion By the peace treaties of Brömsebro (1645) and Roskilde (1658) the Realm of Sweden expanded to the south. Blekinge, Bohuslän (of Norway), Halland and Scania were ceded by Denmark in the latter and then successfully defended in the Scanian War (1674-1679). According to the peace treaties the provinces were to retain its old laws and privileges, and was initially administered as a dominion. A gradual process of incorporation was successfully concluded in 1721. Continental Dominions Through its minor German principalities, the Swedish kings in their roles as princes and dukes, or Reichsfürsten, of the Holy Roman Empire took part in the German diets from 1648 until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Bremen and Verden Following the Thirty Years' War, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 assigned to Sweden the two bishoprics of Bremen-Verden, with the exclave of Wildeshausen. All of them were ceded to Hanover in the peace treaty of 1719. Pomerania By the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 Sweden received Swedish Pomerania, situated along the German Baltic Sea coast. The whole Duchy of Pomerania was under Swedish control already since the Treaty of Stettin (1630), and in the Treaty of Stettin (1653) Sweden and Brandenburg agreed on the final terms of the partition of the duchy, with Sweden keeping the western part (Western Pomerania, Vorpommern) including Stettin. In 1720 the southern parts of Swedish Pomerania with the town of Stettin and the islands of Usedom and Wollin were ceded to the Kingdom of Prussia, following the Great Northern War. The capital was moved to Greifswald. In 1814 the remainder, with the town of Stralsund and the island of Rügen was ceded to Denmark, which in exchange ceded Norway to the king of Sweden under the Treaty of Kiel, which followed on War of the Sixth Coalition. However the treaty of Kiel never came into force: instead sovereignty of Western Pomerania passed to Kingdom of Prussia, which already held the eastern parts and merged them into the Province of Pomerania. Norway declared its independence, but was forced after a short war into a personal Union with Sweden. Wismar Sweden received the German town of Wismar with the surrounding countryside in the Peace of Westphalia (1648). In 1803 Wismar was pawned, in exchange for a loan, and control was handed over to Mecklenburg. The loan defaulted in 1903, but Sweden rescinded its right to regain control of the German exclave and thereby nominally received its present territorial constitution. See also Provinces of Sweden Unions of Sweden List of Swedish wars Possessions of Sweden References Sweden lv:Zviedrijas zemes un provinces	[ 0.06415598839521408, -0.48942747712135315, 0.46282029151916504, 0.42978712916374207, -0.5028382539749146, -0.008170261047780514, 0.4039471745491028, 0.5514286756515503, -0.8288821578025818, 0.04464182257652283, 0.09410020709037781, -0.321105420589447, 0.12707389891147614, 0.5046694874763489, -0.6764386892318726, 0.6690890789031982, 0.12102920562028885, 0.610680878162384, 0.019459789618849754, -0.586974561214447, -0.16108302772045135, 0.2929476797580719, 0.5069481730461121, 0.3182560205459595, 0.23935562372207642, -0.09832999110221863, 1.061629295349121, 0.045005474239587784, -0.19735334813594818, -0.05840833857655525, -0.19977547228336334, 0.2527666389942169, -0.35504409670829773, 0.18415279686450958, -0.3154926002025604, -0.38141611218452454, 0.0035762188490480185, -0.49349862337112427, -0.528870701789856, -0.5951862335205078, 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206263	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodahad	Theodahad	Theodahad, also known as Thiudahad (; born 480 AD in Tauresium – December 536) was king of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536. Early life Theodahad was a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his mother Amalafrida. He is probably the son of Amalafrida's first husband because her second marriage was about 500 AD. His sister was Amalaberga. His father's identity remains unknown. He may have arrived in Italy with Theodoric and was elderly at the time of his accession. Massimiliano Vitiello states the name "Theodahad" is a compound of 'people' and 'conflict'. Before becoming king, his kinswoman Amalaswintha ruled. During her rule, potential enemies were murdered or humiliated. Theodahad was accused of land grabbing and forced to return land he had supposedly stolen. Letters written in the name of King Theodoric to Theodahad imply that the land was taken by force. King After the death of Theodahad's nephew Athalaric, the queen regent Amalaswintha chose to associate Theodahad with her in the monarchy. This was likely to help legitimize her rulership, as the Goths were skeptical about a female ruler. Theodahad's previous conflicts with his cousin did not take long to resurface. He arrested his first cousin Amalaswintha, former regent of the Ostrogoths from 526 to October 534, while they co-ruled as queen and king. He imprisoned her in the spring of 535 on an island in Lake Bolsena. When Amalaswintha was assassinated while in custody, his enemies claimed he acquiesced to her murder. Since her assassination would likely separate him from her power base, this was unlikely. Political instability within the kingdom served as a pretext for Byzantine general Belisarius to intervene in Sicily and Italy, in the service of Emperor Justinian, causing the Gothic Wars. When his ineffectiveness in the war caused Theodahad to lose control, Witiges sent Optaris to retrieve him dead or alive. Optaris murdered Theodahad after overtaking him on the Via Flaminia. According to Procopius, Theodahad's throat was cut. When Optaris returned with news of the former king's death, the Goths elected Witigis as their king. He was notable for his adoration for Neoplatonic philosophy and poetry over martial prowess. His focus on erudition instead of bellicosity, in a time when Italy was consumed by turmoil, is claimed to be a reason for his downfall. In fiction Theodahad makes an appearance in Felix Dahn's 1876 historical novel Ein Kampf um Rom, which appeared in English translation in 1878 as A Struggle for Rome. In the book he is depicted as weak and subservient to his wife, Gothelinda, who is portrayed as the true culprit behind Amalaswintha's murder. Theodahad also appears (as "Thiudahad") as a character in L. Sprague de Camp's 1939 alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall. References External links Theodahad in Medieval Lands 480s births 536 deaths 6th-century kings of Italy Ostrogothic kings Amali dynasty Assassinated Gothic people 6th-century murdered monarchs 6th-century monarchs in Europe People of the Gothic War (535–554) Year of birth unknown 6th-century Ostrogothic people	[ -0.33168235421180725, 0.41940945386886597, -0.3226292133331299, 0.268789678812027, -0.7770513892173767, 0.5554524660110474, 0.6337070465087891, -0.4994085729122162, -0.2965255081653595, -0.16350165009498596, -0.02413461171090603, 0.15783578157424927, -0.5946750640869141, -0.19682198762893677, -0.19888131320476532, -0.13053442537784576, 0.2611904740333557, -0.001641074544750154, -0.21887551248073578, -0.31396055221557617, 0.07502085715532303, 0.0742366686463356, -0.3104248344898224, 0.14742495119571686, 0.17420049011707306, 0.6489573121070862, 0.45224323868751526, -0.33333590626716614, -0.520940899848938, -0.4201580286026001, 0.22331589460372925, 0.259391188621521, 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206266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Australe	Mare Australe	Mare Australe (Latin austrāle the "Southern Sea") is a lunar mare located in the southeastern hemisphere of the Moon. It is 997 kilometers in diameter, overlapping the near and far sides of the Moon. Smooth, dark volcanic basalt lines the bottom of the mare. The Australe basin was formed in the Pre-Nectarian epoch, while the mare material inside formed in the Upper Imbrian epoch. The basin was almost completely destroyed by impacts prior to the appearance of the mare. Unlike most of the lunar maria, Mare Australe has an uneven surface that is marked by a number of crater impacts. Examples of these include the craters Jenner and Lamb, which are flooded with basaltic lava much like many of the other crater features in this mare. The selenographic coordinates of this mare are 38.9° S, 93.0° E. The eastern half of the mare lies on the far side of the Moon, although it can be viewed in its entirety during periods of favorable libration. Gallery References Australe Australe Australe	[ -0.3058750629425049, -0.3098325729370117, 0.6947991251945496, -0.2981310188770294, -0.16599328815937042, 0.2957190275192261, -0.11696533113718033, 0.5730096697807312, 0.22522467374801636, -0.7934728860855103, -0.3444075584411621, 0.18017533421516418, 0.11902919411659241, 0.510032594203949, 0.4670555889606476, 0.8759615421295166, 0.11339840292930603, 0.31515249609947205, -0.001008337247185409, -0.349479615688324, 0.2527247369289398, -0.3386915624141693, 0.8005616664886475, -0.9349387288093567, -0.10455599427223206, -0.6615926027297974, 0.32428017258644104, 0.8636276125907898, 0.4025461673736572, 0.21229349076747894, -0.5728653073310852, 0.4232023060321808, -0.9035550951957703, -0.05114651843905449, -0.24552826583385468, 0.26360729336738586, 0.21716418862342834, 0.04939080774784088, -0.6457356214523315, -0.4136364161968231, -0.25814443826675415, -0.005018812604248524, 0.04917198047041893, 0.7124659419059753, -0.2796997129917145, 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206267	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Cognitum	Mare Cognitum	Mare Cognitum (Latin cognitum, the "Sea that has Become Known") is a lunar mare located in a basin or large crater which sits in the second ring of Oceanus Procellarum. To the northwest of the mare is the Montes Riphaeus mountain range, part of the rim of the buried crater or basin containing the mare. Previously unnamed, the mare received its name in 1964 in reference to its selection as the target for the successful impact probe Ranger 7, the first American spacecraft to return closeup images of the Moon's surface. Origin The basin material is of the Pre-Nectarian epoch, while most of the basaltic mare material is of the Upper Imbrian epoch. Exploration The Ranger 7 lunar probe impacted Mare Cognitum at the conclusion of its picture-taking mission. Surveyor 3 and Apollo 12 landed near its northern shore. The outcrop of the Fra Mauro formation, where Apollo 14 landed, is also located near Mare Cognitum. Statio Cognitum On November 19, 1969, astronauts Pete Conrad and Alan Bean landed Apollo 12's Lunar Module within walking distance of Surveyor 3, which had been on the Moon since 1967. Named "Statio Cognitum" the site's closeness to its intended target demonstrated NASA's capability of precise lunar landings. The location also provided a relatively smooth Mare surface and a proximity to the lunar equator, thus ensuring relative ease of access from the standpoint of fuel consumption. Geologically, the astronauts noted the amount of glass contained in the regolith and present at the bottoms of shallow craters at the site, as well as lighter-colored regolith material that geologists later determined to be ejecta from Copernicus crater. The Copernicus ejecta sampled suggested that the Copernicus impact occurred about 800 million years ago, but geologists believe the results of this analysis are inconclusive. The Apollo 12 astronauts also noted the existence of small, shallow elongated depressions ("trenches" or "grooves") similar to those the Apollo 11 astronauts observed at Tranquility Base in the Sea of Tranquility; Shoemaker et al. preliminarily concluded in 1970 that these features reflected the direction and location of fractures in the underlying bedrock, into which fine-grained material settled, thereby creating the grooves. Overall, Statio Cognitum and the surrounding area appears to have a slightly more red coloration from lunar orbit than Tranquility Base (which geologists later found to be the result of less titanium in the Apollo 12 rocks) and to have fewer craters overall than Tranquility Base; because of this, geologists suspected the site chosen for Apollo 12 contained younger rocks than those of the Apollo 11 site, and this was confirmed by the samples returned by Apollo 12. These samples consisted of more basalts and fewer breccias than the Apollo 11 samples and the basalts are about 500 million years younger than those from Tranquility base, the latter of which geologists estimate to be about 3.6 to 3.8 billion years old. The differing ages of the basalts collected on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 demonstrate that the volcanic activity that formed the lunar mare did not occur all at once across the lunar surface, but rather took place at different times at different locations. References Cognitum Apollo 12 Apollo 14 Cognitum	[ -0.323991596698761, -0.18864090740680695, 0.4531134068965912, -0.23719094693660736, 0.26988643407821655, 0.23465250432491302, -0.2853620648384094, 0.6640779376029968, 0.27679792046546936, -0.8191034197807312, -0.17031456530094147, 0.3661653399467468, 0.02513846941292286, 0.7292559742927551, 0.08958812057971954, 0.013344889506697655, 0.3592478334903717, 0.19331280887126923, 0.052091147750616074, -0.19603921473026276, 0.6275169253349304, -0.26806390285491943, 0.15771381556987762, -0.27004265785217285, -0.5456697344779968, -0.0789167508482933, 0.019922401756048203, 0.35055771470069885, 0.1267758160829544, -0.07852672785520554, -0.20564188063144684, 0.3841729462146759, -0.7561430335044861, -0.6105246543884277, -0.23495814204216003, 0.331373929977417, 0.4868166148662567, -0.5150076746940613, -0.7388544082641602, -0.6453239321708679, 0.4617403745651245, 0.08774683624505997, -0.08962105214595795, 0.6811729073524475, -0.9264190196990967, 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206268	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20imperialism	Media imperialism	Media imperialism is a theory based upon an over-concentration of mass media from larger nations as a significant variable in negatively affecting smaller nations, in which the national identity of smaller nations is lessened or lost due to media homogeneity inherent in mass media from the larger countries. History and background The media imperialism debate started in the early 1970s when developing countries began to criticise the control developed countries held over the media. The site for this conflict was UNESCO where the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) movement developed. Supported by the MacBride report, "Many Voices, One World", countries such as India, Indonesia, and Egypt argued that the large media companies should have limited access to developing countries. This argument was one of the reasons for the United States, United Kingdom, and Singapore leaving UNESCO. In 1977, Oliver Boyd-Barrett's "Media Formation Model" framed media imperialism as the relationship between different national media systems, particularly through power imbalances, and the relationship they have to historical political systems. It emphasized the industrial arrangements of media in wealthier nations and the imposition of those arrangements as “models” for foreign markets, with the most powerful producers becoming normative in their financing, structure and in the dissemination (and to some extent, content) of their products. Boyd asserted a typical arrangement in which news agencies adopted the structures, roles and “task behaviors” of their parent companies who are also providing financial support. Later during the 1980s and 1990s, as multinational media conglomerates grow larger and more powerful many believe that it will become increasingly difficult for small, local media outlets to survive. A new type of imperialism will thus occur, making many nations subsidiary to the media products of some of the most powerful countries or companies. Writers and academics working in this area include Ben Bagdikian, Noam Chomsky, Edward S. Herman, Armand Mattelart and Robert W. McChesney. However, critics have responded that in most developing countries the most popular television and radio programs are commonly locally produced. Critics such as the sociologist Anthony Giddens highlight the place of regional producers of media (such as Brazil in Latin America); other critics such as the media historian James Curran suggest that State government subsidies have ensured strong local production. In areas such as audience studies, it has been shown that global programs like Dallas do not have a global audience who understand the program in the same way. A media source which ignores and/or censors important issues and events severely damages freedom of information. Many modern tabloid, twenty-four-hour news channels and other mainstream media sources have increasingly been criticized for not conforming to general standards of journalistic integrity. Media imperialism is not always an international occurrence. When a small number of companies or corporations controls all the media in a country, this too is a form of media imperialism. Nations such as Italy and Canada are often accused of possessing an imperial media structure, based on the fact that much of their media is controlled by a small number of owners. Canada The media in Canada can be seen as imperial in the sense of concentrated ownership. Apart from a relatively small number of community broadcasters, media in Canada are primarily owned by a small number of groups, including Bell Canada, the Shaw family (via Corus Entertainment and Shaw Communications), Rogers Communications, Quebecor, and the government-owned CBC/Radio-Canada. Each of these companies holds a diverse mix of television, specialty television, and radio operations. Bell, Rogers, Shaw, and Quebecor also engage in the telecommunications industry with their ownership of internet providers, television providers, and mobile carriers, while Rogers is also involved in publishing. United States The United States has proved to have quite a significant role in media imperialism. For instance, many forms of mass media demonstrate how the United States exerts media power over other countries, especially those lacking in a strong media presence. A major cultural influencer in other countries is television. Specifically in relation to news and journalism, America has a strong presence in the international arena. American news networks like CNN often have large international staffs, and produce specialized regional programming for many nations. Movies have a distinctly American dominance. For example, Hollywood is a major producer of films, which tend to be high quality and are released internationally. Hollywood's dominance is also seen in the term "Bollywood", describing India's Hindi-language film industry. Another form of mass media used for media imperialism is music. Much of today's, and older, American music finds itself popular in other countries. However, in the "British Invasion" of the 1960s, British music became popular in the United States. Since then, there has not been such a large shift of imperialism. Furthermore, some could argue that it wasn't that large of a shift of power, because it was still a dominance of Western influence. Overall, American media imperialism can be seen as a positive and a negative. Negative views towards it stem from the negative connotation of the word 'imperialism'. This word is associated with political imperialism, in which a large country creates an empire out of smaller ones. However, media imperialism can be seen as a positive when it is viewed as a way to create a consensus narrative. A consensus narrative is a result of "products that provide us with shared experiences". By having similar experiences, it opens the gateway for communication and development of relationships. Yet, this can also become a problem when the cultural exchange is not balanced or reciprocated. American culture is being transmitted to other countries, but other cultures may not be received in return. Therefore, this creates an atmosphere of cultural imperialism where American culture is dominating others and becoming the main one. For example, "...numerous international observers contend that consumers in countries inundated by American-made movies, television, and images have even less control than American consumers." Moreover, these forms of mass media channels are not the only ones that have an American feeling to them, the internet also has somewhat of an American appearance. Additionally, media imperialism, in the sense of concentrated ownership, has its own effects within the United States. Many news organizations are owned by a limited number of corporations. One such example is Rupert Murdoch and his companies' ownership of several notable media outlets, such as the Wall Street Journal. Other large media corporations consist of The Walt Disney Company and Comcast. In 2018, AT&T and Time Warner merged, further concentrating media ownership in the United States. Italy In Italy, Silvio Berlusconi operates Italy's top TV stations with the Mediaset empire, and the public broadcaster RAI has been subject to political influence. Media watchdog Reporters Without Borders has warned of formal political influence in stifling the media. In April 2013 comedian Beppe Grillo accelerated the debate within Italy about the independence of media from political interests, releasing poll results showing that out of 95,000 responses 99 percent wanted a public broadcast channel free from political meddling, and 52 percent wanted more investigative journalism about domestic issues. He wrote in a blog post, 'a part of the Italian population is living in a gigantic Truman show, and responsibility for this is entirely due to Italian journalists, with the usual few exceptions...RAI has to be reorganized and transformed into a public service following the model of the BBC without any connection to the parties...'. See also Academic imperialism Freedom of speech Freedom of the press Censorship Concentration of media ownership Manufacturing Consent Cultural identity Radio homogenization Reader's Digest NWICO Gleichschaltung Cultural imperialism References Concentration of media ownership Criticism of journalism Media Economics of the arts and literature	[ 0.2977857291698456, -0.0329720713198185, -0.3808930516242981, 0.12891645729541779, -0.31400570273399353, -0.030655190348625183, 0.23070086538791656, 0.6996290683746338, 0.08934613317251205, -0.51223224401474, -0.4683283865451813, 0.1931138038635254, -0.4478001892566681, 1.0370711088180542, -0.10282185673713684, 0.4613591134548187, -0.2475828230381012, 0.2914702296257019, -0.21181058883666992, 0.2483128309249878, -0.6844708919525146, 0.008926781825721264, 0.17160852253437042, 0.04843120276927948, 0.00465036416426301, -0.4416148066520691, 0.834308922290802, -0.14446602761745453, 0.10179132223129272, 0.2807846963405609, 0.31505125761032104, 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206269	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical%20integration	Vertical integration	In microeconomics, management, and international political economy, vertical integration is an arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is integrated and owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or (market-specific) service, and the products combine to satisfy a common need. It is contrasted with horizontal integration, wherein a company produces several items that are related to one another. Vertical integration has also described management styles that bring large portions of the supply chain not only under a common ownership but also into one corporation (as in the 1920s when the Ford River Rouge Complex began making much of its own steel rather than buying it from suppliers). Vertical integration and expansion is desired because it secures supplies needed by the firm to produce its product and the market needed to sell the product. Vertical integration and expansion can become undesirable when its actions become anti-competitive and impede free competition in an open marketplace. Vertical integration is one method of avoiding the hold-up problem. A monopoly produced through vertical integration is called a vertical monopoly. Vertical expansion Vertical integration is often closely associated with vertical expansion which, in economics, is the growth of a business enterprise through the acquisition of companies that produce the intermediate goods needed by the business or help market and distribute its product. Such expansion is desired because it secures the supplies needed by the firm to produce its product and the market needed to sell the product. Such expansion can become undesirable when its actions become anti-competitive and impede free competition in an open marketplace. The result is a more efficient business with lower costs and more profits. On the undesirable side, when vertical expansion leads toward monopolistic control of a product or service then regulative action may be required to rectify anti-competitive behavior. Related to vertical expansion is lateral expansion, which is the growth of a business enterprise through the acquisition of similar firms, in the hope of achieving economies of scale. Vertical expansion is also known as a vertical acquisition. Vertical expansion or acquisitions can also be used to increase sales and to gain market power. The acquisition of DirecTV by News Corporation is an example of forwarding vertical expansion or acquisition. DirecTV is a satellite TV company through which News Corporation can distribute more of its media content: news, movies, and television shows. The acquisition of NBC by Comcast is an example of backward vertical integration. For example, in the United States, protecting the public from communications monopolies that can be built in this way is one of the missions of the Federal Communications Commission. Three types of vertical integration Contrary to horizontal integration, which is a consolidation of many firms that handle the same part of the production process, vertical integration is typified by one firm engaged in different parts of production (e.g., growing raw materials, manufacturing, transporting, marketing, and/or retailing). Vertical integration is the degree to which a firm owns its upstream suppliers and its downstream buyers. There are three varieties of vertical integration: backward (upstream) vertical integration, forward (downstream) vertical integration, and balanced (both upstream and downstream) vertical integration. A company exhibits backward vertical integration when it controls subsidiaries that produce some of the inputs used in the production of its products. For example, an automobile company may own a tire company, a glass company, and a metal company. Control of these three subsidiaries is intended to create a stable supply of inputs and ensure a consistent quality in their final product. It was the main business approach of Ford and other car companies in the 1920s, who sought to minimize costs by integrating the production of cars and car parts, as exemplified in the Ford River Rouge Complex. A company tends toward forward vertical integration when it controls distribution centers and retailers where its products are sold. An example is a brewing company that owns and controls a number of bars or pubs. Disintermediation is a form of vertical integration when purchasing departments take over the former role of wholesalers to source products. Problems and benefits There are internal and external society-wide gains and losses stemming from vertical integration, which vary according to the state of technology in the industries involved, roughly corresponding to the stages of the industry lifecycle. Static technology represents the simplest case, where the gains and losses have been studied extensively. A vertically integrated company usually fails when transactions within the market are too risky or the contracts to support these risks are too costly to administer, such as frequent transactions and a small number of buyers and sellers. Internal gains Lower transaction costs Synchronization of supply and demand along the chain of products Lower uncertainty and higher investment Ability to monopolize market throughout the chain by market foreclosure Strategic independence (especially if important inputs are rare or highly volatile in price, such as rare-earth metals). Internal losses Higher monetary and organizational costs of switching to other suppliers/buyers Weaker motivation for good performance at the start of the supply chain since sales are guaranteed and poor quality may be blended into other inputs at later manufacturing stages Specific investment Benefits to society Better opportunities for investment growth through reduced uncertainty Local companies are often better positioned against foreign competition Lower consumer prices by reducing markup from intermediaries Losses to society Monopolization of markets Rigid organizational structure Manipulation of prices (if market power is established) Loss of tax revenue as fewer intermediary transactions are made Selected examples Birdseye During a hunting trip American explorer and scientist Clarence Birdseye discovered the beneficial effects of "quick-freezing". For example, fish caught a few days previously that were kept in ice remained in perfect condition. In 1924, Clarence Birdseye patented the "Birdseye Plate Froster" and established the General Seafood Corporation. In 1929, Birdseye's company and the patent were bought by Postum Cereals and Goldman Sachs Trading Corporation. It was later known as General Foods. They kept the Birdseye name, which was split into two words (Birds eye) for use as a trademark. Birdseye was paid $20 million for the patents and $2 million for the assets. Birds Eye was one of the pioneers in the frozen food industry. During these times, there was not a well-developed infrastructure to produce and sell frozen foods. Hence Birds Eye developed its own system by using vertical integration. Members of the supply chain, such as farmers and small food retailers, couldn't afford the high cost of equipment, so Birdseye provided it to them. Until now, Birds Eye has faded slowly because they have fixed costs associated with vertical integration, such as property, plants, and equipment that cannot be reduced significantly when production needs decrease. The Birds Eye company used vertical integration to create a larger organization structure with more levels of command. This produced a slower information processing rate, with the side effect of making the company so slow that it couldn't react quickly. Birds Eye didn't take advantage of the growth of supermarkets until ten years after the competition did. The already-developed infrastructure did not allow Birdseye to quickly react to market changes. Alibaba In order to increase profits and gain more market share, Alibaba, a China-based company, has implemented vertical integration deepening its company holdings to more than the e-commerce platform. Alibaba has built its leadership in the market by gradually acquiring complementary companies in a variety of industries including delivery and payments. Steel and oil One of the earliest, largest and most famous examples of vertical integration was the Carnegie Steel company. The company controlled not only the mills where the steel was made, but also the mines where the iron ore was extracted, the coal mines that supplied the coal, the ships that transported the iron ore and the railroads that transported the coal to the factory, the coke ovens where the coal was coked, etc. The company focused heavily on developing talent internally from the bottom up, rather than importing it from other companies. Later, Carnegie established an institute of higher learning to teach the steel processes to the next generation. Oil companies, both multinational (such as ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, ConocoPhillips or BP) and national (e.g., Petronas) often adopt a vertically integrated structure, meaning that they are active along the entire supply chain from locating deposits, drilling and extracting crude oil, transporting it around the world, refining it into petroleum products such as petrol/gasoline, to distributing the fuel to company-owned retail stations, for sale to consumers. Standard Oil is a famous example of both horizontal and vertical integration, combining extraction, transport, refinement, wholesale distribution, and retail sales at company-owned gas stations. Telecommunications and computing Telephone companies in most of the 20th century, especially the largest (the Bell System) were integrated, making their own telephones, telephone cables, telephone exchange equipment and other supplies. Entertainment From the early 1920s through the early 1950s, the American motion picture had evolved into an industry controlled by a few companies, a condition known as a "mature oligopoly", as it was led by eight major film studios, the most powerful of which were the "Big Five" studios: MGM, Warner Brothers, 20th Century Fox, Paramount Pictures, and RKO. These studios were fully integrated, not only producing and distributing films, but also operating their own movie theaters; the "Little Three", Universal Studios, Columbia Pictures, and United Artists, produced and distributed feature films but did not own theaters. The issue of vertical integration (also known as common ownership) has been the main focus of policy makers because of the possibility of anti-competitive behaviors affiliated with market influence. For example, in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc., the Supreme Court ordered the five vertically integrated studios to sell off their theater chains and all trade practices were prohibited (United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc., 1948). The prevalence of vertical integration wholly predetermined the relationships between both studios and networks and modified criteria in financing. Networks began arranging content initiated by commonly owned studios and stipulated a portion of the syndication revenues in order for a show to gain a spot on the schedule if it was produced by a studio without common ownership. In response, the studios fundamentally changed the way they made movies and did business. Lacking the financial resources and contract talent they once controlled, the studios now relied on independent producers supplying some portion of the budget in exchange for distribution rights. Certain media conglomerates may, in a similar manner, own television broadcasters (either over-the-air or on cable), production companies that produce content for their networks, and also own the services that distribute their content to viewers (such as television and internet service providers). AT&T, Bell Canada, Comcast, Sky plc, and Rogers Communications are vertically integrated in such a manneroperating media subsidiaries (such as WarnerMedia, Bell Media, NBCUniversal, and Rogers Media), and provide "triple play" services of television, internet, and phone service in some markets (such as Bell Satellite TV/Bell Internet, Rogers Cable, Xfinity, and Sky's satellite TV and internet services). Additionally, Bell and Rogers own wireless providers, Bell Mobility and Rogers Wireless, while Comcast is partnered with Verizon Wireless for an Xfinity-branded MVNO. Similarly, Sony has media holdings through its Sony Pictures division, including film and television content, as well as television channels, but is also a manufacturer of consumer electronics that can be used to play content from itself and others, including televisions, phones, and PlayStation video game consoles. AT&T is the first ever vertical integration where a mobile phone company and a film studio company are under same umbrella. Agriculture Vertical integration through production and marketing contracts have also become the dominant model for livestock production. Currently, 90% of poultry, 69% of hogs, and 29% of cattle are contractually produced through vertical integration. The USDA supports vertical integration because it has increased food productivity. However, "... contractors receive a large share of farm receipts, formerly assumed to go to the operator's family". Under production contracts, growers raise animals owned by integrators. Farm contracts contain detailed conditions for growers, who are paid based on how efficiently they use feed, provided by the integrator, to raise the animals. The contract dictates how to construct the facilities, how to feed, house, and medicate the animals, and how to handle manure and dispose of carcasses. Generally, the contract also shields the integrator from liability. Jim Hightower, in his book, Eat Your Heart Out, discusses this liability role enacted by large food companies. He finds that in many cases of agricultural vertical integration, the integrator (food company) denies the farmer the right of entrepreneurship. This means that the farmer can only sell under and to the integrator. These restrictions on specified growth, Hightower argues, strips the selling and producing power of the farmer. The producer is ultimately limited by the established standards of the integrator. Yet, at the same time, the integrator still keeps the responsibility connected to the farmer. Hightower sees this as ownership without reliability. Under marketing contracts, growers agree in advance to sell their animals to integrators under an agreed price system. Generally, these contracts shield the integrator from liability for the grower's actions and the only negotiable item is a price. Automotive industry In the United States new automobiles can not be sold at dealerships owned by the same company that produced them but are protected by state franchise laws. Eyewear EssilorLuxottica, the company that merged with Essilor and Luxottica, occupies up to 30% of the global market share as well as representing billions of pairs of lenses and frames sold annually. Before the merger, Luxottica also owned 80% of the market share of companies that produce corrective and protective eyewear as well as owning many retailers, optical departments at Target and Sears, and key eye insurance groups, such as EyeMed, many of which are already part of the now merged company. Health care In the United States, major vertical mergers have included CVS Health's purchase of Aetna, and Cigna's purchase of Express Scripts. General retail Amazon.com has been criticized for being anti-competitive as both an owner and participant of its dominant online marketplace. In office products, Sycamore Partners owns both Staples, Inc., a major retailer, and Essendant, a dominant wholesaler. Economic theory In economic theory, vertical integration has been studied in the literature on incomplete contracts that was developed by Oliver Hart and his coauthors. Consider a seller of an intermediate product that is used by a buyer to produce a final product. The intermediate product can only be produced with the help of specific physical assets (e.g., machines, buildings). Should the buyer own the assets (vertical integration) or should the seller own the assets (non-integration)? Suppose that today the parties have to make relationship-specific investments. Since today complete contracts cannot be written, the two parties will negotiate tomorrow about how to divide the returns of the investments. Since the owner is in a better bargaining position, he will have stronger incentives to invest. Hence, whether vertical integration is desirable or not depends on whose investments are more important. Hart's theory has been extended by several authors. For instance, DeMeza and Lockwood (1998) have studied different bargaining games, while Schmitz (2006) has introduced asymmetric information into the incomplete contracting setup. In these extended models, vertical integration can sometimes be optimal even if only the seller has to make an investment decision. References Bibliography Further reading Bramwell G. Rudd, 2014, "Courtaulds and the Hosiery & Knitwear Industry," Lancaster, PA:Carnegie. Joseph R. Conlin, 2007, "Vertical Integration," in The American Past: A Survey of American History, p. 457, Belmont, CA:Thompson Wadsworth. Martin K. Perry, 1988, "Vertical Integration: Determinants and Effects," Chapter 4 in Handbook of Industrial Organization, North Holland. 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206270	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Fecunditatis	Mare Fecunditatis	Mare Fecunditatis (Latin fēcunditātis, the "Sea of Fecundity" or "Sea of Fertility") is a lunar mare in the eastern half of the visible Moon. The mare has a maximum diameter of 840 km. Description The Fecunditatis basin formed in the Pre-Nectarian epoch, while the basin material surrounding the mare is of the subsequent Nectarian epoch. The mare material is of the Upper Imbrian epoch and is relatively thin compared to the neighboring Mare Crisium or Mare Tranquillitatis. This basin is overlapped with the Nectaris, Tranquillitatis, and Crisium basins. Fecunditatis basin meets Nectaris basin along Fecunditatis' western edge, with the area along this zone faulted by arcuated grabens. On the eastern edge of Fecunditatis is the crater Langrenus. Near the center lie the interesting craters Messier and Messier A. It was here that the first automated sample return took place via the Luna 16 probe, in September 1970. Sinus Successus lies along the eastern edge of the mare. Unlike many other maria, there is no mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, in the center of Mare Fecunditatis. Mascons were identified in the center of other maria (such as Serenitatis or Imbrium) from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The gravity field was mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL, which unveiled an irregular pattern. Gallery See also The Sea of Fertility - a tetralogy of novels by Mishima Yukio, named after the sea References External links High resolution lunar overflight video by Seán Doran, based on LRO data, that starts over the western margin of Mare Fecunditatis and then proceeds to Mare Crisium Fecunditatis Fecunditatis Fecunditatis	[ 0.3102934658527374, -0.4023529291152954, 0.4363541305065155, -0.10352868586778641, -0.04740232601761818, 0.7251339554786682, -0.3141162395477295, 0.3052380383014679, 0.052361562848091125, -0.6742919683456421, -0.12422432005405426, 0.29879748821258545, -0.07758410274982452, 0.5226999521255493, -0.09119721502065659, 0.44957903027534485, 0.48944851756095886, 0.8134971261024475, 0.09520987421274185, -0.5059494972229004, 0.40090495347976685, -0.08332040160894394, 0.5152385234832764, -0.33722546696662903, -0.12265944480895996, -0.5990827679634094, 0.2537068724632263, 0.4294733703136444, 0.20188409090042114, 0.3538496792316437, -0.4559132158756256, 0.4979080855846405, 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206272	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoregion%20conservation%20status	Ecoregion conservation status	Conservation status is a measure used in conservation biology to assess an ecoregion's degree of habitat alteration and habitat conservation. It is used to set priorities for conservation. Conservation status and biological distinctiveness were the two measures used by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to develop the Global 200, a list of high-priority ecoregions for conservation, and for the WWF's conservation assessments at continent (or biogeographic realm) scale. Ecoregions are classified into one of three broad categories: "critical/endangered" (CE), "vulnerable" (V), or "relatively stable/relatively intact" (RS). The WWF's conservation status index is determined by analyzing four factors: Habitat loss is the percentage of an ecoregion's habitat that has been converted to agriculture or urban areas; Habitat blocks measures of the size of remaining habitat blocks; Habitat fragmentation is the degree to which remaining habitat is fragmented, measured as the ratio of the total perimeter of remaining habitat blocks to their total area; Habitat protection measures the area of remaining habitat in protected areas, and the degree of protection provided (IUCN protected area categories). Additional factors considered for the Global 200 include degree of habitat degradation, degree of protection needed, degree of urgency for conservation needs, and types of conservation practiced or required. 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206273	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Frigoris	Mare Frigoris	Mare Frigoris (Latin frīgōris, the "Sea of Cold") is a lunar mare in the far north of the Moon. It is located in the outer rings of the Procellarum basin, just north of Mare Imbrium, and stretches east to north of Mare Serenitatis. It is just north of the dark crater Plato. The basin material surrounding the mare is of the Lower Imbrian epoch, while the eastern mare material is of the Upper Imbrian epoch, and the western mare material is of the Eratosthenian epoch. Like most of the other maria on the Moon, Mare Frigoris was named by Giovanni Riccioli, whose 1651 nomenclature system has become standardized. Previously, William Gilbert had included it among the Insula Borealis ("Northern Island") in his map of c.1600, and Michael Van Langren had labelled it the Mare Astronomicum ("Sea of Astronomy") in his 1645 map. Pierre Gassendi called it the Boreum Mare ('Northern Sea'). In popular culture This area of the Moon featured prominently in 'Behemoth', the second episode of the 1973 BBC science fiction mini-series Moonbase 3. Mare Frigoris was intended to be the original landing site of the fictionalised version of Apollo 15 in the Apple TV+ series For All Mankind, although in the show the crew decided last minute to divert the landing to Shackleton crater in the Lunar south pole upon finding out there is a high concentration of (fictional) water ice in the area. References External links Tectonics in Mare Frigoris - Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter page and images Frigoris Frigoris Frigoris	[ -0.3119586706161499, -0.10380163788795471, 0.6164488792419434, -0.060403648763895035, -0.24200654029846191, 0.19026856124401093, -0.3137497901916504, 0.6164652705192566, 0.009247241541743279, -0.27787888050079346, -0.2205478698015213, -0.07684551179409027, -0.1538698524236679, 0.7054694890975952, 0.5097779631614685, 0.26556500792503357, -0.015012755058705807, 0.6474860310554504, 0.4762879014015198, -0.29096755385398865, 0.7896971106529236, -0.12238393723964691, 0.5539432764053345, -0.48524826765060425, -0.7847378253936768, -0.2658098340034485, 0.009791987016797066, 0.521986186504364, -0.054289091378450394, 0.0986628457903862, -0.37362366914749146, 0.4562976360321045, -0.7367814779281616, -0.1728135049343109, 0.2103661149740219, 0.4701414704322815, 0.43439817428588867, -0.028673963621258736, -0.500653088092804, -0.5179149508476257, -0.03423473611474037, 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206281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Humboldtianum	Mare Humboldtianum	Mare Humboldtianum (Latin humboldtiānum, the "Sea of Alexander von Humboldt") is a lunar mare located just to the east of Mare Frigoris, in the center of Humboldtianum basin. It is located along the northeastern limb of the Moon, and continues on to the far side. Due to its location, the visibility of this feature can be affected by libration, and on occasion it can be hidden from view from Earth. The basin material is of the Nectarian epoch, with the mare material being of the Upper Imbrian epoch (3.4–3.7 Ga). The lighter gray area to the southeast of the dark mare material is a region of hills within the basin. The rim of this basin forms a mountain range that can be seen under oblique lighting conditions. This mare is centered at 56.9° N, 81.5° E, and its maximal size is 230 km. However the surrounding basin extends for a diameter of over 600 km. The walled plain Bel'kovich spills over the northwestern portion of Mare Humboldtianum, and the flooded crater Bel'kovich A lies across the southwestern rim of Bel'kovich and part of the floor of the mare. At the center of the Humboldtianum basin is a mascon, or gravitational high. The mascon was first identified by Doppler tracking of the Lunar Prospector spacecraft. This mare is situated between near (visible) and far sides of the Moon, like a link between known and unknown. That's why Johann Mädler named it after Alexander von Humboldt, a prominent explorer of unknown lands. It is one of only two lunar maria that are named after people, the other being Mare Smythii (named after British astronomer William Henry Smyth), and is located along the eastern lunar limb. Popular culture In an episode of the 1967 TV Series Captain Scarlet and The Mysterons, a Mysteron outpost was shown to be located somewhere in the Humboldt Sea. External links Mare Humboldtianum Constellation region of interest, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) article, Posted by Bashar Rizk on June 3, 2010 Map with current names of surface features (archive). Geological Map of the Humboldtianum Basin and its deposits, abstract from the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2017. Geological Map of the Humboldtianum Basin and its deposits poster, poster presentation from the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2017. References Humboldtianum Alexander von Humboldt Humboldtianum Humboldtianum	[ -0.4732428193092346, -0.08378394693136215, 0.6339370012283325, -0.016397813335061073, -0.07621987909078598, 0.24979440867900848, -0.4143337309360504, 0.42986565828323364, 0.056345485150814056, -0.6131234765052795, -0.05251211300492287, -0.2054109424352646, -0.14149196445941925, 0.8392286896705627, 0.5904945731163025, 0.429103285074234, -0.08963961154222488, 0.26893284916877747, 0.042833998799324036, -0.2804093658924103, 0.48255449533462524, -0.30236807465553284, 0.6770708560943604, -0.2545773386955261, -0.7551218867301941, -0.43422847986221313, 0.0670662447810173, 0.724466860294342, 0.22700904309749603, -0.08230281621217728, -0.48237374424934387, 0.42675456404685974, -0.6263226866722107, -0.07345155626535416, -0.11305958032608032, -0.05125092715024948, -0.17754249274730682, -0.225795716047287, -0.6205646991729736, -0.5684287548065186, 0.09633542597293854, 0.3094228506088257, -0.491524875164032, 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206284	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Insularum	Mare Insularum	Mare Insularum (Latin īnsulārum, the "sea of islands") is a lunar mare located in the Insularum basin just south of the western Mare Imbrium. The basin material is of the Lower Imbrian epoch, with the mare material of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The mare is bordered by the craters Copernicus on the east, and Kepler on the west. Oceanus Procellarum joins the mare to the southwest. Copernicus is one of the most noticeable craters on the Moon. The rays from both Kepler and Copernicus protrude into the mare. It is located near the crater Fra Mauro, the site of the Apollo 14 landing. Sinus Aestuum forms a northeastern extension to the mare. The name was suggested by lunar geologist Don E. Wilhelms. References Insularum Insularum	[ -0.48876485228538513, -0.5044527053833008, 0.7903621792793274, -0.10307767987251282, 0.34593161940574646, 0.1919795572757721, -0.4912143647670746, 0.659382700920105, -0.10604280233383179, -0.49362534284591675, -0.05741341412067413, 0.41443872451782227, -0.40546756982803345, 0.03224211558699608, 0.4086162745952606, 0.32610026001930237, 0.1420130729675293, 0.3575584590435028, 0.21224644780158997, -0.26351022720336914, 0.5180066227912903, -0.13684403896331787, 0.2954899072647095, -0.3092309236526489, -0.441250741481781, -0.36838117241859436, 0.05108901113271713, 0.5579245686531067, -0.046334393322467804, -0.16603851318359375, -0.14859363436698914, 0.6130147576332092, -0.7911645174026489, -0.24850310385227203, 0.1764257550239563, 0.04528772458434105, 0.19531477987766266, -0.507946789264679, -0.42057323455810547, -0.4541635513305664, 0.3056585192680359, 0.2564718723297119, -0.2886584997177124, 0.3134000599384308, -0.5459079742431641, -0.20617865025997162, 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206286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Marginis	Mare Marginis	Mare Marginis (Latin marginis, the "Sea of the Edge") is a lunar mare that lies on the very edge of the lunar nearside. The selenographic coordinates of this feature are 13.3° N, 86.1° E, and the diameter is 358 km. The name is Latin for "Sea of the Edge". This mare differs from most of the nearside maria; it has an irregular outline and it appears to be fairly thin. It has small circular and elongated features in the mare plains that probably mark impact craters buried by less than 1000 to 1700 feet (300 to 500 m) of lava. Further, Mare Marginis is not centered on any clear, large impact basin. Thus, Mare Marginis seems to mark a low-lying region of the highlands where mare lavas were just able to reach the surface. Several large mare-floored craters also occur nearby. In these craters, the crater floors lie below the surrounding highland surface. Thus, they mark sites around Mare Marginis where lavas were close to the lunar surface. The major crater to the north of Marginis is Al-Biruni, with Ibn Yunus to the southeast and Goddard to the northwest. The surface of this mare displays some lunar swirls; higher albedo deposits that are similar to the Reiner Gamma feature on the Oceanus Procellarum. This feature is associated with a relatively strong magnetic field. It is also located at the antipode of the Mare Orientale impact basin, and may be associated with the formation of that feature. Other possible explanations for the formation include a cometary impact, venting of volcanic gases, or just normal surface markings that are shielded from space weathering due to the magnetic field. But the exact cause of albedo features such as this are not completely understood. Views References Paul D. Spudis, The Once and Future Moon, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996, . 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206288	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Moscoviense	Mare Moscoviense	Mare Moscoviense (Latin moscoviēnse, the "Sea of Moscow") is a lunar mare that sits in the Moscoviense basin. It is one of the very few maria on the far side of the Moon. Like Mare Marginis, this mare appears to be fairly thin. However, it is clearly centered within a large impact basin. It is also much lower than either the outer basin floor or the farside highlands. The great depth of this mare beneath the nearby highlands probably explains why mare units are so rare on the lunar farside. Very few basins on the farside were deep enough to allow mare volcanism. Thus, while large impact basins are found on both the nearside and farside, large maria are mostly found on the nearside. Mare lavas apparently could reach the surface more often and more easily there. The basin material is of the Nectarian epoch, while the mare material is of the Upper Imbrian epoch. Following the SELENE mission, scientists proposed that volcanism in Mare Moscoviense was active for at least ~1.5 Ga following the formation of the Moscoviense basin, but the formation of the mare as the result of a meteorite cluster impact, rather than from volcanism, has also been proposed based on the energy required to melt the lava in Mare Moscoviense. At the center of the basin (or the southwest portion of the mare) is a mascon, or gravitational high. The mascon was first identified by Doppler tracking of the Lunar Prospector spacecraft. The crater Titov is in the northeastern region of the mare, and Tereshkova lies along the northern edge. The floor-fractured crater Komarov lies on the southeast edge of the mare. The Korolev basin is to the southeast of the mare, and the Freundlich-Sharonov Basin is to the east. According to NASA's website, the region was named —stated as meaning "Sea of Moscow"—after the first images of the far side were returned by Luna 3 in 1959. This may be a typo for Mare Moscoviae, which is the expected Latin for "sea of Moscow (or of Muscovy)". The name was approved by the IAU in 1961. The names of maria generally call up psychic states of mind, with a few exceptions. When Mare Moscoviense was discovered, and the name was proposed by the Soviet Union, it was only accepted by the International Astronomical Union with the justification that Moscow is a state of mind. Gallery See also Leonov (crater), named for cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, lies just to the south of Mare Moscoviense References External links The mare is seen shortly after the 1:20 minute mark in this NASA video commemorating Apollo 13 Moscoviense Moscoviense Moscoviense	[ -0.03994645178318024, 0.00008053595229284838, 0.682919442653656, -0.17261405289173126, 0.4926983416080475, 0.13857050240039825, -0.6094101071357727, 0.7838992476463318, 0.005136747378855944, -0.32185906171798706, 0.10248339176177979, 0.4477693438529968, -0.046111125499010086, 0.6020010113716125, -0.015995871275663376, 0.20973531901836395, 0.22525320947170258, 0.4068416953086853, 0.36080455780029297, -0.5443517565727234, 0.647830069065094, -0.02263391949236393, 0.5026994347572327, -0.2568185031414032, -0.9740889072418213, -0.3070288300514221, -0.10396920144557953, 0.3182198107242584, 0.34284982085227966, 0.06204793602228165, -0.3548712432384491, 0.6918179392814636, -0.5135807394981384, -0.2067766785621643, 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206289	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Nectaris	Mare Nectaris	Mare Nectaris (Latin nectaris, the "Sea of Nectar") is a small lunar mare or sea (a volcanic lava plain noticeably darker than the rest of the Moon's surface) located south of Mare Tranquillitatis southwest of Mare Fecunditatis, on the near side of the moon. Montes Pyrenaeus borders the mare to the east and Sinus Asperitatis fuses to its northwestern edge. It is 84,000 square kilometers in size. Several large craters are situated at the borders of Mare Nectaris. The biggest one is lava-filled Fracastorius (124 km), which fuses with southern coast of the Sea. A prominent trio of 100-km craters Theophilus, Cyrillus and Catharina is located near northwestern coast. Other notable feature is a "ghost crater" Daguerre, almost entirely covered with lava, in the northern part of Mare Nectaris. Mare Nectaris is located in the central part of 860-km-diameter impact basin, which was formed 3.8–3.9 billions year ago. This event marks the beginning of Nectarian period of the lunar geologic timescale. The best-preserved part of the rim of this basin is called Rupes Altai, in the southwest part of the basin. Lava filling of Mare Nectaris is younger than the basin itself. The mare material is approximately 1000m in depth, and mainly of the Nectarian period and the Lower Imbrian epoch, with the mare material of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The crater Theophilus on the northeastern side of the mare is of the Eratosthenian period. Thus, the crater is younger than the mare to its southeast. Enough subsidence has occurred to open a few arcuate grabens on the western margin of the mare. A mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, was identified in the center of Mare Nectaris from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The mascon was confirmed and mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL. 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206290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Nubium	Mare Nubium	Mare Nubium (Latin nūbium, the "sea of clouds") is a lunar mare in the Nubium basin on the Moon's near side. The mare is located just to the southeast of Oceanus Procellarum. Formation The basin containing Mare Nubium is believed to have been part of the Pre-Nectarian system. The mare material is of the Imbrian and Eratosthenian age. Bullialdus crater, a prominent feature on the west side of the mare, is of Eratosthenian age. Other features within the mare include Pitatus on the southern margin and Guericke bounding the mare to the north. Opelt, Gould, Kies, Nicollet, Wolf, Birt, and Rupes Recta (the Straight Wall) lie within the mare. Names Like most of the other maria on the Moon, Mare Nubium was named by Giovanni Riccioli, whose 1651 nomenclature system has become standardized. Previously, William Gilbert had included it among the Continens Meridionalis ("Southern Continent") in his map of c.1600, and Michael Van Langren had labelled it the Mare Borbonicum (after the House of Bourbon) in his 1645 map. Exploration The first released images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2009 were of the lunar highlands 200 km south of Mare Nubium. News In September 2013, Spanish astronomers observed and recorded an impact event when a large rock hit the lunar surface in Mare Nubium. 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206292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Serenitatis	Mare Serenitatis	Mare Serenitatis (Latin serēnitātis, the "Sea of Serenity") is a lunar mare located to the east of Mare Imbrium on the Moon. Its diameter is . Geology Mare Serenitatis is located within the Serenitatis basin, which is of the Nectarian epoch. The material surrounding the mare is of the Lower Imbrian epoch, while the mare material is of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The mare basalt covers a majority of the basin and overflows into Lacus Somniorum to the northeast. The most noticeable feature is the crater Posidonius on the northeast rim of the mare. The ring feature to the west of the mare is indistinct, except for Montes Haemus. Mare Serenitatis connects with Mare Tranquillitatis to the southeast and borders Mare Vaporum to the southwest. Mare Serenitatis is an example of a mascon, an anomalous gravitational region on the moon. A mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, was identified in the center of Mare Serenitatis from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The mascon was confirmed and mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL. Names Like most of the other maria on the Moon, Mare Serenitatis was named by Giovanni Riccioli, whose 1651 nomenclature system has become standardized. Previously, William Gilbert had cited it as within the Regio Magna Occidentalis ("Large Western Region") in his map of c.1600. Pierre Gassendi had included it as part of the 'Homuncio' ('little man'), referring to a small humanoid figure that he could see among the maria; Gassendi also referred to it as 'Thersite' after Thersites, the ugliest warrior in the Trojan War. Michael Van Langren had labelled it the Mare Eugenianum ("Eugenia's Sea") in his 1645 map, in honour of Isabella Clara Eugenia, queen of the Spanish Netherlands. And Johannes Hevelius included it within Pontus Euxinus (after the classical name for the Black Sea) in his 1647 map. Exploration Both Luna 21 and Apollo 17 landed near the eastern border of Mare Serenitatis, in the area of the Montes Taurus range. Apollo 17 landed specifically in the Taurus-Littrow valley, and Luna 21 landed in Le Monnier crater. SpaceIL's Beresheet lunar lander was planned to land in Mare Serenitatis, but crashed into the surface on 11 April 2019. Its final resting place was about 33°N, 19°E, near to the centre of the mare. Views In popular culture Mare Serenitatis forms one of the eyes for the Man in the Moon. In the animation Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, Mare Serenitatis is the location of Silver Millennium and the original Moon Castle. Mare Serenitatis is also mentioned in Arthur C. Clarke's short story The Sentinel. Most of the action in John Wyndham's 1933 short story "The Last Lunarians" takes place on the edge of the Sea of Serenity. Mare Serentitatis borders the Authority moon colony in Robert Heinlein's novel The Moon is a Harsh Mistress. The most southern part of Mare Serenitatis is depicted on the cover of the album Apollo - Atmospheres and Soundtracks by Brian Eno, Roger Eno, and Daniel Lanois (1982). The photograph on the cover is AS17-150-23069, made during the mission of Apollo 17 in December 1972. 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206293	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Smythii	Mare Smythii	Mare Smythii (Latin for "Smyth's Sea") is a lunar mare located along the equator on the easternmost edge of the Moon's near side. It is named for the 19th-century British astronomer William Henry Smyth. The Smythii basin where the mare is located is of the Pre-Nectarian epoch, while the surrounding features are of the Nectarian system. It is contained within a minimal diameter of , and has been excavated to a depth of . The mare material, which makes up the floor of the mare, is a low alumina basalt, and consists of Upper Imbrian basalt covered by Eratosthenian basalt. Features observed within the basin include wrinkle ridges, submerged "ghost" craters, domes, crater chains, and rilles. The overall shape of the mare is circular, likely the result of a large impact. Further bombardment followed, creating the irregular shape. Subsequent volcanism laid down the mare material. As a result of this sequence, only the northeastern portion and a smaller area in the western central contain significant regions of smooth mare material. The remaining surface is more hummocky with a higher albedo. The geological features suggest that lava flowed from the southeast and west toward the northeast, where it accumulated in the lowest parts of the basin. Mare Smythii contains a relatively high number of craters with fractured floors, including the noticeably unusual crater Haldane. This is probably a result of uplift from injection of magma below the mare. The crater Neper is located to the north of the mare. This crater makes up part of the southern rim of Mare Marginis. Just off to the northwest of the mare are the craters Schubert and Schubert B. The dark mare-filled crater at the southern edge of Smythii is the crater Kästner. 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206295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Spumans	Mare Spumans	Mare Spumans (Latin spūmāns, the "foaming sea") is a lunar mare located just south of Mare Undarum on the lunar near side. It is one of the many elevated lakes contained in the Crisium basin, surrounding Mare Crisium. The surrounding basin material is of the Nectarian epoch, while the mare basalt being of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The crater Petit (formerly ) is located on the western rim of the mare. This crater is white and surrounded by a well-defined ray system. 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206297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Undarum	Mare Undarum	Mare Undarum (Latin undārum, the "sea of waves") is a shallow, irregular lunar mare located just north of Mare Spumans on the lunar near side, between the crater Firmicus and the eastern limb. It lies within a trough between the third and fourth raised rings formed by the impact that created the Mare Crisium. The selenographic coordinates of this mare are 7.5° N, 68.7° E. It has a maximum diameter of 245 km. There are five known lunar domes within the mare. The surrounding basin material is of the Nectarian epoch, with the mare basalt being of the Upper Imbrian epoch. The crater Dubyago can be seen on the southern edge of the mare. On the northeastern edge of the mare is the crater Condorcet P. When Mädler observed this area in the 1830s, he noted variations in the curved dark streaks that form this mare, leading him to speculate that the changes were caused by vegetation. Fictional References Mare Undarum was the location of the second catapult in Robert A. Heinlein's novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress. The exact location of the catapult was kept secret and was "A matter of Lunar national security." Gallery References External links NASA lunar Atlas Undarum Undarum Undarum	[ -0.42386579513549805, -0.6121054887771606, 0.5121356248855591, -0.09941178560256958, -0.04943223297595978, 0.3504381775856018, -0.5122917294502258, 0.045073315501213074, 0.11396829783916473, -0.5882717370986938, 0.23485732078552246, 0.488713800907135, 0.14661061763763428, 0.2776237428188324, 0.48074206709861755, 0.2998504936695099, -0.06052413955330849, 0.13452225923538208, 0.5173732042312622, -0.1456739753484726, 0.43147170543670654, -0.2585441768169403, 0.2092352956533432, -0.40761125087738037, -0.4116170108318329, -0.0793788731098175, 0.10454902797937393, 0.5949283838272095, -0.12262647598981857, 0.023480741307139397, -0.04767613485455513, 0.332820326089859, -0.31615790724754333, -0.5691835284233093, -0.105315662920475, 0.023108694702386856, 0.15861278772354126, -0.2579757869243622, -0.26159903407096863, -0.6942719221115112, -0.09041775017976761, -0.18357983231544495, -0.42270874977111816, 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206298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Vaporum	Mare Vaporum	Mare Vaporum (Latin vapōrum, the "sea of vapors") is a lunar mare located between the southwest rim of Mare Serenitatis and the southeast rim of Mare Imbrium. It was named by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1651. The mare lies in an old basin or crater that is within the Procellarum basin. It is in diameter and in area, and is bordered to the northeast by the mountain range Montes Apenninus. In the south of the mare is Rima Hyginus, a rille intersected by the crater Hyginus. The lunar material surrounding the mare is from the Lower Imbrian epoch, and the mare material is from the Eratosthenian epoch. References External links Mare Vaporum at The Moon Wiki Dome in Mare Vaporum - Hook and Dome area Vaporum Smythii	[ -0.5477572083473206, 0.10733495652675629, 0.8412891626358032, 0.40923285484313965, 0.20565947890281677, -0.03548429161310196, -0.3674371838569641, 0.26071855425834656, 0.3842346668243408, -0.3110900819301605, -0.17023268342018127, 0.043564293533563614, -0.1460385024547577, 0.5077670216560364, 0.5155554413795471, 0.040983647108078, 0.5530596971511841, 0.48757457733154297, 0.15640228986740112, -0.417864590883255, 0.3799634873867035, -0.15243668854236603, 0.5548168420791626, -0.809529185295105, -0.658421516418457, 0.16345272958278656, -0.3122684061527252, 0.5808196663856506, -0.11700107902288437, 0.3455931544303894, -0.4894518554210663, 0.5172125101089478, -0.32308778166770935, -0.6239153742790222, 0.18734407424926758, 0.0065989322029054165, -0.08025404065847397, -0.12449897825717926, -0.6651965975761414, -0.48404377698898315, -0.2880702316761017, 0.3506295084953308, 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206299	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland%20tropical%20rain%20forests	Queensland tropical rain forests	The Queensland tropical rain forests ecoregion (WWF ID:AA0117) covers a portion of the coast of Queensland in northeastern Australia and belonging to the Australasian realm. The forest contains the world's best living record of the major stages in the evolutionary history of the world's land plants, including most of the world's relict species of plants from the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana. The history of the evolution of marsupials and songbirds is also well represented. Location and description The ecoregion covers of northeastern coastal Queensland, from the coast up a series of plateaus and tablelands to the mountains behind the coast. The ecoregion comprises three separate sections. The northern area, which includes Cairns, is the largest, from 15°30’ to 19°25’ south latitude. This northern section is also known as the Wet Tropics bioregion, and is just east of the Einasleigh Uplands. The middle section is centered on Mackay, Queensland, and the southern section is just south of Shoalwater Bay. These latter two sections are bounded on the west by the Brigalow tropical savanna ecoregion. Elevations in the ecoregion rise from sea level to 1,477 meters, with a mean of 301 meters. Climate The climate of the ecoregion is a borderline tropical rainforest climate (Af) and Dry-winter humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification (Cwa)). The latter climate is characterized as having no month averaging below , at least one month averaging above , and four months averaging over . Precipitation in the wet summer months is ten time or more the average of the winter months. In this particular ecoregion, annual precipitation is highly variable, with annual averages between 1,200 and 8,000 mm. The rainy season is November to April. Flora and fauna The Queensland tropical rain forests are designated one of the Global 200 ecoregions. The ecoregion is the largest remnant of Australia's rain forest flora, home to ancient assemblage of plants, called the Antarctic flora, presently characteristic of New Zealand and southern Chile. Fossil pollen records indicate closed forest covered most of Australia between 50 and 100 million years ago. These forests represent the closest living remnant of the vegetation type from which all of Australia's unique vegetation developed. The vegetation remained across Australia and Antarctica until about 15 million years ago. Currently, about 65% of the ecoregion is closed forest of broadleaf evergreens. Conifers of the southern hemisphere family Araucariaceae are the characteristic tree species. In the northern section of the ecoregion, Kauri commonly form the forest canopy, with Agathis robusta most common at lower elevations, and A. microstachya and A. atropurpurea predominant at higher elevations. In the southern sections, Araucaria cunninghamii is predominant, with Araucaria bidwillii dominant in two small areas. Conifers in the family Podocarpaceae are also present, including genera Podocarpus and Sundacarpus. The forests are thick with vines, ferns, epiphytes, and palms. These forests are limited to areas of high rainfall and good soils. In waterlogged soils, the rainforest flora gives way to Melaleuca thickets, and on poor soils and in drier areas Eucalyptus becomes dominant. The rainforest flora is intolerant of fire, and where periods of drought have allowed devastating fires, the rainforest flora has retreated, allowing fire-tolerant Eucalyptus to become established. If a relatively wet period persists, the rainforest flora may reestablish itself. It is thought that the land management practices of the aboriginal Australians, which involve setting regular fires to keep the eucalyptus woodlands open, may have encouraged the expansion of eucalyptus forests at the expense of the rainforest flora. These rainforests seem to have retreated considerably since the arrival of the aboriginals' ancestors 50,000 years ago, and are presently limited to isolated pockets comprising less than 2% of the continent's area. Animal biodiversity is high, also. 672 species of terrestrial vertebrates have been recorded in the ecoregion, 370 species of birds, 70 species of reptile, and 78 species of freshwater fish (of Australia's total of 180 fish species). 11% of the vertebrates are endemic to the region, and 22% of the reptiles. Most of the endemic species live about 400 meters in the rainforest. Conservation These forests are particularly interesting because of their southern location and the high degree of endemism of their plant and animal species. Deforestation caused by logging, road building and farming has led to habitat fragmentation and diminishing populations of species such as spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus maculatus), cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), and ring-tail possum (Hemibelideus lemuroides). Introduced species also pose a serious threat to many native species. In an effort to preserve the Daintree Rainforest north of the Daintree River it was decided by the Government of Queensland in 1993 to halt the spread of the electricity network north of that point, providing a limit to tourist development. Protected areas include the following: Homevale National Park Eungella National Park Dryander National Park Conway National Park Whitsunday Islands National Park Paluma Range National Park Halifax Bay Wetlands National Park Hinchinbrook Island National Park Girringun National Park Edmund Kennedy National Park Hull River National Park Kurrimine Beach National Park Eubenangee Swamp National Park Ella Bay National Park Wooroonooran National Park Barron Gorge National Park Daintree National Park Cedar Bay National Park Black Mountain National Park Tourism The forests, together with the Great Barrier Reef, have been identified and promoted as a major tourist attraction of Tropical North Queensland, one of five within the state. One of the most significant tourist attractions in the rain forests is the Skyrail Rainforest Cableway. See also Wet Tropics of Queensland References Biogeography of Queensland Ecoregions of Queensland Forests of Queensland Tropical rainforests of Australia Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical Queensland	[ -0.19937121868133545, 0.3230108916759491, -0.17489176988601685, -0.7781962156295776, -0.4215559959411621, 0.3282432556152344, 0.4146559536457062, 0.6484490633010864, -0.8018437623977661, -0.0023059106897562742, -0.6424316763877869, 0.06448681652545929, -0.506753146648407, 0.8104099631309509, 0.42472749948501587, 1.5142602920532227, 0.05195080488920212, 0.6908266544342041, 0.34016942977905273, -0.15871161222457886, 0.11710788309574127, -0.9574076533317566, 0.4432682394981384, 0.0065373913384974, 0.6359900832176208, -0.1398312747478485, 0.9296143651008606, 0.7588329911231995, 0.02479441836476326, 0.03333137556910515, -0.34824293851852417, 0.3957233428955078, -0.2525869607925415, 0.26852813363075256, 0.5314630270004272, 0.03434525057673454, -0.024779504165053368, 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206301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibley%E2%80%93Ahlquist%20taxonomy%20of%20birds	Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds	The Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy is a bird taxonomy proposed by Charles Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist. It is based on DNA–DNA hybridization studies conducted in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s. DNA–DNA hybridization is among a class of comparative techniques in molecular biology that produce distance data (versus character data) and that can be analyzed to produce phylogenetic reconstructions only using phenetic tree-building algorithms. In DNA–DNA hybridization, the percent similarity of DNA between two species is estimated by the reduction in hydrogen bonding between nucleotides of imperfectly complemented heteroduplex DNA (i.e., double stranded DNAs that are experimentally produced from single strands of two different species), compared with perfectly matched homoduplex DNA (both strands of DNA from the same species). Characteristics The classification appears to be an early example of cladistic classification because it codifies many intermediate levels of taxa: the "trunk" of the family tree is the class Aves, which branches into subclasses, which branch into infraclasses, and then "parvclasses", superorders, orders, suborders, infraorders, "parvorders", superfamilies, families, subfamilies, tribes, subtribes and finally genera and species. However the classification study did not employ modern cladistic methods, as it relies strictly on DNA-DNA hybridization as the sole measure of similarity. The Sibley–Ahlquist arrangement differs greatly from the more traditional approach used in the Clements taxonomy. The major changes at order level are as follows: Enlarged Struthioniformes replaces the ratite orders Rheiformes (rheas), Casuariiformes (cassowaries and emus), and Apterygiformes (kiwis) and Struthioniformes (ostriches). Tinamiformes (tinamous) is unchanged. A greatly enlarged Ciconiiformes includes the previous Sphenisciformes (penguins), Gaviiformes (divers), Podicipediformes (grebes), Procellariiformes (tubenoses), Pelecaniformes (pelicans and allies), Ciconiiformes (storks and allies), Falconiformes (birds of prey), Charadriiformes (waders, gulls, terns, and auks), and the family Pteroclidae (sandgrouse). Anseriformes (ducks and allies) is unchanged. Modified Galliformes landfowl. Chachalacas moved to Craciformes. New Craciformes chachalacas etc. Previously part of Galliformes. New Ralliformes rails and crakes. Previously part of Gruiformes Modified Gruiformes Cranes. Rails and button-quails moved to Ralliformes and Turniciformes, respectively. New Turniciformes button-quails etc. Previously part of Gruiformes. Modified Columbiformes doves. Sandgrouse moved to Ciconiiformes. Psittaciformes cockatoos and parrots unchanged. New Musophagiformes turacos. Previously part of Cuculiformes. Modified Cuculiformes cuckoos. Turacos moved to Musophagiformes. Modified Strigiformes owls. Enlarged to include Caprimulgiformes (nightjars, owlet-nightjars, frogmouths, oilbirds, potoos). Modified Apodiformes swifts. Hummingbirds moved to Trochiliformes. New Trochiliformes hummingbirds. Previously Apodiformes. Coliiformes mousebirds unchanged. Trogoniformes trogons unchanged. Modified Coraciiformes rollers. New Upupiformes Hoopoe. Previously part of Coraciiformes. New Bucerotiformes hornbills. Previously part of Coraciiformes. New Galbuliformes jacamars and puffbirds. Previously part of Piciformes. Modified Piciformes woodpeckers Passeriformes perching birds unchanged. Some of these changes are minor adjustments. For instance, instead of putting the swifts, treeswifts, and hummingbirds in the same order that includes nothing else, Sibley and Ahlquist put them in the same superorder that includes nothing else, consisting of one order for the hummingbirds and another for the swifts and treeswifts. In other words, they still regard the swifts as the hummingbirds' closest relatives. Other changes are much more drastic. The penguins were traditionally regarded as distant from all other living birds. For instance, Wetmore put them in a superorder by themselves, with all other non-ratite birds in a different superorder. Sibley and Ahlquist, though, put penguins in the same superfamily as divers (loons), tubenoses, and frigatebirds. According to their phylogenetic analysis, penguins are closer to those birds than herons are to storks. The Galloanseres (waterfowl and landfowl) has found widespread acceptance. The DNA evidence of Sibley–Ahlquist for the monophyly of the group is supported by the discovery of the fossil bird Vegavis iaai, an essentially modern but most peculiar waterfowl that lived near Cape Horn some 66-68 million years ago, still in the age of the dinosaurs.<ref>Clarke et al.' (2005)</ref> Classification See also Molecular phylogenetics Phylogenetic nomenclature Charles Sibley Sibley–Monroe checklist List of birds (based on the Clements taxonomy) References (2005): Definitive fossil evidence for the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous. Nature 433: 305–308. PDF fulltext Supporting information Sibley, Charles Gald & Ahlquist, Jon Edward (1990): Phylogeny and classification of birds. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. On the Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds, by Charles G. Sibley The Early History of Modern Birds Inferred from DNA Sequences of Nuclear and Mitochondrial Ribosomal Genes, by Marcel van Tuinen, Charles G. Sibley, and S. Blair Hedges Sibley's Classification of Birds, by Eric Salzman, Birding'', December 1993. The Web version lacks the illustrations, which show parts of the family tree, and includes only a partial bibliography, but adds a sequence down to the tribe level with detail on intermediate taxa (especially for the passerines). 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206302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montes%20Haemus	Montes Haemus	Montes Haemus is a mountain range that forms the southwestern edge of the Mare Serenitatis basin on the Moon. They form a less prominent mirror image of the Montes Apenninus range to the west, and curve up to nearly join at the northern end. The eastern edge terminates with the Promontorium Archerusia, to the northwest of the crater Plinius. This end reaches a gap where the Mare Serenitatis to the north joins the Mare Tranquillitatis to the south. The selenographic coordinates of this range are , and the length is 560 km. The tallest peaks in this range climb as high as 2.4 km. This range is named after Haemus Mons, an old Thracian name of the Balkan mountains. It appeared on the map of Moon due to Johannes Hevelius. But he assigned this name (in the form Mons Æmus) to another feature – remains of the rim of crater Alexander, located on the other side of Mare Serenitatis. Later the name moved to the subject of this article. The same name, but with reversed order of words – Haemus Montes – belongs to one of mountain systems on Io. Several rille systems lie along the eastern side of this range. The eastern end of the range forms the western terminus of a rille system designated Rimae Plinius. 100 km farther to the west the craters Menelaus and Auwers are embedded within the range, and to their northeast are the Rimae Menelaus. Where the mountain range curves up to the northwest, the cup-shaped crater Sulpicius Gallus lies nearby on the lunar mare. Just to the northwest of this crater, and paralleling the mountains, are the Rimae Sulpicius Gallus. Several small "lakes", formed from basaltic lava, lie along the southwest face of the range. From the northwest to the southeast these are Lacus Odii, Lacus Doloris, Lacus Gaudii, and Lacus Hiemalis. The Lacus Lenitatis lies farther to the south. References External links Maps: northwestern, central and eastern, southern part Montes Haemus at The Moon Wiki Haemus, Montes	[ -0.08080271631479263, 1.036023736000061, 0.3924354910850525, -0.3100973665714264, -0.1698315590620041, 0.2420506477355957, 0.5153425931930542, 0.20409102737903595, 0.12611621618270874, -0.3235926628112793, -0.22556725144386292, 0.26424136757850647, -0.3832802176475525, 0.3644760251045227, 0.3876761496067047, 0.028720954433083534, 0.281238853931427, 0.4525327682495117, 0.11051701009273529, -0.6082869172096252, 0.7328525185585022, -0.40424394607543945, 0.607109010219574, -0.8795306086540222, -0.3264622092247009, -0.34805795550346375, -0.0767470970749855, 0.7390819787979126, 0.6477447748184204, 0.2777773439884186, -0.20828936994075775, 0.7158961892127991, -0.2442619502544403, -0.5721955895423889, 0.30042606592178345, 0.5667510032653809, 0.6391967535018921, -0.33831506967544556, -0.18909668922424316, -0.5361374616622925, 0.5232698321342468, -0.2588978409767151, 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206303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemus%20Mountains	Haemus Mountains	Haemus Mountains can refer to the following: Haemus Mons was an ancient Greek name for the Balkan mountains Montes Haemus is a mountain range on the Moon Haemus Montes is the name of a ridge on Io, a moon of Jupiter See also List of mountains on the Moon	[ 0.31473854184150696, 0.6357284188270569, 0.06104963272809982, -0.2456623911857605, 0.00034342968137934804, 0.5048288106918335, 0.5280187129974365, -0.0178389735519886, -0.2252439558506012, -0.06200359761714935, -0.22375106811523438, 0.3684243857860565, -0.5430975556373596, 0.2893618047237396, -0.38512077927589417, 0.24688568711280823, 0.12337054312229156, 0.6489259600639343, -0.3722560405731201, -0.5081517100334167, 0.735061526298523, -0.32984569668769836, 0.8504898548126221, -0.7474940419197083, 0.04137556999921799, -0.039692267775535583, -0.0736539363861084, 0.623414158821106, 0.8162845969200134, 0.21905171871185303, -0.517961323261261, 0.6495705246925354, 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206305	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montes%20Pyrenaeus	Montes Pyrenaeus	Montes Pyrenaeus is a mountain range on the Moon. The range begins at the southwestern rim of the flooded crater Gutenberg at the northern end and extends southward bordering the eastern edge of Mare Nectaris. The selenographic coordinates of this range are 15.6° S, 41.2° E, and it lies within a diameter of 164 km. Johannes Mädler gave this range the Latin name for the Pyrenees Mountains that lie along the border between France and Spain. 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206307	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montes%20Riphaeus	Montes Riphaeus	Montes Riphaeus (Latin for "Riphaeus Mountains") is an irregular range of lunar mountains that lie along the west-northwestern edge of Mare Cognitum, on the southeastern edge of Oceanus Procellarum. The range trends generally from north-northeast to south-southwest. It includes a number of slender ridge lines with valleys flooded by intruding flows of lava. This range is located at selenographic coordinates 7.7° S, 28.1° W. It has a diameter of , although it is typically only about wide. The nearest feature of note is Euclides, a small but prominent crater to the west. About to the north is the crater Lansberg. The range is named after the Riphean Mountains in the geography of classical antiquity. Johannes Hevelius was the first astronomer to apply the Riphean label to a feature of the lunar landscape, but Johann Heinrich von Mädler is responsible for the current designation of the Montes Riphaeus. See also List of Lunar mountains References Riphaeus, Montes	[ -0.7262029647827148, -0.027008526027202606, 0.199189230799675, 0.0017904912820085883, 0.07141649723052979, 0.38441604375839233, -0.0736040323972702, 0.511567234992981, -0.06736372411251068, -0.3741089403629303, -0.34489357471466064, 0.14685112237930298, -0.2598719894886017, 0.6080257892608643, 0.5654825568199158, 0.395833820104599, -0.10699894279241562, 0.4389573633670807, 0.05153687298297882, -0.20864465832710266, 0.6228518486022949, -0.2500038146972656, 0.34690141677856445, -0.585615873336792, -0.027516251429915428, 0.21601101756095886, -0.269151508808136, 0.4343413710594177, 0.08017653226852417, 0.4168924391269684, -0.12831783294677734, 0.9505698680877686, -0.6476291418075562, -0.4068355858325958, 0.2796950042247772, 0.39851343631744385, 0.23652490973472595, -0.2984163165092468, -0.39749807119369507, -0.737463116645813, 0.41340968012809753, 0.11569780856370926, -0.07614196091890335, 0.4133927524089813, 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206310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfaya%20Pass	Halfaya Pass	Halfaya Pass ( ) is in northwest Egypt, 11.5 kilometres east of the border with Libya and 7.5 kilometres south of the other, more major pass in the ridge today. A high, narrow escarpment extends south then southeastwards for a total of from a short distance east of the border. It hems in east-facing small harbour town of as-Salum ( various transliterations include el-Salloum, Saloum, Solum, Sollum), continuing as an east-facing sea cliff further north. Land to the east is lower than that to the west and the east side has steep slopes. The pass is centred inland from the closest part of the shore. It makes for a subtle wind gap in the escarpment for the east-west land route. It made for the southern Mediterranean coastal road useful to Mediterranean civilizations until the pass at as-Salum was enlarged after World War II. From 15 June 1941 and among veterans of Allied forces thereafter it was nicknamed Hellfire Pass. The escarpment is known as () "great ascent". To El-Edrisi/Idrisi (died 1165) it was known as (, sometimes transliterated as Akabah el Solum) "graded ascent", whence the modern name of the gulf/bay and the town of Salum. To ancient Rome it was known as Catabathmus Magnus, in the peak of whose empire it divorced Aegyptus from Marmarica. The range was seen as a demarcator of Africa and Asia in some Hellenistic geography. World War II In World War II, the engineered route up the escarpment had been destroyed and the pass had great strategic importance. The only ways westwards into Libya were to assault the pass or to out-flank it to the south. After the defeat of the Italian Tenth Army on 7 February 1941 during Operation Compass, the Italians were reinforced by German units (Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel) and the British forces were forced out of Libya, leaving besieged garrison at Tobruk. On 14 April 1941, Rommel's main force reached Sollum and occupied the Halfaya Pass. Allied attempts to recapture the pass and relieve Tobruk followed. The first attempt, on 15 May, was Operation Brevity. Rommel counter-attacked; the British withdrew and by 27 May the Germans had recaptured Halfaya Pass, a passage of time in which Major Edward Thomas earned his Military Cross. Supply shortages obliged the Germans to curtail their advance, so they dug in and fortified their positions at Halfaya with 88 mm guns. This was the anchor for the Axis positions, which opposed the Allied forces during the next allied attack. This was Operation Battleaxe on 15 June. German armour was deployed to draw the British tanks (11th Hussars) onto the concealed 88mm guns and the first wave was cut down in a few minutes (11 out of 12 tanks were destroyed), earning the pass the nickname "Hellfire Pass". The German commander, Major Wilhelm Bach, in his conduct of the Axis defence of Halfaya Pass earned himself the nickname German: (an allusion to his peacetime occupation as a Lutheran minister and the English nickname Hellfire Pass). The commander of the larger Italian contingent, General Fedele de Giorgis, General Officer Commanding 55th Infantry Division Savona, was awarded the highest German decoration, the Knight's Cross for the defense he conducted. A British tank commander was last heard on the radio reporting, "They are tearing my tanks apart." The third attempt, Operation Crusader opened on 18 November, with an attack on Sidi Omar to the west of the pass and an attempt to outflank Rommel to the south and relieve Tobruk. This was achieved on 29 November. Rommel, now under pressure, on 7 December withdrew to El Agheila. Axis garrisons at Sollum, Bardia as well as the Pass were left behind, a temporary thorn in the Allies side. Isolated after the fall of Bardia on 2 January 1942, besieged by Commonwealth forces, cut off from supplies, and bombarded from the air and the sea, Bach and de Giorgis finally surrendered the Halfaya garrison of 4,200 Italians of the 55th Savona and 2,100 Germans, to the South African 2nd Infantry Division on 17 January 1942. The pass was scene of the accidental death of Major-General 'Jock' Campbell (VC), then commander of the British 7th Armoured Division. On 26 February 1942, a month after assuming command, his staff car overturned on the newly laid clay surface, killing him outright. In Popular Culture The pass and its according battles play a role in the Sniper Elite III game plot. The pass inspires a Battlefield V map, Hamada. 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206311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellfire%20Pass	Hellfire Pass	Hellfire Pass (, known by the Japanese as Konyu Cutting) is the name of a railway cutting on the former Burma Railway ("Death Railway") in Thailand which was built with forced labour during the Second World War, in part by Allied prisoners of war. The pass is noted for the harsh conditions and heavy loss of life suffered by its labourers during construction. It was called Hellfire Pass because the sight of emaciated prisoners labouring by burning torchlight resembled a scene from Hell. History Hellfire Pass in the Tenasserim Hills was a particularly difficult section of the line to build. It was the largest rock cutting on the railway, coupled with its general remoteness and the lack of proper construction tools during building. A tunnel would have been possible to build instead of a cutting, but this could only be constructed at the two ends at any one time, whereas the cutting could be constructed at all points simultaneously despite the excess effort required by the POWs. The Australian, British, Dutch and other allied Prisoners of War were required by the Japanese to work 18 hours a day to complete the cutting. Sixty-nine men were beaten to death by Japanese guards in the six weeks it took to build the cutting, and many more died from cholera, dysentery, starvation, and exhaustion (Wigmore 568). However, the majority of deaths occurred amongst labourers whom the Japanese enticed to come to help build the line with false promises of good jobs. These labourers, mostly Malayans (Chinese, Malays and Tamils from Malaya), suffered mostly the same as the POWs at the hands of the Japanese. At least 69 Allied POWs - of the 400 who died - were beaten to death by their Japanese guards, during the 12 weeks it took to build Hellfire Pass. The railway was never built to a level of lasting permanence and was frequently bombed by the Royal Air Force during the Burma Campaign. After the war, all but the present section was closed and the line is now only in service between Bangkok and Nam Tok Sai Yok Noi. Present day There are no longer any trains running on this stretch of the line. The nearest railway station is at Nam Tok Sai Yok Noi, where trains of the State Railway of Thailand can be taken for a trip over the Wang Pho Viaduct and across the bridge over the River Kwai to Kanchanaburi, which is the nearest major town and tourist base. Visitors to the museum usually base themselves in Kanchanaburi. Historical preservation and museum The Hellfire Pass Memorial Museum and the preservation of the Hellfire Pass itself had its origins in 1983 when former Prisoner of War J.G. (Tom) Morris toured the area in Thailand and resolved to convince the Australian Government that portions of the Thai-Burma Death Railway should be preserved as an historical site. As a result of his efforts, the Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (SMEC) was commissioned in 1984 to make a survey of the railway to choose a suitable site. Jim Appleby, a SMEC engineer at the Khao Laem dam-site on the upper Kwai Noi, did much of the ground work and passed his reports to the Australian-Thai Chamber of Commerce in 1985. The first Dawn Service was held at the Hellfire Pass on Anzac Day, 1990, and the preservation and museum developed through efforts by both the Thai and Australian governments. The museum is co-sponsored by the Royal Thai Armed Forces Development Command and the Australian government at the site to commemorate the suffering of those involved in the construction of the railway. It was built by the Office of Australian War Graves and opened by the then Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard. As a part of the museum experience, it is possible to walk through the cutting itself and along a section of the former railway track bed. An audio tour including recorded memories of surviving POWs is available at the museum. Recent developments In 2006, proposals to create a railway network linking eight south-east Asia countries would see a railway link restored between Thailand and Myanmar. It is not clear if this would follow the original Death Railway route through Hellfire Pass, since this route was necessarily built quickly and to low standard of curves and gradients. Hintok Hintok (also: Hintock) was an area just beyond Hellfire Pass. It was the beginning of the highlands, and the railway line needed a gradual gradient to climb. There were four camps. A river camp which was subdivided in a British, Australian and Tamil camp, and a mountain camp which housed Australian, British and Dutch prisoners. The mountain camp was commanded by Weary Dunlop, and had a bamboo fence to protect against tigers. The first prisoners arrived on 26 January 1943 and were tasked to clear the forest and construct the camps. By March 1943, there were 800 prisoners in the camps. Beyond the Hellfire pass was the Three-Tiered Bridge, a trestle bridge to gain height. followed by a 400 metre long and 25 metre high trestle bridge which was later named the Pack of Cards Bridge, because it collapsed three times during construction, and was later abandoned in favour of an embankment. On 19 June 1943, there was an outbreak of cholera at the Hintok mountain camp, killing 57 Australian prisoners. 31 prisoners died during the Pack of Cards collapses, and 29 died from brutality of the guards. 130 sick prisoners were sent to Tarsao. Construction of the bridges was finished in August 1943. The Three-Tiered Bridge was often photographed after the war, but is now lost in the jungle. References Further reading The Japanese Thrust — Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Lionel Wigmore, AWM, Canberra, 1957. Authenticated Records from Japanese POW camps along the Thai-Burmese railway 1942–45, second floor, Research library, Thai-Burma Railway Centre, Kanchanaburi, Thailand, 2008. Prisoners of the Japanese - POWs of World War II in the Pacific, Gavan Daws 1940s in Thailand Geography of Kanchanaburi province World War II prisoner of war camps Japanese war crimes Railway cuttings History of rail transport in Thailand World War II museums Australian military memorials Military and war museums in Thailand Railway museums in Thailand History museums in Thailand Tourist attractions in Kanchanaburi province Buildings and structures in Kanchanaburi province Burma Railway	[ 0.16293570399284363, 0.5217558145523071, -0.4991668462753296, 0.02563374675810337, -0.11983522772789001, 0.3831367492675781, 1.0738770961761475, 0.23863168060779572, 0.17244915664196014, 0.14174635708332062, -0.5720944404602051, -0.25831443071365356, -0.2584451138973236, 0.43186596035957336, -0.141867533326149, 0.27490031719207764, 0.37698715925216675, -0.17778432369232178, -0.2508314251899719, -0.49227815866470337, 0.45572835206985474, -0.08625134080648422, 0.24722236394882202, 0.06523342430591583, 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206313	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Foxley	Operation Foxley	During World War II, Operation Foxley was a 1944 plan to assassinate Adolf Hitler, conceived by the British Special Operations Executive (SOE). Although detailed preparations were made, no attempt was made to carry out the plan. Historians believe the most likely date for an attempt would have been 13–14 July 1944, during one of Hitler's visits to the Berghof. Prior plans One of the first actual British plans to assassinate Hitler was to bomb the special train "Amerika" (in 1943 renamed "Brandenburg") he travelled in; SOE had extensive experience of derailing trains using explosives. The plan was dropped because Hitler's schedule was too irregular and unpredictable: stations were informed of his arrival only a few minutes beforehand. Another plan was to put some tasteless but lethal poison in the drinking water supply on Hitler's train. However, this plan was considered too complicated because of the need for an inside man. Plan Ultimately a sniper attack was considered to be the method most likely to succeed. In Summer 1944, a German who had been part of Hitler's personal guard at the Berghof had been taken prisoner in Normandy. He revealed that at the Berghof, Hitler always took a 20-minute morning walk at around the same time (after 10:00). Hitler liked to be left alone during this walk, leaving him unprotected near some woods, where he was out of sight of sentry posts. When Hitler was at the Berghof, a Nazi flag visible from a cafe in the nearby town was flown. The plan was to assassinate Hitler during his morning exercise, as he walked unprotected to the Teehaus on Mooslahnerkopf Hill from the Berghof residence. The scheme called for the SOE to parachute a German-speaking Pole and a British sniper into Austria. An "inside man" was recruited, the uncle of a prisoner of war named Dieser, who was a shopkeeper living in nearby (20 km) Salzburg, identified as "Heidentaler", who was vehemently anti-Nazi. Heidentaler would shelter the agents and transport them to Berchtesgaden disguised as German mountain troops (Gebirgsjäger), from where they would make the approach to the vantage point for the attack. A sniper was recruited and briefed, and the plan was submitted. The sniper practised by firing at moving dummy targets with an accurized Kar 98k with a Mauser telescopic sight, the standard rifle of the Wehrmacht, under conditions that simulated the planned attack. Additionally, a 9mm parabellum Luger pistol fitted with a British-made silencer was provided so that the sniper could quietly deal with any threats while approaching the target. The Luger is now on display at the Combined Military Services Museum in Maldon, Essex. There was some opposition to the assassination plan among the British authorities, particularly from the Deputy Head of SOE's German Directorate, Lt. Col. Ronald Thornley. However, his superior, Sir Gerald Templer, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill supported it. The proposal for the operation was submitted in November 1944, but was never authorised due to a division within the British government as to whether Hitler's removal was a sound way to expedite victory. By then, he was considered by the British to be such a poor strategist that it was thought possible that candidates who would be in line to succeed him might present more of a challenge to the Allied war effort. Thornley also argued that Germany was almost defeated, and if Hitler was assassinated, he would become a martyr figure to some Germans and possibly give rise to a myth that Germany might have been victorious if he had not been killed by underhand means, leading to the threat of more wars with Germany in the future. As the Allied war aims had become not merely the military defeat the Third Reich, but to destroy the National Socialist political ideology in Central Europe in general, this rendered the proposed operation potentially undesirable. The debate in the British government divided opinion, and so the operation was not authorised. Its approval was also undermined by a lack of reliable intelligence as to Hitler's daily routine at the Berghof to give the attack team a reasonable chance of success. Hitler left the Berghof for the last time on 14 July 1944, never to return, and committed suicide in Berlin on 30 April 1945, a few days before the war in Europe ended. See also Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler Rogue Male Killing Hitler, a BBC docudrama The Day of the Jackal Bombing of Obersalzberg References Further reading Operation Foxley Cancelled military operations involving the United Kingdom Operations involving British special forces Special Operations Executive operations Military operations of World War II involving Germany United Kingdom intelligence operations Cancelled military operations of World War II Cancelled special forces operations	[ 0.02205437235534191, 0.05862104520201683, -0.2476276457309723, -0.3382641077041626, -0.029731526970863342, 0.10580896586179733, 1.021216869354248, -0.40317708253860474, 0.19501259922981262, 0.2687448561191559, -0.5500046014785767, -0.08725826442241669, -0.1704220473766327, 0.28405430912971497, -0.1548876017332077, 0.07661239802837372, 0.2013767808675766, -0.20812192559242249, 0.11898297816514969, -0.7717607617378235, 0.1272837370634079, -0.444257527589798, -0.11159452050924301, 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206314	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale%20Bergonzoli	Annibale Bergonzoli	Annibale Bergonzoli (1 November 1884 – 31 July 1973), nicknamed "barba elettrica", "Electric Whiskers", was an Italian Lieutenant General who served during World War I, the Spanish Civil War and World War II. In 1940 he commanded the defences of Bardia, Libya. In February 1941, after the disastrous Battle of Beda Fomm, Bergonzoli surrendered to Australian forces. He was held as a prisoner in India and the USA before being repatriated to Italy. Bergonzoli settled in his birthplace, Cannobio, and died there in 1973. Biography Italian colonial wars He entered the Italian Regio Esercito in 1911, beginning his military career as a second lieutenant. Bergonzoli then took part in the occupation of Libya during the Italo-Turkish War in 1911, continuing to be prominent in Libya for several years, dedicated to mop up operations against Libyan rebels opposed to Italian colonization . He also took part in the First World War, a conflict in which he received several decorations for his performance at the front. In 1935 he participated in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, which culminated in the annexation of Ethiopia to the Kingdom of Italy, distinguishing especially in the capture of the Ethiopian city of Neghelli. Spanish Civil War Between 1936 and 1939, Bergonzoli was ordered by Benito Mussolini to Spain, forming part of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie, in support of General Francisco Franco and the military rebels during the Spanish Civil War, with Bergonzoli taking charge of the 4th Infantry Division Littorio. After the defeat suffered by the Italian troops at the battle of Guadalajara, he was the only Italian general posted to Spain who was not replaced by Benito Mussolini. For his performance in the capture of Santander during the northern campaign, he received an Italian decoration, the Gold Medal of Military Valour. Throughout his career he received two other Silver and one Bronze Medals. He was one of the architects of the so-called Pact of Santoña, by which the Italians accepted the agreed surrender of the Republican People's Army militants affiliated to the Basque Nationalist Party. He also participated in the Aragon Offensive against the troops of the Republican Popular Army. Second World War In 1940 he was the commander-in-chief of the XXIII Italian Army Corps when the invasion of Egypt was attempted. Bergonzoli was the commander of the Italian garrison in Bardia, that fell on 5 January 1941 following an assault by Commonwealth forces. While most of his men were taken prisoner, Bergonzoli managed to avoid being captured when he escaped through the desert with other soldiers, arriving in Tobruk on 7 January 1941 after crossing some 120 km of desert on foot. He left Tobruk before the town was captured by Commonwealth forces on 22 January, but on 7 February 1941 Bergonzoli, along with the remnants of the 10th Army, was taken prisoner by troops of the 6th Australian Division in the Battle of Beda Fomm. He was taken first to India and then to the United States as a prisoner of war. Last years He returned to Italy in 1946, settling in Cannobio, his place of birth, until his death on 31 July 1973. Career 1906 – Entered the Royal Italian Army 1906 – Student at the Military Academy of Modena 1907 – Promoted Sottotenente (2nd Lieutenant), 53rd Infantry Regiment 1908 – Student at the Military School of Pavia 1909 – Promoted Tenente (1st Lieutenant) Student at the Higher War School 1911–1912 – Tenente (1st Lieutenant), fought in the Italo-Turkish War 1914–1918 – Fought in World War I 1915 – Promoted Capitano (Captain), Staff Officer in the IX Division 1917 – Promoted Maggiore (Major), Liaison Officer in the High Command of the Allied Armies in the Middle East 1917 – Commanding Officer of the "1st Assault Division" Arditi unit 1918 – Promoted Tenente Colonnello (Lieutenant Colonel), Chief of Staff of the XXV Division 1920 – Promoted Colonnello (Colonel) 1920 – Commanding Officer of the XVII Division (Fascists gain control and reform the army) 1928 – Commanding Officer of the 78th Regiment "Toscana" Commanding Officer of the 6th Regiment "Aosta" Commandant, School of Subofficers (and Reserve Officers) at Palermo 1935 – Promoted Generale di Brigata (Brigadier General) 1935 – Commanding Officer, 2nd Celere (Mot.) Brigade "Emanuele Filiberto Testa di Ferro" 1935–1936 – Fought in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War 1936–1938 – Fought in the Spanish Civil War 1937 – Promoted Generale di Divisione (Major General) 1937 – General Officer Commanding, 4th Infantry Division "Littorio" 1939 – General Officer Commanding, 133rd Armoured Division "Littorio" 1939–1941 – Fought in World War II 1940 – Promoted Generale di Corpo d'Armata (Lieutenant General) 1940 – General Officer Commanding, XXIII Corps 1941 – Became a Prisoner of War at the Battle of Beda Fomm 1941–1946 – Prisoner of War 1947 – Named Generale di Corpo di Esercito (Lieutenant General) in the (Republican) Italian Army 1947 – Retired Popular culture In the 1941 film, Love Crazy, starring Myrna Loy and William Powell, Powell's character refers to another character played by Vladimir Sokoloff in the film, as looking like "General Electric Whiskers". This may be a reference to General Bergonzoli in a pun on his nickname and General Electric. Bergonzoli is mentioned in C.S. Forester's wartime short story "An Egg for the Major" (later published in Forester's Gold from Crete, 1971), which describes the Battle of Beda Fomm from the perspective of a British light tank commander in an unnamed unit that historically would be the 7th Hussars. References External links 1884 births 1973 deaths Italian generals Italian military personnel of the Italo-Turkish War Italian military personnel of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War Italian military personnel of World War I Italian military personnel of World War II Italian military personnel of the Spanish Civil War Italian prisoners of war World War II prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom People from Cannobio	[ -0.2951219975948334, 0.003066936507821083, -0.2561970353126526, -0.04766101762652397, -0.13423077762126923, 0.5398871302604675, -0.03761674091219902, 0.0755377933382988, -0.4528314471244812, -0.33644601702690125, -0.4480476975440979, 0.22046813368797302, -0.1511365920305252, 0.3762721121311188, 0.4043852388858795, 0.07731636613607407, 0.08716583997011185, 0.23705843091011047, -0.7230569124221802, -0.2025197148323059, 0.321902334690094, -0.03537753224372864, 0.293612539768219, 0.6402422785758972, -0.48050087690353394, -0.006790556944906712, -0.1429736316204071, 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206317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solace%20%28disambiguation%29	Solace (disambiguation)	Solace, from Old French solas, from Latin sōlācium "consolation", meaning comfort or consolation in a time of distress. Solace may also refer to: Films Solace (2006 film), a South Korean romantic drama Solace (2015 film), an American mystery thriller Quantum of Solace, a James Bond film named after the Ian Fleming short story, released in October 2008 Music Solace (band), a heavy metal band from New Jersey, USA Solace (Joplin), a 1909 habanera by Scott Joplin Albums Solace (Ion Dissonance album), a 2005 music album by Canadian metal band Ion Dissonance Solace (Jakob album), a 2006 music album by Jakob Solace (Lengsel album), a 2000 music album by the Norwegian metal band Lengsel Solace (Sarah McLachlan album), a 1991 music album by Sarah McLachlan Solace (Xavier Rudd album), a 2004 music album by Xavier Rudd Solace (Earl Sweatshirt EP), a 2015 extended play by Earl Sweatshirt Solace (Rüfüs Du Sol album), a 2018 album by Rüfüs Du Sol Songs "Solace", single by Play Dead with "Isabel", 1984 "Solace", song by Enya from Dark Sky Island "Solace", song by Imelda May from 11 Past the Hour "Solace", by The Sea Urchins, 1988 Other uses The UK Society of Local Authority Chief Executives and Senior Managers is known as 'Solace' The USS Solace (AH-2), (AH-5) was the name of two United States Navy hospital ships. Solace Corporation (formerly Solace Systems), a company based in Kanata, Ontario, Canada that manufactures and sells messaging routers. "Quantum of Solace", a James Bond short story by Ian Fleming. 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206318	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert%20Air%20Force	Desert Air Force	The Desert Air Force (DAF), also known chronologically as Air Headquarters Western Desert, Air Headquarters Libya, the Western Desert Air Force, and the First Tactical Air Force (1TAF), was an Allied tactical air force created from No. 204 Group RAF under RAF Middle East Command in North Africa in 1941 to provide close air support to the British Eighth Army against Axis forces. Throughout the Second World War, the DAF was made up of squadrons from the Royal Air Force (RAF), the South African Air Force (SAAF), the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and other Allied air forces. In October 1941, the Western Desert Air Forces had 16 squadrons of aircraft (nine fighter, six medium bomber and one tactical reconnaissance) and fielded approximately 1,000 combat aircraft by late 1941. By the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein, the DAF fielded 29 squadrons (including nine South African and three USAAF units) flying Boston, Baltimore and Mitchell medium bombers; Hurricane, Kittyhawk, Tomahawk, Warhawk and Spitfire fighters and fighter-bombers. There were over 1,500 combat aircraft, more than double the number of aircraft the Axis could field. History Prior to the establishment of the Desert Air Force, several RAF formations operated in North Africa. On 3 September 1939, RAF Middle East Command—under Air Chief Marshal Sir William Mitchell, Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief Middle East—comprised four separate commands: for Egypt (designated Middle East), RAF Iraq, Mediterranean at Malta, and RAF Aden (No. 8, No. 203, and No. 94 Squadrons). Mitchell handed over to Air Vice Marshal Sir Arthur Longmore in early May 1940. When Italy declared war in June 1940, Longmore had just 29 squadrons numbering less than 300 aircraft in the four commands detailed above. AHQ Egypt On 10 June 1940, RAF bomber squadrons in AHQ Egypt—under the direction of No. 202 Group RAF—totalled five squadrons of Bristol Blenheims, one of Vickers Valentias and one of Bristol Bombays. The Valentia and Bombay could be used as troop transports or medium bombers. HQ 202 Group, Ma'aten Bagush No. 250 Wing RAF, Ismailia No. 30 Squadron RAF, Blenheim, Ismailia No. 55 Squadron RAF, Blenheim, Fuka No. 113 Squadron RAF, Blenheim, Ma'aten Bagush No. 253 Wing RAF, Advanced HQ Ma'aten Bagush No. 45 Squadron RAF, Blenheim, Fuka No. 211 Squadron RAF, Blenheim, Daba No. 70 (Bomber-Transport) Squadron RAF, Valentia, Helwan No. 216 (Bomber-Transport) Squadron RAF, Bombay, Heliopolis AHQ Sudan had 254 Wing with No. 14, No. 223 and No. 47 squadrons, AHQ Aden had No. 8, No. 11, and No. 39 squadrons, and No. 84 Squadron RAF was at Shaibah in Iraq with Blenheims. Prior to the Italian invasion of Egypt, under Air Commodore Raymond Collishaw, the RAF in Egypt—which comprised nine squadrons—focused its activities on ground support, reconnaissance, and only when necessary aerial combat with the Italian Regia Aeronautica. The force at Collishaw's disposal consisted of No. 33, No. 80, and No. 112 Squadrons with Gloster Gladiators, No. 208 Squadron RAF with Westland Lysanders, four Blenheim squadrons (No.s 30, 55, 113, and 211) and No. 216 Squadron RAF with Bombays. With this small force, the RAF had to "equate its attempt to dominate the front line with avoidance of unnecessary losses". Aggressive actions induced a "defensive mentality among the Italians", aided by expedients such as using the single Hawker Hurricane in the Middle East, rapidly switched between landing grounds, to provide an exaggerated picture of British strength in the eyes of Italian reconnaissance aircraft. There were occasional single successes as well; on 17 August 1940, Gladiators covering the Mediterranean Fleet shot down eight Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers without loss. The force in the Middle East was clearly too small, reinforcement by sea was a 14,000-mile trip that required three months to complete, and reinforcement via the Western Mediterranean was hardly practical due to the ranges involved, which only bombers could achieve. Thus, an alternate reinforcement route began to be pioneered via Takoradi in the Gold Coast, from which new aircraft were received by sea, assembled, test flown, and ferried across Africa to Khartoum, a route first pioneered by Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Coningham in 1925. By this and other means, by the end of November 1940 the RAF in Egypt had been bolstered by No. 73 and No. 274 Squadrons with Hurricanes and No. 37 and No. 38 Squadrons with Vickers Wellingtons, as well as several South African Air Force squadrons, ready for the beginning of Operation Compass. During Compass, "the squadrons of Hurricanes, Lysanders, and Blenheims … strove hard to keep pace [with the ground forces], often landing after a combat sortie at a more advanced strip than from which they had set out." On 19 April 1941, RAF No. 204 Group was created under the command of Air Commodore Raymond Collishaw and consisted of: No. 73 Squadron (Hurricanes) at Tobruk No. 274 Squadron (Hurricanes) at Gerawla No. 14 Squadron (Blenheim IVs and Marauders) at Burg el Arab Detachment of No. 39 Squadron (Marylands) at Maaten Baggash Detachment of No. 24 Squadron SAAF (Marylands) at Fuka No. 45 Squadron (Blenheim IVs) at Fuka No. 55 Squadron (Blenheim IVs) at Zimla No. 6 Squadron (Hurricanes and Lysanders) at Tobruk. On 30 July 1941, Collishaw handed over No. 204 Group to Coningham. Later that year, RAF Middle East Command came under the command of Air Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder. On 21 October 1941, Air Headquarters Western Desert was created by upgrading 204 Group to command status. Three wings operated in North Africa at first, 258 and 269 Wings operated over the front line and 262 Wing defended the Nile Delta. On 20 January 1942, the command was renamed Air Headquarters Libya; however, on 3 February it reverted to its former name of the Air Headquarters Western Desert. Western Desert Air Force Between 18 November 1941 to 19 May 1942 the A.H.Q. Western Desert was organised as: A.H.Q. Western Desert – Maaten Bagush No. 30 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 33 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 60 Squadron SAAF (Marylands) No. 80 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 113 Squadron (Blenheim Fighter) No. 223 Squadron (Marylands) No. 272 Squadron (Beaufighter) No. 805 Squadron FAA (Martlets) No. 815 Squadron FAA (Swordfish and Albacores) No. 826 Squadron FAA (Albacores) 261 Wing No. 11 Squadron (Blenheims) No. 12 Squadron SAAF (Marylands) No. 21 Squadron SAAF (Marylands) No. 24 Squadron SAAF (Bostons) 270 Wing No. 8 Squadron (Blenheims) No. 14 Squadron (Blenheims) No. 45 Squadron (Blenheims) No. 55 Squadron (Blenheims) No. 84 Squadron (Blenheims) French Squadron Lorraine (Blenheims) 253 Wing No. 208 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 237 (Rhodesia) Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 451 Squadron RAAF (Hurricanes) 258 Wing No. 2 Squadron SAAF (Tomahawks) No. 3 Squadron RAAF (Tomahawks) No. 4 Squadron SAAF (Tomahawks) No. 112 Squadron (Tomahawks) No. 250 Squadron (Tomahawks) RN Squadron (Marine Tomahawks) 262 Wing No. 1 Squadron SAAF (Hurricanes) No. 94 Squadron SAAF (Hurricanes) No. 229 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 238 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 260 Squadron (Hurricanes) No. 274 Squadron (Hurricanes) Western Desert Air Force (WDAF) was organised on 27 October 1942 as: Subordinated to General Headquarters RAF Middle East (GHQ RAF Middle East) No. 3 South African Air Force (SAAF) Bomber Wing 12 Squadron SAAF (24 × Martin Marylands) 21 Squadron SAAF (24 × Martin Baltimores I,II & III) 24 Squadron SAAF (24 × Douglas Boston III) No. 232 Bomber Wing No. 55 Squadron RAF (24 × Baltimores I, II & III) No. 223 Squadron RAF (24 × Baltimores I, II & III) 82nd Bombardment Squadron USAAF (12 × Mitchell B-25C) 83rd Bombardment Squadron USAAF (12 × Mitchell B-25C) 434th Bombardment Squadron USAAF (12 × Mitchell B-25C) No. 285 Reconnaissance Wing No. 2 PRU Squadron RAF (Photo Reconnaissance) (Spitfire VB) 40 Squadron SAAF (Tactical Reconnaissance) (18 × Hurricane I/II/A/B) 60 Squadron SAAF (Photo Reconnaissance) (12 × Marylands) No. 208 Squadron RAF (Tactical Reconnaissance) (18 × Hurricane IIA/B) No. 1437 Flight RAF (Strategic Reconnaissance) (8 × Baltimores I, II & III) No. 211 Group 7 Squadron SAAF (anti-tank) (16 × Hurricane IID) No. 6 Squadron RAF (anti-tank) (16 × Hurricane IID) 64th Fighter Squadron USAAF (25 × P-40F Warhawks) 65th Fighter Squadron USAAF (25 × P-40F Warhawks) No. 233 Wing 2 Squadron SAAF (16 × Kittyhawks I, II & III) 4 Squadron SAAF (16 × Kittyhawks I, II & III) 5 Squadron SAAF (16 × Tomahawks) No. 260 Squadron RAF (16 × Kittyhawks I & IIb) No. 239 Wing No. 3 Squadron RAAF (16 × Kittyhawk I, II & III) No. 112 Squadron RAF (16 × Kittyhawk IA) No. 250 Squadron RAF (16 × Kittyhawk IIA) No. 450 Squadron RAAF (16 × Kittyhawk) 66th Fighter Squadron USAAF (25 × P-40F Warhawks) No. 244 Wing No. 145 Squadron RAF (16 × Spitfires Vb) No. 601 Squadron RAF (16 × Spitfires Vb) No. 73 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIc) No. 92 Squadron RAF (16 × Spitfires Vb/c) No. 212 Group No. 243 Wing 1 Squadron SAAF (16 × Hurricane IIc) No. 33 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIc) No. 213 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIc) No. 238 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIc) No. 7 Wing No. 80 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIc) No. 127 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIb) No. 335 (Greek) Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIb) No. 274 Squadron RAF (16 × Hurricane IIb) Early in 1943 that squadron was renamed No. 462 Squadron RAAF (note Australian) despite mainly British personnel. The squadron was disbanded in June 1943 but a new Australian 462 Squadron was formed late in 1943 with mainly Australian personnel. US Desert Air Task Force (Part of United States Army Middle East Air Force but with exception of 81st Bombardment Squadron, under WDAF operational control): 57th Fighter Group USAAF 64th, 65th, and 66th Fighter Squadrons with P-40F Warhawks detached to RAF (see above). 12th Bombardment Group USAAF 82nd, 83rd, and 434th Bombardment Squadrons with B-25C Mitchells detached to RAF (see above). 81st Bombardment Squadron not detached to RAF Air Ambulance Squadron 835th Aviation Engineer Battalion Allied restructuring In January 1943, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and their staffs reorganised the Allied air forces in the North African and Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) at the Casablanca Conference. The Western Desert Air Force became a sub-command of Coningham's Northwest African Tactical Air Force (part of Northwest African Air Forces) in February 1943 and Air Vice Marshal Harry Broadhurst became its Air Officer Commanding. On 18 February 1943, the Mediterranean Air Command (MAC) was established with Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder in charge of all Allied air forces in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO). When the Allied forces invaded Sicily (Operation Husky) on 10 July 1943, Desert Air Force (DAF) was created by simply renaming Western Desert Air Force. For Operation Husky, DAF contained Advanced and Rear elements. Advanced Headquarters, Desert Air Force,No. 211 (Offensive Fighter) Group with Spitfires: Other Advanced units included: 40 Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, SAAF (Spitfires) 1/2 No. 600 Squadron (TEF/N) operating on Malta under A.O.C. Malta (Beaufighters) No. 325 Wing RAF (Beaufighters) 1/2 No. 600 Squadron No. 153 Squadron (TEF/N) operating from North Africa Rear Headquarters, Desert Air Force. Operating from Tripoli Area No. 285 Wing RAF (Reconnaissance) No. 1437 Flight RAF (SR) (Baltimores) 60 Squadron SAAF No. 682 Squadron RAF (60 and 682 were Photographic Reconnaissance (PR) squadrons assigned from the Northwest African Photographic Reconnaissance Wing) Other RAF units No. 6 Squadron (TD) (Hurricane IIDs) No. 249 Air Transport Wing DAF continued to provide close tactical support to the British Eighth Army as a subordinate element of NATAF. MAC was disbanded in December 1943 and reorganised into the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces (MAAF) which absorbed NAAF, RAFM, and possibly some units of RAFME. DAF, still under Broadhurst, became a component of the Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force (MATAF) under Major General John K. Cannon. The successful tactical air support of ground forces in Egypt and Libya pioneered by Tedder and Coningham was the model for the establishment of NAAF at the Casablanca Conference and the tri-force (strategic, coastal, tactical) elements of this air interdiction model were retained in the new MAAF structure which generally persisted until the end of the Second World War. DAF existed until 30 June 1946, when it was renamed the Advanced AHQ Italy. Aircraft The air defence of Britain always received priority, so the DAF was generally equipped with older aircraft types. Initially equipped with obsolete types like the Gloster Gladiator biplane fighter and the Bristol Blenheim light bomber, the DAF made a good showing against the equally obsolete Italian Air Force. After the direct threat to Britain receded, newer types were assigned to the DAF, such as the Hawker Hurricane and Douglas Boston medium bomber in 1941. US-built P-40 Tomahawks/Kittyhawks also went to the DAF as it was unsuited to European operations which were generally fought at much higher altitudes and against more formidable opposition. The P-40 was used initially as an air superiority fighter but it was also adapted (and found to be ideally suited) to ground attack missions. The DAF always outnumbered its Axis opponents and concentrated on long-range interdiction and direct tactical Eighth Army support. Unfortunately, these tactics meant that the faster Messerschmitt Bf 109s of Jadgdeschwader 27 usually had the advantage of height and surprise over the low-level, slow-flying DAF fighters and losses were correspondingly high. In 1942, the DAF reorganised its tactics and introduced better aircraft. Spitfires were eventually used for air superiority, becoming operational in August 1942, which allowed the DAF to gain air superiority. The DAF adapted the Luftwaffe concept of tactical air support by using fighter-bombers linked via radio to "Forward air controllers" attached to Army units. The DAF improved the concept by introducing "cab ranks" of fighter-bombers in the air waiting to be called on. The DAF provided air support to the Eighth Army until the end of the war, fighting over Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Sicily and mainland Italy. The tactical concepts which had proven so successful in the latter part of the North African campaign were adopted with even greater success during the Invasion of Europe in 1944. Personnel The SAAF provided over a dozen squadrons to the DAF. This was their main theatre of operations, as the South African government had decided their military should not operate outside Africa. Between April 1941 and May 1943, the 11 squadrons of the SAAF flew almost 34,000 sorties and claimed 342 enemy aircraft destroyed. The Australian contribution included fighter and bomber squadrons, including No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which arrived in North Africa in late 1940 and served with the DAF until the closing stages of the war in Europe. By that time, 3 Sqn had the most substantial service record of any DAF squadron, including the greatest number of kills (217 claims). Many Australian pilots also flew with RAF or SAAF squadrons in the DAF. Many exiles from Occupied Europe—especially Polish airmen— flew in DAF squadrons. No. 112 Squadron RAF was largely made up of Poles and in 1943, the Polish Fighting Team ("Skalski's Circus") was attached to No. 145 Squadron RAF. From July 1942, the United States Army Middle East Air Force (USAMEAF, Major-General Lewis H. Brereton) attached USAAF personnel from the 57th Fighter Group and 12th Bombardment Group to DAF fighter and bomber units, as "observers". This was technically a violation of the Arnold-Portal-Towers agreement, which included a stipulation that American personnel should serve only in US units. From mid-September, the P-40 Warhawk squadrons of the 57th FG and the B-25 squadrons of the 12th BG were officially attached to DAF units. On 12 November 1942, USAMEAF was dissolved and replaced by the 9th Air Force, although some US units remained with Commonwealth formations for some time. British and Commonwealth personnel who served with the DAF were awarded the Africa Star campaign medal with the clasp 'North Africa 1942–43', denoted by a silver rosette when only ribbons were worn. Commanders The following were the air officers commanding either the Air Headquarters Western Desert or the Desert Air Force: AHQ Western Desert 21 October 1941 Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Coningham (also AOC AHQ Libya) 31 January 1943 Air Vice-Marshal Harry Broadhurst Desert Air Force 10 July 1943 Air Vice-Marshal Broadhurst 6 April 1944 Air Vice-Marshal William Dickson 3 December 1944 Air Vice-Marshal Robert Foster 30 August 1945 Air Commodore Colin Falconer See also Balkan Air Force List of North African airfields during World War II List of Royal Air Force commands References Bibliography Royal Air Force overseas commands Western Desert campaign Military units and formations of the Royal Air Force in World War II Military units and formations established in 1941 Military units and formations disestablished in 1946 Tactical air forces	[ 0.09011980891227722, 0.034666579216718674, -0.35012608766555786, -0.4257446229457855, -0.42064857482910156, 0.2646283209323883, 0.21882978081703186, 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206320	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphery	Periphery	Periphery or Peripheral may refer to: Periphery (band), American progressive metal band Periphery (album), released in 2010 by Periphery Periphery, a group of political entities in BattleTech, a wargaming franchise Periphery countries, the least developed countries in world systems theory Periphery (France), statistical area designating a commuter belt around an urban unit Peripheries of Greece or administrative regions of Greece (Greek: , ), the country's first-level administrative divisions Peripheral units of Greece or regional units of Greece (Greek: , ), second-level administrative divisions Periphery, all of the body outside of the central nervous system Peripherally selective drug, a drug with a primary mechanism of action outside of the central nervous system Peripheral nervous system, the part of the nervous system outside of the central nervous system Peripheral, an external device attached to a computer The Peripheral, a 2014 novel by William Gibson The Peripheral, an upcoming streaming series based on Gibson's novel Peripheral, an alternate mathematical term for boundary parallel in manifold theory, Peripheral cycle, a mathematical term in graph theory Peripheral vision, a part of vision that occurs on the edges of the field of vision See also Peripheral unit (disambiguation)	[ 0.31071051955223083, -0.3702005445957184, -0.4617443084716797, 0.462866872549057, 0.12654124200344086, 0.30813145637512207, -0.3657335042953491, 0.4565446674823761, -0.17358897626399994, -0.21972836554050446, -0.20234183967113495, 0.09938035160303116, 0.11186188459396362, 0.24704784154891968, 0.045695338398218155, 0.6590602397918701, 0.5346546173095703, 0.07570555061101913, -0.7210411429405212, 0.10721760243177414, -0.23856382071971893, 0.3117777407169342, 0.25548070669174194, 0.2945447564125061, -0.2991587221622467, 0.33693715929985046, 0.25784868001937866, -0.0641297921538353, 0.4348994493484497, 0.3493382930755615, 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206323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebel%20Akhdar	Jebel Akhdar	Jebel Akhdar or Djebel Akhdar (English: The Green Mountain) may be: Jebel Akhdar (Libya), wooded highland area Jabal al Akhdar, a district in Libya Jebel Akhdar (Oman) Jebel Akhdar War, 1954-1959	[ -0.4321931004524231, 0.5771914124488831, -0.44954878091812134, -0.6279758214950562, -0.5693835616111755, -0.04108269512653351, 0.6152864098548889, -0.08416277915239334, -0.11052937060594559, 0.1523987203836441, -0.7823537588119507, 0.18522778153419495, -0.3281950056552887, 0.3512950837612152, -0.20724153518676758, 0.9624066948890686, 0.44639578461647034, 0.32926589250564575, -0.10232461988925934, -0.22529084980487823, 0.17858178913593292, -0.9410228729248047, -0.16304896771907806, -0.2220001071691513, 0.6121132373809814, -0.18543151021003723, 0.6715373992919922, 0.42718738317489624, 0.20267793536186218, 0.29575157165527344, -0.15428145229816437, 0.3994079828262329, -0.1322612166404724, -0.7904942035675049, 0.06777603924274445, 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206327	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor%20of%20New%20York%20City	Mayor of New York City	The Mayor of New York City, officially Mayor of the City of New York, is head of the executive branch of the Government of New York City and the Chief Excutive of New York City. The mayor's office administers all city services, public property, police and fire protection, most public agencies, and enforces all city and state laws within New York City. The budget, overseen by New York City Mayor's Office of Management and Budget, is the largest municipal budget in the United States, totaling $100.7 billion in fiscal year 2021. The City employs 325,000 people, spends about $21 billion to educate more than 1.1 million students (the largest public school system in the United States), and levies $27 billion in taxes. It receives $14 billion from the state and federal governments. The mayor's office is located in New York City Hall; it has jurisdiction over all five boroughs of New York City: Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Staten Island and Queens. The mayor appoints numerous officials, including deputy mayors and the commissioners who head city agencies and departments. The mayor's regulations are compiled in title 43 of the New York City Rules. According to current law, the mayor is limited to two consecutive four-year terms in office but may run again after a four-year break. The limit on consecutive terms was changed from two to three on October 23, 2008, when the New York City Council voted 29–22 in favor of passing the term limit extension into law. However, in 2010, a referendum reverting the limit to two terms passed overwhelmingly. The current mayor is Eric Adams, who was elected on November 2, 2021, and took office shortly after midnight on January 1, 2022. History In 1665, Governor Richard Nicolls appointed Thomas Willett as the first mayor of New York. For 156 years, the mayor was appointed and had limited power. Between 1783 and 1821 the mayor was appointed by the Council of Appointment in which the state's governor had the loudest voice. In 1821 the Common Council, which included elected members, gained the authority to choose the mayor. An amendment to the New York State Constitution in 1834 provided for the direct popular election of the mayor. Cornelius W. Lawrence, a Democrat, was elected that year. Gracie Mansion has been the official residence of the mayor since Fiorello La Guardia's administration in 1942. Its main floor is open to the public and serves as a small museum. The mayor is entitled to a salary of $258,750 a year. Michael Bloomberg, mayor of the city from 2002 to 2013 and one of the richest people in the world, declined the salary and instead was paid $1 yearly. In 2000 direct control of the city's public school system was transferred to the mayor's office. In 2003 the reorganization established the New York City Department of Education. Tammany Hall Tammany Hall, which evolved from an organization of craftsmen into a Democratic political machine, gained control of Democratic Party nominations in the state and city in 1861. It played a major role in New York City politics into the 1960s and was a dominant player from the mayoral victory of Fernando Wood in 1854 through the era of Robert Wagner (1954–1965). Its last political leader was an African American man named J. Raymond Jones. Deputies The mayor of New York City may appoint several deputy mayors to help oversee major offices within the executive branch of the city government. The powers and duties, and even the number of deputy mayors, are not defined by the City Charter. The post was created by Fiorello La Guardia (who appointed Grover Whalen as deputy mayor) to handle ceremonial events that the mayor was too busy to attend. Since then, deputy mayors have been appointed with their areas of responsibility defined by the appointing mayor. There are currently five deputy mayors, all of whom report directly to the mayor. The majority of agency commissioners and department heads report to one of the deputy mayors, giving the role a great deal of power within a mayoral administration. Deputy mayors do not have any right to succeed to the mayoralty in the case of vacancy or incapacity of the mayor. (The order of succession is the Public Advocate of the City of New York, then the Comptroller of the City of New York.) Current deputy mayors Lorraine Grillo, First Deputy Mayor Advises the mayor on citywide administrative, operational and policy matters. Maria Torres-Springer, Deputy Mayor for Housing and Economic Development Oversees and coordinates the operations of the Economic Development Corporation, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Buildings, the Department of City Planning, Department of Housing Preservation and Development, New York City Housing Development Corporation and related agencies. Anne Williams-Isom, Deputy Mayor for Health and Human Services Oversees and coordinates the operations of the Human Resources Administration, Department of Homeless Services, the Administration for Children's Services, New York City Health and Hospitals, and related agencies. Meera Joshi, Deputy Mayor for Operations Sheena Wright, Deputy Mayor for Strategic Initiatives Phil Banks, Deputy Mayor for Public Safety Notable former deputy mayors Lilliam Barrios-Paoli 2014–2016, Vicki Been 2019-2021, Anthony Shorris 2014–2017 — under Bill de Blasio Daniel L. Doctoroff, Stephen Goldsmith 2010–2011, Patricia Harris 2002–2013, Robert K. Steel, Dennis M. Walcott, Howard Wolfson — under Michael Bloomberg Joe Lhota — under Rudolph Giuliani Kenneth Lipper — under Ed Koch William Lynch the 1990s — under David Dinkins Basil Paterson 1978 – Ed Koch Herman Badillo 1977–1979 — under Ed Koch Robert W. Sweet 1966–1969 Barry F. Sullivan 1992-1994 — under David Dinkins Offices appointed "The mayor has the power to appoint and remove the commissioners of more than 40 city agencies and members of City boards and commissions." These include: New York City Police Commissioner New York City Fire Commissioner New York City Criminal Court judges New York City Marshals New York City Schools Chancellor (as of 2002) New York City Mayor's Office of Management and Budget Commissioner of Health of the City of New York Board member The mayor of New York City is an ex-officio board member of the following organizations: American Museum of Natural History Brooklyn Academy of Music Brooklyn Botanic Garden Brooklyn Children's Museum Brooklyn Museum of Art Brooklyn Public Library Carnegie Hall El Museo del Barrio Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts Metropolitan Museum of Art Museum of Jewish Heritage Museum of the City of New York National September 11 Memorial & Museum New York Botanical Garden New York Hall of Science New York Public Library New York Shakespeare Festival Public Design Commission Queens Borough Public Library Queens Botanical Garden Queens Museum of Art Snug Harbor Cultural Center Staten Island Botanical Garden Staten Island Children's Museum Staten Island Historical Society Staten Island Institute of Arts and Sciences Staten Island Zoo Wave Hill Wildlife Conservation Society In popular culture Local tabloid newspapers often refer to the mayor as "Hizzoner", a corruption of the honorific style His Honor. Spin City, a 1990s TV sitcom, starred Michael J. Fox as a deputy mayor of New York under Barry Bostwick's fictional Mayor Randall Winston. Several mayors have appeared in television and movies, as well as on Broadway, most notably in The Will Rogers Follies. In the 1980s and 1990s, mayors Ed Koch and Rudy Giuliani appeared on Saturday Night Live on several occasions, sometimes mocking themselves in sketches. Giuliani and Mayor Michael Bloomberg have both appeared, as themselves in their mayoral capacities, on episodes of Law & Order. Giuliani also appeared as himself in an episode of Seinfeld, titled "The Non-Fat Yogurt". Giuliani has made cameos in films such as The Out-of-Towners and Anger Management. Bloomberg has appeared on 30 Rock, Gossip Girl, Curb Your Enthusiasm and Horace and Pete. See also List of mayors of New York City New York City mayoral elections (since 1897) Borough president Government of New York City History of New York City New York City Council New York City Public Advocate New York City Comptroller New York City Board of Estimate (1897–1990) New York City Civil Court New York City Criminal Court New York City: the 51st State References External links Mayor in the Rules of the City of New York 1665 establishments in New York	[ -0.21356533467769623, -0.18233756721019745, 0.052838414907455444, 0.1928044706583023, -0.2449474334716797, -0.36586692929267883, 0.1532386988401413, 0.2783050835132599, -0.5422441363334656, -0.6228193640708923, -0.5406379103660583, 0.3887520134449005, -0.5010712146759033, 0.2888730466365814, -0.4234998822212219, -0.14068393409252167, 0.9367229342460632, 0.31669074296951294, -0.5406689047813416, -0.7429841756820679, -0.5343291759490967, -0.017080185934901237, 0.42516669631004333, -0.17850497364997864, 0.15574046969413757, 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206328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20A.%20Stackpole	Michael A. Stackpole	Michael Austin Stackpole (born November 27, 1957) is an American science fiction and fantasy author best known for his Star Wars and BattleTech books. He was born in Wausau, Wisconsin, but raised in Vermont. He has a BA in history from the University of Vermont. From 1977 on, he worked as a designer of role-playing games for various gaming companies, and wrote dozens of magazine articles with limited distribution within the industry. He lives in Scottsdale, Arizona. Game design career Michael Stackpole was hired full-time at Flying Buffalo after they accepted his submission for a solo Tunnels & Trolls adventure which was published in 1978 as City of Terrors. He wrote columns on industry news and reviews for Flying Buffalo's magazine Sorcerer's Apprentice. Stackpole worked for Coleco from 1980-1981 as the result of a meeting between Rick Loomis, Stackpole, and the president of Coleco at a gaming and pinball convention. Stackpole designed the roleplaying game Mercenaries, Spies and Private Eyes, which Flying Buffalo published in 1983. Stackpole left Flying Buffalo after the company's 1985 move to Scottsdale, Arizona. Stackpole, Ken St. Andre, and Liz Danforth designed the computer roleplaying game Wasteland, published by Interplay in 1988. He later returned to work with his fellow creators of Wasteland as a writer on its sequel Wasteland 2, released in 2014 by inXile Entertainment. In response to the accusations of Patricia Pulling (among others) who felt that the "occult" elements of Dungeons & Dragons were driving people to suicide, Stackpole began to defend the game and the roleplaying game community. Stackpole published one of his first articles about the media misinformation in Sorcerer's Apprentice #14 (Spring 1982) in an article called "Devil Games? Nonsense!", and even debated the Western Regional Director of Pulling's BADD organization on the radio on July 14, 1987. He compared BADD's statistics of suicides among roleplayers to the general rate of teen suicide and found the number of roleplayers committing suicide was actually lower than those who were not gamers, and published his argument in an article called "The Truth about Role-Playing Games" in the 1989 book Satanism in America; he also published the document "The Pulling Report" in 1990, which further discredited Pulling's stand against roleplaying games. In the 1980s, Stackpole began designing computer games for Coleco and then Interplay Productions. His work at Interplay included Bard's Tale III, Wasteland, Neuromancer, Star Trek: 25th Anniversary and Star Trek: Judgment Rites. He also created the role-playing game Mercenaries, Spies and Private Eyes, which provided the game mechanics for Wasteland, and wrote several solo adventures for the Tunnels & Trolls role-playing system, including "Dargon's Dungeon", "Overkill", "City of Terrors" and "Sewers of Oblivion". Stackpole loaned his image to Decipher for the image of Corran Horn used in their Star Wars Customizable Card Game expansion "Reflections 2". Timothy Zahn did likewise for the character Talon Karrde. Stackpole teamed up with Decipher again, helping them write the background story to their WARS TCG, including e-books and other writing tie-ins for the expanded universe. In January, 2019 Stackpole resigned from the Board of Directors of GAMA (Game Manufacturer's Association), citing its inactivity and the poor handling of an incident involving GAMA President Stephen Brissaud. He was one of the few remaining Emeritus Directors (alongside Rick Loomis and Will Niebling). Writing career In 1986 Stackpole wrote his first novel, the fantasy story Talion: Revenant. His editors believed that a 175,000 word book was too long for an unknown author and that the story wasn't particularly engaging. The story remained unpublished for the next 11 years until reworked by Stackpole's editor, Anne Lesley Groell. Stackpole clarifies these issues himself in the afterword of the published version of Talion. The manuscript was published in 1997 by Bantam Books. Stackpole's first published novels were the Warrior trilogy for the BattleTech universe, published by FASA in 1988-1989. His "Blood of Kerensky" trilogy (1989-1991) were the last novels published directly by FASA; the BattleTech cartoon (1994) was set during the events of this trilogy. Stackpole also wrote a trilogy of novels published in 1992, which were based on the Dark Conspiracy roleplaying game by GDW. Stackpole has found his greatest success in serial works that continue the characters and plot lines developed by other authors. In 1987 he began writing novels set in the BattleTech universe for FASA Corporation, some of which were used as the source for a television animated series. He was then selected to write several novels in the Star Wars universe for Bantam Books. He also wrote several comics based in the Star Wars universe for Dark Horse Comics. Initially these covered the period just before his X-Wing novels. Later, he also covered the marriage of Luke Skywalker and Mara Jade in the graphic novel Union and collaborated with Timothy Zahn on Mara Jade's early career. In the foreword to his book Outbound Flight, Timothy Zahn thanks Stackpole and issues a challenge at Star Wars Trivial Pursuit. In addition, he has written several novels and short stories with original settings. One series is the DragonCrown War Cycle. These books attempted to break fantasy conventions in order to stir reader interest, including the introduction of firearms in a fantasy setting. Reception of these books was fairly positive based on Amazon reviews, but reviews elsewhere were not as good. Stackpole contributed one of the four stories in Roger Zelazny's shared world anthology Forever After, published by Baen Books in 1995. He was a contributor in the 1998 anthology Lord of the Fantastic commemorating Zelazny. The Age of Discovery trilogy is his latest complete series, with A New World released mid-2007. The trilogy is set in a fantasy world, with an attempt at an unconventional approach to magic and mastery. The Crown Colonies is a trilogy that re-imagines the events of the American Revolutionary War. The first book, At The Queen's Command, was released in November 2010. At New York Comic Con 2012, it was revealed that Blizzard Entertainment had approached Stackpole to write the next novel in their series based on the popular MMORPG, World of Warcraft. The novel, titled Vol’jin: Shadows of the Horde, centres around the chieftain of the Darkspear Trolls as his loyalty to the Horde is put to the ultimate test after an assassination attempt on his life. The novel was released in July 2013. The Secrets Newsletter Stackpole also writes and publishes an online newsletter titled The Secrets, which offers tips, tricks, and tidbits about fiction writing (focusing on, but not limited to, science fiction and fantasy). It is aimed towards the serious fan fiction writer and some casual writers, and includes information about getting books published.. Topics discussed in the newsletter range from how to beat writer's block to how to build a world, and even how to manage writing as a career. The Secrets newsletter requires a subscription, and issues are released every two weeks. Podcast The Secrets Newsletter has an "audio companion" in The Secrets Podcast. The first ten podcasts were based on material from the first ten issues of The Secrets newsletter. After the first series ended, the content of the podcast diverged from the newsletter. The podcasts average twenty-five minutes long and are voiced and produced by Stackpole. The podcasts are free and require no subscription, but older episodes have been retired and are no longer available on the main archive. Stackpole is also one of the main hosts on The Dragon Page Cover to Cover, a book review and interview show dealing mainly with fantasy and sci fi publications, together with Michael R. Mennenga. Skepticism Stackpole has been the executive director of the Phoenix Skeptics since 1988 and is listed as the contact for the group in the magazine Skeptical Inquirer. Asteroid An outer main-belt asteroid discovered March 23, 2001 by David B. Healy was named 165612 Stackpole. Novels DragonCrown War Published by Bantam Books. 2000 The Dark Glory War 2001 Fortress Draconis 2002 When Dragons Rage 2003 The Grand Crusade Age of Discovery Published by Bantam Books. 2005 A Secret Atlas 2006 Cartomancy 2007 The New World The Crown Colonies Published by Night Shade Books. 2010 At The Queen's Command. 2011 Of Limited Loyalty. Homeland Security Services 2011 Perfectly Invisible (Stormwolf.com) World of Warcraft 2013 Vol'jin: Shadows of the Horde BattleTech The BattleTech novels were originally published by FASA Corporation up until 1991. In that year, Penguin Group/Roc Books took over the line and also reprinted the earlier novels. The last print novel of the classic BattleTech setting was published in 2002; in the same year, the first novel for the Dark Age setting (set some 100 years after the classic setting) was published, written by Stackpole. His novels were typically "spine novels" that moved the setting ahead, narrating large-scale or otherwise important events with far-reaching consequences in the fictional timeline. Warrior Trilogy 1988 Warrior: En Garde (FASA, ROC reprint) 1988 Warrior: Riposte (FASA, ROC reprint) 1989 Warrior: Coupé (FASA, ROC reprint) Blood of Kerensky Trilogy 1989 Lethal Heritage (FASA, ROC reprint) 1990 Blood Legacy (FASA, ROC reprint) 1991 Lost Destiny (FASA, ROC reprint) Other BattleTech Spine Novels 1992 Natural Selection (novel) (ROC) 1993 Assumption of Risk (ROC) 1994 Bred For War (ROC) 1996 Malicious Intent (ROC) 1997 Grave Covenant (ROC) - Twilight of the Clans series #2 1998 Prince of Havoc (ROC) - Twilight of the Clans series #7 Mechwarrior - Dark Age setting 2002 Ghost War (ROC/WizKids) 2007 Masters of War (ROC/WizKids) Star Wars 1996 X-Wing: Rogue Squadron (Bantam Books) 1996 X-Wing: Wedge's Gamble (Bantam Books) 1996 X-Wing: The Krytos Trap (Bantam Books) 1997 X-Wing: The Bacta War (Bantam Books) 1998 I, Jedi (Bantam Books) 1999 X-Wing: Isard's Revenge (Bantam Books) 2000 The New Jedi Order - Dark Tide I: Onslaught (Del Rey Books) 2000 The New Jedi Order - Dark Tide II: Ruin (Del Rey Books) Dark Conspiracy Published by GDW. 1991 A Gathering Evil 1991 Evil Ascending 1992 Evil Triumphant Others 1994 Once a Hero (Bantam Books) 1994 Dementia (Roc/Target) 1997 Talion: Revenant (Bantam Books) 1997 A Hero Born (HarperPrism) 1998 An Enemy Reborn (HarperPrism) 1998 Wolf and Raven (Roc/FASA) 1998 Eyes of Silver (Bantam Books) 2010 In Hero Years I'm Dead (Stormwolf.com) 2011 Conan the Barbarian (Berkley Books) 2014 The Crusader Road (Paizo Publishing) Other publications 1989 Game Hysteria and the Truth 1990 The Pulling Report 1991 (with co author Loren K. Wiseman) Questions and Answers about Role Playing Games Game Manufacturers Association (GAMA) 1994 GAMA News, Model Retailer, March, 98-99 1995 ACE Books, Superheroes (Editted by Lynne Varley) Peer Review 2010 Steampunk'd (Edited by Jean Rabe and Martin H. Greenberg), Chance Corrigan and the Tick Tock King of the Nile 2013 A Hero by Any Other Name (Short story anthology edited by Jean Rabe) References External links Personal Website The Pulling Report: the result of Stackpole's research (see above) Interview at SFFWorld.com Wars CCG Short Story collection online Interview with Mike Stackpole by GameSpy Pen & Paper listing for Mike Stackpole Interview with Michael Stackpole on Slice of SciFi Interview with Michael A. Stackpole on I Should Be Writing (audio) 1957 births 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists American fantasy writers American male novelists American science fiction writers American skeptics American video game designers Conan the Barbarian novelists Interplay Entertainment people Living people People from Wausau, Wisconsin Role-playing game designers Video game writers University of Vermont alumni Writers from Vermont Writers from Wisconsin 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers	[ -0.17027002573013306, 0.6575202941894531, -0.5182422399520874, -0.15471430122852325, 0.34057489037513733, 0.16445279121398926, -0.2799592912197113, -0.06824937462806702, 0.145186185836792, 0.10244771093130112, -0.7804693579673767, 0.5840767621994019, -0.27737316489219666, 0.07264044880867004, 0.2821640372276306, 0.2977561056613922, -0.2242167443037033, -0.029626494273543358, -0.6372357606887817, -0.21524670720100403, -0.42400461435317993, 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206330	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BattleTech	BattleTech	BattleTech is a wargaming and military science fiction franchise launched by FASA Corporation in 1984, acquired by WizKids in 2001, which was in turn acquired by Topps in 2003; and published since 2007 by Catalyst Game Labs. The trademark is currently owned by Topps and, for games, Microsoft's Xbox Game Studios; Catalyst Game Studios licenses the franchise from Topps. The series began with FASA's debut of the board game BattleTech (originally named BattleDroids) by Jordan Weisman and L. Ross Babcock III and has since grown to include numerous expansions to the original game, several board games, role playing games, video games, a collectible card game, a series of more than 100 novels, and an animated television series. Gameplay At its most basic, the boardgames of BattleTech are played on a map sheet composed of hexagonal terrain tiles. The combat units are roughly humanoid armored combat units called BattleMechs, powered by fusion reactors and armed with a variety of weapons. Typically, these are represented on the game board by two-inch-tall miniature figurines that the players can paint to their own specifications, although older publications such as the 1st edition included small scale plastic models originally created for the Macross TV series, and the 2nd edition boxed set included small cardboard pictures (front and back images) that were set in rubber bases to represent the units. The game is played in turns, each of which represents 10 seconds of real time, with each turn composed of multiple phases. Setting A detailed timeline stretching from the late 20th century to the mid-32nd describes humanity's technological, social and political development and spread through space both in broad historical terms and through accounts of the lives of individuals who experienced and shaped that history, with an emphasis on (initially) the year 3025 and creating an ongoing storyline from there. Generally, BattleTech assumes that its history is identical to real-world history up until approximately 1984, when the reported histories begin to diverge; in particular, the game designers did not foresee the fall of the Soviet Union, which plays a major role past 1990 in the fictional BattleTech history. Individual lifestyles remain largely unchanged from those of modern times, due in part to stretches of protracted interplanetary warfare during which technological progress slowed or even reversed. Cultural, political and social conventions vary considerably between worlds, but feudalism is widespread, with many states ruled by hereditary lords and other nobility, below which are numerous social classes. Above all, the central theme of BattleTech is conflict, consistent with the franchise's wargaming core. Interstellar and civil wars, planetary battles, factionalization and infighting, as well as institutionalized combat in the shape of arena contests and duelling, form the grist of both novelized fiction and game backstories. History Conception Chicago-based FASA Corporation's original 1984 game focused on enormous robotic, semi-humanoid battle machines battling in a science-fiction feudalistic Dark Age setting. The game was at first called BattleDroids. The name of the game was changed to BattleTech in the second edition because George Lucas and Lucasfilm claimed the rights to the term "droid"; the machines themselves were renamed BattleMechs from the second edition onward. The game components included: First edition: two full-color terrain maps, 48 stand-up BattleMech counters, four sheets of playing markers, plastic counter stands, dice, and a rule book. Third edition: two color maps, a pack of record sheets, and fourteen 2" plastic miniatures of various BattleMech war machines. Fourth edition: two rule-books, a booklet of record sheets, 48 stand-up playing pieces, and a sheet of 144 insignia stickers. Rather than create their own original robot art, FASA decided to use already-extant designs that had originally been created for a variety of different Japanese anime, including Dougram, Crusher Joe, and Macross. The rights to these images were licensed from Twentieth Century Imports (TCI). In later years, FASA abandoned these images as a result of a lawsuit brought against them by Playmates Toys and Harmony Gold over the use of said images. In 2007, Classic BattleTech line developer Randall N. Bills explained that FASA had sued Playmates over the use of images owned by FASA. Although Playmates was ordered to stop using the images in question, FASA received no financial compensation. FASA realized that the use of licensed images made them vulnerable to lawsuits and worried that such a suit would bankrupt the company. Following the suit, FASA made the decision to use only images that they owned in future products. The anime-sourced BattleMechs continued to be referenced in-universe, but their images were no longer seen in new sourcebooks. This led them to be termed by fans as "the Unseen". When Fantasy Productions licensed the property, these "Unseen" images were expanded to include all art produced "out-of-house" – that is, whose copyrights resided with the creators, not the company. Catalyst Game Labs has continued this practice. Expansions The game's popularity spawned several variants and expansions to the core system, including CityTech which fleshed out urban operations, infantry, and vehicle combat, AeroTech which focused on air and space-based operations, and BattleSpace which detailed large spacecraft combat. FASA also published numerous sourcebooks, known as Technical Readouts, which featured specifications for new combat units that players could select from. However, despite the large number of such pre-designed BattleMechs, vehicles, aerospace units and other military hardware, the creators also established a system of custom design rules, enabling players to generate their own units and field them in combat. In addition to game rule books, FASA published several background books detailing the history, political and social structures of various factions in the game, including all five Great Houses of the inner sphere, ComStar, the Periphery States and the fallen Star League. FASA launched two additional systems to complement the core game: BattleTroops, an infantry combat system, and BattleForce, a large-scale combat simulator governing the actions of massed BattleTech units. The Succession Wars, a board game released in 1987, is one of only two purely strategic titles of the series (the other being "The Inner Sphere in Flames" from the Combat Operations book). The Succession Wars is played on a political star map, with players trying to capture regions of space. Recent years have seen a trend of consolidating the expansions into "core products" for efficiency. Beginning under FanPro's aegis, then continued under Catalyst Game Labs, the various rulesets have been combined into a series of Core Rulebooks: Total Warfare (TW) integrates the original boardgame with CityTech, BattleTroops, and parts of AeroTech 2 (itself a consolidation of AeroTech and BattleSpace) pertaining to atmospheric operations (such as simplified rules for Dropship operations, and the use of AeroTech Fighters in atmospheric combat). Tactical Operations (TO) supplements Total Warfare with rules for expanded game-play (advanced rules). These include an expanded weapons / equipment table listing (Lostech), advanced unit types (such as "mobile structures", planetary fortresses, and "large support vehicles") as well as numerous optional gameplay enhancements for planetary-level conquests (consolidating Maximum Tech and other expansion packs, like Explorer Corps). Strategic Operations (SO) consolidates the rules for multi-game campaigns within a single star system (such as unit morale and management, repair and maintenance, equipment salvage, in-game construction, and unit-level economics) with the remaining AeroTech 2 rules omitted from TW. These include the introduction of capital-level spacecraft (Jumpships / Warships / Space Stations / Fighter Squadrons) and equipment, space warfare rules, and the use of space travel as a gameplay element. A revised version of BattleForce is also consolidated into the book. TechManual (TM) consolidates the customization rules with technical fluff from various products for units compliant to Total Warfare rules. (Construction rules for the missing units are listed in TO or SO, as these units are not considered to be "tournament legal" for gameplay). Interstellar Operations (IO) was originally a project that had been available in beta form. The book was designed to introduce rules for faction-wide operations (such as entire Clans / Succession Houses / Empires) across multiple campaigns and star systems—up to and including the entire Inner Sphere. The book itself would have also included an expansion of additional technologies which stipulated per time period in the game universe's history, including revised rules for more advanced types of vehicles such as Land-Air 'Mechs, Superheavy BattleMechs, and unique period technologies. The size of the materials slated for the book forced its splitting into two volumes; the second, which was initially known as the Campaign Companion, was renamed. Campaign Operations (CO) is the self-contained companion book to Interstellar Operations. The book provides core rules handling player campaigns, using different rules sets. Taking older legacy rules found in previous source books, CO presented them in a singular core rulebook for better accessibility for the player. Included in the publication are rules to build environments for players to create and maintain combat units to be played in the game universe and rules allowing them to design their own worlds and star systems if desired. After FASA After FASA Corporation closed its doors in 2000, Wizkids bought the rights to the game in January 2001. They reworked the IP to launch their MechWarrior: Dark Age collectible miniatures game, but licensed the rights to continue to publish products for the old game to FanPro (itself a subsidiary of Fantasy Productions). Topps bought Wizkids in 2003, but this did not change any publishing agreements at that time. FanPro held the license to the original tabletop game (which they rebranded as "Classic BattleTech") until 2007. At that point Catalyst Game Labs (CGL) acquired the license from Topps. CGL continues to hold the license to this day; with the end of the MechWarrior: Dark Age miniatures game, the name of the traditional tabletop game has reverted to simply BattleTech. On 24 June 2009, Catalyst Game Labs announced that they had secured the rights to the "Unseen" art. As a result, art depicting the original 'Mechs could be legally used again. However, an update on 11 August 2009 stated that the part of the deal regarding designs that originated in images from Macross had fallen through, returning the original images to Unseen status once again. Since then, designs that originated in images from Dougram and Crusher Joe are no longer considered Unseen. Reception In the March 1988 edition of Dragon (Issue 131), Jim Bambra called the first edition BattleTech tabletop game "a brilliantly conceived and presented game of robotic combat set in the war-torn universe of the Successor States", and complimented the high production values of the game components. Bambra concluded with a recommendation: "Try the Battletech game. If you like it, it might inspire you to form your own BattleMech unit and battle your way across the Successor States." In the June 1993 edition of Dragon (Issue 194), Rick Swan reviewed FASA's third edition and liked the rules revisions "presenting the fundamentals in clear, simple language." Swan also admired the game's post-apocalyptic vision, calling it "one of the hobby's richest settings." He concluded with a recommendation to buy the third edition: "While the previous version was a class act ... the third edition stands as the definitive treatment, a handsome upgrade worth the purchase price even for owners of the old editions." In the August 1997 edition of Dragon (Issue 238), Rick Swan reviewed FASA's fourth edition of BattleTech, and called it "A snap to learn... as exciting as it is addictive; there are few gaming experiences more satisfying than blasting giant robots into scrap metal." However, for people who already owned the third edition, Swan suggested that "there's no compelling reason to invest in version four." Reviews Casus Belli #32 (Apr 1986) Casus Belli #45 (June 1988) Magia i Miecz (Issue 4 - 1993) (Polish) Spin-offs The BattleTech franchise first extended beyond the tabletop wargame format with the release of MechWarrior, a role-playing game in which players portray BattleMech pilots or other characters in the 31st century. The RPG system has been republished in several editions and expanded by various sourcebooks and supplements. In 1996, FASA also introduced the BattleTech Collectible Card Game, a CCG developed by Wizards of the Coast, creators of the popular Magic: The Gathering. WizKids, owners of the BattleTech franchise after 2001, introduced a collectable miniatures-based variant of the classic tabletop game called MechWarrior: Dark Age in 2002 (later renamed MechWarrior: Age of Destruction). The game incorporates WizKids' "Clix System", a means of tracking the combat statistics and abilities of each figure by turning a dial in its base. BattleMechs, the hulking flagship units of the franchise, made a natural subject for computer emulation, and so in 1988 Infocom released a PC based RPG called BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Inception. It was later followed up with a sequel, BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Revenge in 1990. Both games were reasonably well received, although aside from storyline continuity the second game held few similarities to its predecessor. The first pure simulation of BattleMech combat, however, was released for computers in 1989. Titled MechWarrior and published by Activision, the single-player game gave users the opportunity to pilot a range of Mechs and engage in combat against computer-controlled opponents. Sequels MechWarrior 2 (1995), MechWarrior 2: Mercenaries (1996), MechWarrior 3 (1999) and MechWarrior 4 (2000), and MechWarrior 4: Mercenaries (2002) created simulations of progressively higher technical sophistication. "Mekpaks" for MechWarrior 4: Mercenaries made by Mektek were released, adding new weapons, Mechs and graphics. A group also modded Crysis for the release of a BattleTech game known as MechWarrior: Living Legends and the first public beta was released on December 26, 2009. A possible MechWarrior 5 was being produced, though it lingered in development for about a year and was eventually canceled. Originally, Smith & Tinker owned the BattleTech electronic rights, but, after failing to find funding for a new MechWarrior game, the rights to the series were bought by Piranha Games in 2011, who had originally been working with Smith & Tinker to create MechWarrior 5. On July 9, 2009, it was confirmed that the franchise would be rebooted. Further trailers were released and it was confirmed that the timeline would be set around 3015. Though it seemed that the legal troubles which originally plagued FASA due to the similarities between BattleTech mechs and those in Robotech/Macross had returned to cause some troubles for Piranha Games, the company later released a statement noting that their primary troubles had been with finding a publisher, which eventually led to the announcement of a free-to-play reboot called Mechwarrior Online, set around the start of the clan invasions. The game was published in 2013 by Infinite Games Publishing, the same company which later published MechWarrior Tactics. IGP filed for bankruptcy and sold off the rights in December 2014. Piranha Games continued work on MechWarrior 5: Mercenaries, was released as an Epic Games exclusive in December 2019. The franchise saw its first online-dedicated game with Multiplayer BattleTech: EGA in 1992, which was followed by Multiplayer Battletech: Solaris in 1996. 1994 saw the series' first console original title, the simply titled BattleTech for the Sega Genesis. Other notable titles include the MechCommander series for the PC (MechCommander in 1998 and MechCommander 2 in 2001), the MechAssault series (MechAssault and MechAssault 2: Lone Wolf in 2002 and 2004, respectively, for the Xbox, and MechAssault: Phantom War in 2006 for the Nintendo DS). A new turn-based strategy game, simply titled BattleTech, was released in April 2018. The game was developed by Harebrained Schemes, and led by Jordan Weisman, the creator of the series. Magazines BattleTech material appeared in various publications from other companies, ranging from articles in professional gaming magazines to fanzines devoted exclusively to the game. FASA provided some material to gaming magazines, allowed associated fan clubs like MechForce to publish newsletters, and treated some magazines like BattleTechology as semi-official publications. Some of this material was treated as canon at the time and some of it, especially 'Mech designs, came to be used in official product. An exhaustive list is impossible but more notable publications are listed below. Magazines with some BattleTech articles: Challenge (Game Designers' Workshop) - #30, 35, 36, 38, 39, 44, 47, 48, 51, 54, 55, 60, 61, 67–70, 71, 73 Dragon - issues #114, 144, 161–163, 166 Mecha Press (IANVS) - issues #0, 1, 3, 4, 7-17 The Space Gamer (Steve Jackson Games) - issues #75, 78–80, 83, 85 StarDate (FASA/Associates International/Reluctant Publishing) - issues Volume 1 #5/6; Volume 3 #1-6 StarDrive a one-shot from Reluctant Publishing White Wolf - issues #7-10, 33, 41 Fanzines and magazines dedicated to BattleTech: BattleTechnology (Jeffry Tibbetts/Pacific Rim Publishing, 1987–1995, 23 issues) - had semi-official status and featured material from several writers of official BattleTech fiction. Commando Quarterly (FanPro Commandos, 7 issues, 2003–2006) Future Wars (Herb Barents, 42 issues) - 41 regular issues and a best-of Mech (MechForce North America, 1990–1995, 18 issues) - newsletter, replaced by MechForce Quarterly in 1995 MechForce Quarterly (21 issues, 1995-?) - newsletter of MechForce North America Shrapnel (Catalyst Game Labs, 2020-) - ongoing digital house publication Other media BattleTech Center The BattleTech creators' goal of creating an immersive BattleMech simulation came about 1990 with the opening of the first BattleTech Center at the North Pier Mall in Chicago. The BattleTech Center featured 16 networked, full-sized cockpits or "pods" that resembled a BattleMech cockpit with over 80 separate controls. Each player selected a 'Mech to pilot into combat against up to seven other human players in the other cockpits. Virtual World Entertainment, the company that managed the centers, later opened many other Virtual World centers around the world. It later merged with FASA Interactive Technologies (FIT) to form Virtual World Entertainment Group (VWEG) in order to better capitalize on FASA's properties. In 1999, Microsoft Corporation purchased VWEG to integrate FIT into Microsoft Game Studios and sold VWE. VWE continues to develop and support the current BattleTech VR platform called the Tesla II system, featuring BattleTech: Firestorm. Members of the "pod" ownership community continue to update the software and hardware for the Tesla II cockpits (e.g., by developing kits that allow to replace the original CRT monitors with modern LCD ones) for both private, commercial, and convention use. Tie-in fiction More than 100 tie-in novels. The novels are set in both the Classic BattleTech era (mid-3000s) and the Dark Age era (3130s). The original (Classic) BattleTech novels were produced between 1986 and 2002, while the Dark Age era Novels were produced from 2002 to early 2008. Publication of titles under the Classic BattleTech and MechWarrior lines resumed at the end of 2008. An online writing project named BattleCorps produces novelettes set in different eras. The subscription-based BattleCorps offers monthly stories set across the history of the fictional universe. As of mid-2017, no new stories have been released in the first two quarters of 2017. The Spider and the Wolf, a comic book-style sourcebook published by FASA in 1986 as a supplement to the original board game. It depicts the inception of the "Black Widow Company" in 3015 and offers a brief introduction to the BattleTech universe as a prelude on the inside cover. Three potential game scenarios are presented in the back of the book. A series of licensed comics, published in the late 1980s by Blackthorne Publishing under the BattleTech and BattleForce monikers. The BattleTech comics included an "annual" and a "3-D" special issue, while the third of the three-issue BattleForce comic was left unpublished. The comics are not officially dated, but due to real-life publication date and plot context, speculation suggests that setting is circa 3025. A five-issue comic book limited series, BattleTech: Fallout was published by Malibu Comics from 1994 to 1995. The series is set in early 3050 during the Clan Invasion and depicts a group of disparate fugitives pairing with the Belt Pirates. The two parties form an irregular BattleMech force to remove the Clans from the Star's End system. The first issue has two special editions, one with gold print ("gold edition") and one with a holographic cover. The fifth issue (titled "Issue #0"), offers three very short supplemental stories outside of the main plot of the comic. A 13-episode television show, BattleTech: The Animated Series, aired on Fox in late 1994. The show was produced by Saban Entertainment and followed Major Adam Steiner and his unit, the First Somerset Strikers in an ongoing conflict with Clan Jade Falcon. Electric Entertainment, a company under contract to Paramount Studios, has leased the rights to produce a motion picture based on the BattleTech universe. Development has been slow and little is known about the project's status. See also BattleTech Tactical Handbook BattleTroops CityTech References External links Mass media franchises introduced in 1984 Origins Award winners	[ -0.17814181745052338, 0.12383349239826202, 0.17133335769176483, 0.1430005133152008, -0.2263828068971634, 0.18996599316596985, -0.34093910455703735, -0.05416754260659218, 0.4006633758544922, -0.1323860138654709, -0.4983873963356018, 0.6198771595954895, 0.0005948818870820105, 0.37878403067588806, 0.016277214512228966, 0.09541472047567368, 0.3540095090866089, 0.04476451501250267, -0.39873212575912476, -0.0503561906516552, -0.29162341356277466, -0.1654624491930008, 0.1929757297039032, 0.049297530204057693, -0.26131799817085266, 0.11082678288221359, 0.10173660516738892, 0.38200506567955017, 0.3661085069179535, 0.5314159393310547, 0.4328547716140747, 0.10178804397583008, -0.14315897226333618, -0.3375234305858612, -0.4798636734485626, 0.0009859151905402541, -0.5059333443641663, 0.3709803819656372, -0.0311067383736372, -0.48855650424957275, 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206335	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Markham%20%28bishop%29	William Markham (bishop)	William Markham (1719 – 3 November 1807), English divine, served as Archbishop of York from 1777 until his death. Early life William Markham was born in 1719 to Major William Markham and Elizabeth (née Markham) of Kinsale in Ireland. He was educated at Westminster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated on 6 June 1738, graduating BA 1742, MA 1745, BCL & DCL 1752. Career He was one of the best scholars of his day, and attained to the headship of his old school and college: he served as Headmaster of Westminster 1753–1765, and Dean of Christ Church 1767–1776. Between those headships, he held the deanery of Rochester 1765–1767. He held from time to time a number of livings, and in 1771 was made Bishop of Chester and tutor to the Prince of Wales (later George IV). In 1776 he became Archbishop of York, and also Lord High Almoner and privy councillor. He was a fierce critic of pamphleteer Richard Price concerning the American rebellion. He was for some time a close friend of Edmund Burke, but his strong championship of Warren Hastings caused a breach. He was accused by Lord Chatham of preaching pernicious doctrines, and was a victim of the Gordon Riots in 1780. Bishop Markham was also the person who composed the Latin memorial for George Berkeley, the famous philosopher. Personal life In 1759, Markham married Sarah Goddard, the daughter of John Goddard, a wealthy English merchant of Rotterdam, with whom he had six sons and seven daughters: William Markham (1760–1815), of the East India Company, Private Secretary to Governor-General Warren Hastings John Markham (1761–1827), Admiral of the Royal Navy, First Sea Lord George Markham (1763–1822), Dean of York Henrietta Sarah Markham (1764–1844), married Ewan Law MP Elizabeth Catherine Markham (1765–1820), married William Barnett (as his second wife) David Markham (1766–1795), Lieutenant-Colonel of the 20th Regiment of Foot, killed in the Second Maroon War in Jamaica Robert Markham (1768–1837), Archdeacon of York Osborne Markham (1769–1827), MP for Calne Alicia Henrietta Markham (1771–1840), married Rev. Henry Foster Mills Georgina Markham (1772–1793), died unmarried Frederica Markham (1774–1860), married David William Murray, 3rd Earl of Mansfield Anne Katherine Markham (1778–1808), died unmarried Cecilia Markham (1783–1865), married Rev. Robert Philip Goodenough Descendants His granddaughter, Laura Markham, the second daughter of his son William, married William Mure, the Scottish scholar and politician who sat in the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1846–55 as the Conservative MP for Renfrewshire and was Laird of Caldwell in Ayrshire. Their daughter, Emma Mure, (1833–1911) married Thomas Lister, 3rd Baron Ribblesdale (1828–1876) and had Thomas Lister, 4th Baron Ribblesdale. His granddaughter, Emma Markham, another daughter of his son William, married the politician William Crompton-Stansfield who sat in the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1837–53 as Whig Member of Parliament (MP) for Huddersfield. Memorial See also Markham, Ontario – named for him by his friend John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. Footnotes References External links William Markham at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) 1719 births 1807 deaths Doctors of Divinity People educated at Westminster School, London Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford Archbishops of York Bishops of Chester Deans of Rochester 18th-century Anglican archbishops 19th-century Anglican archbishops Deans of Christ Church, Oxford Head Masters of Westminster School 18th-century Church of England bishops	[ -0.5731229782104492, 0.15878508985042572, 0.3277377188205719, -0.1279183030128479, -0.4205993115901947, 0.6247133016586304, 0.6356543898582458, 0.26230621337890625, -1.0085361003875732, -0.5578368306159973, 0.2064494639635086, 0.20339451730251312, -0.23139688372612, -0.11486631631851196, -0.11691247671842575, 0.3899947702884674, 0.2236880362033844, 0.08672633767127991, -0.8766512870788574, -0.9771495461463928, -0.08202537894248962, -0.4819447696208954, 0.41905108094215393, 0.30790457129478455, -0.05863895267248154, 0.08473903685808182, 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206337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmedabad	Ahmedabad	Ahmedabad (; Gujarati: Amdavad ) is the most populous city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court. Ahmedabad's population of 8,253,000 (as per 2021 population-census) makes it the fifth-most populous city in India, and the encompassing urban agglomeration population estimated at 6,357,693 is the seventh-most populous in India. Ahmedabad is located near the banks of the Sabarmati River, from the capital of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, also known as its twin city. Ahmedabad has emerged as an important economic and industrial hub in India. It is the second-largest producer of cotton in India, due to which it was known as the 'Manchester of India' along with Kanpur. Ahmedabad's stock exchange (before it was shut down in 2018) was the country's second oldest. Cricket is a popular sport in Ahmedabad. A newly built Narendra Modi Stadium at Motera can accommodate 132,000 spectators, being the largest stadium in the world. The world-class Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Sports Enclave is currently under construction and once complete, it will be one of the biggest sports centers (Sports City) in India. The effects of liberalisation of the Indian economy have energised the city's economy towards tertiary sector activities such as commerce, communication and construction. Ahmedabad's increasing population has resulted in an increase in the construction and housing industries resulting in development of skyscrapers. In 2010, Ahmedabad was ranked third in Forbess list of fastest growing cities of the decade. In 2012, The Times of India chose Ahmedabad as India's best city to live in.The gross domestic product of Ahmedabad metro was estimated at $80 billion in 2020. In 2020, Ahmedabad was ranked as the third-best city in India to live by the Ease of Living Index. Ahmedabad has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Government of Indias flagship Smart Cities Mission. In July 2017, the Historic City of Ahmedabad, or Old Ahmedabad, was declared an UNESCO World Heritage City. History The area around Ahmedabad has been inhabited since the 11th century, when it was known as Ashaval. At that time, Karna, the Chaulukya (Solanki) ruler of Anhilwara (modern Patan), waged a successful war against the Bhil king of Ashaval, and established a city called Karnavati on the banks of the Sabarmati. Solanki rule lasted until the 13th century, when Gujarat came under the control of the Vaghela dynasty of Dholka. Gujarat subsequently came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century. However, by the earlier 15th century, the local Khatri Muslim governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar established his independence from the Delhi Sultanate and crowned himself Sultan of Gujarat as Muzaffar Shah I, thereby founding the Muzaffarid dynasty. This area finally came under the control of his grandson Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1411 A.D. who while at the banks of Sabarmati liked the forested area for a new capital city and laid the foundation of a new walled city near Karnavati and named it Ahmedabad after the four saints in the area by the name Ahmed. According to other sources, he named it after himself. Ahmed Shah I laid the foundation of the city on 26 February 1411 (at 1.20 pm, Thursday, the second day of Dhu al-Qi'dah, Hijri year 813) at Manek Burj. Manek Burj is named after the legendary 15th century Hindu saint, Maneknath, who intervened to help Ahmed Shah I build Bhadra Fort in 1411. He chose it as the new capital on 4 March 1411. Chandan and Rajesh Nath, 13th generation descendants of Saint Maneknath, perform puja and hoist the flag on Manek Burj on Ahmedabad's foundation day and for the Vijayadashami festival every year. In 1487, Mahmud Begada, the grandson of Ahmed Shah, fortified the city with an outer wall in circumference and consisting of twelve gates, 189 bastions and over 6,000 battlements. In 1535 Humayun briefly occupied Ahmedabad after capturing Champaner when the ruler of Gujarat, Bahadur Shah, fled to Diu. Ahmedabad was then reoccupied by the Muzaffarid dynasty until 1573 when Gujarat was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar. During the Mughal reign, Ahmedabad became one of the Empire's thriving centres of trade, mainly in textiles, which were exported as far as Europe. The Mughal ruler Shahjahan spent the prime of his life in the city, sponsoring the construction of the Moti Shahi Mahal in Shahibaug. The Deccan Famine of 1630–32 affected the city, as did famines in 1650 and 1686. Ahmedabad remained the provincial headquarters of the Mughals until 1758, when they surrendered the city to the Marathas. During the period of Maratha Empire governance, the city became the centre of a conflict between the Peshwa of Poona and the Gaekwad of Baroda. In 1780, during the First Anglo-Maratha War, a British force under James Hartley stormed and captured Ahmedabad, but it was handed back to the Marathas at the end of the war. The British East India Company took over the city in 1818 during the Third Anglo-Maratha War. A military cantonment was established in 1824 and a municipal government in 1858. Incorporated into the Bombay Presidency during British rule, Ahmedabad became one of the most important cities in the Gujarat region. In 1864, a railway link between Ahmedabad and Mumbai (then Bombay) was established by the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway (BB&CI), enabling traffic and trade between northern and southern India via the city. Over time, the city established itself as the home of a developing textile industry, which earned it the nickname "Manchester of the East". The Indian independence movement developed roots in the city when Mahatma Gandhi established two ashrams – the Kochrab Ashram near Paldi in 1915 and the Satyagraha Ashram (now Sabarmati Ashram) on the banks of the Sabarmati in 1917 – which would become centres of nationalist activities. During the mass protests against the Rowlatt Act in 1919, textile workers burned down 51 government buildings across the city in protest at a British attempt to extend wartime regulations after the First World War. In the 1920s, textile workers and teachers went on strike, demanding civil rights and better pay and working conditions. In 1930, Gandhi initiated the Salt Satyagraha from Ahmedabad by embarking from his ashram on the Dandi Salt March. The city's administration and economic institutions were rendered inoperative in the early 1930s by the large numbers of people who took to the streets in peaceful protests, and again in 1942 during the Quit India Movement. Following independence and the partition of India in 1947, the city was scarred by the intense communal violence that broke out between Hindus and Muslims in 1947, Ahmedabad was the focus for settlement by Hindu migrants from Pakistan, who expanded the city's population and transformed its demographics and economy. By 1960, Ahmedabad had become a metropolis with a population of slightly under half a million people, with classical and colonial European-style buildings lining the city's thoroughfares. It was chosen as the capital of Gujarat state after the partition of the State of Bombay on 1 May 1960. During this period, a large number of educational and research institutions were founded in the city, making it a centre for higher education, science and technology. Ahmedabad's economic base became more diverse with the establishment of heavy and chemical industry during the same period. Many countries sought to emulate India's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied the city's second "Five-Year Plan". In the late 1970s, the capital shifted to the newly built city of Gandhinagar. This marked the start of a long period of decline in the city, marked by a lack of development. The 1974 Nav Nirman agitation – a protest against a 20% hike in the hostel food fees at the L.D. College of Engineering in Ahmedabad – snowballed into a movement to remove Chimanbhai Patel, then chief minister of Gujarat. In the 1980s, a reservation policy was introduced in the country, which led to anti-reservation protests in 1981 and 1985. The protests witnessed violent clashes between people belonging to various castes. The city suffered some of the impact of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake; up to 50 multi-storey buildings collapsed, killing 752 people and causing much damage. The following year, a three-day period of violence between Hindus and Muslims in the western Indian state of Gujarat, known as the 2002 Gujarat riots, spread to Ahmedabad; refugee camps were set up around the city. The 2008 Ahmedabad bombings, a series of seventeen bomb blasts, killed and injured several people. Militant group Harkat-ul-Jihad claimed responsibility for the attacks. Other than New Delhi, Ahmedabad is a rare city in India to have hosted Premiers of major economies like USA, China and Canada. On Feb 24, 2020, President Trump became the first POTUS to visit the city. Earlier, President Xi Jinping and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau visited the city. Demographics Population Ahmedabad had a population of 5,633,927, making it the fifth most populous city in India. The urban agglomeration centred upon Ahmedabad, then having a population of 6,357,693, now estimated at 7,650,000, is the seventh most populous urban agglomeration in India. The city had a literacy rate of 89.62%; 93.96% of the men and 84.81% of the women were literate. Ahmedabad's sex ratio in 2011 was 897 women per 1000 men. According to the census for the Ninth Plan, there are 30,737 rural families living in Ahmedabad. Of those, 5.41% (1663 families) live below the poverty line. Approximately 440,000 people live in slums within the city. In 2008, there were 2273 registered non-resident Indians living in Ahmedabad. In 2010, Forbes magazine rated Ahmedabad as the fastest-growing city in India, and listed it as third fastest-growing in the world after the Chinese cities of Chengdu and Chongqing. In 2011, it was rated India's best megacity to live in by leading market research firm IMRB. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report of 2003, Ahmedabad has the lowest crime rate of the 35 Indian cities with a population of more than one million. In December 2011 market research firm IMRB declared Ahmedabad the best megacity to live in, when compared to India's other megacities. Slightly less than half of all real estate in Ahmedabad is owned by "community organisations" (i.e. cooperatives), and according to Vrajlal Sapovadia, professor of the B.K. School of Business Management, "the spatial growth of the city is to [an] extent [a] contribution of these organisations". Ahmedabad Cantonment provides residential zones for Indian Army officials. Ahmedabad's 2020 population is now estimated at 8,059,441. In 1950, the population of Ahmedabad was 854,959. Ahmedabad has grown by 950,155 since 2015, which represents a 2.54% annual change. According to the UN World Population Prospects, the population might increase to 8,854,444 by 2025. It is also predicted to have a massive rise to 11,062,112 as early as 2035. Poverty In the mid-1970s and early 1980s, the textile mills that were responsible for much of Ahmedabad's wealth faced competition from automation and from domestic specialty looms. Several mills closed down, leaving between 40,000 and 50,000 people without a source of income, and many moved into informal settlements in the city centre. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC), the governing and administrative body of the city, simultaneously lost much of its tax base and saw an increased demand for services. In the 1990s, newly emerging pharmaceutical, chemical, and automobile manufacturing industries required skilled labor, so many migrants seeking work ended up in the informal sector and settled in slums. Ahmedabad has made efforts to reduce poverty and improve the living conditions of poor residents. The urban poverty rate has declined from 28% in 1993–1994 to 10% in 2011–2012. This is partly due to the strengthening of the AMC and its partnership with several civil society organizations (CSOs) representing poor residents. Through projects and programs the AMC has provided utilities and basic services to slums. However, there are challenges that remain, and there are still many residents who lack access to sanitation, improved water, and electricity. Riots, often rooted in religious tensions, threaten the stability of neighborhoods and have caused spatial segregation across religious and caste lines. Finally, the conception of pro-poor, inclusive development is being overshadowed by a national initiative promoting the creation of 'global cities' of capital investment and technological innovation. This has shifted priorities towards constructing new housing and attracting private development rather than servicing the urban poor. Informal housing and slums As of 2011, about 66% of the population lives in formal housing. The other 34% lives in slums or chawls, which are tenements for industrial workers. There are approximately 700 slum settlements in Ahmedabad, and 11% of the total housing stock is public housing. The population of Ahmedabad has increased while the housing stock has remained basically constant, and this has led to densification of both formal and informal housing and a more economical use of existing space. The Indian census estimates that the Ahmedabad slum population was 25.6% of the total population in 1991 and decreased to 4.5% in 2011, but these numbers are contested and local entities maintain that the census underestimates informal populations. There is a consensus that there has been a reduction in the percentage of the population that lives in slum settlements, and a general improvement in living conditions for slum residents. Slum Networking Project In the 1990s, the AMC faced increased slum populations. They found that residents were willing and able to pay for legal connections to water, sewage, and electricity, but because of tenure issues they were paying higher prices for low-quality, informal connections. To address this, beginning in 1995, the AMC partnered with civil society organizations to create the Slum Networking Project (SNP) to improve basic services in 60 slums, benefitting approximately 13,000 households. This project, also known as Parivartan (Change), involved participatory planning in which slum residents were partners alongside AMC, private institutions, microfinance lenders, and local NGOs. The goal of the program was to provide both physical infrastructure (including water supply, sewers, individual toilets, paved roads, storm drainage, and tree planting) and community development (i.e. the formation of resident associations, women's groups, community health interventions, and vocational training). In addition, participating households were granted a minimum de facto tenure of ten years. The project cost a total of 4,350 million. Community members and the private sector each contributed 600 million, NGOs provided 90 million, and the AMC paid for the rest of the project. Each slum household was responsible for no more than 12% of the cost of upgrading their home. This project has generally been regarded as a success. Having access to basic services increased the residents' working hours, since most worked out of their homes. It also reduced the incidence of illness, particularly water-borne illness, and increased children's rates of school attendance. The SNP received the 2006 UNHABITAT Dubai International Award for Best Practice to improve the living Environment. However, concerns remain about the community's responsibility and capacity for the maintenance of the new infrastructure. Additionally, trust was weakened when the AMC demolished two of slums that were upgraded as part of SNP to create recreational parks. Religion and ethnicity According to the 2011 census, Hindus are the predominant religious community in the city comprising 81.56% of the population followed by Muslims (13.51%), Jains (3.62%), Christians (0.85%) and Sikhs (0.24%). Buddhists, people following other religions and those who didn't state any religion make up the remainder. Its (Marian) cathedral of Our Lady of Mount Carmel is the episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Ahmedabad (Latin Rite; established 1949), a suffragan of the Metropolitan of Gandhinagar. Ahmedabad is home to a large population of Vanias (i.e., traders), belonging to the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism and various sects of Jainism. Most of the residents of Ahmedabad are native Gujaratis. The city is home to some 2000 Parsis and some 125 members of the Bene Israel Jewish community. There is also one synagogue in the city. Atheism is also on the rise in Ahmedabad. Geography Ahmedabad lies at in western India at 53 metres (174 ft) above sea level on the banks of the Sabarmati river, in north-central Gujarat. It covers an area of . The Sabarmati frequently dried up in the summer, leaving only a small stream of water, and the city is in a sandy and dry area. However, with the execution of the Sabarmati River Front Project and Embankment, the waters from the Narmada river have been diverted to the Sabarmati to keep the river flowing throughout the year, thereby eliminating Ahmedabad's water problems. The steady expansion of the Rann of Kutch threatened to increase desertification around the city area and much of the state; however, the Narmada Canal network is expected to alleviate this problem. Except for the small hills of Thaltej-Jodhpur Tekra, the city is almost flat. Three lakes lie within the city's limits—Kankaria, Vastrapur and Chandola. Kankaria, in the neighbourhood of Maninagar, is an artificial lake developed by the Sultan of Gujarat, Qutb-ud-din, in 1451. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the town falls under seismic zone 3, in a scale of 2 to 5 (in order of increasing vulnerability to earthquakes). Ahmedabad is divided by the Sabarmati into two physically distinct eastern and western regions. The eastern bank of the river houses the old city, which includes the central town of Bhadra. This part of Ahmedabad is characterised by packed bazaars, the pol system of closely clustered buildings, and numerous places of worship. A Pol (pronounced as pole) is a housing cluster which comprises many families of a particular group, linked by caste, profession, or religion. This is a list of Pols in the old walled city of Ahmedabad in Gujarat, India. Heritage of these Pols has helped Ahmedabad gain a place in UNESCO's Tentative Lists, in selection criteria II, III and IV. The secretary-general of EuroIndia Centre quoted that if 12000 homes of Ahmedabad are restored they could be very helpful in promoting heritage tourism and its allied businesses. The Art Reverie in Moto Sutharvado is Res Artis center. The first pol in Ahmedabad was named Mahurat Pol. Old city also houses the main railway station, the main post office, and some buildings of the Muzaffarid and British eras. The colonial period saw the expansion of the city to the western side of Sabarmati, facilitated by the construction of Ellis Bridge in 1875 and later the relatively modern Nehru Bridge. The western part of the city houses educational institutions, modern buildings, residential areas, shopping malls, multiplexes and new business districts centred around roads such as Ashram Road, C. G. Road and Sarkhej-Gandhinagar Highway. Sabarmati Riverfront is a waterfront being developed along the banks of Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad, India. Proposed in the 1960s, the construction began in 2005 Climate Ahmedabad has a hot, semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh), with marginally less rain than required for a tropical savanna climate. There are three main seasons: summer, monsoon and winter. Aside from the monsoon season, the climate is extremely dry. The weather is hot from March to June; the average summer maximum is , and the average minimum is . From November to February, the average maximum temperature is , and the average minimum is . Cold northerly winds are responsible for a mild chill in January. The southwest monsoon brings a humid climate from mid-June to mid-September. The average annual rainfall is about , but infrequent heavy torrential rains cause local rivers to flood and it is not uncommon for droughts to occur when the monsoon does not extend as far west as usual. The highest temperature in the city was recorded on 18 and 19 May 2016 which was . Following a heat wave in May 2010, reaching , which claimed hundreds of lives, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) in partnership with an international coalition of health and academic groups and with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network developed the Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan. Aimed at increasing awareness, sharing information and co-ordinating responses to reduce the health effects of heat on vulnerable populations, the action plan is the first comprehensive plan in Asia to address the threat of adverse heat on health. It also focuses on community participation, building public awareness of the risks of extreme heat, training medical and community workers to respond to and help prevent heat-related illnesses, and co-ordinating an interagency emergency response effort when heat waves hit. Cityscape Early in Ahmedabad's history, under Ahmed Shah, builders fused Hindu craftsmanship with Persian architecture, giving rise to the Indo-Saracenic style. Many mosques in the city were built in this fashion. Sidi Saiyyed Mosque was built in the last year of the Sultanate of Gujarat. It is entirely arched and has ten stone latticework windows or jali on the side and rear arches. Private mansions or haveli from this era have carvings. A Pol is a typical housing cluster of Old Ahmedabad. After independence, modern buildings appeared in Ahmedabad. Architects given commissions in the city included Louis Kahn, who designed the IIM-A; Le Corbusier, who designed the Shodhan and Sarabhai Villas, the Sanskar Kendra and the Mill Owners' Association Building, and Frank Lloyd Wright, who designed the administrative building of Calico Mills and the Calico Dome. B. V. Doshi came to the city from Paris to supervise Le Corbusier's works and later set up the School of Architecture (now CEPT). His local works include Sangath, Amdavad ni Gufa, Tagore Memorial Hall and the School of Architecture. Charles Correa, who became a partner of Doshi's, designed the Gandhi Ashram and Achyut Kanvinde, and the Ahmedabad Textile Industry's Research Association complex. Christopher Charles Benninger's first work, the Alliance Française, is located in the Ellis Bridge area. Anant Raje designed major additions to Louis Kahn's IIM-A campus, namely the Ravi Mathai Auditorium and KLMD. Some of the most visited gardens in the city include Law Garden, Victoria Garden and Bal Vatika. Law Garden was named after the College of Law situated close to it. Victoria Garden is located at the southern edge of the Bhadra Fort and contains a statue of Queen Victoria. Bal Vatika is a children's park situated on the grounds of Kankaria Lake and also houses an amusement park. Other gardens in the city include Parimal Garden, Usmanpura Garden, Prahlad Nagar Garden and Lal Darwaja Garden. Ahmedabad's Kamla Nehru Zoological Park houses a number of endangered species including flamingoes, caracals, Asiatic wolves and chinkara. The Kankaria Lake, built in 1451 AD, is one of the biggest lakes in Ahmedabad. In earlier days, it was known by the name Qutub Hoj or Hauj-e-Kutub. Lal Bahadur Shastri lake in Bapunagar is almost 136,000 square metres. In 2010, another 34 lakes were planned in and around Ahmedabad of which five lakes will be developed by AMC; the other 29 will be developed by the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA). Vastrapur lake is a small artificial lake located in the western part of Ahmedabad. Beautified by local authorities in 2002, it is surrounded by greenery and paved walkways and has become a popular leisure spot for the citizens. Chandola Lake covers an area of 1200 hectares. It is home for cormorants, painted storks and spoonbills. During the evening time, many people visit this place and take a leisurely stroll. There is a recently developed Naroda lake and the world's largest collection of antique cars in KathWada at IB farm (Dastan Farm). AMC has also developed the Sabarmati Riverfront. Looking at the health of traffic police staff deployed near the Pirana dump site, the Ahmedabad City Police is going to install outdoor Air purifiers at traffic points so that the deployed staff can breathe fresh air. Civic administration Ahmedabad is the administrative headquarters of Ahmedabad district, administered by the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC). The AMC was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act of 1949. The AMC commissioner is an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer appointed by the state government who reserves the administrative executive powers, whereas the corporation is headed by the Mayor of Ahmedabad. The city residents elect the 192 municipal councillors by popular vote, and the elected councillors select the deputy mayor and mayor of the city. The Mayor, Bijal Patel, was appointed on 14 June 2018. The administrative responsibilities of the AMC are: water and sewerage services, primary education, health services, fire services, public transport and the city's infrastructure. AMC was ranked 9th out of 21 cities for "the Best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014. It scored 3.4 out of 10 compared to the national average of 3.3." Ahmedabad registers two accidents per hour. The city is divided into seven zones constituting 48 wards. The city's urban and suburban areas are administered by the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA). The city is represented by two elected members of parliament in the Lok Sabha (lower house of Indian Parliament) and 21 members of the Legislative Assembly at the Gujarat Vidhan Sabha. The Gujarat High Court is located in the Ahmedabad, making the city the judicial capital of Gujarat. Law enforcement and public safety is maintained by the Ahmedabad City Police, headed by the Police Commissioner, an Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. Public services Health services are primarily provided at Ahmedabad civil hospital, the largest civil hospital in Asia. Ahmedabad is one of the few cities in India where the power sector is privatised. Electricity in the city is generated and distributed by Torrent Power Limited, owned and operated by the Ahmedabad Electricity Company, which was previously a state-run corporation. Culture Ahmedabad observes a range of festivals. Celebrations and observances include Uttarayan, an annual kite-flying day on 14 and 15 January. Nine nights of Navratri are celebrated with people performing Garba, the most popular folk dance of Gujarat, at venues across the city. The festival of lights, Deepavali, is celebrated with the lighting of lamps in every house, decorating the floors with rangoli, and the lighting of firecrackers. The annual Rath Yatra procession on the Ashadh-sud-bij date of the Hindu calendar at the Jagannath Temple, the festival of colours Holi is celebrated on the last full Moon day in the end of the winter, based on the lunisolar Hindu calendar and the procession of Tajia during the Muslim holy month of Muharram are important events. One of the most popular forms of meal in Ahmedabad is a Gujarati thali which was first served commercially by Chandvilas Hotel in 1900. It consists of roti (Chapati), dal, rice and (cooked vegetables, sometimes with curry), with accompaniments of pickles and roasted papads. Sweet dishes include laddoo, mango, and . Dhoklas, and are also very popular dishes in Ahmedabad. Beverages include buttermilk and tea. Drinking alcohol is forbidden in Ahmedabad. There are many restaurants, which serve Indian and international cuisines. Most of the food outlets serve only vegetarian food, as a strong tradition of vegetarianism is maintained by the city's Jain and Hindu communities. The first all-vegetarian Pizza Hut in the world opened in Ahmedabad. KFC has a separate staff uniform for serving vegetarian items and prepares vegetarian food in a separate kitchen, as does McDonald's. Ahmedabad has a quite a few restaurants serving typical Mughlai non-vegetarian food in older areas like Bhatiyar Gali, Kalupur and Jamalpur. Manek Chowk is an open square near the centre of the city that functions as a vegetable market in the morning and a jewellery market in the afternoon. However, it is better known for its food stalls in the evening, which sell local street food. It is named after the Hindu saint Baba Maneknath. Parts of Ahmedabad are known for their folk art. The artisans of Rangeela pol make tie-dyed bandhinis, while the cobbler shops of Madhupura sell traditional mojdi (also known as mojri) footwear. Idols of Ganesha and other religious icons are made in huge numbers in the Gulbai Tekra area. In 2019, there is swing in the trend and people are adopting more eco-friendly Ganesha statue. The shops at the Law Garden sell mirror work handicraft. Three main literary institutions were established in Ahmedabad for the promotion of Gujarati literature: Gujarat Vidhya Sabha, Gujarati Sahitya Parishad and Gujarat Sahitya Sabha. Saptak School of Music festival is held in the first week of the new year. This event was inaugurated by Ravi Shankar. The Sanskar Kendra, one of the several buildings in Ahmedabad designed by Le Corbusier, is a city museum depicting its history, art, culture and architecture. The Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya and the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Memorial have permanent displays of photographs, documents and other articles relating to Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel. The Calico Museum of Textiles has a large collection of Indian and international fabrics, garments and textiles. The Hazrat Pir Mohammad Shah Library has a collection of rare original manuscripts in Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Sindhi and Turkish. There is Vechaar Utensils Museum which has of stainless steel, glass, brass, copper, bronze, zinc and German silver tools. Shreyas Foundation has four museums on the same campus. Shreyas Folk Museum (Lokayatan Museum) has art forms and artefacts from communities of Gujarat. Kalpana Mangaldas Children's Museum has a collection of toys, puppets, dance and drama costumes, coins and a repository of recorded music from traditional shows from all over the world. Kahani houses photographs of fairs and festivals of Gujarat. Sangeeta Vadyakhand is a gallery of musical instruments from India and other countries. L D Institute of Indology houses 76,000 hand-written Jain manuscripts with 500 illustrated versions and 45,000 printed books, making it the largest collection of Jain scripts, Indian sculptures, terracottas, miniature paintings, cloth paintings, painted scrolls, bronzes, woodwork, Indian coins, textiles and decorative art, paintings of Rabindranath Tagore and art of Nepal and Tibet. N C Mehta Gallery of Miniature Paintings has a collection of ornate miniature paintings and manuscripts from all over India. In 1949 Darpana Academy of Performing Arts was established by the scientist Dr. Vikram Sarabhai and Bharat Natyam dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai, and thus Ahmemedabad city became the centre of Indian classical dance. Education Ahmedabad had a literacy rate of 79.89% in 2001 which rose to 89.62 percent in 2011. As of 2011, literacy rate among male and female were 93.96 and 84.81 percent respectively. Among the several universities in Ahmedabad, Gujarat University is the largest and claims to be the oldest; although the Gujarat Vidyapith was established in 1920 by Mahatma Gandhi – it received no charter from the British Raj, becoming a deemed university only in 1963. A large number of colleges in the city are affiliated with Gujarat University. Gujarat Technological University, CEPT University, Nirma University, Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management (IITRAM) and Ahmedabad University all date from this century. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University has over 100,000 students enrolled on its distance learning courses. Ahmedabad is home to the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, which was ranked first among management institutes in the country by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in 2018. Established in 1947 by the scientist Vikram Sarabhai, the oldest of the research institutes in Ahmedabad, the Physical Research Laboratory is active in space science, astronomy, high-energy physics and other areas of research. The Darpana Academy of Performing Arts, established in 1949 by Mrinalini Sarabhai, was listed by UNESCO as an institution active in the "Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage". Schools in Ahmedabad are run either by the municipal corporation, or privately by entities, trusts and corporations. The majority of schools are affiliated with the Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board, although some are affiliated with the Central Board for Secondary Education, Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations, International Baccalaureate and National Institute of Open School. Media Newspapers in Ahmedabad include English dailies such as The Times of India, Indian Express, DNA, The Economic Times, The Financial Express, Ahmedabad Mirror and Metro. Newspapers in other languages include Divya Bhaskar, Gujarat Samachar, Sandesh, Rajasthan Patrika, Sambhaav, and Aankhodekhi. The city is home to the historic Navajivan Publishing House, which was founded in 1919 by Mahatma Gandhi. The state-owned All India Radio Ahmedabad is broadcast both on the medium wave and FM bands (96.7 MHz) in the city. It competes with five private local FM stations: Radio City (91.1 MHz), Red FM (93.5 MHz), My fm (94.3 MHz), Radio One (95.0 MHz), Radio Mirchi (98.3 MHz) and Mirchi Love (104 MHz). Gyan Vani (104.5 MHz) is an educational FM radio station run under media co-operation model. In March 2012 Gujarat University started campus radio service on 90.8 MHz which was first kind of it in state and fifth in India. The state-owned television broadcaster Doordarshan provides free terrestrial channels, while three multi system operators—InCablenet, Siti Cable and GTPL—provide a mix of Gujarati, Hindi, English, and other regional channels via cable. Telephone services are provided by landline and mobile operators such as Jio, BSNL Mobile, Airtel, and Vodafone Idea. Economy The gross domestic product of Ahmedabad was estimated at US$80 billion in 2014. The RBI ranked Ahmedabad as the seventh largest deposit centre and seventh largest credit centre nationwide as of June 2012. In the 19th century, the textile and garments industry received strong capital investment. On 30 May 1861 Ranchhodlal Chhotalal founded the first Indian textile mill, the Ahmedabad Spinning and Weaving Company Limited, followed by the establishment of a series of textile mills such as Calico Mills, Bagicha Mills and Arvind Mills. By 1905 there were about 33 textile mills in the city. The textile industry further expanded rapidly during the First World War, and benefited from the influence of Mahatma Gandhi's Swadeshi movement, which promoted the purchase of Indian-made goods. Ahmedabad was known as the "Manchester of the East" for its textile industry. The city is the largest supplier of denim and one of the largest exporters of gemstones and jewellery in India. The automobile industry is also important to the city; after Tata's Nano project, Ford and Suzuki are planning to establish plants near Ahmedabad while the Groundbreaking ceremony for Peugeot has already been performed. The Ahmedabad Stock Exchange, located in the Ambavadi area of the city, is India's second oldest stock exchange. Two of the biggest pharmaceutical companies of India — Zydus Cadila and Torrent Pharmaceuticals – are based in the city. The Nirma group of industries, which runs detergent and chemical industrial units, has its corporate headquarters in the city. The city houses the corporate headquarters of the Adani Group, a multinational trading and infrastructure development company. The Sardar Sarovar Project of dams and canals has improved the supply of potable water and electricity for the city. The information technology industry has developed significantly in Ahmedabad, with companies such as Tata Consultancy Services opening offices in the city. A NASSCOM survey in 2002 on the "Super Nine Indian Destinations" for IT-enabled services ranked Ahmedabad fifth among the top nine most competitive cities in the country. The city's educational and industrial institutions have attracted students and young skilled workers from the rest of India. Ahmedabad houses other major Indian corporates such as: Cadila Healthcare, Rasna, Wagh Bakri, Nirma, Cadila Pharmaceuticals, and Intas Biopharmaceuticals. Ahmedabad is the second largest cotton textile centre in India after Mumbai and the largest in Gujarat. Many cotton manufacturing units are running in and around Ahmedabad. Textiles are one of the major industries of the city. Gujarat Industrial Development Corporation has acquired land in Sanand taluka of Ahmedabad to set up three new industrial estates. Transportation Air Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport, from the city centre, provides domestic and international flights for Ahmedabad and the capital Gandhinagar. It is the busiest airport in Gujarat and the seventh-busiest in India in terms of passenger traffic. The Ahmedabad airport was earlier managed by Airports Authority of India and was leased to the city based Adani Group in November 2020 for operations and maintenance. The Dholera International Airport is proposed near Fedara. It will be the largest airport in India with a total area of 7,500 hectares. Seaplane The first seaplane service in India started between Ahmedabad and Statue of Unity, Kevadia on 31 October 2020. The 19-seater plane makes four trips daily between the two destinations. Rail Ahmedabad is one of six operating divisions in the Western Railway zone. Ahmedabad railway station, locally known as Kalupur station, is the main terminus to differentiate it from other suburban railway stations. It is the centre point of railway station of Gujarat and Western railway so many lines begin from here connecting the city to elsewhere in Gujarat and India. Ahmedabad Metro Ahmedabad Metro has been under construction since March 2015. The North-South and East-West corridors are expected to be completed by 2023. The first phase of the Ahmedabad metro is 40 km long; 6.5 km is underground and the remaining stretch is elevated. Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the first section between Vastral Gam and Apparel Park on 4 March 2019 and was opened to public on 6 March 2019. The construction of the Phase-2 was started in 2021 connecting Gandhinagar. Road National Highway 48 passes through Ahmedabad and connects it with Delhi and Mumbai. The National Highway 147 also links Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar. It is connected to Vadodara through National Expressway 1, a -long expressway with two exits. This expressway is part of the Golden Quadrilateral project. In 2001, Ahmedabad was ranked as the most-polluted city in India, out of 85 cities, by the Central Pollution Control Board. The Gujarat Pollution Control Board gave auto rickshaw drivers an incentive of 10,000 to convert all 37,733 auto rickshaws in Ahmedabad to cleaner-burning compressed natural gas to reduce pollution. As a result, in 2008, Ahmedabad was ranked as 50th-most polluted city in India. Bus Ahmedabad BRTS Ahmedabad BRTS is a bus rapid transit system in the city. It is operated by Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited, a subsidiary of Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation and others. Inaugurated in October 2009, the network expanded to by December 2015 with daily ridership of passengers. The Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service (AMTS), maintained by Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, runs the public bus service in the city. More than 750 AMTS buses serve the city. Ahmedabad BRTS also runs 50 electric buses apart from CNG and diesel busses. AMTS Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service is a public bus service launched on 1 April 1947 and solely operated by Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation. It has a fleet of more than 900 buses as of 2018 covering almost every part of the city. Bike Bicycle renting and sharing service was started in Ahmedabad in 2013 by MYBYK. The project started with 200 bicycles and aim to provide bicycle for moving to and fro from one BRTS station to other. In 2021, it expanded to 150 bicycle hubs with a fleet of 6000 bicycles making Ahmedabad India's largest public bicycle share (PBS) city. Sports Cricket is one of the popular sports in the city. Narendra Modi Stadium (also known as Motera Stadium), built in 1982, hosts both one day internationals and test matches. It is the largest cricket stadium in the world and the stadium is largest stadium in the world, with a seating capacity of 1,32,000 spectators. It hosted the 1987, 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups. This is the home ground of first-class team Gujarat cricket team, which competes in domestic tournaments. Ahmedabad has a second cricket stadium at the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation's Sports Club of Gujarat. Other sports are field hockey, badminton, tennis, squash and golf. Ahmedabad has three golf courses. Mithakhali Multi Sports Complex is being developed by the AMC to promote various indoor sports. Recently Ahmedabad hosted national level games for roller skating and table tennis. Kart racing is gaining popularity in the city, with the introduction of a 380 metre long track based on Formula One concepts. Sabarmati Marathon is organised every year in December–January since 2011 which has categories like full and half marathon, 7 km dream run, 5 km run for visually challenged, and 5 km wheelchair run. In 2007, Ahmedabad hosted the 51st national level shooting games. The 2016 Kabaddi World Cup is held in Ahmedabad at The Arena by Transtadia (a renovated Kankaria football ground). Geet Sethi, a five-time winner of the World Professional Billiards Championship and a recipient of India's highest sporting award, the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, was raised in Ahmedabad. The Adani Ahmedabad Marathon is being organized by Adani Group every year since 2017, which attracted 8000 participants in its first edition and also hosted its first virtual marathon in 2020 in compliance with the COVID-19 guidelines. International relations Sister cities Astrakhan, Astrakhan Oblast, Russia Columbus, Ohio, United States (2008) Guangzhou, Guangdong, China (September 2014) Jersey City, New Jersey, United States (1994) Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan (2019) Valladolid, Province of Valladolid, Spain (2019) See also List of people from Ahmedabad List of tallest buildings in Ahmedabad Timeline of Ahmedabad References Further reading Muktirajsinhji Chauhan and Kamalika Bose. History of Interior Design in India Vol 1 : Ahmedabad (2007) External links Ahmedabad Collectorate Ahmadabad Encyclopædia Britannica entry Smart cities in India 1411 establishments in Asia 15th-century establishments in India Cities and towns in Ahmedabad district Former capital cities in India Metropolitan cities in India Populated places established in the 1410s	[ 0.15333613753318787, -0.20503012835979462, -0.1420183628797531, -0.2673032879829407, -0.6032350063323975, -0.053184300661087036, 0.5088886022567749, 0.4116913974285126, -0.12502814829349518, -0.48037609457969666, -0.3781176507472992, -0.023936504498124123, -0.29839426279067993, 0.568215012550354, 0.2619191110134125, 0.4164254367351532, 0.802359402179718, -0.20866404473781586, 0.3106178939342499, -0.15053343772888184, 0.13679206371307373, 0.7463135123252869, 0.1783035695552826, 0.46505358815193176, 0.4661630094051361, -0.013627644628286362, 0.5799639821052551, -0.03883165866136551, -0.5005367994308472, -0.179250106215477, 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206341	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrian%20calendar	Zoroastrian calendar	Adherents of Zoroastrianism use three distinct versions of traditional calendars for liturgical purposes, all derived from medieval Iranian calendars and ultimately based on the Babylonian calendar as used in the Achaemenid empire. Qadimi ("ancient") is a traditional reckoning introduced in 1006. Shahanshahi ("imperial") is a calendar reconstructed from the 10th century text Denkard. Fasli is a term for a 1906 adaptation of the 11th century Jalali calendar following a proposal by Kharshedji Rustomji Cama made in the 1860s. A number of Calendar eras are in use: A tradition of counting years from the birth of Zoroaster was reported from India in the 19th century. There was a dispute between factions variously preferring an era of 389 BCE, 538 BCE, or 637 BCE. The "Yazdegerdi era" (also Yazdegirdi) counts from the accession of the last Sassanid ruler, Yazdegerd III (16 June 632 CE). This convention was proposed by Cama in the 1860s but has since also been used in conjunctions with Qadimi or Shahanshahi reckoning. An alternative "Magian era" (era Magorum or Tarikh al-majus) was set at the date of Yazdegerd's death in 652. "Z.E.R." or "Zarathushtrian Religious Era" is a convention introduced in 1990 by the Zarathushtrian Assembly of California set at the vernal equinox (Nowruz) of 1738 BCE (−1737 in the astronomical year numbering). History Achaemenid period The Babylonian calendar was used in the Achaemenid Empire by the 4th century BCE for civil purposes. The earliest Zoroastrian calendar (also misleadingly called "Avestan calendar") follows the Babylonian in relating the seventh and other days of the month to Ahura Mazda. Like all ancient calendar, the Babylonian calendar was lunisolar. It used an intercalary month roughly once every six years. In the civil calendar, intercalations did not always follow a regular pattern, but during the reign of Artaxerxes II (circa 380 BCE) astronomers utilised a 19-year cycle which required the addition of a month called Addaru II in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14 and 19, and the month Ululu II in year 17 of the cycle. The first known intercalation is recorded for 309 BCE. The first month of the year was called Frawardin, and the first day of Frawardin was the 'New Year's Day' or Nawruz, from which all other religious observances were reckoned – this day being, in theory, the day of the northern vernal equinox. A 365-day calendar, with months largely identical to the Egyptian calendar, was introduced shortly after the conquest of Egypt by the Achaemenid ruler Cambyses (c. 525 BCE). Scholars are divided on whether this 365 day calendar was in fact preceded by a 360-day calendar of Zoroastrian observances. Hellenistic period Following Alexander's conquest of Persia in 330 BCE, the Seleucids (312–248 BCE) instituted the Hellenic practice of counting years from the start of a fixed era, as opposed using regnal years. The regnal era of Alexander is now referred to as the Seleucid era. The Parthians (150–224 CE), who succeeded the Seleucids, continued the Seleucid/Hellenic tradition. Parthian to Sassanid period In 224 CE, when the Babylonian calendar was replaced by the Zoroastrian, 1 Frawardin and the New Year celebration of Nawruz had drifted to 1 October. The older custom of counting regnal years from the monarch's coronation was reinstated. At this point the calendar was realigned with the seasons by delaying the epagemonai by eight months (so that they now preceded the start of the ninth month) and adjusting the dates of the gahanbar (farming festivals) accordingly. This caused confusion, since the new year now fell five days earlier than before, and some people continued to observe the old date. After 46 years (226–272 CE), with 1 Frawardin now on 19 September, another calendar reform was implemented by Ardashir's grandson Hormazd I (272–273 CE). During the first years after implementation of the new Gatha days, the population had not universally adopted the new dates for religious festivals, resulting in "official" celebrations takings place five days earlier than popular celebrations. In later years the population had observed the Gatha days, but the original five day discrepancy persisted. Hormazd's reform was to link the popular and official observance dates to form continual six-day feasts. Nawruz was an exception: the first and the sixth days of the month were celebrated as different occasions. Lesser Nawruz was observed on 1 Frawardin. 6 Frawardin became Greater Nawruz, a day of special festivity. Around the 10th century CE, the Greater Nawruz was associated with the return of the legendary king, Jamsed; in contemporary practice it is kept as the symbolic observance of Zoroaster's birthday, or Khordad Sal. Mary Boyce has argued that sometime between 399 CE and 518 CE the six-day festivals were compressed to five days. The major feasts, or gahambars, of contemporary Zoroastrian practice, are still kept as five-day observances today. Medieval period The Bundahishn, a pseudo-Avestan treatise written in the early Islamic period (8th or 9th century) replaces the "Age of Alexander" with an "Ageo of Zoroaster", placed "258 years before Alexander" (consistent with the date given by Ammianus Marcellinus). By the reign of Yazdegird III (632–651 CE), the religious celebrations were again somewhat adrift with respect to their proper seasons. The calendar had continued to slip against the Julian calendar since the previous reform at the rate of one day every four years. Therefore, in 632, the new year was celebrated on 16 June. By the 9th century, the Zoroastrian theologian Zadspram had noted that the state of affairs was less than optimal, and estimated that at the time of Final Judgement the two systems would be out of sync by four years. Calendar eras The current mainstream Zoroastrian reckoning of years' start date is on 16 June 632 CE. Yazdegird III was the last monarch of the Sasanian dynasty, and since the custom at that time was to count regnal years since the monarch ascended the throne, the reckoning of years was continued, in the absence of a Zoroastrian monarch, under Islamic rule. Zoroastrian dates are distinguished by the suffix Y.Z. for "Yazdegirdi Era". The usage "AY" is also found. Isolated pockets of Asia Minor use an alternative reckoning of years which predates the Yazdegirdi Era, being based on a supposed date of the birth of Zoroaster on 3 March 389 BC. On this calendar, 22 July 2000 CE was the first day of Zoroastrian year 2390. Yet another form of reckoning is the Zarathushtrian (Zoroastrian) Religious Era (Z.E.R./ZRE), adopted in 1990 CE by the Zarathushtrian Assembly of California. This is based on the putative association of the mission of Zoroaster with the dawn of the astrological Age of Aries, calculated for this purpose to have been the northern vernal equinox of 1738 BCE. Hence the year 3738 ZRE began in 2000 CE. The Zoroastrian community, both in Iran and in diaspora, have also been said to have accepted it, the former doing so in 1993 CE. A briefing paper from the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe indicates that they recognise this usage to have been pragmatically adopted by Zoroastrians in Iran, while the diaspora continues to use the YZ system. Qadimi calendar The Qadimi (also Qadmi, Kadimi, Kudmi) or "ancient" calendar is the traditional calendar in use since 1006 CE. In 1006 CE, the month Frawardin had returned to the correct position so that 1 Frawardin coincided with the northern vernal equinox. The religious festivals were therefore returned to their traditional months, with Nawruz once again being celebrated on 1 Frawardin. The Julian Day Number corresponding to 16 June 632 CE is 1952063. The Julian Day Number of Nowruz, the first day, of Year Y of the Yazdegirdi Era is therefore 1952063 + (Y − 1) × 365. 22 July AD 2000 was Nowruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Qadimi reckoning. In the Julian year 1300 CE, 669 Y.Z. began on 1 January, and 670 Y.Z. on 31 December of the same year. Shahanshahi calendar The Shahanshahi calendar (also Shahenshahi, Shahenshai) or "imperial" calendar is the system described in Denkard, a 9th-century Zoroastrian text. It explicitly acknowledged several methods of intercalation: a leap-day every 4 years; adding ten days every 40 years; a leap-month of 30 days once every 120 years; 5 months once every 600 years; 1,461 Zoroastrian years equal 1,460 Julian years. The Denkard then states: The time of six hours should be kept apart from (i.e. not to be added to) the last days of the year for many years, till (the hours) amount to (a definite period of time) ... And it is the admonition of the good faith that the rectification (of the calendar) should not be made till a month is completed (i.e. till the additional six hours every year amount to a month at the end of a hundred and twenty. years). And more than a period of five months should not be allowed (to accumulate.) [Parentheses appear as in original.] The Denkard – which was not Zoroastrian scripture but a religious manual – therefore favoured the solution of a leap-month once every 120 years, with a fall-back of adding 5 months after 600 years if this were missed. This practice was not, however, adopted by Zoroastrians living in Islamic Persia. The Parsis had knowledge of The Denkard's proposal: at some point between 1125 and 1129, the Parsi-Zoroastrians of the Indian subcontinent inserted such an embolismic month, named Aspandarmad vahizak (the month of Aspandarmad but with the suffix vahizak). That month would also be the last month intercalated: subsequent generations of Parsis neglected to insert a thirteenth month. Around 1720 CE, an Iranian Zoroastrian priest named Jamasp Peshotan Velati travelled from Iran to India. Upon his arrival, he discovered that there was a difference of a month between the Parsi calendar and his own calendar. Velati brought this discrepancy to the attention of the priests of Surat, but no consensus as to which calendar was correct was reached. Around 1740 CE, some influential priests argued that since their visitor had been from the ancient 'homeland', his version of the calendar must be correct, and their own must be wrong. On 6 June 1745 CE (Julian), a number of Parsis in and around Surat adopted the calendar which had continued in use in Iran, now to be identified as the Qadimi reckoning. Other Parsis continued to use the reckoning which had become traditional in India, and call their calendar Shahanshahi. Arzan Lali the author of Zoroastrian Calendar Services (ZCS) website (zcserv.com) comments that "... adherents of other variants of the Zoroastrian calendar denigrate the Shenshai or Shahenshahi as 'royalist'." 21 August 2000 CE was Nawruz, and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Shahanshahi reckoning. Because the one-off intercalation of 30 days happened sometime before the Nawruz of 1129 CE, we can be confident that in that Julian year, 498 YZ began on 12 February by the Qadimi reckoning, but 14 March by the recently introduced Shahanshahi. The Julian Day Number of Nawruz, the first day, of all subsequent Shahanshahi years Y of the Yazdegirdi Era is therefore 1952093 + (Y − 1) × 365. Fasli calendar At the start of the 20th century, Khurshedji Cama, a Bombay Parsi, founded the "Zarthosti Fasili Sal Mandal", or Zoroastrian Seasonal-Year Society. In 1906, the society published its proposal for a Zoroastrian calendar which was synchronised with the seasons. This Fasli calendar, as it became known, was based on the Jalali calendar introduced in 1079 during the reign of the Seljuk Malik Shah and which had been well received in agrarian communities. The Fasli proposal had two useful features: a leap-day once every four years, and harmony with the tropical year. The leap-day, called Avardad-sal-Gah (or in Pahlavi: Ruzevahizak), would be inserted, when required, after the five existing Gatha days at the end of the year. New Year's Day would be kept on the northward vernal equinox, and if the leap-day was applied correctly, would not drift away from the spring. The Fasli society also claimed that their calendar was an accurate religious calendar, as opposed to the other two calendars, which they asserted were only political. The new calendar received little support from the Indian Zoroastrian community, since it was considered to contradict the injunctions expressed in the Denkard. In Iran, however, the Fasli calendar gained momentum following a campaign in 1930 to persuade the Iranian Zoroastrians to adopt it, under the title of the Bastani (traditional) calendar. In AD 1925, the Iranian Parliament had introduced a new Iranian calendar, which (independent of the Fasli movement) incorporated both points proposed by the Fasili Society, and since the Iranian national calendar had also retained the Zoroastrian names of the months, it was not a big step to integrate the two. The Bastani calendar was duly accepted by many of the Zoroastrians. Many orthodox Iranian Zoroastrians, especially the Sharifabadis of Yazd, continued to use the Qadimi, however. In 1906 CE, Nawruz of 1276 Y.Z. fell on 15 August for followers of the Qadimi calendar, and 14 September for those observing Shahanshahi. There was therefore a six-month gap between the Fasli and Qadimi New Year observances, and a seven-month gap to the Shahanshahi. Since there is exactly one Fasli year for every Gregorian year, then day one of the proleptic Fasli calendar would be 21 March (Gregorian) 631 CE, with Year 2 beginning on 21 March 632 CE. But Yazdegird III did not ascend the throne until 19 June 632 CE (Gregorian), leading to the curious quirk that the base date for the reckoning of years ends up in Year 2 of the Fasli calendar. Festivals in leap years The Zoroastrian year, in Qadimi and Shahanshahi observance, concludes with ten days in memory of departed souls: five Mukhtad days on the last 5 days of the 12th month, and five more Mukhtad days, which are also the five-day festival of Hamaspathmaidyem, on the five Gatha days. The penultimate day of the twelfth month is Mareshpand Jashan. In a common year (non-leap year) of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 11–20 March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and the Gatha days 16–20 March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 14 March. In a leap year of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 10–19 March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and the Gatha days 15–19 March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 13 March. The leap day, 20 March, called Avardad-sal-Gah, is considered a duplication of Wahishtoisht, the fifth Gatha day, but is not reckoned as Mukhtad or Hamaspathmaidyem. Relationship with the Gregorian calendar 21 March 2000 CE was Nowruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Fasli reckoning. Dr Ali Jafarey describes the Fasli calendar as ... an almost tropical calendar. It is corrected by observing the leap year. Webster's online dictionary and various unreferenced sources state that the Fasli calendar follows the Gregorian, and it is shown strictly following the Gregorian calendar in the period AD 2009–2031 in the tables published by R. E. Kadva. The Gregorian calendar itself, however, will not keep 21 March as the date of the northern vernal equinox forever – it has a deviation of one day every 5025 years. Relationship with the Iranian calendar The civil calendar in Iran since 31 March 1925 CE has been the Solar Hejri calendar. This is strictly tied to the actual northward equinox, rather than a mathematical approximation to it. An Iranian day is reckoned to begin at midnight. Iranian time is 3.5 hours ahead of GMT. New Year's Day is defined to be the day, as reckoned by Iranian time, when the northward equinox (the precise moment in time when northern and southern hemispheres of the earth pass through the point of the earth's orbit when they are equally illuminated by the sun) occurs on or before noon of that day, or during the 12 hours following the noon of the preceding day. This means that the pattern of leap years in the Iranian calendar is complex – usually following a 33-year cycle where the leap day is inserted every fourth year, but in year 33 instead of year 32, but with occasional 29 year cycles. From 1960 to 1995, the northward equinox always fell at such a time that New Year's Day in Iran occurred on the day called 21 March in the Western calendar. But this equivalence was not always true before March 1960, and the exact correspondence broke down again in 1996. In 1959, and at four-year intervals back to 1927, Iranian New Year's Day fell on 22 March in the Gregorian calendar. In 1996, and subsequent Gregorian leap years, Iranian New Year's Day falls on 20 March. The pattern will shift back to a matching set of leap years in 2096 CE. The sources cited above state that the Fasli calendar both follows the Gregorian and was such that New Year's Day coincided with vernal equinox. These two statements are incompatible. The Fasli calendar cannot track both the Gregorian leap years and strictly start on the vernal equinox; further, any calendar strictly tied to the 'day of the equinox' must define when the day starts and ends, which depends on longitude- A briefing paper from the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe indicates that ... the Irani Zoroastrian calendar does not shift and commences on 21 March. But it is important to note that all Iranians including Zoroastrians celebrate NoRuz (Nawruz) on the actual day of the northward equinox, therefore some years it can be 20 / 22 March. Astronomical and mystical aspects The three different Zoroastrian calendar-traditions are similar with regard to the principle of the beginning of the months. They are structurally similar to the Armenian calendar and the Mayan Haab calendar, but different from the Iranian (Jalaali) calendar, the Julian calendar, and the French Revolutionary Calendar, whose epochs of the months are fixed to equinoxes/solstices, as are the signs of western astrology. The Qadimi and the Shahanshahi Zoroastrian calendar use merely five epagomenal days, similar to the French Revolutionary and the Coptic calendar, (although these last two have a sixth epagemonal day every leap year), so their year count slowly travels through the tropical year. The naming of the months recalls the time of the origination of the Zoroastrian calendar. According to Mary Boyce, It seems a reasonable surmise that Nawruz, the holiest of them all, with deep doctrinal significance, was founded by Zoroaster himself. Future developments The Fasli calendar has become very popular outside India, especially in the West, but many Parsis believe that adding a leap day is against the rules, and they mostly continue to use the Shahanshahi calendar. There is a proposal to correct matters by restoring the leap month, but unless this happens, the Shahanshahi and Qadimi years will continue to start earlier and earlier ... the unrevised Qadimi calendar would eventually coincide with the Fasli calendar in Gregorian year 2508, the Shahanshahi New Year will next fall on 21 March in 2632. In 1992, all three calendars happened to have the first day of a month on the same day. Many Zoroastrians suggested a consolidation of the calendars: no consensus could be reached, though some took this opportunity to switch to the Fasli observance. Some priests objected on the grounds that if they were to switch, the religious implements they utilised would require re-consecration, at not insignificant expense. It has also been proposed that the Shahanshahi calendar could be brought back into harmony through the intercalation of whole months. In the UK, most Zoroastrians are Indians who follow the Shahanshahi calendar. Nevertheless, noting that Iranian Zoroastrians mostly follow the Fasli calendar, the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe marks observances of both calendars. Naming of months and days Zoroastrian practice divides time into years (sal or sol), months (mah), weeks, days (ruz, roz, or roj) and watches (gah or geh). A day is reckoned to begin at dawn, as attested by Chapter 25 of the 9th century work, the Bundahishn; morning hours before dawn are assigned to the previous calendar day. Each day is divided into five watches: Hawan (sunrise to noon) Rapithwin or Second Hawan (noon to 3 p.m.) Uzerin (3 p.m. to sunset) Aiwisruthrem (sunset to midnight) Ushahin (midnight to sunrise) In medieval times, according to the Bundahishn, in winter there were only four periods, with Hawan extending from daybreak until Uziran, with the omission of Rapithwan. The months and the days of the month in the Zoroastrian calendar are dedicated to, and named after, a divinity or divine concept. The religious importance of the calendar dedications is very significant. Not only does the calendar establish the hierarchy of the major divinities, it ensures the frequent invocation of their names since the divinities of both day and month are mentioned at every Zoroastrian act of worship. Day names The tradition of naming the days and months after divinities was based on a similar Egyptian custom, and dates from when the calendar was set up. "The last evidence for the use ... with Old Persian month-names ... comes from 458 BCE, ... after which the Elamite tablets cease." No dated West-Iranian documents from this period survive, but the fact that the Zoroastrian calendar was created at this time can be inferred from its use in a number of far-flung lands which had formerly been parts of the Achaemenid Empire. The oldest (though not dateable) testimony for the existence of the day dedications comes from Yasna 16, a section of the Yasna liturgy that is – for the most part – a veneration to the 30 divinities with day-name dedications. The Siroza – a two-part Avesta text with individual dedications to the 30 calendar divinities – has the same sequence. The quaternary dedication to Ahura Mazda was perhaps a compromise between orthodox and heterodox factions, with the 8th, 15th and 23rd day of the calendar perhaps originally having been dedicated to Apam Napat, Haoma, and Dahmān Afrīn. The dedication to the Ahuric Apam Napat would almost certainly have been an issue for devotees of Aredvi Sura Anahita, whose shrine cult was enormously popular between the 4th century BCE and the 3rd century CE and who is (accretions included) a functional equal of Apam Napat. To this day these three divinities are considered 'extra-calendary' divinities inasfar as they are invoked together with the other 27, so making a list of 30 discrete entities. The 2nd through 7th days are dedicated to the Amesha Spentas, the six 'divine sparks' through whom all subsequent creation was accomplished, and who – in present-day Zoroastrianism - are the archangels. Days 9 through 13 are dedications to five yazatas of the litanies (Niyayeshes): Fire (Atar), Water (Apo), Sun (Hvar), Moon (Mah), the star Sirius (Tištrya) that here perhaps represents the firmament in its entirety. Day 14 is dedicated to the soul of the Ox (Geush Urvan), linked with and representing all animal creation. Day 16, leading the second half of the days of the month, is dedicated to the divinity of oath, Mithra (like Apam Napat of the Ahuric triad). He is followed by those closest to him, Sraoša and Rašnu, likewise judges of the soul; the representatives of which, the Fravashi(s), come next. Verethragna, Rāman, Vāta are respectively the hypostases of victory, the breath of life, and the (other) divinity of the wind and 'space'. The last group represent the more 'abstract' emanations: Religion (Daena), Recompense (Ashi), and Justice (Arshtat); Sky (Asman) and Earth (Zam); Sacred Invocation (Manthra Spenta) and Endless Light (Anaghra Raocha). In present-day use, the day and month names are the Middle Persian equivalents of the divine names or the concepts, but in some cases reflect Semitic influences (for instance Tištrya appears as Tir, which Boyce (1982:31–33) asserts is derived from Nabu-*Tiri). The names of the 8th, 15th, and 23rd day of the month – reflecting Babylonian practice of dividing the month into four periods – can today be distinguished from one another: These three days are named Dae-pa Adar, Dae-pa Mehr, and Dae-pa Din, Middle Persian expressions meaning 'Creator of' (respectively) Atar, Mithra, and Daena. What might loosely be called weeks are the divisions of days 1–7, 8–14, 15–22, and 23–30 of each month – two weeks of seven days followed by two weeks of eight. The Gatha days at the end of the year do not belong to any such week. Month names Twelve divinities to whom days of the month are dedicated also have months dedicated to them. The month dedicated to Ahura Mazda is a special case – that month is named after Mazda's stock epithet, "Creator" (Avestan Dadvah, whence Zoroastrian Middle Persian Dae), rather than after His proper name. Seven of the twelve month-names occur at various points in the surviving Avesta texts, but an enumeration similar to the ones for day names does not exist in scripture. Lists of month names are however known from commentaries on the Avesta texts, from various regional Zoroastrian calendars of the 3rd to 7th centuries, and from living usage. That these names have an Old Iranian origin and are not merely Middle Iranian innovations may be inferred from the fact that several regional variants reflect Old Iranian genitive singular forms, that is, they preserve an implicit "(month) of". The month-names (with Avestan language names in parentheses), in the ordinal sequence used today, are: The days on which day-name and month-name dedications intersect are festival days (name-day feast days) of special worship. Because Ahura Mazda has four day-name dedications, the month dedicated to Him has four intersections (the first, eighth, fifteenth and twenty-third day of the tenth month). The others have one intersection each, for example, the nineteenth day of the first month is the day of special worship of the Fravashis. There is some evidence that suggests that in ancient practice Dae was the first month of the year, and Frawardin the last. In a 9th century text, Zoroaster's age at the time of his death is stated to have been 77 years and 40 days (Zadspram 23.9), but the "40 days" do not correspond to the difference between the traditional "death day" (11th of Dae) and "birthday" (6th of Frawardin) unless Dae had once been the first month of the year and Frawardin the last. The festival of Frawardigan is held on the last days of the year, instead of following the name-day feast of the Fravashis (nineteenth day of the month of Frawardin, and also called Frawardigan).. See also Armenian calendar Iranian calendar Zoroastrian festivals in India Zoroastrianism Nauruz Bahá'í calendar References External links Calendar tables Table mapping Fasli calendar to a Gregorian non-leap year. During a leap year, the mapping for the last 21 days of the Fasli year must be adjusted by subtracting 1 from the March date. Table for 1375 YZ. This table shows how the year 1375 YZ corresponds to Gregorian dates using the three Zoroastrian calendars, with links back to 1374, 1373 and 1372 YZ. Perpetual Fasli calendar Zoroastrian calendar of months and days Calendar calculators Conversion tool for Gregorian dates from AD 1006 to AD 2400 (good for all dates 374 YZ to 1770 YZ). It can adjust for the fact that events between midnight and 6 a.m. on a Gregorian date fall on the previous Zoroastrian day. Shows month view, year view, moon phases and 'Chaugadiyas'. The facility above is also available in Gujarati. A conversion tool for all three variant calendars, good for AD dates 1911–2030, also with ability to display Zoroastrian dates on a month-to-view page of the Gregorian calendar for 1911–1930. Another implementation of the zanc.org calendar above. 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206342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20McCosh	James McCosh	James McCosh (April 1, 1811 – November 16, 1894) was a philosopher of the Scottish School of Common Sense. He was president of Princeton University 1868–88. Biography McCosh was born into a Covenanting family in Ayrshire, and studied at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, obtaining his M.A. at the latter, at the suggestion of Sir William Hamilton, for an essay on stoicism. He became a minister of the Church of Scotland in 1834, serving as minister first at Abbey Church in Arbroath and then at Brechin. He sided with the Free Church of Scotland in the Disruption of 1843, becoming minister at Brechin's new East Free Church. In 1850 or 1851 he was appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at Queen's College, Belfast (now Queen's University Belfast). In 1868 he travelled to the United States to become president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). He resigned the presidency in 1888, but continued to teach philosophy until his death. McCosh Hall (home of the English department) and a cross-campus walkway are named in his honor. The campus infirmary is named after his wife, Isabella McCosh. A school on the South Side of Chicago was named after him, but has since been renamed the Emmett Louis Till Math & Science Academy. Philosophical work McCosh's position was mainly in the tradition of Thomas Reid and other Scottish common-sense philosophers. He denied that our beliefs about the nature of the external world rest on causal or other inferences from perceptual ideas, but held that they are the direct accompaniments of sensation, and thus not open to question. He also argued for the a priori nature of fundamental principles such as those of causality and morality. Our judgements and other cognitions are regulated by such principles, though that is not to say that everyone is aware of them; they can be reached through reflection on our experience, when they are recognised as self-evidently necessary. In his moral theory, especially, McCosh differed from many of his contemporaries in being relatively uninfluenced by Kant. Evolution McCosh's most original work concerned the attempt to reconcile evolution and Christianity. In 1874, Charles Hodge, the theologian and intellectual leader at the Presbyterian Seminary in Princeton, published What is Darwinism?, claiming that Darwinism, was, in essence, atheism. To Hodge, Darwinism was contrary to the notion of design and was therefore clearly atheistic. Hodge's views determined the position of the Seminary until his death in 1878. Hodge simply refused to accept that natural laws alone could create complex organisms that fit into their niches so perfectly and that evolution could explain origins. While he didn't consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religion, he was concerned with its teaching in colleges. Meanwhile at the college across town (a totally separate institution) President John Maclean also rejected Darwin's theory of evolution. However in 1868, McCosh became president at the college. McCosh realized that much of Darwinism could and would be proved sound, and so he strove to prepare Christians for this event. Instead of conflict between science and religion, McCosh sought reconciliation. Insisting on the principle of design in nature, McCosh interpreted the Darwinian discoveries as more evidence of the prearrangement, skill, and purpose in the universe. He thus demonstrated that Darwinism was not atheistic nor in irreconcilable hostility to the Bible. McCosh thus argued that evolution, far from being inconsistent with belief in divine design, glorifies the divine designer (see for example his Christianity and Positivism), believing nature was entirely interconnected by natural laws God was immanent with. This aspect of his work found popularity among most Presbyterian clergy, who found his arguments useful in their attempts to cope with scientific philosophy. The Presbyterians in America thus could choose between two schools of thought on evolution, both based in Princeton. The Seminary held to Hodge's position until his supporters were ousted in 1929, and the college (Princeton University) became a world class center of the new science of evolutionary biology. The debate between McCosh as president of the college and Charles Hodge, head of Princeton Seminary, during the late 1860s and 1870s exemplified the classic conflict between science and religion over the question of Darwin's evolution theory. McCosh offered the first public endorsement of evolution by an American religious leader. However, the two men showed greater similarities regarding matters of science and religion than popularly appreciated. Both supported the increasing role of scientific inquiry in natural history and resisted its intrusion into philosophy and religion. The debate vitalized the college. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1871. Main works The Method of Divine Government, Physical and Moral (Edinburgh, 1850, 5th ed., 1856, and frequently republished in New York) The Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation (Edinburgh, 1855; New York, 1856) Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Investigated (London and New York, 1860; 3rd rev. ed., 1872) An Examination of Mr J. S. Mill's Philosophy (London and New York, 1866; enlarged 1871, several editions) Dr. McCosh's Logic: Laws of Discursive Thought, Being a Text-Book of Formal Logic (Robert Carter & Brothers, 1885) Philosophical Papers containing (1)"Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Logic", (2)"Reply to Mr Mill's third edition", and (3) "Present State of Moral Philosophy in Britain". First and Fundamental Truths: Being a Treatise on Metaphysics (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1889) The Religious Aspect of Evolution (New York, 1888, 2nd ed., 1890). For a complete list of his writings see Joseph Heatly Dulles, McCosh Bibliography (Princeton, 1895). References Citations Sources Douglas Arner, "James McCosh", in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy", ed. Paul Edwards (Collier Macmillan, 1967) Hoeveler, J. David, Jr. James McCosh and the Scottish Intellectual Tradition: From Glasgow to Princeton. (1981). 374 pp. Paul Helm, "M'Cosh, James", in Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology, ed. Nigel M de S Cameron (Edinburgh, T & T Clark, 1993) Further reading Hoeveler, J. David (1981), James McCosh and the Scottish Intellectual Tradition'', Princeton University Press, 1811 births 1894 deaths Scottish philosophers Presidents of Princeton University Academics of Queen's University Belfast 19th-century British philosophers People from Ayrshire Alumni of the University of Glasgow Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Theistic evolutionists Scottish emigrants to the United States	[ 0.04906526207923889, 0.3787974715232849, -0.5938293933868408, -0.14657089114189148, -0.02810886688530445, 0.7089661955833435, 1.2581771612167358, 0.031804196536540985, 0.33564379811286926, -0.37249132990837097, -0.2804136276245117, 0.054353296756744385, -0.3649243414402008, 0.34798213839530945, 0.22073955833911896, 0.024461500346660614, 0.31907132267951965, -0.4963683485984802, -0.29578885436058044, -0.01584947295486927, -0.4925648868083954, 0.035668615251779556, 0.18490712344646454, 0.033581677824258804, 0.0791873037815094, -0.047544170171022415, 0.5816404819488525, 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206344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telia	Telia	Telia may refer to: Telium, plural Telia, structure of the reproductive cycle of rusts (plant diseases) Telia Company, Swedish telecommunications company Telia Digital-tv, Swedish TV platform Telia Norge, Norwegian telecommucations company Telia Eesti, Estonian telecommucations company Telia, India, village in India Telia, Nepal, village in Nepal Telia Challenge Waxholm, golf tournament Telia 5G -areena, football stadium in Helsinki, Finland.	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206346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir%20William%20Hamilton%2C%209th%20Baronet	Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet	Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet FRSE (8 March 1788 – 6 May 1856) was a Scottish metaphysician. He is often referred to as William Stirling Hamilton of Preston, in reference to his mother, Elizabeth Stirling. Early life He was born in rooms at the University of Glasgow He was from an academic family. His father Professor William Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recommendation of William Hunter, been appointed to succeed his own father, Dr Thomas Hamilton, as Regius Professor of Anatomy, Glasgow; and when he died in 1790, aged 32, he had already gained a great reputation. William Hamilton and his younger brother, Thomas Hamilton, were brought up by their mother. William received his early education at Glasgow Grammar School, except for two years which he spent in a private school at Chiswick in Kent, and in 1807 went as a Snell Exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. He obtained a first class in literis humanioribus and took his BA in 1811 (MA 1814). He had been intended for the medical profession, however soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in 1813 became a member of the Scottish bar, as a qualified advocate. His life continued to be that of a student; and the years that followed were filled by researches of all kinds, while at the same time he was gradually forming his philosophic system. Investigation enabled him to make good his claim to represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in 1816 he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650–1701), well known in his day as a covenanting leader. He inspired many young adults. Early time as philosopher Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to William's taking up the study of German and later on that of contemporary German philosophy, which was almost entirely neglected in British universities. In 1820 he was a candidate for the chair of moral philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, which had fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, colleague of Dugald Stewart, and Stewart's consequent resignation, however he was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson, (1785–1854), the "Christopher North" of Blackwood's Magazine. In 1821 he was appointed professor of civil history, and delivered several courses of lectures on the history of modern Europe and the history of literature. The salary was £100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, and was discontinued after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend, the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary ceased. In January 1827 his mother, to whom he had been devoted, died. In March 1828 he married his cousin, Janet Marshall. Around this time he moved to live in a recently built townhouse at 11 Manor Place, in Edinburgh's west end. Publications In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of the well-known essay on the "Philosophy of the Unconditioned" (a critique of Victor Cousin's Cours de philosophie)--the first of a series of articles contributed by him to the Edinburgh Review. He was elected in 1836 to the University of Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics, and from this time dates the influence which, during the next 20 years, he exerted over the thought of the younger generation in Scotland. Much about the same time he began the preparation of an annotated edition of Thomas Reid's works, intending to annex to it a number of dissertations. However before this design had been carried out, he was struck, in 1844, with paralysis of the right side which seriously crippled his bodily powers, though left his mind unimpaired. The edition of Reid appeared in 1846, but with only seven of the intended dissertations, one unfinished. At his death he had still not completed the work; notes on the subjects to be discussed were found among his manuscripts. Considerably earlier, he had formed his theory of logic, the leading principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of "an essay on a new analytic of logical forms" prefixed to his edition of Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and applications continued during the next few years to occupy much of his leisure. Out of this arose a sharp controversy with Augustus de Morgan. The essay did not appear, but the results of the labour gone through are contained in the appendices to his Lectures on Logic. Hamilton had also drawn from the works of Wilhelm Esser in his explanation of laws in the language of agency. For instance, he cited Esser's definition of universal law, to explain the sense or "quality" of "necessary". Hamilton also prepared extensive materials for a publication which he designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of Martin Luther. Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly carried out the arrangement of the work; but it did not go further, and still remains in manuscript. In 1852–1853 appeared the first and second editions of his Discussions in Philosophy, Literature and Education, a reprint, with large additions, of his contributions to the Edinburgh Review. Soon after, his general health began to fail. Assisted by his devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during 1854–1855 he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart's works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a memoir of Stewart, but this he did not live to write. Hamilton was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855. He taught his class for the last time in the winter of 1855–1856. Shortly after the close of the session he was taken ill, and died in Edinburgh. Death He died on 6 May 1856 and was buried in St John's Episcopal Churchyard at the east end of Princes Street in Edinburgh. The stone is not in its original location and is used to edge the enclosure at the east end of the church. He had married Janet, the daughter of Hubert Marshall, and was succeeded by his son Sir William Stirling-Hamilton, 10th Baronet, a general in the British Army. Place in thought In 1840 the University of Leyden granted him an honorary Doctor of Divinity (DD), a rarity for persons outwith the clergy. Hamilton's positive contribution to the progress of thought is comparatively slight, but he stimulated a spirit of criticism in his pupils by insisting on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the older metaphysical method, and by his recognition of the importance of German philosophy, especially that of Immanuel Kant. By far his most important work was "Philosophy of the Unconditioned," the development of the principle that for the human finite mind there can be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his argument is the thesis, "To think is to condition." Deeply impressed with Kant's antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and the known, Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is known only in virtue of its relations to other objects. From this it follows that limitless time, space, power, etc., are inconceivable. The fact, however, that all thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or absolute provides a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty of theology. It is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that it cannot conceive any phenomenon without a beginning: hence the conception of the causal relation, according to which every phenomenon has its cause in preceding phenomena, and its effect in subsequent phenomena. The causal concept is, therefore, only one of the ordinary necessary forms of the cognitive consciousness limited, as we have seen, by being confined to that which is relative. As regards the problem of the nature of objectivity, Hamilton simply accepts the evidence of consciousness as to the separate existence of the object: "the root of our nature cannot be a lie." In virtue of this assumption Hamilton's philosophy becomes a "natural realism." In fact his whole position is a strange compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical corollary is the denial of philosophy as a method of attaining absolute knowledge and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental training. The transition from philosophy to theology, i.e. to the sphere of faith, is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation between the mind and the body. As the mind is to the body, so is the unconditioned Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. Consciousness, itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or depend on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena. Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the conditioned mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its objects, can be unconditioned. God can be regarded only as related to consciousness, and insofar is, therefore, not absolute or unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton's philosophy are apparently violated in his theological argument. Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed to him an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements to treat as parts of the same science the formal and the material conditions of knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this view logic cannot be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing facts, even the most general, and expressly asserted that it has to do, not with the objective validity, but only with the mutual relations, of judgments. He further held that induction and deduction are correlative processes of formal logic, each resting on the necessities of thought and deriving thence its several laws. The only logical laws which he recognised were the three axioms of identity, noncontradiction, and excluded middle, which he regarded as severally phases of one general condition of the possibility of existence and, therefore, of thought. The law of reason and consequent he considered not as different, but merely as expressing metaphysically what these express logically. He added as a postulate—which in his theory was of importance--"that logic be allowed to state explicitly what is thought implicitly." in logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine of the "quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment "All A is B " should really mean "All A is all B," whereas the ordinary universal proposition should be stated "All A is some B." This view, which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally at fault since it implies that the predicate is thought of in its extension; in point of fact when a judgment is made, e.g. about men, that they are mortal ("All men are mortal"), the intention is to attribute a quality (i.e. the predicate is used in connotation). In other words, we are not considering the question "what kind are men among the various things which must die?" (as is implied in the form "all men are some mortals") but "what is the fact about men?" We are not stating a mere identity (see further, e.g., H. W. B. Joseph, Introduction to Logic, 1906, pp. 198 foll.). The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed allegiance was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound and constant study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his whole philosophy was cast. With the commentators on the Aristotelian writings, ancient, medieval and modern, he was also familiar; and the scholastic philosophy he studied with care and appreciation at a time when it had hardly yet begun to attract attention in his country. His wide reading enabled him to trace many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten thinkers; and nothing gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth such from their obscurity, and to give due acknowledgment, even if it chanced to be of the prior possession of a view or argument that he had thought out for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a diligent, if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his thinking was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his speculations; nor was this less the case because, on fundamental points, he came to widely different conclusions. Hamilton was more than a philosopher; his knowledge and interests embraced all subjects related to that of the human mind. He studied anatomy and physiology. He was also well-read in ancient and modern literature, being particularly interested in the 16th and 17th centuries. Among his literary projects were editions of the works of George Buchanan and Julius Caesar Scaliger. His general scholarship found expression in his library, which became part of the library of the University of Glasgow. He also may have had influence upon subsequent philosophy as the inspiration for a critique by John Stuart Mill which resulted in perhaps the clearest statements ever of the idea of matter as the permanent possibility of sensation. Education His chief practical interest was in education—an interest which he manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods of education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him, met with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his articles an unfavourable view of the study of mathematics as a mental gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he never saw reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and successful, and his writings on university organisation and reform had, at the time of their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and contain much that is of permanent value. Last works His posthumous works are his Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic (1860), 4 vols., edited by HL Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch (Metaphysics; Logic); and Additional Notes to Reid's Works, from Sir W. Hamilton's Manuscripts., under the editorship of HL Mansel, D.D. (1862). A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton, by Veitch, appeared in 1869. Philosophy (1873). References Further reading Hamilton by John Veitch (1882) External links 1788 births 1856 deaths 19th-century British philosophers Baronets in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia Doctors of Divinity Scottish philosophers Writers from Glasgow Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Academics of the University of Edinburgh Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Metaphysicians Scottish logicians Scottish knights 19th-century Scottish writers Burials at St John's, Edinburgh	[ -0.8546878695487976, 0.41420066356658936, -0.4188966751098633, -0.19447441399097443, 0.20912694931030273, 0.6352263689041138, 0.7657985687255859, -0.06619761884212494, -0.37749534845352173, 0.13327054679393768, -0.4864600598812103, -0.0727650448679924, -0.8202645778656006, 0.5290064811706543, 0.31705307960510254, 0.6032757759094238, -0.009014108218252659, -0.4527644217014313, -0.22893886268138885, -0.35340651869773865, 0.16923470795154572, 0.0014021185925230384, 0.40669405460357666, 0.5618663430213928, 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206347	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharnabazus%20II	Pharnabazus II	Pharnabazus II (Old Iranian: Farnabāzu, ; ruled 413-374 BC) was a Persian soldier and statesman, and Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. He was the son of Pharnaces II of Phrygia and grandson of Pharnabazus I, and great-grandson of Artabazus I. He and his male ancestors, forming the Pharnacid dynasty, had governed the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia from its headquarters at Dascylium since 478 BC. He married Apama, daughter of Artaxerxes II of Persia, and their son Artabazus was likewise a satrap of Phrygia. According to some accounts, his granddaughter Barsine may have become Alexander the Great's concubine. According to research by Theodor Nöldeke, he was descended from Otanes, one of the associates of Darius in the murder of Smerdis. Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia War with Sparta against Athens (c.413-404 BC) Athens was the dominant power in the Aegean in the 5th century BC, following the repulse of the Achaemenids in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC). Athens, powered by the alliance formed under the Delian League, has even been called the Athenian Empire at that time, and formed the largest threat to the Achaemenid possessions in Asia Minor. Pharnabazus II is first recorded as satrap of this province in 413 BC, when he received orders from Darius II of Persia to send in the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities on the Ionian coast, tribute he had a hard time to obtain due to Athenian interference. Thucydides described this situation, faced by both satraps Pharnabazes and Tissaphernes: He, like Tissaphernes of Caria, entered into negotiations with Sparta and began a war with Athens. The conduct of the war was much hindered by the rivalry between the two satraps, of whom Pharnabazus was by far the more energetic and upright. Pharnabazus initially fought with the Spartans against the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war (431–404 BC), even, in one instance, coming to the rescue of the retreating Spartan forces, and riding his horse into the sea to fend off the Athenians while encouraging his regiment. In 404 BC, Pharnabazus may also have been responsible for the assassination of the Athenian general Alcibiades, who had taken refuge in the Achaemenid Empire. The assassination was probably at the instigation of the Spartans, and specifically Lysander.<ref name="Isocrates 16.40">Isocrates, Concerning the Team of Horses, 16.40 Though many of his details cannot be independently corroborated, Plutarch's version is this: Lysander sent an envoy to Pharnabazus who then dispatched his brother to Phrygia where Alcibiades was living with his mistress, Timandra.</ref> As Alcibiades was about to set out for the Persian court, his residence was surrounded and set on fire. Seeing no chance of escape he rushed out on his assassins, dagger in hand, and was killed by a shower of arrows. Conflict with the Ten Thousand (399 BC) After their victory in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), the Spartans became the dominant power in the Aegean, creating a new threat for the Achaemenid Empire. The Spartans then antagonized the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II by militarily supporting the rival bid of his brother Cyrus the Younger, their ally during the Peloponnesian war, leading to the campaign of the Ten Thousand deep into Achaemenid territory in 401-399 BC. Cyrus the Younger failed, but the relationship between Sparta and the Achaemenid Empire remained adversarial. Pharnabazus was involved in helping the Bithynians against the plundering raids of the Greek Ten Thousand who were returning from their failed campaign in the center of the Achaemenid Empire. He was also trying to stop them from entering Hellespontine Phrygia. His cavalry is said to have killed about 500 Greek mercenaries on that occasion, and mounted several raids on the Greek mercenaries. Pharnabazus then arranged with Spartan Admiral Anaxibius for the rest of the Greek mercenaries to be shipped out of the Asian continent to Byzantium. War with Athens against Sparta (395–387 BC) Conflict with Spartan King Agesilaos in Asia Minor Hellespontine Phrygia was attacked and ravaged by the Spartan king Agesilaos in 396-395 BCE, who particularly laid waste to the area around Daskyleion, the capital of Hellenistic Phrygia. Pharnabazus had several military encounters against the invading Spartans on this occasion. Pharnabazus finally met in person with Agesilaos, and Agesilaos agreed to remove himself from Hellespontine Phrygia proper and retreated to the plain of Thebe in the Troad. In 394, while encamped on the plain of Thebe, Agesilaus was still planning a campaign in the interior of Asia Minor, or even an attack on Artaxerxes II himself, when he was recalled to Greece to fight in the Corinthian War between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. The outbreak of the conflict in Greece had been encouraged by Persian payments to Sparta's Greek rivals, and had for effect to remove the Spartan threat in Asia Minor. Pharnabazus sent Timocrates of Rhodes as an envoy to Greece, and tens of thousands of Darics, the main currency in Achaemenid coinage, were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta. According to Plutarch, Agesilaus said upon leaving Asia Minor "I have been driven out by 10,000 Persian archers", a reference to "Archers" (Toxotai) the Greek nickname for the Darics from their obverse design, because that much money had been paid to politicians in Athens and Thebes in order to start a war against Sparta. Participation to the Corinthian War on the side of Athens (395-393 BC) Pharnabazes went on to aid the Athenians against the Spartans in the Corinthian War (394–387 BC). During this period, Pharnabazus is notable for his command of the Achaemenid fleet at the Battle of Cnidus (394 BC) in which the Persians, allied with the former Athenian admiral and then commissioned into Persian service, Conon, annihilated the Spartan fleet, ending Sparta's brief status as the dominant Greek naval power. Naval raids in Ionia Pharnabazus followed up his victory at Cnidus by capturing several Spartan-allied cities in Ionia, instigating pro-Athenian and pro-Democracy movements. Abydus and Sestus were the only cities to refuse to expel the Lacedaemonians despite threats from Pharnabazus to make war on them. He attempted to force these into submission by ravaging the surrounding territory, but this proved fruitless, leading him to leave Conon in charge of winning over the cities in the Hellespont. Naval raids on the Peloponnesian coast From 393 BC, Pharnabazus II and Conon sailed with his fleet to the Aegean island of Melos and established a base there. This was the first time in 90 years, since the Greco-Persian Wars, that the Achaemenid fleet was going so far west. The military occupation by these pro-Athenian forces led to several democratic revolutions and new alliances with Athens in the islands. The fleet proceeded further west to take revenge on the Spartans by invading Lacedaemonian territory, where the Achaemenids laid waste to Pherae and raided along the Messenian coast. Their aim was probably to instigate a revolt of the Messanian helots against Sparta. Eventually they left due to scarce resources and few harbors for the Achaemenid fleet in the area, as well as the looming possibility of Lacedaemonian relief forces being dispatched. They then raided the coast of Laconia and seized the island of Cythera, where they left a garrison and an Athenian governor to cripple Sparta's offensive military capabilities. Cythera in effect became Achaemenid territory. Seizing Cythera also had the effect of cutting the strategic route between Peloponnesia and Egypt and thus avoiding Spartan-Egyptian collusion, and directly threatening Taenarum, the harbour of Sparta. This strategy to threaten Sparta had already been recommended, in vain, by the exiled Spartan Demaratus to Xerxes I in 480 BC. Pharnabazus II, leaving part of his fleet in Cythera, then went to Corinth, where he gave Sparta's rivals funds to further threaten the Lacedaemonians. He also funded the rebuilding of a Corinthian fleet to resist the Spartans. Xenophon gave a detailed contemporary account of the naval campaign of Pharnabazus in his Hellenica: Rebuilding of the walls of Athens After being convinced by Conon that allowing him to rebuild the Long Walls around Piraeus, the main port of Athens, would be a major blow to the Lacedaemonians, Pharnabazus eagerly gave Conon a fleet of 80 triremes and additional funds to accomplish this task. Pharnabazus dispatched Conon with substantial funds and a large part of the fleet to Attica, where he joined in the rebuilding of the long walls from Athens to Piraeus, a project that had been initiated by Thrasybulus in 394 BC. According to Xenophon in Hellenica: With the assistance of the rowers of the fleet, and the workers paid for by the Persian money, the construction was soon completed. Athens quickly took advantage of its possession of walls and a fleet to seize the islands of Scyros, Imbros, and Lemnos, on which it established cleruchies (citizen colonies). As a reward for his success, Pharnabazus was allowed to marry the king's daughter, Apame. He was recalled to the Achaemenid Empire in 393 BC, and replaced by satrap Tiribazus. Final settlement with Sparta (386 BCE) In 386 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his Athenian allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, to the expense of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, which Sparta agreed to concede to the Achaemenids in exchange for Spartan domination in Greece. In the Treaty of Antalcidas he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. Campaign against Egypt (373 BC) In 377 BC, Pharnabazus was then reassigned by Artaxerxes II to help command a military expedition into rebellious Egypt, having proven his ability against the Spartans. After 4 years of preparations in the Levant, Pharnabazes gathered an expeditionary force had 200,000 Persian troops, 300 triremes, 200 galleys, and 12,000 Greeks under Iphicrates. The Achaemenid Empire had also been applying pressure on Athens to recall the Greek general Chabrias, who was in the service of the Egyptians, but in vain. The Egyptian ruler Nectanebo I was thus supported by Athenian General Chabrias and his mercenaries. Expedition The force landed in Egypt with the Athenian general Iphicrates near Mendes in 373 BC. The expedition force was too slow, giving time to the Egyptians to strengthen defenses. Pharnabazus and Iphicrates appeared before Pelusium, but retired without attacking it, Nectanebo I, king of Egypt, having added to its former defences by laying the neighboring lands under water, and blocking up the navigable channels of the Nile by embankments. (Diodorus Siculus xv. 42; Cornelius Nepos, Iphicrates c. 5.) Fortifications on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile ordered by Nectanebo forced the enemy fleet to seek another way to sail up the Nile. Eventually the fleet managed to find its way up the less-defended Mendesian branch. At this point, the mutual distrust that had arisen between Iphicrates and Pharnabazus prevented the enemy from reaching Memphis. Then the annual Nile flood and the Egyptian defenders' resolve to defend their territory turned what had initially appeared as certain defeat for Nectanebo I and his troops into a complete victory. After several weeks the Persians, and their Greek mercenaries under Iphicrates, had to reembark. The expedition against Egypt had failed. It was the end of the career of Pharnabazus, who was now over 70 years old. Pharnabazus was replaced by Datames to lead a second expedition to Egypt, but he failed and then started the "Satraps' Revolt" against the Great King. From 368 BCE many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt, so Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens. Coinage A large number of coins have been found from that period, presumably in order to pay for the troops, particularly for the Greek troops under Iphicrates. The large coinage was minted in Tarsos, Cilicia. The coins use images of the god of war Ares wearing an Attic helmet, or a seated Baal. Pharnabazus in Greek literature Pharnabazus was one of the best known Satraps among the Greeks, and had many exchanges with them. He is one of the main characters in the Hellenica of Xenophon, also appears in his Anabasis, and is also very present in the History of the Peloponnesian War'' of Thucydides. The family of Pharnabazus was closely related to the Greek world. His son Artabazos II married a Greek noblewoman from Rhodes, and lived in exile with his family at the Macedonian court of Philip II for more than ten years. His granddaughter Barsine may have been Alexander the Great's concubine and may have had a child by him. References Sources Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Admirals of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC rulers Pharnacid dynasty 5th-century BC Iranian people People of the Peloponnesian War Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire People of the Corinthian War Achaemenid Egypt 4th century BC in Egypt	[ -0.41202643513679504, 0.18699780106544495, -0.8519150018692017, 0.2518480718135834, -0.5352187156677246, 1.034551978111267, 0.34452956914901733, 0.2301538586616516, -0.46519964933395386, 0.20438072085380554, -0.026177413761615753, -0.008820552378892899, -1.1092376708984375, -0.09693159908056259, -0.1061987578868866, 0.048714738339185715, 0.09119758754968643, 0.11831220239400864, -0.3601481020450592, -0.4371780455112457, 0.14425142109394073, 0.3679497241973877, 0.3292034864425659, -0.041183583438396454, -0.0941198319196701, 0.37882161140441895, 0.12635250389575958, 0.12510529160499573, -0.1797279417514801, -0.7135733962059021, -0.06025766208767891, 0.2425418496131897, 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206348	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Hamilton	Thomas Hamilton	Thomas, Tommy, or Tom Hamilton may refer to: Scottish peers Thomas Hamilton, 1st Earl of Haddington (1563–1637), Scottish administrator, Lord Advocate and judge Thomas Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Haddington (1600–1640), Scottish nobleman Thomas Hamilton, 3rd Earl of Haddington (1626–1645), Scottish nobleman Thomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington (1680–1735), Scottish politician and nobleman Thomas Hamilton, 7th Earl of Haddington (1721–1794), Scottish nobleman Thomas Hamilton, 9th Earl of Haddington (1780–1858), British Conservative politician and statesman Literature and academia Thomas Hamilton (writer) (1789–1842), Scottish philosopher and author Thomas Hamilton (university administrator) (1842–1926), Northern Ireland clergyman and academician Thomas H. Hamilton (1914–1979), American academic administrator Thomas Wm. Hamilton (1939-), astronomer namesake of asteroid 4897 Tomhamilton and author of science fiction Sports Thomas Ferrier Hamilton (1820–1905), Australian cricketer, also a pastoralist and politician Thomas Hamilton (cricketer, born 1992), English cricketer Thomas Hamilton (footballer, born 1872) (1872–1942), Scottish international footballer Thomas Hamilton (footballer, born 1906) (1906–1964), Scottish international footballer Thomas Hamilton (basketball) (born 1975), American basketball player Tom Hamilton (American football) (1905–1994), American football player, coach, college athletics administrator and naval aviator Tom Hamilton (baseball) (1925–1973), Major League Baseball player Tom Hamilton (footballer, born 1893) (1893–1959), Scottish footballer Tom Hamilton (sportscaster) (born 1956), radio announcer for the Cleveland Guardians Major League Baseball team Tommy Hamilton (born 1935), Irish former footballer Music Tom Hamilton (musician) (born 1951), American bassist with Aerosmith Tom Hamilton Jr. (born 1978), American songwriter, musician and producer Tom Hamilton (electronic musician), American pop/electro/rock musician Others Thomas Hamilton (architect) (1784–1858), Scottish architect, or his father, Thomas Hamilton (1754–1824), also an architect Thomas de Courcy Hamilton (1825–1908), Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross Thomas Kinley Hamilton (1853–1917), Irish doctor and land speculator in Australia Thomas Glendenning Hamilton (1873–1935), Canadian doctor, school board trustee and member of the Manitoba legislature Thomas F. Hamilton (1894–1969), aviator and founder of the Hamilton Standard Company Thomas Watt Hamilton (1952–1996), perpetrator of the Dunblane massacre Tom Hamilton (aircraft designer), founder of Stoddard-Hamilton Aircraft Tom Hamilton (politician) (born 1954), Unionist politician in Northern Ireland Thomas Hamilton, Lord Priestfield (died 1611), Scottish judge Thomas W. Hamilton (Medal of Honor) (1833–1869), United States Navy Medal of Honor recipient See also Hamilton (name)	[ 0.18741481006145477, 0.18049457669258118, -0.09585323929786682, -0.2431870698928833, -0.12509872019290924, 0.5559382438659668, 0.5219614505767822, -0.3050307035446167, -0.3860379457473755, -0.3133792281150818, -0.44884854555130005, 0.4241168797016144, -0.5422968864440918, 0.35924962162971497, -0.17619436979293823, 0.319184273481369, 0.25102412700653076, -0.13858631253242493, -0.23151895403862, -0.4156942367553711, -0.11838653683662415, -0.1660393625497818, 0.02663656510412693, 0.10870566964149475, 0.4264107644557953, 0.22952333092689514, 0.5836512446403503, -0.3440667986869812, 0.12606759369373322, 0.0183845404535532, 0.018863845616579056, -0.2870277166366577, 0.3332057297229767, -0.3360135853290558, -0.6445192694664001, -0.39626482129096985, -0.4167846739292145, -0.8681957721710205, 0.0446784645318985, -0.08790778368711472, 0.019885104149580002, -0.52779221534729, 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206349	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Scott%20%28novelist%29	Michael Scott (novelist)	Michael Scott (30 October 1789 – 7 November 1835) was a Scottish author and autobiographer who wrote under the pseudonym Tom Cringle. Life and work Scott was born in Scotland at Cowlairs, near Glasgow, the son of a Glasgow merchant. In 1806 he went to Jamaica, first managing some estates, and afterwards joining a business firm in Kingston. The latter post necessitated his making frequent journeys, on the incidents of which he based his best known book, Tom Cringle's Log. In 1822 he left Jamaica and settled in Glasgow, where he engaged in business. Tom Cringle's Log began to appear serially in Blackwood's Magazine in 1829. Scott’s second story, The Cruise of the Midge, was also first published serially in Blackwood's in 1834–1835. The first appearance in book-form of each story was in Paris in 1834. Both stories - "interesting autobiographical portraits of jamaica in the 1820s, written by a perceptive and sympathetic, but transient observer" - were originally published anonymously, and their authorship was not known till after Scott's death at Glasgow. Craig Lamont has placed Michael Scott within a 'Glasgow School' of early nineteenth century Scottish novelists, along with John Galt and Thomas Hamilton. '' References External links 1789 births 1835 deaths Scottish novelists	[ 0.0004862720088567585, 0.5554629564285278, -0.5376583337783813, -0.564811646938324, 0.4043745696544647, 0.7520991563796997, 0.9206833243370056, 0.381741464138031, -0.3094986379146576, -0.23234526813030243, -0.286281943321228, -0.14420963823795319, -0.44106224179267883, 0.024076545611023903, 0.06908482313156128, 0.33506277203559875, -0.23778748512268066, -0.2291909158229828, -0.6177108287811279, -0.17238697409629822, -0.2714528441429138, -0.28061720728874207, 0.3318672776222229, -0.043623682111501694, 0.5243555903434753, -0.10406295210123062, 0.4994639754295349, -0.7022651433944702, 0.010296241380274296, -0.29079753160476685, -0.05049537122249603, 0.32755419611930847, 0.5322304964065552, 0.06446138769388199, -0.3361314833164215, -0.04373052716255188, -0.9456540942192078, -0.16188649833202362, -0.3404460847377777, 0.08092229068279266, -0.15586386620998383, 0.13601736724376678, 0.3747653663158417, 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206351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEB%20Group	SEB Group	Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken AB (, ), abbreviated SEB, is a Swedish financial group for corporate customers, institutions and private individuals with headquarters in Stockholm. Its activities comprise mainly banking services, but SEB also carries out significant life insurance operations and also owns Eurocard. The bank was founded and is controlled by the Swedish Wallenberg family through their investment company Investor AB. History In 1972, Stockholms Enskilda Bank (established in 1856 by André Oscar Wallenberg) and Skandinaviska Banken (established in 1864) merged to form SEB. Reasons for the merger included creating a bank better positioned to serve corporate clients and to fend off competition from major international banks. SEB acquired Swedish insurance company Trygg-Hansa in 1997, and integrated its life insurance activities. The property and casualty insurance portion of Trygg-Hansa was later sold. In 1998, the company changed its logo and brand name from SE-Banken to SEB. At the end of that same year, SEB bought its first shares of the three Baltic banks Eesti Ühispank (Estonia), Latvijas Unibank (Latvia) and Vilniaus Bankas (Lithuania). In 2000, SEB acquired Germany’s Bank für Gemeinwirtschaft (BfG) and the remaining parts of the three Baltic banks. In early 2001, the company announced plans for a merger with the FöreningsSparbanken (now Swedbank), which was called off when the European Commission demanded major concessions for its approval. After several years of weak profitability, SEB sold its German retail banking operations to Spain's Banco Santander in January 2011. SEB sold its retail banking operations in Ukraine to Eurobank Group in June 2012. Business In Sweden and the Baltic countries, SEB is a universal bank, offering financial advice and a wide range of financial services to all customer segments. In Denmark, Finland, Norway and Germany the bank’s operations have a strong focus on a full-service offering to corporate and institutional clients. SEB also has branches or representative offices in New York, São Paulo, London, Luxembourg, Geneva, Warsaw, Moscow, St Petersburg, Kiev, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore and New Delhi. SEB serves 3,000 corporate and institutional customers, 400,000 small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and more than 4 million individuals. Since January 2016, the company is operating through four business divisions; Large Corporates & Financial Institutions, Corporate & Private Customers, Life & Investment Management and Baltic. Corporate social responsibility Since 2009, SEB has published a separate corporate sustainability report in line with Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines. SEB is also committed to global initiatives such as the United Nation’s Global Compact, the principles for responsible investments, and the Equator principles. Since 2011, SEB has published sector policies for the renewable energy, arms & defence, shipping, mining & metals, fossil fuel and forestry industries. In addition, the company has position statements regarding climate change, freshwater and child labour. Subsidiaries Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken A/S (Denmark) SEB Pank (Estonia) DSK Hyp (formerly SEB AG) (Germany) SEB Banka (Latvia) SEB bankas (Lithuania) SEB Corporate Bank (Ukraine) SEB Bank (Russia) SEB SA (Luxembourg) References External links Data Yahoo! - Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken AB Company Profile 1972 establishments in Sweden Banks of Denmark SEB Banks of Sweden Companies based in Stockholm Companies listed on Nasdaq Stockholm Companies related to the Wallenberg family Financial services companies established in 1972 Banks established in 1972 Financial services companies of Sweden Swedish brands	[ 0.2594253420829773, -0.13729168474674225, -0.016199547797441483, -0.29433950781822205, -0.1920313686132431, 0.2335931956768036, -0.010617089457809925, 0.059547197073698044, -0.4441201984882355, 0.2708337604999542, -0.20444855093955994, -0.4055190980434418, -0.03138343244791031, 0.13843853771686554, -0.6406893730163574, -0.09586489945650101, 0.6708031892776489, 1.0317950248718262, 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206353	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver%20E.%20Williamson	Oliver E. Williamson	Oliver Eaton Williamson (September 27, 1932 – May 21, 2020) was an American economist, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and recipient of the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, which he shared with Elinor Ostrom. His contributions to transaction cost economics and the theory of the firm are influential in the social sciences. Life and career Williamson was born in Superior, Wisconsin, on 27 September 1932. He was the son of Sara Lucille (Dunn) and Scott Williamson, both of whom were high school teachers. Williamson attended Central High School in Superior. He received his B.S. in management from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1955. After graduating, he worked as a project engineer for General Electric, as well as the Central Intelligence Agency. He received an MBA from Stanford University in 1960, and his Ph.D. from Carnegie Mellon University in 1963. A student of Ronald Coase, Herbert A. Simon and Richard Cyert, he specialized in transaction cost economics. From 1963 to 1965 he was an Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. From 1965 to 1983 he was a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and from 1983 to 1988, Gordon B. Tweedy Professor of Economics of Law and Organization at Yale University. While at Yale, Williamson was a founder of The Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization. He held professorships in business administration, economics, and law at the University of California, Berkeley since 1988 and was the Edgar F. Kaiser Professor Emeritus at the Haas School of Business. As a Fulbright Distinguished Chair, in 1999 he taught Economics at the University of Siena. Found to be one of the most cited authors in the social sciences, in 2009, he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for "his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm", sharing it with Elinor Ostrom. Williamson died on May 21, 2020 in Berkeley, California. Theory By drawing attention at a high theoretical level to equivalences and differences between market and non-market decision-making, management and service provision, Williamson was influential in the 1980s and 1990s debates on the boundaries between the public and private sectors. His focus on the costs of transactions led Williamson to distinguish between repeated case-by-case bargaining on the one hand and relationship-specific contracts on the other. For example, the repeated purchasing of coal from a spot market to meet the daily or weekly needs of an electric utility would represent case-by-case bargaining. But over time, the utility is likely to form ongoing relationships with a specific supplier, and the economics of the relationship-specific dealings will be importantly different, he argued. Other economists have tested Williamson's transaction-cost theories in empirical contexts. One important example is a paper by Paul L. Joskow, "Contract Duration and Relationship-Specific Investments: Empirical Evidence from Coal Markets", in American Economic Review, March 1987. The incomplete contracts approach to the theory of the firm and corporate finance is partly based on the work of Williamson and Coase. Williamson was credited with the development of the term "information impactedness", which applies in situations in which it is difficult to ascertain the costs to information. As he explained in Markets and Hierarchies, it exists "mainly because of uncertainty and opportunism, though bounded rationality is involved as well. It exists when true underlying circumstances relevant to the transaction, or related set of transactions, are known to one or more parties but cannot be costlessly discerned by or displayed for others". Thus, Williamson is to be counted among those who have taken issue with the view that the firm is another type of market, characterized by a nexus of contracts. In his own words: "But to regard the corporation only as a nexus of contracts misses much of what is truly distinctive about this mode of governance…" Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences In 2009, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences cited Williamson and Elinor Ostrom to share the 10-million Swedish kronor (£910,000; $1.44 million) prize "for his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm". Williamson, in the BBC's paraphrase of the academy's reasoning, "developed a theory where business firms served as structures for conflict resolution". Personal life He met his wife Dolores Celini in 1957, while they both lived in Washington, D.C. They had five children. Awards and fellowships The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, 2009. Distinguished Fellow, American Economic Association, 2007. Horst Claus Recktenwald Prize in Economics, 2004. Fellow, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1997. Member, National Academy of Sciences, 1994. Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1983. Fellow, Econometric Society, 1977. Alexander Henderson Award, 1962. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, Université Paris-Dauphine, 2012. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, Nice University, 2005. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, University of Valencia, 2004. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, University of Chile, 2000. Honorary Doctorate in Economics and Business Administration, Copenhagen Business School, 2000. Doctoris Honoris Causa, HEC Paris, 1997. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Business Administration, St. Petersburg University, 1997. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economics, Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, 1995. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economic Science, Groningen University, 1989. Doctoris Honoris Causa in Economic Science, University of St. Gallen, 1987. Oeconomiae Doctorem Honoris Causa, Ph.D., Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, Jubilee Celebration, 1986. Selected papers Books See also Theory of the firm New institutional economics References External links Oliver E. Williamson at University of California, Berkeley including the Nobel Lecture on 8 December 2009 Transaction Cost Economics: The Natural Progression Profile and Papers at Research Papers in Economics/RePEc From the Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley: HNW Story Press Release From the University of California, Berkeley: Press Release In The News: San Francisco Chronicle Wall Street Journal (October 12, 2009) Wall Street Journal (October 12, 2009) Wall Street Journal (October 12, 2009) Wall Street Journal (October 13, 2009) New York Times Washington Post ABC7 News, San Francisco KTVU, San Francisco 1932 births 2020 deaths People from Superior, Wisconsin New institutional economists American business theorists American Nobel laureates Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Nobel laureates in Economics Fellows of the Econometric Society Tepper School of Business alumni Haas School of Business faculty Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni MIT Sloan School of Management alumni University of Pennsylvania faculty Yale University faculty Economists from Wisconsin 20th-century American writers 21st-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American economists 21st-century American economists Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association	[ -0.14990240335464478, 0.24810051918029785, -0.5283485651016235, 0.27301687002182007, 0.4191760718822479, 0.6741064190864563, -0.03203270584344864, 0.018789105117321014, -0.3644661009311676, 0.35731273889541626, -0.18913863599300385, 0.39673593640327454, -0.08783826977014542, 0.46864262223243713, -0.4514477849006653, 0.19955509901046753, -0.34801703691482544, -0.23480044305324554, -0.2614080309867859, 0.029652809724211693, -0.3098500370979309, -0.5077742338180542, 0.3687550127506256, 0.6281431913375854, -0.2059810608625412, 0.10362602770328522, -0.06486228108406067, -0.8101863265037537, -0.11737325042486191, 0.3825719952583313, -0.022937487810850143, 1.0140676498413086, 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206355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Veitch%20%28poet%29	John Veitch (poet)	Prof John Veitch (October 24, 1829 – September 3, 1894), Scottish philosopher, poet and historian. He was born in Peebles, the only son of Peninsular War veteran James Veitch and his wife Nancy Ritchie, a woman steeped in the folk traditions of the Borders. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh. He was assistant lecturer successively to Sir William Hamilton and Alexander Campbell Fraser (1856–60). In 1860 he was appointed to the chair of logic, metaphysics and rhetoric at the University of St Andrews, and in 1864 to the corresponding chair at the University of Glasgow. In St. Andrews, he lived at 8 Playfair Terrace. In Glasgow, he lectured to working men and women and between 1877 and 1883 put on courses for the Glasgow Association for the Higher Education of Women. He founded the Scottish Mountaineering Club in 1892. He deplored the damaging environmental impacts of industrialisation and campaigned to save old buildings. In philosophy an intuitionist, he was dismissive of idealist arguments. He is remembered chiefly for his work on the literature and antiquities of the Scottish Borders. See Memoir by his niece, Mary RL Bryce (1896). Publications translations of Descartes' Discours de la méthode (1850) and Méditationes (1852) an edition of Sir William Hamilton's lectures with memoir (1869, in collaboration with HL Mansel) Tweed, and other Poems (1875) Lucretius and the Atomic Theory (1875) The History and Poetry of the Scottish Border (1877; ed. 1893) Hamilton (1882) The River Tweed from its Source to the Sea (1884) Institutes of Logic (1885) The Feeling for Nature in Scottish Poetry (1887) Knowing and Being (1889) Merlin (1889) Dualism and Monism (1895) Border Essays (1896). References External links 1829 births 1894 deaths Scottish philosophers People from Peebles 19th-century Scottish poets Academics of the University of Glasgow Academics of the University of St Andrews	[ 0.01008126512169838, 0.6036747097969055, 0.031403642147779465, -0.6639081835746765, -0.8868662714958191, 0.6014460325241089, 1.2479186058044434, 0.39746472239494324, -0.17117634415626526, -0.4738536477088928, -0.4136672914028168, -0.09528597444295883, -0.18890279531478882, 0.7504961490631104, 0.19854815304279327, 0.36510953307151794, -0.3366594910621643, -0.0438322015106678, -0.32567062973976135, -0.35175254940986633, 0.0005121583235450089, -0.17536486685276031, 0.39265865087509155, 0.24036359786987305, 0.13251623511314392, 0.22334614396095276, 0.17263390123844147, -0.475178062915802, -0.20167647302150726, 0.38651198148727417, -0.013771357014775276, 0.2959010899066925, 0.4404714107513428, -0.3121108114719391, -0.3102761507034302, -0.10763850063085556, -0.021143032237887383, 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206356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD%20calendar	Baháʼí calendar	The Badíʻ calendar used in the Baháʼí Faith is a solar calendar consisting of 19 months and 4-5 Intercalary Days, with new year at the northern spring equinox. Each month is named after virtues (e.g. Perfection, Mercy), as are the days of the week. The first year is dated from 1844 CE, the year in which the Báb began teaching. Years on the calendar are annotated with the date notation of BE (Baháʼí Era). The Baháʼí year BE {{#ifexpr: <79 \|will start\|started}} on March . History The Baháʼí calendar started from the original Badíʿ calendar, created by the Báb in the Kitabu'l-Asmáʼ and the Persian Bayán (5:3) in the 1840s. An early version of the calendar began to be implemented during his time. It used a scheme of 19 months of 19 days (19×19) for 361 days, plus intercalary days to make the calendar a solar calendar. The first day of the early implementation of the calendar year was Nowruz, while the intercalary days were assigned differently than the later Baháʼí implementation. The calendar contains many symbolic meanings and allusions including connections to prophecies of the Báb about the next Manifestation of God termed He whom God shall make manifest. Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, who claimed to be the one prophesied by the Báb, confirmed and adopted this calendar. Around 1870, he instructed Nabíl-i-Aʻzam, the author of The Dawn-Breakers, to write an overview of the Badíʿ calendar. In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (1873) Baháʼu'lláh made Naw-Rúz the first day of the year, and also clarified the position of the Intercalary days to immediately precede the last month. Baháʼu'lláh set Naw-Rúz to the day on which the sun passes into the constellation Aries. Baháʼís interpret this formula as a specification of the vernal equinox, though where that should be determined was not defined. The calendar was first implemented in the West in 1907. The Baháʼí scriptures left some issues regarding the implementation of the Badíʿ calendar to be resolved by the Universal House of Justice before the calendar can be observed uniformly worldwide. On 10 July 2014 the Universal House of Justice announced provisions that will enable the common implementation of the Badíʿ calendar worldwide, beginning at sunset 20 March 2015, coinciding with the completion of the ninth cycle of the calendar (see below). Before that time, the Baháʼí calendar was synchronized to the Gregorian calendar by starting the year at sunset on March 20, regardless of when the vernal equinox technically occurs, meaning that the extra day of a leap year occurred simultaneously in both calendars. The intercalary days always stretched from 26 February to 1 March, automatically including the Gregorian leap day so that there were 4 intercalary days in a regular year, and 5 in a Gregorian leap year. The Universal House of Justice selected Tehran, the birthplace of Baháʼu'lláh, as the location at which the time and date of the vernal equinox is to be determined according to astronomical tables from reliable sources. These changes, which "unlocked" the Badíʿ calendar from the Gregorian calendar, came into effect at the start of year 172 BE. Significance As the name Badíʿ (wondrous or unique) suggests, the Baháʼí calendar is indeed a unique institution in the history of human culture. Sociologist Eviatar Zerubavel notes that the 19-day cycle creates a distinctive rhythm which enhances group solidarity. (Zerubavel argues that the 19 day cycle is more properly defined as a week, rather than a month, because it bears "no connection whatsoever" to the lunar cycle.) Furthermore, by finding the closest approximation of the square root of the annual cycle, Baháʼís "have managed to establish the most symmetrical relationship possible between the week and the year, which no one else throughout history has ever managed to accomplish." Years Years in the Baháʼí calendar are counted from Thursday 21 March 1844, the beginning of the Baháʼí Era or Badíʿ Era (abbreviated BE or B.E.). Year 1 BE thus began at sundown 20 March 1844. The length of each year is strictly defined as the number of days between the opening and closing days of the year, with the number of intercalary days adjusted as needed. The year ends on the day before the following vernal equinox. Vernal Equinox The first day of each year (Naw-Rúz) is the day (from sunset to sunset) in Tehran containing the moment of the vernal equinox. This is determined in advance by astronomical computations from reliable sources. Since the Gregorian calendar is not tied to the equinox, the Gregorian calendar shifts around by a day or two each year, as shown in the following table. Months The Baháʼí calendar is composed of 19 months, each with 19 days. The intercalary days, known as Ayyám-i-Há, occur between the 18th and 19th months. The names of the months were adopted by the Báb from the Du'ay-i-Sahar, a Ramadan dawn prayer by Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, the fifth Imam of Twelver Shiʻah Islam. These month names are considered to be referring to attributes of God. In the Persian Bayan the Báb divides the months into four groups known as "fire", "air", "water" and "earth" - which are three, four, six and six months long respectively. Robin Mirshahi suggests a possible link with four realms described in Baháʼí cosmology. Ismael Velasco relates this to the "arc of ascent". In the following table, the Gregorian date indicates the first full day of the month when Naw-Rúz coincides with 21 March. The month begins at sunset of the day previous to the one listed. Ayyám-i-Há The introduction of intercalation marked an important break from Islam, as under the Islamic calendar the practice of intercalation had been specifically prohibited in the Qurʼan. The number of the intercalary days is determined in advance to ensure that the year ends on the day before the next vernal equinox. This results in 4 or 5 intercalary days being added. These days are inserted between the 18th and 19th months, falling around the end of February in the Gregorian calendar. The number of days added is unrelated to the timing of the Gregorian leap year. Significance in the Baháʼí Faith The annual Nineteen Day Fast is held during the final month of ʻAláʼ. The month of fasting is followed by Naw-Rúz, the new year. The monthly Nineteen Day Feast is celebrated on the first day of each month, preferably starting any time between the sunset on the eve of the day to the sunset ending the day. Days in a Month The nineteen days in a month have the same names as the months of the year (above), so, for example, the 9th day of each month is Asmá, or "Names". Weekdays The Baháʼí week starts on Saturday, and ends on Friday. Like Judaism and Islam, days begin at sunset and end at sunset of the following solar day. Baháʼí writings indicate that Friday is to be kept as a day of rest. The practice of keeping Friday as a day of rest is currently not observed in all countries; for example, in the UK, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís confirmed it does not currently keep this practice. Cycles Also existing in the Baháʼí calendar system is a 19 year cycle called Váḥid and a 361 year (19×19) supercycle called Kull-i-S͟hayʼ (literally, "All Things"). The expression Kull-i-Shayʼ was used frequently by the Báb. It has its origins in Sufism and the significance of the numbers 19 and 361 were possibly already associated by Ibn Arabi (1165 – 1240). Each of the 19 years in a Vahid has been given a name as shown in the table below. The 10th Váḥid of the 1st Kull-i-S͟hayʼ started on 21 March 2015, and the 11th Váḥid will begin in 2034. The current Baháʼí year, year 178 BE (20 March 2021 – 20 March 2022), is year Abad of the 10th Váḥid of the 1st Kull-i-S͟hayʼ. The 2nd Kull-i-S͟hayʼ will begin in 2205. The concept of a 19-year cycle has existed in some form since the 4th century BCE. The Metonic cycle represents an invented measure that approximately correlates solar and lunar markings of time and which appears in several calendar systems. Years in a Váḥid See also List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar Baháʼí Holy Days Baháʼí Faith Calendar Intercalation (timekeeping) 19 (number) Zoroastrian calendar Notes References Further reading Primary sources "Additional material gleaned from Nabíl's Narrative (vol. II), regarding the Baháʼí Calendar." in: Baháʼí World, vol. III (1928–1930) until vol. XX (1986–1992). Baháʼí World Centre, Haifa. "Letter of the Universal House of Justice", 10 July 2014. Baháʼí World Centre (2017). Days of Remembrance – Selections from the Writings of Baháʼu'lláh for Baháʼí Holy Days. Secondary sources Mihrshahi, Robin (2013). A Wondrous New Day: The Numerology of Creation and 'All Things' in the Badíʿ Calendar. Momen, Moojan (2014). The Badíʻ (Baháʼí) Calendar: An Introduction. External links Baháʼí Dates 172 to 221 B.E. (2015 – 2065; prepared by the Baha'i World Centre) (pdf) Slide Show: Introduction to the Badíʿ Calendar Feast Days by year Badíʻ Calendar Calculator (detailed information about past and future dates, specific to location) Wondrous-Badíʿ Today (dynamic display of today's date for your location optimized for mobile browsers) Arithmetic of the Baháʼí Calendar, and Variants (archived) Baháʼí Calendar, Baháʼí Events and Holy Days (types: Persian, Islamic, Gregorian) (archived) Momen, Moojan. 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206357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Campbell%20Fraser	Alexander Campbell Fraser	Alexander Campbell Fraser (3 September 1819 – 2 December 1914) was a Scottish theologian and philosopher. Life He was born in the manse at Ardchattan, Argyll, the son of the parish minister, Rev Hugh Fraser, and his wife, Maria Helen Campbell. He was the eldest of twelve children. Due to ill-health he was educated by his mother then sent to Glasgow aged 14 to study divinity at the University of Glasgow under Prof James Mylne. However, he did not find Glasgow to his liking as a city and stayed there only one year. He completed his studies at University of Edinburgh, graduating at Divinity Hall in 1843. This was a tumultuous year in the Scottish church, and Fraser decided to join the Free Church following the Disruption. He was ordained in 1844 and became minister of the small parish of Cramond on the Firth of Forth just on the outer edge of Edinburgh. Remaining in Edinburgh he succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of logic at New College in 1846 and remained in this role until 1856. He edited the North British Review from 1850 to 1857, and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church of Scotland minister, he succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and Metaphysics at Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became Dean of the Faculty of Arts at the university and retained this role for 30 years. In 1831 Sir William Hamilton was appointed to the chair of logic and metaphysics, and Fraser became his pupil. He himself said "I owe more to Hamilton than to any other influence." It was about this time also that he began his study of Berkeley and Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the conception of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the Biographia this "Theistic faith" appears in its full development (see the concluding chapter), and is especially important as perhaps the nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original English philosophy. Apart from the philosophical interest of the Biographia, the work contains valuable pictures of the Lam of Lorne and Argyllshire society in the early 19th century, of university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and a history of the North British Review. In 1858 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh his proposer being Philip Kelland. In 1897 he was presented to Queen Victoria during her diamond jubilee tour of Scotland. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled Biographia philosophica, in which he sketched the progress of his intellectual development. From this work and from his Gifford Lectures (1894–96) we learn objectively what had previously been inferred from his critical work. After a childhood spent in an austerity which stigmatised as unholy even the novels of Sir Walter Scott, he began his college career at the age of fourteen at a time when Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were lecturing on Moral Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance was stimulated by Thomas Brown's Cause and Effect, which introduced him to the problems which were to occupy his thought. From this point he embraced the scepticism of David Hume. Fraser was a personal idealist. He received an honorary Doctorate of Letters (D.Litt.) from the University of Dublin in June 1902. Until his wife's death in 1907, he lived at a house in Hawthornden near Lasswade. Thereafter he lived at 34 Melville Street in Edinburgh's fashionable West End. Fraser is buried in the small northern cemetery at Lasswade with his wife, Jemima Gordon (1819–1907), against the north boundary. Family In 1850 at St Cuthberts in Edinburgh he married Jemima Gordon Dyce (1819-1907) daughter of William Dyce. His eldest son Hugh John Edward Fraser (1851–1908) was an advocate and died without issue. He is buried in Dean Cemetery. His daughter Maria Helen (1859–1947) married Robert Forman died 1914 without issue. His youngest son The Rev Alexander Campbell Fraser (1860–1941) married Mary Matthew (1863–1946). One son Alexander Campbell Fraser (1889–1968) His great grandson, Patrick Alexander Campbell Fraser (b 1933), married Kalitza Spurway, daughter of Marcus Spurway in 1961. Artistic Recognition Fraser's portrait, by George Reid PRSA, hangs in the Old College in Edinburgh University. Selected publications Fraser devoted himself to the study of British and Irish philosophers, especially George Berkeley, and published: Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop Berkeley with Annotations, etc. (1871; enlarged 1901). Charles Peirce praised this edition for both including some writing not in other editions, and offering a more carefully edited texts. While Peirce praised the book for the provision of useful introductions, he opined that the explanatory notes disfigured every page in an unnecessary and useless manner. Biography of Berkeley (1881), Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay (1894), Philosophy of Theism (1896) A biography of Thomas Reid (1898) in the "Famous Scots Series". He contributed the article on John Locke to the Encyclopædia Britannica. References External links Fraser's Gifford Lectures on Philosophy of Theism 1819 births 1914 deaths British ethicists George Berkeley scholars Alumni of New College, Edinburgh Academics of the University of Edinburgh Fellows of the British Academy Idealists Philosophical theists Scottish philosophers	[ -0.10843987762928009, 0.6549063920974731, -0.9412432909011841, -0.5244495272636414, -0.4997590184211731, 0.90230393409729, 1.4449893236160278, -0.09987983852624893, 0.12315090000629425, -0.40961185097694397, -0.501594066619873, 0.18326978385448456, -0.21918146312236786, 0.4288637936115265, 0.1799468696117401, 0.4201570749282837, -0.05125681310892105, -0.6692773103713989, -0.6873202919960022, 0.030481558293104172, -0.21081967651844025, 0.09455690532922745, 0.3242838978767395, 0.2622583210468292, -0.21169313788414001, 0.17573416233062744, 0.5302132964134216, 0.006563383620232344, 0.10160891711711884, -0.031555645167827606, 0.3064616620540619, 0.3263886868953705, 0.20288430154323578, 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206358	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism	Holism	Holism (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book Holism and Evolution. Meaning The exact meaning of "holism" depends on context. Smuts originally used "holism" to refer to the tendency in nature to produce wholes from the ordered grouping of unit structures. However, in common usage, "holism" usually refers to the idea that a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In this sense, "holism" may also be spelled "wholism" (although the two are not etymologically related), and it may be contrasted with reductionism or atomism. Practices The term holistic when applied to diet refers to an intuitive approach to food, eating, or lifestyle. One example is in the context of holistic nursing, where "holism" refers to assessment of a person's health, including psychological and societal factors, rather than only their physical conditions or symptoms. In this sense, holism may also be called "holiatry." Some religious institutions practice a holistic dietary and health approach, such as Hinduism and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Philosophy In philosophy of science, logical holism is the concept that a theory can only be understood in its entirety. Michael Esfeld has suggested that holism is opposed to analytic philosophy, "holism with respect to intentional phenomena is widespread among analytic philosophers". See also Antireductionism Christian materialism Emergentism Gaia hypothesis Holistic education Holism in science Monism Organicism Synergy Systems theory References Further reading Fodor, Jerry, and Ernst Lepore, Holism: A Shopper's Guide Wiley. New York. 1992 Phillips, D.C. Holistic Thought in Social Science. Stanford University Press. Stanford. 1976. 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206359	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scania%20AB	Scania AB	Scania AB is a major Swedish manufacturer headquartered in Södertälje, focusing on commercial vehicles—specifically heavy lorries, trucks and buses. It also manufactures diesel engines for heavy vehicles as well as marine and general industrial applications. Scania was formed in 1911 through the merger of Södertälje-based Vabis and Malmö-based Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania. Since 1912, the company has been re-located again to Södertälje after the merger. Today, Scania has production facilities in Sweden, France, the Netherlands, Thailand, China, India, Argentina, Brazil, Poland, Russia and Finland. In addition, there are assembly plants in ten countries in Africa, Asia and Europe. Scania's sales and service organisation and finance companies are worldwide. In 2012, the company employed approximately 42,100 people around the world. Scania was listed on the NASDAQ OMX Stockholm stock exchange from 1996 to 2014. The company is a subsidiary of Traton, part of the Volkswagen Group. Scania's logo shows a griffin, from the coat of arms of the province of Scania (). History Vabis and Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania AB Scania-Vabis was established in 1911 as the result of a merger between Södertälje-based Vabis and Malmö-based Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania. Vagnfabriks Aktiebolaget i Södertelge (Vabis) was established as a railway car manufacturer in 1891, while Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania was established as a bicycle manufacturer in 1900. Both companies had tried their luck at building automobiles, trucks and engines, but with varied success. In 1910, Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania had succeeded in constructing reliable vehicles, while Vabis was at the brink of closing down. An offer from Per Alfred Nordeman, managing director of Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania, to steel manufacturer Surahammars Bruk, owner of Vabis, led to an agreement in November 1910, and in 1911 the merger was a reality. Development and production of engines and light vehicles were set to Södertälje, while trucks were manufactured in Malmö. The company's logo was redesigned from Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania's original logo with the head of a griffin, the coat of arms of the Swedish region Scania (Skåne), centered on a three-spoke bicycle chainset. Initially the headquarters were located in Malmö, but in 1912 they were moved to Södertälje. First World War and 1920s Because there were many inexpensive, imported cars in Sweden at the time, Scania-Vabis decided to build high-class, luxury cars, for instance the type III limousine from 1920 that had a top hat holder in the roof. Prince Carl of Sweden owned a 1913 Scania-Vabis 3S, a type which was fitted with in-car buttons so the passenger could communicate with the driver. Scania-Vabis also built two-seat sports cars (or "sportautomobil"). For the next few years the company's profits stagnated, with around a third of their orders coming from abroad. The outbreak of the First World War, however, changed the company, with almost all output being diverted to the Swedish Army. By 1916, Scania-Vabis was making enough profit to invest in redeveloping both of their production facilities. Following the war, in 1919, Scania decided to focus completely on building trucks, abandoning other outputs including cars and buses. However, they were hurt by the swamping of the market with decommissioned military vehicles from the war, and by 1921 the company was bankrupt. After some economic difficulties in 1921, new capital came from Stockholms Enskilda Bank owned by the Wallenberg family, and Scania-Vabis became a solid and technically, high standing, company. Denmark Towards the end of 1913, the company established a subsidiary in Denmark. The following year the first Danish-built car, a four-seater Phaeton, was built at the company's Frederiksberg factory in Copenhagen. In 1914, the factory produced Denmark's first Scania-Vabis truck, and following this developed a V8 engine, one of the first in the world. In 1921, having sold around 175 trucks, and 75 cars, the Danish operation was closed down. Norway In 1917 an agreement was established with the newly formed Norwegian company Norsk Automobilfabrik A/S about production under license of Scania-Vabis cars and lorries. Production began in 1919, but was ended in 1921 after production of only 77 lorries, mostly built from Swedish produced parts. 1930s and 1940s During the Second World War Scania produced a variety of military vehicles for the Swedish Army, including Stridsvagn m/41 light tanks produced under licence. 1950s and 1960s During the 1950s, the company expanded its operations into new customer segments, becoming agents for the Willys Jeep and the Volkswagen Beetle, the latter being very profitable for Scania-Vabis. It also started to become a genuine competitor to Volvo with their new L71 Regent truck which was introduced in 1954. During this period, Scania-Vabis expanded its dealer network and country-wide specialist workshop facilities. By the end of the 1950s, their market-share in Sweden was between 40 and 50%, and was achieving 70% in the heaviest truck sector – helped by the entrepreneurial efforts of their dealers into the haulier market. Probably their largest impact was in export markets. Before 1950, exports accounted for only 10 percent of production output, but a decade later, exports were now at 50% of output. Beers in the Netherlands became a very important partner. Beers became official importers for Scania-Vabis in the Netherlands, and established a dealer network, along with training programmes for both mechanics and drivers. Beers also offered free twice-yearly overhauls of their customers vehicles, and offered a mobile service throughout the Netherlands with their custom-equipped service trucks. Due to Beers concerted efforts, Scania-Vabis market share in the country remained at a consistent 20% throughout this period. Scania-Vabis were to adopt the business model of Beers in their own overseas sales operations. The 1960s saw Scania-Vabis expanding its production operations into overseas locations. Until now, all Scania-Vabis production had been carried out solely at Södertälje, but the 1960s saw the need to expand production overseas. Brazil was becoming a notable market for heavy trucks, and was also dependent on inter-urban buses, with particular requirement for Brazil's mountainous roads which became nigh-on impassable at times. On 2 July 1957, Brazilian subsidiary Scania-Vabis do Brasil S.A. (today known as Scania Latin America Ltda.) was established and started assembling some vehicles themselves in 1958. On 29 May 1959, a new engine plant was inaugurated in the Ipiranga district of São Paulo, and from June 1960, Scania-Vabis do Brasil assembled all vehicles themselves. Scania-Vabis vehicles had already been assembled in Brazil by a local company called Vemag (Veículos e Máquinas Agrícolas S.A.) for several years. Scania-Vabis established its first full manufacturing plant outside Södertälje, by building a new facility in São Bernardo do Campo near São Paulo, which was opened on 8 December 1962, and this was to set the standard for Scania-Vabis international operations. Closer to home, the recently formed European Economic Community (EEC) offered further opportunities. Based on their now strong presence in the Dutch markets, Scania-Vabis constructed a new plant in Zwolle, which was completed in 1964. This new Dutch facility provided Scania-Vabis with a stepping stone into the other five EEC countries, particularly the German and French markets. In 1966, Scania-Vabis acquired ownership of a then valuable supplier – Be-Ge Karosserifabrik, who were based in Oskarshamn. Be-Ge had been making truck cabs since 1946, and had been supplying cabs not only to Scania-Vabis, but also to their Swedish competitors Volvo. It was normal practice for truck manufacturers to outsource production of cabs to independent bodybuilders, so their acquisition by Scania-Vabis seemed a good move. Be-Ge owner Bror Göthe Persson had also established an additional cab factory at Meppel. Scania-Vabis continued their expansion of production facilities through acquisitions. In 1967, they acquired Katrineholm based coachwork company Svenska Karosseri Verkstäderna (SKV), and created a new subsidiary, Scania-Bussar. A year later, all bus production, along with R&D was moved to Katrineholm. Further production locations were added at Sibbhult and Falun, and Scania's employee numbers rose, particularly at Södertälje, which was to help double the town's population. Scania-Vabis at some point in their history also manufactured trucks in Botswana, Brazil, South-Korea, Tanzania, the Netherlands, Zimbabwe and the United States. For some time Daimler-Benz waged a 'logo war' with Scania-Vabis, claiming a possible confusion between the Scania-Vabis 'pedal crank' design featuring on Scania bicycles around 1900 and the Mercedes 'three-pointed star'. In 1968, Daimler-Benz won and the Scania-Vabis logo changed to a simple griffin's head on a white background. In February 1968, a new range of trucks was launched, and at the same time the company was rebranded as just Scania. In addition to Vabis disappearing from the name and a new logo, all current models received new model designations. 1970s and 1980s In 1976, the Argentinian industrial complex was launched. A few months later, on 10 September, the first gearbox outside of Sweden was manufactured and finally in December an L111 truck became the first Scania made in Argentina. Soon the plant specialised in the production of gearboxes, axles and differentials that equipped both the units produced in Tucumán and those built in Brazil. Also in Argentina, in 1982 the Series 2 was launched as part of the "Scania Program", consisting of the T-112 and R-112 trucks with two cab versions and different options in engine and load capacity. In 1983, was launched the K112 made in Tucuman (like the rest models) for replace the BR-116. In mid-1985 Scania entered the US market for the first time (aside from having sold 12,000 diesel engines installed in Mack trucks from 1962 until 1975), starting modestly with a goal of 200 trucks in all of 1987 (121 trucks were sold during calendar year 1986). Scania limited their marketing to New England, where conditions resemble those in Europe more closely. Many examples of Scania, Vabis and Scania-Vabis commercial and military vehicles can be seen at the Marcus Wallenberg-hallen (the Scania Museum) in Södertälje. Ownership Saab-Scania AB (1969–1995) On 1 September 1969, Scania merged with Saab AB, and formed Saab-Scania AB. When Saab-Scania was split in 1995, the name of the truck and bus division changed simply to Scania AB. One year later, Scania AB was introduced on the stock exchange, which resulted in a minor change of name to Scania AB (publ). Aborted Volvo takeover On 7 August 1999, Volvo announced it had agreed to acquire a majority share in Scania. Volvo was to buy the 49.3% stake in Scania that was owned by Investor AB, Scania's then main shareholder. The acquisition, for US$7.5 billion (60.7 billion SEK), would have created the world's second-largest manufacturer of heavy trucks, behind DaimlerChrysler. The cash for the deal was to come from the sale of Volvo's car division to Ford Motor Company in January 1999. The merger failed, after the European Union disapproved, announcing one company would have almost 100% market share in the Nordic markets. Aborted MAN takeover In September 2006, the German truckmaker MAN AG launched a €10.3bn hostile offer to acquire Scania AB. Scania's CEO Leif Östling was forced to apologise for comparing the bid of MAN to a "Blitzkrieg". MAN AG later dropped its hostile offer, but in January 2008, MAN increased their voting rights in Scania up to 17%. Volkswagen Group era Scania AB is 100% owned by the German automotive company Volkswagen Group, forming part of its heavy commercial vehicle subsidiary, Traton, along with MAN Truck & Bus and Volkswagen Caminhões e Ônibus. Volkswagen gained ownership of Scania by first buying Volvo's stake in 2000, after the latter's aborted takeover attempt, increasing it to 36.4% in the first quarter 2007. It then bought out Investor AB in March 2008, raising its share to 70.94%. The deal was approved by regulatory bodies in July 2008. Scania then became the ninth marque in the Volkswagen Group. By 1 January 2015, Volkswagen controlled 100% of the shares in Scania AB. Price-fixing fines In September 2017, Scania was fined 880 million euros (8.45bn Swedish krona) by the EU for taking part in a 14-year price fixing cartel. The other five members of the cartel – Daimler, DAF, MAN, Iveco and Volvo/Renault – settled with the commission in 2016. Products Trucks and special vehicles Scania develops, manufactures and sells trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 16 tonnes (Class 8), intended for long-distance haulage, regional, and local distribution of goods, as well as construction haulage. The 1963 forward-control LB76 forged Scania-Vabis's reputation outside Sweden, being one of the first exhaustively crash-tested truck cabs. Current All current trucks from Scania are part of the PRT-range, but are marketed as different series based on the general cab height. L-series – launched in December 2017. It has an even lower cab than the P-series, and is optimised for distribution and other short-haul duties. P-series – launched in August 2004, typical applications are regional and local distribution, construction, and various specialised operations associated with locally based transportation and services. P-series trucks have the new P cabs, which are available in several variations: a single-berth sleeper, a spacious day cab, a short cab and a crew cab G-series – launched in September 2007, the series offer an enlarged range of options for operators engaged in national long haul and virtually all types of construction applications. All models have a G cab, and each is available as a tractor or rigid. The G-series truck comes with five cab variants: three sleepers, a day cab and a short cab. There are different axle configurations, and in most cases a choice of chassis height and suspension R-series – launched in March 2004, and won the prestigious International Truck of the Year award in 2005 and again in 2010. The range offers various trucks optimised for long haulage. All models have a Scania R cab, and each vehicle is available as a tractor or rigid. There are different axle configurations and a choice of chassis height and suspension. The Scania R 730 is the most powerful variant of the R-series. Its 16.4-litre DC16 Turbo Diesel V8 engine produces at 1,900 rpm and of torque at 1,000–1,350 rpm. S-series – launched in August 2016. It is the highest cab Scania has ever built. It features a completely flat floor and a low bed that is extendable up to 100 cm (about 3.28 feet). Historical CLb/CLc (1911–27) DLa (1911–26) ELa (1912–26) FLa (1911–24) GLa (1914–23) 314/324/325 (1925–36) 335/345/355 (1931–44) L10/F10/L40/F40/L51 Drabant (1944–59) L20/L60/L71 Regent (1946–58) L75/L76/LB76 (1958–68) L55/L56/L66 (1959–68) L36 (1964–68) 50, 80, 85, 110, 140 (1968–74) 81, 86, 111, 141 (1974–81) 2-series: 82, 92, 112, 142 (1980–88) 3-series: 93, 113, 143 (1987–97) 4-series: 94, 114, 124, 144, 164 (1995–2004) T-series (2004–05) – former part of the PRT-range Buses and coaches Scania's bus and coach range has always been concentrated on chassis, intended for use with anything between tourist coaches to city traffic, but ever since the 1950s, when the company was still known as Scania-Vabis, they have manufactured complete buses for their home markets of Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia, and since the 1990s even for major parts of Europe. Chassis Scania-Vabis was involved in bus production from its earliest days, producing mail buses in the 1920s. In 1946, the company introduced their B-series of bus chassis, with the engine mounted above the front-axle, giving a short front overhang and the door behind the front-axle. The first generation consisted of the B15/B16, the B20/B21/B22 and the B31, primarily divided by weight class, and then by wheelbase. The latter became upgraded in 1948 and renamed 2B20/2B21/2B22 and 3B31. The T31/T32 trolleybus chassis was also available from 1947. In 1950, the next generation was introduced, with the B41/B42, the B61/B62/B63/B64 and later the B83. From then, Scania-Vabis also offered the BF-series chassis, available as BF61/BF62/BF63, which had the engine more conventionally mounted before the front-axle, leaving room for the door on a longer front overhang. From 1954, the B-series came as B51 and B71, and the BF as BF71 and later BF73. In 1959, the B55, B65 and B75, plus the BF75 were introduced, and were from 1963 available as B56, B66 and B76, plus the BF56 and BF76. Before the rebranding to Scania in 1968, Scania-Vabis had delivered a very limited number of CR76 chassis-frameworks (less actual bodywork) with transversally rear-mounted engine for external bodying, based on the complete bus with the same name. From 1968 it was also delivered as a standard bus chassis known as BR110. The other chassis models were renamed too, so the Scania-Vabis B56/B76 became the Scania B80/B110 and the BF56/BF76 became BF80/BF110. The numbers in the new model designations were based on the engine displacement (8 and 11-litre), a scheme that Scania used for almost 40 years. In 1971, a new range of longitudinally mounted rear-engined chassis was launched, with the BR85 and its larger brother, the V8-powered 14-litre BR145, targeted at the coach market. In Brazil, the higher powered version was equipped with the standard 11-litre instead of the V8, known as the BR115. Also the BR111 was launched as the replacement for the BR110, being derived from the CR111 complete bus. In 1976, many of the models were renewed, and designations were upped from 80 and 85 to 86, and from 110 to 111, except the BR145 which was later replaced by the BR116 in 1978. The BR112 was launched in 1978 as a forerunner to the 2-series, replacing the BR111. The rest of the 2-series were launched in 1981 with the F82/F112 replacing the BF86/BF111 and the S82/S112 replacing the B86/B111, and then in 1982 the K82/K112 replacing the BR86/BR116. The BR112 was then updated to the N112 in 1984, and a tri-axle version of the K112 became available, known as the K112T. In 1985, the K82 and F82 were replaced by the 8.5-litre engined K92 and F92. Front-engined versions were in general discontinued on the European markets in the mid-1980s, but production continued in Brazil. In 1988, the 3-series was introduced, continuing the main models of the 2-series. In 1990, the new L113 became available, with a longitudinally rear-mounted engine which was inclined 60° to the left, to make a lower height than the K113. The 4-series was launched in 1997, continuing all model characteristics from the 3-series, but with all of them being just modular configurations of the basic chassis. The 8.5-litre engine was replaced by a 9-litre, and the 11-litre was replaced by an 11.7-litre. They were joined by a 10.6-litre engine in 2000. The current Scania's bus and coach range has been available since 2006, and is marketed as the K-series, N-series and F-series, based on the engine position. Current K-series – rear-engined (longitudinal mounted) with Euro III – Euro VI compliant engines N-series – rear-engined (transversal mounted) with Euro III – Euro VI compliant engines F-series – front-engined with Euro III and Euro V compliant engines Historical B55/B56/B65/B66/B75/B76/B80/B110 BF56/BF75/BF76/BF80/BF110 BR110 BR85/BR115/BR145 B86/B111 BF86/BF111 BR111 BR86/BR116 2-series: BR112/N112, F82/F92/F112, K82/K92/K112, S82/S112 3-series: F93/F113, K93/K113, L113, N113, S113 4-series: F94, K94/K114/K124, L94, N94 Complete buses Scania-Vabis' first complete bus model was the transversally rear-engined commuter bus Metropol (C50), which was built in the workshop in Södertälje on licence from the Mack C50 in 1953–1954 for customer Stockholms Spårvägar. It was followed in 1955 by the slightly shorter city bus version Capitol (C70/C75/C76), which was manufactured until 1964. In 1959, the front-engined CF-series was introduced with the CF65 and CF75 (later CF66 and CF76). The CF-series was built until 1966. In 1965, the rear-engined CR76 was introduced as a replacement for the Capitol. It was available in two versions; the CR76M with double doors (2-2-0) for city and suburban traffic, and the CR76L with single doors (1-1-0) for longer distances. Because of Sweden's switch to right-hand traffic in September 1967 and the need for new buses with doors on the right-hand side, the model sold well. With the rebranding from Scania-Vabis to Scania in 1968, the model was renamed CR110 (CR110M and CR110L). In 1967, the coachwork manufacturer Svenska Karosseri Verkstäderna (SKV) in Katrineholm was acquired, and all production of bus chassis soon moved there too. Together with the rebranding in 1968, Scania re-introduced the front-engined CF range for customers in Sweden as a body-on-chassis product with the newly acquired SKV's former bodywork model "6000" on standard Scania chassis, but less than 100 were delivered until 1970. The CF110L (BF110 chassis) was the most successful, while a handful of C80L (B80) and C110L (B110) were made. In 1971, the CR110 was upgraded and became the CR111. With extended sound-proofing for its time, it was marketed as the "silent bus". The same year, Scania also introduced a new range of longitudally rear-engined coaches known as the CR85 and the CR145. While CR85 had the small 8-litre engine, the CR145 was powered by a 14-litre V8 engine. The coaches were built until 1978, but never sold very well. In 1973, one right-hand drive CR145 prototype was built in Sweden, with the finishing touches done by MCW, but it remained the only one of its kind. The CR111 was replaced by the all-new CR112 in 1978. With its angular design, the CR112 was called a "shoebox". As with the BR112 chassis being renamed the N112, the CR112 was renamed the CN112 in 1984, and it was also launched in an articulated version. A North American version of the CN112 was built in around 250 units between 1984 and 1988. The CK112 was launched as a simple coach or intercity bus in 1986, sharing most of the styling with the CN112. With the launch of the 3-series in 1988, both the CN112 and CK112 were upgraded to CN113 and CK113. The CK113 was replaced by the L113-based CL113 in 1991 with new rectangular headlights, but production ended in 1992. Less than 100 units of the CK112/CK113/CL113 were ever built. The MaxCi (CN113CLL), launched in 1992, was Scania's first ever low-entry bus, with a low floor between the front and centre doors, and kneeling to make entering even easier. The bodywork was based on the CN113, but with a lowered window line in the front half, and a new front including the headlights from the CL113. In 1996, the aluminium body OmniCity was launched as Scania's first full low-floor bus, and in 1998 the MaxCi was replaced by the OmniLink, which shared styling with the OmniCity. A step-entrance intercity bus returned with the OmniLine in 2000. In 2007, Scania returned to the complete coach market with the Finnish-built OmniExpress, which in 2011 even replaced the OmniLine, which had gone out of production in 2009. Scania's current styling was first seen in 2009, with the launch of the Touring coach, manufactured by Higer Bus in China, and in 2011 the Citywide was launched to replace both the OmniCity and the OmniLink. Scania in India launched their very own Metrolink coach in 2013, built at their plant there. The Interlink was then launched in October 2015 to replace the OmniExpress. The latest addition to Scania's complete bus models is the Fencer range featuring buses to coaches, the F1 single decker bus was launched in May 2021 initially for the UK market and available in diesel and electric drivetrains. Current Citywide – low-floor and low-entry city bus range Fencer – low-floor urban, intercity and coach range Interlink – coach and intercity bus range Metrolink – coach for India Touring – premium coach, manufactured by Higer Bus Historical Metropol (C50) – rear-engined step-entrance commuter bus Capitol (C70/C75/C76) – rear-engined step-entrance city bus CF65/CF75/CF66/CF76 – front-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus CR76/CR110/CR111 – rear-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus C80/C110/CF110 – front-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus CR85/CR145 – rear-engined coach CR112/CN112/CN113 – rear-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus (rigid/articulated) CK112/CK113/CL113 – rear-engined intercity bus MaxCi (CN113CLL) – low-entry city bus OmniCity – low-floor city bus (rigid/articulated/double-decker) OmniExpress – coach and intercity bus range OmniLink – low-entry city bus (rigid/articulated) OmniLine – intercity bus Buses through collaborations In addition to supplying chassis for external bodywork, and their own bodyworks, Scania have also collaborated with some bodywork manufacturers to deliver buses through Scania's distribution lines, both on a global base and on smaller markets. In 1969, Scania teamed up with MCW to make the Metro-Scania single-decker for the UK market based on the BR110MH, and since 1971 the BR111MH chassis. In 1973, it was replaced by the Metropolitan double-decker, built on the BR111DH chassis. Production ended in 1978, when the BR111 was replaced by the BR112. East Lancashire Coachbuilders (ELC) launched their low-entry MaxCi in 1993, one year after Scania's own left-hand drive version. It was followed by the L113-based European in 1995 until 1996. In 2003, ELC was back with both the OmniDekka double-decker and the OmniTown midibus to complement Scania's own OmniCity. Since the mid-1990s, Scania started a long-lasting collaboration with Spanish bus builder Irizar to sell their coaches through Scania's global distribution network. The agreement meant that Scania had exclusive distribution rights for all Irizar coaches in Northern Europe for many years. The most widespread model was the Irizar Century, but later also the Irizar PB was sold as Scania's premium coach. In 1985, Scania's Norwegian distributor and the Finnish bus builder Ajokki announced the Scania Classic, a coach built exclusively for Norway. It was technically based on Ajokki's own Royal coach model, but received its own styling details. In 1990, when Ajokki had become Carrus, the second generation was launched based on the Vector/Regal models. The third generation from 1995 was also available in Sweden and Finland in limited numbers, and the fourth and last generation from 2001 was built with the same bodywork as the Volvo 9700. Volvo, who had bought Carrus in 1998, put the foot down against any further Scanias with this bodywork from 2002, and since then Scania instead put the "Classic" sticker on all Irizar Century sold in Norway for several years. The collaboration also led to some Norway-exclusive intercity buses; the Scania Cruiser (Ajokki Victor), Scania Universal (Carrus Fifty) and Scania InterClassic (Carrus Vega), but neither of these had special styling, nor as successful as the Classic. In 2006, Scania and Higer Bus announced the A80, the first coach in the Higer A Series of coaches built on Scania chassis in China. The coaches are generally available in Asia, but the A30 is also available in Europe as an affordable intercity bus or simple coach. Even the A80 is globally available, but under make-up known as the Scania Touring HD, also referred to as the A80T. Since 2012, Scania and Belgian bus manufacturer Van Hool offer some of their most luxurious coaches from their TX series on Scania K EB chassis, including the Astronef with theatrical floor, the Astromega double-decker and the Altano. Since 2014, also the Exqui.City BRT concept is available on Scania N UA chassis with CNG-powered engines. Diesel engines In addition to bus and truck engines, Scania's industrial and marine engines are used in generator sets and in earthmoving and agricultural machinery, as well as on board ships and pleasure crafts. Scania's involvement with internal combustion engine production dates back to 1897, when engineer Gustav Erickson designed the engine for the company's first motor car. Over the subsequent years, Scania has grown to be one of the world's most experienced engine manufacturers, building engines not only for trucks and buses, but also for marine and general industrial applications, which are exported across the globe. Year in parentheses is first year of application in road vehicles. Current DC07 I6 cc (2014) − licensed Cummins ISB 6.7 for buses DC09/DI09 I5 cc (2007) DC13/DI13 I6 cc (2007) DC16/DI16 V8 cc (2010) Historical D10/DS10 I6 cc (1958) D7 I6 cc (1959) D8/DS8 I6 cc (1962) D11/DN11/DS11/DSC11/DSI11 I6 cc (1963) D5/DS5 I4 cc (1964) DI14/DS14/DSC14/DSI14 V8 cc (1969) DC9/DI9/DN9/DS9/DSC9 I6 cc (1984) DC9 I6 cc (1996) DH12/DI12/DSC12/DSI12/DT12 I6 cc (1996) DC11 I6 cc (1999) DC16 I6 cc (2000) DC9 I5 cc (2004) Other products Scania also designs and manufacture clothes especially designed for truckers under the label Scania Truck Gear. Scania is featured in Scania Truck Driving Simulator and Euro Truck Simulator 2, both developed by SCS Software. Production sites The table below shows the locations of the current and former production facilities of Scania AB. As Scania is now majority owned by Volkswagen AG, making it part of Volkswagen Group, the table also includes Volkswagen Group references. Notes: the second column of the table, the 'factory VIN ID code', is indicated in the 11th digit of the vehicles' 17 digit Vehicle Identification Number, and this factory code is only assigned to plants which produce complete vehicles. Component factories which do not produce complete vehicles do not have this factory ID code. In 2015 Scania opened its first Asian Plant in Bangalore, Karnataka, India. This plant specialises in bus and coach making. In November 2020 Scania bought truck company Nantong Gaokai based in China's eastern city of Rugao to start making vehicles there. Former production site See also Ainax – holding company created after an attempted acquisition of Scania by Volvo Marcus Wallenberg-hallen – Swedish vehicle museum, including Scania vehicles List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines – includes all current Scania engines References External links The Scania Museum – Marcus Wallenberg Hall Traton Companies formerly listed on Nasdaq Stockholm Bus manufacturers of Sweden Truck manufacturers of Sweden Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1911 Motor vehicle engine manufacturers Engine manufacturers of Sweden Emergency services equipment makers Diesel engine manufacturers Multinational companies headquartered in Sweden Companies based in Södertälje Södertälje Municipality Swedish brands Swedish companies established in 1911 Marine engine manufacturers Electrical generation engine manufacturers 1996 initial public offerings 2014 mergers and acquisitions	[ 0.4514222741127014, 0.229983851313591, 0.2499455064535141, -0.10879575461149216, 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206360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint	Constraint	Constraint may refer to: Constraint (computer-aided design), a demarcation of geometrical characteristics between two or more entities or solid modeling bodies Constraint (mathematics), a condition of an optimization problem that the solution must satisfy Constraint (classical mechanics), a relation between coordinates and momenta Constraint (information theory), the degree of statistical dependence between or among variables Constraints (journal), a scientific journal Constraint (database), a concept in relational database See also Biological constraints, factors which make populations resistant to evolutionary change Carrier's constraint Constrained optimization, in finance, linear programming, economics and cost modeling Constrained writing, in literature Constraint algorithm, such as SHAKE, or LINCS Constraint satisfaction, in computer science Finite domain constraint First class constraint in Hamiltonian mechanics Integrity constraints Loading gauge, a constraint in engineering Optimality theory, in linguistics, a constraint-based theory which is primarily influential in phonology Primary constraint in Hamiltonian mechanics Restraint (disambiguation) Second class constraint in Hamiltonian mechanics Secondary constraint in Hamiltonian mechanics Structure gauge, a constraint in engineering Theory of constraints, in business management	[ -0.29799288511276245, 0.23701274394989014, -0.21691559255123138, 0.7158288955688477, -0.1948413848876953, 0.4598851203918457, -0.035666387528181076, -0.26820310950279236, -0.34295740723609924, -0.6534401774406433, -0.633665919303894, 0.5188655853271484, -0.6028395891189575, 0.30492913722991943, 0.44839003682136536, 0.45634230971336365, 0.32830336689949036, -0.1828739494085312, -0.35650792717933655, -0.11629310250282288, -0.04209337756037712, -0.0924554318189621, 0.13620495796203613, -0.005933411885052919, 0.2920762002468109, -0.2691996991634369, 0.2512017786502838, 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206361	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour%20of%20Flanders	Tour of Flanders	The Tour of Flanders (), also known as De Ronde ("The Tour"), is an annual road cycling race held in Belgium every spring. The most important cycling race in Flanders, it is part of the UCI World Tour and organized by Flanders Classics. Its nickname is Vlaanderens Mooiste (Dutch for "Flanders' Finest"). First held in 1913, the Tour of Flanders had its 100th edition in 2016. Today it is one of the five monuments of cycling, together with Milan–San Remo, Paris–Roubaix, Liège–Bastogne–Liège and the Giro di Lombardia. It is one of the two major Cobbled classics, anticipating Paris–Roubaix, which is on the calendar one week after the Tour of Flanders. The event had its only interruptions during World War I and has been organized without hiatus since 1919, the longest uninterrupted streak of any cycling classic. Six men hold the record of most victories, making the Tour of Flanders unique among the major classics. Belgians Achiel Buysse, Eric Leman, Johan Museeuw and Tom Boonen, Italian Fiorenzo Magni and Swiss Fabian Cancellara each have three victories. Since 2004, a women's race, the Tour of Flanders for Women, is organized annually on the same day as the men's but on a shorter distance. Creation The Ronde as a regional symbol The Tour of Flanders was conceived in 1913 by Léon van den Haute, co-founder of the sports newspaper Sportwereld. In the era it was customary for publishers of newspapers and magazines to organise cycling races as a means of promoting circulation. By the beginning of the 20th century, cycling was in a poor state in Belgium. Velodromes were closing and national championships on the road or track were no longer organised. The one major Belgian race, Liège–Bastogne–Liège, was in the French-speaking South. As the gloom increased, Odile Defraye became the first Belgian winner of the Tour de France in 1912. He was a 20-year-old Fleming and, although he rode for Alcyon, a French team, he symbolized a potential rise for Belgian cycling. Defraye's victory inspired August De Maeght, mayor of Halle and director of the press group Société Belge d'Imprimerie, to publish a Dutch-language sports magazine called Sportwereld. Sportwereld'''s most prominent cycling writer was Karel Van Wijnendaele,Karel Wijnendaele.be a young sports journalist and passionate cycling fan who had tried cycle-racing himself. The first issue appeared in time for the Championship of Flanders on 12 September 1912. Van Wijnendaele became the editor of Sportwereld on 1 January 1913. The Ronde and Flemish nationalism Much has been written about the link between cycling in Flanders and Flemish nationalism. Van Wijnendaele wanted to create a race run entirely on Flemish soil, crossing as many cities as possible, because "all Flemish cities had to contribute to the liberation of the Flemish people".Van Wijnendaele, born into a poor Flemish family of flax workers, had worked for well-to-do French-speaking families in Brussels and Ostend and felt humiliated by the way they treated him. The Tour of Flanders is the only classic to have been held on German-occupied territory during the Second World War and in full agreement with the German command. The Germans not only allowed and enjoyed the race but helped police the route as well. This led to accusations of collaboration in an age where many Flemish nationalists had strong ties with Nazi Germany. After the War, De Standaard and Het Algemeen Nieuws-Sportwereld were sequestered by the state and several journalists, largely non-sports reporters, were sentenced for collaboration. Van Wijnendaele was forbidden to work as a journalist for life – a ban lifted when he produced a letter of support from General Montgomery, confirming that he had hidden downed British pilots during the war and had protected them in his house. A rival Flemish newspaper, Het Volk, started the Omloop van Vlaanderen in 1945. Het Volk, a left-wing publication, wanted to initiate a new cycling event in Flanders as a rival race to what it saw as the Ronde's closeness to the Nazis. The Ronde's organizers protested that the name was too close to their own – in Dutch there is little difference between Ronde and Omloop. The Belgian cycling federation demanded that Het Volk change the name of their event. That race became the Omloop Het Volk, nowadays the opening race of the Belgian cycling season. History The first races On 25 May 1913 Karel van Wijnendaele organized the first Tour of Flanders, crossing the two western provinces of Flanders. It started at six in the morning in Ghent and finished in Mariakerke, now a suburb of Ghent. It covered , all on bad roads with just the occasional cycle path. The race finished on a wooden velodrome that circled a pond in Mariakerke, where ticket sales covered only half the prizes. The first race in 1913 was won by 25-year-old Paul Deman, who won the sprint of a six-man group after more than 12 hours in the saddle. Deman went on to win Bordeaux–Paris in 1914, but his career almost ended with World War I. He joined Belgium's espionage underground war effort and smuggled documents into the neutral Netherlands by bike. After many trips he was arrested by the Germans, jailed in Leuven and held for execution. The Armistice of 1918 saved his life and he became a war hero.He started racing again and won Paris–Roubaix in 1920 and Paris–Tours in 1923. Schroeders, Fer (1999), Les Classiques du 20ème Siècle, De Eeclonaar, Belgium, , p146 The first race consisted of 37 riders, followed by five assistance cars. In 1914 the field was 47 and the organization still struggled to find enough financial resources. A disappointed van Wijnendaele later said: Sportwereld was so young and so small for the big Ronde that we wanted. We had bitten off more than we could chew. It was hard, seeing a band of second-class riders riding across Flanders, scraping up a handful of centimes to help cover the costs. The same happened in 1914. No van Hauwaert, no Masselis, no Defraeye, no Mosson, no Mottiat, no Van Den Berghe, all forbidden to take part by their French bike companies. However, there were hints of the growing status of the race as a symbol of Flemish nationalism (see above). Marcel Buysse, one of Flanders' cycling icons in the early 20th century, insisted on entering the race, against the order of his French Alcyon team that forbade Belgian riders to participate. Buysse took part in the second edition in 1914 as one of the favourites and won the sprint of a group of six on the velodrome of Evergem, in the vicinity of Ghent. The distance was scaled back to . 1920s: Birth of a legend The Tour of Flanders was interrupted for the duration of World War I and was resumed again without interruptions as from 1919. The interwar editions were marked by appalling road conditions and grisly landscapes in war-ridden Flanders, but the Tour of Flanders gained popularity fast. In the 1920s Flemish track specialists dominated the race. Gérard Debaets, a specialist of six-day racing in the American circuit, won the race twice; in 1924 as one of only 17 finishers in dreadful weather conditions. Swiss Heiri Suter became the first foreign winner in 1923 and achieved the first ever cobbled races "double" win with Paris–Roubaix one week later. In 1926, a group of ten sprinted to the finish. Five of them crashed heavily and Denis Verschueren, competing in his first race as a professional, won the event. The start and finish of the race in Ghent started to attract hordes of fans and by the end of the 1920s, the Ronde had become the pinnacle of the cycling season in Flanders. 1930s: Problems of success Founder Karel Van Wijnendaele was keen on bad weather. He wanted the Tour of Flanders to be a symbol of Flemish culture and a metaphor of the country. As a journalist, he romanticized the race's protagonists in the image of the Flemish people of the time: hard-working, struggling men in a constant battle with the elements. His rhetoric, combined with often harsh conditions, contributed to the image of the Tour of Flanders as a character race where only the most headstrong and physically robust could win. Rider characteristics Since the early years, winners of the Tour of Flanders acquired the literary epithet Flandrien or Flahute – a French term eagerly used by the Flemish press. Flandriens were riders with a formidable durability who were able to ride fast all day, over vast distances and in all weathers. Their exploits helped cement bike racing as the foremost sport in Flanders. Because of its demanding course and specific characteristics, the Tour of Flanders has favoured a certain type of cyclists in modern times, known as classics specialists or specialists of the cobbled classics. Main contenders must possess a broad range of athletic potential in order to win. The aggressive nature of the climbs favours explosive riders, but the length of the race requires the highest level of fitness and durability. Although the race has never ended in a mass sprint, sprinters often do well, especially those who evolved into classic riders, like Tom Boonen or Alexander Kristoff. Time trial specialist Fabian Cancellara successfully focused on the cobbled classics, thereby using his ability to maintain a high pace as a strong weapon on the last hills and on the flat run-in to the finish. Cancellara finished solo on two of his three wins. Many recent top-placed finishers of the cobbled classics share the same physical attributes. Record winners Johan Museeuw [ and ], Tom Boonen [ and ] and Fabian Cancellara [ and ], totalling nine combined victories, are all powerful riders and among the "heavier" types of cyclists. Recent Norwegian winner and classics specialist Alexander Kristoff is in the same range at 181 cm and 78 kg. These physical features are not absolute however. Two-times winner Peter Van Petegem [ and ] and 2011 winner Nick Nuyens [ and ] were noticeably smaller riders. Notable editions 1919: Van Lerberghe's speech Gabe Konrad writes: "The 1919 winner, van Lerberghe, showed up on the line in full racing attire but, for some reason, without a bike. He borrowed one from the brother-in-law of another competitor and, prior to the starting gun, threatened the pack that he was going to drop them all at their own front doors on the way to victory. Van Lerberghe hadn't had, and would never have, an impressive career, and all the cyclists laughed as he pulled away immediately – never to be caught. Just prior to entering the velodrome for the finish, van Lerberghe stopped off at a pub to take in a few beers. His manager, worrying that he would miss a chance at victory, had to track him down and get him back on the bike. After he had crossed the line and done his lap of honour, van Lerberghe stood in front of the crowd and, in all seriousness, told them 'to go home; I'm half a day ahead of the field.'"Ritten van Lerberghe's victory speech was reported in dialect, presumably to reflect his manner of speech, as "Gaat nu ollemoale nar huz weijje. En komt morgen achternoene were, 'k lig nen halven dag vorut." Van Wijnendaele wrote occasionally in dialect and frequently in a distinctive style of Dutch that emphasised his peasant origins and the way the language had developed differently from in the neighbouring Netherlands. 1939: Kaers' training ride Karel Kaers, the youngest man to win the world road championship, also won the Ronde in 1939 – without intending to. For him, it was training for Paris–Roubaix. He drove to the Kwaremont hill near Kluisbergen, parked his car, then rode to the start in Ghent. His plan was to ride round the course with his usual training partner, stop when he got to his car, then drive home. Knowing he wasn't riding the whole distance, Kaers jumped clear of the field – again as training – and rode up the Kwaremont with a minute's lead. But his car wasn't there. He pressed on instead and won the race. His manager had driven the car away to save Kaers from temptation. 1944: Van Steenbergen's lucky day Rik Van Steenbergen said: "When I turned pro, I couldn't ride it straight away. There were three categories of rider: road-riders A, road-riders B, and track riders. I was registered with the federation as a track rider. At first they wouldn't let me ride the national championship. But Jean van Buggenhout, the manager, got me reclassified on the Wednesday before the race. I won it and became an 'A' rider. Then I could start the year in the Tour of Flanders. I was 19 and I'll probably stay the youngest person ever to win." Van Steenbergen was in the break when several riders fell on the cinder track to the track in Ghent. Van Steenbergen rode round the fallen and won. Next year he decided not to ride. Van Wijnendaele was offended. But Van Steenbergen had realised why he'd turned pro: to make a living. "I could probably win more money elsewhere," he said. "The Tour of Flanders didn't have the attraction that it does now, especially not internationally." 1946: Van Steenbergen again Van Steenbergen returned in 1946 and won again. He said: "That was one of my best wins ever. I could do whatever I liked, ride better than anyone. In the end I was with Briek Schotte and Enkel Thiétard. They were happy just to follow me. We made an agreement. I said that they could stay with me until we got to Kwatrecht. I wouldn't drop them provided they'd do their best to work with me. They were happy with that. They didn't have a choice. Under the bridge at Kwatrecht I just got rid of them." 1951: Magni's festival Fiorenzo Magni, a rare Italian in Belgian classics, won so many intermediate prizes during his long solo flight that they would have bought him a house (see above). He was one of nine to escape the field at Ingelmunster. The others cracked one by one until Magni was alone by Strijpen – the point where he made his winning move the previous year. He rode the last alone to win the Ronde for the third successive year. Magni won by almost eight minutes and the first five finishers were foreigners. 1961: Simpson vs. Defilippis Such a gale blew in 1961 that the banner over the finish line blew down. The British rider Tom Simpson was clear with the better-known Italian champion, Nino Defilippis. Simpson, the weaker sprinter, accelerated for the line with a kilometre to go. It was too far and Defilipis came past him as he weakened. Simpson struggled to stay with him and was delighted when the Italian began freewheeling just before the finish. Defilippis said he didn't know where the finish was because the banner had blown down, but the two riders had already covered two previous laps of the finishing circuit. For the same reason, the Italian protest that the line on the road wasn't clearly marked also failed. Defilippis asked Simpson to agree to a tie, saying no Italian had won a classic since 1953. Simpson said: 1969: Merckx' panache Eddy Merckx dominated world racing in both classics and stage races but couldn't win the Ronde. By 1969 he had not only frustration to contend with but rising resentment of other riders unhappy that he won so many races. He attacked early and half the field never saw him again. The other half was reduced with each successive attack until he got clear alone. The chase was furious but ineffective and Merckx won by more than five and a half minutes over Felice Gimondi and more than eight minutes on the rest. The Ronde remained an unhappy race for him; it was another six years before he won again. 1985: Vanderaerden in the storm Bad weather has often hit the Ronde. In 1985, a storm broke in the second half of the race. The weather was so bad that only 24 made it to the finish. The race historian, Rik Vanwalleghem, said: "It was a legendary Ronde, one which wrote Sport with a capital S. It was as cold as Siberia all day and the rain fell in torrents (regende het pijpenstelen) [...] In this apocalyptic background Eric Vanderaerden got back to the front after looking beaten to ride at the head of the race alone. Impressive." 1987: Skibby on the Koppenberg The danger of the Ronde's narrow and badly surfaced hills came close to tragedy when Danish rider Jesper Skibby was hit from behind by an official's car and fell onto a roadside bank, still strapped into his pedals. The official's car then tried to pass him and ran over Skibby's back wheel, narrowly missing his leg.Vanwalleghem, Rik (1998), Het Wonder van Vlaanderen, Pinguin, Belgium, , p227 The race official continued to the finish, where he was met by angry spectators throwing mud, cups and stones at his car. The incident overshadowed the victory of Claude Criquielion, the first French-speaking Belgian winner of the Tour of Flanders. Opinions "Only those who are in top condition can say that the Ronde is not hard. For everyone else, it's the Way of the Cross." – Andrea Tafi"I told the organisers it wasn't a race but a war game. It's hard to explain what the Koppenberg means to a racing cyclist. Instead of being a race, it's a lottery. Only the first five or six riders have any chance: the rest fall off or scramble up as best they can. What on earth have we done to send us to hell now?" – Bernard Hinault "As a Belgian, winning Flanders for the first time is far more important than wearing the maillot jaune [yellow jersey] in the Tour" – Johan Museeuw "Looking back, you get a bit nostalgic, but from a competitive point of view, Flanders was one of the most horrible races to ride but one of the greatest races to win." – Sean Kelly "Many great names of Flemish cycling live on the route of the race. This closeness doesn't exist in any other country. That's what gives our identity." – Nico Mattan"These days, you see all the riders, their life is well known. Before, you saw only the last two hours on television. Now, the direct coverage starts before the race has started and the legend that surrounded riders, created in people's imagination, no longer exists. When everything is too realistic, you lose the legend." – Marc Sergeant "The Tour of Flanders is unlike any other bike race in the world. It is, without question, the hardest one-day bike race ever created. What seems like a million corners, combined with twenty to thirty steep pitches and narrow roads, none of which go the same direction for more than a mile, all mix together to make it war on a bike. There isn’t a race in North America that compares. Flanders may as well be a different sport." – George Hincapie Winners Multiple winners Wins per country Winners of the Cobbled Classics Double On 12 occasions the Tour of Flanders and Paris–Roubaix had the same winner in the same year. Tom Boonen and Fabian Cancellara are the only riders who have achieved this double twice. Records and statistics The longest Tour of Flanders was its first running in 1913: The shortest Tour of Flanders was the war-time edition of 1941: The fastest edition was in 2001, won by Italian Gianluca Bortolami: average. The slowest edition was in 1923, won by Swiss Heiri Suter: average. The smallest margin between the winner and runner-up was in 1994, when Gianni Bugno beat Johan Museeuw by in a sprint. The largest margin between the winner and runner-up was in 1919, when Henri Van Lerberghe held a 14-minute lead over the first chasing group. The largest post-war margin between the winner and runner-up was in 1969, when Eddy Merckx won by a margin of 5 minutes 36 seconds over second-place finisher Felice Gimondi. In 1951 Fiorenzo Magni won by 5 minutes 35 seconds Bernard Gauthier. The youngest winner was Rik Van Steenbergen in 1944 at 19 years and 206 days. The oldest winner was Andrei Tchmil in 2000 at 37 years and 71 days. The Tour of Flanders attracts 600.000-800.000 spectators along the road annually, on a total Flemish population of 6.5 million. The record for most participations is held by Belgian Briek Schotte, who participated 20 consecutive times from 1940 to 1959 and finished 16 times with 8 podium places and 2 victories in 1942 and 1948. American George Hincapie holds the record of most finishes, with 17 finishes in 17 races. Six men share the record of victories, with three each: Achiel Buysse won in 1940, 1941 and 1943; Italian Fiorenzo Magni won in 1949, 1950, 1951; Eric Leman won in 1970, 1972 and 1973; Johan Museeuw won the race in 1993, 1995 and 1998; Tom Boonen won in 2005, 2006 and 2012,Tour of Flanders – Flanders by numbers, 9 May 2007, uk.eurosport.yahoo.com and Swiss Fabian Cancellara, who won in 2010, 2013 and 2014. The nation with the most victories is Belgium (69). Seven riders have won two years in a row: Romain Gijssels, Achiel Buysse, Fiorenzo Magni, Eric Leman, Tom Boonen, Stijn Devolder and Fabian Cancellara. Only one rider (Fiorenzo Magni) won three consecutive victories. Two riders achieved a record eight podium finishes: Briek Schotte (twice first, twice second, four times third) and Johan Museeuw (three times first, three times second, twice third). Sean Kelly and Leif Hoste have the most second places without ever winning the Tour of Flanders, each finishing second on three occasions. Five riders won the race in the rainbow jersey as world champions: Louison Bobet in 1955, Rik Van Looy in 1962, Eddy Merckx in 1975, Tom Boonen in 2006 and Peter Sagan in 2016. Tour of Flanders for Women Since 2004 there is a women's Tour of Flanders (), held every spring on the same day as the men's race. It is part of the UCI Women's World Tour and is considered one of the most prestigious events in women cycling. From 2004 to 2011 the race ran over a course which started in Oudenaarde and finished in Meerbeke, with the last identical to the men's race. Since 2012 the race starts and finishes in Oudenaarde. It is and has a similar finale as the men's Tour of Flanders, with many of the same hills, except for the Koppenberg. In 2018 the race features 12 climbs, including the Muur van Geraardsbergen, Oude Kwaremont, Paterberg and three long flat cobbled sectors. The final , including Kruisberg, Oude Kwaremont and Paterberg, are identical to the men's finale. Dutch rider Mirjam Melchers-Van Poppel and Germany's Judith Arndt currently hold the record with two wins. Experience center The Centrum Ronde van Vlaanderen (Tour of Flanders Center) is an interactive cycling-themed experience center and museum in Oudenaarde devoted to the Tour of Flanders. It opened in 2003 with an extensive array of audiovisual material from old television and radio broadcasts. Visitors are able to experience a ride on a cobbled road or experience the Kwaremont climb, in a virtual contest with stars like Peter Van Petegem. The center's founder and director is former sports journalist and writer Rik Van Walleghem; the museum curator is 1970s cycling icon Freddy Maertens, who provides guided tours. The center is located on Oudenaarde's city square, close to the finish of the Tour of Flanders, relocated to Oudenaarde in 2012. There is also a brasserie and a museum shop. Cyclosportive Since 1999, there is a Tour of Flanders Cyclosportive for non-professionals, called We Ride Flanders'', organized on the day before the professional event. The longest route is , starting in Antwerp, but there are three shorter routes, of , or , which all start and finish in Oudenaarde. Because of its growing success, the number of participants has been restricted to 16,000 in order to secure riders' safety on the roads. Tickets are usually sold out months before the race. 60% of participants are non-Belgians. See also Tour of Flanders for Women Classic cycle races Notes External links Recaps of all Tours of Flanders since 1959 (Flemish television) References External links UCI ProTour races Classic cycle races Cycle races in Belgium Recurring sporting events established in 1913 1913 establishments in Belgium UCI Road World Cup races UCI World Tour races Annual sporting events in Belgium Sport in Flanders Sport in East Flanders Sport in West Flanders Spring (season) events in Belgium Challenge Desgrange-Colombo races Super Prestige Pernod races	[ -0.028929002583026886, 0.06404958665370941, 0.31208309531211853, -0.22368896007537842, 0.04435216262936592, 0.13413125276565552, 0.5114781856536865, 0.29246655106544495, -0.8206297159194946, -0.17875824868679047, 0.35447052121162415, 0.32116785645484924, 0.41131243109703064, 0.7338939905166626, -0.6855682134628296, 0.6291652917861938, 0.537297248840332, -0.1013997420668602, 0.7044315934181213, -0.9112960696220398, -0.11438564956188202, 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206362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20George%20Ritchie	David George Ritchie	David George Ritchie (26 October 1853 — 3 February 1903) was a Scottish philosopher who had a distinguished university career at Edinburgh, and Balliol College, Oxford, and after being fellow of Jesus College and a tutor at Balliol College was elected professor of logic and metaphysics at St Andrews. He was also the third president of the Aristotelian Society in 1898. Life Ritchie was born at Jedburgh on 26 October 1853. He was the only son of the three children of Very Rev Dr George Ritchie, D.D., minister of the parish and a man of scholarship and culture, who was elected to the office of Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1870. His mother was Elizabeth Bradfute Dudgeon. The family was connected with the Carlyles, and early in 1889 Ritchie edited a volume of Early Letters of Jane Welsh Carlyle. Ritchie received his early schooling at Jedburgh Academy. Not allowed to make friends with other boys of his own age, he never learned to play games, and lived a solitary life, concentrating his mind on purely intellectual subjects. He matriculated in 1869 at the University of Edinburgh, where he made a special study of classics under Professors William Young Sellar and J. S. Blackie, while he began to study philosophy under Professor Campbell Fraser, in whose class and in that of Professor Henry Calderwood (on moral philosophy) he gained the highest prizes. After graduating M.A. at Edinburgh in 1875 with first-class honours in classics, Ritchie gained a classical exhibition at Balliol College, Oxford, and won a first-class both in classical moderations (Michaelmas, 1875) and in the final classical school (Trinity term, 1878). In 1878 he became a fellow of Jesus College, Oxford and in 1881 a tutor. From 1882 to 1886 he was also a tutor at Balliol College. At Oxford Ritchie came under the influence of Thomas Hill Green and Arnold Toynbee, and it was there that the foundations were laid both for his interest in idealistic philosophy associated with the name of G. W. F. Hegel (see British idealism), and also of his strong bent toward practical politics; his political philosophy was dominated by the belief that practical action must be derived from principles. Ritchie married twice. His first marriage was in 1881 to Flora Lindsay, daughter of Col. A. A. Macdonell of Lochgarry, and sister of Professor A. A. Macdonell of Oxford. Flora died in 1888. He was married a second time in 1889 to Ellen Haycraft, sister of Professor John Berry Haycraft. He had a daughter by the first marriage and a son, Arthur David Ritchie, by the second. In 1894 Ritchie left Oxford on being appointed professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of St. Andrews. At this time the university was in the midst of a turmoil of conflicting interests which involved litigation and much partisan feeling. In this conflict Ritchie supported the side of progress, which ultimately prevailed. Ritchie was a founding member, and the third President (1898–1899), of the Aristotelian Society, an influential academic organisation that is still very much in active existence. He remained at St. Andrews until his death on 3 February 1903. He is buried in the north-east corner of the Eastern Cemetery in St Andrews beneath a large black granite cross. Philosophy Both at Oxford and at St. Andrews, Ritchie wrote mostly on ethics and political philosophy. One of his earliest writings was an essay on The Rationality of History, contributed to Essays in Philosophical Criticism, written in 1883 by a number of young men influenced by Hegel and his interpreters. He was very much one of the generation of thinkers who were sometimes referred to as the British Idealists. Of a simple and unaffected nature, Ritchie pursued the truth he set himself to seek with an entire devotion. Despite his retiring manner, he had many friends. He held strongly that questions of ethics and politics must be regarded from a metaphysical point of view. For him the foundation of ethics necessarily rested on the ideal end of social well-being, and keeping this end in view, he proceeded to trace its history at different times, the manner in which it shapes itself in the mind of each individual, and the way in which it can be developed and realised. Ritchie was an advanced liberal with socialist leanings. He considered that the ultimate value of religion depended on the ideal it set before mankind when it represented its highest form. Criticism of animal rights Ritchie was an early critic of animal rights. He disagreed with Henry Stephens Salt's views and authored the paper "The Rights of Animals" for the International Journal of Ethics, in 1900. His paper "Why Animals Do Not Have Rights" was reprinted in 1976. In his book Natural Rights, Ritchie stated that although "we may be said to have duties of kindness towards the animals, it is incorrect to represent these as strictly duties towards the animals themselves, as if they had rights against us." Ritchie argued that there would be absurd consequences if animals have rights, such as cats eating mice which would violate their rights. Works Among his works may be cited: Darwinism and Politics (1889) Principles of State Interference: Four Essays on the Political Philosophy of Mr Herbert Spencer, J S Mill, and T H Green (1891) Darwin and Hegel (1893) Natural Rights (1895) Studies in Political and Social Ethics (1902) Plato (1902) A translation with Sir Richard Lodge and Percy Ewing Matheson of Bluntschli's Theory of the State (1885) Many articles in the philosophical journal Mind, the Philosophical Review, etc. His Philosophical Studies was edited with a memoir by Robert Latta (1905). Notes References 1853 births 1903 deaths 19th-century Scottish philosophers 20th-century Scottish philosophers Academics of the University of Edinburgh Academics of the University of St Andrews Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Critics of animal rights Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford Hegelian philosophers Idealists Metaphysicians People from Jedburgh Presidents of the Aristotelian Society Scottish ethicists Scottish political philosophers	[ -0.2265198677778244, 0.4482426047325134, -0.6199362277984619, -0.26543182134628296, -0.2859072983264923, 0.8049175143241882, 0.8135241866111755, -0.1523170918226242, 0.2429157793521881, -0.45208123326301575, -0.18813268840312958, 0.11390668153762817, -0.39245280623435974, 0.3327611982822418, 0.2223207950592041, 0.19858160614967346, 0.24012835323810577, -0.6540605425834656, -0.5971967577934265, 0.11794932186603546, -0.32976233959198, 0.4699418246746063, -0.06299092620611191, 0.2604934871196747, -0.503608226776123, 0.09912087768316269, 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206364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking%20processes%20%28theory%20of%20constraints%29	Thinking processes (theory of constraints)	The thinking processes in Eliyahu M. Goldratt's theory of constraints are the five methods to enable the focused improvement of any cognitive system (especially business systems). Purpose The purpose of the thinking processes is to help answer questions essential to achieving focused improvement: What to change? What to change it into? How to cause the change? Sometimes two other questions are considered as well: Why change? and: How to maintain the process of ongoing improvement (POOGI)? A more thorough rationale is presented in What is this thing called theory of constraints and how should it be implemented. A more thorough work, mapping the use and evolution of the Thinking Processes, was conducted by Mabin et al. Processes The primary thinking processes, as codified by Goldratt and others: Current reality tree (CRT, similar to the current state map used by many organizations) — evaluates the network of cause-effect relations between the undesirable effects (UDE's, also known as gap elements) and helps to pinpoint the root cause(s) of most of the undesirable effects. Evaporating Cloud (conflict resolution diagram or CRD) - solves conflicts that usually perpetuate the causes for an undesirable situation. Core Conflict Cloud (CCC) - A combination of conflict clouds based on several UDE's. Looking for deeper conflicts that create the undesirable effects. Future Reality Tree (FRT, similar to a future state map) - Once some actions (injections) are chosen (not necessarily detailed) to solve the root cause(s) uncovered in the CRT and to resolve the conflict in the CRD the FRT shows the future states of the system and helps to identify possible negative outcomes of the changes (Negative Branches) and to prune them before implementing the changes. Negative Branch Reservations (NBR) - Identify potential negative ramifications of any action (such as an injection, or a half-baked idea). The goal of the NBR is to understand the causal path between the action and negative ramifications so that the negative effect can be "trimmed." Positive Reinforcement Loop (PRL) - Desired effect (DE) presented in FRT amplifies intermediate objective (IO) that is earlier (lower) in the tree. While intermediate objective is strengthened it positively affects this DE. Finding out PRLs makes FRT more sustaining. Prerequisite Tree (PRT) - states that all of the intermediate objectives necessary to carry out an action chosen and the obstacles that will be overcome in the process. Transition Tree (TT) - describes in great detail the action that will lead to the fulfillment of a plan to implement changes (outlined on a PRT or not). Strategy & Tactics (S&T) - the overall project plan and metrics that will lead to a successful implementation and the ongoing loop through POOGI. Goldratt adapted three operating level performance measures—throughput, inventory and operating expense—and adopted three strategic performance measures—net income, return on investment, and cash flow—to maintain the change. Some observers note that these processes are not fundamentally very different from some other management change models such as PDCA "Plan-Do-Check-Act" (aka "Plan-Do-Study-Act") or "Survey-Assess-Decide-Implement-Evaluate", but the way they can be used is clearer and more straightforward. Books H. William Dettmer. The Logical Thinking Process: A Systems Approach to Complex Problem Solving (2007). H. William Dettmer. Strategic Navigation: A Systems Approach to Business Strategy (2003). Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox. The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement. Eliyahu M. Goldratt. It's Not Luck. Eliyahu M. Goldratt. Critical Chain. Eliyahu M. Goldratt, Eli Schragenheim, Carol A. Ptak. Necessary But Not Sufficient. Lisa J. Scheinkopf. Thinking For a Change: Putting the TOC Thinking Processes to Use. Eli Schragenheim. Management Dilemmas: The Theory of Constraints Approach to Problem Identification and Solutions. John Tripp TOC Executive Challenge A Goal Game. References Theory of constraints	[ -0.22281430661678314, 0.28245288133621216, -0.6520555019378662, -0.10654444247484207, -0.09611450880765915, 0.4945846199989319, 0.12936900556087494, -0.29585981369018555, -0.33678582310676575, -0.8260075449943542, -0.12276559323072433, 0.4113292098045349, -0.14488659799098969, 0.022425424307584763, 0.25435981154441833, 0.03291003406047821, -0.13300785422325134, -0.0016041042981669307, -0.15721061825752258, -0.5524094700813293, 0.2952796518802643, 0.233822762966156, -0.11011295020580292, 0.21998989582061768, -0.14572112262248993, -0.3327735662460327, 0.39885643124580383, 0.40162137150764465, 0.16839489340782166, 0.08706055581569672, -0.013723193667829037, 0.6285772323608398, -0.41816964745521545, 0.002836979692801833, 0.17405898869037628, -0.13319401443004608, 0.2258724868297577, 0.03372250497341156, 0.1386832743883133, -0.18951374292373657, 0.351759135723114, 0.3358815312385559, 0.03836184740066528, 0.36815834045410156, -0.05987086892127991, 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206365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadomasochism	Sadomasochism	Sadomasochism ( ) is the giving and receiving of pleasure from acts involving the receipt or infliction of pain or humiliation. Practitioners of sadomasochism may seek sexual pleasure from their acts. While the terms sadist and masochist refer respectively to one who enjoys giving and receiving pain, some practitioners of sadomasochism may switch between activity and passivity. The abbreviation S&M is commonly used for Sadomasochism (or Sadism & Masochism), although the initialisms S-M, SM or S/M are also used, particularly by practitioners. Sadomasochism is not considered a clinical paraphilia unless such practices lead to clinically significant distress or impairment for a diagnosis. Similarly, sexual sadism within the context of mutual consent, generally known under the heading BDSM, is distinguished from non-consensual acts of sexual violence or aggression. Definition and etymology The word sadomasochism is a portmanteau of the words sadism () and masochism. The two words incorporated into this compound, "sadism" and "masochism", were originally derived from the names of two authors. The term "sadism" has its origin in the name of the Marquis de Sade (1740–1814), who not only practised sexual sadism, but also wrote novels about these practices, of which the best known is Justine. "Masochism" is named after Leopold von Sacher-Masoch (1836–1895), who wrote novels expressing his masochistic fantasies. These terms were first selected for identifying human behavioural phenomena and for the classification of psychological illnesses or deviant behaviour. The German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing introduced the terms "Sadism" and "Masochism"' into medical terminology in his work Neue Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der Psychopathia sexualis ("New research in the area of Psychopathology of Sex") in 1890. In 1905, Sigmund Freud described sadism and masochism in his Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie ("Three papers on Sexual Theory") as stemming from aberrant psychological development from early childhood. He also laid the groundwork for the widely accepted medical perspective on the subject in the following decades. This led to the first compound usage of the terminology in Sado-Masochism (Loureiroian "Sado-Masochismus") by the Viennese Psychoanalyst Isidor Isaak Sadger in his work Über den sado-masochistischen Komplex ("Regarding the sadomasochistic complex") in 1913. In the later 20th century, BDSM activists have protested against these ideas, because, they argue, they are based on the philosophies of the two psychiatrists, Freud and Krafft-Ebing, whose theories were built on the assumption of psychopathology and their observations of psychiatric patients. The DSM nomenclature referring to sexual psychopathology has been criticized as lacking scientific veracity, and advocates of sadomasochism have sought to separate themselves from psychiatric theory by the adoption of the term BDSM instead of the common psychological abbreviation, "S&M". However, the term BDSM also includes B&D (bondage and discipline), D/s (dominance and submission), and S&M (sadism and masochism). The terms bondage and discipline usually refer to the use of either physical or psychological restraint or punishment, and sometimes involves sexual role playing, including the use of costumes. In contrast to frameworks seeking to explain sadomasochism through psychological, psychoanalytic, medical, or forensic approaches, which seek to categorize behavior and desires, and find a root cause, Romana Byrne suggests that such practices can be seen as examples of "aesthetic sexuality", in which a founding physiological or psychological impulse is irrelevant. Rather, according to Byrne, sadism and masochism may be practiced through choice and deliberation, driven by certain aesthetic goals tied to style, pleasure, and identity, which in certain circumstances, she claims can be compared with the creation of art. Psychology Historical perspective Sadomasochism, or the use of pain as a sexual stimulant has been practiced since ancient times with some scholars suggesting that it is an integral part of human culture. There are even those who propose that it is already present among nonhuman primate and primitive human communities before emerging in ancient Egyptian, Indian, Oriental, and Arab cultures. One of the oldest surviving narratives that cited its practice was an Egyptian love song, sung by a man expressing a desire to be subjugated by a woman so he could experience pleasure as she treats him like a slave. The Roman historian Juvenal also described a case of a woman who submitted herself to the whipping and beating of the followers of Pan. The modern conceptualization of sadomasochism stemmed from the terms sadism and masochism introduced to the medical field by German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his 1886 compilation of case studies Psychopathia Sexualis. Pain and physical violence are not essential in Krafft-Ebing's conception, and he defined "masochism" (German Masochismus) entirely in terms of control. Sigmund Freud, a psychoanalyst and a contemporary of Krafft-Ebing, noted that both were often found in the same individuals, and combined the two into a single dichotomous entity known as "sadomasochism" (German Sadomasochismus, often abbreviated as S&M or S/M). This observation is commonly verified in both literature and practice; many practitioners, both sadists and masochists, define themselves as switches and "switchable" — capable of taking and deriving pleasure in either role. However, French philosopher Gilles Deleuze argued that the concurrence of sadism and masochism proposed in Freud's model is the result of "careless reasoning," and should not be taken for granted. Freud introduced the terms "primary" and "secondary" masochism. Though this idea has come under a number of interpretations, in a primary masochism the masochist undergoes a complete, rather than partial, rejection by the model or courted object (or sadist), possibly involving the model taking a rival as a preferred mate. This complete rejection is related to the death drive (Todestrieb) in Freud's psychoanalysis. In a secondary masochism, by contrast, the masochist experiences a less serious, more feigned rejection and punishment by the model. Secondary masochism, in other words, is the relatively casual version, more akin to a charade, and most commentators are quick to point out its contrivedness. Rejection is not desired by a primary masochist in quite the same sense as the feigned rejection occurring within a mutually consensual relationship—or even where the masochist happens to be the one having actual initiative power. In Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, René Girard attempts to resuscitate and reinterpret Freud's distinction of primary and secondary masochism, in connection with his own philosophy. Both Krafft-Ebing and Freud assumed that sadism in men resulted from the distortion of the aggressive component of the male sexual instinct. Masochism in men, however, was seen as a more significant aberration, contrary to the nature of male sexuality. Freud doubted that masochism in men was ever a primary tendency, and speculated that it may exist only as a transformation of sadism. Sadomasochism in women received comparatively little discussion, as it was believed that it occurred primarily in men. Both also assumed that masochism was so inherent to female sexuality that it would be difficult to distinguish as a separate inclination. Havelock Ellis, in Studies in the Psychology of Sex, argued that there is no clear distinction between the aspects of sadism and masochism, and that they may be regarded as complementary emotional states. He also made the important point that sadomasochism is concerned only with pain in regard to sexual pleasure, and not in regard to cruelty, as Freud had suggested. In other words, the sadomasochist generally desires that the pain be inflicted or received in love, not in abuse, for the pleasure of either one or both participants. This mutual pleasure may even be essential for the satisfaction of those involved. Here, Ellis touches upon the often paradoxical nature of widely reported consensual S&M practices. It is described as not simply pain to initiate pleasure, but violence—"or the simulation of involuntary violent acts"—said to express love. This irony is highly evident in the observation by many, that not only are popularly practiced sadomasochistic activities usually performed at the express request of the masochist, but that it is often the designated masochist who may direct such activities, through subtle emotional cues perceived or mutually understood and consensually recognized by the designated sadist In his essay Coldness and Cruelty, (originally Présentation de Sacher-Masoch, 1967) Gilles Deleuze rejects the term "sadomasochism" as artificial, especially in the context of the quintessentially modern masochistic work, Sacher-Masoch's Venus In Furs. Deleuze's counterargument is that the tendency toward masochism is based on intensified desire brought on or enhanced by the acting out of frustration at the delay of gratification. Taken to its extreme, an intolerably indefinite delay is 'rewarded' by punitive perpetual delay, manifested as unwavering coldness. The masochist derives pleasure from, as Deleuze puts it, the "Contract": the process by which he can control another individual and turn the individual into someone cold and callous. The sadist, in contrast, derives pleasure from the "Law": the unavoidable power that places one person below another. The sadist attempts to destroy the ego in an effort to unify the id and super-ego, in effect gratifying the most base desires the sadist can express while ignoring or completely suppressing the will of the ego, or of the conscience. Thus, Deleuze attempts to argue that masochism and sadism arise from such different impulses that the combination of the two terms is meaningless and misleading. A masochist's perception of their own self-subjugating sadistic desires and capacities are treated by Deleuze as reactions to prior experience of sadistic objectification. (For example, in terms of psychology, compulsively defensive appeasement of pathological guilt feelings as opposed to the volition of a strong free will.) The epilogue of Venus In Furs shows the character of Severin has become embittered by his experiment in the alleged control of masochism, and advocates instead the domination of women. Before Deleuze, however, Sartre had presented his own theory of sadism and masochism, at which Deleuze's deconstructive argument, which took away the symmetry of the two roles, was probably directed. Because the pleasure or power in looking at the victim figures prominently in sadism and masochism, Sartre was able to link these phenomena to his famous philosophy of the "Look of the Other". Sartre argued that masochism is an attempt by the "For-itself" (consciousness) to reduce itself to nothing, becoming an object that is drowned out by the "abyss of the Other's subjectivity". By this Sartre means that, given that the "For-itself" desires to attain a point of view in which it is both subject and object, one possible strategy is to gather and intensify every feeling and posture in which the self appears as an object to be rejected, tested, and humiliated; and in this way the For-itself strives toward a point of view in which there is only one subjectivity in the relationship, which would be both that of the abuser and the abused. Conversely, Sartre held sadism to be the effort to annihilate the subjectivity of the victim. That means that the sadist is exhilarated by the emotional distress of the victim because they seek a subjectivity that views the victim as both subject and object. This argument may appear stronger if it is understood that this "Look of the Other" theory is either only an aspect of the faculties of desire, or somehow its primary faculty. This does not account for the turn that Deleuze took for his own theory of these matters, but the premise of "desire as 'Look'" is associated with theoretical distinctions always detracted by Deleuze, in what he regarded as its essential error to recognize "desire as lack"—which he identified in the philosophical temperament of Plato, Socrates, and Lacan. For Deleuze, insofar as desire is a lack it is reducible to the "Look". Finally, after Deleuze, René Girard included his account of sado-masochism in Things Hidden Since the Foundation of The World (1978), making the chapter on masochism a coherent part of his theory of mimetic desire. In this view of sado-masochism, the violence of the practices are an expression of a peripheral rivalry that has developed around the actual love-object. There is clearly a similarity to Deleuze, since both in the violence surrounding the memory of mimetic crisis and its avoidance, and in the resistance to affection that is focused on by Deleuze, there is an understanding of the value of the love object in terms of the processes of its valuation, acquisition and the test it imposes on the suitor. Modern psychology There are a number of reasons commonly given for why a sadomasochist finds the practice of S&M enjoyable, and the answer is largely dependent on the individual. For some, taking on a role of compliance or helplessness offers a form of therapeutic escape; from the stresses of life, from responsibility, or from guilt. For others, being under the power of a strong, controlling presence may evoke the feelings of safety and protection associated with childhood. They likewise may derive satisfaction from earning the approval of that figure (see: Servitude (BDSM)). A sadist, on the other hand, may enjoy the feeling of power and authority that comes from playing the dominant role, or receive pleasure vicariously through the suffering of the masochist. It is poorly understood, though, what ultimately connects these emotional experiences to sexual gratification, or how that connection initially forms. Dr. Joseph Merlino, author and psychiatry adviser to the New York Daily News, said in an interview that a sadomasochistic relationship, as long as it is consensual, is not a psychological problem: It is usually agreed on by psychologists that experiences during early sexual development can have a profound effect on the character of sexuality later in life. Sadomasochistic desires, however, seem to form at a variety of ages. Some individuals report having had them before puberty, while others do not discover them until well into adulthood. According to one study, the majority of male sadomasochists (53%) developed their interest before the age of 15, while the majority of females (78%) developed their interest afterwards (Breslow, Evans, and Langley 1985). The prevalence of sadomasochism within the general population is unknown. Despite female sadists being less visible than males, some surveys have resulted in comparable amounts of sadistic fantasies between females and males. The results of such studies indicate that one's sex may not be the determining factor for a preference towards sadism. Medical and forensic classification Medical categorization BDSM Medical opinion of sadomasochistic activities has changed over time. The classification of sadism and masochism in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has always been separate; sadism was included in the DSM-I in 1952, while masochism was added in the DSM-II in 1968. Contemporary psychology continues to identify sadism and masochism separately, and categorizes them as either practised as a life style, or as a medical condition. The current version of the American Psychiatric Association's manual, DSM-5, excludes consensual BDSM from diagnosis as a disorder when the sexual interests cause no harm or distress. Sexual sadism disorder however, listed within the DSM-5, is where arousal patterns involving consenting and non‐consenting others are not distinguished ICD On 18 June 2018, the WHO (World Health Organization) published ICD-11, and Sadomasochism, together with Fetishism and Transvestic Fetishism, are now removed as psychiatric diagnoses. Moreover, discrimination of fetish- and BDSM individuals is considered inconsistent with human rights principles endorsed by the United Nations and The World Health Organization. The classifications of sexual disorders reflect contemporary sexual norms and have moved from a model of pathologization or criminalization of non-reproductive sexual behaviors to a model which reflects sexual well-being and pathologizes the absence or limitation of consent in sexual relations. The ICD-11 classification, contrary to ICD-10 and DSM-5, clearly distinguishes consensual sadomasochistic behaviours (BDSM) that do not involve inherent harm to self or others, from harmful violence on non‐consenting persons (Coercive sexual sadism disorder). In this regard, "ICD-11 go further than the changes made for DSM-5 … in the removal of disorders diagnosed based on consenting behaviors that are not in and of themselves associated with distress or functional impairment." In Europe, an organization called ReviseF65 has worked to remove sadomasochism from the ICD. On commission from the WHO ICD-11 Working Group on Sexual Disorders and Sexual Health, ReviseF65 in 2009 and 2011 delivered reports documenting that sadomasochism and sexual violence are two different phenomena. The report concluded that the Sadomasochism diagnosis were outdated, non scientific, and stigmatizing. In 1995, Denmark became the first European Union country to have completely removed sadomasochism from its national classification of diseases. This was followed by Sweden in 2009, Norway in 2010, Finland in 2011 and Iceland in 2015. "Based on advances in research and clinical practice, and major shifts in social attitudes and in relevant policies, laws, and human rights standards", the World Health Organization (18 June 2018) removed Fetishism, Transvestic Fetishism and Sadomasochism as psychiatric diagnoses. The ICD-11 classification consider Sadomasochism as a variant in sexual arousal and private behavior without appreciable public health impact and for which treatment is neither indicated nor sought." Further the ICD-11 guidelines "respect the rights of individuals whose atypical sexual behavior is consensual and not harmful." WHO's ICD-11 Working Group admits that psychiatric diagnoses have been used to harass, silence, or imprison sadomasochists. Labeling them as such may create harm, convey social judgment, and exacerbate existing stigma and violence to individuals so labeled. According to ICD-11, psychiatric diagnoses can no longer be used to discriminate against BDSM people and fetishists. Recent surveys on the spread of BDSM fantasies and practices show strong variations in the range of their results. Nonetheless, researchers assume that 5 to 25 percent of the population practices sexual behavior related to pain or dominance and submission. The population with related fantasies is believed to be even larger. Forensic classification According to Anil Aggrawal, in forensic science, levels of sexual sadism and masochism are classified as follows: Sexual masochists: Class I: Bothered by, but not seeking out, fantasies. May be preponderantly sadists with minimal masochistic tendencies or non-sadomasochistic with minimal masochistic tendencies Class II: Equal mix of sadistic and masochistic tendencies. Like to receive pain but also like to be dominant partner (in this case, sadists). Sexual orgasm is achieved without pain or humiliation. Class III: Masochists with minimal to no sadistic tendencies. Preference for pain or humiliation (which facilitates orgasm), but not necessary to orgasm. Capable of romantic attachment. Class IV: Exclusive masochists (i.e. cannot form typical romantic relationships, cannot achieve orgasm without pain or humiliation). Sexual sadists: Class I: Bothered by sexual fantasies but do not act on them. Class II: Act on sadistic urges with consenting sexual partners (masochists or otherwise). Categorization as leptosadism is outdated. Class III: Act on sadistic urges with non-consenting victims, but do not seriously injure or kill. May coincide with sadistic rapists. Class IV: Only act with non-consenting victims and will seriously injure or kill them. The difference between I–II and III–IV is consent. BDSM The term BDSM is commonly used to describe consensual activities that contain sadistic and masochistic elements. Masochists tend to be very specific about the types of pain they enjoy, preferring some and disliking others. Many behaviors such as spanking, tickling, and love-bites contain elements of sadomasochism. Even if both parties legally consent to such acts this may not be accepted as a defense against criminal charges. Very few jurisdictions will permit consent as a legitimate defense if serious bodily injuries are caused. It has been argued that in many countries, the law disregards the sexual nature of sadomasochism - or the fact that participants enter these relationships voluntarily because they enjoy the experience. Instead, the criminal justice system focuses on what it views as dangerous or violent behavior. What this essentially means is that instead of attempting to understand and accommodate for voluntary sadomasochism, the law typically views these incidences as cases of assault. This can be seen with the well-known case in Great Britain, where 15 men were trialed for a range of offences relating to sadomasochism. Samois, the earliest known lesbian S/M organization in the United States, was founded in San Francisco in 1978. Harsh acts of S&M may include consensual torture of the sensitive parts of body, such as cock and ball torture for males, and breast torture and pussy torture for females. Acts common for both genders may include ass torture (ex. using speculum), face torture (ex. nose torture), etc. In extreme cases, sadism and masochism can include fantasies, sexual urges or behavior which cause observably significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning, to the point that they can be considered part of a mental disorder. However, this is widely considered to be rare, as psychiatrists now regard such behaviors as clinically aberrant only if they are identifiable as symptoms or associated with other problems such as personality disorder or neurosis. There is some controversy in the psychology professions regarding a personality disorder referred to alternately as "self-defeating personality disorder" or "masochistic personality disorder", where masochistic behavior may not be in relation to other diagnosed mental disease. Ernulf and Innala (1995) observed discussions among individuals with such interests, one of whom described the goal of hyperdominance. The Fifty Shades trilogy is a series of very popular erotic romance novels by E. L. James which involve S/M. These have been criticized for their inaccurate and harmful depiction of S/M. Their film adaptations have been similarly criticized. Other A table in Larry Townsend's The Leatherman's Handbook II (the 1983 second edition; the 1972 first edition did not include this list) which is generally considered authoritative states that a black handkerchief is a symbol for sadomasochism in the handkerchief code, which is employed usually among gay male casual-sex seekers or BDSM practitioners in the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe. Wearing the handkerchief on the left indicates the top, dominant, or active partner; right the bottom, submissive, or passive partner. However, negotiation with a prospective partner remains important because, as Townsend noted, people may wear hankies of any color "only because the idea of the hankie turns them on" or "may not even know what it means". See also Algolagnia Cuckoldry Discipline (BDSM) Domination & submission (BDSM) Edgeplay Erotic humiliation Master/slave (BDSM) Paraphilia Sadism and masochism in fiction Safeword Schadenfreude Suspension piercing Vulnerability and care theory of love References Footnotes Bibliography Byrne, Romana (2013) Aesthetic Sexuality: A Literary History of Sadomasochism, New York: Bloomsbury. Further reading Falaky, Faycal (2014). Social Contract, Masochist Contract: Aesthetics of Freedom and Submission in Rousseau. Albany: State University of New York Press. Newmahr, Staci (2011). Playing on the Edge: Sadomasochism, Risk and Intimacy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. . Phillips, Anita (1998). A Defense of Masochism. . Odd Reiersol, Svein Skeid:The ICD Diagnoses of Fetishism and Sadomasochism, in Journal of Homosexuality, Harrigton Park Press, Vol.50, No.2/3, 2006,pp. 243–262 Saez, Fernando y Olga Viñuales, Armarios de Cuero, Editorial Bellaterra, 2007. Weinberg, Thomas S., "Sadomasochism in the United States: A Review of Recent Sociological Literature", The Journal of Sex Research 23 (Feb. 1987) 50-69 External links "Pain and the erotic" by Lesley Hall Video- "Ms. Servalan Cane Class @ DomConLA taken by Mistress Ellen" Video- "50 Shades of Fringe. Blade & whip demo." 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206368	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20P.%20Kelly	Eric P. Kelly	Eric Philbrook Kelly (March 16, 1884 – January 3, 1960) was an American journalist, academic and author of children's books. He was a professor of English at Dartmouth College and briefly a lecturer at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. He won the 1929 Newbery Medal recognizing his first published book, The Trumpeter of Krakow, as the preceding year's most distinguished contribution to American children's literature. Life Kelly was born in 1884 in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Kelly graduated Dartmouth College in 1906 (BA). As a student, Kelly was a member of the French club and one of the first members of The Pukwana Club, which would eventually transition into the Delta Beta chapter of the Sigma Nu fraternity. After "ten colorless, uneventful, and discouraging years working on newspapers", Kelly volunteered in 1918 to work with the welfare organisation Les Foyers du Soldat in Quentin, France. He found himself in charge of athletics and entertainment for 2,000 Polish soldiers in Haller's Army. In May 1919, Kelly was shipped across Germany to the newly recognised state of Poland in a closed boxcar along with the Polish troops. His new base was established in the old Napoleonic fortress of Modlin, near Warsaw. He wrote to his mother that "Warsaw is a beautiful city, reminds me in some ways of Denver." During the 1919–1920 Polish–Soviet War, Kelly was posted at Chełm with Haller's Army on the Bug River River. In January 1921, Kelly returned to the US where he took a job as a teacher at Mercersburg Academy. During this period he wrote descriptions of his experience in Poland and warned against the dangers of Bolshevik propaganda. Six months later, he was hired by his alma mater, Dartmouth College, where he would teach for 33 years. In 1924, he married his wife Katherine but, in spite of his fame as a children’s author, did not have any children of his own. 1925–1926 Kelly went to the Jagiellonian University in Kraków as the first American exchange scholar sent to Poland by the Kosciuszko Foundation. Kelly served as an instructor of American Literature and Institutions in the Department of English Philology under Prof. Roman Dybowski. On 4 July 1926, Kelly ceremonially placed a vase filled with earth from Tadeusz Kościuszko's North American battlefields at Yorktown and Saratoga in the Kościuszko Mound overlooking Kraków. That same year, he started work on The Trumpeter of Krakow which won the Newbery Medal for Children's literature in 1929. This novel contains the first known reference in any language to the now-popular legend of the hejnał trumpeter shot by a Tartar arrow. Kelly spent 1930 as a researcher in Vilnius and 1931 in Lviv (both in Polish hands at that time). These inspired further Polish-themed children’s books: The Blacksmith of Vilno and The Golden Star of Halicz. His 1932 book, The Christmas Nightingale, was adapted as a play in 1935. In 1943–1945, Kelly worked for the US State Department taking care of Polish refugees in León, Guanajuato, Mexico. Kelly was chairman of the Pulitzer Prize selection committee for the novel in the years 1951, 1952 and 1953. He retired from teaching in 1954, and retired to Chebeague Island, Maine, and Ojo Caliente, New Mexico. Books The Trumpeter of Krakow (1929) The Blacksmith of Vilno (1930) The Golden Star of Halicz (1931) Christmas Nightingale (1932) The Girl Who Would be Queen (1934) Three Sides of Angiochook (1935) Treasure Mountain (1937) At the Sign of the Golden Compass (1938) On the Staked Plain (1940) From Star to Star (1940) In Clean Hay (1940) Land of the Polish People (1943) The Hand in the Picture (1947) The Amazing Story of David Ingram (1949) Polish Legends and Tales (1971) References Further reading "In Memoriam, Eric Philbrook Kelly '06", Dartmouth Alumni Magazine 2/1960 Kelly, Eric P. "Papers, 1928–1964", archive in the collection of Dartmouth Library Kelly, Eric P. "Poland’s Great Refusal to Become a Bridge for Bolshevist Invasion of the Western World", Philadelphia Public Ledger, 28 April 1921 Mizwa, Stephen (ed.) "1956 K.F. Medal of Recognition Awarded to Professor Eric P. Kelly", Kosciuszko Foundation Monthly Newsletter, September 1956 External links 1884 births 1960 deaths American children's writers Dartmouth College faculty Dartmouth College alumni Jagiellonian University faculty Newbery Medal winners Place of death missing	[ -0.4856088161468506, 0.5360205769538879, -0.5599613785743713, 0.5429618954658508, 0.3860844075679779, 0.07641024887561798, 0.42904648184776306, 0.11887334287166595, -0.21417811512947083, -0.2277311384677887, -0.39436057209968567, 0.2767791450023651, -0.03814680129289627, 0.12693801522254944, -0.48596858978271484, -0.07948829233646393, -0.56683349609375, 0.2292817234992981, -0.40072500705718994, -0.5726326107978821, -0.6700471639633179, -0.2958083748817444, 0.28902965784072876, -0.2576136887073517, -0.02582041174173355, 0.18830493092536926, 0.0667685717344284, -0.6337076425552368, 0.11358801275491714, 0.3343738615512848, -0.31272682547569275, 0.37823227047920227, 0.6876420378684998, -0.02873608097434044, -0.6018885374069214, 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206369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Longueville%20Mansel	Henry Longueville Mansel	Henry Longueville Mansel (6 October 1820 – 30 July 1871) was an English philosopher and ecclesiastic. Life He was born at Cosgrove, Northamptonshire (where his father, also Henry Longueville Mansel, fourth son of General John Mansel, was rector). He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, London and St John's College, Oxford. He took a double first in 1843, and became tutor of his college. He was appointed reader in moral and metaphysical philosophy at Magdalen College in 1855, and Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy in 1859. He was a great opponent of university reform and of the Hegelianism which was then beginning to take root in Oxford. In 1867 he succeeded Arthur Penrhyn Stanley as regius professor of ecclesiastical history, and in 1868 he was appointed dean of St Paul's. He died in Cosgrove on the first of July 1871. The philosophy of Mansel, like that of Sir William Hamilton, was mainly due to Aristotle, Immanuel Kant and Thomas Reid. Like Hamilton, Mansel maintained the purely formal character of logic, the duality of consciousness as testifying to both self and the external world, and the limitation of knowledge to the finite and "conditioned." His doctrines were developed in his edition of Aldrich's Artis logicae rudimenta (1849) — his chief contribution to the reviving study of Aristotle — and in his Prolegomena logica: an Inquiry into the Psychological Character of Logical Processes (1851, 2nd ed. enlarged 1860), in which the limits of logic as the "science of formal thinking" are rigorously determined. In his Bampton lectures on The Limits of Religious Thought (1858, 5th ed. 1867; Danish trans. 1888) he applied to Christian theology the metaphysical agnosticism which seemed to result from Kant's criticism, and which had been developed in Hamilton's Philosophy of the Unconditioned. While denying all knowledge of the supersensuous, Mansel deviated from Kant in contending that cognition of the ego as it really is belongs among the facts of experience. Consciousness, he held — agreeing thus with the doctrine of "natural realism" which Hamilton developed from Reid — implies knowledge both of self and of the external world. The latter Mansel's psychology reduces to consciousness of our organism as extended; with the former is given consciousness of free will and moral obligation. These lectures led Mansel to a bitter controversy with the Christian socialist theologian Frederick Maurice. A summary of Mansel's philosophy is contained in his article "Metaphysics" in the 5th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1860). He also wrote "Metaphysics or the Philosophy of Consciousness Phenomenal and Real" (4th ed., 1883), 408pps, Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black The Philosophy of the Conditioned (1866) in reply to John Stuart Mill's criticism of Hamilton; Letters, Lectures, and Reviews (ed. Chandler, 1873), The Gnostic Heresies of the First and Second Centuries (ed. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, 1875, with a biographical sketch by Lord Carnarvon). He contributed a commentary on the first two gospels to the Speaker's Commentary (1881). Mansel*s mother, Maria, was the daughter of Admiral Sir Robert Moorsom. Notes References Cited in Chisholm (1911): John William Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888–1889) James Martineau, Essays, Reviews and Addresses (London, 1891), iii. 117 seq. A. W. Benn, The History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century (1906), ii. 100–112 David Masson, Recent British Philosophy (3rd ed., London, 1877), pp. 252 seq. Kenneth D. Freeman, "The Role of Reason in Religion: A Study of Henry Mansel" (The Hague, 1969) External links Internet Archive book by Henry Longueville Mansel 1820 births 1871 deaths Doctors of Divinity English philosophers People from West Northamptonshire District Deans of St Paul's People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood Alumni of St John's College, Oxford Waynflete Professors of Metaphysical Philosophy Regius Professors of Ecclesiastical History English male non-fiction writers	[ -0.265036404132843, 0.4844591021537781, -0.9959684014320374, -0.3329709470272064, -0.22530265152454376, 0.8446073532104492, 1.0983285903930664, 0.07426964491605759, -0.3065881133079529, -0.5899084210395813, -0.16960439085960388, 0.20480100810527802, -0.2482287585735321, 0.2695164680480957, 0.3036247193813324, -0.07915835082530975, -0.006663525942713022, -0.5495198965072632, -0.562882661819458, -0.617739200592041, 0.0397871695458889, 0.2644895613193512, 0.48086225986480713, -0.0076426733285188675, 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206373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focused%20improvement	Focused improvement	Focused improvement in the theory of constraints is an ensemble of activities aimed at elevating the performance of any system, especially a business system, with respect to its goal by eliminating its constraints one by one and by not working on non-constraints. Focused improvement can also be defined in simpler terms as a process that identifies the systems problems and then modifies the whole system in order to find the most cost effective, time saving and least disruptive solutions in order to optimize the system. "Focused Improvement is the process of applying systematic problem solving methods to manufacturing. The process relies on aligning the correct method to the correct scenario". Development and Apparition Focused improvement was developed as a working part of the Theory of Constraints management philosophy by Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his 1984 book titled The Goal, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goals. Unlike other popular performance improvement methods, such as TQM or reengineering, F.I. focuses on solving real life problems and not on increasing the costs and distractions for the management's attention. Focused improvement V.S. Total Quality Management (TQM) No general agreement has been reached about the characteristics of F.I. or TQM but to some extent we can observe similar traits in implementations of these processes. Traits of Focused improvement Identify the system's constraint(s). Decide how to exploit the system's constraint(s). Subordinate everything else to the above decision(s). Elevate the system's constraint(s). Communicate the new approach and move to the next improvement Traits of TQM "Quality is defined by customers' requirements." "Top management has direct responsibility for quality improvement." "Increased quality comes from systematic analysis and improvement of work processes." "Quality improvement is a continuous effort and conducted throughout the organization." These two philosophies have the same main goal but they go about achieving it two different ways. The Fi delivers short term results that can be translated into long term success if the process is repeated correctly without allowing it to lose momentum. The TQM has at its base client satisfaction but it only yields long term results. When choosing one of these two processes management has to take into account what are the company needs. Uses and potential Products that are based on embedded computer systems has seen a rapid increase. During this time the features that are controlled or supported by software systems that are embedded have suffered an increase in their role becoming crucial. All these developments make it necessary to create and innovate new approaches for software process improvement that focus on improving specific product traits. Focused improvement can be used not only in business systems but in any type of system be it healthcare, education, waste management, space exploration systems(NASA etc.) Functioning principles The FI is based on the Five Thinking Processes that enable it to work in any cognitive system. The working principle of the five thinking processes is represented by the users ability to answer the following questions: What to change? What to change it into? How to cause the change? Why Change? How to maintain the process of ongoing improvement ? If all questions have an answer then the Focused improvement can be applied with relative ease Useful quotes "Focused improvement includes all activities that maximize the overall effectiveness of equipment, processes, and plants through uncompromising elimination of losses* and improvement of performance." The objective of Focused Improvement is to assure that the equipment maintains a peak performance all the time. "The fact is machines do virtually 100 percent of the product manufacturing work. The only thing we people do, whether we’re operators, technicians, engineers, or managers, is to tend to the needs of the machines in one way or another. The better our machines run, the more productive our shop floor, and the more successful our business." The driving concept behind Focused Improvement is bringing your losses as close to zero as possible. "Maximizing equipment effectiveness requires the complete elimination of failures, defects, and other negative phenomena – in other words, the wastes and losses incurred in equipment operation." References Theory of constraints	[ 0.014483108185231686, -0.1559792459011078, -0.3066837191581726, 0.1850498467683792, -0.1771065890789032, 0.02829158678650856, 0.5983364582061768, -0.17654046416282654, -0.11464475840330124, -0.5919724702835083, -0.5431203842163086, 0.9541882872581482, -0.44246765971183777, -0.280004620552063, -0.2982170879840851, 0.5758784413337708, 0.4408200979232788, -0.06485077738761902, 0.005595960654318333, -0.05187411233782768, -0.2586330473423004, 0.0919388011097908, 0.14605562388896942, 0.01907174661755562, 0.22858700156211853, 0.2785200774669647, 0.5327667593955994, 0.19720928370952606, -0.2958289086818695, -0.07146041840314865, 0.08518299460411072, 0.45227164030075073, 0.10345164686441422, 0.05086677893996239, 0.09159909933805466, 0.42311426997184753, 0.1409488469362259, -0.12949387729167938, -0.2706741988658905, -0.8300998210906982, 0.10856828093528748, 0.03516780212521553, -0.3141210675239563, 0.0227355994284153, -0.013896554708480835, -0.3965781629085541, 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206375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantopop	Cantopop	Cantopop (a contraction of "Cantonese pop music") or HK-pop (short for "Hong Kong pop music") is a genre of pop music written in standard Chinese and sung in Cantonese. Cantopop is also used to refer to the cultural context of its production and consumption. The genre began in the 1970s and became associated with Hong Kong popular music from the middle of the decade. Cantopop then reached its height of popularity in the 1980s and 1990s before slowly declining in the 2000s and experiencing a slight revival in the 2010s. The term "Cantopop" itself was coined in 1978 after "Cantorock", a term first used in 1974. In the eighties Cantopop has reached its highest glory with fanbase and concerts from allover the world, especially from Mainland China, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea, and Japan. This is even more obvious with the influx of songs from Hong Kong movies during the time. Besides Western pop music, Cantopop is also influenced by other international genres, including jazz, rock and roll, R&B, disco, electronic and others. Cantopop songs are almost invariably performed in Cantonese. Boasting a multi-national fanbase in Southeast Asian nations such as Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia, as well as in East Asian regions of South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi in southeastern mainland China, Hong Kong, and occasionally Macau, remain the most significant hubs of the genre. Examples of some of the most significant figures in the Cantopop industry include: Sam Hui, Teresa Teng, Roman Tam, Jenny Tseng, George Lam, Alan Tam, Leslie Cheung, Danny Chan, Anita Mui, Beyond, Jacky Cheung, Andy Lau, Sandy Lam, Leon Lai, Aaron Kwok, Faye Wong, Sammi Cheng, Kelly Chen, Nicholas Tse, Eason Chan, Leo Ku, Miriam Yeung, Joey Yung, Twins. History 1920s to 1950s: Shanghai origins Western-influenced music first came to China in the 1920s, specifically through Shanghai. Artists like Zhou Xuan () acted in films and recorded popular songs. Zhou was possibly the first Chinese pop star. In 1949 when the People's Republic of China was established by the Communist Party of China, one of the first actions taken by the government was to denounce pop music (specifically Western pop) as decadent music. Beginning in the 1950s, massive waves of immigrants fled Shanghai to destinations like North Point in Hong Kong. As a result, many first generation Cantopop artists and composers hail from Shanghai. 1960s: Cultural acceptance By the 1960s, Cantonese music in Hong Kong was still limited largely to traditional Cantonese opera and comic renditions of western music. Tang Kee-chan, Cheng Kuan-min (), and Tam Ping-man () were among the earliest artists releasing Cantonese records. The generation at the time preferred British and American exports. Western culture was at the time equated with education and sophistication, and Elvis Presley, Johnny Mathis and The Ladybirds were popular. Conversely, those who did not prefer Cantonese music were not considered fashioned or educated. and Chan Chung-chug () were two popular Cantonese singers who specifically targeted the younger generation. Connie Chan Po-chu is generally considered to be Hong Kong's 657th teen idol, mostly due to her career longevity. Josephine Siao is also another artist of the era. 1970s: Beginning of the Golden Age (Rise of television and the modern industry) Local bands mimicked British and American bands. Two types of local Cantonese music appeared in the market nearly concurrently in 1973: one type cashed in on the popularity of TVB's drama series based on the more traditional lyrical styles. The other was more western style music largely from Polydor Hong Kong (). Notable singers from the era include Liza Wang and Paula Tsui. At the same time, television was fast becoming a household must-have that offered free entertainment to the public. For example, The Fatal Irony () and Games Gamblers Play () took the local music scene by storm as soon as they were broadcast on the radio and television. Soap operas were needed to fill TV air time, and popular Cantonese songs became TV theme songs. Around 1971, Sandra Lang, a minor singer who had never sung Cantopop before, was invited to sing the first Cantonese TV theme song "A marriage of Laughter and Tears" (). This song was a collaboration between songwriters Yip Siu-dak () and the legendary Joseph Koo. It was ground-breaking and topped local charts. Other groups that profited from TV promotion included the Four Golden Flowers. Sam Hui is regarded by some to be the earliest Cantopop star. He was the lead singer of the band Lotus formed in the late 1960s, signed to Polydor in 1972. The song that made him famous was the theme song to Games Gamblers Play (), also starring Hui. The star of TV theme tunes was Roman Tam. Three of the most famous TV soap opera singers were Jenny Tseng, Liza Wang and Adam Cheng. The Wynners and George Lam also amassed a big fan base with their new style. Samuel Hui continued to dominate the charts and won the Centennial Best Sales Award in the first and second IFPI Gold Disc Presentations twice in a row in 1977 and 1978. Polydor became PolyGram () in 1978. It was at this time that the term Cantopop was first coined. The Billboard correspondent Hans Ebert, who had earlier coined the term Cantorock in 1974, noted a change in its style to something similar to British-American soft rock, therefore started to use the term Cantopop instead in 1978. In 1974, as the theme song of The Fatal Irony () was very successful, TVB sold to the mainland and other countries and Cantopop reached overseas audiences through drama series. 1980s: The Golden Age of Cantopop During the 1980s, Cantopop soared to great heights with artists, producers and record companies working in harmony. Cantopop stars such as Jacky Cheung, Andy Lau, Anita Mui, Leslie Cheung, George Lam, Alan Tam, Sally Yeh, Priscilla Chan, Sandy Lam, and Danny Chan quickly became household names. The industry used Cantopop songs in TV dramas and movies, with some of the biggest soundtracks coming from films such as A Better Tomorrow (). Sponsors and record companies became comfortable with the idea of lucrative contracts and million-dollar signings. There are also Japanese songs with Cantonese lyrics. The most successful Chinese recording artist, "Queen of Mandarin songs" Teresa Teng also crossed over to Cantopop. She achieved commercial success with her original Cantonese Hits under the Polygram Label in the early 1980s. Jenny Tseng was a notable addition from Macau. In the 1980s, there came the second wave of "band fever" (the first wave came in the 1960-70s, which was much influenced by the global Beatlemania at that time. Young people thought that forming bands was fashionable. Many new bands emerged at that time, such as Samuel Hui's Lotus, The Wynners, and the Teddy Robin and the Playboys. However, the bands emerged in this first wave were just copying the western music style, mostly covering British and American rock songs, and prefer singing in English rather than Cantonese). Different from the first wave in the 60s, the "band fever" in the 80s did not show an obvious relationship with the global culture at the time being, but much related with the marketing strategy of the local record companies and mass media. Many independent bands and music groups were signed by big record companies, and this made a positive impact to the Hong Kong pop music world, as their works were highly original, with strong individuality, and they were all devoted to writing songs in local language, i.e. Cantonese. The subjects of their works were different from the mainstream (which was mostly love ballads). Politics and social life were popular subjects for the bands in their creation. The "band fever" also brought variety in musical style to the Hong Kong mainstream music world (which was almost monopolised by Pop-ballad for a long time). Styles like Rock, Metal, Pop-Rock, Folk, Neo-Romantic, Pop and some experimental styles (e.g. Cantorock) were introduced. Among them, Beyond and Tat Ming Pair () gave the greatest impact to the Hong Kong music world. Some renowned bands and groups included: Beyond, Raidas, Tat Ming Pair, Tai Chi (), Grasshopper (), Little Tigers (), Paradox (), Blue Jeans (), Echo, Wind & Cloud (), Citybeat (). The second wave of "band fever" also brought a group of new music lovers to the Hong Kong mainstream music world. Most of them were the just-grew-up generation, or the music lovers of the western Avant-garde music, also the Euro-American Rock-band lovers. This contributed to a great change in the population and age distribution of the music listeners from the 70s. Record companies were laying ever more stress on the buying power of these young new customers. The second wave of "band fever" emerged from the mid 1980s (around 1984) and reached its climax in 1986–87. However the "band fever" cannot put for a long time. Along with the death of the legendary Wong Ka Kui, the leader and co-founder of Beyond, in 1993, and the disband-tide emerged in the early 90s (Tat Ming Pair disbanded in 1990), the "band fever" gradually faded away and totally got down in the early 1990s. As Cantopop gained large followings in Chinese communities worldwide, Hong Kong entrepreneurs' ingenious use of the then new Laserdisc technology prompted yet another explosion in the market. 1990s: Four Heavenly Kings era In the early 1990s, the Cantopop stars Alan Tam, Leslie Cheung, Samuel Hui, Priscilla Chan, the songwriter Joseph Koo, and others either retired or lessened their activity. Chan left Hong Kong to pursue her studies at Syracuse University while the rest left Hong Kong amid the uncertainty surrounding the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the impending handover of Hong Kong from British back to Chinese rule in 1997. During the 1990s, the "Four Heavenly Kings" (), namely Jacky Cheung, Andy Lau, Aaron Kwok and Leon Lai, dominated music, and coverage in magazines, TV, advertisements and cinema. New talents such as Beyond, Grasshopper, Hacken Lee, Sally Yeh, Vivian Chow, Cass Phang, Kelly Chen, Sammi Cheng and Faye Wong emerged as contenders. However, due to contractual disputes with PolyGram, Hacken Lee never became one of the members, and was replaced by Cheung and Lai, who were both with the same record company. The sovereignty handover created a culturally challenging atmosphere for the industry. Establishment of Basic Law and language ordinances made the adoption of Mandarin inevitable. In 2019, Andy Lau spoke of his desire for a reunion of the Four Heavenly Kings in an interview with the press. 2000s: New era At the turn of the century, Cantonese was still dominant in the domain of Chinese pop. The deaths of stars Leslie Cheung and Anita Mui in 2003 rocked the industry. A transitional phase also took place with many overseas-raised artists such as Nicholas Tse and Coco Lee gaining recognition. As a result, Cantopop is no longer restricted to Hong Kong, but has become part of a larger music movement. In 2005 Cantopop began a new upswing. Major companies that drove much of the HK segment included Gold Typhoon Music Entertainment (EMI, Gold Label), Universal Music Group, East Asia Entertainment () and Amusic and Emperor Entertainment Group. Some of the most successful performers of the era include Juno Mak, Joey Yung, Twins, Eason Chan, Miriam Yeung, Leo Ku, Janice Vidal. The new era saw an explosion of bands like at17, Soler, Sunboy'z, Hotcha, Mr and Rubberband. Many artists such as Stephy Tang, Kary Ng, Kenny Kwan and later ended up going solo. The decade was also dubbed a "People's singer" era (), as most performers were frequently seen promoting publicly, contrasting the 1990s when previous era "big-name" singers () seemed unapproachable. A number of scandals struck some of the stars later in the decade. In 2008 the Edison Chen photo scandal involving Edison Chen and Twins singer Gillian Chung, among others, who were the subject of explicit photos uploaded online. The scandal occupied the front pages of the local press for a solid month, and also garnered the attention of international media. The scandal tarnished the image of the previously "squeaky-clean" Twins, and resulted in their going into hiatus in late June 2008, four months after Gillian was caught up in the scandal. Other events include the street fight between Gary Chaw and Justin Lo. In 2009, Jill Vidal and her singer boyfriend Kelvin Kwan were arrested in Tokyo on 24 February 2009 over allegations of marijuana possession. Kwan was released without charge after 32 days in jail, while Vidal later pleaded guilty in Tokyo court to heroin possession, and was sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment, suspended for 3 years. 2010s: Decline Mandarin became more important as a result of fast growing culturally and economically in China, the influence of Cantonese became vulnerable. Nevertheless, in addition to the 7 million people of Hong Kong and Macau, the genre continues to enjoy popularity among a Cantonese-speaking audience of in excess of 100 million in southern China, plus 10 million Cantonese-speaking diaspora in Canada, Australia and the United States. In 2010, a proposal that Guangzhou Television station should increase its broadcast in Mandarin led to protests in Guangzhou. While the authorities relented, this event reflects attempts at marginalising Cantonese and the ascendency of Mandopop. The first major award of the decade 09 JSG award was a highly controversial one with the ongoing HKRIA tax case. The case was reportedly solved in early 2012 though. In January 2012, the 11 JSG award was again controversial since one of the biggest awards, Record of the Year, was handed to Raymond Lam with his unpopular song "Chok". Some of the successful performers of the era are Eason Chan, Joey Yung, Juno Mak, Gillian Chung, Kay Tse, Hins Cheung, Pakho Chau, Ivana Wong, , Alfred Hui, C AllStar, AGA, James Ng, Phil Lam, Kary Ng, Fiona Sit, Khalil Fong and G.E.M. 2020s: Resurgence Interest in Cantopop was renewed in the early 2020s in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong, which led to border closures and restriction of travel. In addition to the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests and the passing of the Hong Kong national security law in June 2020, the resurgence of Hong Kong pride had led many Cantonese natives to support local music artistes. The Cantopop boy group Mirror, which was formed through the ViuTV singing competition in Good Night Show - King Maker in 2018, skyrocketed in popularity during this time due to their distinctively local image. Media had described them as "the new kings of Cantopop" and a "Cantopop phenomenon." In February 2021, Hong Kong's biggest television broadcaster, TVB, historically lifted its ban on four of Hong Kong's biggest record labels, opening the doors for non-TVB artistes to perform on the network. The move was described by local media as "reviving the Cantopop music industry." Characteristics Instruments and setups Early Cantopop was developed from Cantonese opera music hybridised with Western pop. The musicians soon gave up traditional Chinese musical instruments like zheng and Erhu fiddle in favour of western style arrangements. Cantopop songs are usually sung by one singer, sometimes with a band, accompanied by piano, synthesizer, drum set and guitars. They are composed under verse-chorus form and are generally monophonic. Practically all early Cantopop songs feature a descending bassline. Lyrics Cantonese is a pitch sensitive tonal language. The word carries a different meaning when sung in a different relative pitch. Matching Cantonese lyrics to Western music was particularly difficult because the Western musical scale has 12 semi-tones. Through the work of pioneers like Samuel Hui, James Wong () and Jimmy Lo Kwok Jim (), those that followed have more stock phrases for reference. Classical Chinese lyrics The first type is the poetic lyrics written in literary or classical Wenyan Chinese (). In the past, Cantopop maintained the Cantonese Opera tradition of matching the musical notes with tones of the language. Relatively few Cantopop songs use truly colloquial Cantonese terms, and fewer songs contain lyrics. Songs written in this style are usually reserved for TV shows about ancient China. Since the 1980s, increasing numbers of singers have departed from this tradition, though some big names like Roman Tam stayed true to traditional techniques. Modern Chinese lyrics The second type is less formal. The lyrics written in colloquial Cantonese make up the majority with compositions done in modern written Chinese. TV shows filmed under modern contexts will use songs written with these lyrics. Most songs share an over-riding characteristic, in which every last word of a phrase is rhymed. The following is an example from the song "Impression" () by Samuel Hui. The last word of every phrase ends with '–oeng'. Covers of foreign compositions Cantopop was born in the 1970s and became a cultural product with the popularity of two popular TVB drama's themes songs in the early 1970s: "Tower Ballad" (鐵塔凌雲, 1972) and "A marriage of Laughter and Tears" (啼笑因緣, 1974). The majority of "hit" Cantopop, however, is not entirely local produced but the cover versions of "hit" foreign melodies. Since the 1970s, covering "hit" external songs mainly from Japan, Korea, Taiwan or other Western countries became a common practice among Hong Kong record companies. At that time, Hong Kong's constantly growing music industry acknowledges simply by using those hits, whose already gained popularity, will be the easiest way to reach success in the market. Cover versions were also widely used as a solution to address the shortage of the local hits due to the lack of local composers. Another reason for the use of cover versions is to minimise the production costs. The practice is also done for business reasons of filling up albums and re-capitalizing on songs with a proven record. The Radio Television Hong Kong (RTHK) Top Ten Chinese Gold Songs Awards, which is one of the major music awards in Hong Kong since 1979, can reflect the great reliance on Japanese melodies in Cantopop. During the 1980s, 139 out of 477 songs from weekly gold songs chart were cover versions, and 52% of the cover versions were covers of Japanese songs. Numerous legendary songs of Cantopop superstars Alan Tam, Leslie Cheung and Anita Mui, for example "Craziness" (1983), "Monica" (1984), "Foggy Love" (1984), "For Your Love Only" (1985), "Evil Girl" (1985), "The Past Love" (1986), "The First Tear" (1986), and "Fired Tango", were cover versions of Japanese hits, showing that covers contributed to the success of superstars to a certain degree. By definition hybrids are still considered Cantonese songs due to the Cantonese lyrics, though the rights borrowed varies country to country. Songs like "Tomorrow sounds like today" () by Jenny Tseng, "Life to seek" () by Danny Chan, "Snowing" () by Priscilla Chan, and "Can't afford" () by Jade Kwan were originally composed outside of Hong Kong. Many critics disapprove of the practice of covering foreign music and consider it lacking in originality, and many albums promoted themselves as "cover-free". Canto-jazz January 29, 2010, Jacky Cheung released his Private Corner album coining the phrase "Canto-jazz", to describe the concept of the album and the musical style of the songs. In The South China Morning Post, Rachel Mok described "Canto-jazz" as a "unique fusion of the two music styles" of "light jazz" and canto-pop creating a fresh sound with a uniquely local flavour". She cited Jacky Cheung's Private Corner and Karen Mok's "Somewhere I Belong" among artists who have recorded Cantonese language albums in the new jazz genre coined "canto-jazz". An educational study traced the development of jazz in Greater China and explored the cross-cultural issues in rearranging a cantopop song for big band or jazz combo arrangement. Industry Cantopop stars Talent is unusually secondary to the success of a Cantopop singer in Hong Kong. Most times, image sells albums, as it is one of the characteristics of Mainstream music similarly mirrored in the United States and Japan. Publicity is vital to an idol's career, as one piece of news could make or break a future. Almost all modern Cantopop stars go into the movie business regardless of their ability to act; however, the reverse may also occur with actors releasing albums and embarking on concerts regardless of singing talent. They immediately expand to the Mandarin market once their fame is established, hence pure Cantopop stars are almost nonexistent. Outside of music sales, their success can also be gauged by their income. For example, according to some reports, Sammi Cheng earned HK$46M (around US$6M) from advertisement and merchandise endorsements in one month alone. Many artists, however, begin with financial hardships. For example, Yumiko Cheng owed her company thousands of dollars. Others include Elanne Kong crying in public with only HK$58 left. Labels PolyGram, EMI, Sony, Warner and BMG were established in Hong Kong since the 1970s. Local record companies such as Crown Records (), Wing Hang Records (), Manchi Records () and Capital Artists () in the past have become successful local labels. As TV drama themes lost favour in the mid-1980s, market power soon drifted to the multi-national labels. Sales are tracked at the IFPI HK Annual Sales Chart. Criticism Unoriginality Cantopop has been criticised as being bland and unoriginal, since most stars tend to sing songs with similar topics with emphasis on "maudlin love ballads". Cantopop features many songs which use foreign and traditional tunes to which new Cantonese lyrics have been written, including many of the songs of the 1980s golden era. However, this reflects the traditional practice and values of Chinese music in which only lyrics and lyricists are valued, and a lot of songs of the 1980s golden era adopting foreign tunes have become classics of Cantopop. In the late 1990s, there was a shortage of creative talent due to the rising demand for Chinese songs; meanwhile, mainland China and Taiwan had nurtured their own local industries posing serious competition to Cantopop. Renowned legendary lyricist James Wong Jum-sum, known as Wong Jim, wrote his 2003 thesis on the subject. However, there are still many indie musicians, with some such as Beyond (who emerged from the "band fever" of the 1980s) and Tat Ming Pair, whose songs reflect the darker, less-expressed side of society, achieving mainstream success. Artists Male Wong Ka Kui Albert Au Kenny Bee Danny Chan Daniel Chan Eason Chan Ian Chan Jackie Chan Jaycee Chan Jordan Chan Jason Chan Sammul Chan William Chan Pak Ho Chau Wakin (Emil) Chau Edison Chen Adam Cheng Ekin Cheng Fred Cheng Kevin Cheng Ronald Cheng Dicky Cheung Hins Cheung Julian Cheung Alfred Hui Jacky Cheung Leslie Cheung Louis Koo Louis Cheung Steven Cheung Endy Chow Alex Fong Khalil Fong Andy Hui Ken Hung Takeshi Kaneshiro Keung To Anson Kong Leo Ku Kelvin Kwan Kenny Kwan Michael Kwan Aaron Kwok Roger Kwok Leon Lai Alex Lam Bowie Lam Chet Lam George Lam Raymond Lam Terence Lam Jan Lamb Andy Lau Jer Lau Wilfred Lau Gene Lee Hacken Lee Edmond Leung Tony Leung Don Li Anson Lo Gallen Lo Justin Lo Lowell Lo Edan Lui Juno Mak Dennis Mak Pong Nan Deep Ng Ron Ng Aarif Rahman Edwin Siu William So Alan Tam Roman Tam Patrick Tang Alex To Nicholas Tse Wong Cho Lam Deric Wan Dave Wang Paul Wong Bosco Wong Anthony Wong James Wong Hubert Wu Charles Ying Steven Ma Shawn Yue Samuel Hui Yip Sai Wing MC Jin Fred Cheng Namewee Pakho Chau Female Kelly Chen Anita Mui Ada Zhuang Priscilla Chan Sandy Lam Teresa Carpio Janice Vidal Tang Tsz-kei Jill Vidal Deanie Ip Cass Phang Sammi Cheng Shirley Kwan Candy Lo Cecilia Cheung Gigi Leung Vivian Chow Teresa Teng Sally Yeh Coco Lee Jenny Tseng Paula Tsui Miriam Yeung Kay Tse Joey Yung Fiona Fung Karen Morris Kit Chan Bobo Chan Connie Chan Chelsia Chan Flora Chan Sita Chan Vincy Chan Joyce Cheng Stephanie Cheng Yumiko Cheng Cecilia Cheung Teresa Cheung Mandy Chiang Charlene Choi Gillian Chung Sherman Chung Niki Chow Maria Cordero Theresa Fu Denise Ho Paisley Hu Stephanie Ho Elanne Kong Ella Koon Kellyjackie Jade Kwan Susanna Kwan Gigi Lai Winnie Lau Gin Lee Tiffany Lee Isabella Leong Cathy Leung Toby Leung Rain Li Prudence Liew Shiga Lin Mimi Lo Jinny Ng Kary Ng Yan Ng Fiona Sit Stephy Tang Vangie Tang Lai Ying Tong Karen Kong Karen Tong Jessica Hsuan Kate Tsui Liza Wang Emme Wong Faye Wong Ivana Wong Kandy Wong Linda Wong Myolie Wu Su Miaoling Charlie Yeung Joey Yung Frances Yip Veronica Yip Amy Chan Bondy Chiu AGA Linda Chung Hana Kuk Bands and groups 2R AMK As One At17 Beyond Boy'z Blue Jeans C AllStar Chochukmo Citybeat Cream Dear Jane Dry Echo EO2 Fabel Grasshopper Hotcha KOLOR Krusty LMF Lil' Ashes Little Tigers Mirror Mister (Mr) My Little Airport Paradox Ping Pung Raidas Robynn & Kendy RubberBand Shine Softhard Soler Supper Moment Swing Tai Chi Tat Ming Pair The Pancakes Wind & Cloud The Wynners Twins (group) YLK Organization 24 Herbs Major awards A record chart which includes all genres of C-pop is the Global Chinese Pop Chart. Cantopop radio stations See also Music of Hong Kong Hong Kong musical tongue twister Hong Kong English pop Hong Kong television drama C-pop Mandopop Chinese hip hop J-pop K-pop V-pop References External links C-Pop Fantasie – Online resource for c-pop, providing lyrics, downloads, video shows, and more. Pop Saves Hong Kong, in Tofu Magazine #2 Hong Kong Vintage Pop Radio www.hkmusic.cn: Cantopop song listings (in Chinese) www.mysongspage.com, lyrics and chords for Cantonese, English & Mandarin songs. 香港50–80年代粵語流行曲唱片目錄 Disc index Come back to love blog Lee HC's 黑膠樂園 Disc index 香港樂壇25年的發展 article [音乐评论][粤语流行四十年] Cantonese Cantonese-language songs Pop music genres Fusion music genres Hong Kong music C-pop Chinese music	[ 0.43494340777397156, 0.27536922693252563, -0.1849139928817749, 0.24132993817329407, -0.10280199348926544, -0.04290961101651192, -0.10970497876405716, 0.981989324092865, -0.20254674553871155, 0.34063589572906494, -0.874523937702179, 0.03010585717856884, -0.18415960669517517, -0.32185086607933044, -0.2598177492618561, 0.14729063212871552, 0.6821011900901794, 0.04983733966946602, -0.1865641474723816, -0.5943436622619629, -0.4131697714328766, -0.31248435378074646, 0.4121740162372589, -0.14831610023975372, 0.25755807757377625, -0.11890494078397751, -0.0744263231754303, 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206382	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wilson%20%28Scottish%20writer%29	John Wilson (Scottish writer)	John Wilson of Elleray FRSE (18 May 1785 – 3 April 1854) was a Scottish advocate, literary critic and author, the writer most frequently identified with the pseudonym Christopher North of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. He was professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh from 1820–1851. Life and work Wilson was born in Paisley, the son of John Wilson, a wealthy gauze manufacturer who died in 1796, when John was 11 years old, and his wife Margaret Sym (1753–1825). He was their fourth child, and the eldest son, having nine sisters and brothers. He was educated at Paisley Grammar School and entered the University of Glasgow aged 12 (14 being the usual age at that time), and continued to attend various classes for six years, mostly under Professor George Jardine, with whose family he lived. During this period Wilson excelled in sport as well as academic subjects, and fell in love with Margaret Fletcher, who was the object of his affections for several years. Fellow student Alexander Blair became a close friend. In 1803 Wilson was entered as a gentleman commoner at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was inspired by Oxford and in much of his later work, notably in the essay called "Old North and Young North", expresses his love for it. However his time at Oxford was not altogether happy. Though he obtained a brilliant first class degree, he made no close friends at Magdalen College and few in the university. Nor was he lucky in love, for his beloved Margaret Fletcher eloped to New York with his younger brother Charles. Wilson took his degree in 1807, and at the age of 22 was his own master with a good income and no guardian to control him. He was able devote himself to managing his estate on Windermere called Elleray, ever since connected with his name. Here for four years he built, boated, wrestled, shot, fished, walked and amused himself, besides composing or collecting from previous compositions a considerable volume of poems, published in 1812 as The Isle of Palms. During this time he also befriended the literary figures William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey and Thomas de Quincey. In 1811 Wilson married Jane Penny of Ambleside, daughter of the Liverpool merchant and slave trader James Penny, and they were happy for four years, until the event which made a working man of letters of Wilson, and without which he would probably have produced a few volumes of verse and nothing more. Most of his fortune was lost by the dishonest speculation of an uncle, in whose hands Wilson had carelessly left it. His mother had a house in Edinburgh, in which she was able and willing to receive her son and his family; he was not forced to give up Elleray, though he was no longer able to live there. He read law and was elected to the Faculty of Advocates in 1815, still with many outside interests, and in 1816 produced a second volume of poems, The City of the Plague. In 1817, soon after the founding of Blackwood's Magazine, Wilson began his connection with the Tory monthly and in October 1817 he joined with John Gibson Lockhart in the October number working up James Hogg's MS a satire called the Chaldee Manuscript, in the form of biblical parody, on the rival Edinburgh Review, its publisher and his contributors. He became the principal writer for Blackwood's, though never its nominal editor, the publisher retaining supervision even over Lockhart's and "Christopher North's" contributions, which were the making of the magazine. In 1822 began the series of Noctes Ambrosianae, after 1825 mostly Wilson's work. These are discussions in the form of convivial table-talk, including wonderfully various digressions of criticism, description and miscellaneous writing. There was much ephemeral, a certain amount purely local, and something occasionally trivial in them. But their dramatic force, their incessant flashes of happy thought and happy expression, their almost incomparable fulness of life, and their magnificent humour give them all but the highest place among genial and recreative literature. "The Ettrick Shepherd," an idealised portrait of James Hogg, one of the talkers, is a most delightful creation. Before this, Wilson had contributed to Blackwood's prose tales and sketches, and novels, some of which were afterwards published separately in Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life (1822), The Trials of Margaret Lindsay (1823) and The Foresters (1825); later appeared essays on Edmund Spenser, Homer and all sorts of modern subjects and authors. Wilson left his mother's house and established himself (1819) in Ann Street, Edinburgh, with his wife and five children. His election to the chair of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh (1820) was unexpected, and the best qualified man in the United Kingdom, Sir William Hamilton, was also a candidate. But the matter was made a political one; the Tories still had a majority in the burgh council; Wilson was powerfully backed by friends, Sir Walter Scott at their head; and his adversaries played into his hands by attacking his moral character, which was not open to any fair reproach. Wilson made a very excellent professor, never perhaps attaining to any great scientific knowledge in his subject or power of expounding it, but acting on generation after generation of students with a stimulating force that is far more valuable than the most exhaustive knowledge of a particular topic. His duties left him plenty of time for magazine work, and for many years his contributions to Blackwood were voluminous, in one year (1834) amounting to over 50 separate articles. Most of the best and best known of them appeared between 1825 and 1835. In 1844, he published The Genius, and Character of Burns. In his last 30 years, he spent his time between Edinburgh and Elleray, with excursions and summer residences elsewhere, a sea trip on board the Experimental Squadron in the English Channel during the summer of 1832, and a few other unimportant diversions. The death of his wife in 1837 was a severe blow to him, especially as it followed within three years of his friend Blackwood. Death and legacy Wilson died at home at 6 Gloucester Place in Edinburgh on 3 April 1854 as the result of a stroke. He was buried on the southern side of Dean Cemetery on 7 April. A large red granite obelisk was erected at his grave. In 1865 a statue by Sir John Steell was erected to his memory in Princes Street Gardens. The bronze figure stands on a substantial stone pedestal and is located between the Royal Scottish Academy and the Scott Monument. A scene from his play "The City of the Plague" was adapted by Alexander Pushkin as "A Feast in Time of Plague" and become a subject of a number of adaptations, including operas and a TV movie "Little Tragedies" (featuring Ivan Lapikov as The Priest). Family His brother James Wilson (1795–1856), was known as a zoologist. On 11 May 1811 Wilson married Jane Penny, the daughter of James Penny, a Liverpool merchant. She was described as "the leading belle of the lake country". They had five children, three daughters and two sons: Margaret Anne, married Professor James Frederick Ferrier Mary, his biographer, married John Thomson Gordon FRSE (1813-1865), sheriff of Midlothian and son of Dr John Gordon Jane Emily, married William Edmonstoune Aytoun John, a clergyman of the Church of England Blair, for a time secretary to the University of Edinburgh He was cousin to Very Rev Matthew Leishman and they lived side by side during their childhood in Paisley. Wilson was also the great great great uncle of Ludovic Kennedy. Publications Publications include the Works of John Wilson, edited by P. J. Ferrier (12 volumes, Edinburgh, 1855–59); the Noctes Ambrosianœ, edited by R. S. Mackenzie (five volumes, New York, 1854); a Memoir by his daughter, M. W. Gordon (two volumes, Edinburgh, 1862); and for a good estimate, G. Saintsbury, in Essays in English Literature (London, 1890); and C. T. Winchester, "John Wilson," in Group of English Essayists of the Early Nineteenth Century (New York, 1910). Notes References Attribution External links Archival material at 1785 births 1854 deaths Scottish journalists Scottish philosophers Scottish poets Academics of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Glasgow Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Writers from Paisley, Renfrewshire Members of the Faculty of Advocates Burials at the Dean Cemetery 19th-century Scottish writers	[ 0.16519784927368164, 0.4242977797985077, -0.13978250324726105, -0.7865209579467773, 0.2906915247440338, 0.6130801439285278, 0.7758808135986328, -0.20245866477489471, -0.2222144454717636, -0.1815066784620285, -0.0014239500742405653, -0.07444994151592255, -0.7574159502983093, 0.22549627721309662, 0.08983534574508667, 0.4258556067943573, -0.3508686423301697, -0.14937470853328705, -0.5445247292518616, -0.14424163103103638, -0.4267505705356598, -0.2468523234128952, 0.5247060060501099, -0.19367733597755432, 0.29704323410987854, 0.020808281376957893, 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206383	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Blackwood	William Blackwood	William Blackwood (20 November 177616 September 1834) was a Scottish publisher who founded the firm of William Blackwood and Sons. Life Blackwood was born in Edinburgh on 20 November 1776. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to a firm of booksellers in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in Glasgow and London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare and curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John Murray and other London publishers, and gradually drifted into publishing on his own account, moving in 1816 to Princes Street. On 1 April 1817 the first number of the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine was published, which on its seventh number became Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. "Maga," as this magazine soon came to be called, was the organ of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered a host of writers, including John Neal, making Maga the first British literary journal to publish work by an American. In 1829 he wrote to his son William in India telling him that he was moving from Princes Street to 45 George Street as George Street was "becoming more and more a place of business and the east end of Princes Street is now like Charring Cross, a mere place for coaches". His brother Thomas bought 43 George and in 1830 Thomas Hamilton remodelled the entire frontage of the pair for the Blackwood Brothers. Thomas' shop operated as a silk merchant. At the end of his life Blackwood was living at 3 Ainslie Place on Edinburgh's elegant Moray Estate in the West End. His bookshop was within easy walking distance, being located at 45 George Street. William Blackwood died in 1834 and is buried in an ornate vault in the lower western section of Old Calton Burial Ground. In Fiction The character Oakstick in John Paterson's Mare, James Hogg's allegorical satire on the Edinburgh publishing scene, is based on William Blackwood. Family William Blackwood married Janet Steuart (1780–1849) on 29 October 1805. They had a large family. Most of his sons joined his publishing firm in some capacity. All are buried with him at the Old Calton Burial Ground except where stated: Alexander Blackwood (1806–1845) Robert Blackwood (1808–1852) Major William Blackwood (1810–1861) came later into the publishing business after a military beginning. Isabella Blackwood (1812–1897) James Blackwood (1814–1871) Thomas Blackwood (1816–1855) (buried in Boulogne) John Blackwood (1819–1879) who took over editorship of Blackwood's Magazine (buried in Dean Cemetery) Col Archibald Blackwood (1821–1870) adopted a military career, died in Simla in India. Janet Blackwood (1823–1870), married Archibald Smith and moved to London (buried in Kensal Green Cemetery) References Further reading Finkelstein, David, The House of Blackwood: Author-Publisher Relations in the Victorian Era, Penn State Press, 2001 External links Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, January, 1843 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, February, 1843 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, March, 1843 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, April 1843 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, May, 1843 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, June, 1843 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, January, 1844 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, April, 1844 at Project Gutenberg Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, July, 1844 at Project Gutenberg 1776 births 1834 deaths Burials at Old Calton Burial Ground Scottish booksellers Blackwood family (publishers) Scottish magazine publishers (people) 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206385	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutin	Eutin	Eutin () is the district capital of Eastern Holstein county located in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein. As of 2020, the town had some 17,000 inhabitants. History The name Eutin (originally Utin) is of Slavic origin. Its meaning is not quite clear; it is probably derived from the personal name "Uta". The Slavic Obotrites tribe settled eastern Holstein in the 7th/8th centuries A.D. and built a castle on Pheasant Island in the lake now called the Großer Eutiner See. The originally Slavonic settlement of Utin was populated in the twelfth century by Dutch settlers. In 1156 Eutin became a market town. Town rights were granted in the year 1257. It later became the seat of the Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck, as Lübeck itself was an imperial free city. When the bishopric was secularized in 1803, Eutin became part of the Duchy of Oldenburg. As a result of the Greater Hamburg Act of 1937, Eutin passed from the Free State of Oldenburg to the Prussian Province of Schleswig-Holstein. After World War II, it became part of the modern Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein. Culture Eutin is birthplace of composer Carl Maria von Weber. To honor him, an open-air theater () was built in the park of Eutin Castle in 1951, and operas are performed there in July and August during the Eutin Opera Summer Festival (). The seating capacity of this open-air venue is about 2000. The festival includes music students in Eutin as well as students from the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas, US, which is the twin city of Eutin. Eutin hosts an annual Blues Festival (Bluesfest Eutin) at the beginning of summer. Local musicians, as well as up and coming blues artists from around the world, come to play at this three-day outdoor blues festival, which takes place in the market place in the center of town. As the costs are covered by sponsoring, public funding and volunteer helpers, admission is free. Geography and economy Eutin is surrounded by a number of lakes of the Holsteinische Schweiz, including the Großer Eutiner See, Kleiner Eutiner See, Kellersee and Ukleisee. Many of the lakes are surrounded by forests. Popular activities on these lakes include boating, canoeing, rowing, swimming, and fishing. Schleswig-Holstein, particularly Eutin, is known for its numerous rapeseed fields, which are used for biofuel production. Wind turbines are also a common sight in this rural region. Historic buildings Originally constructed as a fully functioning windmill in 1850 by Carl Friedrich Trahn, Die alte Mühle (the old mill) now serves as a bar and restaurant. Sons and daughters of the city Tom Buk-Swienty (born 1966) historian, journalist and writer Wilhelm Dittmann (1874–1954), politician (USPD / SPD) Peter Engel (born 1940), writer Vadim Glowna (1941–2012), actor Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (1759 – 1818), Queen of Sweden and Norway Ulf Kämpfer (born 1972), politician (SPD), Lord Mayor in Kiel Christian Klees (born 1968), Olympic winner 1996 in Atlanta Friedrich Kühn (1889–1944), officer, most recently General of the Panzertruppe Heinrich Limpricht (1827–1909), chemist Nicholas Mercator, (1620–1697), mathematician, born in Eutin or near Cismar Adolf Pansch (1841–1887), anatomist, anthropologist and polar explorer Axel Prahl (born 1960), film actor Daniel Richter (born 1962), artist Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt (1825–1884), astronomer and geologist Ralph Schumacher (born 1964), philosopher and behavioral scientist Jonathan Stock (born 1983), journalist Peter Thoms (born 1940), actor and jazz musician Peter Friedrich Ludwig Tischbein (1813–1883), German chief forester, entomologist and paleontologist Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg (1802–1872), philosopher Friedrich August Ukert (1780–1851), historian, geographer, librarian Lars Unger (born 1972), former footballer Stefan Vogenauer (born 1968), legal scientist Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826), composer Dirk von Zitzewitz (born 1968), racing driver Wincent Weiss (born 1993), singer Other people who worked in Eutin Matthias Claudius (1740–1815), poet Emanuel Geibel (1815–1884), lyricist Lotte Herrlich (1883–1956), (nude) photographer Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), philosopher and writer Johann Heinrich Voss (1751–1826), classicist and poet Johann Wilhelm Petersen (1649–1727), theologian Hans-Heinrich Sievert (1909–1963), athlete and Olympic athlete Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein (1751–1829), painter Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936), sociologist, lived from 1901 to 1921 in the Auguststraße 8 (now Albert-Mahlstedt-Straße) Wilhelm Wisser (1843–1935), high school professor and oral researcher Twin towns – sister cities Eutin is twinned with: Guldborgsund, Denmark Lawrence, United States Putbus, Germany Each summer, Lawrence and Eutin take part in an exchange program, where high-school students from Lawrence and college students from the University of Kansas have some weeks in Eutin, while German students from Eutin come to Lawrence to study. The University of Kansas also has established an internship exchange program with Eutin. Language In addition to Standard German (Hochdeutsch), Low German (Plattdeutsch) is very commonly used in Eutin. A common greeting among the citizens is "moin", to which one replies with "moin moin". See also Utin (castle) Bridegroom's Oak References External links Official website Website of the Eutin Opera Summer Festival View of Eutin from a live webcam on top of the Water Tower. 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206386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%20If%20the%20Moon%20Didn%27t%20Exist	What If the Moon Didn't Exist	What if the Moon Didn't Exist is a collection of speculative articles about different versions of Earth, published in book form in 1993. They were originally published in Astronomy magazine. Contents The individual scenarios are: Solon – Earth without a Moon Lunholm – Moon closer to Earth Petiel – Earth with less mass Urania – Earth's axis tilted like that of Uranus Granstar – More massive Sun Antar – Effects if a supernova exploded near Earth Cerberon – Star passing through the Solar System Diablo – Black hole passing through the Earth Seeing the world via infrared Effects of ozone layer depletion Reception Reviews in Publishers Weekly and Kirkus said that the first several stories were interesting, but noted that the conceit grew repetitive. References External links What If the Moon Didn't Exist? Neil F. Comins, published by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific Reviews 1993 non-fiction books Astronomy books	[ 0.5417447090148926, 0.29039400815963745, -0.3498289883136749, 0.43944284319877625, 0.05042120814323425, 0.04135258495807648, 0.08118558675050735, 0.30864661931991577, -0.12633085250854492, 0.13583002984523773, 0.4639911353588104, 0.15426623821258545, -0.18974266946315765, 0.542167603969574, -0.029010312631726265, -0.20321685075759888, 0.15294842422008514, 0.3846080005168915, -0.07146981358528137, -0.3853084444999695, 0.031236659735441208, 0.07897843420505524, 0.17187193036079407, -0.3942243754863739, -0.357695072889328, -0.19955092668533325, 0.31026315689086914, -0.16721154749393463, 0.09407291561365128, 0.22413378953933716, -0.37057849764823914, 0.37966805696487427, -0.1797928661108017, -0.6542336940765381, -0.42402684688568115, 0.056539639830589294, -0.18443812429904938, 0.03391318768262863, -0.1776275485754013, -0.11651059240102768, 0.01598517596721649, 0.3360893726348877, 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206387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia%20confrontation	Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation	The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation or Borneo confrontation (also known by its Indonesian / Malay name, Konfrontasi) was a violent conflict from 1963 to 1966 that stemmed from Indonesia's opposition to the creation of the Federation of Malaysia. After Indonesian president Sukarno lost power in October 1965, the dispute ended peacefully and the nation of Malaysia was born. The creation of Malaysia was a merger of the Federation of Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia), Singapore and the British crown colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak (collectively known as British Borneo, now East Malaysia) in September 1963. Vital precursors to the conflict included Indonesia's policy of confrontation against Netherlands New Guinea from March–August 1962 and the Brunei Revolt in December 1962. Malaysia had direct military support from Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand. Indonesia had indirect support from the USSR and China, thus making it an episode of the Cold War in Asia. The confrontation was an undeclared war with most of the action occurring in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia). The conflict was characterised by restrained and isolated ground combat, set within tactics of low-level brinkmanship. Combat was usually conducted by company- or platoon-sized operations on either side of the border. Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo sought to exploit the ethnic and religious diversity in Sabah and Sarawak compared to that of Malaya and Singapore, with the intent of unravelling the proposed state of Malaysia. The jungle terrain of Borneo and lack of roads straddling the Malaysia–Indonesia border forced both Indonesian and Commonwealth forces to conduct long foot patrols. Both sides relied on light infantry operations and air transport, although Commonwealth forces enjoyed the advantage of better helicopter deployment and resupply to forward operating bases. Rivers were also used as a method of transport and infiltration. Although combat operations were primarily conducted by ground forces, airborne forces played a vital support role and naval forces ensured the security of the sea flanks. The British provided most of the defensive effort, although Malaysian forces steadily increased their contributions, and there were periodic contributions from Australian and New Zealand forces within the combined Far East Strategic Reserve stationed then in West Malaysia and Singapore. Initial Indonesian attacks into East Malaysia relied heavily on local volunteers trained by the Indonesian Army. Over time, infiltration forces became more organised with the inclusion of a more substantial component of Indonesian forces. To deter and disrupt Indonesia's growing campaign of infiltrations, the British responded in 1964 by launching their own covert operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the code name Operation Claret. Coinciding with Sukarno announcing a 'year of dangerous living' and the 1964 race riots in Singapore, Indonesia launched an expanded campaign of operations into West Malaysia on 17 August 1964, albeit without military success. A build-up of Indonesian forces on the Kalimantan border in December 1964 saw the UK commit significant forces from the UK-based Army Strategic Command and Australia and New Zealand deployed roulement combat forces from West Malaysia to Borneo in 1965–66. The intensity of the conflict began to subside following the coup d'etat of October 1965 and Sukarno's loss of power to General Suharto. A serious peace negotiations between Indonesia and Malaysia began on May 1966, and a final peace agreement was signed on 11 August 1966 with Indonesia formally recognising Malaysia. Background Political situation Before Indonesia's Confrontation of Malaysia, Sukarno had sought to develop an independent Indonesian foreign policy, focused on the acquisition of Netherlands New Guinea as a residual issue from the Indonesian National Revolution, and establishing Indonesia's credentials as a notable international power operating distinct interests from those of the West and East. Indonesia had relentlessly pursued its claim to Netherlands New Guinea during the period 1950–1962, despite facing multiple setbacks in the UN General Assembly to have its claim recognised by the international community. Indonesia was an important country in developing the Non-Aligned Movement, hosting the Bandung Conference in 1955. Following the Indonesian crisis in 1958, which had included the Permesta rebellion in eastern Indonesia and the declaration of the PRRI, a rebel revolutionary government based in Sumatra; Indonesia had emerged as a notable and rising military power in Southeast Asia. With the influx of Soviet arms aid, Indonesia was able to advance its diplomatic claims to Netherlands New Guinea more forcefully. The diplomatic dispute reached its climax in 1962 when Indonesia launched a substantial campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations upon Netherlands New Guinea. While the infiltration forces were soundly defeated by Dutch and indigenous forces, Indonesia was able to lend credence to the threat of an Indonesian invasion of Netherlands New Guinea. The Dutch, facing mounting diplomatic pressure from the Indonesians and the Americans, who were anxious to keep Indonesia from becoming Communist aligned, yielded and agreed to a diplomatic compromise, allowing the Indonesians to gain control of the territory in exchange for pledging to hold a self-determination plebiscite (the Act of Free Choice) in the territory by 1969. Thus by the close of 1962, Indonesia had achieved a considerable diplomatic victory, which possibly emboldened its self-perception as a notable regional power. It was in the context of this recent diplomatic victory that Indonesia cast its attention to the British proposal for a unified Malaysian state. Before the British government announcing the East of Suez policy in 1968, they had begun to re-evaluate in the late 1950s their force commitment in the Far East. As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies in North Borneo with the Federation of Malaya (which had become independent from Britain in 1957), and Singapore (which had become self-governing in 1959). In May 1961, the UK and Malayan governments proposed a larger federation called Malaysia, encompassing the states of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore. Initially, Indonesia was mildly supportive of the proposed federation, although the PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia — Indonesian Communist Party) was firmly opposed to it. In Brunei, it was unclear whether the Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III would support Brunei joining the proposed Malaysian state because of the implied reduction of his political office, and Brunei's oil revenues ensured Brunei's financial viability were it to choose independence. Furthermore, a Brunei politician, Dr. AM Azahari bin Sheikh Mahmud, while supporting a unified North Borneo, also opposed a wider Malaysian federation. In 1961, he had sounded out Indonesia about possible aid in training Borneo recruits; General Abdul Nasution hinted at moral support, and Soebandrio, the Indonesian foreign minister and head of intelligence, hinted at supplying more substantial aid. Azahari was a leftist who had fought in Indonesia in their war for independence. Following these meetings, Indonesia began training in Kalimantan a small volunteer force, the North Kalimantan National Army (TNKU). On 8 December 1962, the TNKU staged an insurrection—the Brunei Revolt. The insurrection was an abject failure, as the poorly trained and equipped forces were unable to capture key objectives such as the Sultan of Brunei, the Brunei oil fields, or European hostages. Within hours of the insurrection being launched, British forces based in Singapore were mobilised for a prompt response. The failure of the insurrection was evident within 30 hours when Gurkha troops airlifted from Singapore secured Brunei town and ensured the Sultan's safety. The degree of Indonesian support for the TNKU remains a subject of debate. While Indonesia at the time denied direct involvement, it did sympathise with the TNKU's objectives to destabilise the proposed Malaysian state. Following the TNKU's military setback in Brunei, on 20 January 1963 Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia, reversing Indonesia's previous policy of compliance with the British proposal. This was followed by the first recorded infiltration of Indonesian forces on 12 April 1963 when a police station in Tebedu, Sarawak, was attacked. People and terrain In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided into four separate states. Kalimantan, comprising four Indonesian provinces, was located in the south of the island. In the north, separated from Kalimantan by a border some 1000 miles long, were the Sultanate of Brunei (a British protectorate) and two colonies of the United Kingdom (UK)—British North Borneo (later renamed Sabah) and Sarawak. The three UK territories totalled some 1.5 million people, about half of them Dayaks. Sarawak had a population of about 900,000, while Sabah's was 600,000 and Brunei's was around 80,000. Among Sarawak's non-Dayak population, 31% were Chinese, and 19% were Malay. Among non-Dayaks in Sabah, 21% were Chinese, and 7% were Malay; Brunei's non-Dayak population was 28% Chinese and 54% Malay. There was a large Indonesian population in Tawau in southern Sabah and a large and economically active Chinese one in Sarawak. Despite their population size, Dayaks were spread through the country in village longhouses and were not politically organised. Sarawak was divided into five administrative divisions. Sabah, whose capital city was Jesselton (Kota Kinabalu) on the north coast, was divided into several Residencies; those of the Interior and Tawau were on the border. Apart from either end, the border generally followed a ridgeline throughout its length, rising to almost 2,500 metres in the Fifth Division. In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Kuching to Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions or the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, there was only the coast road, which was some 150 miles from the border. Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country only showed tiny topographic detail. Indonesian maps were worse; veterans recall "a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school textbook" in 1964. Kalimantan was divided into four provinces, of which East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan face the border. The capital of the West is Pontianak on the west coast, about from the border, and the capital of the East is Samarinda on the south coast, some from the border. There were no roads in the border area other than some in the west, and no road existed linking West and East Kalimantan. The lack of roads and tracks suitable for vehicles on both sides of the border meant that movement was limited to foot tracks mostly unmarked on any map, as well as water and air movement. There were many large rivers on both sides of the border, and these were the primary means of movement, including hovercraft by the UK. There were also quite a few small grass airstrips suitable for light aircraft, as dropping zones for parachuted supplies, and helicopters. The equator lies about 100 miles south of Kuching, and most of northern Borneo receives over 3000 mm of rain each year. Borneo is naturally covered by tropical rainforests. This covers the mountainous areas cut by many rivers with very steep-sided hills and hilltop ridges often only a few metres wide. The high rainfall means large rivers; these provide a principal means of transport and are formidable tactical obstacles. Dense mangrove forest covering vast tidal flats intersected with numerous creeks is a feature of many coastal areas, including Brunei and either end of the border. There are cultivated areas in valleys and around villages. In the vicinity of abandoned and current settlements are areas of dense secondary regrowth. Sarawakian opposition The end of the Second World War had brought an end to the Brooke Dynasty rule in Sarawak. Believing it to be in the best interest of the people of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown. Sarawak became a Crown colony, ruled from the Colonial Office in London, which in turn dispatched a governor for Sarawak. The predominantly Malay anti-cession movement, which rejected the British takeover of Sarawak in 1946 and had assassinated Duncan Stewart, the first British High Commissioner of Sarawak, may have been the forerunner of the subsequent anti-Malaysia movement in Sarawak, headed by Ahmad Zaidi Adruce. According to Vernon L. Porritt and Hong-Kah Fong, Left-wing and communist cell groups had been present among Sarawak's urban Chinese communities since the 1930s and 1940s. Some of the earliest Communist groups in Sabah included the Anti-Fascist League, which later became the Races Liberation Army, and the Borneo Anti-Japanese League, which was made up of the North Borneo Anti-Japanese League and the West Borneo Anti-Japanese League. The latter was led by Wu Chan, who was deported by the Sarawak colonial government to China in 1952. Other Communist groups in Sarawak included the Overseas Chinese Youth Association, which was formed in 1946, and the Liberation League along with its youth wing, the Advanced Youth Association, which emerged during the 1950s. These organisations became the nuclei for two Communist guerrilla movements: the anti-Malaysia North Kalimantan People's Army (PARAKU) and the Sarawak People's Guerrillas (PGRS). These various Communist groups were designated by various British and other Western sources as the Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) or the Sarawak Communist Organisation (SCO). The Sarawak Communist Organisation was predominantly dominated by ethnic Chinese but also included Dayak supporters. However, the Sarawak Communist Organisation had little support from ethnic Malays and other indigenous Sarawak peoples. At its height, the SCO had 24,000 members. During the 1940s and 1950s, Maoism had spread among Chinese vernacular schools in Sarawak. Following the Second World War, Communist influence also penetrated the labour movement and the predominantly Chinese Sarawak United People's Party, the state's first political party which was founded in June 1959. The Sarawak Insurgency began after the Brunei Revolt in 1962 and SCO would fight alongside the Bruneian rebels and Indonesian forces during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (1963–1966). The Sarawak Communist Organisation and the Bruneian rebels supported and propagated the unification of all British Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state. This idea was originally proposed by A. M. Azahari, leader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei (Brunei People's Party), who had forged links with Sukarno's nationalist movement, together with Ahmad Zaidi, in Java in the 1940s. However, the Brunei People's Party was in favour of joining Malaysia on the condition it was as the unified three territories of northern Borneo with their own sultan, and hence was strong enough to resist domination by Malaya, Singapore, Malay administrators or Chinese merchants. The North Kalimantan (or Kalimantan Utara) proposal was seen as a post-decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on economic, political, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and Malaya, as well as the refusal to be subjected under peninsular political domination. Both Azahari and Zaidi went into exile in Indonesia during the confrontation. While the latter returned to Sarawak and had his political status rehabilitated, Azahari remained in Indonesia until his death on 3 September 2002. In the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt, the remnants of the TNKU reached Indonesia. Possibly fearing British reprisals (which never eventuated), many Chinese communists, possibly several thousand, also fled Sarawak. Their compatriots remaining in Sarawak were known as the CCO by the UK but called the PGRS—Pasukan Gelilya Rakyat Sarawak (Sarawak People's Guerrilla Force) by Indonesia. Soebandrio met with a group of their potential leaders in Bogor, and Nasution sent three trainers from Resimen Para Komando Angkatan Darat (RPKAD) Battalion 2 to Nangabadan near the Sarawak border, where there were about 300 trainees. Some three months later, two lieutenants were sent there. The PGRS numbered about 800, based in West Kalimantan at Batu Hitam, with a contingent of 120 from the Indonesian intelligence agency and a small cadre trained in China. The PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) was firmly in evidence and led by an ethnic Arab revolutionary, Sofyan. The PGRS ran some raids into Sarawak but spent more time developing their supporters in Sarawak. The Indonesian military did not approve of the leftist nature of the PGRS and generally avoided them. Conflict Beginning of hostilities Sukarno's motives for beginning the Confrontation are contested. Former Indonesian Foreign Minister Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung argued years later that Sukarno intentionally muted Indonesia's opposition to the proposed Malaysian state while Indonesia was preoccupied with advancing its claim to West New Guinea. Following Indonesia's diplomatic victory in the West New Guinea dispute, Sukarno may have been emboldened to extend Indonesia's dominance over its weaker neighbours. Conversely, Sukarno may have felt compelled by the ongoing pressure of the PKI and the general instability of Indonesian politics to divert attention towards a new foreign conflict. In the late 1950s, Sukarno argued that Malaysia was a British puppet state, a neo-colonial experiment and that any expansion of Malaysia would increase British control over the region, with implications for Indonesia's national security. Sukarno strongly opposed the British decolonisation initiative involving the formation of the Federation of Malaysia that would comprise the Malay Peninsula and North Borneo. On the other side, Sukarno accused the new nation of Malaysia of being a British puppet state aimed at establishing neo-imperialism and neo-colonialism in Southeast Asia, and also at containing Indonesian ambition to be the regional hegemonic power. However, it was also suggested that Sukarno's campaign against the formation of Malaysia was actually motivated by a desire to unite the Malay Peninsula and the whole island of Borneo under Indonesian rule and to complete the previously abandoned idea of Greater Indonesia or Greater Malay, a concept that aims to unite the Malay race created by Sukarno and Kesatuan Melayu Muda, Ibrahim Yaacob. Similarly, the Philippines claimed eastern North Borneo, arguing that the Borneo colony had historical links with the Philippines through the Sulu archipelago. However, while Sukarno made no direct claims to incorporate northern Borneo into Indonesian Kalimantan, he saw the formation of Malaysia as an obstacle to the Maphilindo, a non-political, irredentist union spanning Malaya, Philippines and Indonesia. President of the Philippines Diosdado Macapagal initially did not oppose the concept and even initiated the Manila Accord. However, while the Philippines did not engage in hostilities, Malaysia severed diplomatic ties after the former deferred recognising it as the successor state of Malaya. In April 1963, the first recorded infiltration and attack occurred in Borneo. An infiltration force training at Nangabadan was split in two and prepared for its first operation. On 12 April 1963, one infiltration force attacked and seized the police station at Tebedu in the 1st Division of Sarawak, about 40 miles from Kuching and 2 miles from the border with Kalimantan. The other group attacked the village of Gumbang, South West of Kuching, later in the month. Only about half returned. The Confrontation could be said to have started from a military perspective with the Tebedu attack. Before Indonesia's declaration of Confrontation against the proposed Malaysian state on 20 January 1963, the Cobbold Commission in 1962 had reported on the viability of a Malaysian state, finding that there was sufficient support in the Borneo colonies for the creation of a larger Malaysian state. However, due to firming Indonesian and Philippine opposition to the Malaysia proposal, a new round of negotiations was proposed to hear the Indonesian and Philippine points of opposition. To resolve the dispute the would-be member states of Malaysia met representatives of Indonesia and the Philippines in Manila for several days, starting on 30 July 1963. Just days before the summit, on 27 July 1963, President Sukarno had continued his inflammatory rhetoric, declaring that he was going to "crush Malaysia" (). At the Manila meeting, the Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in North Borneo and Sarawak voted for it in a referendum organised by the United Nations. While the fact-finding mission by the UN was expected to begin on 22 August, Indonesian delaying tactics forced the mission to start on 26 August. Nevertheless, the UN expected the report to be published by 14 September 1963. Before the Manila meeting, the Malayan Government had set 31 August as the date on which Malaysia would come into existence (coinciding with Malaya's independence day celebrations of 31 August). However, at the Manila negotiations, it was persuaded by the Indonesian and Philippine Governments to postpone Malaysia's inauguration until 15 September 1963 by which time a UN mission was expected to report on whether the two Borneo colonies supported the Malaysia proposal. However, following the conclusion of the Manila talks, the Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman announced that the proposed Malaysian state would come into existence on 16 September 1963, apparently irrespective of the latest UN report. North Borneo and Sarawak, anticipating a pro-Malaysian UN report, declared their independence as part of Malaysia on the sixth anniversary of Merdeka Day, 31 August 1963, even before the UN report had been published. On 14 September the UN report was published, once again providing general endorsement of the proposed Malaysian state. Malaysia was formally established on 16 September 1963. Indonesia immediately reacted by expelling the Malaysian Ambassador from Jakarta. Two days later, rioters organised by the PKI burned the British embassy in Jakarta. Several hundred rioters ransacked the Singapore embassy in Jakarta and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured, and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in Kuala Lumpur. Ongoing campaign of infiltrations Even as peace talks progressed and stalled, Indonesia maintained its campaign of infiltrations. On 15 August, a headman reported an incursion in the 3rd Division and a follow-up indicated they were about 50 strong. A series of contacts ensued as 2/6 Gurkhas deployed patrols and ambushes, and after a month, 15 had been killed and three captured. The Gurkhas reported that they were well trained and professionally led, but their ammunition expenditure was high, and their fire discipline broke down. The prisoners reported 300 more invaders within a week and 600 in a fortnight. The Battle of Long Jawai was the first major incursion for the centre of the 3rd Division, directed by an RPKAD Major Mulyono Soerjowardojo, who had been sent to Nangabadan earlier in the year. The proclamation of Malaysia in September 1963 meant that Malaysian Army units deployed to Borneo (now East Malaysia). The deliberate attack by Indonesian forces on Malaysian troops did not enhance Sukarno's "anti-imperialist" credentials, although the Indonesian government tried blaming the KKO as enthusiastic idealists acting independently. They also produced Azahari, who claimed that Indonesian forces were playing no part in active operations. Sukarno next launched a peace offensive and, in late January, declared he was ready for a ceasefire (despite having denied direct Indonesia involvement). Talks started in Bangkok, but border violations continued, and the talks soon failed. They resumed mid-year in Tokyo and failed within days but allowed time for a Thai mission to visit Sarawak and witness smart, well-equipped Indonesian soldiers withdrawing across the border, which they had crossed a short distance away earlier in the day. Meanwhile, the Indonesian armed forces led by Lt. General Ahmad Yani became increasingly concerned with the worsening domestic situation in Indonesia and began to secretly contact the Malaysian government, while managing to obstruct the confrontation to a minimal level. This was implemented to preserve an already exhausted army recently conducted the Operation Trikora in Western New Guinea, while also maintaining its political position in Indonesian politics, especially against the Communist Party of Indonesia, the ardent supporters of the confrontation. Expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula Co-ordinated to coincide with Sukarno announcing a 'Year of Dangerous Living' during Indonesian Independence Day celebrations, Indonesian forces began a campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations of the Malaysian Peninsula on 17 August 1964. On 17 August 1964, a seaborne force of about 100, composed of air force Komando Pasukan Gerak Tjepat/PGT (Rapid Response Troop Commandos, later known as "Kopasgat"; current spelling: Komando Pasukan Gerak Cepat/PGC, today known as Korps Pasukan Khas "Paskhas") paratroopers, KKO and about a dozen Malaysian communists, crossed the Malacca Straits by boat, landing at Pontian in three parties in the night. Instead of being greeted as liberators, however, they were contained by various Commonwealth forces, and all but four of the infiltrators were captured within a few days. On 2 September, three Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft set off from Jakarta for Peninsular Malaysia, flying low to avoid detection by radar. The following night, two of the C-130 managed to reach their objective with their onboard PGT paratroopers, who jumped off and landed around Labis in Johore (about 100 miles north of Singapore). The remaining C-130 crashed into the Malacca Straits while trying to evade interception by an RAF Javelin FAW 9 launched from RAF Tengah. Due to a lightning storm, the drop of 96 paratroopers was widely dispersed. This resulted in them landing close to 1/10 Gurkhas, who were joined by 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (1 RNZIR) stationed near Malacca with 28 (Commonwealth) Brigade. Operations were commanded by four Malaysian Brigade, but it took a month for the security forces to capture or kill 90 of the 96 parachutists, for the loss of two men killed during the action. Indonesia's expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula sparked the Sunda Straits Crisis, involving the anticipated transit of the Sunda Strait by the British aircraft carrier HMS Victorious and two destroyer escorts. Commonwealth forces were readied for airstrikes against Indonesian infiltration staging areas in Sumatra if further Indonesian infiltrations of the Malaysian Peninsula were attempted. A tense three-week standoff occurred before the crisis was peacefully resolved. By the concluding months of 1964, the conflict once again appeared to have reached a stalemate, with Commonwealth forces having placed in check for the moment Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo, and more recently, the Malaysian Peninsula. However, the fragile equilibrium looked likely to change once again in December 1964 when Commonwealth intelligence began reporting a build-up of Indonesian infiltration forces in Kalimantan opposite Kuching, which suggested the possibility of an escalation in hostilities. Two additional British battalions were subsequently deployed to Borneo. Meanwhile, due to the landings in Malaysia and Indonesia's continued troop build-up, Australia and New Zealand also agreed to begin deploying combat forces to Borneo in early 1965. Operation Claret Operation Claret was a long-running series of secretive cross-border raids conducted by British Commonwealth forces in Borneo from June 1964 to early 1966. These raids were undertaken by special forces—including the British Special Air Service, Australian Special Air Service Regiment, and New Zealand Special Air Service—as well as regular infantry. During the early phases of the conflict, British Commonwealth and Malaysian troops had attempted only to control the border and to protect population centres from Indonesian attacks. However, by 1965 they had decided to take more aggressive action, crossing the border to obtain information and in "hot pursuit" of withdrawing Indonesian infiltrators. First approved in May 1965, later they were expanded to include cross-border ambushing in July. These patrols—which were highly classified at the time—often involved small reconnaissance teams crossing the border from the Malaysian states of Sarawak or Sabah into Indonesian Kalimantan in order to detect Indonesian forces about to enter East Malaysia. Initially, penetration was limited to but was later extended to , and again to after the Battle of Plaman Mapu in April 1965. Conventional follow-up forces of platoon and company size were then directed into position to ambush the Indonesians, either as they crossed the border or often while they were still in Kalimantan. Such operations were to be "deniable" and were conducted under a policy of "aggressive defence". Given the sensitivity of these operations and the potential consequences if they were exposed, they were controlled at the highest level and conducted within strict parameters known as the "Golden Rules", while the participants were sworn to secrecy. Claret was largely successful in gaining the initiative for the British Commonwealth forces before being suspended late in the war, inflicting significant casualties on the Indonesians and keeping them on the defensive on their side of the border. The operations were only publicly disclosed by Britain in 1974, while the Australian government did not officially acknowledge its involvement until 1996. Easing of tensions On the night of 30 September 1965, an attempted coup took place in Jakarta. Six senior Indonesian military leaders were killed, while General Nasution narrowly escaped from his would-be captors. In the ensuing confusion, Sukarno agreed to allow Suharto to assume emergency command and control of Jakarta and the armed forces stationed there. Blame for the failed coup was attributed to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and in the following weeks and months a campaign of imprisonment and lynching of PKI members and sympathisers broke out across Jakarta and Indonesia. With Suharto's grip on power in Jakarta and Indonesia delicately poised, the scale and intensity of Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo began to ease. The train of events set off by the failed coup led to Suharto's gradual consolidation of power and marginalisation of Sukarno. At the same time, the anti-communist purge spread throughout Indonesia. Suharto's steady consolidation of power after 30 September events allowed him to form a new government and in March 1967 Suharto was able to form a new cabinet that excluded Sukarno. On 28 May 1966, at a conference in Bangkok, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments declared the conflict was over. However, it was unclear if Suharto was in full control of Indonesia (rather than Sukarno), and vigilance in Borneo could not be relaxed. With Suharto's co-operation a peace treaty was signed on 11 August and ratified two days later. During Suharto's rise to power Claret operations continued and, in March 1966, a Gurkha battalion was involved in some of the fiercest fighting of the campaign during two raids into Kalimantan. Minor action by Indonesian forces continued in the border area, including an attempt at counter-battery fire against a 105 mm gun position in Central Brigade (reports from locals said the British return fire had turned over the Indonesian gun, thought to be 76 mm). At the beginning of 1966, with Indonesia's political hiatus beginning to stabilise (it had stopped a major RPKAD operation to capture a British prisoner), the RPKAD linked up with PGRS to establish guerrilla forces in Sabah and Sarawak. The Sabah effort never crossed the border; however, two groups entered Sarawak in February and May and obtained support from local sympathisers. The first group, despite losses in several contacts, lasted until June and exfiltrated on hearing about the end of Konfrontasi. Survivors of the second, after contact with Australian troops, also made it back to Indonesia. However, the final Indonesian incursion was in May and June. Signs of a substantial force were found crossing into Central Brigade. This was some 80 strong, mostly volunteers, led by Lt Sombi (or Sumbi) and a team from 600 Raider Company. They moved fast towards Brunei with 1/7 Gurkhas pursuing and ambushing them; almost all were accounted for. In response to this, a final Claret operation was launched, which was an artillery ambush by 38 Light Battery. Counter-measures Command arrangements In early January 1963, the military forces in northern Borneo, having arrived in December 1962 in response to the Brunei Revolt, were under the command of Commander British Forces Borneo (COMBRITBOR), Major General Walter Walker, who was Director of Borneo Operations (DOBOPS) based on Labuan Island and reported directly to the Commander in Chief Far East Forces, Admiral Sir David Luce. Luce was routinely replaced by Admiral Sir Varyl Begg in early 1963. In the middle of 1963, Brigadier Pat Glennie, normally the Brigadier General Staff in Singapore, arrived as Deputy DOBOPS. Politico-military authority lay with the Emergency Committees in Sarawak and North Borneo, including their Governors, who were the Commanders in Chief for their colonies. In Brunei, there was a State Advisory Council answerable to the Sultan. After independence, supreme authority changed to the Malaysian National Defence Council in Kuala Lumpur with State Executive Committees in Sabah and Sarawak. Military direction was from the Malaysian National Operations Committee jointly chaired by the Chief of the Malaysian Armed Forces Staff, General Tunku Osman, and the Inspector General of Police, Sir Claude Fenner. The British Commander in Chief Far East Forces was a member. DOBOPS regularly attended its meetings. Commonwealth order of battle British forces in Borneo included Headquarters (HQ) 3 Commando Brigade in Kuching with responsibility for the western part of Sarawak, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divisions, and HQ 99 Gurkha Infantry Brigade in Brunei responsible for the East, 4th and 5th Divisions, Brunei and Sabah. These HQs had deployed from Singapore in late 1962 in response to the Brunei Revolt. The ground forces were initially limited to just five UK and Gurkha infantry battalions usually based in Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and an armoured car squadron. The police also deployed several light infantry of Police Field Force companies. However, as additional resources became available the size of the force available to Walker expanded, and by the end of 1964 British forces had grown to approximately 14,000 troops organised into three brigades (increased to four in 1965). The naval effort, under DOBOPS command, was primarily provided by minesweepers used to patrol coastal waters and larger inland waterways around Wallace Bay. A guardship – a frigate or destroyer – was stationed off Tawau. Before Confrontation, no British military units had been stationed in Sabah or Sarawak. As Confrontation developed increasing numbers of troops were required. There were three types of British Army deployment: Units stationed in the Far East for two years did a single 4-month tour (this applied to Australian and NZ); Gurkha units (all permanently stationed in the Far East) did 6 month tours, generally once every twelve months; UK based units (from Army Strategic Command) did 12 month tours including 6 weeks jungle warfare training in West Malaysia. The initial air component based in Borneo consisted of detachments from squadrons stationed in Malaya and Singapore. These included Twin Pioneer and Single Pioneer transport aircraft, probably two or three Blackburn Beverley and Handley Page Hastings transports, and about 12 helicopters of various types. One of Walker's first "challenges" was curtailing the RAF's centralised command and control arrangements and insisting that aircraft tasking for operations in Borneo was by his HQ, not by the RAF Air Command Far East HQ in Singapore. Other aircraft of many types stationed in Malaya and Singapore provided sorties as necessary, including routine transport support into Kuching and Labuan. Rotary wing support included 60 naval and air force troop-lift helicopters and another 40 smaller army variants. Patrols within Malaysia were supplied while in the field by RN Wessex and RAF Whirlwind helicopters, initially dropping supplies to the patrols from low level, and later after the patrols had cleared a landing area in the dense jungle, by landing. A test Joint Service deployment of a Westland SR.N5 hovercraft at Tawau was also trialled under Major John Simpson. In addition to the ground and air force units, between 1963 and 1966 there were up to 80 ships from the Royal Navy, Royal Australian Navy, Royal Malay Navy, Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. Most of these were patrol craft, minesweepers, frigates and destroyers patrolling the coast-line to intercept Indonesian insurgents. One of the two Commando Carriers, HMS Albion and HMS Bulwark, was also committed throughout Confrontation usually in their transport role for troops, helicopters and army aircraft between Singapore and Borneo. In the early stages of the conflict, Indonesian forces were under the command of Lieutenant General Zulkipli in Pontianak, on the coast of West Kalimantan about from the border. The Indonesian irregulars, led by Indonesian officers, were thought to number about 1500, with an unknown number of regular troops and local defence irregulars. They were deployed the entire length of the border in eight operational units, mostly facing the 1st and 2nd Divisions. The units had names such as "Thunderbolts", "Night Ghosts" and "World Sweepers". However, as the conflict developed, the poorly trained and equipped 'volunteers' had been replaced by regular units. Indonesian forces deployed along the border in Kalimantan increased significantly towards the end of 1964, with estimates of between 15,000 and 30,000 men, up from around 2,500 men in mid-1964. Intelligence A useful factor in the containment of the Indonesian forces was the use of intelligence. The Royal Signals were able to intercept the Indonesian military communications. The cyphers were decrypted by the Intelligence Corps based at Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) listening stations in Singapore, one of which was RAF Chia Keng which was linked directly to the RAF Far East Air Force headquarters at RAF Changi. Intelligence from this may have been used in planning some aspects of Claret cross-border operations. British tactics Soon after assuming command in Borneo, General Walker issued a directive listing the ingredients for success, based on his experience in the Malayan Emergency: Unified operations (army, navy and air force operating fully together) Timely and accurate information (the need for continuous reconnaissance and intelligence collection) Speed, mobility and flexibility Security of bases Domination of the jungle Winning the hearts and minds of the people (this was added several months later). Walker recognised the difficulties of limited forces and a long border and, in early 1963, was reinforced with a SAS squadron from the UK, which rotated with another mid-year. When the SAS temporarily adopted 3-man instead of 4-man patrols, they could not closely monitor the border. Increasing the capability of the infantry to create a surveillance network was also considered essential. Walker raised the Border Scouts, building on Harrison's force of Kelabits, who had mobilised to help intercept the fleeing TNKU forces from the Brunei Revolt. He also utilised the experience of the Royal Marines as well as knowledge of the skill and usefulness of the Sarawak Rangers in the Malayan Emergency. This was approved by the Sarawak government in May as "auxiliary police". Walker selected Lieutenant Colonel John Cross, a Gurkha officer with immense jungle experience, for the task. A training centre was established in a remote area at Mt. Murat in the 5th Division and staffed mainly by SAS. Border Scouts were attached to infantry battalions and evolved into an intelligence-gathering force by using their local knowledge and extended families. In addition, the Police Special Branch, which had proved so effective during the Malayan Emergency in recruiting sources in the communist organisation, was expanded. British jungle tactics were developed and honed during the Malayan Emergency against a clever and elusive enemy. They emphasised travelling lightly, being undetectable and going for many days without resupplying. Being undetectable meant being silent (hand signals, no rattling equipment) and 'odour free'—perfumed toiletries were forbidden (they could be detected a kilometre away by good jungle fighters), and sometimes eating food cold to prevent cooking smells. In about 1962, at the end of National Service, British infantry battalions had reorganised into three rifle companies, a support company and an HQ company with logistic responsibilities. Battalion HQ included an intelligence section. Each rifle company was composed of 3 platoons of 32 men each, equipped with light machine guns and self-loading rifles. The support company had a mortar platoon with six medium mortars (3-inch mortar until replaced by 81-mm mortar around the end of 1965) organised into three sections, enabling a section to be attached to a rifle company if required. Similarly organised was an anti-tank platoon; there was also an assault pioneer platoon. The machine gun platoon was abolished, but the impending delivery of the 7.62 mm GPMG, with sustained fire kits held by each company, was to provide a medium machine gun capability. In the meantime, the Vickers machine gun remained available. The innovation in the new organisation was the formation of the battalion reconnaissance platoon, in many battalions a platoon of "chosen men". In Borneo, mortars were usually distributed to rifle companies, and some battalions operated the rest of their support company as another rifle company. The basic activity was platoon patrolling; this continued throughout the campaign, with patrols being deployed by helicopter, roping in and out as necessary. Movement was usually single file; the leading section rotated but was organised with two lead scouts, followed by its commander and then the remainder in a fire support group. Battle drills for "contact front" (or rear), or "ambush left" (or right) were highly developed. Poor maps meant navigation was important; however, the local knowledge of the Border Scouts in Borneo compensated for the poor maps. So tracks were sometimes used unless ambush was considered possible, or there was the possibility of mines. Crossing obstacles such as rivers was also handled as a battle drill. At night, a platoon harboured in a tight position with all-round defence. Contact while moving was always possible. However, offensive action usually took two forms: either an attack on a camp or an ambush. The tactic for dealing with a camp was to get a party behind it then charge the front. However, ambushes were probably the most effective tactic and could be sustained for many days. They targeted tracks and, particularly in parts of Borneo, waterways. Track ambushes were close range, , with a killing zone typically long, depending on the expected strength of the target. The trick was to remain undetected when the target entered the ambush area and then open fire all together at the right moment. Fire support was limited for the first half of the campaign. A commando light battery with 105 mm Pack Howitzers had deployed to Brunei at the beginning of 1963 but returned to Singapore after a few months when the mopping-up of the Brunei Revolt ended. Despite the escalation in Indonesian attacks after the formation of Malaysia, little need was seen for fire support: the limited range of the guns (), the limited availability of helicopters and the size of the country meant that having artillery in the right place at the right time was a challenge. However, a battery from one of the two regiments stationed in Malaysia returned to Borneo in early to mid-1964. These batteries rotated until the end of the confrontation. In early 1965, a complete UK-based regiment arrived. The short-range and substantial weight of the 3-inch mortars meant they were of minimal use. Artillery had to adopt new tactics. Almost all guns were deployed in single gun sections within a company or platoon base. The sections were commanded by one of the battery's junior officers, warrant officers or sergeants. Sections had about ten men and did their own technical fire control. They were moved underslung by Wessex or Belvedere helicopters as necessary to deal with incursions or support operations. Forward observers were in short supply, but it seems that they always accompanied normal infantry Claret operations and occasionally special forces ones. However, artillery observers rarely accompanied patrols inside Sabah and Sarawak unless they were in pursuit of a known incursion and guns were in range. Observation parties were almost always led by an officer, but only two or three men strong. Communications were a problem; radios were not used within platoons, only rearwards. Ranges were invariably beyond the capability of manpack VHF radios (A41 and A42, copies of AN/PRC 9 and 10), although the use of relay or rebroadcast stations helped where they were tactically possible. Patrol bases could use the World War II vintage HF No 62 Set (distinguished by having its control panel labelled in English and Russian). Until the manpack A13 arrived in 1966, the only lightweight HF set was the Australian A510, which did not provide voice, only Morse code. British psychological operations The role of the United Kingdom's Foreign Office and Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) during the confrontation was brought to light in a series of exposés by Paul Lashmar and Oliver James in The Independent newspaper beginning in 1997 and has also been covered in journals on military and intelligence history. The revelations included an anonymous Foreign Office source stating that the decision to unseat President Sukarno was made by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and then executed under Prime Minister Harold Wilson. According to the exposés, the UK had already become alarmed with the announcement of the "Konfrontasi" policy. It has been claimed that a Central Intelligence Agency memorandum of 1962 indicated that Macmillan and US President John F. Kennedy were increasingly alarmed by the possibility of the Confrontation with Malaysia spreading, and agreed to "liquidate President Sukarno, depending on the situation and available opportunities". To weaken the regime, the UK Foreign Office's Information Research Department (IRD) coordinated psychological operations (psyops) in concert with the British military, to spread black propaganda casting the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), Chinese Indonesians, and Sukarno in a bad light. These efforts were to duplicate the successes of the British psyop campaign in the Malayan Emergency. These efforts were coordinated from the British High Commission in Singapore, where the BBC, Associated Press, and The New York Times filed their reports on the Crisis in Indonesia. According to Roland Challis, the BBC correspondent who was in Singapore at the time, journalists were open to manipulation by IRD due to Sukarno's stubborn refusal to allow them into the country: "In a curious way, by keeping correspondents out of the country Sukarno made them the victims of official channels, because almost the only information you could get was from the British ambassador in Jakarta." These manipulations included the BBC reporting that communists were planning to slaughter the citizens of Jakarta. The accusation was based on a forgery planted by Norman Reddaway, a propaganda expert with the IRD. He later bragged in a letter to the British ambassador in Jakarta, Sir Andrew Gilchrist, that it "went all over the world and back again", and was "put almost instantly back into Indonesia via the BBC". Gilchrist himself informed the Foreign Office on 5 October 1965: "I have never concealed from you my belief that a little shooting in Indonesia would be an essential preliminary to effective change." In April 2000, Denis Healey, Secretary of State for Defence at the time of the war, confirmed that the IRD was active during this time. He officially denied any role by MI6, and denied "personal knowledge" of the British arming of the Army's right-wing faction, though he did comment that if there were such a plan, he "would certainly have supported it". Although the British MI6 is strongly implicated in this scheme by the use of the Information Research Department (seen as an MI6 office), any role by MI6 itself is officially denied by the UK government, and papers relating to it have yet to be declassified by the Cabinet Office. British Army One squadron of the British Army's 22 Special Air Service regiment was deployed to Borneo in early 1963 in the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt to gather information in the border area about Indonesian infiltration. There was a British Army presence until the end of the campaign. Faced with a border of 971 miles, they could not be everywhere, and, at this time, 22 SAS had only three squadrons. Also present were the Special Boat Service (SBS) of the Royal Marine Commandos. They had two sections based in Singapore. Tactical HQ of 22 SAS deployed to Kuching in 1964 to take control of all SAS and SBS operations. The shortage of SAS and SBS personnel was exacerbated by the need for them in South Arabia, in many ways, a far more demanding task in challenging conditions against a cunning and aggressive opponent. The solution was to create new units for Borneo. The first to be employed in Borneo were the Pathfinder Platoon of the Guards Independent Parachute Company, which already existed as the pathfinder force of 16th Parachute Brigade. Next, the Gurkha Independent Parachute Company was raised. Sections of the SBS were also used, but mostly for amphibious tasks. Finally, the Parachute Regiment battalions formed patrol companies (C in the 2nd and D in the 3rd). The situation eased in 1965 when the Australian and New Zealand governments agreed that their forces could be used in Borneo, enabling both Australian and New Zealand SAS squadrons to rotate through Borneo. SAS activities were mostly covert reconnaissance and surveillance patrols by four-person teams. However, some larger scale raiding missions took place, including amphibious ones by the SBS. Once Claret operations were authorised, most missions were inside Kalimantan, although they conducted operations over the border before Claret from about early 1964. Aftermath Casualties The conflict lasted nearly four years; however, following General Suharto's replacement of Sukarno, Indonesian interest in pursuing the war with Malaysia declined, and combat eased. Peace negotiations were initiated during May 1966 before a final peace agreement was ratified on 11 August 1966. Although the Indonesians had conducted a few amphibious raids and an airborne operation against Malaya, the war remained limited throughout its duration and remained largely a land conflict. For either side to have escalated to large scale air or naval attacks "would have incurred disadvantages greatly outweighing the marginal military effect that they might have produced". The UK Secretary of State for Defence at the time, Denis Healey, described the campaign as "one of the most efficient uses of military forces in the history of the world". British Commonwealth forces peaked at 17,000 deployed in Borneo, with another 10,000 more available in Malaya and Singapore. Total British Commonwealth military casualties were 248 killed and 180 wounded, the greatest number of them were British. Gurkha losses were 43 killed and 83 wounded, losses among other British armed forces were 19 killed and 44 wounded. Australian casualties were 16 killed, of whom 7 were killed in action, and 9 wounded. New Zealand casualties were 7 killed and another 7 wounded or injured. The remaining casualties were that of the Malaysian military, police, and Border Scouts. A significant number of British casualties occurred during helicopter accidents, including a Belvedere crash that killed several SAS commanders and a Foreign Office official, possibly a member of MI6. A Wessex collision also killed several men from 2nd Parachute Battalion, and a Westland Scout crash, on 16 July 1964, near Kluang airfield, killed the two crewmen from 656 Sqn AAC. Finally, in August 1966, there remained two British and two Australian soldiers missing and presumed dead, with the Australians (both from the SASR) probably drowned while crossing a swollen river. The remains of a Royal Marine were recovered some 20 years later. Altogether, 36 civilians were killed, 53 wounded and 4 captured, with most being local inhabitants. Indonesian casualties were estimated at 590 killed, 222 wounded and 771 captured. Awards A number of gallantry awards were made for actions during the campaign. No Distinguished Flying Cross or naval awards were made. Gallery See also British military history Brunei Revolt Communist insurgency in Sarawak Operation Claret Cold War in Asia Combat operations in 1963 during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation Combat operations in 1964 during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation Combat operations in 1965 during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation Far East Strategic Reserve History of Brunei History of Indonesia History of Malaysia Military history of New Zealand in Malaysia Indonesia–New Zealand relations#The Sukarno Era MacDonald House bombing References Notes Bibliography Poulgrain, G. J. (2014). The genesis of konfrontasi: Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, 1945-1965. Further reading General Assembly 15th Session – The Trusteeship System and Non-Self-Governing Territories (pages:509–510) General Assembly 18th Session – the Question of Malaysia (pages:41–44) Anonymous. 1964. Gelora Konfrontasi Mengganjang Malaysia. Djakarta: Departemen Penerangan. (Contains Joint Statements of the Manila Agreements, Indonesian presidential decrees and all transcripts of Sukarno's public speeches from July 1963 to May 1964 pertaining the Konfrontasi) External links Britain's Small Wars – Borneo Scourge of Sukarno: the Gurkhas in Borneo 20th-century conflicts Guided Democracy in Indonesia History of Brunei Military history of Indonesia Military history of Singapore Sukarno Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Australia Wars involving New Zealand Wars involving Malaysia Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States History of the Royal Marines Articles containing video clips Protests in Malaysia Proxy wars History of Borneo	[ -0.13311345875263214, -0.20802155137062073, -0.16087627410888672, -0.07324817776679993, -0.23342879116535187, 0.029968667775392532, -0.0349227674305439, -0.29127705097198486, -0.27047961950302124, 0.24560974538326263, 0.35545042157173157, 0.23950840532779694, -0.3732251226902008, 0.6995108723640442, 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206389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20O%27Donnell	Peter O'Donnell	Peter O'Donnell (11 April 1920 – 3 May 2010) was an English writer of mysteries and of comic strips, best known as the creator of Modesty Blaise, an action heroine/undercover trouble-shooter. He was also an award-winning gothic historical romance novelist who wrote under the female pseudonym Madeleine Brent, in 1978, his novel Merlin's Keep won the Romantic Novel of the Year Award by the Romantic Novelists' Association. Biography Born on 11 April 1920 in Lewisham, London, O'Donnell was the son of Bernard O'Donnell, a journalist on the Empire News, and was educated at Catford Central School. He began to write professionally at the age of 16. In 1938 he joined the British Army, and during the war served as an NCO in mobile radio detachment (3 Corps) of Royal Corps of Signals in the 8th Army. He saw active service in Persia in 1942, after which his unit was moved to Syria, Egypt, the Western Desert, and Italy, and he was with forces that went into Greece in October 1944. After the war, O'Donnell returned to civilian life and began to script comic strips, including an adaptation for the Daily Express of the James Bond novel, Dr. No. From 1953 to 1966 he wrote for Garth, and from 1956 to 1962 Romeo Brown (with Jim Holdaway as an artist). In addition to the comic strips and graphic novels based on Modesty Blaise, O'Donnell published two collections of short stories and twenty novels. He wrote a play that was widely performed in the 1980s, Mr. Fothergill's Murder, and wrote for television and film. He wrote for women's magazines and children's papers early in his career. His most famous creation, Modesty Blaise, was first published in 1963 in comic strip form. For the first seven years, the strip was illustrated by Holdaway until his death in 1970. Enrique Badia Romero then became the artist, and except for a seven-year period (1979–86) he drew the strip until it ended in 2001. In 1965, O'Donnell novelized his screenplay for a motion picture version (the final release of which in 1966 used virtually nothing of O'Donnell's original material), which was published as Modesty Blaise. This book was a huge success and O'Donnell would publish a dozen more novels and short story collections until 1996. Kingsley Amis said the novels were "endlessly fascinating" and that Blaise and Garvin were "one of the great partnerships in fiction, bearing comparison with that of Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson." At the request of publisher Ernest Hecht, he began writing gothic romance and adventure novels under the pen name of Madeleine Brent. The novels are not a series, but feature a variety of strong female protagonists. They are written in first person, take place in the late Victorian era, and although every protagonist has connections to England, part of each book is set in various locations around the world—including China, Australia, Afghanistan, and Mexico. In 2001, O'Donnell retired from writing the Modesty Blaise comic strip (the lead characters having been given a definitive end in the previous Cobra Trap short story collection) and was also said to have retired from full-time writing (in 2002, he gave Romero permission to adapt one of his short stories, "The Dark Angels", to a comic initially published in Scandinavian anthology magazine Agent X9 and later reprinted by Comics Revue magazine in the US). From 2004 to 2009 he wrote the introductions for a series of Modesty Blaise comic strip reprint volumes published by Titan Books; beginning in 2010, just prior to O'Donnell's death, another writer had begun composing these introductions. He was also interviewed for a special feature included on the DVD release of the 2004 film My Name Is Modesty, which was based on his creation. O'Donnell's wish was that no one else write any future Modesty Blaise stories, but whether this was ever formalized is unknown. With the exception of "The Dark Angels" adaptation and the My Name is Modesty film, no further new productions related to the character have been released as of 2015. In 2007, working with young women students at Bullers Wood and Newstead Wood schools, he established an official website, Modesty Blaise, Ltd. Death According to his obituary in the Evening Standard, O'Donnell had been suffering from Parkinson's disease in his later years. He died at age 90 in Brighton, Sussex. Peter is buried in the same grave with his wife, Constance, at Lawn Memorial Cemetery, Warren Road, Woodingdean, Brighton, Sussex. Bibliography As Peter O'Donnell Modesty Blaise book series Modesty Blaise (1965) Sabre-Tooth (1966) I, Lucifer (1967) A Taste for Death (1969) The Impossible Virgin (1971) Pieces of Modesty (1972) (short stories) The Silver Mistress (1973) Last Day in Limbo (1976) Dragon's Claw (1978) The Xanadu Talisman (1981) The Night of Morningstar (1982) Dead Man's Handle (1985) Cobra Trap (1996) (short stories) O'Donnell also wrote romance books and television (Take a Pair of Private Eyes) and movie (Revenge of She) scripts. Mr. Fothergill's Murder first opened on 25 October 1982 at the Duke of York theatre, London, and was published by the English Theatre Guild. Among other places, it was performed at The English Theatre of Hamburg in the 1987–88 season. Madeleine Brent Tregaron's Daughter (1971) Moonraker's Bride (1973) Kirkby's Changeling (1975) (also as Stranger at Wildings) Merlin's Keep (1977) The Capricorn Stone (1979) The Long Masquerade (1981) A Heritage of Shadows (1983) Stormswift (1984) Golden Urchin (1986) References Sources The Complete Modesty Blaise dossier Duke of York Theatre The Modesty Blaise Book Site Kristy Valenti's three-part article on Peter O'Donnell - Part one, Part Two and Part Three at comiXology Peter O'Donnell's 2001 interview with Publishers Weekly 1920 births 2010 deaths British comics writers Deaths from Parkinson's disease Neurological disease deaths in England People from Lewisham Royal Corps of Signals soldiers British Army personnel of World War II English people of Irish descent English romantic fiction writers RoNA Award winners 20th-century English novelists 20th-century pseudonymous writers	[ -0.16570927202701569, -0.11240848153829575, -0.4782260060310364, -0.1100098118185997, 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206391	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sven%20Hassel	Sven Hassel	Sven Hassel was the pen name of the Danish-born Børge Willy Redsted Pedersen (19 April 1917 – 21 September 2012) known primarily for his novels focusing on stories of German combatants during World War II. In Denmark he used the pen name Sven Hazel. Although he is arguably one of the bestselling Danish authors, possibly second only to Hans Christian Andersen. Early life Hassel was born in Nyhuse, Frederiksborg County, now a district of Hillerød, in Denmark on 19 April 1917; the first of seven children to miller Peder Oluf Pedersen and his 20-year-old wife Maren Hansine Andersen. On the second Sunday after Trinity in Frederiksborg Slotssogn, Frederiksborg County he was baptized Børge Willy Redsted Pedersen. Three years later, in 1920, the family moved from Agerup in Hyllinge parish where his father had been born to Copenhagen, where in 1921 they lived in Peter Fabersgade 4 with his father supporting the family as a miller foreman at the Toldbod mill. Further moves saw the family relocating to Ny Toldbodgade 23 in 1924, with his father still a foreman and in 1929 to Tverstedgade 3, Vanløse, where in 1930 his father supported the family as a miller at Dansk Sojakagefabrik. On Palm Sunday 1931 at the age of he was confirmed in Vanløse church. Military service Hassel claimed that at the age of 14 he joined the merchant navy as a cabin boy and worked on ships until his military service in 1936. However, while his two-years-younger brother Tommy Redsted Pedersen was entered in the army levy roll for Copenhagen in 1937 when he turned 18 and his four-years-younger brother Uffe Redsted Pedersen was entered in the same roll in 1939 when he turned 18, Pedersen was not entered in the roll from 1934 through 1940. Rather, in 1935 he entered the social welfare system of Copenhagen as Arbejdsmand (laborer) Børge Villy Redsted Petersen. In 1937, to escape the Great Depression, the unemployed Hassel moved to Germany to join the army. In an interview in 1990, he said, "Germany happened to be closer than England, I went to a Wehrmacht recruiting office to enlist, but it wasn't as easy as I had thought. Only German citizens could serve. After six months of trying to join up, the Seventh Cavalry Regiment finally accepted me on the condition that I became a naturalized German." Hassel served with the 2nd Panzer Division stationed at Eisenach and in 1939 was a tank driver during the invasion of Poland. A year later he attempted to escape. He served with the 2nd Cavalry Regiment and later the 11th and 27th Panzer Regiments (6th Panzer Division) on all fronts except North Africa and was wounded several times. Eventually he reached the rank of lieutenant and received the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd class. On 23 August 1942 the resistance newspaper De Frie Danske reported that on 13 August a Cadillac registered to leader of DNSAP Frits Clausen had crashed in Copenhagen. A Børge Petersen involved in the crash first disappeared but was later apprehended and awaited trial. DNSAP subsequently issued a statement that due to his prior convictions Børge Petersen was not and could never be a member of DNSAP. De Frie Danske opined that if this statement were true there would hardly be any members at all in DNSAP. The author Erik Haaest claimed that the criminal record of Børge Willy Redsted Pedersen shows that he was the aforementioned Børge Petersen and that he in connection with the car crash impersonated a police officer and that he was living at Høffdingsvej 21 with his parents. Haaest's implication is that Pedersen's claim that he was a naturalized German citizen fighting with the German armed forces is contradicted by his arrest in Copenhagen as a civilian with several prior convictions. He claimed to have surrendered to Soviet troops in Berlin in 1945 and to have spent the following years in prisoner-of-war camps in various countries but in reality he was arrested in Denmark in 1945 after the liberation and was held in prison there, first as a suspect and then as a convicted criminal. He began to write his first book, Legion of the Damned while he was interned. Hassel was released from prison in 1949 after having served four years out of his ten-year prison sentence. Post-war years Hassel was released in 1949 and was planning to join the French Foreign Legion when he met his future wife. On 6 January 1951 in Garrison Church, Copenhagen Hassel married the four-years-older Laura Dorthea Guldbæk Jensen, a divorced film translator from Nørre Tranders. The preceding month he had registered his intent to marry as journalist Børge Willy Redsted Arbing residing at Baggesensgade 1, Nørrebro. His best man was his younger brother Uffe Redsted Pedersen. In 1952 his wife gave birth in St Josef's Hospital, Copenhagen, to a son, who was baptized Michael Franz Erwin Guldbæk Angouléme Arbing in Jesus Church, Valby. For the baptism he registered as journalist and Lieutenant Colonel Børge Willy Redsted Arbing residing at Colbjørnsensgade 11 while his wife registered as Cand.mag. He went to work in a car factory, but his wife encouraged him to continue to write about his experiences. In 1953 his debut novel Legion of the Damned was published under the pen name Sven Hazel by Grafisk Forlag after their consultant Georgjedde (Georg Gjedde-Simonsen) had abbreviated and rewritten the manuscript. In 1957 Hassel suffered from an attack of a sickness caught during the war and was paralyzed for almost two years. After recovery, he began to write more books. On 14 April 1964 Pedersen sold Stægers Alle 9, the same year he moved to Barcelona, Spain, where he lived until his death. On 29 September 1965 he changed his name to Sven Willy Hasse Arbing and on 28 December 1965 he had his son's name changed to Michael Hasse Arbing while on 26 April 1966 his wife changed hers to Dorthe Laura Hazel Guldbæk Arbing née Jensen. In 2002 Pedersen started using the internet domain "svenhassel.net" and an email address with the Spanish ISP Telefónica for the promotion and sale of his books. From 2004 to 2012 his website promoted his books as mostly auto-biographical based on his participation in the war on the German side with parts based on stories from his comrades and parts free fantasy. Works Hassel's books are written in the first person, with Hassel himself as a character, though not necessarily the lead character. The books describe the exploits of a 27th (Penal) Panzer Regiment composed of expendable soldiers – sentenced criminals, court-martialed soldiers and political undesirables. In addition to Sven, they include Alfred Kalb, "Legionnaire" (ex-member of the French Foreign Legion); Wolfgang Creutzfeldt, a giant of a man ironically named Tiny (variously Little John in some of the books); barracks fixer and shrewd thief Joseph Porta; older sergeant Willie Beier, "Old Un" or "Old Man"; Julius Heide, a Nazi fanatic, Barcelona Blom, a veteran of both sides of the Spanish Civil War, Gregor Martin, who was a removals man before the war, Chief Mechanic Wolf, and Staff Sergeant Hoffman, a non-commissioned officer. They serve on many fronts, including northern Finland, USSR, Italy (Monte Cassino), Greece (The Bloody Road to Death), the Balkans, and France (Liquidate Paris, set during and after the Normandy Invasion). The majority of the action occurs in the USSR. Due to errors in chronology, the regiment fights in several places, hundreds of kilometres apart, at the same time. In some of the books the 27th Regiment does guard duty for the Gestapo in Hamburg (Assignment Gestapo) and also at the military prison at Torgau (March Battalion). Hassel stated that whilst his novels are essentially works of fiction, the characters are based on real people and some events are related to historical events. Hassel's view of war is brutal. In his books, soldiers fight only to survive, with the Geneva Convention rarely being observed on the Eastern front. People are killed by chance or with very little reason. Occasional pleasant events and peaceful meetings are brutally cut short. Unsympathetic Prussian officers constantly threaten their men with courts-martial and execute them with little provocation. Disgruntled soldiers occasionally kill their own officers to get rid of them. By graphically portraying war as violent and hopeless in such manner, Hassel's books have been said to contain an anti-war message. In total he published 14 novels which have been translated into 18 languages. In 1987 his book Wheels of Terror was made into a film of the same title and also known as The Misfit Brigade. Hassel's books are particularly popular in the United Kingdom, where he sold 15 million of the 53 million sold worldwide. In contrast his books are not deemed suitable for the public libraries in his home country Denmark where a 2011 opinion piece on literature in Dagbladet Information described Hassel as a traitor and his debut novel as the worst book ever with its characters plagiarized from All Quiet on the Western Front. Controversy On 10 October 1963 journalist George Kringelbach revealed in his radio programme Natredaktionen on P3 that Sven Hazel was a pen name for the convicted traitor Børge Willy Redsted Pedersen. Further, Kringelbach claimed that while Pedersen might have been in Germany during the war, it was not in a penal battalion. Rather, during the war he had been working for a German intelligence agency which collaborated with HIPO. Hassel's publisher Grafisk Forlag subsequently offered all book dealers a refund for his most recent book and ceased collaboration with him. Pedersen therefore formed his own publishing company "Bellum" (), which published the remainder of his books. The controversial Danish writer Erik Haaest disputed Hassel's claims for many years. According to Haaest, the author never served on the Eastern front but spent the majority of World War II in occupied Denmark and his knowledge of warfare comes second-hand from Danish Waffen-SS veterans whom he met after the end of the war. Haaest claims that during the war period, Hassel was in fact a member of the HIPO Corps or Hilfspolizei, an auxiliary Danish police force created by the Gestapo, consisting of collaborators. Haaest also alleges that Hassel's first novel was ghostwritten and that, when it became a success, he employed his wife to write the rest of his books. In 1976 Hassel threatened Haaest with a lawsuit for defamation in reaction to Haasts' publication of the book Hazel. En Hitler-agents fantastiske historie (). A review of Haaest's book quotes Hassel's own statements and writes that his sentence of 10 years prison for treason was given primarily because he was an informant for the German occupation force in Denmark and argues that he could not both have been an informant in Copenhagen and been fighting deep inside Soviet territory. In 2010 the Danish public service television channel DR2 dedicated one of its five episodes on scandals in Denmark to Hassel. The program explained that he at first was wildly popular among his Danish readers and celebrated as a Danish Ernest Hemingway, until in 1963 he was exposed as a fraud with a dubious wartime past. He became an outcast and had go into exile to continue publishing. The national Danish Radio which aired the exposure were subsequently forced to issue a retraction after Hassel purportedly provided corroborating documentation of his wartime service. With more than 50 million books sold, he is the most sold Danish author ever but never received recognition or forgiveness. In March 2010 Berlingske Tidende gave a detailed account of Hassel's exposure as a fraud and his post-war prison sentence. In 1963 the radio journalist George Kringelbach participated in a reception Hassel gave to celebrate his ten years as a vastly successful writer. The reception saw participation by numerous dignitaries including ambassadors and envoys of six foreign countries. Until then the public was under the impression that Hassel was a real person and that his books were autobiographical. When during his late night radio programme Kringelbach subsequently revealed that Sven Hassel was a fictitious person and that the author was a convicted traitor a major scandal ensued. The national radio of Denmark and Hassel reached a settlement, which at the time was seen as a retraction by the national radio. The settlement enraged Kringelbach's colleagues and Kringelbach subsequently left his employer. According to Berlingske, the settlement actually acknowledges that Hassel was affiliated with the German intelligence agency E.T., the intelligence gathering branch of HIPO. Based on the settlement, Berlingske went on to detail the 1947 sentence of Hassel. The sentence does indeed state that Hassel served in an armoured regiment of the German Wehrmacht. However, the newspaper goes on to explain that the author Haaest in 1976 had interviewed Hassel's defence attorney, member of parliament and mayor of Copenhagen Edel Saunte. According to Haaest, Saunte had explained that in court Hassel had insisted that the charges against him should be extended with a clause that he had also served as a German soldier, although he had obviously never done that. After insisting several times, the judge ended the discussions with a statement to the effect that she could no longer bear his insistence on this non-sensical front line service, but that he would also be convicted for that, although it would not add to or detract from his prison sentence. Berlingske's account ends with a statement from Haaest, that what actually happened is still a matter of belief and a statement from Hassel's son who refers to the official retraction from the national radio and said that his aging father had nothing more to add. In 2012 the Danish World War II historian Claus Bundgård Christensen who coauthored the first scientific dissertation on Danes in the Waffen SS was quoted for his assertion that Hassel never served on the Eastern front and that his books are a fraud and not based on his personal experiences. The historian went on to speculate that Hassel got his information from his contacts in the German intelligence service. During the last five years of his life Hassel acknowledged the controversy in his home country over his authorship with a statement in Danish that In Denmark Sven Hassel has been put down (I Danmark er Sven Hazel blevet rakket ned), which he compares to the worldwide sale of his books in 53 million copies. Death On 21 September 2012 Hassel died, aged 95, in Barcelona. Hassel was survived by his son who as of 2014 holds the exclusive rights to his father's works and administers Hassel's official website from an address in Barcelona. Bibliography English titles: The Legion of the Damned (1953) Wheels of Terror Comrades of War March Battalion Assignment Gestapo Monte Cassino (The Beast Regiment) Liquidate Paris SS-General Reign of Hell Blitzfreeze The Bloody Road to Death Court Martial O.G.P.U. Prison The Commissar References External links Paul, Vitello, "Sven Hassel, Novelist Who Depicted Nazi Soldiers’ Lives, Dies at 95," New York Times, October 6, 2012. 1917 births 2012 deaths Danish emigrants to Germany German emigrants to Spain Danish male novelists Danish sailors German Army officers of World War II Military humor Naturalized citizens of Germany 20th-century Danish novelists 20th-century Danish male writers Danish Waffen-SS personnel	[ -0.4619576632976532, 0.6129665970802307, -0.544103741645813, -0.06170274689793587, -0.49612945318222046, 0.6015687584877014, 0.9555127620697021, -0.15521809458732605, -0.2456635683774948, -0.2649761438369751, -0.47251415252685547, -0.2766770124435425, 0.04827044904232025, 0.5371930599212646, 0.19491314888000488, 0.33524036407470703, -0.15518540143966675, -0.009644197300076485, -1.0547068119049072, -0.27388930320739746, -0.1571284830570221, -0.5399808883666992, 0.5124964118003845, -0.12755019962787628, 0.3024575114250183, 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206392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Wake	Nancy Wake	Nancy Grace Augusta Wake, (30 August 1912 – 7 August 2011) (also known as Nancy Fiocca) was a nurse and journalist who joined the French Resistance and later the Special Operations Executive (SOE) during World War II, and briefly pursued a post-war career as an intelligence officer in the Air Ministry. The official historian of the SOE, M. R. D. Foot, said that "her irrepressible, infectious, high spirits were a joy to everyone who worked with her". Born in the suburb of Roseneath in Wellington, she moved first to Sydney in Australia as a child, and then to Paris in the 1930s. Wake was living in Marseille with her French industrialist husband, Henri Fiocca, when the war broke out. After the fall of France to Nazi Germany in 1940, Wake became a courier for the Pat O'Leary escape network led by Ian Garrow and, later, Albert Guérisse. As a member of the escape network, she helped Allied airmen evade capture by the Germans and escape to neutral Spain. In 1943, when the Germans became aware of her, she escaped to Spain and continued on to the United Kingdom. Her husband was captured and executed. After reaching Britain, Wake joined the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under the code name "Hélène". On 29–30 April 1944 as a member of a three-person SOE team code-named "Freelance", Wake parachuted into the Allier department of occupied France to liaise between the SOE and several Maquis groups in the Auvergne region, which were loosely overseen by Émile Coulaudon (code name "Gaspard"). She participated in a battle between the Maquis and a large German force in June 1944. In the aftermath of the battle, a defeat for the maquis, she claimed to have bicycled 500 kilometers to send a situation report to SOE in London. Wake was a recipient of the George Medal from the United Kingdom (17 July 1945), the Medal of Freedom from the United States (1947), the Légion d'honneur from France (Knight - 1970 and Officer - 1988), a Companion of the Order of Australia from Australia (22 February 2004), and the Badge in Gold from New Zealand (2006). In 1985, she published her autobiography, The White Mouse, the title derived from what she said the Germans called her. Early life and education Born in Roseneath, Wellington, New Zealand, on 30 August 1912, Wake was the youngest of six children. She was Māori through her great-grandmother Pourewa, believed to be of the Ngāti Māhanga iwi, who was reportedly one of the first Māori women to marry a European. In 1914, her family moved to Australia and settled at North Sydney. Shortly thereafter, her father, Charles Augustus Wake, returned to New Zealand and her mother, Ella Wake (née Rosieur; 1874–1968) raised the children. In Sydney, Wake attended the North Sydney Household Arts (Home Science) School. At the age of 16, she ran away from home and worked as a nurse. With £200 (1928 currency) she had inherited from an aunt, she journeyed to New York City, then London where she trained herself as a journalist. In the 1930s, she worked in Paris and later for Hearst newspapers as a European correspondent. She witnessed the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi movement and "saw roving Nazi gangs randomly beating Jewish men and women in the streets" of Vienna. The Pat O'Leary Line In 1937, Wake met wealthy French industrialist Henri Edmond Fiocca (1898–1943), whom she married on 30 November 1939. She was living in Marseille, France when Germany invaded. During the war in France, Wake served as an ambulance driver. After the fall of France in 1940, she joined the escape network of Captain Ian Garrow, which became the Pat O'Leary Line. In reference to Wake's ability to elude capture, the Gestapo called her the "White Mouse". The Resistance exercised caution with her missions; her life was in constant danger, with the Gestapo tapping her telephone and intercepting her mail. In November 1942, Wehrmacht troops occupied Vichy France after the Allies' Operation Torch had started. This gave the Germans and the Gestapo unrestricted access to all parts of Vichy France and made life more dangerous for Wake. When the network was betrayed that same year she decided to flee France. Her husband, Henri Fiocca, stayed behind. He later was captured, tortured, and executed by the Gestapo. Wake described her tactics: "A little powder and a little drink on the way, and I'd pass their (German) posts and wink and say, 'Do you want to search me?' God, what a flirtatious little bastard I was." In early 1943, in the process of getting out of France, Wake was picked up with a whole trainload of people and was arrested in Toulouse, but was released four days later. The head of the O'Leary Line, Albert Guérisse, managed to have her released by claiming she was his mistress and was trying to conceal her infidelity to her husband (all of which was untrue). She succeeded in crossing the Pyrenees to Spain. Until the war ended, she was unaware of her husband's death, and she subsequently blamed herself for it. SOE After reaching Britain, Wake joined the Special Operations Executive and was trained in several programs. Vera Atkins, who was the senior female in the SOE overseeing the agents going into France, recalls her as "a real Australian bombshell. Tremendous vitality, flashing eyes. Everything she did, she did well." Training reports record that she was "a very good and fast shot" and possessed excellent fieldcraft. She was noted to "put the men to shame by her cheerful spirit and strength of character." On 29–30 April 1944 as part of the three-person "Freelance" team headed by John Hind Farmer (code name "Hubert"), Wake parachuted into Auvergne province, France. Resistance leader Henri Tardivat discovered Wake tangled in a tree. He remarked, "I hope that all the trees in France bear such beautiful fruit this year," to which she replied, "Don't give me that French shit." Denis Rake, a radio operator, was the third member of the team. The team was to be a liaison between London and the local maquis group headed by Émile Coulaudon (Gaspard). The team's initial relationship with Gaspard was frosty. He wanted money and arms from the allies but was not cooperative until the French Forces of the Interior in London, the umbrella organization for the disparate resistance groups in France, instructed him to cooperate. SOE began sending in large amounts of arms, equipment, and money. Wake's duties were pinpointing locations at which the material and money were parachuted in, collecting it, and allocating it among the maquis, including pay to individual soldiers. Wake carried with her a list of the targets the maquis were to destroy before the invasion of France by the Allies (which would take place on 6 June). The destruction of communication lines and other facilities throughout France would hinder the German response to the invasion. Disaster. The reach of the maquis exceeded their grasp. On 20 May, Couloudon declared a general mobilization of resistance fighters, collecting in total about 7,000 men divided into three groups. His objective was to demonstrate that the resistance was able to liberate areas from the Germans with its own forces. On 2 June, the Germans launched a probing attack on Couloudon's base at Mont Mouchet; on 10 June the Germans launched a larger attack, and on 20 June encircled Couloudon's positions and forced the resistance fighters to flee after taking heavy casualties. Wake and the members of her team accompanied groups of maquis in a three-day , retreat westward to the village of Saint-Santin. The bicycle ride. During the flight from the Germans, Rake, the radio operator, had left his radio and codes behind and the SOE team needed to be in contact with London. The nearest SOE radio and operator were in Châteauroux, Wake said she borrowed a bicycle and rode it to Châteauroux, found a radio near there, updated London on the situation, and then bicycled back to Saint-Santin, traveling in 72 hours. Fortunately for her, there were few Germans in the areas through which she bicycled. With Henri Tardivat. After her bicycle ride, the Freelance team, with another recently arrived operator named Roger, a 19-year-old American marine, returned to Allier Department to join the resistance group of Henri Tardivat (who had discovered her tangled in a tree after she was dropped in). In July two more Americans, Reeve Schley and John deKoven Alsop, joined their team as instructors. Neither spoke much French and Schley was nearly blind if not wearing his thick-lensed eyeglasses, but he impressed the maquisards with his immaculately tailored military uniform. Both proved to be effective instructors. Wake said that she and Tardivat initiated a series of attacks on German convoys and fought off an attack on their camp by the Germans in which seven French maquisards were killed. Her principal job, however, continued to be to organize the reception and distribution of arms and material for the resistance groups which was parachuted into Allier nearly every other night. Wake claimed that she participated in a raid (not confirmed by other sources) that destroyed the Gestapo headquarters in Montluçon, killing 38 Germans. At one point Wake said she discovered that the men were using three girls as prostitutes and mistreating them. She coerced the maquis to release the women, to whom she provided a wash and new clothes. Nancy Wake set two of the girls free, but she suspected that a third was a German spy. After interrogating and exposing her, Wake ordered the resistance group to shoot the informer. They did not have the heart to kill her in cold blood, but when Wake insisted that she would perform the execution, they capitulated. Nancy Wake claimed that the spy girl spat and stripped naked in front of her before facing the firing squad. Wake showed no regrets for the execution. Wake also said that she killed an SS sentry with her bare hands to prevent him from raising the alarm during a raid. During a 1990s television interview, when asked what had happened to the sentry who spotted her, Wake simply drew her finger across her throat. "They'd taught this judo-chop stuff with the flat of the hand at SOE, and I practised away at it. But this was the only time I used it – whack – and it killed him all right. I was really surprised." After the invasion of southern France by American military forces on 15 August, the Resistance groups harried the retreating Germans. Her friend Tardivat was badly wounded and would lose a leg to amputation. During a victory celebration in Vichy, Wake learnt of the death of her husband. In mid-September, she and other members of the Freelance team, their job completed, returned to Great Britain. Post-war Immediately after the war, Wake was awarded the George Medal, the United States Medal of Freedom, the Médaille de la Résistance, and thrice, the Croix de Guerre. She worked for the intelligence department at the British Air Ministry, attached to embassies in Paris and Prague. Wake stood as a Liberal candidate in the 1949 Australian federal election for the Sydney seat of Barton, running against Dr. Herbert Evatt, then deputy prime minister, attorney general, and minister for external affairs in the Ben Chifley Labor government. While Chifley lost government to Robert Menzies, Wake recorded a 13 percent swing against Evatt, with Evatt retaining the seat with 53.2 per cent of the vote on a two-party preferred basis. Wake ran against Evatt again at the 1951 federal election. By this time, Evatt was deputy leader of the opposition. The result was extremely close; however, Evatt retained the seat with a margin of fewer than 250 votes. Evatt slightly increased his margin at subsequent elections before relocating to the safer seat of Hunter by 1958. Wake left Australia just after the 1951 election and moved back to England. She worked as an intelligence officer in the department of the Assistant Chief of the Air Staff at the Air Ministry in Whitehall. She resigned in 1957 after marrying an RAF officer, John Forward, in December of that year. They relocated to Australia in the early 1960s. Maintaining her interest in politics, Wake was endorsed as a Liberal candidate at the 1966 federal election for the Sydney seat of Kingsford Smith. Despite recording a swing of 6.9 per cent against the sitting Labor member Daniel Curtin, Wake was again unsuccessful. Around 1985, Wake and John Forward left Sydney to retire to Port Macquarie. In 1985, Wake published her autobiography, The White Mouse. Later, after 40 years of marriage, her second husband John Forward died at Port Macquarie on 19 August 1997. The couple had no children. She sold her medals to fund herself, saying, "There was no point in keeping them, I'll probably go to hell and they'd melt anyway." In 2001, Wake left Australia for the last time and emigrated to London. She became a resident at the Stafford Hotel in St. James' Place, near Piccadilly, formerly a British and American forces club during the war. She had been introduced to her first "bloody good drink" there by the general manager at the time, Louis Burdet. He also had worked for the Resistance in Marseille. In the mornings she would usually be found in the hotel bar, sipping her first gin and tonic of the day and telling war stories. She was welcomed at the hotel, celebrating her ninetieth birthday there. The hotel owners absorbed most of the costs of her stay. In 2003, Wake chose to move to the Royal Star and Garter Home for Disabled Ex-Service Men and Women, in Richmond, London, where she remained until her death. Wake died on 7 August 2011, aged 98, at Kingston Hospital after being admitted with a chest infection. She had requested that her ashes be scattered at Montluçon in central France. Her ashes were scattered near the village of Verneix, which is near Montluçon, on 11 March 2013. Her obituary was included in (and inspired the title for) The Socialite Who Killed A Nazi With Her Bare Hands: And 144 Other Fascinating People Who Died This Year, a collection of New York Times obituaries published in 2012. Honours Wake was appointed a Chevalier (knight) of the Legion of Honour in 1970 and was promoted to Officer of the Legion of Honour in 1988. Shortly after the war, she was recommended for decorations in Australia but was turned down. Decades later, Australia offered to award her medals but she refused, saying: "The last time there was a suggestion of that I told the government they could stick their medals where the monkey stuck his nuts. The thing is if they gave me a medal now, it wouldn't be love so I don't want anything from them." It was not until February 2004 that Wake was made a Companion of the Order of Australia. In April 2006, she was awarded the Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association's highest honour, the RSA Badge in Gold. Wake's medals are on display in the Second World War gallery at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. On 3 June 2010, a "heritage pylon" paying tribute to Wake was unveiled on Oriental Parade in Wellington, New Zealand, near the place of her birth. A minor planet was named after her. List of honours Biographies In 1956, Australian author Russell Braddon wrote Nancy Wake: The Story of a Very Brave Woman (). Nancy Wake wrote her own account (first published 1985) with the original title, The White Mouse ("The autobiography of the woman the Gestapo called the White Mouse") (). In 2001, Australian author Peter FitzSimons wrote Nancy Wake, A Biography of Our Greatest War Heroine (), a bestselling comprehensive biography of Wake. In 2011, German author wrote Codename Hélène: Churchills Geheimagentin Nancy Wake und ihr Kampf gegen die Gestapo in Frankreich. (translated: Codename Hélène: Churchill's secret agent Nancy Wake and her fight against the Gestapo in France). The book was published in October 2012. In 2020, Simon and Schuster published Ariel Lawhon's Code Name Helene, a fictionalisation of Wake's exploits. Claims that Sebastian Faulks' 1999 novel Charlotte Gray is based on Wake's war-time exploits, as well as those of Pearl Cornioley, a British secret-service agent have been refuted by the author. Sebastian Faulks said in an interview that "The truth about Charlotte Gray is that she was entirely invented. That's the way good novelists work, ... I had not heard of Pearl Cornioley when I wrote Charlotte Gray in 1995 ...'. Wake was also featured in a 2012 article in Military Officer. Portrayals An Australian television mini-series was released in 1987 entitled, Nancy Wake, based on the 1956 biography by Russell Braddon. It was released as True Colors in the U.S.. Wake was played by Australian actress Noni Hazlehurst and Wake herself made a cameo appearance in the role of Madame Fouret. Wake also was made a consultant for the film, but only after the script had been written. She criticised the script upon reading it, and again, at the launch of the mini-series. Wake was disappointed that the film was changed from an 8-hour resistance story to a 4-hour love story. The producers said that they did not have the budget for the longer version and that it was difficult to cover all Wake's exploits in the reduced time frame. Wake also candidly criticized aspects that she felt were not a true depiction of events, and continued for the rest of her life to criticize the script. Similarly, Seasons 1 and 2 of the late 1980s British television series Wish Me Luck were based on her exploits and much of the dialogue was copied from her autobiography. Rachael Blampied portrayed Nancy Wake in the 2014 TVNZ docu-drama, Nancy Wake: The White Mouse. In 2002, Melissa Beowulf's portrait of Wake was a finalist in the Doug Moran National Portrait Prize. It was later acquired by the National Portrait Gallery. Beowulf chose Wake as a subject to help ensure she received greater recognition within Australia. Christine Croydon's Underground, a play reviewing Wake's life opened at The Gasworks Theatre in Melbourne in March 2019. In 2019, the book Liberation, a historical novel based on the events of Wake's wartime service, was released. Written by Imogen Kealey, the book's dust jacket from the Grand Central Publishing edition released in April 2020 mentions that the story is in development as a "major motion picture." On 27 August 2020, it was announced that Elizabeth Debicki would star and executive produce a limited series about Wake titled Code Name Hélène, based on Ariel Lawhon's novel of the same name. Notes References Braddon, Russell. Nancy Wake: The Story of a Very Brave Woman, Quality Book Club, Cassell & Co. Ltd: London, 1956. Braddon, Russell. Nancy Wake, Pan Books, London; Sydney, 1958. Braddon, Russell. Woman in Arms: The Story of Nancy Wake, Collins, London, 1963. FitzSimons, Peter. Nancy Wake: A Biography of Our Greatest War Heroine, HarperCollins, Pymble, New South Wales, 2002,. Wake, Nancy. Autobiography of the Woman the Gestapo Called the White Mouse, Macmillan: South Melbourne, 1985, . RTE 1 radio documentary, "Nancy Wake and Harry Potter", first broadcast 9-Aug-2011 "Son and heir in Labor stronghold", Sydney Morning Herald, 12 October 2006 "Finally, Nancy gets her gong", Sydney Morning Herald, 3 March 2004 "Her only regret:not killing more Nazis", Capital Times, Wellington, 2 June 2010, accessible at Internet Archive "White Mouse war legend back where she started", The Dominion Post, Wellington, 4 June 2010 External links Biography 1997 Interview with Nancy Wake NZ Edge Australian War Memorial Biography Australian National Archives Photos of Nancy Wake Video of Nancy Wake via Ngā Taonga Sound & Vision exhibition. 1912 births 2011 deaths Female resistance members of World War II Female wartime spies French Resistance members New Zealand military personnel of World War II Special Operations Executive personnel Women in World War II Companions of the Order of Australia Recipients of the George Medal Officiers of the Légion d'honneur New Zealand recipients of the Légion d'honneur Recipients of the Medal of Freedom Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Recipients of the Resistance Medal Military personnel from London People from Wellington City Australian memoirists Liberal Party of Australia politicians New Zealand emigrants to Australia New Zealand emigrants to the United Kingdom Australian emigrants to England First Aid Nursing Yeomanry people	[ 0.05575832352042198, -0.0872531458735466, -0.18523690104484558, -0.48318105936050415, -0.35264700651168823, 0.5099561214447021, 0.5019962787628174, -0.34014973044395447, -0.30351904034614563, 0.11498337984085083, -0.6865835189819336, 0.20077300071716309, 0.0254092775285244, 0.18097543716430664, -0.14584800601005554, -0.04651876538991928, -0.030396465212106705, 0.10272804647684097, -0.4147316813468933, -0.6355312466621399, 0.12289846688508987, -0.28937092423439026, -0.14014391601085663, 0.10283134132623672, -0.2740197777748108, 0.22650127112865448, -0.11756974458694458, 0.02351851388812065, 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206393	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%26M%20%28disambiguation%29	S&M (disambiguation)	S&M, or sadomasochism, is the enjoyment of inflicting or receiving pain. S&M may also refer to: S&M (album), a 1999 live album by Metallica S&M2, a 2020 follow-up live album "S&M" (song), a 2011 song by Rihanna S&M, a 2001 album by Le Shok "S&M", a 1979 song by Thin Lizzy from Black Rose: A Rock Legend "S and M", a 1988 song by 2 Live Crew from Move Somethin' Sam & Max, a comic series and media franchise Serbia and Montenegro See also BDSM, a wider term encompassing both S&M and other forms of activity SM (disambiguation) M&S (disambiguation)	[ 0.10985367000102997, 0.5734506249427795, -0.0757896676659584, -0.2212020754814148, -0.06479183584451675, 0.2075444906949997, 0.6741475462913513, 0.4016560912132263, -0.25745826959609985, -0.03952593728899956, -0.4293464124202728, 0.504241406917572, -0.13174104690551758, 0.2990800142288208, -0.1666640192270279, 0.5081849694252014, 0.24477960169315338, 0.24286875128746033, -0.1609155535697937, -0.05133958160877228, -0.4348989725112915, 0.04927684739232063, 0.2328348606824875, -0.8406383991241455, 0.16499005258083344, 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206394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipahi	Sipahi	Sipahi (, ) were professional cavalrymen deployed by the Seljuks, and later two types of Ottoman cavalry corps, including the fief-holding provincial , which constituted most of the army, and the regular , palace troops. Other types of cavalry which were not regarded were the irregular ("raiders"). The sipahi formed their own distinctive social classes, and were notably in rivalry with the Janissaries, the elite corps of the Sultan. It was also the title given to several cavalry units serving in the French and Italian colonial armies during the 19th and 20th centuries (see ). Name The word is derived from , meaning "soldier". The term is also transliterated as and ; rendered in other languages as: in Albanian and Romanian, sepuh (սեպուհ) in Armenian, () in Greek, or in Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Bulgarian and Macedonian (Cyrillic: , ): in Bengali [sipāhī] "sepoy" Sepoy (সিপাহী). The Portuguese version is also sipaio (with variants like sipai, cipaio and cipai), but in Spanish it was adapted as cipayo. The word sepoy is derived from the same Persian word . In Dhivehi Language (Maldives) the army's soldiers are referred to as {ސިފައިން} "sifain". Description The term refers to all freeborn Ottoman Turkish mounted troops other than akıncı and tribal horsemen in the Ottoman army. The word was used almost synonymously with cavalry. The sipahis formed two distinct types of cavalry: feudal-like, provincial (timariots) which consisted most of the Ottoman army, and salaried, regular (sipahi of the Porte), which constituted the cavalry part of the Ottoman household troops. The provincial governors, or beys, were rotated every few years, preventing land inheritance. The provinces, or sanjaks, were not all equal since Anatolia and the Balkans were mostly ruled by Turks, while other areas of the empire were more flexible, adhering, somewhat, to local traditions. The entwinement of land, military, politics, economics and religion was a way of life. The timar system, where the sultan owned all land but individual plots of land, came with residential rights. The Ottoman people had rights to the land but the sipahi, a unique kind of military aristocracy and cavalry portion of the military, also lived on the land with the farmers (90% of the population) and collected tax revenues, usually in-kind, to subsidize the costs of training and equipping the small army, dedicated to serving the sultan. The sipahi did not inherit anything, preventing power centres from growing and threatening the supreme power structure. The locals on the timar used the land and all it produced. Timarli Sipahis Status The "Timarli Sipahi" or "timariot" (tımarlı) was the holder of a fief of land ( ) granted directly by the Ottoman sultan or with his official permission by beylerbeys. He was entitled to all of the income from that land, in return for military service. The peasants on the land were subsequently attached thereto. Timarli Sipahis' status resembled that of the knights of medieval Europe. Unlike medieval knights, they were not legally owners of their fiefs. The right to govern and collect taxes in a timar fief was merely given to a Timarli Sipahi by the Ottoman State. And in return, tımarli sipahis were responsible for security of the people in their timar, enlisting and training cebelu soldiers for the army. A timar was the smallest unit of land held by a Sipahi, providing a yearly revenue of no more than 20,000 , which was between two and four times what a teacher earned. A () was a larger unit of land, yielding up to 100,000 akçe, and was owned by Sipahis of officer rank. A has ( ) was the largest unit of land, giving revenues of more than 100,000 akçe, and was only held by the highest-ranking members of the military. A tîmâr Sipahi was obliged to provide the army with up to five armed retainers (), a ziamet Sipahi with up to twenty, and a has Sipahi with far more than twenty. The cebelu (meaning "armed, armored") were expected to be mounted and fully equipped as the sipahi themselves; they were usually sons, brothers or nephews and their position was probably more similar to squires than men-at-arms. The sipahi were traditionally recruited among Turkic landowners, and thus, the non-Turkic provinces such as Arabia and Maghreb did not have sipahi. Recruitment of non-Turkic sipahi was banned with a 1635 ferman (decree). In contrast to the Janissaries, Timarli Sipahis from that time onwards were Turks (Muslims). A rivalry between Jannisaries, who controlled the central bureaucracy of the empire and had a lot of political influence, and sipahis, who controlled the provincial bureaucracy and had the power of the army, prevented them from cooperating against the House of Osman. Although timars were not originally granted to their holders until perpetuity (the state inheriting the land at the death of the landholder), but by the end of the 17th century the estates were passed on from father to son. Military In wartime, Timarli sipahis and their retainers were gathered under their (regiment) beys. Alay-beys were gathered with their troops under sanjak (province) beys, and sanjak-beys gathered under beylerbeys. If a battle was to be fought in Europe, Rumeli (Balkan) Sipahis took the honorary right flank under the Rumeli beylerbey, while the Anatolian beylerbey and his Sipahis took the left flank; when a battle was in Asia, positions were switched. This way, the Ottoman classical army's flanks wholly consisted of Timariot cavalry, while the center consisted of Janissary infantry and artillery divisions. The equipment and tactics differed between the Anatolian and Balkan Timarli Sipahi. The Anatolian Sipahi were equipped and fought as classic horse archers, shooting while galloping, yet they weren't nomadic cavalry and their status was similar to medium cavalry class. Balkan Timarli Sipahis wore chainmail, rode barded horses and carried lances and javelins, and fought as medium cavalry. Timarli Sipahis of the classical Ottoman period usually comprised the bulk of the army and did the majority of the fighting on the battlefield. While infantry troops at the army's center maintained a static battle line, the cavalry flanks constituted its mobile striking arm. During battle, Timarli Sipahi tactics were used, opening the conflict with skirmishes and localized skirmishes with enemy cavalry. Regiments of Timarli Sipahis made charges against weaker or isolated units and retreated back to the main body of troops whenever confronted with heavy cavalry. During one regiment's retreat, other regiments of sipahis may have charged the chasing enemy's flanks. Such tactics served to draw enemy cavalry away from infantry support, break their cohesion, and isolate and overwhelm them with numerical superiority. Anatolian Sipahis had the ability to harass and provoke opposing troops with arrow shots. More heavily equipped Balkan Sipahis carried javelins for protection against enemy horsemen during their tactical retreats. All cavalry flanks of the Ottoman army fought a fluid, mounted type of warfare around the center of the army, which served as a stable pivot. The standard equipment of Rumeli Sipahis of the classical Ottoman period consisted of a round shield, lance, sword, javelins, and plated armour. Their horses were barded. Standard equipment of Anatolian Sipahis in the same era was a round shield, composite Turkish bow, arrows, kilij (Turkish sword) and leather or felt armor. Besides these, Sipahis of both provinces were equipped with and maces, and , and axes. Anatolian Sipahis sometimes also carried lances. Kapikulu Sipahis Kapikulu Sipahis (Sipahis of the Porte) were household cavalry troops of the Ottoman Palace. They were the cavalry equivalent of the Janissary household infantry force. There were six divisions of Kapikulu Sipahis: Sipahis, Silahtars, Right Ulufecis, Left Ulufecis, Right Garips and Left Garips. All of them were paid quarterly salaries, while the Sipahis and Silahtars were elite units. ("weapon masters") were chosen from the best warriors in the Ottoman Empire. Any Ottoman soldier who committed a significant deed on the battlefield could be promoted to the Silahtar division, although normally members of other mounted units, like Timarli Sipahis or one of the other less prestigious of the four divisions of Kapikulu Sipahis, were promoted this way. Infantry soldiers had to enlist as (literally means giver of his head) and survive suicide missions to join Silahtar division. If a janissary ever became a silahtar, other members of the division with cavalry backgrounds despised him and former comrade janissaries considered him a traitor, but because the position and wealth of a silahtar was so attractive, janissaries and other soldiers still enlisted for suicide missions. The commander of the Silahtar division was the Silahtar Agha. He was the official weaponsmaster of the palace and a close personal aide of the sultan, helping him to don his armor. He was also a liaison officer who supervised the communication between the sultan and the Grand Vizier. The Sipahi division was the most prestigious of the six divisions. Traditionally, sons of Ottoman élite (sons of Vezirs, Pashas and Beys) served in this unit. The Sipahis and Silahtars were granted timar fiefs near Istanbul, alongside their salaries. Ulufeci means "salaried ones", and the members of two Ulufeci divisions weren't granted timar fiefs. Garip means "poor ones" (because their equipment was lighter compared to the other four divisions) and were paid salaries. The six divisions of Sipahis represented the Kapikulu cavalry in the same way that the Janissaries represented the Kapikulu infantry. Kapikulu means servant of the Porte. Servants of the Porte (Kapikullari) were legally servants of the Ottoman throne. They weren't literally slaves, though their legal status was different from other Ottoman people. The Sultan had the power to directly command execution of his servants without any court verdict. Theoretically, the Sultan didn't have this kind of power over other people, even simple peasants. If a freeman was promoted to one of Kapikulu Sipahi divisions, he considered automatically switched to (servant) status. Equipment of Silahtar, Sipahi and Ulufeci divisions was plated mail, chainmail, round shield, sword, composite bow, arrows, lance, bozdogan mace and axe. Their equipment was similar to Rumeli (Balkan) provincial Timarli Sipahis, though they wore brilliant fabrics, prominent hats and bore ornamented polearms. The two Garip divisions were more lightly equipped. In the classical period Ottoman battle formation, Kapikulu Sipahis were positioned back of the army as rearguards. They acted as reserve cavalry and bodyguards of Ottoman sultan and vezirs. Their job included to join and reinforce Ottoman army's flanks which otherwise consisted entirely provincial timariot sipahis. The Sipahis of the Porte (Kapikulu Sipahis) were founded during the reign of Murad I. The Sipahi eventually became the largest of the six divisions of the Ottoman cavalry. Their duties included mounted body-guarding for the sultan and his family, as well as parade-riding with the sultan, having replaced the earlier Silahtar division for this duty. Rivalry with the Janissary corps Since Kapikulu Sipahis were a cavalry regiment it was well known within the Ottoman military circles that they considered themselves a superior stock of soldiers than Janissaries, who were sons of Christian peasants from the Balkans (Rumelia), and were officially slaves bounded by various laws of the devşirme. They made great strides of efforts to gain respect within the Ottoman Empire and their political reputation depended on the mistakes of the Janissary. That minor quarrels erupted between the two units is made evident with a Turkmen adage, still used today within Turkey, "", which, referring to the unruly Janissaries, translates into "Horsemen don't mutiny". Towards the middle of the 16th century, the Janissaries had started to gain more importance in the army, though the Sipahis remained an important factor in the empire's bureaucracy, economy and politics, and a crucial aspect of disciplined leadership within the army. As late as the 17th century, the Sipahis were, together with their rivals the Janissaries, the de facto rulers in the early years of sultan Murad IV's reign. In 1826, after an evident Janissary revolt the Sipahis played an important part in the disbandment of the Janissary corps. The Sultan received critical assistance from the loyalist Sipahi cavalry in order to forcefully dismiss the infuriated Janissaries. Two years later, however, they shared a similar fate when Sultan Mahmud II revoked their privileges and dismissed them in favor of a more modern military structure. Unlike the Janissaries before them they retired honorably, peacefully, and without bloodshed into new Ottoman cavalry divisions who followed modern military tradition doctrines. Older sipahis were allowed to retire and keep their tımar lands until they died, and younger sipahis joined the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye army as cavalry. Notable individuals Ulubatlı Hasan (1428–1453), Timariot Yakup Ağa, father of Hayreddin Barbarossa In popular culture Video games Sipahis appear in The Creative Assembly's Empire: Total War as a heavy cavalry unit employed by the Ottoman Empire and other Islamic factions. They also are employed by the Hindu Marathas. Also in Napoleon: Total War to the Ottomans as the second greatest lancer unit. Second to another Ottoman unit, the Silahtar Guard. Sipahis appear in Ensemble Studio's Age of Empires III as a heavy cavalry unit unique to the Ottoman Empire. Sipahis are employed by the Turks in Medieval II Total War in three different forms: Sipahis, mounted archers; Sipahi Lancers, heavy cavalry, and Dismounted Sipahi Lancers, heavy infantry. Sipah is cavalry unit unique to Turkey in Cossacks: European Wars series computer games developed by GSC Game World. The Sipahi is the unique unit for the Ottoman Empire in the computer games Civilization III and Civilization V (where the game itself was made by Firaxis), the other unique unit is Janissary. In the video game Assassin's Creed: Revelations, the player can obtain a set of "Sepahi Riding Armor" for the protagonist. Other In the historical novel Eight Pointed Cross (2011) by Marthese Fenech, the character Timurhan is a prominent Sipahi in the Ottoman imperial cavalry In the book The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas one of the characters sells himself into the service of the Spahis in North Africa. See also Italian Spahis Notes References External links Turkish Sipahis Cavalry units and formations of the Ottoman Empire Turkish words and phrases Cavalry	[ 0.10229308903217316, 0.1438983976840973, -0.6914761662483215, 0.17100711166858673, -0.7459331750869751, 0.5904204845428467, 0.7097710967063904, -0.3247590959072113, -0.08883314579725266, 0.12764981389045715, -0.26714304089546204, 0.1345907300710678, -0.5281368494033813, -0.10044312477111816, -0.5534818768501282, 0.18292254209518433, 0.2791849374771118, 0.6256838440895081, 0.005121380556374788, -0.09152091294527054, 0.1746641993522644, 0.29630929231643677, -0.13701406121253967, -0.10492803156375885, 0.1469576060771942, 0.40019363164901733, 0.7487530708312988, 0.4135833978652954, 0.21389463543891907, -0.15267618000507355, -0.2861667573451996, 0.18624530732631683, -0.3647896349430084, -0.5064544677734375, -0.12932217121124268, -0.04466826841235161, 0.026900267228484154, -0.17803449928760529, 0.2355538010597229, -0.7058689594268799, 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206397	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20companies%20of%20Denmark	List of companies of Denmark	Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Europe. The country has a developed mixed economy that is classed as a high-income economy by the World Bank. It ranks 18th in the world in terms of GDP (PPP) per capita and 6th in nominal GDP per capita. Denmark's economy stands out as one of the most free in the Index of Economic Freedom and the Economic Freedom of the World. It is the 13th most competitive economy in the world, and 8th in Europe, according to the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2014–2015. For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations, see "Business entities in Denmark". Largest firms This list shows firms in the Fortune Global 500, which ranks firms by total revenues reported before March 31, 2017. Only the top five firms (if available) are included as a sample. Notable firms This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct. See also Economy of Denmark References External links Companies in Denmark Denmark	[ 0.3457592725753784, 0.4492570757865906, -0.05107538774609566, -0.23128585517406464, 0.1414896547794342, -0.09322240203619003, -0.14808344841003418, 1.0161418914794922, -0.9178391695022583, 0.5606906414031982, -0.053319815546274185, -0.28238898515701294, -0.048538487404584885, 0.44019076228141785, -0.6559452414512634, 0.19667266309261322, -0.24050195515155792, 0.9737246632575989, 0.15978765487670898, -0.32412850856781006, -0.20931372046470642, -0.2340439110994339, 0.5566390752792358, -0.24050459265708923, 0.5107030272483826, -0.3303776681423187, 0.070356085896492, 0.06873132288455963, -0.4455694556236267, -0.16084490716457367, -0.21605198085308075, 0.5262274146080017, -0.03853569179773331, 0.15095816552639008, -0.2886005640029907, -0.02281785011291504, 0.03242062032222748, -0.8655287623405457, -0.1832374781370163, -0.4507531523704529, -0.052975352853536606, -0.45328301191329956, -0.025094836950302124, 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206399	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinheirodontidae	Pinheirodontidae	Pinheirodontidae is a poorly known family of fossil mammals which belong to the informal suborder "Plagiaulacida" within the order Multituberculata. Remains are known from the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous of Europe, (predominantly Portugal and Spain), but are so far restricted to teeth. The family Pinheirodontidae was named by Hahn G. and Hahn R. in 1999, after the locality of Porto Dinheiro, in central west Portugal. References Hahn & Hahn (1999), "Pinheirodontidae n. fam. (Multituberculata) (Mammalia) aus der tiefen Unter-Kreide Portugals". Palaeontographica Abt. A Vol. 253, pp. 77–222. (Pinheirodontidae n. fam. (Multituberculata) (Mammalia) from the deepest Lower Cretaceous of Portugal). Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Basal Multituberculata, an Internet directory. 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206401	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%26M	H&M	Hennes & Mauritz AB (H&M) is a Swedish multinational clothing company headquartered in Stockholm. It is known for its fast-fashion clothing for men, women, teenagers, and children. As of November 2019, H&M operates in 74 countries with over 5,000 stores under the various company brands, with 126,000 full-time equivalent positions. It is the second-largest global clothing retailer, behind Spain-based Inditex (parent company of Zara). Founded by Erling Persson and run by his son Stefan Persson and Helena Helmersson, the company makes its online shopping available in 33 countries. History The company was founded by Erling Persson in 1947, when he opened his first shop in Västerås, Sweden. The shop, called Hennes (Swedish for "hers"), exclusively sold women's clothing. A store was opened in Norway in 1964. In 1968, Persson acquired the hunting apparel retailer Mauritz Widforss in Stockholm, which led to the inclusion of a menswear collection in the product range and the name change to Hennes & Mauritz. The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1974. Shortly after, in 1976, the first store outside Scandinavia opened in London. H&M continued to expand in Europe and began to retail online in 1998 when bought the domain hm.com from a company called A1 in a non-published domain transaction. The two-letter domain was registered 1997, according to data available via Whois. The opening of its first U.S. store on 31 March 2000, on Fifth Avenue in New York City marked the start of the expansion outside of Europe. In 2008, the company announced in a press release that it would begin selling home furnishings. Initially distributed through the company's online catalog, there are now H&M Home stores located internationally. Following expansion in Asia and the Middle East and the launch of concept stores including COS, Weekday, Monki, and Cheap Monday, in 2009 and 2010, branding consultancy Interbrand ranked the company as the twenty-first most-valuable global brand, making it the highest-ranked retailer in the survey. Its worth was estimated at $12–16 billion. H&M operated 2,325 stores at the end of 2011, and 2,629 stores at the end of August 2012. Its 3,000th store opened in September 2013 in Chengdu, China. In October 2020, H&M announced that they are planning to close 5% of their worldwide stores in 2021, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Marketing and collaborations In November 2004, select stores offered an exclusive collection by fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld. The press reported large crowds and that the initial inventories in the larger cities were sold out within an hour, although the clothes were still available in less fashion-sensitive areas until the company redistributed them to meet with demand. In November 2006, the company launched a collection by Stella McCartney and, also in November 2006, by avant-garde Dutch designers Viktor & Rolf. In March 2007, it launched another collaboration designed by the pop star Madonna. In June 2007 the company worked with game developers Maxis to create a stuff pack for the latter's The Sims 2 computer game, H&M Fashion Stuff. In November 2007, the company launched a collection by Italian designer Roberto Cavalli. Also in 2007, another design with Kylie Minogue was launched in Shanghai, China. In the spring of 2008 the Finnish company Marimekko was selected as guest designer and was followed by Japanese Comme des Garçons in the fall. For spring and summer 2009, the British designer Matthew Williamson created two exclusive ranges for the company – the first being a collection of women's clothes released in select stores. The second collection saw Williamson branch into menswear for the first time, only in select stores. It featured swimwear for men and women and was available in every company store worldwide. On 14 November 2009, the company released a limited-edition diffusion collection by Jimmy Choo featuring shoes and handbags, ranging from £30 to £170 including a range of men's shoes. The collection also included clothing designed by Choo, many garments made of suede and leather, and was available in 200 stores worldwide, including London's Oxford Circus store. Sonia Rykiel also collaborated with the company, by designing a ladies knitwear and lingerie range that was released in selected company stores on 5 December 2009. For fall 2010, the company collaborated with French fashion house Lanvin. In March 2011, the brand's clothing was featured in an interactive fashion art film by Imagine Fashion called "Decadent Control", starring Roberto Cavalli, Kirsty Hume, Eva Herzigová and Brad Kroenig. For Spring/Summer 2011, the company collaborated with fashion blogger Elin Kling, which was available at select stores only. In June 2011, H&M announced a collaboration with Versace that was released on 19 November. Versace also planned a Spring collaboration with the company that was only available in countries with online sales. Similar to previous collaborations, Versace agreed to let H&M use its name for a previously agreed-upon sum, without actually having a role in the design process. In November 2011, H&M announced a collaboration plan with Marni, that launched in March 2012. The campaign was directed by director Sofia Coppola. Lana Del Rey was the face of the fully plotted music video for the 2012 global summer collection, in which she also sang a cover of "Blue Velvet". On 4 October 2012, Japanese Vogue editor Anna Dello Russo launched an accessories collection at H&M as Paris Fashion Week drew to an end. The collection was stocked in 140 H&M stores worldwide and also sold through the website On 12 June 2012, H&M confirmed that it would launch a collaboration with avant-garde label Maison Martin Margiela for a fall rollout. The Maison Martin Margiela collection for H&M hit stores on 15 November 2012. Beyoncé was the face of H&M in summer 2013. Her campaign began in May 2013 which was entitled "Mrs. Carter in H&M", drew heavily on Knowles' personal style. The singer also included the track "Standing on the Sun" from her fifth studio album as the campaign soundtrack. Isabel Marant was a collaboration designer for fall 2013 and for the first time made a few men's pieces to accompany the women's collection. The collaborated collection sold out very quickly in cities across the globe, and was heavily anchored in sales online as well. Alexander Wang was announced as a collaboration to be released 6 November 2014 across the world to a select 250 stores. The announcement came during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in California and was be the first collaboration with an American designer. Balmain was announced as the next collaboration with H&M. The collection was released on 5 November 2015. The announcement came from Balmain designer Olivier Rousteing's Instagram page. The 2015 Christmas campaign was in collaboration with the pop star Katy Perry, who also sang the commercial soundtrack "'Every Day Is A Holiday". In November 2016, H&M released a designer line in collaboration with Kenzo. That year the company released an annual holiday movie directed by Wes Anderson as part of the company's Christmas advertising campaign. Titled "Come Together", the short film starred Adrien Brody as a train conductor who saves Christmas after a blizzard delays the train's arrival, making the few passengers on board miss part of the holiday. In February 2017, Swedish singer Zara Larsson designed a "playful, young, empowering and little glamorous" collection with H&M. After 20 years, Naomi Campbell came back to collaborate for a global female empowerment commercial spot with the company. She wore clothes that blur the line between masculine and feminine and in the spot-video she also lip-synced "Wham Rap (Enjoy What You Do)" by Wham!. In 2018, the flagship New York City location trialed an in-store "Voice Interactive Mirror" developed by Microsoft and Ombori. The mirror was voice and facial recognition activated, and had an in-mirror personal shopping assistant as well as encouraged customers to sign up for newsletters and scan QR codes. A German CPG news source, Lebensmittelzeitung, concluded that "86% of customers who took a selfie ended up scanning the QR code and 10% of [customers] also registered for the newsletter." In April 2018 the brand also collaborated with the designer Jeremy Scott and Moschino. In July 2019, H&M collaborated with designer Richard Allan to revive the spirit of the swinging sixties. In September 2019, H&M halted its leather purchases from Brazil in response to 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires. The company issued an email statement: "The ban will be active until there are credible assurance systems in place to verify that the leather does not contribute to environmental harm in the Amazon". The company imports only a small fraction of its leather needs from the country. In August 2020, H&M collaborated with Lebanese designer Sandra Mansour for the Fleur du Soleil collection. It was the first time H&M had partnered with an Arab designer. In March 2021, the brand announced its collaborative partner for 2021 will be Irish designer Simone Rocha. The daughter of designer John Rocha, Simone is a regular at London Fashion Week and was named ‘Womenswear Designer of the Year’ in 2016 at the British Fashion Awards. Rocha's designs are famed for their femininity which is also shown in a H&M campaign film shot by Tyler Mitchell. Sustainability In April 2021, H&M announced that actress Maisie Williams would be joining the brand as a global sustainability ambassador to help front the company's campaign to use only recycled or sustainably sourced materials by 2030. The first initiative fronted by the actress will also collaborate with the video game Animal Crossing, with Williams being transformed into a digital game character to teach the virtues of recycling. In May 2021, H&M announced a temporary rental clothing service that allows men to rent suits for up to 24 hours for job interviews. It began in the UK and was also being tested in the United States. Concept stores In addition to the H&M brand, the company consists of five individual brands with separate concepts. Q4 2016 saw the hoarding of a new H&M concept in The Dubai Mall come up, labelled now 'H&M Details'. COS COS launched its flagship store on London's Regent Street in March 2007 with a catwalk show at the Royal Academy. Its concept is encompassed by minimalist style inspired by architecture, graphics, and design. It specialises in modern clothing pieces for men and women that are less trend-oriented than other similarly priced labels. COS makes clothing that can be worn beyond the season. COS has 197 stores in 34 countries in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia and the Middle East and currently retails online to 19 markets via cosstores.com. Labour practices In August 2011, nearly 300 workers passed out in one week at a Cambodian factory supplying H&M. Fumes from chemicals, poor ventilation, malnutrition, and even "mass hysteria" have all been blamed for making workers ill. The minimum wage in the country is the equivalent of $66 (£42) a month, a level that human rights groups say is not even half that required to meet basic needs. The same year, Bangladeshi and international labor groups put forth a detailed safety proposal that entailed the establishment of independent inspections of garment factories. The plan called for inspectors to have the power to close unsafe factories. The proposal entailed a legally binding contract between suppliers, customers, and unions. At a meeting in 2011 in Dhaka, major European and North American retailers, including H&M, rejected the proposal. Further efforts by unions to advance the proposal after numerous and deadly factory fires have been rejected. The Guardian wrote that in a conscious action sustainability report for 2012, H&M published a list of factories supplying 95% of its garments. Most retailers and brands do not share this information, citing commercial confidentiality as a reason. This contributes to the trend of corporations leaning toward ethically transparent supply chains. On 2 January 2013, The Ecologist reported allegations by Anti-Slavery International that H&M was continuing its association with the Uzbek government in exploiting child and adult forced labour as cotton harvesters in Uzbekistan. After the April 2013 Savar building collapse, the company and other retailers signed on to the Accord on Factory and Building Safety in Bangladesh. On 19 May 2013, a textile factory that produced apparel for H&M in Phnom Penh, Cambodia collapsed injuring several people. The incident has raised concerns regarding industrial safety regulations. On 25 November 2013, H&M's global head of sustainability committed that H&M, as the world's second-largest clothing retailer, would aim to pay all textile workers "living wage" by 2018, stating that governments are responding too slowly to poor working conditions in Bangladesh among other Asian countries where many clothing retailers source a majority if not all of their garments. Wages were increased in Bangladesh from 3,000 takas ($40) to 5,300 takas ($70) a month in late 2013. In September 2015, CleanClothes.org, an NGO involved in garment labor working conditions, reported on a lack of specific fire safety renovations in H&M suppliers' factories. In June 2016, SumOfUs launched a campaign to pressure H&M to honor the commitment to protect Bangladesh's garment workers which it had signed onto following the Rana Plaza collapse in Bangladesh in 2013, which killed over 1100 people, mostly garment workers, in unsafe factories housed in an eight-story building not designed for factories. SumOfUs alleged that "H&M is drastically behind schedule in fixing the safety hazards its workers have to face every day." In February 2017, The Guardian reported children were employed to make H&M products in Myanmar and were paid 13p (about 15 cents US) an hour – half the full legal minimum wage. In September 2020, amid international allegations over the use of Uyghur forced labour in Xinjiang, H&M published a statement saying that it had stopped buying cotton from growers in Xinjiang, stating that it was "deeply concerned by reports from civil society organizations and media that include accusations of forced labor and discrimination of ethno-religious minorities". Boycotts by China In March 2021, after the EU, UK, US, Canada's joint sanctions against China over reports of human rights abuses in Xinjiang, H&M's stance avoiding forced labor in Xinjiang and claim of not going to use cotton produced there was found and criticized by the Communist Youth League of China on its official Weibo page, in a post stating "Spreading rumors to boycott Xinjiang cotton, while trying to make a profit in China? Wishful thinking!". The viral post spread across mainland Chinese social media, leading to H&M facing significant criticism among Chinese social media users. On 24 March 2021, H&M became the first fashion brand to be targeted in China, with its products removed from Chinese e-commerce platforms such as Pinduoduo, JD.com and Alibaba, its mobile application removed from Chinese app stores, and rideshare platform DiDi blocking customers from requesting H&M stores as their destinations. Two of H&M's brand ambassadors in China, Huang Xuan and Victoria Song, announced they were no longer collaborating with H&M. Chinese state media outlet China Global Television Network countered the statements against Xinjiang cotton with a video showing automation in cotton-picking and local Uyghurs claiming that the industry brought high earnings. On 26 March, the United States condemned the China-backed boycotts, with its Department of Commerce stating that the United States "has taken strong actions to stop China from profiting off of its human-rights abuses in Xinjiang and to stop imports of products made with forced labor in China." On 31 March, H&M responded with a statement vowing to rebuild trust in China and serve its customers in a "respectful way". H&M reported sales in China had fallen by approximately 23% for the second quarter of 2021 (compared to the same period in the last fiscal year). According to a report, more than half a million forced to pick cotton in Xinjiang. Other controversies On 6 January 2010, it was reported that unsold or refunded clothing and other items in one New York City store were cut up before being discarded, presumably to prevent resale or use. On 24 January 2012, the company was reported to have stolen the work of a UK-based artist, Tori LaConsay, using it on multiple items without compensating her. In August 2013, the Swedish fashion chain withdrew faux-leather headdresses from its Canadian stores after consumers complained the items, part of the company's "summer music festival" collection, were insulting to Canada's Aboriginal peoples. On 6 November 2015, the H&M South Africa division was accused of racism for its lack of black models in their photoshoots, later stating that white models convey a more "positive Image." On 8 January 2018, H&M showcased on their official United Kingdom website a black child model wearing a green hoodie reading, "Coolest Monkey in the Jungle", which sparked controversy, especially in the United States, due to the use of the term "monkey" on a black person. In response, Canadian and American singers such as The Weeknd and G-Eazy boycotted the company by ending their partnerships with it over the image. H&M later released an apology: "This image has now been removed from all H&M channels and we apologise to anyone this may have offended." The mother of the model urged people to "stop crying wolf," deeming it "an unnecessary issue." After the allegations, H&M stores were vandalized and looted in South Africa. In response, H&M temporarily closed stores there. On 13 July 2019, H&M docked the pay and suspended several unionized staff in three of its stores in New Zealand for wearing 'Living wage' stickers, as part of a wider industrial dispute. On 9 December 2020, Sweden's Equality Ombudsman (DO) started an investigation into H&M following a media report accusing it of racism in Swedish stores. Philanthropy Since January 2012 H&M has offered its H&M Design Award, an annual design prize for fashion graduates. The prize is established to support young designers with the beginning of their careers. Starting in February 2013, H&M offered patrons a voucher in exchange for used garments. Donated garments was to be processed by I:CO, a retailer that repurposes and recycles used clothing with the goal of creating a zero waste economy. The initiative is similar to a clothes-collection voucher program launched in April 2012 by Marks & Spencer in partnership with Oxfam. In April 2014, H&M joined Zara and other apparel companies in changing their supply chain to avoid endangered forests. The company teamed with Canopy, a nonprofit, to remove endangered and ancient forests from their dissolvable pulp supply chain for their viscose and rayon fabrics. In August 2015, the H&M Foundation announced that it will award the Global Change Award, a million-euro annual prize, to advance recycling technology and techniques within the fashion industry. In 2020, the company announced it aims to be climate positive by 2040 and is investing in projects to reduce the carbon footprint of goods in transport along its supply chain. The H&M Foundation is a nonprofit foundation that was established in 2014 to fund projects that improve humanitarian and environmental issues within the fashion industry. The Persson family, the founders and owners of H&M, originally invested $180 million in the foundation. One of the foundation's projects includes the Green Machine, a recycling technology that would allow clothing to be recycled similar to how aluminum cans are recycled. Since 2013, the family has made contributions to the foundation, donating SEK1.1 billion (US$154 million) to it. According to the OECD, H&M Foundation's financing for 2019 development increased by 7% to US$17 million. See also Bonds (clothing) Gap Inc. List of companies of Sweden European Retail Round Table Zara (retailer) Notes References External links Clothing brands Clothing brands of Sweden Clothing retailers of Sweden Multinational companies headquartered in Sweden Companies based in Stockholm Clothing companies established in 1947 Design companies established in 1947 Retail companies established in 1947 Swedish companies established in 1947 2000s fashion 2010s fashion Swedish brands Online retailers of Sweden Companies listed on Nasdaq Stockholm Persson family	[ 0.16874809563159943, 0.6160692572593689, 0.548829197883606, -0.5377015471458435, 0.09308039397001266, 0.5450029969215393, 0.41635140776634216, -0.007410246413201094, -0.5120816826820374, 0.1826496124267578, -0.6049753427505493, 0.07789802551269531, 0.032129500061273575, 0.5665286183357239, 0.023710165172815323, -0.25006103515625, 0.19191974401474, 0.7880535125732422, -0.3648422658443451, -0.5641028881072998, 0.1375167816877365, -0.2885630428791046, 0.766106903553009, 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206409	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vattenfall	Vattenfall	Vattenfall is a Swedish multinational power company owned by the Swedish State. Beyond Sweden, the company generates power in Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. The company's name is Swedish for "waterfall", and is an abbreviation of its original name, Royal Waterfall Board (Kungliga Vattenfallstyrelsen). History Vattenfall (then called Kungliga Vattenfallsstyrelsen or Royal Waterfall Board) was founded in 1909 as a state-owned enterprise in Sweden. From its founding until the mid-1970s, Vattenfall's business was largely restricted to Sweden, with a focus on hydroelectric power generation. Only in 1974 did the company begin to build nuclear reactors in Sweden (the Ringhals 1 and 2 reactors), eventually owning seven of Sweden's 12 reactors. In 1992, Vattenfall was reformed as the limited liability company Vattenfall AB. At the same time, the transmission grid (220 kV and 400 kV lines) was transferred to the newly formed state agency Svenska kraftnät, which also became responsible for the operation of the national power system. In the years 1990 through 2009, Vattenfall expanded considerably (especially into Germany, Poland and the Netherlands), acquiring stakes in Hämeen Sähkö (1996), HEW (1999, 25.1% stake from the city of Hamburg), the Polish heat production company EW (2000, 55% stake), Elsam A/S (2005, 35.3% stake), and Nuon (2009, 49% stake, today 100%). In 2002 Vattenfall AB and its acquisitions were incorporated as Vattenfall Europe AG, making it the third-largest electricity producer in Germany. Following the expansion period, Vattenfall started to divest parts of its business in Denmark and Poland during the years following 2009 in a strategy to focus on three core markets: Sweden, Netherlands, and Germany. Write-downs on coal-fired and nuclear power plant assets in Germany and gas power plants in the Netherlands were necessary for a difficult market environment with increasing renewable energy market share and due to the German Nuclear power phase-out decision of 2011. In summer 2013 Vattenfall announced a write-down of the value of its assets by 29.7 billion SEK (US$4.6 billion). A major part of these write-offs were attributed to Nuon Energy NV, a Netherlands-based utility that Vattenfall purchased at an 89 billion SEK (ca. US$15 billion) price in 2009, but whose values were depreciating by 15 billion SEK (ca. US$2 billion) since. The gloomy market outlook of decreasing power prices in combination with increasing risks notably on the continental market prompted the board to revise the group strategy by splitting its organizational structure into a Nordic part and a part with operations in continental Europe and the United Kingdom as of 2014. Some analysts have perceived this strategic review as a precursor to a partial retreat from continental European activities with a shift of focus towards activities in the Scandinavian market. In this context and in response to a local referendum on re-municipilization of distribution grids, Vattenfall agreed on the sale of company-owned electricity and district-heat grids in Hamburg to the City of Hamburg in early 2014. In each of the second quarters of 2015 and 2016, Vattenfall filed impairments of SEK 28 billion, mostly due to lignite power stations in Germany. Operational financials were satisfactory. In 2020, Vattenfall reported a profit of SEK 7,716 billion with an operating profit (EBIT) of SEK 15,276 billion. Outside of Sweden, Vattenfall is known for forcing the Soviet government to publicly reveal the Chernobyl disaster. The Kremlin had tried to cover up the accident for a day, but elevated radiation levels at Vattenfall's Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant forced the Kremlin to admit the accident had occurred. In October 2020 it was announced that Gunnar Groebler, senior vice president at Vattenfall responsible for the company's wind power operations, would leave the organisation to join Salzgitter AG. Magnus Hall, President and CEO from October 2014, decided to leave the company in July 2020 and was succeeded by Anna Borg on November 1, 2020. Expansion beyond Sweden In 2006, Vattenfall began production of the pilot carbon capture and storage (CCS) plant at Schwarze Pumpe, Germany. In 2007, the Lillgrund Wind Farm off the southern coast of Sweden was commissioned and began delivering electricity. Vattenfall has power generation branches in the core markets Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, and Denmark, and also has operations in Finland. In Germany, Vattenfall is the electric utility for the states of Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Berlin, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, and Saxony. The company entered the British energy market in June 2017, but announced in November 2019 that it is considering to pull out again, citing unfavourable market conditions including strong competition and government-imposed price controls. Generation As of 2019, renewables accounted for 35% of the firm's total generation capacity, including wind, solar and hydro power. Some of Vattenfall's most notable power generation plants include the 110 MW Lillgrund Wind Farm off the coast of Malmö, Sweden, the world's largest offshore wind farm of that time at Thanet, UK, the nuclear reactors Brunsbüttel Nuclear Power Plant (67% ownership), Krümmel Nuclear Power Plant (50% ownership), Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant (20% ownership) in Germany, and the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant and Ringhals Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden. The nuclear power stations of Brunsbüttel and Krümmel have been shut down permanently in response to a governmental order in summer 2011 after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Vattenfall also operates biomass and other power plants in Germany and the Netherlands. Exit from German lignite coal Until 2016, Vattenfall owned several open pit coal mines digging up lignite for Vattenfall lignite power stations, including the Jänschwalde Power Station, the Boxberg Power Station, the Lippendorf Power Station (owned in part) and the Schwarze Pumpe Power Station. In 2014, Vattenfall had a lignite turnover of €2.3 billion and a profit of €647 million, but later lost money on lignite as power prices decreased from 40 to 20 €/MWh. On 30September 2016, Vattenfall completed the sale of its German lignite facilities to the Czech energy group EPH and its financial partner PPF Investments. Nuclear generation In January 2016, Vattenfall announced that its Swedish nuclear power plants, including the newer reactors, were operating at a loss due to low electricity prices and Sweden's nuclear output tax. It warned that if it was forced to shut the plants down, there would be serious consequences to Sweden's electricity supply, and argued that the nuclear output tax should be scrapped. In October 2016 Vattenfall began litigation against the German government for its 2011 decision to accelerate the phase-out of nuclear power. Hearings are taking place at the World Bank's International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in Washington, D.C. and Vattenfall is claiming almost €4.7billion in damages. The German government regards the action as "inadmissible and unfounded". Carbon intensity Distribution Vattenfall dominates the electrical distribution in 60 municipalities in Sweden. Other mayor grid companies include Ellevio (formerly Fortum) and E.ON. Car seatbelt The development of the safety belt is often incorrectly credited to Saab or Volvo. Fatal car accidents were rapidly increasing in Sweden during the 1950s. When a study at Vattenfall of accidents among employees revealed that the majority of casualties came from car accidents, two Vattenfall engineers (Bengt Odelgard and Per-Olof Weman) started to develop the safety belt. Their work set the standard for safety belts in Swedish cars and was presented to Volvo in the late 1950s. Criticism Vattenfall's past expansion strategy has involved the acquisition of multiple brown coal (lignite)-fired power plants, which has been highly controversial in Sweden and Germany due to the fact that brown coal is among the most carbon-intensive forms of electricity generation. In addition, brown coal is strip mined in a process that sometimes forces communities to relocate as mining fields expand. Vattenfall sold its brown coal assets in September 2016 to Czech investor EPH . In May 2009, campaign group Corporate Europe Observatory (CEO) launched the Climate Greenwash Awards, declaring Vattenfall the inaugural winner for portraying itself as a climate champion while lobbying to continue business as usual. Vattenfall owns (or has owned) four of the "dirty thirty" most polluting power stations in Europe, a list compiled by WWF and other organizations. A fire in the transformer of the nuclear power plant Krümmel (partly owned with E.ON) in 2007 forced a closure of the power plant for over two years, while a short circuit in July 2009 in another transformer led to another closure. Due to these incidents the Prime Minister of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, Peter Harry Carstensen announced that this will be letzter Versuch (their last try) before complete closure of the facility. Vattenfall has been accused of skirting the line of illegality in its effort to maintain ownership of electrical power grids. Most recently, Vattenfall's efforts to maintain ownership of Hamburg's power grid by lobbying the ruling SPD have drawn criticism. In Germany, the Berlin Energy Table (Berliner Energietisch) alliance united a number of NGOs and local groups initiating a Referendum on the recommunalization of energy supply in Berlin. The referendum took place on November 3, 2013, yet slightly missed the quorum. However, the Senate of Berlin promised to match the citizens' initiative's key claim, regardless of the referendum's outcome: to transfer all end-user operations, which were owned by Vattenfall at the time, to a public utility company. The company was founded in 2014 as "Berliner Stadtwerke." See also Svenska kraftnät European Transmission System Operators List of government enterprises of Sweden List of Swedish companies Scotland-Norway interconnector Vattenfall Cyclassics – a cycle race in Hamburg References External links Yahoo - Vattenfall AB Company Profile at Yahoo! Biq Location Development and Real Estate Services - Management and marketing of industrial space, subsidiary of Vattenfall Europe AG RWE, E.ON and Vattenfall top the list of European CO2 emitters in 2008 Vattenfall demands $6 billion in compensation from Germany. 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206410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20%28bird%29	Rail (bird)	The rails, or Rallidae, are a large cosmopolitan family of small- to medium-sized, ground-living birds. The family exhibits considerable diversity and includes the crakes, coots, and gallinules. Many species are associated with wetlands, although the family is found in every terrestrial habitat except dry deserts, polar regions, and alpine areas above the snow line. Members of the Rallidae occur on every continent except Antarctica. Numerous island species are known. The most common rail habitats are marshland and dense forest. They are especially fond of dense vegetation. Name "Rail" is the anglicized respelling of the French râle, from Old French rasle. It is named from its harsh cry, in Vulgar Latin *rascula, from Latin rādere ("to scrape"). Morphology The rails are a family of small to medium-sized, ground-living birds. They vary in length from and in weight from . Some species have long necks and in many cases are laterally compressed. The bill is the most variable feature within the family. In some species, it is longer than the head (like the clapper rail of the Americas); in others, it may be short and wide (as in the coots), or massive (as in the purple gallinules). A few coots and gallinules have a frontal shield, which is a fleshy, rearward extension of the upper bill. The most complex frontal shield is found in the horned coot. Rails exhibit very little sexual dimorphism in either plumage or size. Two exceptions are the watercock (Gallicrex cinerea) and the little crake (Zapornia parva). Flight and flightlessness The wings of all rails are short and rounded. The flight of those Rallidae able to fly, while not powerful, can be sustained for long periods of time, and many species migrate annually. The weakness of their flight, however, means they are easily blown off course, thus making them common vagrants, a characteristic that has led them to colonize many isolated oceanic islands. Furthermore, these birds often prefer to run rather than fly, especially in dense habitat. Some are also flightless at some time during their moult periods. Flightlessness in rails is one of the best examples of parallel evolution in the animal kingdom. Of the roughly 150 historically known rail species, 31 extant or recently extinct species evolved flightlessness from volant (flying) ancestors. This process created the endemic populations of flightless rails seen on Pacific islands today. Many island rails are flightless because small island habitats without mammalian predators eliminate the need to fly or move long distances. Flight makes intense demands, with the keel and flight muscles taking up to 40% of a bird's weight. Reducing the flight muscles, with a corresponding lowering of metabolic demands, reduces the flightless rail's energy expenditures. For this reason, flightlessness makes it easier to survive and colonize an island where resources may be limited. This also allows for the evolution of multiple sizes of flightless rails on the same island as the birds diversify to find niches. In addition to energy conservation, certain morphological traits also affect rail evolution. Rails have relatively small flight muscles and wings to begin with. In rails, the flight muscles make up only 12–17% of their overall body mass. This, in combination with their terrestrial habits and behavioral flightlessness, is a significant contributor to the rail's remarkably fast loss of flight; as few as 125,000 years were needed for the Laysan rail to lose the power of flight and evolve the reduced, stubby wings only useful to keep balance when running quickly. Indeed, some argue that measuring the evolution of flightlessness in rails in generations rather than millennia might be possible. Another factor that contributes to the occurrence of the flightless state is a climate that does not necessitate seasonal long-distance migration; this is evidenced by the tendency to evolve flightlessness at a much greater occurrence in tropical islands than in temperate or polar islands. It is paradoxical, since rails appear loath to fly, that the evolution of flightless rails would necessitate high dispersal to isolated islands. Nonetheless, three species of small-massed rails, Gallirallus philippensis, Porphyrio porphyrio, and Porzana tabuensis, exhibit a persistently high ability to disperse long distances among tropic Pacific islands, though only the latter two gave rise to flightless endemic species throughout the Pacific Basin. In examining the phylogeny of G. philippensis, although the species is clearly polyphyletic (it has more than one ancestral species), it is not the ancestor of most of its flightless descendants, revealing that the flightless condition evolved in rails before speciation was complete. A consequence of lowered energy expenditure in flightless island rails has also been associated with evolution of their "tolerance" and "approachability". For example, the (non-Rallidae) Corsican blue tits exhibit lower aggression and reduced territorial defense behaviors than do their mainland European counterparts, but this tolerance may be limited to close relatives. The resulting kin-selecting altruistic phenomena reallocate resources to produce fewer young that are more competitive and would benefit the population as an entirety, rather than many young that would exhibit less fitness. Unfortunately, with the human occupation of most islands in the past 5,000 to 35,000 years, selection has undoubtedly reversed the tolerance into a wariness of humans and predators, causing species unequipped for the change to become susceptible to extinction. Behaviour and ecology In general, members of the Rallidae are omnivorous generalists. Many species eat invertebrates, as well as fruit or seedlings. A few species are primarily herbivorous. The calls of Rallidae species vary and are often quite loud. Some are whistle-like or squeak-like, while others seem unbirdlike. Loud calls are useful in dense vegetation, or at night where seeing another member of the species is difficult. Some calls are territorial. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. Reed beds are a particularly favoured habitat. Those that migrate do so at night. Most nest in dense vegetation. In general, they are shy, secretive, and difficult to observe. Most species walk and run vigorously on strong legs, and have long toes that are well adapted to soft, uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings, and although they are generally weak fliers, they are, nevertheless, capable of covering long distances. Island species often become flightless, and many of them are now extinct following the introduction of terrestrial predators such as cats, foxes, weasels, mongooses, rats, and pigs. Many reedbed species are secretive (apart from loud calls), crepuscular, and have laterally flattened bodies. In the Old World, long-billed species tend to be called rails and short-billed species crakes. North American species are normally called rails irrespective of bill length. The smallest of these is Swinhoe's rail, at and 25 g. The larger species are also sometimes given other names. The black coots are more adapted to open water than their relatives, and some other large species are called gallinules and swamphens. The largest of this group is the takahe, at and . The rails have suffered disproportionally from human changes to the environment, and an estimated several hundred species of island rails have become extinct because of this. Several island species of rails remain endangered, and conservation organisations and governments continue to work to prevent their extinction. Reproduction The breeding behaviors of many Rallidae species are poorly understood or unknown. Most are thought to be monogamous, although polygyny and polyandry have been reported. Most often, they lay five to 10 eggs. Clutches as small as one or as large as 15 eggs are known. Egg clutches may not always hatch at the same time. Chicks become mobile after a few days. They often depend on their parents until fledging, which happens around 1 month old. Rallidae and humans Some larger, more abundant rails are hunted and their eggs collected for food. The Wake Island rail was hunted to extinction by the starving Japanese garrison after the island was cut off from supply during World War II. At least two species, the common moorhen and the American purple gallinule, have been considered pests. Threats and conservation Due to their tendencies towards flightlessness, many island species have been unable to cope with introduced species. The most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as people colonised the islands of Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia, during which an estimated 750–1800 species of birds became extinct, half of which were rails. Some species that came close to extinction, such as the Lord Howe woodhen, and the takahe, have made modest recoveries due to the efforts of conservation organisations. The Guam rail came perilously close to extinction when brown tree snakes were introduced to Guam, but some of the last remaining individuals were taken into captivity and are breeding well, though attempts at reintroduction have met with mixed results. Systematics and evolution The family Rallidae was introduced (as Rallia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. The family has traditionally been grouped with two families of larger birds, the cranes and bustards, as well as several smaller families of usually "primitive" midsized amphibious birds, to make up the order Gruiformes. The alternative Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, which has been widely accepted in America, raises the family to ordinal level as the Ralliformes. Given uncertainty about gruiform monophyly, this may or may not be correct; it certainly seems more justified than most of the Sibley-Ahlquist proposals. However, such a group would probably also include the Heliornithidae (finfoots and sungrebes), an exclusively tropical group that is somewhat convergent with grebes, and usually united with the rails in the Ralli. Extant genera The list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC) contains 152 species divided into 44 genera. For more detail, see List of rail species. Canirallus – grey-throated rail Mustelirallus – ash-throated crake Neocrex – (2 species) Cyanolimnas – Zapata rail Pardirallus (3 species) Amaurolimnas – uniform crake Aramides – wood rails (8 species) Rallus – typical rails (14 species) Crecopsis – African crake Rougetius – Rouget's rail Dryolimnas – (1 living species, 1 recently extinct) Crex – corn crake Aramidopsis – snoring rail Lewinia – (4 species) Habroptila – invisible rail Gallirallus – (2 species) Eulabeornis – chestnut rail Cabalus – (1 living species, 1 recently extinct) Hypotaenidia – Austropacific rails (12 species) Porphyriops – spot-flanked gallinule Porzana – (3 species) Tribonyx – nativehens (2 species) Paragallinula – lesser moorhen Gallinula – moorhens (5 living species, 2 recently extinct) Fulica – coots (10 living species, one recently extinct) Porphyrio – swamphens and purple gallinules (10 living species, 2 recently extinct) Micropygia – ocellated crake Rufirallus – (2 species) Coturnicops – (3 species) Laterallus – (13 species) Zapornia – (10 living species, 5 recently extinct) Rallina – (4 species) Gymnocrex – (3 species) Himantornis – Nkulengu rail Megacrex – New Guinea flightless rail Poliolimnas – white-browed crake Aenigmatolimnas – striped crake Gallicrex – watercock Amaurornis – bush-hens (5 species) Additionally, many prehistoric rails of extant genera are known only from fossil or subfossil remains, such as the Ibiza rail (Rallus eivissensis). These have not been listed here; see the genus accounts and the articles on fossil and Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for these species. Recently extinct genera Mundia – Ascension crake (recently extinct; flightless, single island, lost by early 1800s to introduced cats and rats) Aphanocrex – Saint Helena rail (recently extinct; flightless, single island, lost by 1500s to introduced cats and rats) Diaphorapteryx – Hawkins's rail (recently extinct; flightless, two islands, lost between 1500 and 1700 to overhunting) Aphanapteryx – Red rail (recently extinct; flightless, single island, lost by 1700 to overhunting and introduced pigs, cats and rats) Erythromachus – Rodrigues rail (recently extinct; flightless, single island, lost by 1760 to overhunting, destruction of habitat by tortoise hunters, and introduced cats) Genus Cabalus – Chatham rail and New Caledonian rail (sometimes included in Gallirallus; extinct around 1900) Genus Capellirallus – Snipe-rail (recently extinct; flightless, single island, lost by no later than 1400s to introduced rats) Genus Vitirallus – Viti Levu rail (recently extinct; flightless, single island, lost by no later than early Holocene) Genus Hovacrex – Hova gallinule (recently extinct; flight ability uncertain, single island, lost by no later than Late Pleistocene) The undescribed Fernando de Noronha rail, genus and species undetermined, survived to historic times. The extinct genus Nesotrochis from the Greater Antilles was formerly considered to be a rail, but based on DNA evidence is now known to be an independent lineage of gruiform more closely related to Sarothruridae and adzebills. Fossil record Fossil species of long-extinct prehistoric rails are richly documented from the well-researched formations of Europe and North America, as well from the less comprehensively studied strata elsewhere: Genus Eocrex (Wasatch Early Eocene of Steamboat Springs, USA; Late Eocene – ?Oligocene of Isfara, Tadzhikistan) Genus Palaeorallus (Wasatch Early Eocene of Wyoming, USA) Genus Parvirallus (Early – Middle Eocene of England) Genus Aletornis (Bridger Middle Eocene of Uinta County, USA) – includes Protogrus Genus Fulicaletornis (Bridger Middle Eocene of Henry's Fork, USA) Genus Latipons (Middle Eocene of Lee-on-Solent, England) Genus Ibidopsis (Hordwell Late Eocene of Hordwell, UK) Genus Quercyrallus (Late Eocene -? Late Oligocene of France) Genus Belgirallus (Early Oligocene of WC Europe) Genus Rallicrex (Corbula Middle/Late Oligocene of Kolzsvár, Romania) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Oligocene of Billy-Créchy, France) Genus Palaeoaramides (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene – Late Miocene of France) Genus Rhenanorallus (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of Mainz Basin, Germany) Genus Paraortygometra (Late Oligocene/?Early Miocene -? Middle Miocene of France) – includes Microrallus Genus Australlus (Late Oligocene – Middle Miocene of NW Queensland, Australia) Genus Pararallus (Late Oligocene? – Late Miocene of C Europe) – possibly belongs in Palaeoaramides Genus Litorallus (Early Miocene of New Zealand) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand) Genus Miofulica (Anversian Black Sand Middle Miocene of Antwerp, Belgium) Genus Miorallus (Middle Miocene of Sansan, France -? Late Miocene of Rudabánya, Hungary) Genus Youngornis (Shanwang Middle Miocene of Linqu, China) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Sajóvölgyi Middle Miocene of Mátraszõlõs, Hungary) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of Grive-Saint-Alban, France) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Miocene of Lemoyne Quarry, USA) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. UMMP V55013-55014; UMMP V55012/V45750/V45746 (Rexroad Late Pliocene of Saw Rock Canyon, USA) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. UMMP V29080 (Rexroad Late Pliocene of Fox Canyon, USA) Genus Creccoides (Blanco Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Crosby County, USA) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (Bermuda, West Atlantic) Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. (formerly Fulica podagrica) (Late Pleistocene of Barbados) Genus Pleistorallus (mid-Pleistocene New Zealand). The holotype of Pleistorallus flemingi is in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Doubtfully placed here These taxa may or may not have been rails: Genus Ludiortyx (Late Eocene) – includes "Tringa" hoffmanni, "Palaeortyx" blanchardi, "P." hoffmanni Genus Telecrex (Irdin Manha Late Eocene of Chimney Butte, China) Genus Amitabha (Bridger middle Eocene of Forbidden City, USA) – phasianid? Genus Palaeocrex (Early Oligocene of Trigonias Quarry, USA) Genus Rupelrallus (Early Oligocene of Germany) Neornithes incerta sedis (Late Oligocene of Riversleigh, Australia) Genus Euryonotus (Pleistocene of Argentina) The presumed scolopacid wader Limosa gypsorum (Montmartre Late Eocene of France) is sometimes considered a rail and then placed in the genus Montirallus. See also List of Gruiformes by population References Further reading BirdLife International (BLI) (2007): Wake Island Rail BirdLife Species Factsheet. Retrieved 2007-07-04. Dinkins, Walter (2014): The Rail Bird Hunter's Bible. A History of Rail Bird Hunting in the USA. Virtualbookworm.com Publishing. Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén & Kókay, József (1998–99): Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok, a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból. I. A Mátraszõlõs 1. lelõhely [Middle Miocene fossils from the sections at the Rákóczi chapel at Mátraszőlős. Locality Mátraszõlõs I.]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis 23: 33–78. [Hungarian with English abstract] PDF fulltext Granjon, L., and G. Cheylan (1989): The fate of black rats (rattus-rattus, l) introduced on an island, as revealed by radio-tracking. Comptes Rendus De L Académie des Sciences, Série III Sciences de la Vie 309:571–575. Horsfall, Joseph A. & Robinson, Robert (2003): Rails. In: Perrins, Christopher (ed.): Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Firefly Books. Livezey, B. (2003): Evolution of Flightlessness in Rails (Gruiformes: Rallidae): Phylogenetic, Ecomorphological, and Ontogenetic Perspectives. Ornithological Monographs No. 53. (Book) Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague. PDF fulltext Olson, Storrs L. (1985): Section X.D.2.b. Scolopacidae. In: Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): Avian Biology 8: 174–175. Academic Press, New York. Steadman, David William (2006): Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds. University of Chicago Press. (Full text) Guide, Joe. Rail Bird Hunter's Bible. N.p.: Virtualbookworm.com Publishing, Incorporated, 2014. ISBN 9781621374527 Taylor, Barry., van Perlo, Ber. Rails: A Guide to Rails, Crakes, Gallinules and Coots of the World. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010. ISBN 9781408135372 Australia's Amazing Wildlife. 2009, (Original Publisher: Cornell University). United Kingdom: Bay Books, 1985. 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206413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gibson%20Lockhart	John Gibson Lockhart	John Gibson Lockhart (12 June 1794 – 25 November 1854) was a Scottish writer and editor. He is best known as the author of the seminal, and much-admired, seven-volume biography of his father-in-law Sir Walter Scott: Memoirs of the Life of Sir Walter Scott, Bart Early years Lockhart was born on 12 June 1794 in the manse of Cambusnethan House in Lanarkshire to Dr John Lockhart, who transferred in 1796 to Glasgow, and was appointed minister in the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and his wife Elizabeth (1767-1834), daughter of Margaret Mary Pringle and Reverend John Gibson, minister of St Cuthbert's, Edinburgh. Lockhart attended Glasgow High School, where he showed himself clever rather than industrious. He fell into ill-health, and had to be removed from school before he was 12; but on his recovery he was sent at this early age to the University of Glasgow, and displayed so much precocious learning, especially in Greek, that he was offered a Snell exhibition at Oxford. He was not yet 14 when he entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he acquired a great store of knowledge outside the regular curriculum. He read French, Italian, German and Spanish, was interested in antiquities, and became versed in heraldic and genealogical lore. Blackwood's Magazine and a literary duel In 1813, Lockhart took a first in classics then, for two years after leaving Oxford, lived in Glasgow before settling to the study of Scots law at the University of Edinburgh where, in 1816, he was elected to the Faculty of Advocates. A tour on the continent in 1817, when he visited Goethe at Weimar, was made possible when he was hired by the publisher William Blackwood to translate Friedrich Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Literature. Edinburgh was then the stronghold of the Whig party, whose organ was the Edinburgh Review; and it was not till 1817 that the Scottish Tories found a means of expression in Blackwood's Magazine. After changing its name following a hum-drum launch as the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine, Blackwood's suddenly electrified Edinburgh with an outburst of brilliant criticism. Lockhart (along with John Wilson (Christopher North)), had joined its staff upon his return from Europe in 1817, and contributed to the caustic and aggressive articles that marked the early years of Blackwood's. Lockhart wrote virulent articles on "The Cockney School of Poetry" of Leigh Hunt, Keats and their contemporaries, although he did show appreciation of Coleridge and Wordsworth, and he praised Percy Bysshe Shelley, calling him "a man of genius". One of the main literary organs of the Cockney School was The London Magazine. Its editor, John Scott, felt that Blackwood’s hounding of Keats had contributed to his 1821 death, at age 26. Scott also felt it was his duty to defend his authors against Lockhart and Blackwood’s. To that end, he published an attack of Lockhart and Blackwood’s; Lockhart promptly asked a London friend, Jonathan Henry Christie, to visit Scott and demand an apology. Scott refused; a series of letters were exchanged and the argument evolved into Scott’s insistence that Lockhart admit that he (Lockwood) was, in fact, the anonymous editor of Blackwood’s (it was common practice at the time to act an editor, and/or as a writer, anonymously, or using a pseudonym). According to the papers of Scott’s friend Peter George Patmore, who tried to negotiate a truce and kept a meticulous record of the matter, not only did Lockwood refuse to admit to his editorship, but he responded with "abusive epithets". With both men seeing their honour at stake, there was no going back and, on February 16, 1821, they proceeded with the duel. But Lockhart did not attend; Jonathan Christie stepped into his place with his friend, James Traill, as his second. John Scott was wounded and died ten days later. Christie and Traill were tried for murder. They were acquitted, but Christie’s life was ruined. Lockhart was not blamed. Literary contributions Between 1818 and 1825 Lockhart worked indefatigably. In 1819 Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk appeared, and in 1822 he edited Peter Motteux's edition of Don Quixote, to which he prefixed a life of author Miguel de Cervantes. Four novels followed: Valerius in 1821, Some Passages in the Life of Mr. Adam Blair Minister of Gospel at Cross Meikle in 1822, Reginald Dalton in 1823 and Matthew Wald in 1824. However, his strength did not lie in novel writing. He also contributed to Blackwood translations of Spanish ballads, which in 1823 were published separately. In 1825 Lockhart accepted the editorship of the Quarterly Review, which had been in the hands of Sir John Taylor Coleridge since William Gifford's resignation in 1824. At this time he was living at 25 Northumberland Street in Edinburgh's New Town. In 1825 he sold the house to Andrew and George Combe. As the next heir to the Scotland property belonging to his unmarried half-brother, Milton Lockhart, he was sufficiently independent. In London he had social success, and was recognised as an editor. He contributed largely to the Quarterly Review himself, particularly biographical articles. He showed the old, railing spirit in an article in the Quarterly against Tennyson's Poems of 1833. He continued to write for Blackwood's, producing for Constable's Miscellany Vol. XXIII in 1828 a controversial Life of Robert Burns. Snyder wrote of it, "The best that one can say of it today...is that it occasioned Carlyle's review. It is inexcusably inaccurate from beginning to end, at times demonstrably mendacious, and should never be trusted in any respect or detail." Later works Lockhart undertook the editorial supervision of Murray's Family Library, which he opened in 1829 with a History of Napoleon. However, his major work, and the one for which he is known, is the Life of Sir Walter Scott (7 vols, 1837–1838; 2nd ed., 10 vols., 1839). This biography included the publishing of a great number of Scott's letters. Thomas Carlyle assessed it in a criticism contributed to the London and Westminster Review (1837). Lockhart's account of the business transactions between Scott and the Ballantynes and Constable caused an outcry; and in the discussion that followed he showed bitterness in his pamphlet The Ballantyne Humbug handled. The Life of Scott has been called, after Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, the most admirable biography in the English language. The proceeds, which were considerable, Lockhart resigned for the benefit of Scott's creditors. Family and final years In 1818, Lockhart met Sir Walter Scott, who introduced him to his family. Lockhart married Scott's eldest daughter Sophia in April 1820. It was a happy marriage, with winters spent in Edinburgh and summers at Chiefswood, a cottage on Scott's Abbotsford estate, where the Lockhart's first child John Hugh ‘Johnnie’ was born. John Hugh was born with spina bifida and spent much of his time with his grandfather, listening to Scott’s stories about Scottish history, hence Scott’s book, Tales of a Grandfather. Johnnie died in 1831, at age eleven. A baby girl born to the Lockharts died soon after birth. Sir Walter died in 1832; Sophia died suddenly in 1837, at age 38. Lockhart struggled with the loss of his parents and sister. His third child was Walter Scott Lockhart, who became an army officer, but fell into a bad company, ruined his health, and died in his father’s arms in January 1853 at the age of 26. Lockhart became seriously depressed, almost starving himself to death. He resigned his editorship of the Quarterly Review and spent some time in Italy, but returned without recovering his health. He moved back to Scotland to live with his only surviving child Charlotte, who was settled at Abbotsford with her husband James Hope-Scott. The two had converted to Catholicism, which made for an uncomfortable atmosphere in the home (Charlotte would die in childbirth in 1858, at age 30). Lockhart died a few weeks after his arrival at Abbotsford, on November 25, 1854. He was buried at Dryburgh Abbey, beside his son and father-in-law. His obituary in The Times, dated December 9, 1854, included the paragraph “Endowed with the very highest order of manly beauty, both of features and expression, he retained the brilliancy of youth and a stately strength of person comparatively unimpaired in ripened life; and then, though sorrow and sickness suddenly brought on a premature old age which none could witness unmoved, yet the beauty of the head and of the bearing so far gained in melancholy loftiness of expression what they lost in animation, that the last phase, whether to the eye of painter or of anxious friend, seemed always the finest.” Freemasonry Like his father-in-law he was a Freemason although he was initiated in a different Edinburgh Lodge – Lodge Canongate Kilwinning, No. 2, on 26 January 1826. Legacy Robert Scott Lauder painted two portraits of Lockhart, one of him alone, and the other with Charlotte Scott. The composer Hubert Parry set one of Lockhart's poems to music, "There is an old belief", as part of his collection of six choral motets, Songs of Farewell. The pieces were first performed at a concert at the Royal College of Music on 22 May 1916. The song/poem was later sung at the composer's funeral in St Paul's Cathedral on 23 February 1919. References Andrew Lang, The Life of J. G. Lockhart, 2 vols., London and New York, 1897 Alfred William Pollard, The Life of Scott, 1900 External links Portrait, with wife (daughter of Walter Scott), by Robert Scott Lauder at the National Gallery of Scotland Photograph of John Gibson Lockhart at National Galleries of Scotland Lodge Canongate Kilwinning, No. 2. (Edinburgh) 1794 births 1854 deaths People from North Lanarkshire Members of the Faculty of Advocates Scottish editors Scottish Freemasons Scottish translators 19th-century Scottish novelists 19th-century Scottish writers Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Glasgow Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Scottish biographers People educated at the High School of Glasgow 19th-century British translators Scott family of Abbotsford	[ -0.03095361404120922, 0.6059545874595642, -0.8563385009765625, -0.641899824142456, 0.33801528811454773, 0.8642528057098389, 0.8809412121772766, 0.2311968058347702, -0.053061261773109436, -0.2626403570175171, -0.3911840319633484, -0.12103885412216187, -0.5509649515151978, 0.4768710732460022, 0.05738777667284012, 0.22830091416835785, -0.47429317235946655, -0.16169892251491547, -0.6903973817825317, -0.14001818001270294, -0.3803175091743469, -0.4058070480823517, 0.3029543161392212, 0.08854367583990097, -0.17831537127494812, 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206416	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald%20Constable	Archibald Constable	Archibald David Constable (24 February 1774 – 21 July 1827) was a Scottish publisher, bookseller and stationer. Life Constable was born at Carnbee, Fife, son of the land steward to the Earl of Kellie. In 1788 Archibald was apprenticed to Peter Hill, an Edinburgh bookseller, but in 1795 he started in business for himself as a dealer in rare books. He bought the Scots Magazine in 1801, and John Leyden, the orientalist, became its editor. In 1800 Constable began the Farmer's Magazine, and in November 1802 he issued the first number of the Edinburgh Review, under the nominal editorship of Sydney Smith; Lord Jeffrey, was, however, the guiding spirit of the review, having as his associates Lord Brougham, Sir Walter Scott, Henry Hallam, John Playfair and afterwards Lord Macaulay. Constable made a new departure in publishing by the generosity of his terms to authors. Writers for the Edinburgh Review were paid at an unprecedented rate, and Constable offered Scott 1000 guineas in advance for Marmion. In 1804 A.G. Hunter joined Constable as partner, bringing considerable capital into the firm, styled from that time Archibald Constable & Co. In 1805, jointly with Longman & Co., Constable published Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel, and in 1807 Marmion. He also published four of James Hogg's books, The Mountain Bard (1807), The Shepherd's Guide (1807), The Forest Minstrel (1810) and Poetical Works (1822). In 1808 a split took place between Constable and Sir Walter Scott, who transferred his business to the publishing firm of John Ballantyne & Co., for which he supplied most of the capital. In 1813, however, a reconciliation took place. Ballantyne was in difficulties, and Constable again became Scott's publisher, a condition being that the firm of John Ballantyne & Co. should be wound up at an early date, though Scott retained his interest in the printing business of James Ballantyne & Co. In 1808 he served as Moderator of the High Constables of Edinburgh. In 1812 Constable, who had admitted Robert Cathcart and Robert Cadell as partners on Hunter's retirement, purchased the copyright of the Encyclopædia Britannica, adding the supplement (6 vols, 1816-1824) to the 4th, 5th and 6th editions. In 1814 he bought the copyright of Waverley. This was issued anonymously; but in a short time 12,000 copies were disposed of, Scott's other novels following in quick succession. The firm also published the Annual Register. Through over-speculation, complications arose, and in 1826 a crash came. Constable's London agents stopped payment, and he failed for over £250,000, while James Ballantyne & Co. also went bankrupt for nearly £90,000. Sir Walter Scott was affected by the failure of both firms. Constable started business afresh, and began in 1827 Constable's Miscellany of Original and Selected Works consisting of a series of original works, and of standard books republished in a cheap form, thus making one of the earliest and most famous attempts to popularize high-quality literature. Constable died at home, 3 Park Place in Edinburgh, on 21 July 1827, but his firm survived, and the Constable publishing business continued in the twentieth century, issuing a wide range of fiction and non-fiction books. It continues today as Constable & Robinson. Park Place was a small square north of George Square which was demolished later in the 19th century to build the new medical buildings for Edinburgh University. Family Constable was married to Mary Willison. They lived in Craigcrook House in western Edinburgh. Among their children were a son, Thomas, and a daughter, Elizabeth. Their son, Thomas Constable FRSE (1812-1881) took over his printing business on his father's death. In 1839 he was appointed printer and publisher in Edinburgh to Queen Victoria, and issued, among other notable series, Constable's Educational Series, and Constable's Foreign Miscellany. Thomas married Lucia Anne Cowan, daughter of Alexander Cowan, an Edinburgh paper-maker (who clearly would have had business links with a major publishing firm such as Constables). They lived at 11 Thistle Street in Edinburgh's First New Town. Their son was also Archibald David Constable FRSE LLD (1843-1915), named after his grandfather, and followed in the family tradition as a printer. In 1865 he became a partner in the firm, and when Thomas retired in 1893 the firm continued under the name of T. & A. Constable. Their daughter, Elizabeth Constable (d.1818) married his junior publishing partner, Robert Cadell of Ratho. Publications In Fiction The character John Paterson ('the Bishop') in John Paterson's Mare, James Hogg's allegorical satire on the Edinburgh publishing scene first published in the Newcastle Magazine in 1825, is based on Archibald Constable. See also Archibald Fullarton George Washington Bacon Moubray House Notes References Attribution: Further reading Published by Constable & Co. 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206418	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Ward	Mary Ward	Mary Ward may refer to: Scientists and academics Mary Alice Ward (1896–1972), Australian teacher and pastoralist Mary Ward (scientist) (née King, 1827–1869) Irish amateur scientist, was killed by an experimental steam car Mary Ward (nurse) (1884–1972) English nurse to the boat people on the waterways Writers Mary Augusta Ward (1851–1920), British activist and novelist, known by her married name of Mrs Humphry Ward Mary Ward Centre, an adult education college located in London named for the above Mary Augusta Ward Mary Jane Ward (1905–1981), American novelist Mary Ward (suffragist) (1851–1933) Irish-born Cambridge based Women's activist. lecturer and writer Entertainers Mary Ward (actress) (1915–2021), Australian actress and radio broadcaster Mary Mae Ward, a fictional character on the American ABC TV serial General Hospital, played by Rosalind Cash Other Mary Ward (nun) (1585-1645), English Catholic nun who founded the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary Mary Ward Catholic Secondary School, an educational college in Scarborough, Canada, named for the English Catholic nun Mary Ward (ship), a passenger and cargo steamer built in Montreal, Canada in 1865, wrecked in a storm in 1872 Ward, Mary	[ 0.2934507727622986, 0.5087286829948425, -0.6105660796165466, -0.1848597377538681, -0.436452716588974, 1.1055281162261963, 0.8508148789405823, -0.5119113922119141, -0.510683000087738, -0.23151895403862, -0.09093251079320908, -0.14029179513454437, 0.2448810636997223, 0.8094573616981506, 0.05902416631579399, 0.2615152597427368, -0.10729929059743881, 0.16998301446437836, -0.5283290147781372, -0.14722765982151031, -0.24251437187194824, -0.0872381255030632, 0.4938306510448456, 0.02355838753283024, -0.050431638956069946, 0.06613349169492722, 0.44261816143989563, -0.3618830442428589, 0.28185319900512695, 0.13591693341732025, 0.33358442783355713, 0.013768565841019154, 0.639460027217865, 0.014397479593753815, 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206419	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitas%20AB	Securitas AB	Securitas AB is a security services (security guarding and mobile patrolling), monitoring, consulting and investigation group, based in Stockholm, Sweden. The group has over 300,000 employees in 53 countries worldwide. Securitas AB is listed at Nasdaq OMX Stockholm, Large Cap segment. Securitas AB owns and operates the Swiss security company Protectas AG in Switzerland, where there already existed a security company called Securitas AG, part of the Swiss Securitas Group. It is also the parent company of the Pinkerton Detective Agency. History Securitas AB was founded in 1934 in Helsingborg, Sweden, as AB Hälsingborgs Nattvakt, when Erik Philip-Sörensen bought a small guarding company. In 1935, the name was changed to Förenade Svenska Vakt AB. The company expanded through acquisitions of several small security companies, initially in southern Sweden. In 1949, AB Securitas Alarm was founded as the company's security technology subsidiary, and during the following decade, the company started expanding internationally. In 1972, the group was rebranded as Securitas, the Roman goddess of security and stability, with a logotype consisting of three red dots and the word "Securitas." The dots are described as representing the group's core values of "Integrity, Vigilance and Helpfulness." In 1976, Erik Philip-Sörensen sold the Securitas group to his sons Jörgen Philip-Sörensen and Sven Philip-Sörensen, and in 1981, the group was divided between the sons, with the international operations developing into Group 4 and the Swedish operations retaining the Securitas brand. In 1983, Securitas was sold to the holding company Skrinet, and in 1985, it was acquired by Investment AB Latour, controlled by Gustaf Douglas. Under the new ownership, the group focused on security, and in 1989, an international expansion began, with acquisitions in Norway, Denmark and Portugal, and establishment in Hungary. In 1991, Securitas was listed at the Stockholm Stock Exchange. In 1994, the group distributed ASSA AB (acquired in 1988) to its shareholders. Throughout the 1990s, foreign acquisitions were made in eleven European countries and in the United States. In February 1999, Securitas acquired Pinkerton, and in August 2000, Burns Security, and several regional security companies in the United States. These acquisitions made Securitas one of the largest security companies in the world. In 2001, a new organization took effect, with five business areas according to types of services offered, and Loomis Fargo & Company was acquired. In 2003, the group's security services in the United States were integrated under the Securitas brand, and the group's cash handling services were completely divisionalized, with a joint management for United States and European operations. In 2006, the divisions Securitas Systems (alarm, monitoring, and access control systems), and Securitas Direct (solutions for homes and small businesses) were distributed to the group's shareholders and listed at the Stockholm Stock Exchange. In the same year, the divisions Mobile (small and medium-sized customers), and Alert Services (electronic surveillance of homes and businesses) were created (as of 2007 constituting the business segment Mobile and Monitoring). Securitas Direct was later renamed to Verisure in all countries except Spain and Portugal. In November 2007, the United Kingdom cash handling services of the division Loomis were sold to Vaultex Ltd, owned by HSBC and Barclays. Securitas began operating in Peru in November 2007. In 2008, the division Loomis (cash handling) was distributed to the group's shareholders and listed at Nasdaq OMX Stockholm. In September 2010, Securitas acquired the security-services operations of Reliance Security Group in the United Kingdom. In November 2011, Securitas acquired Chubb Security Personnel in the United Kingdom. In 2013, Securitas acquired Pinkerton Government Services, which provides cleared security services to governmental agencies and programs that require a Department of Defense or Department of Energy security clearance. This government services division of Securitas became known as Securitas Critical Infrastructure Services. This division operates both in the United States and worldwide when cleared services are needed overseas. In October 2015, Securitas acquired Diebold Incorporated's (NYSE-DBD) Electronic Security business in North America. Diebold's North American Electronic Security business, based in Green, Ohio, United States, is the third largest commercial electronic security provider in North America. Diebold's North American Electronic Security business has approximately 1,100 employees. The operation includes more than 55,000 monitored customer locations and 200,000 sites serviced. Operations Securitas is divided into three main business segments, "Security Services North America," "Security Services Europe," and "Security Services Ibero-America." Operations outside of the Americas and Europe are reported in a separate category called "Other," which also includes central expenses. In general, the group operates under the brand Securitas for all business segments. However, sales to consumers are made under the Verisure brand in all countries except Spain and Portugal. Specialized services including due diligence, background checks, security assessments, brand protection, intellectual property protection, executive protection, investigations, cyber surveillance, computer forensics, social compliance and IT security are performed worldwide under the brand "Pinkerton." These operations are reported as part of the North American business segment. There are three operations centers in North America: Toronto, Ontario, Parsippany, New Jersey and Westlake Village, California. The Swiss market is an exception to the name, in that general security services are provided under the brand Protectas. Market For guarding and mobile security services in 2009, Securitas had a global market share of 11 percent and the following regional market shares: As of 2012, Securitas was present in the following 53 countries and territories: Argentina, Austria, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China (with Hong Kong), Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Jordan, Latvia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland (under the brand Protectas), Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Vietnam. Key people Magnus Ahlqvist (born 1974) is president and CEO of Securitas since 2018. As of the annual general meeting 2020, Securitas had the following board of directors: Ownership , according to Euroclear AB, these were the 10 largest shareholders of Securitas: See also Loomis for robberies committed against Loomis while it was a division of Securitas Securitas depot robbery for the events of 2006 affecting the United Kingdom cash handling operations of the Loomis division of Securitas, at the time operating under the Securitas brand, and in 2007, sold to HSBC and Barclays References External links Securitas Epay Companies based in Stockholm Security companies of Canada Security companies of Singapore Security companies of Sweden Security companies of the United States Business services companies established in 1934 Swedish companies established in 1934 Swedish brands Companies listed on Nasdaq Stockholm Corporate groups 1991 initial public offerings	[ 0.34600427746772766, 0.3258315920829773, 0.24831423163414001, 0.39407622814178467, 0.131491020321846, 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206422	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skanska	Skanska	Skanska AB () is a multinational construction and development company based in Sweden. Skanska is the fifth largest construction company in the world according to Construction Global magazine. Notable Skanska projects include renovation of the United Nations Headquarters, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub project, Moynihan Train Hall, 30 St Mary Axe, MetLife Stadium, Mater Dei Hospital, among others. History Aktiebolaget Skånska Cementgjuteriet (Scanian Cement Casting Ltd) was established in Malmö, Sweden, in 1887 by Rudolf Fredrik Berg and started by manufacturing concrete products. It quickly diversified into a construction company and within ten years the company received its first international order. The company played an important role in building Sweden's infrastructure including its roads, power plants, offices and housing. Growth in Sweden was followed by international expansion. In the mid-1950s Skånska Cementgjuteriet made a major move into international markets. During the next decades it entered South America, Africa and Asia, and in 1971 the United States market, where it today ranks among the largest in its sector. The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange A-list in 1965. In 1984 the name "Skanska," already in general use internationally, became the group's official name. During the latter part of the 1990s, Skanska expanded substantially both organically and by acquisition. In August 2000 it bought the construction division of Kvaerner. In mid-2004, Skanska decided to divest its Asian investments and sold its Indian subsidiary to the Thailand based construction firm Italian Thai Development Company. In 2011, Skanska acquired Industrial Contractors, Inc of Evansville, Indiana, United States. Operations Skanska divides its operations into four business streams: Construction is the largest business stream by revenue and number of employees. The operations of the other business streams involve investments in projects that are developed and later divested. With regard to infrastructure development, this often involves public–private partnerships (PPP). Geographically, the group operates based on local business units. Environment Skanska was the No. 1 "Green Builder" in the United States in 2007 and was ranked No. 3 "Green Contractor" in the United States 2008. In 2011, Skanska was ranked the greenest company in the United Kingdom, despite belonging to an industry with a generally high environmental impact. In 2014, Skanska won the Financial Times and ArcelorMittal "Boldness in Business Award" in the category "corporate responsibility/environment." The Financial Times described Skanska in 2014 as aiming to be the "greenest contractor in the world," while having 57,000 employees, 100,000 suppliers and 250,000 subcontractors, who deliver more than 10,000 projects annually. An official vision stated by Skanska is "the five zeros": zero loss-making projects, work site accidents, environmental incidents, ethical breaches and defects. In the United Kingdom, Skanska has founded the "Supply Chain Sustainability School," an e-learning initiative, in order to educate construction suppliers on sustainability. As suppliers are frequently shared between construction companies, the school is managed in partnership with several competitors. In July 2013, Skanska withdrew from the United States Chamber of Commerce, in protest of the chamber's opposition to reformed LEED standards for sustainable buildings. Skanska was the first company in the industry to implement the ISO 14000 standards globally, with all its business units having been certified according to ISO 14001 since 2000, and it was the first Scandinavian company to have an independent global whistleblowing hotline. Market As of March 2015, Skanska was focused on the following selected markets: Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark in the Nordic region Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom in the rest of Europe The United States and North America Skanska is in the process of exiting its operations in Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela. Skanska will cease to accept new projects in the Latin American market and will divest its operation and maintenance units there. Skanska is active in construction, commercial property development (office buildings, shopping centers and logistics properties) and infrastructure development (roads, hospitals and schools) in all of its three market regions. The company plans, develops and builds homes in the Nordic region and in the rest of Europe. In 2013, Skanska was ranked the 9th largest contractor in the world, and in 2014, the 7th largest contractor in the United States. During the rolling 12-month-period ending in September 2014, Skanska was the largest construction company by total revenue in the Nordic countries. The six largest ones were: Major projects Europe Major projects have included the Øresund Bridge which forms part of the road and railway connection between Sweden and Denmark, completed in 2000, the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, London, completed in 2001, the Golden Jubilee wing at King's College Hospital, completed in 2002, 30 St Mary Axe in London, completed in 2004, MoD Main Building completing refurbishment in 2004, the University Hospital Coventry, completed in 2006, the Mater Dei Hospital in Malta, completed in 2007, the Royal Derby Hospital, completed in 2010, Walsall Manor Hospital completed in 2010, the Heron Tower, completed in 2011, King's Mill Hospital in Ashfield, completed in 2011, Brent Civic Centre, completed in 2013, new facilities for the Royal London Hospital, completed in 2015 and the redevelopment of St Bartholomew's Hospital, completed in 2016. Skanska is also involved in HS2 lots S1 and S2, working as part of a joint venture, due to complete in 2031. United States Major projects in the United States include the MetLife Stadium (home to the Giants and the Jets NFL franchises), completed in 2010. In 2010, Skanska was awarded a $115 million (SEK840 million) contract by the Washington State Department of Transportation for construction of a new State Route 99 roadway in downtown Seattle, Washington, part of the project to replace the Alaskan Way Viaduct. Skanska has also developed several commercial and residential buildings in Seattle region, including the upcoming 2&U high-rise office building in downtown Seattle. Other major projects include the renovation of, and addition to, the headquarters of the United Nations, completed in 2014, the restoration of the World Trade Center site including the removal of debris, the reconstruction of the Port Authority Trans-Hudson and New York City Subway tunnels, and the creation of a World Trade Center Transportation Hub, completed in 2015 (including the "Oculus" station entrance designed by Santiago Calatrava), the Second Avenue Subway tunneling project completed in 2016 and Moynihan Train Hall completed in 2020. Skanska is also part of a joint venture on The Sixth Street Viaduct Replacement Project with Stacy and Witbeck, due to complete in 2020. Awards and recognition Skanska USA CEO and president, Richard Kennedy, was named in the Construction Dive Awards Executive of the Year in 2019. Skanska was also recognized for its membership in the Predictive Analytics Strategic Council, which Construction Dive named its 2019 Innovator of the Year. Controversies In 1996 Skanska was entrusted with the building of a "state-of-the-art" general hospital, Mater Dei Hospital, costing over €700,000,000 in Malta. Later, however, it was discovered that Skanska had used lower-quality cement of the kind that is generally used to build pavements. As a result, the hospital could not develop further floors or build a helipad on the roof. The company had limited liability within the contract. In 2005, Skanska was awarded a large natural gas pipeline contract in Argentina. In 2007, the company was implicated in reports of bribery involving illegal payments to government officials relating to the project award. Six former Skanska managers plus a former consultant were arrested for tax evasion. Skanska performed its own investigation, dismissing seven staff, and worked closely with the authorities concerning the inquiry. Later bribery allegations related to a pipeline for Petrobras in Brazil, prompting Skanska to be barred from bidding for work for two years by the Brazilian government, and to withdraw completely from operations in South America. Skanska-owned UK business Kværner/Trafalgar House Plc was involved with the UK's Consulting Association, exposed in 2009 for operating an illegal construction industry blacklist; Skanska was reported to be the industry's most prolific user of the Consulting Association's services, spending over £28,000 on top of a £3,000 annual subscription. Later, Skanska was among eight businesses who launched the Construction Workers Compensation Scheme in 2014, condemned as a "PR stunt" by the GMB union, and described by the Scottish Affairs Select Committee as "an act of bad faith". In December 2017, union Unite announced it had issued high court proceedings against four former chairmen of the Consulting Association, included Skanska's former director of industrial relations, Stephen Quant, alleging breach of privacy, defamation and Data Protection Act offences. Unite also said it was taking action against 12 major contractors including Skanska. In December 2013 the Supreme Court of the Slovak Republic confirmed that Skanska DS a.s. participated in a bid rigging cartel of construction companies (together with companies of Strabag group and Mota-Engil group) in 2004. Illegal conduct was associated with the tender for the execution of works for the construction of the D1 highway from Mengusovce to Jánovce in eastern Slovakia. On September 16, 2020 Skanska failed to secure 20 barges at and around their 3-Mile Bridge job site in Pensacola Bay ahead of the impending Hurricane Sally. Numerous barges made contact with the newly constructed bridge destroying large segments of it, leaving the bridge impassable and unsafe to drive on. This bridge is a crucial economic artery for the Pensacola-Gulf Breeze area; over 55,000 vehicles use the bridge daily. The inability for many individuals to commute to their jobs, homes, and businesses have had a detrimental impact on the area. Among the rogue barges, many washed ashore in residents yards and on roadways. As of September the 22nd, Skanska has failed to address the disaster with the public. See also Road to the Greenland Ice Sheet Sandahlsbolagen References External links Construction and civil engineering companies of Sweden Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1887 21st-century controversies Companies based in Stockholm Companies listed on Nasdaq Stockholm Swedish companies established in 1887	[ 0.39707621932029724, 0.2886028289794922, 0.04556036740541458, -0.1313847303390503, -0.23242224752902985, 0.3599422872066498, 0.016075143590569496, -0.08741932362318039, -0.7651811242103577, 0.26002374291419983, 0.09857194870710373, -0.6567880511283875, -0.046164724975824356, 0.5649778246879578, -0.33679842948913574, 0.330049604177475, 0.564382791519165, 0.8870614171028137, 0.14145486056804657, -0.42071741819381714, -0.06163884326815605, 0.34791281819343567, 1.1032778024673462, -0.11824173480272293, 0.5472878813743591, -0.35851067304611206, -0.16616545617580414, 0.02858259528875351, 0.1723327487707138, 0.2888941168785095, 0.005155302584171295, 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