id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
list |
|---|---|---|---|---|
205895
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vermont%20%28BB-20%29
|
USS Vermont (BB-20)
|
USS Vermont (BB-20), a , was the second ship of the United States Navy named after the 14th state. She was the third member of the class, which included five other ships. The Connecticut-class ships were armed with a main battery of four guns and had a top speed of . Vermont was laid down in May 1904 at the Fore River shipyard and launched in August 1905. The ship entered service with the Atlantic Fleet in March 1907.
Shortly after she entered service, Vermont joined the Great White Fleet for its circumnavigation of the globe in 1908–1909. She took part in the international Hudson–Fulton Celebration in New York in 1909 and made trips to Europe in 1910 and 1913. Thereafter, the ship became involved in interventions in several Central American countries, including the United States occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution, where two of her crew earned the Medal of Honor. During the United States' participation in World War I from April 1917 to November 1918, Vermont served as a training ship for engine room personnel. From November 1918 to June 1919, she made a series of trips to return American soldiers from Europe before being decommissioned in June 1920. She was sold for scrap in November 1923 according to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. Her bell currently resides at the Vermont State Capitol in Montpelier, VT.
Design
The followed the s, but corrected some of the most significant deficiencies in the earlier design, most notably the superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns. A heavier tertiary battery of guns replaced the guns that had been used on all previous US designs. Despite the improvements, the ships were rendered obsolescent by the revolutionary British battleship , completed before most of the members of the Connecticut class.
Vermont was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at , with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers ducted into three funnels. The propulsion system generated a top speed of . As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909. She had a crew of 827 officers and men, though this increased to 881 and later to 896.
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch /45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight /45 guns and twelve /45 guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twenty /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. She also carried four 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Vermont carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside.
Vermonts main armored belt was thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had the of armor plating. The secondary turrets had of frontal armor. The conning tower had thick sides.
Service history
Construction and the Great White Fleet
The keel for Vermont was laid down on 21 May 1904 at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts. The completed hull was launched on 31 August 1905, with the christening performed by Jennie Bell, the daughter of Charles J. Bell, the governor of the ship's namesake state. On 4 March 1907, Vermont was commissioned into the US Navy at the Boston Navy Yard, with Captain William P. Potter as her first commanding officer. The ship then embarked on a shakedown cruise from Boston to Hampton Roads, Virginia. She then joined the 1st Division of the Atlantic Fleet for training exercises. Vermont left Hampton Roads on 30 August, bound for Provincetown. She stayed there until 5 September before returning to the Boston Navy Yard two days later for repairs that lasted until November.
On 30 November, the ship left Boston to begin preparations to join the world cruise of the Great White Fleet. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression.
Her first two stops were in Rhode Island; she took on coal in Bradford before moving to Newport, where she loaded stores. She then steamed to Tompkinsville, New York, to receive her full stock of ammunition. The ship arrived in Hampton Roads on 8 December, where she joined the rest of the Great White Fleet, which was commanded by Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans. Vermont and fifteen other battleships began their voyage on 16 December. The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland.
After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled . There, they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt. During the cruise, Captain Potter was promoted to rear admiral and advanced to the 1st Division commander; his place as Vermonts commander was taken by Captain Frank Friday Fletcher.
Peacetime service, 1909–1913
Vermont returned to the Boston Navy Yard for repairs after the ceremonies at Hampton Roads concluded; the work lasted from 9 March to 23 June. She then rejoined the fleet off Provincetown; the 1st Division made a trip to Boston for the 4th of July celebration there. Starting on 7 July, the Atlantic Fleet conducted extensive maneuvers until 4 August. Vermont then took part in gunnery training off the Virginia Capes. Additional training exercises followed through the end of the year, interrupted only by visits to New York City and to Stamford, Connecticut, for the Hudson–Fulton Celebration and Columbus Day, respectively. In late December, she was back in New York City. Vermont then steamed south to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, which she reached on 12 January 1910. Two months of exercises there followed before gunnery training off the Virginia Capes. The ship was back in Boston on 29 April for repairs that lasted until mid-July. After returning to service, she took on a contingent of Naval Militia at Boston for a cruise to Provincetown from 22 to 31 July.
Vermont then steamed to Newport before proceeding to Hampton Roads no 22 August where more target practice followed from 25 to 27 September. She and several other ships from the Atlantic Fleet then visited New York before some minor repairs were effected at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. By this time, the ship had been transferred to the 3rd Division. On 1 November, Vermont and several other ships of the Atlantic Fleet crossed the Atlantic for a visit of several western European ports, including Gravesend from 16 November to 7 December and Brest. The ships left Brest on 30 December to recross the Atlantic, bound for Cuban waters. From 13 January 1911 to 13 March, Vermont and the rest of the ships conducted maneuvers off Cuba. Further exercises followed off the Virginia Capes and in the Chesapeake Bay. A brief stop at Hampton Roads, where she carried target materials, followed on 8 April, though she left later that day for another period in the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs.
In mid-1911, Vermont cruised south the Gulf of Mexico, stopping first in Pensacola, Florida. She then continued to Galveston, Texas, stopping there from 7 to 12 June, before returning to Pensacola the following day. The ship returned to the Atlantic and steamed north to Bar Harbor, Maine; she was present there for the 4th of July celebrations, after which the typical routine of training with the Atlantic Fleet off Provincetown and in Cape Cod Bay followed. She remained off New England through mid-August. During this period, she visited Salem, Massachusetts, and underwent repairs at the Boston Navy Yard. Later in the year, she moved south to Tangier Sound and the Virginia Capes for gunnery experiments and target practice. From 12 September to 9 October, Vermont was in the Norfolk Navy Yard for repairs, after which she steamed to Hampton Roads before proceeding with the fleet to New York City for a Naval Review that lasted from 24 October to 2 November. After the conclusion of the review, she joined the 1st Squadron for maneuvers and then returned to Hampton Roads.
Vermont stopped in Tompkinsville on 7–8 December before continuing to the New York Navy Yard later on the 8th for periodic maintenance. On 2 January 1912, she steamed south to the Caribbean for the annual maneuvers off Cuba. She remained in Cuban waters until 9 March, when she returned to the Norfolk Navy Yard. She underwent a major overhaul there that lasted until October. On the 8th, she steamed to New York City, arriving two days later. A Naval Review followed there from 10 to 15 October, followed by maneuvers and gunnery training off the Virginia Capes through December. On 2 November, she joined the search effort for the stranded steamer , and on 13–15 December she assisted the submarine . Vermont was back in the Norfolk Navy Yard on 25 December, after which she departed for the normal winter training period in Cuban waters. While on the way, she stopped in Colón, Panama, at the entrance to the Panama Canal, which was nearing completion. She arrived in Guantanamo Bay on 19 January 1913 and remained in the area for nearly a month.
Interventions in Central America and World War I
On 12 February, the ship departed for Mexico, as the country was in the midst of the Mexican Revolution; Vermont was tasked with protecting American interests in Veracruz. She arrived in the port on 17 February and remained there until 29 April, when she returned to the United States. She rejoined the fleet in Hampton Roads before beginning a training cruise for midshipmen at the US Naval Academy at Annapolis on 6 June. Following the conclusion of the cruise, she operated in Block Island Sound and stopped in Newport. Starting in July, the ship's normal overhaul at Norfolk began, with the work lasting until October. She then took part in gunnery training off the Virginia Capes. Vermont made a second trip to Europe on 25 October, this time to French Mediterranean waters. She stopped in Marseille from 8 November to 1 December and then recrossed the Atlantic. While on the voyage back, a severe storm damaged one of her propellers, which necessitated a tow back to Norfolk, where she arrived on 20 December. Repairs were effected there, which were followed by a short period of sea trials to test the propulsion system.
After their ship returned to service, Vermonts crew began preparations to perform the normal spring target practice off the Virginia Capes, but the exercises were cancelled when the situation in Mexico worsened. Vermont steamed out of Hampton Roads on 15 April, bound for Veracruz. There, she joined her sister , the pre-dreadnought , and the dreadnoughts and . Vermont contributed twelve officers and 308 men to a landing force that occupied the city to prevent an arms shipment—aboard the steamship —from reaching the dictator Victoriano Huerta. One man from Vermont was killed and two earned the Medal of Honor: Lieutenant Julius C. Townsend, the commander of Vermonts contingent, and Surgeon Cary DeVall Langhorne, the regimental surgeon of the Second Seaman Regiment. The ship remained in Veracruz through October, apart from a visit to Tampico from 21 September to 10 October.
After returning to the east coast of the United States in late 1914, Vermont resumed her normal routine of training cruises and exercises. The ship was temporarily placed in reserve from 1 October to 21 November 1916, though after returning to service she supported a Marine expeditionary force sent to Haiti. This duty lasted from 29 November to 5 February 1917, after which she took part in battle training in Cuban waters. Vermont arrived back in Norfolk on 29 March before proceeding to Philadelphia for maintenance on 4 April. While she was in dry dock, the United States entered World War I be declaring war on Germany. Vermonts overhaul was completed on 26 August, and she was assigned as a training ship for engine room personnel, based at Hampton Roads. On 28 May 1918, the remains of the Chilean ambassador to the United States were brought aboard the ship. The US ambassador to Chile, Joseph Hooker Shea, came aboard the ship on 3 June, and Vermont departed Norfolk that day. She transited the Panama Canal on 10 June, stopped briefly in Tongoy, Chile, on the 24th, and arrived in Valparaiso three days later. Admiral William B. Caperton and Ambassador Shea escorted the Chilean ambassadors remains ashore.
Vermont left Valparaiso on 2 July, stopping in Callao, Peru, on the way back to the Panama Canal. After returning to the United States, she resumed her training ship duties, which lasted almost to the end of the war. On 5 November, less than a week before the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in Europe, Vermont was sent to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for conversion into a troop transport. She began her first transport mission on 9 January 1919; she made another three trips to return American soldiers from France, with the last concluding on 20 June 1919. In the course of these voyages, she carried some 5,000 men back to the United States. On 18 July, she steamed out of Norfolk for the last time, bound for the west coast of the United States. She visited San Diego, San Pedro, Monterey, San Francisco, and Long Beach in California, and Astoria, Oregon. Her final destination was the Mare Island Navy Yard at Vallejo, California, where she arrived on 18 September. She was decommissioned there on 30 June 1920 and reclassified as BB-20 on 17 July. She remained there until 10 November 1923, when she was struck from the Naval Vessel Registry. On 30 November, she was sold for scrap and broken up under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
NavSource Online: Battleship Photo Archive BB-20 USS VERMONT
Connecticut-class battleships
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1905 ships
World War I battleships of the United States
United States Navy Vermont-related ships
|
[
-0.47347399592399597,
0.08819694817066193,
-0.27818727493286133,
0.29181918501853943,
-0.1303742527961731,
0.4909132719039917,
0.6161137223243713,
-0.4926587641239166,
-1.2920469045639038,
0.25132834911346436,
0.17154763638973236,
-0.16355066001415253,
-0.33279743790626526,
0.6414181590080261,
-0.09968526661396027,
0.4796135425567627,
0.3977150619029999,
0.658300518989563,
0.35169827938079834,
-0.7223829030990601,
0.24875570833683014,
-0.09354900568723679,
0.6549997329711914,
-0.05043312534689903,
-0.5058206915855408,
0.3951881527900696,
0.772261381149292,
-0.04219985380768776,
0.28324100375175476,
0.029824059456586838,
-0.7138639092445374,
0.4463677704334259,
-0.0896686539053917,
0.11319025605916977,
0.2173488736152649,
0.20942087471485138,
0.2094605416059494,
-0.18403100967407227,
0.10058169066905975,
-0.21745677292346954,
-0.27958017587661743,
-0.6337551474571228,
-0.2834165394306183,
0.0342048779129982,
-0.5937509536743164,
0.07334079593420029,
-1.2928187847137451,
0.2538382411003113,
0.01940123178064823,
-0.29190075397491455,
-0.6095698475837708,
0.21850599348545074,
0.5488847494125366,
0.6120018362998962,
0.2456573098897934,
0.5047896504402161,
-0.719893753528595,
0.29451483488082886,
-0.24695439636707306,
-0.4567655026912689,
0.14277693629264832,
0.36394166946411133,
0.7441460490226746,
0.17097993195056915,
-0.36483174562454224,
0.2015414535999298,
-0.614539384841919,
0.580763041973114,
0.09274224936962128,
-0.2117992639541626,
-0.0768323540687561,
-0.2214137464761734,
0.13593590259552002,
0.3344991207122803,
0.0114632248878479,
-0.004226780496537685,
-0.0971442386507988,
-0.7192679047584534,
0.17523957788944244,
0.38787156343460083,
-0.15709912776947021,
0.25785911083221436,
0.9964624047279358,
0.2588297426700592,
0.4430924952030182,
0.4884807765483856,
-0.5689635872840881,
-0.24883413314819336,
-0.34166571497917175,
0.16562765836715698,
-0.907194197177887,
-0.10400465130805969,
0.10539214313030243,
0.8752511739730835,
-0.07125242054462433,
-0.27049681544303894,
-0.3961867690086365,
-0.021692559123039246,
0.6475141048431396,
0.3870997130870819,
0.4680853486061096,
0.306572824716568,
0.8102476000785828,
0.38276833295822144,
-0.46393635869026184,
0.007450453471392393,
-0.3171943426132202,
-0.5923029780387878,
-0.5009580254554749,
-0.3454084098339081,
-0.22318288683891296,
0.27068954706192017,
-0.3620188534259796,
-0.17037180066108704,
-0.0031305458396673203,
0.6174095869064331,
0.10074372589588165,
-1.0466541051864624,
0.07055641710758209,
-0.12425156682729721,
0.15995562076568604,
0.7835636138916016,
-0.32462552189826965,
-0.3118658661842346,
0.46937406063079834,
0.40253186225891113,
0.4349329173564911,
0.3732942044734955,
-0.5811381340026855,
0.43927255272865295,
0.3797128200531006,
0.42803460359573364,
-0.2665681838989258,
0.49043670296669006,
-0.234050914645195,
-0.5748704671859741,
0.07205921411514282,
0.2135779857635498,
0.08583924919366837,
0.45756053924560547,
-0.6221066117286682,
0.11872337758541107,
-0.321321040391922,
-0.3782072365283966,
0.9018668532371521,
-0.004536335356533527,
0.327620267868042,
0.272565096616745,
-0.5149685144424438,
0.15262863039970398,
0.2845367193222046,
-0.07982604950666428,
0.6379530429840088,
0.3042031228542328,
-0.6523948311805725,
0.4308432936668396,
0.49098849296569824,
0.07797268778085709,
0.17330780625343323,
0.5337608456611633,
-0.4322226047515869,
0.37772393226623535,
-0.2178209125995636,
0.26584959030151367,
0.22007369995117188,
0.1830732375383377,
0.451850950717926,
-0.29088494181632996,
0.06566786766052246,
-0.34314024448394775,
-0.5039718747138977,
0.1368262767791748,
0.7329549193382263,
-0.3405413031578064,
-0.2229117453098297,
0.024657778441905975,
0.4856812357902527,
-0.09512033313512802,
0.3285253345966339,
-0.8377767205238342,
-0.3458879292011261,
-0.11809080094099045,
0.5728472471237183,
-0.4108492434024811,
-0.02365272119641304,
0.1387312114238739,
0.17752626538276672,
0.15753653645515442,
0.04474109411239624,
-0.022599579766392708,
0.202940434217453,
-0.17298933863639832,
0.09136874228715897,
0.12200160324573517,
1.1820024251937866,
-0.07974307984113693,
-0.9187279939651489,
0.17072540521621704,
0.26431047916412354,
0.5552142858505249,
0.5314457416534424,
-0.3244946599006653,
0.010924043133854866,
-0.053298573940992355,
-0.4367680847644806,
0.49772703647613525,
-0.05817490071058273,
0.5894696116447449,
0.6369996666908264,
0.5889720320701599,
0.5051538944244385,
-0.8106684684753418,
0.10663870722055435,
-0.01301557570695877,
-0.3668324649333954,
-0.26443082094192505,
-0.0038772360421717167,
-0.3638170659542084,
0.14925628900527954,
-0.32664185762405396,
0.4031926393508911,
0.12403574585914612,
-0.008788086473941803,
0.024656720459461212,
-0.14931099116802216,
0.10466095805168152,
-0.6344866156578064,
0.5644611120223999,
-0.4597809612751007,
0.10686848312616348,
0.28503450751304626,
0.11339688301086426,
-0.1466529220342636,
-0.514109194278717,
0.4207620322704315,
0.1497207134962082,
0.12162261456251144,
-0.20497208833694458,
0.9375274777412415,
-0.5606775879859924,
-0.524514377117157,
0.9190791249275208,
-0.13848738372325897,
0.18964628875255585,
-0.3015575706958771,
-0.3276694715023041,
0.3805900514125824,
0.017673620954155922,
-0.37611427903175354,
-0.8219528794288635,
0.13548320531845093,
0.3988054394721985,
0.11348287761211395,
0.0229352917522192,
-0.4635177552700043,
0.021119048818945885,
-0.4613325893878937,
-0.23818230628967285,
0.6789941787719727,
-0.010304626077413559,
-0.23821072280406952,
0.2708006799221039,
0.151558980345726,
0.15691086649894714,
0.004904991015791893,
-0.35339629650115967,
-0.6540223956108093,
-0.38464486598968506,
0.13355836272239685,
0.1128196269273758,
0.4056667685508728,
-0.15274840593338013,
0.25588032603263855,
-0.43855559825897217,
0.8753946423530579,
0.23151181638240814,
-0.1632584035396576,
0.6342991590499878,
-1.2532918453216553,
-0.8248143792152405,
0.17894424498081207,
0.9345610737800598,
0.3350871801376343,
-0.3108481168746948,
-0.5243071913719177,
-0.7602855563163757,
0.2767387330532074,
0.05169672891497612,
-0.48602262139320374,
-0.04665951058268547,
0.2042960673570633,
-0.3341157138347626,
0.07079950720071793,
0.2933652698993683,
0.023786110803484917,
0.8779211044311523,
0.03370404615998268,
-0.12018059939146042,
0.43865686655044556,
0.31172922253608704,
-0.5214195251464844,
-0.03530806675553322,
-0.5536472201347351,
-0.08717936277389526,
0.048323798924684525,
-0.5777354836463928,
-0.08122925460338593,
0.17263080179691315,
-5.458291530609131,
-0.2242605835199356,
-0.4131207764148712,
0.060343142598867416,
0.2869311273097992,
0.2774585485458374,
0.20457206666469574,
0.025970419868826866,
-0.36736729741096497,
0.06857022643089294,
0.4872552454471588,
0.14394953846931458,
0.030389947816729546,
0.2999067008495331,
0.35986512899398804,
0.31931445002555847,
1.8293641805648804,
-0.57041996717453,
0.584795355796814,
-0.11427925527095795,
0.18875393271446228,
0.0321476086974144,
0.2844126224517822,
-0.15049417316913605,
0.43838438391685486,
0.017852701246738434,
-0.6745254397392273,
0.09603211283683777,
-0.37742286920547485,
-0.47446775436401367,
-0.22463372349739075,
-0.16663284599781036,
0.21596837043762207,
-0.7507205605506897,
0.24456319212913513,
-0.3310639560222626,
0.6593222618103027,
0.2872855067253113,
0.34216034412384033,
-0.16378776729106903,
-0.09748140722513199,
0.23972254991531372,
0.019588662311434746,
0.2724960744380951,
0.2960599362850189,
0.16614986956119537,
-0.5796865820884705,
-0.09510524570941925,
0.6063252687454224,
0.7458733916282654,
0.26248934864997864,
0.009979124180972576,
0.8135476112365723,
0.43783143162727356,
0.38150978088378906,
-0.3076218068599701,
-0.2718634605407715,
-0.1660633385181427,
-0.7163097858428955,
-0.3939768075942993,
0.381129652261734,
-0.12720784544944763,
-0.03332071006298065,
-0.7882339358329773,
-0.028953704982995987,
-0.6027082800865173,
0.05958952754735947,
0.3945358395576477,
0.7078713178634644,
0.1359412670135498,
-0.27847930788993835,
0.6703441143035889,
0.03442133963108063,
-0.9896755814552307,
0.5717015266418457,
-0.403778076171875,
-0.6024302244186401,
-0.1766577959060669,
-0.6691678762435913,
0.00187990115955472,
-0.27256959676742554,
0.15299208462238312,
-0.02413935959339142,
1.0617358684539795,
0.5756069421768188,
-0.1934608817100525,
-0.2694525718688965,
0.39266088604927063,
-0.8973218202590942,
-0.14634013175964355,
-0.18085666000843048,
-0.13004480302333832,
0.17386950552463531,
0.2703946530818939,
-0.2009781301021576,
-0.050845492631196976,
-0.20961807668209076,
0.6073957085609436,
0.3273772895336151,
-0.48579517006874084,
0.3091834783554077,
-0.5870552659034729,
0.1270523965358734,
-0.6364765763282776,
-0.49993887543678284,
-0.06762517988681793,
-0.4388462007045746,
-0.15311893820762634,
0.5996642708778381,
-0.03914380073547363,
-0.6899573802947998,
-0.6410077810287476,
0.21306003630161285,
-0.49878618121147156,
0.43071067333221436,
-0.0032053336035460234,
0.1042797863483429,
0.33674386143684387,
0.18614117801189423,
0.051470380276441574,
0.1055825799703598,
0.8372570276260376,
-0.1859605312347412,
-0.30496981739997864,
-0.550443708896637,
-0.812738299369812,
0.07772515714168549,
-0.414482980966568,
-0.8715905547142029,
0.07329680025577545,
-0.010193088091909885,
0.08132097125053406,
-0.30581310391426086,
-0.09877640753984451,
0.02840917557477951,
0.12380831688642502,
0.06501761823892593,
0.18703755736351013,
-0.008211995474994183,
-0.2683558166027069,
-0.5054210424423218,
-0.1316382735967636,
-0.5315461158752441,
0.14114105701446533,
0.4710487425327301,
0.18202543258666992,
0.7022314667701721,
0.15925535559654236,
-0.9590359330177307,
0.603478729724884,
-0.33508777618408203,
-0.6951761841773987,
0.09295785427093506,
-0.5441599488258362,
0.03709251433610916,
-0.0807369276881218,
0.25822383165359497,
0.14522325992584229,
0.1747886836528778,
0.21485166251659393,
-0.6272332072257996,
-0.026113826781511307,
-0.15982939302921295,
-0.2379864603281021,
0.14916259050369263,
0.15889273583889008,
0.175826296210289,
-0.4275641143321991,
-0.2333011031150818,
0.43699726462364197,
0.028710192069411278,
-0.3156168460845947,
-0.5735840201377869,
0.169343039393425,
0.36224058270454407,
0.503480076789856,
-0.34847545623779297,
-0.4283081293106079,
0.017354115843772888,
0.4875825345516205,
-0.10349560528993607,
0.13556522130966187,
-0.14660893380641937,
0.21704527735710144,
0.35845082998275757,
-0.06651696562767029,
-0.6985388398170471,
0.20204466581344604,
-0.2510952651500702,
-0.2784328758716583,
0.061992399394512177,
-0.36301255226135254,
0.7495641708374023,
-0.010892209596931934,
-1.0588995218276978,
0.2746981084346771,
0.368202269077301,
0.5880260467529297,
0.16151374578475952,
-0.699184000492096,
0.48531726002693176,
0.6480845212936401,
-0.8276877999305725,
0.762973964214325,
-0.014371599070727825,
-0.8659758567810059,
0.06692594289779663,
-0.00754511309787631,
0.14098718762397766,
0.3611159026622772,
0.3646916449069977,
-0.6109445691108704,
0.3644247055053711,
0.35620856285095215,
0.17269547283649445,
-0.27507805824279785,
0.3937396705150604,
0.12309660762548447,
-0.002465140074491501,
-0.8403559923171997,
-0.8144901990890503,
-0.6815271973609924,
-0.3350084722042084,
-0.6421554088592529,
-0.8131399154663086,
-0.11006007343530655,
0.03856336697936058,
-0.36631879210472107,
0.5202388763427734,
-0.2864419221878052,
0.08056233823299408,
-0.35827913880348206,
0.18891674280166626,
-0.21882250905036926,
0.37642592191696167,
-0.45790335536003113,
0.008504030294716358,
-0.13905899226665497,
0.17979244887828827,
0.7858445644378662,
0.042876966297626495,
1.0572190284729004,
0.18579137325286865,
-0.40354660153388977,
-0.4908168315887451,
-0.05906122922897339,
0.7961327433586121,
-0.5044723749160767,
-0.43388259410858154,
0.35166603326797485,
0.29123252630233765,
-0.5645049214363098,
-0.7730207443237305,
-0.17830228805541992,
1.2881076335906982,
-0.701119601726532,
-0.1780664175748825,
0.023099152371287346,
-0.046735458076000214,
0.017541194334626198,
-0.49403131008148193,
0.4730665385723114,
-1.027456283569336,
0.008310174569487572,
-0.09371280670166016,
-0.018687324598431587,
-0.07880572974681854,
-0.33018702268600464,
-0.01840985007584095,
-0.3339107930660248,
0.0032407997641712427,
0.45664575695991516,
-0.07995530962944031,
0.3695121705532074,
-0.17062975466251373,
0.23366095125675201,
-0.07618323713541031,
-0.32423877716064453,
1.187107801437378,
-0.34434258937835693,
-0.08779431879520416,
0.3990083336830139,
-0.3829911947250366,
-0.36663299798965454,
-0.25122830271720886,
-0.7048906683921814,
-0.33808279037475586,
-0.7948548793792725,
-0.31812584400177,
0.13286413252353668,
0.13550765812397003,
0.10341621935367584,
-0.4849405586719513,
-0.5088227987289429,
-0.25031229853630066,
0.5959782004356384,
-0.5194747447967529,
0.028621627017855644,
-0.3866521418094635,
0.5499506592750549,
-0.693970263004303,
0.728164553642273,
-0.10172447562217712,
-0.028335584327578545,
-0.33905139565467834,
-0.05303676798939705,
0.08985735476016998,
-0.2729552090167999,
-0.5480501055717468,
0.010249641723930836,
0.14387236535549164,
-0.6399429440498352,
0.6932646036148071,
0.4658340811729431,
-0.4072626233100891,
0.06840759515762329,
0.9497886896133423,
-0.6429465413093567,
-0.6798351407051086,
-0.05105019360780716,
-0.18336211144924164,
-0.15390600264072418,
0.2927502691745758,
0.5746452808380127,
0.2744121253490448,
0.9206647276878357,
-0.7835421562194824,
-0.3908810615539551,
-0.2179887592792511,
0.379221647977829,
0.10558930784463882,
-0.6190901398658752,
-0.6828978061676025,
0.3274065852165222,
0.08240871876478195,
0.15167735517024994,
0.2672894299030304,
0.03205972909927368,
-0.6942731738090515,
0.8415364027023315,
-0.28315070271492004,
0.383120596408844,
-0.2056671679019928,
-0.405281662940979,
0.43462157249450684,
0.08196409046649933,
0.05334072560071945,
0.20516011118888855,
0.35405558347702026,
-0.10960990190505981,
0.19498246908187866,
0.29080185294151306,
0.40308529138565063,
0.26664337515830994,
-0.07408666610717773,
-0.048659536987543106,
0.34562671184539795,
-0.7744120955467224,
-0.30769112706184387,
-0.24611499905586243,
-0.18645110726356506,
-0.17780478298664093,
0.6432859897613525,
-0.4838636517524719,
-0.3765240013599396,
-0.7553589344024658,
0.19432416558265686,
0.7139284014701843,
-0.38574230670928955,
0.6406875252723694,
0.5115676522254944,
0.14895716309547424,
0.028167475014925003,
0.034232646226882935,
-0.2706674635410309,
0.008375152014195919,
0.5423707365989685,
-0.3067227303981781,
0.05686040595173836,
0.5465570688247681,
-0.013873699121177197,
0.23892910778522491,
-0.13702674210071564,
-0.8050178289413452,
-0.1030508354306221,
-0.010626791045069695,
0.08086856454610825,
0.38297954201698303,
0.21551498770713806,
-0.2010570913553238,
0.6251119375228882,
-0.3861497640609741,
-0.7960347533226013,
0.4068399667739868,
-0.20138391852378845,
0.55530846118927,
-0.002111101755872369,
0.6303958892822266,
0.16855688393115997,
0.29532286524772644,
0.1110549196600914,
0.3737298548221588,
0.08652053028345108,
0.5610789060592651,
-0.10765804350376129,
-0.03950992226600647,
-0.7858874797821045,
0.21464955806732178,
-0.03028072603046894,
-0.09347816556692123,
0.024874135851860046,
0.21015287935733795,
-0.37391629815101624,
0.13326184451580048,
-0.23169760406017303,
-0.2951568067073822,
0.6717112064361572,
-0.9905797839164734,
-0.49116501212120056,
-0.31749236583709717,
0.15594927966594696,
-0.03758639469742775,
0.23965705931186676,
0.46495321393013,
-0.5033465027809143,
-0.6176780462265015,
0.30802205204963684,
-0.8250380158424377,
0.022040823474526405,
-0.1370784044265747,
0.16907450556755066,
-0.8815740942955017,
-0.16306494176387787,
0.3446122109889984,
-0.1160336509346962,
0.03299812600016594,
0.06377871334552765,
0.9285910129547119,
0.8418494462966919,
-0.32772040367126465,
-0.12485872954130173,
-0.20117905735969543,
0.6251674890518188,
-0.07203507423400879,
-0.28564712405204773,
-0.1236375942826271,
0.014831135049462318,
-0.5037171840667725,
0.1630023568868637,
0.38513508439064026,
-0.3027803599834442,
-0.0671832263469696,
0.1058616116642952,
-0.14227958023548126,
0.5638425350189209,
-0.1292584389448166,
0.2939702272415161,
0.31783801317214966,
-0.06735828518867493,
0.28971582651138306
] |
205897
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limahl
|
Limahl
|
Christopher Hamill (born 19 December 1958), known professionally as Limahl (an anagram of Hamill), is an English pop singer. He was the lead singer of the pop group Kajagoogoo beginning in 1981, before embarking on a brief solo career, garnering the 1984 hit "The NeverEnding Story", the theme song for the film of the same name.
Early life
Christopher Hamill was born on 19 December 1958 at Pemberton, Wigan, Lancashire, in North West England, to Eric and Cynthia Hamill. He has one sister and two brothers. The four children were all born by the time their mother was 22. Hamill attended Mesnes High School, Wigan, Greater Manchester, Orrell, before eventually enrolling at the Westcliff-on-Sea Palace Theatre Repertory Company.
Career
With aspirations to be an actor, Chris Hamill toured with the company in a production of Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. In 1980, he was given a small role in an episode of the ITV police series The Gentle Touch. In 1981, he also appeared as an extra in the promotional video for Adam and the Ants' number one UK single "Stand and Deliver".
He had a keen interest in music, forming a short-lived punk band called Vox Deus. Next he joined and left a band called Crossword. Later he answered an advert in the music press to join a band to be called Brooks with Mike Nolan. Chris Hamill adopted his stage name Limahl (an anagram of his surname) at the time he was recruited by the existing members of Kajagoogoo, who were then performing under the name Art Nouveau.
The four members of Art Nouveau, the band who were yet to become Kajagoogoo, had placed an advertisement in the music magazine Melody Maker, asking for a 'front man who could sing and look good'. Hamill attended the audition and subsequently joined the band which was then, after some deliberation, renamed Kajagoogoo. Soon after he had joined, Limahl met Nick Rhodes, keyboardist of the group Duran Duran, while Limahl was working as a waiter at the Embassy Club in London. Rhodes agreed to co-produce the band's first single, "Too Shy".
Limahl later said: "I met Nick Rhodes and it changed my life." Kajagoogoo signed a deal with EMI, due in part to Rhodes' involvement with the band, and the single "Too Shy" was released in January 1983. It went to number 1 in the UK Singles Chart and made the top 5 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The group had further hits with "Ooh to Be Ah" (UK No. 7) and "Hang on Now" (UK No. 13), with their debut album White Feathers reaching UK No. 5. Their first major UK tour was attended by 60,000 people, and the final show at the Hammersmith Odeon in London was recorded and released on home video/Laserdisc (the 16-track White Feathers Tour).
In mid-1983, soon after the end of the White Feathers concert tour, the four other members of the band agreed that Limahl should be fired. As recounted years later by Nick Beggs and other Kajagoogoo members on the VH-1 program Bands Reunited, the actual firing of Limahl was done by their manager, and the band learned that it had been done over the telephone. Limahl was quoted in the press as saying: "I've been betrayed!", and "I was sacked for making them a success".
Limahl later said: "I was in utter disbelief but the overwhelming emotion was anger, mainly towards the manager at first, but later, as I mulled over the 'betrayal', I was especially angry at my four professional colleagues, who I had viewed not only as friends but almost as family." The band stated Limahl had become difficult to work with as they didn't share his vision for the band's future. Soon after Limahl's departure, bassist Nick Beggs commented: "It was a business decision and not one we took lightly. He wanted the band to go in a different direction to the rest of us. Eventually, we realised we were on a different planet to Limahl." Beggs also stated the band harboured no ill-will towards Limahl, and blamed the press for sensationalising the matter. Guitarist Steve Askew commented: "At first...we did everything possible to make Limahl feel like part of the furniture, but, you know, his lifestyle is so different from ours. We're very normal people whereas Limahl likes the bright lights."
Solo career
After leaving the band, Limahl launched a solo career, achieving hits with "Only for Love" (UK No. 16) in 1983, and with "The NeverEnding Story" (UK No. 4) in 1984. The latter was the title theme from the film of the same name, composed by Giorgio Moroder. The English version was sung with Beth Anderson. The French language version "L'Histoire Sans Fin" was performed with Ann Calvert, with translated lyrics by Pierre-André Dousset. The single reached the Top 5 in several countries and was number one in Spain, Sweden, and Norway.
His debut album, 1984's Don't Suppose, was a commercial failure in the UK, peaking at No. 63. It was better received in continental Europe with it topping the Norwegian album chart and reaching the Top 10 in Austria, Sweden and Switzerland.
Following this, Limahl released two more albums: 1986's Colour All My Days and Love Is Blind in 1992, both of which failed to chart in the UK but found moderate success in Italy, Spain, and Germany.
Limahl, with the hairstyle he sported circa 1984, was illustrator Arthur Adams' inspiration for the look of the Marvel Comics X-Men character Longshot.
2003–present
In late 2003, Limahl briefly reunited with the other members of Kajagoogoo for the VH1 special Bands Reunited (which aired in 2004), but this did not lead to a permanent reunion. Also in 2004, Limahl took part in the musical reality show Comeback on German TV channel Pro7. A year later, in 2005, he appeared in a similar UK show, Hit Me Baby One More Time on ITV. The episode in which Limahl appeared also featured Howard Jones, who had enlisted the services of Kajagoogoo bass player Nick Beggs to support him during his own performance.
Limahl eventually reunited with Kajagoogoo again in 2008. Now reformed in their original five-piece line-up, the band took part in various music festivals in Europe. For the next few years, he continued performing live with Kajagoogoo and solo.
In 2011, the band released a new track, "Death-Defying Headlines", as a digital single. Limahl as a solo artist released a new single in 2012 called "1983", co-written/produced with Norwegians Tommy Olsen, Rune Maurtvedt, and Stig Antonsen. The track was released worldwide by Dig Music (Norway) on 10 January 2012.
In November 2012, Limahl appeared on ITV's I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! and he came in as a late-entrant contestant alongside Rosemary Shrager, spending a night together in an overnight challenge to win the camp tea and biscuits.
Limahl continues to perform mostly 1980s retro based shows, often performing as part of multi-act tours. In 2016, Limahl appeared as part of the Billboard Tour playing to audiences in Osaka and Tokyo, Japan. He featured as part of the successful Totally 80s Tour of Australia in July 2016, playing to audiences in such cities as Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide. In July and August 2018, he played his first shows in America as part of the Retro Futura Tour, starting on the East Coast and moving across to the West.
In July 2019, "The NeverEnding Story" song recorded a sudden 2,063% increase in on-demand streams from 88,000 in the week ending 4 July to 1.91 million in the week ending 11 July after actors Gaten Matarazzo and Gabriella Pizzolo performed an a cappella duet of the track in the final episode of season three of Netflix series Stranger Things. In November 2019, Limahl and Kajagoogoo were featured in two episodes of season 9 of American Horror Story. On 5 June 2020, Limahl released the single 'Still in Love', which was his first single released since 2012, which was followed by 'One Wish For Christmas' in November. On 28 November 2020, he appeared as a guest on a late-night Channel 5 entertainment show called Jane McDonald Sings the Movies.
Personal life
Hamill is openly gay.
Discography
Solo albums
with Kajagoogoo
White Feathers (1983)
Solo singles
Featured in
References
External links
Official Limahl store
KajaFax - The Officially Approved Limahl & Kajagoogoo Community & Fan Club
Unofficial Limahl & Kajagoogoo YouTube video archives
English pop singers
British dance musicians
British synth-pop new wave musicians
English Buddhists
English male singers
English new wave musicians
LGBT Buddhists
Male new wave singers
Music in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan
Singers from Manchester
People from Pemberton, Greater Manchester
1958 births
Living people
English gay musicians
20th-century English singers
21st-century English singers
20th-century British male singers
21st-century British male singers
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) participants
LGBT singers from the United Kingdom
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people
|
[
-0.3172930181026459,
0.025993915274739265,
0.2432413399219513,
-0.5687729120254517,
-0.19797037541866302,
0.8818944692611694,
0.17789119482040405,
0.16301687061786652,
-0.48734572529792786,
0.12107504904270172,
-0.5285205245018005,
0.13522867858409882,
0.37985095381736755,
0.06039152294397354,
0.029076233506202698,
-0.6911174654960632,
-0.6014644503593445,
0.07513614743947983,
-0.11947212368249893,
0.14715005457401276,
-0.05490656569600105,
-0.0038301716558635235,
-0.3180077075958252,
0.2634469270706177,
-0.18608075380325317,
0.7692006826400757,
0.011094439774751663,
0.09451375156641006,
0.22186687588691711,
-0.12573331594467163,
0.10153087973594666,
0.2523632347583771,
1.123339295387268,
-0.5910326242446899,
0.42697304487228394,
0.330971896648407,
-0.4020307660102844,
0.052074480801820755,
-0.23933447897434235,
-0.46562156081199646,
-0.4732673764228821,
-0.31984296441078186,
0.22949868440628052,
0.02238965779542923,
-0.5011387467384338,
-0.6810727715492249,
-1.2579646110534668,
1.0745670795440674,
-0.8838866949081421,
-0.7572773098945618,
-0.7540868520736694,
0.06903915107250214,
-0.04955075681209564,
-0.39127060770988464,
0.15804830193519592,
-0.5555703043937683,
0.1959146410226822,
0.18910112977027893,
-0.2459617555141449,
-0.13590584695339203,
0.34659677743911743,
-0.035679347813129425,
0.13584570586681366,
-0.6940518617630005,
-0.10292307287454605,
-0.1204974502325058,
0.05995981767773628,
0.18524135649204254,
-0.4611331522464752,
-0.9422799944877625,
0.2397995889186859,
0.8110352158546448,
-0.4645226001739502,
-0.05550938844680786,
0.17135514318943024,
0.22517560422420502,
0.38460344076156616,
0.0006731135072186589,
0.2289852648973465,
1.1575919389724731,
0.06752131134271622,
-0.19290712475776672,
1.049415111541748,
0.6494308710098267,
-0.04910515993833542,
-0.31446367502212524,
-0.4162502884864807,
0.531121015548706,
-0.4191895127296448,
0.43546655774116516,
-0.8933154344558716,
-0.5318524837493896,
0.3578590154647827,
0.2755811810493469,
0.24546773731708527,
-0.5175266265869141,
-0.3373863697052002,
0.1911545693874359,
0.1818138062953949,
-0.2957092821598053,
-0.18390615284442902,
-0.04483211785554886,
-0.07052031904459,
-0.6210511922836304,
-0.4330354928970337,
-0.08122748136520386,
-0.2186274230480194,
0.08428655564785004,
-0.18881264328956604,
-0.29261314868927,
-0.16842332482337952,
0.20525698363780975,
0.2520241439342499,
-0.13933934271335602,
0.4435356557369232,
0.4696992039680481,
-0.148660808801651,
-0.4064178764820099,
-0.414883017539978,
0.17187045514583588,
-0.21833421289920807,
-0.17798420786857605,
0.5762413144111633,
-0.16061918437480927,
-0.4062195420265198,
0.0464995838701725,
0.2147255837917328,
0.03543933108448982,
-0.808966338634491,
0.318109393119812,
0.3304479420185089,
0.5747172832489014,
-0.2740754783153534,
0.04713994264602661,
-0.020454399287700653,
-0.3597552478313446,
0.3209109902381897,
0.20092371106147766,
0.22791177034378052,
-0.33455997705459595,
-0.5752550959587097,
0.3359428346157074,
-0.4780261814594269,
-0.42300868034362793,
0.2796805799007416,
0.23273150622844696,
-0.31253308057785034,
0.05901413410902023,
-0.4240720570087433,
-0.733741044998169,
0.5927314162254333,
0.5015100836753845,
0.021097393706440926,
-0.7829630374908447,
-0.1758316159248352,
0.20619279146194458,
0.14360299706459045,
0.08028610050678253,
0.22129638493061066,
-0.17116953432559967,
0.339984267950058,
0.34917277097702026,
-0.3287464380264282,
0.24810150265693665,
0.3795236647129059,
0.141662135720253,
0.22496093809604645,
-0.04901422932744026,
-0.23010240495204926,
-0.2664428651332855,
0.23587489128112793,
0.23735961318016052,
0.12535931169986725,
0.16901591420173645,
-0.13532784581184387,
0.43282467126846313,
0.5388274788856506,
0.11081796139478683,
0.13127751648426056,
-0.29327669739723206,
-0.4738469123840332,
0.0691872090101242,
0.24846027791500092,
0.4678610861301422,
0.06764794886112213,
0.15779384970664978,
0.42756444215774536,
-0.14989489316940308,
0.6111751794815063,
0.1417473554611206,
-0.9990324974060059,
-0.6601827144622803,
-0.051739491522312164,
0.1683167964220047,
0.14773352444171906,
-0.1116185411810875,
-0.035310570150613785,
0.48448142409324646,
0.3584555983543396,
0.7635893225669861,
-0.32724833488464355,
-0.35051462054252625,
0.20718352496623993,
-0.45807796716690063,
-0.2050182968378067,
0.30200281739234924,
0.45806121826171875,
0.20742273330688477,
-0.3674047291278839,
0.24884061515331268,
0.11269738525152206,
-0.8777439594268799,
-0.05602208524942398,
0.356854110956192,
-0.38665202260017395,
-0.48653602600097656,
-0.16517232358455658,
-0.15053460001945496,
0.45360293984413147,
-0.07028738409280777,
0.7334685921669006,
0.5843639969825745,
0.043049406260252,
-0.38928309082984924,
0.7341018915176392,
1.0900661945343018,
-0.06965349614620209,
-0.310813844203949,
0.07676289230585098,
-0.5370150804519653,
-0.290524423122406,
0.07388673722743988,
-0.15367518365383148,
-0.5549609661102295,
-0.478436678647995,
-0.1363459676504135,
0.5875827074050903,
-0.1800001710653305,
0.2184390425682068,
-0.7672977447509766,
0.36343666911125183,
-0.2600351870059967,
-0.1998654007911682,
-0.1370425671339035,
0.07220769673585892,
-0.07274595648050308,
-0.05055587738752365,
-0.07899811863899231,
0.028902018442749977,
0.47493618726730347,
0.05499483272433281,
0.31317341327667236,
0.2744760811328888,
0.2767784595489502,
-0.24674658477306366,
0.18020544946193695,
0.40514281392097473,
0.6876087188720703,
0.45568570494651794,
0.5408380031585693,
0.029294751584529877,
0.10337848961353302,
0.4275515377521515,
0.04408223181962967,
0.11050650477409363,
-0.2390708476305008,
-0.39795535802841187,
-0.6935611367225647,
0.42674100399017334,
-0.06952524185180664,
-0.14011256396770477,
-0.1634310632944107,
-0.034160178154706955,
0.3296318054199219,
-0.07349322736263275,
-0.1553075909614563,
0.02069300040602684,
-0.9004032611846924,
-0.04876652732491493,
-1.1933581829071045,
0.7591756582260132,
0.5552957653999329,
-0.28636637330055237,
-0.531254231929779,
-0.4320439100265503,
0.29961708188056946,
0.0007695565582253039,
0.49134597182273865,
0.23820191621780396,
-0.06813468039035797,
-0.19017213582992554,
0.719832718372345,
0.03979553282260895,
0.46009892225265503,
0.2192038744688034,
-0.27227649092674255,
0.48108726739883423,
-0.396546870470047,
-0.4481218755245209,
0.4081249535083771,
-0.21137486398220062,
0.47552505135536194,
0.1362989842891693,
-0.250007688999176,
0.46543776988983154,
0.055578578263521194,
-0.3162740468978882,
-0.4599565267562866,
-5.7860493659973145,
-0.11011048406362534,
-0.08366334438323975,
-0.5631729364395142,
0.6129896640777588,
-0.2979043126106262,
0.06484398990869522,
-0.8315054774284363,
-0.143934965133667,
-0.35491278767585754,
-0.11185033619403839,
0.0649145171046257,
-0.44315287470817566,
0.10039673000574112,
0.4216872751712799,
-0.16860303282737732,
-0.007864737883210182,
-0.281881183385849,
0.4174102246761322,
0.38317814469337463,
-0.21835362911224365,
-0.02969536744058132,
-0.17250178754329681,
0.13228394091129303,
-0.5737960934638977,
0.26159897446632385,
-0.09434274584054947,
-0.2653873860836029,
-0.8561443090438843,
-0.19395190477371216,
-0.4689478874206543,
0.05246331915259361,
-0.12977126240730286,
0.2457829862833023,
-0.3623051643371582,
-0.35783082246780396,
0.05369916930794716,
-0.2196885496377945,
0.07919564098119736,
-0.15546981990337372,
0.049023620784282684,
-0.3010402321815491,
0.033662110567092896,
-0.24882957339286804,
0.4455590546131134,
0.3410632610321045,
-0.4351573586463928,
-0.3642870783805847,
-0.3003455698490143,
0.8756165504455566,
0.6568607091903687,
-0.47411003708839417,
0.10742489248514175,
-0.5085889101028442,
0.04962029308080673,
0.3626980781555176,
0.8165399432182312,
-0.05820460617542267,
-0.5207626819610596,
0.2111085206270218,
0.3290485143661499,
0.10677444934844971,
-0.024037158116698265,
0.00815216638147831,
-0.1415823996067047,
-0.2839641273021698,
0.30788978934288025,
-0.22132951021194458,
0.2188834697008133,
-0.2810656726360321,
0.2674567699432373,
-0.4235542118549347,
0.37871697545051575,
-1.2867074012756348,
-0.6825898289680481,
-1.1027952432632446,
0.12222985923290253,
0.020019646733999252,
-0.681368350982666,
-0.3226054608821869,
-0.19275133311748505,
-0.36214733123779297,
0.15033036470413208,
0.2895882725715637,
-0.32435527443885803,
-0.3984006941318512,
-0.457099050283432,
0.12803605198860168,
0.4253408908843994,
0.11891540139913559,
0.4191089868545532,
-1.1009511947631836,
-0.08529998362064362,
-0.21443937718868256,
0.14459890127182007,
-0.037116844207048416,
0.07547974586486816,
0.8018311858177185,
0.17435771226882935,
0.2401972860097885,
-0.08051085472106934,
-0.1778363436460495,
-0.13543470203876495,
-0.468068391084671,
0.5584547519683838,
0.33314722776412964,
-0.22117005288600922,
-0.529209315776825,
0.5739328265190125,
-0.17020097374916077,
0.6518946290016174,
0.4422854483127594,
-0.1147460788488388,
-0.5030949711799622,
0.07556211948394775,
-0.10985419154167175,
0.05719848722219467,
0.3646593391895294,
-0.11087316274642944,
0.43271997570991516,
-0.4026280343532562,
-0.014670796692371368,
0.6992482542991638,
-0.008717650547623634,
0.23674681782722473,
-0.00029322985210455954,
0.1946467012166977,
-0.20692098140716553,
0.0636444091796875,
0.6791446805000305,
0.13360586762428284,
0.2062230408191681,
0.29358118772506714,
-0.194623664021492,
0.20831599831581116,
-0.15081067383289337,
-0.2619504928588867,
-0.15585476160049438,
-0.0371040403842926,
0.23751094937324524,
-0.16850458085536957,
-0.2809591591358185,
0.23655538260936737,
0.12500102818012238,
0.9100156426429749,
-0.03975934907793999,
0.0008550616330467165,
0.352363646030426,
-0.4500121772289276,
0.32724452018737793,
0.8673698306083679,
-0.21006609499454498,
0.6276233196258545,
-0.7264623641967773,
-0.23525947332382202,
0.14514391124248505,
-0.5209971070289612,
-0.25770652294158936,
-0.2742685079574585,
-0.3228149116039276,
0.18503877520561218,
-0.8817988038063049,
-1.0363820791244507,
-0.030139775946736336,
0.011638160794973373,
-0.03577780723571777,
0.2236282378435135,
0.0075754630379378796,
-0.5455846190452576,
0.08333460986614227,
-0.301458477973938,
-0.59510338306427,
-0.4288700819015503,
0.24655373394489288,
0.10721010714769363,
0.3049686849117279,
-0.05925668776035309,
-0.15384042263031006,
0.1720137745141983,
0.37526583671569824,
-0.6003522276878357,
0.3103892505168915,
-0.4493390917778015,
0.0302457045763731,
0.33528104424476624,
0.13522852957248688,
-1.0173015594482422,
-0.44205862283706665,
-0.24270711839199066,
0.1494421660900116,
-0.11482934653759003,
0.06699133664369583,
0.21493873000144958,
0.3390575349330902,
0.1678852140903473,
-0.24553385376930237,
0.3154919147491455,
-0.029828477650880814,
0.38631901144981384,
0.33830204606056213,
0.06475167721509933,
-0.23556050658226013,
-0.43985775113105774,
-0.022860856726765633,
0.6123392581939697,
-0.4216479957103729,
0.15170176327228546,
0.55659419298172,
-0.7046534419059753,
0.23911616206169128,
-0.313927561044693,
-0.32828518748283386,
0.1543790102005005,
0.31620070338249207,
-0.28420692682266235,
0.09040368348360062,
0.1660768985748291,
-0.07021695375442505,
0.2446812093257904,
-0.44511061906814575,
-0.44842010736465454,
-0.3040817081928253,
0.10364637523889542,
0.12053684145212173,
-0.44519081711769104,
-0.12414277344942093,
-0.053662579506635666,
-0.16144679486751556,
0.6827461123466492,
-0.19775737822055817,
0.1803174763917923,
0.067347951233387,
0.33448898792266846,
0.6225289702415466,
0.24784408509731293,
0.1711207926273346,
-0.5876455903053284,
0.5432398915290833,
0.06311900168657303,
0.5742652416229248,
0.7559133768081665,
0.5259631872177124,
0.2716273069381714,
-0.1312655210494995,
-0.1935485452413559,
0.28317177295684814,
0.6375440359115601,
-0.35075682401657104,
-0.4643864929676056,
0.16325736045837402,
0.7395185232162476,
0.10371957719326019,
-0.39691656827926636,
-0.035909175872802734,
0.7880741953849792,
0.2508498430252075,
-0.1203095018863678,
-0.5291999578475952,
0.13831472396850586,
-0.057369984686374664,
0.19059036672115326,
0.1198253482580185,
0.2789144515991211,
0.4916032552719116,
-0.16191419959068298,
0.2082100510597229,
-0.1253272444009781,
-0.04170779511332512,
-0.3543437719345093,
-0.27009832859039307,
-0.35158535838127136,
0.005401644855737686,
0.28842854499816895,
0.3305467963218689,
-0.1700982302427292,
0.7924588322639465,
0.08787234127521515,
-0.12984755635261536,
0.34530529379844666,
0.09246186912059784,
-0.2734735608100891,
0.24997222423553467,
0.46439963579177856,
-0.42765504121780396,
0.6401168704032898,
0.34310829639434814,
0.024759383872151375,
0.05028371140360832,
0.3373570144176483,
0.13227525353431702,
0.13983021676540375,
0.5708248019218445,
-0.5956249833106995,
0.7818232774734497,
-0.5427246689796448,
-0.06469255685806274,
0.08273675292730331,
0.9360455870628357,
-0.7190201878547668,
-0.4607759416103363,
0.28998231887817383,
0.47065094113349915,
0.10627245157957077,
0.10930025577545166,
0.123698890209198,
-0.39083895087242126,
0.23161083459854126,
-0.8307547569274902,
0.26116621494293213,
0.16876479983329773,
0.13403919339179993,
0.15078626573085785,
-0.01238910760730505,
0.28674811124801636,
-0.20803596079349518,
0.062160104513168335,
0.7663531303405762,
-0.02811139076948166,
-0.1828758865594864,
0.2534061074256897,
-0.004495440050959587,
-0.42759236693382263,
0.3361425995826721,
0.46187153458595276,
0.5399810075759888,
0.5025253891944885,
0.13029727339744568,
-0.01107471901923418,
0.30671414732933044,
0.8429035544395447,
-0.051125407218933105,
-0.37101590633392334,
0.4196227192878723,
0.0921829417347908,
0.42496806383132935,
-0.8383563160896301,
-0.009721355512738228,
0.005710306577384472,
0.009452893398702145,
0.21631506085395813,
-0.20002146065235138,
0.4308262765407562,
0.05740225315093994,
0.36403459310531616,
0.13952238857746124,
-0.23843204975128174,
-0.2901202142238617,
0.7671664357185364,
-0.05427214875817299,
0.2359848916530609,
-0.3204975128173828,
-0.31497931480407715,
-0.08814235776662827,
-0.6424329280853271,
0.3334364891052246,
-0.18343588709831238,
0.574966311454773,
-0.6175991892814636,
-0.24542738497257233,
0.008828584104776382,
-0.04180136322975159,
-0.5201504230499268,
0.5157552361488342,
0.3880356252193451,
-0.09412676095962524,
-0.3409484028816223,
-0.47192803025245667,
-0.7545868158340454,
-0.005332718603312969,
0.3513910472393036,
0.08062812685966492,
0.558717668056488,
-0.182874396443367,
0.6971796751022339,
0.18034569919109344,
-0.15932494401931763,
0.11336672306060791,
-0.09602810442447662,
-0.1941802203655243,
0.02265690267086029,
-0.6035354733467102,
-0.5132470726966858,
0.15592709183692932,
-0.3387731611728668,
0.05238558351993561,
-0.1489427387714386,
-0.30678489804267883,
0.07603467255830765,
-0.3634799122810364,
0.04806026071310043,
0.796550989151001,
-0.4647296667098999,
-0.4539434313774109,
0.39727628231048584,
-0.9287852048873901,
-0.20321118831634521,
0.06798641383647919,
0.47867897152900696,
0.5323179364204407,
0.37240150570869446,
0.0749257281422615,
-0.042081840336322784,
0.24846553802490234,
0.1137814074754715,
-0.2971715033054352,
0.0332271009683609,
-0.4800634980201721,
-0.395969420671463,
-0.629671037197113,
0.7604964971542358,
0.002214865293353796,
-0.09265381097793579,
-0.13791309297084808,
0.08037006855010986,
-0.4496923089027405,
-0.13815416395664215,
0.1975908875465393,
0.4104326367378235,
0.6620013117790222,
-0.23270483314990997,
0.238562673330307,
0.23524309694766998,
-0.05684410780668259,
-0.16490396857261658,
0.21489055454730988,
0.8192330598831177,
-0.4329501688480377,
-0.04393729194998741,
-0.42470186948776245,
0.30338600277900696,
-0.044693224132061005,
0.032432977110147476,
-0.24315565824508667,
-0.2963382601737976,
-0.20914795994758606,
-0.06750236451625824,
0.10456758737564087,
0.25083234906196594,
0.20387457311153412,
-0.4577657878398895,
0.7055147290229797,
-0.16777463257312775,
-0.1887337863445282,
-0.20743276178836823,
0.16056495904922485,
0.41705459356307983,
-0.21589359641075134,
-0.22893095016479492,
-0.7492734789848328,
0.35050538182258606,
0.08414502441883087,
-0.529556155204773,
0.8946376442909241,
-0.3597696125507355,
0.08242033421993256,
-0.1913670152425766,
-0.5509376525878906,
0.03398818522691727,
0.009285393171012402,
0.031389329582452774
] |
205899
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radula
|
Radula
|
The radula (, ; plural radulae or radulas) is an anatomical structure used by mollusks for feeding, sometimes compared to a tongue. It is a minutely toothed, chitinous ribbon, which is typically used for scraping or cutting food before the food enters the esophagus. The radula is unique to the molluscs, and is found in every class of mollusc except the bivalves, which instead use cilia, waving filaments that bring minute organisms to the mouth.
Within the gastropods, the radula is used in feeding by both herbivorous and carnivorous snails and slugs. The arrangement of teeth (denticles) on the radular ribbon varies considerably from one group to another.
In most of the more ancient lineages of gastropods, the radula is used to graze, by scraping diatoms and other microscopic algae off rock surfaces and other substrates.
Predatory marine snails such as the Naticidae use the radula plus an acidic secretion to bore through the shell of other molluscs. Other predatory marine snails, such as the Conidae, use a specialized radular tooth as a poisoned harpoon. Predatory pulmonate land slugs, such as the ghost slug, use elongated razor-sharp teeth on the radula to seize and devour earthworms. Predatory cephalopods, such as squid, use the radula for cutting prey.
The introduction of the term "radula" (Latin, "little scraper") is usually attributed to Alexander von Middendorff in 1847.
Components
A typical radula comprises a number of bilaterally-symmetrical self-similar rows of teeth rooted in a radular membrane in the floor of their mouth cavity. Some species have teeth that bend with the membrane as it moves over the odontophore, whereas in other species, the teeth are firmly rooted in place, and the entire radular structure moves as one entity.
Radular membrane
The elastic, delicate radular membrane may be a single tongue, or may split into two (bipartite).
Hyaline shield
See Hyaline shield for more details.
Odontophore
The odontophore is the tongue of flesh underlying the radular membrane, and controls the organ's protrusion and return. It can be likened to a pulley wheel over which the radular 'string' is pulled.
Flexibility
The radular teeth can generally bend in a sideways direction. In the patellogastropods, though, the teeth lost this ability and became fixed.
Teeth
The radula comprises multiple, identical (or near enough) rows of teeth, fine, flat or spiny outgrowths; often, each tooth in a row (along with its symmetric partner) will have a unique morphology.
Each tooth can be divided into three sections: a base, a shaft, and a cusp. In radulae that just sweep, rather than rasp, the underlying substrate, the shaft and cusp are often continuous and cannot be differentiated.
The teeth often tesselate with their neighbours, and this interlocking serves to make it more difficult to remove them from the radular ribbon.
Radula formulae
The number, shape, and specialized arrangement of molluscan teeth in each transverse row is consistent on a radula, and the different patterns can be used as a diagnostic characteristic to identify the species in many cases.
Each row of radular teeth consists of
One central or median tooth (or rachidian tooth, rachis tooth)
On each side: one or more lateral teeth
And then beyond that: one or more marginal teeth.
This arrangement is expressed in a radular tooth formula, with the following abbreviations :
R : designates the central tooth or the rachis tooth (in case of lack of central tooth : the zero sign 0)
the lateral teeth on each side are expressed by a specific number or D, in case the outer lateral tooth is dominant.
the marginal teeth are designated by a specific number or, in case they are in a very large numbers, the infinity symbol ∞
This can be expressed in a typical formula such as:
3 + D + 2 + R + 2 + D + 3
This formula means: across the radula there are 3 marginal teeth, 1 dominant lateral tooth, 2 lateral teeth, and one central tooth.
Another formula for describing radulae omits the use of letters and simply gives a sequence of numbers in the order marginal-lateral-rachidian-lateral-marginal, thus:
1-1-1-1-1
This particular formula, which is common to the scaphopods, means one marginal tooth, one lateral tooth, one rachidian tooth, one lateral tooth, and one marginal tooth across the ribbon.
Morphology
The morphology of the radula is related to diet. However, it is not fixed per species; some molluscs can adapt the form of their radular teeth according to which food sources are abundant.
Pointed teeth are best suited to grazing on algal tissue, whereas blunt teeth are preferable if feeding habits entail scraping epiphytes from surfaces.
Use
The radula is used in two main ways: either as a rake, generally to comb up microscopic, filamentous algae from a surface; or as a rasp, to feed directly on a plant.
The rhipidoglossan (see below) and, to a lesser extent, the taenigloissan radular types are suited to less strenuous modes of feeding, brushing up smaller algae or feeding on soft forms; molluscs with such radulae are rarely able to feed on leathery or coralline algae. On the other hand, the docoglossan gastropod radula allows a very similar diet to the polyplacophora, feeding primarily on these resistant algae, although microalgae are also consumed by species with these radular types.
The sacoglossans (sea slugs) form an interesting anomaly in that their radula comprises a single row; they feed by sucking on cell contents, rather than rasping at tissue, and most species feed on a single genus or species of alga. Here, the shape of the radular teeth has a close match with the food substrate on which they are used. Triangular teeth are suited to diets of calcified algae, and are also present in radulae used to graze on Caulerpa; in both these cases the cell walls are predominantly composed of xylan. Sabot-shaped teeth – rods with a groove along one side – are associated with diets of crossed-fibrillar cellulose-walled algae, such as the Siphonocladaceae and Cladophorales, whereas blade-shaped teeth are more generalist.
Early molluscs
The first bona fide radula dates to the Early Cambrian, although trace fossils from the earlier Ediacaran have been suggested to have been made by the radula of the organism Kimberella.
A so-called radula from the early Cambrian was discovered in 1974, this one preserved with fragments of the mineral ilmenite suspended in a quartz matrix, and showing similarities to the radula of the modern cephalopod Sepia. However, this was since re-interpreted as Salterella. [/Volborthella?]
Based on the bipartite nature of the radular dentition pattern in solenogasters, larval gastropods and larval polyplacophora, it has been postulated that the ancestral mollusc bore a bipartite radula (although the radular membrane may not have been bipartite).
In chitons
Each row of the polyplacophoran radula has two mineralized teeth used to abrade the substrate, and two longer teeth that sweep up any debris. The other 13 teeth on each row do not appear to be involved in feeding.
The teeth of Chaetopleura apiculata comprise fibres surrounded by magnetite, sodium and magnesium.
In gastropods
Anatomy and method of functioning
The mouth of the gastropods is located below the anterior part of the mollusc. It opens into a pocket-like buccal cavity, containing the radular sac, an evaginated pocket in the posterior wall of this cavity.
The radula apparatus consists of two parts :
the cartilaginous base (the odontophore), with the odontophore protractor muscle, the radula protractor muscle and the radula retractor muscle.
the radula itself, with its longitudinal rows of chitinous and recurved teeth, the cuticula.
The odontophore is movable and protrusible, and the radula itself is movable over the odontophore. Through this action the radular teeth are being erected. The tip of the odontophore then scrapes the surface, while the teeth cut and scoop up the food and convey the particles through the esophagus to the digestive tract.
In a flexoglossate radula (the primitive condition), the teeth flex outwards to the sides as they round the tip of the odontophore, before flexing back inwards. In the derived stereoglossate condition, the teeth do not flex.
These actions continually wear down the frontal teeth. New teeth are continuously formed at the posterior end of the buccal cavity in the radular sac. They are slowly brought forward to the tip by a slow forward movement of the ribbon, to be replaced in their turn when they are worn out.
Teeth production is rapid (some species produce up to five rows per day). The radular teeth are produced by odontoblasts, cells in the radular sac.
The number of teeth present depends on the species of mollusc and may number more than 100,000. Large numbers of teeth in a row (actually v-shaped on the ribbon in many species) is presumed to be a more primitive condition, but this may not always be true.
The greatest number of teeth per row is found in Pleurotomaria (deep water gastropods in an ancient lineage) which has over 200 teeth per row (Hyman, 1967).
The shape and arrangement of the radular teeth is an adaptation to the feeding regimen of the species.
The teeth of the radula are lubricated by the mucus of the salivary gland, just above the radula. Food particles are trapped into this sticky mucus, smoothing the progress of food into the oesophagus.
Certain gastropods use their radular teeth to hunt other gastropods and bivalve molluscs, scraping away the soft parts for ingestion. Cone shells have a single radular tooth, that can be thrust like a harpoon into its prey, releasing a neurotoxin.
Seven basic types
The docoglossan or stereoglossan radula: in each row there is one usually small central tooth, flanked by 1–3 laterals (with the outer one dominant) and a few (3 at the most) hooked marginals. The central tooth may even be absent. The teeth are fixed in a stiff position on the radular ribbon. This is the most primitive radular type, and we could assume it represents the plesiomorphic condition i.e., the primitive character state, that is taken from an ancestor without change, such as would be possessed by the earliest molluscs (Eogastropoda, also Polyplacophora; limpet families Patellidae, Lottiidae, Lepetidae). The radula operates like a chain of 'shovels', and the rigid structure operates like a rasp, scraping at hardened macroalgae. Accordingly, docoglossan radulae are often hardened by biomineralization. Spaces between the teeth make the radula ill-suited to collecting microalgae.
Formula: 3 + D + 2 + R + 2 + D + 3
Or: 3 + D + 2 + 0 + 2 + D + 3
Rhipidoglossan radula: a large central and symmetrical tooth, flanked on each side by several (usually five) lateral teeth and numerous closely packed flabellate marginals, called uncini (typical examples: Vetigastropoda, Neritomorpha). This already marks an improvement over the simple docoglossan state. These radulae generally operate like 'brooms', brushing up loose microalgae.
Formula: ∞ + 5 + R + 5 + ∞
In case of a dominant lateral tooth: ∞ + D + 4 + R + 4 + D + ∞
Hystrichoglossan radula: each row with lamellate and hooked lateral teeth and hundreds of uniform marginal teeth that are tufted at their ends (typical example : Pleurotomariidae).
The radular formula of, for example, Pleurotomaria (Entemnotrochus) rumphii is : ∞. 14. 27. 1. 27. 14. ∞
Taenioglossan radula: seven teeth in each row: one middle tooth, flanked on each side by one lateral and two marginal teeth (characteristic of the majority of the Caenogastropoda). These operate like 'rakes', scraping algae and gathering the resultant detritus.
Formula : 2 + 1 + R + 1 + 2
Ptenoglossan radula: rows with no central tooth but a series of several uniform, pointed marginal teeth (typical example : Epitonioidea).
Formula : n + 0 + n
Stenoglossan or rachiglossan radula: each row has one central tooth and one lateral tooth on each side (or no lateral teeth in some cases) (most Neogastropoda).
Formula : 1 + R + 1
Or : 0 + R + 0
Toxoglossan radula: The middle teeth are very small or completely absent. Each row has only two teeth of which only one is in use at a time. These grooved teeth are very long and pointed, with venom channels (neurotoxins) and barbs, and are not firmly fixed to the basal plate. The teeth can therefore be individually transferred to the proboscis and ejected like a harpoon into the prey (typical example : Conoidea).
formula : 1 + 0 + 1
These radular types show the evolution in the gastropods from herbivorous to carnivorous feeding patterns. Scraping algae requires many teeth, as is found in the first three types.
Carnivorous gastropods generally need fewer teeth, especially laterals and marginals. The ptenoglossan radula is situated between the two extremes and is typical for those gastropods which are adapted to a life as parasites on polyps.
Gastropods with no radula
The streptaxid Careoradula perelegans is the only known terrestrial gastropod which has no radula.
Some marine gastropods lack a radula. For example, all species of sea slugs in the family Tethydidae have no radula, and a clade of dorids (the Porostomata) as well as all species of the genus Clathromangelia (family Clathurellidae) likewise lack the organ. The radula has been lost a number of times in the Opisthobrancha.
In cephalopods
Most cephalopods possess a radula as well as a horny chitinous beak, although it is reduced in octopuses and absent in Spirula.
The cephalopod radula rarely fossilizes: it has been found in around one in five ammonite genera, and is rarer still in non-ammonoid forms. Indeed, it is known from only three non-ammonoid taxa in the Palaeozoic era: Michelinoceras, Paleocadmus, and an unnamed species from the Soom Shale.
In solenogasters
The solenogaster radula is akin to that of other molluscs, with regularly spaced rows of teeth produced at one end and shed at the other. The teeth within each row are similar in shape, and get larger in size towards the outer extreme. A number of teeth occur on each row; this number is usually constant but prone to small variations from row to row; indeed, it increases over time, with teeth being added to the middle of rows by addition or by the division of existing teeth.
A number of radular formulae are exhibited by this class: 1:0:1 is most common, followed by 0:1:0 and n:0:n.
In caudofoveates
The radula of the caudofoveate Falcidens is unlike the conchiferan radula. It has a reduced form, comprising just a single row of teeth. On each side of the apparatus, two teeth appear at the front; behind these, the third teeth fuse to form a mineralized axial plate. Bars occur posterior to this, behind which a sheath encircles the apparatus. The rear of the apparatus consists of a large plate, the 'radular cone'. The unusual form of the radula is accompanied by an unusual purpose: rather than rasping substrates, Falcidens uses its teeth as pincers to grasp prey items.
See also
Hypostome
Subradular organ
References
Further reading
Molluscan buccal structures and radula
A Comparison of the feeding behaviour and the functional morphology of radula structure in Nudibranchs
External links
Cephalopod zootomy
Gastropod anatomy
|
[
0.004626339301466942,
-0.17112328112125397,
-0.5591408610343933,
0.22581075131893158,
0.22285956144332886,
0.9000413417816162,
0.08658013492822647,
0.205631285905838,
-0.10968848317861557,
-0.39226850867271423,
0.27244246006011963,
0.8744084239006042,
0.07803104817867279,
0.050455592572689056,
-0.17132867872714996,
0.5342766642570496,
0.22485263645648956,
-0.15936978161334991,
0.3922271728515625,
0.3340517282485962,
-0.37153011560440063,
-0.1330142319202423,
0.2702343165874481,
-0.5275370478630066,
0.5422894358634949,
-0.15175743401050568,
0.035224758088588715,
0.23903268575668335,
-0.19185848534107208,
-0.6194449663162231,
-0.298692524433136,
0.7531219720840454,
-0.0638260543346405,
-0.29383784532546997,
-0.27231666445732117,
-0.8980749845504761,
-0.15796858072280884,
-0.6690788269042969,
-0.24615924060344696,
-0.8084000945091248,
-0.276290625333786,
-0.05204353481531143,
0.17375507950782776,
0.12099805474281311,
-0.9307394623756409,
-0.04357537999749184,
-0.7925475239753723,
0.46954214572906494,
-0.930769145488739,
0.7724741101264954,
-0.3517717719078064,
0.24637722969055176,
0.02732633240520954,
0.28039366006851196,
0.03905825316905975,
0.2691324055194855,
-0.437956839799881,
0.0853322446346283,
0.17845562100410461,
-0.9721090793609619,
-0.09302952885627747,
0.3310618996620178,
0.48322880268096924,
0.276047945022583,
0.6333407759666443,
0.28983673453330994,
0.08507445454597473,
-0.0930149033665657,
-0.7181383371353149,
0.06731447577476501,
-0.34551361203193665,
-0.667306125164032,
-0.39364704489707947,
0.5122140049934387,
-0.8825417757034302,
-0.40014010667800903,
-1.0363998413085938,
0.15768703818321228,
0.7967262268066406,
0.06132280454039574,
0.3260752260684967,
0.19955094158649445,
0.5828137993812561,
0.2632577419281006,
0.12643368542194366,
0.19697126746177673,
-0.44580137729644775,
0.21619249880313873,
-0.4825960099697113,
-0.21661363542079926,
0.07793939113616943,
-0.5164951086044312,
0.30925241112709045,
0.6323632001876831,
-0.3225778639316559,
-0.6446260213851929,
0.0361851304769516,
0.12460318952798843,
0.6119497418403625,
0.09792587161064148,
-0.5788183212280273,
-0.5628321766853333,
0.7861720323562622,
0.1093878224492073,
-0.5479442477226257,
-0.3057158291339874,
-0.5193489789962769,
0.013994181528687477,
-0.5271560549736023,
0.6143395304679871,
-0.3338763117790222,
0.07388849556446075,
-0.2691657841205597,
-0.15694275498390198,
-0.5652462840080261,
-0.1200781837105751,
-0.16068491339683533,
0.14230260252952576,
-0.3539312779903412,
-0.6041606068611145,
-0.09426538646221161,
-0.12088539451360703,
0.6049914956092834,
0.16500620543956757,
-0.1958632469177246,
-0.586937665939331,
0.48087963461875916,
0.22952234745025635,
-0.33477145433425903,
0.2506312131881714,
0.5007628798484802,
0.7912979125976562,
0.08525599539279938,
0.5730904936790466,
-0.055166035890579224,
-0.06468099355697632,
-0.28710177540779114,
-0.285132497549057,
0.8507605791091919,
-0.01811259426176548,
-0.6819732189178467,
0.13165442645549774,
-0.6648845672607422,
-0.4458039700984955,
0.13692237436771393,
-0.7966278195381165,
-0.07647241652011871,
0.12118987739086151,
-0.809839129447937,
-0.414122998714447,
0.5251341462135315,
0.1028587743639946,
-0.09558585286140442,
-0.05572313070297241,
-0.17198145389556885,
-0.1306072622537613,
0.6025823354721069,
-0.44368475675582886,
0.37332478165626526,
0.218941792845726,
0.040761057287454605,
0.15101784467697144,
-0.6550648808479309,
0.4898999035358429,
-0.232677161693573,
-0.2592180669307709,
0.35679009556770325,
0.18277625739574432,
0.2018769085407257,
0.5251057147979736,
0.04923242703080177,
-0.024634717032313347,
0.3812909424304962,
0.7431813478469849,
-0.8422701954841614,
-0.455459862947464,
0.37721869349479675,
0.18106277287006378,
0.8552120327949524,
-0.14601364731788635,
-0.37202587723731995,
0.1835748702287674,
0.011973461136221886,
0.37856215238571167,
-0.5008301734924316,
-0.46010637283325195,
0.3108859062194824,
-0.2613198161125183,
-0.8531448245048523,
-0.4463122487068176,
-0.46396008133888245,
-0.3691391050815582,
-0.5482529401779175,
0.1934252679347992,
1.307276964187622,
-0.18935604393482208,
-0.7741690278053284,
0.3695521652698517,
0.47354117035865784,
0.5280731916427612,
-0.8795004487037659,
0.17504054307937622,
0.012607622891664505,
-0.538792073726654,
-0.5286437273025513,
0.18749931454658508,
0.45902398228645325,
-0.1235758513212204,
0.771442174911499,
-0.1914588063955307,
-0.41783779859542847,
0.024071218445897102,
0.20417171716690063,
-1.0474570989608765,
0.24179020524024963,
-0.44386959075927734,
-0.13050468266010284,
0.22311778366565704,
-0.04948039725422859,
-0.2108776569366455,
0.7575880289077759,
-0.5222989916801453,
-0.10251329839229584,
0.8361408710479736,
-0.055406078696250916,
0.593934178352356,
0.35428380966186523,
0.37683048844337463,
0.06836225837469101,
-0.9100627303123474,
-0.1284566968679428,
-0.0411582849919796,
0.7445107102394104,
-0.028313754126429558,
0.2460760623216629,
0.3722760081291199,
0.28570300340652466,
-0.41918009519577026,
0.4020143151283264,
-0.487448513507843,
0.25210335850715637,
-0.09712226688861847,
-0.4947812259197235,
0.02543344348669052,
0.7469254732131958,
-0.23660597205162048,
0.6995043754577637,
0.14234356582164764,
-0.010147497057914734,
0.05202966555953026,
0.1628117710351944,
0.5483532547950745,
0.36481812596321106,
-0.2989223301410675,
0.21035978198051453,
-0.17183172702789307,
0.27903029322624207,
0.25034433603286743,
0.6267176270484924,
-0.2545609176158905,
-0.6730363965034485,
0.22458164393901825,
0.16248013079166412,
-0.23473387956619263,
0.030978912487626076,
0.1099041998386383,
0.6702327728271484,
0.07900945097208023,
0.846479058265686,
0.7347753643989563,
0.22570078074932098,
0.7623695731163025,
-0.694822371006012,
-0.026615096256136894,
-0.32167211174964905,
-0.2869103252887726,
0.33439236879348755,
0.11150532215833664,
-0.10956081748008728,
-0.34539270401000977,
0.0839218944311142,
-0.016297688707709312,
0.1743067055940628,
-0.7328169941902161,
0.15702934563159943,
-0.8459548950195312,
0.39990460872650146,
-0.4426180124282837,
-0.30543118715286255,
-0.9577834010124207,
-0.8218295574188232,
-0.12415774166584015,
-0.5593127012252808,
0.3810451328754425,
-0.6271064877510071,
0.7331556081771851,
-0.31985828280448914,
-0.3504965007305145,
0.25855496525764465,
-1.0316578149795532,
-0.7613526582717896,
-0.4485782980918884,
-0.030544087290763855,
0.12028639763593674,
0.2874164879322052,
-0.04034290462732315,
0.3937593698501587,
0.4722341001033783,
-5.385648250579834,
-0.101877860724926,
-0.2030012607574463,
0.023734236136078835,
0.3878808319568634,
0.5807284712791443,
0.464009553194046,
-0.3838065564632416,
0.21444256603717804,
-0.7000977396965027,
-0.14379450678825378,
0.25911083817481995,
-0.10380835086107254,
0.469681054353714,
0.28990647196769714,
0.17493586242198944,
0.025509195402264595,
0.17161299288272858,
-0.20658443868160248,
0.3465486764907837,
0.22615979611873627,
-0.07183937728404999,
0.1289457082748413,
0.23715834319591522,
-0.27781108021736145,
-0.10647796839475632,
-0.1124306172132492,
0.3547718822956085,
0.03777109459042549,
-0.2453392744064331,
-0.21668510138988495,
-0.20776177942752838,
-0.07970092445611954,
-0.3339691758155823,
0.33024370670318604,
-0.03911925479769707,
0.22686509788036346,
0.011756119318306446,
0.8116624355316162,
-0.14136382937431335,
-0.7076333165168762,
0.3990081250667572,
0.6610876321792603,
0.1542986035346985,
0.4971173107624054,
-0.3621159791946411,
-0.2722580134868622,
-0.26035276055336,
-0.11357045918703079,
0.8706790804862976,
0.16886232793331146,
0.10823230445384979,
0.3024108409881592,
0.4324483871459961,
0.2994554340839386,
-0.19294090569019318,
0.8394743800163269,
0.1104244813323021,
-0.13794144988059998,
0.021922165527939796,
0.31594276428222656,
-1.2538701295852661,
-1.0531951189041138,
-0.5354146361351013,
-0.16426269710063934,
0.04436963424086571,
-0.6271217465400696,
0.28811144828796387,
0.5491451621055603,
0.1419946700334549,
-0.28348714113235474,
0.013762318529188633,
-0.17346502840518951,
-0.7817179560661316,
0.7787010669708252,
-0.5311868786811829,
-0.12256106734275818,
-0.49036383628845215,
0.10299243777990341,
0.1286744475364685,
-0.2526596188545227,
-0.43206849694252014,
-0.5777603983879089,
-0.05265163630247116,
0.28218960762023926,
-0.6602382063865662,
-0.12198817729949951,
-0.20138098299503326,
-0.07250652462244034,
-0.1986367255449295,
0.42403504252433777,
0.18098819255828857,
0.12454221397638321,
-0.14412951469421387,
0.21562635898590088,
0.26457902789115906,
-0.09637709707021713,
-0.13601745665073395,
1.0281659364700317,
-0.09562773257493973,
0.6347414255142212,
0.23744362592697144,
0.016738491132855415,
0.161630779504776,
0.30458542704582214,
-0.38368210196495056,
-0.21273525059223175,
0.09647748619318008,
0.5386985540390015,
0.09561562538146973,
-0.0018594212597236037,
-0.0035616292152553797,
-0.3382616341114044,
-0.2878568172454834,
0.06194814667105675,
0.21730990707874298,
-0.3568401634693146,
0.3288940489292145,
0.7800070643424988,
-0.3171897828578949,
0.4554717540740967,
0.13407209515571594,
-0.676756739616394,
-0.13306017220020294,
0.03661933168768883,
0.05746716260910034,
0.45362016558647156,
-0.2934322953224182,
0.14980164170265198,
-0.34421318769454956,
0.38922685384750366,
-0.44384172558784485,
0.01565929315984249,
0.3198469579219818,
-0.0783429890871048,
0.028130462393164635,
-0.29311084747314453,
0.17832547426223755,
-0.2454937845468521,
-0.26719656586647034,
-0.6466070413589478,
-0.4412536919116974,
-0.18598903715610504,
-0.3987042307853699,
0.5025929808616638,
0.4155396521091461,
-0.7345929741859436,
0.1977313905954361,
-0.10825765132904053,
0.9763967394828796,
-0.5156493186950684,
-0.005599677562713623,
0.16294224560260773,
-0.42668449878692627,
0.5027850866317749,
-0.32540878653526306,
0.2962624430656433,
0.44805407524108887,
-0.07494271546602249,
-0.5197243094444275,
-0.2843303084373474,
-0.20300257205963135,
-0.6862366199493408,
0.4645687937736511,
-0.06860554963350296,
-0.06350662559270859,
-0.9470536112785339,
-0.63954097032547,
0.11529684066772461,
-0.137137308716774,
-0.1985432654619217,
0.218107670545578,
-0.11298073083162308,
0.06479224562644958,
-0.48081156611442566,
-0.5295082330703735,
-0.2031600922346115,
0.5248256921768188,
0.05188018083572388,
0.026848267763853073,
0.0781809389591217,
-0.08593624830245972,
0.8705683350563049,
-0.017090532928705215,
0.224670872092247,
-0.23461854457855225,
-0.39691805839538574,
0.03585965931415558,
-0.3358665406703949,
-0.1286918818950653,
-0.26754555106163025,
-0.11555787920951843,
0.7305877804756165,
0.061886366456747055,
-0.5845866799354553,
0.49533623456954956,
-0.4916054904460907,
0.6518186926841736,
-0.7166008353233337,
-0.5888936519622803,
-0.5784436464309692,
0.0002962395956274122,
-0.7104759216308594,
0.3193338215351105,
0.14699168503284454,
0.4667099416255951,
0.9354486465454102,
-0.33072590827941895,
0.09855838865041733,
0.6292122006416321,
-0.3753964602947235,
-0.24298632144927979,
-0.2304801642894745,
1.0490926504135132,
-0.1988566815853119,
0.19045868515968323,
-0.009967068210244179,
-0.1704128533601761,
-0.1361069679260254,
-0.22233416140079498,
0.7663373351097107,
0.12486135214567184,
-0.05507340654730797,
-0.19279123842716217,
-0.3624098598957062,
0.03842276334762573,
-0.27012115716934204,
-0.63931804895401,
0.6342841982841492,
-0.2798163890838623,
0.3954870104789734,
-0.37833788990974426,
0.498858779668808,
-0.1513739824295044,
0.2147374451160431,
0.2506375312805176,
-0.06996532529592514,
-0.1623387187719345,
-0.23764078319072723,
0.039590321481227875,
1.1511868238449097,
1.3570135831832886,
0.0510440319776535,
0.7828115224838257,
0.1443905085325241,
0.4805903732776642,
-0.32598748803138733,
-0.10284026712179184,
-1.2747355699539185,
0.50620037317276,
0.8923859000205994,
-0.1228795126080513,
-0.7122902870178223,
-0.08112569898366928,
0.36352938413619995,
-0.20823973417282104,
0.0826045498251915,
-0.3126369118690491,
-0.44488659501075745,
1.0056096315383911,
0.6905792355537415,
0.21924708783626556,
-0.11061850190162659,
-0.1281297355890274,
-0.08333782106637955,
-0.2318221777677536,
-0.30689552426338196,
0.34168535470962524,
0.5033474564552307,
-0.6150586605072021,
0.19962617754936218,
0.5550044178962708,
-0.2267424315214157,
-0.3613438606262207,
-0.013638163916766644,
0.13032297790050507,
0.48563143610954285,
-0.24753490090370178,
0.5504607558250427,
0.043732210993766785,
-0.10529648512601852,
0.38848012685775757,
-0.0662732645869255,
-0.45450225472450256,
-0.05648280680179596,
0.0824807658791542,
-0.4062555432319641,
0.352870911359787,
0.17716465890407562,
-0.022965464740991592,
-0.30928149819374084,
-0.6985741853713989,
0.12088467180728912,
0.32222017645835876,
0.3615281581878662,
0.31283843517303467,
0.3027303218841553,
0.34660574793815613,
-0.329065203666687,
0.6131348013877869,
-0.891240119934082,
0.3602772653102875,
0.8306869864463806,
-0.40244007110595703,
0.49397987127304077,
0.28263625502586365,
-0.4468100368976593,
-0.12125943601131439,
-0.25329405069351196,
-0.13925687968730927,
0.10562365502119064,
-0.09029026329517365,
0.04729966074228287,
0.3749411404132843,
-0.24682417511940002,
-0.16843479871749878,
0.771105170249939,
-0.5799176096916199,
-0.11642563343048096,
0.4952654242515564,
0.06797419488430023,
-0.5531202554702759,
0.04963298514485359,
-0.2608557641506195,
0.006031343713402748,
-0.5493137836456299,
-0.28989705443382263,
0.09238672256469727,
0.03932643309235573,
0.8930590748786926,
0.5007389187812805,
0.11551773548126221,
-0.08782227337360382,
-0.12212233245372772,
-0.2949860692024231,
-0.6619076132774353,
-0.17713303864002228,
-0.5057136416435242,
0.20461171865463257,
1.1786565780639648,
0.8038245439529419,
0.5566181540489197,
0.45769020915031433,
0.6532720327377319,
-0.05964502692222595,
0.2452077716588974,
0.03229101374745369,
-0.3178407847881317,
-0.43958351016044617,
0.10686741769313812,
0.0780709981918335,
-0.5361654758453369,
0.6695577502250671,
0.0777408704161644,
0.4784179925918579,
-0.31814366579055786,
0.5103986859321594,
0.005643465556204319,
-0.1696850061416626,
0.055135950446128845,
-0.45180585980415344,
0.7256541848182678,
0.30092886090278625,
0.003802173538133502,
-0.45273542404174805,
0.14292454719543457,
-0.45036542415618896,
-0.8496608734130859,
0.13796037435531616,
-0.3062213063240051,
0.6460514664649963,
0.04750420153141022,
-0.8084152340888977,
-0.5376662611961365,
0.2806660234928131,
0.315925270318985,
0.028958195820450783,
0.17707043886184692,
0.4344799816608429,
-0.11825715750455856,
-0.6778942346572876,
-0.5826027989387512,
-0.25914570689201355,
-0.18709656596183777,
-0.011918087489902973,
0.11593224108219147,
0.04756559431552887,
0.2258903533220291,
0.2756034731864929,
-0.17377535998821259,
0.1812317967414856,
-0.357680082321167,
0.6416357159614563,
-0.13124512135982513,
-0.9832543134689331,
0.2998545467853546,
-0.11920703202486038,
0.6257683038711548,
0.6082156300544739,
0.3056891858577728,
-0.056847456842660904,
0.9313589930534363,
-0.546589732170105,
-0.13047952950000763,
-0.1820487231016159,
0.49334847927093506,
0.1940484642982483,
0.25894010066986084,
-0.3177199959754944,
0.003184799337759614,
0.5994840860366821,
-0.13765569031238556,
-0.3635329008102417,
0.5153082013130188,
-0.2388584315776825,
-0.12158098071813583,
0.5885347723960876,
-0.10637574642896652,
0.49851545691490173,
-0.22636573016643524,
-0.1838102638721466,
0.07642274349927902,
-0.16174307465553284,
0.12699390947818756,
0.16281242668628693,
0.13709484040737152,
0.5949299931526184,
0.11128292232751846,
-1.3330862522125244,
0.2647014558315277,
-0.6145484447479248,
0.36452987790107727,
-0.1654675006866455,
-0.0878944844007492,
-0.311038076877594,
-0.2952428460121155,
0.02046620473265648,
0.3930090665817261,
0.28334397077560425,
-0.2015085518360138,
0.43924328684806824,
0.2993617355823517,
0.26238349080085754,
-0.2907727062702179,
-0.17179568111896515,
-0.13819780945777893,
-0.5411693453788757,
-0.5509757399559021,
-0.5999287962913513,
-0.04846218600869179,
-0.05164047330617905,
-0.22661817073822021,
0.578895092010498,
0.28448134660720825,
-0.6165222525596619,
-0.2229645699262619,
0.1518135815858841,
-0.1514875292778015,
-0.4701671600341797,
0.6553343534469604
] |
205905
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20McGriff
|
Fred McGriff
|
Frederick Stanley McGriff (born October 31, 1963) is an American former professional baseball first baseman, who played for six Major League Baseball (MLB) teams from 1986 through 2004. A power-hitting first baseman, he became a five-time All-Star and led both leagues in home runs in separate years – the American League in 1989 and the National League in 1992. McGriff finished his career with 493 home runs, tied with Hall of Fame player Lou Gehrig, and only seven homers away from joining the 500 home run club. He won a World Series title as a first baseman with the Atlanta Braves in 1995. He currently works in the Atlanta Braves' front office as Special Assistant to Baseball Operations.
McGriff's nickname, "Crime Dog", created by sports broadcaster Chris Berman, is a play on McGruff, a cartoon dog created for American police to raise children's awareness on crime prevention. At first, McGriff stated he would prefer "Fire Dog" (a reference to a fire in the press-box of Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium the day the Braves acquired him from the Padres; symbolically, the then-slumping Braves "caught fire" and ended up winning their division), but since has stated that he is fond of the nickname.
Early life
McGriff was born in Tampa, Florida. His mother, Eliza, was a schoolteacher and his father, Earl, was an electronics repairman. As a child, he hung out at Al Lopez Field during Cincinnati Reds spring training and worked as a vendor at Tampa Stadium.
McGriff went out for the baseball team at Jefferson High School as a sophomore but was cut. He made the team the following year after undergoing a growth spurt. He was a high school teammate of Al Pardo. He first attracted the attention of professional ballclubs after hitting a long home run off of Hillsborough High School's Doc Gooden with scouts in attendance to watch Gooden pitch. McGriff accepted a scholarship offer to play college baseball for the Georgia Bulldogs.
Professional career
McGriff signed with the New York Yankees after being selected in the 9th round of the 1981 amateur draft. He received a $20,000 signing bonus. In 1982, the Yankees dealt McGriff, Dave Collins and Mike Morgan to the Toronto Blue Jays for Dale Murray and Tom Dodd. The trade is now considered one of the most one-sided deals in baseball history; in 2006, Rob Neyer wrote that the trade looked particularly lopsided because it was one of the few instances that a player of McGriff's stature was traded before getting to the majors.
At the time, the trade appeared to make some sense from the Yankees' perspective, since McGriff was blocked from first base by Don Mattingly. Nonetheless, the Yankees didn't get nearly enough in return. Murray won only three games in three years with the Yankees, and was out of baseball by 1986. Dodd was released at the end of the season, and apart from a month with the Baltimore Orioles in 1986 spent the remainder of his career in the minors. Before McGriff became a regular major leaguer, baseball great Ted Williams took note of his power at a batting practice session during spring training. Williams was drawn to McGriff when he heard the sound of the ball leaving McGriff's bat.
McGriff played two innings at first base on May 17, 1986, and the next day started his first career game as the designated hitter. His first at bat was in the bottom of the second inning against Don Schulze, during which he hit a line drive to left field for his first career hit. McGriff played in only one more MLB game that season.
McGriff reached the majors full-time in 1987, and hit 34 home runs the next year, his first of seven consecutive seasons with over 30 homers. He emerged as the top power hitter in the American League in 1989, leading the league with 36 home runs, including the first home run hit at the SkyDome, helping the Blue Jays win the AL East division title. His power numbers remained steady in 1990, as McGriff batted .300 and established himself as a consistent producer.
Move to the National League
On December 5, 1990, McGriff was traded to the San Diego Padres along with Tony Fernández in exchange for Roberto Alomar and Joe Carter – two players who would be integral in Toronto's back-to-back World Series titles in 1992 and 1993.
His numbers remained consistent in the National League, where he hit .278/.396/.474 for San Diego in 1991. He made his first All-Star appearance the following year and led the NL in home runs in 1992, three years after he had accomplished the same feat in the AL.
On July 18, 1993, the Padres, out of contention and seeking to unload their high-priced veterans, dealt McGriff to the Atlanta Braves for prospect Vince Moore, Donnie Elliott and Melvin Nieves. McGriff hit a home run in his first game with the Braves, who acquired him to replace the struggling Sid Bream at first and to provide an offensive spark, and was a key player in the Braves' 51–19 finish to overtake the San Francisco Giants and claim first place in the National League West for a third consecutive season. He finished with a career high 37 homers and fourth place in the NL MVP voting.
In the strike-shortened 1994 season, McGriff was batting .318 and had 34 home runs when play ended in August 1994. He won the All-Star Game MVP Award that year after hitting the game-tying home run for the National League, after the NL trailed, 7–5, in the bottom of the ninth inning. McGriff was runner-up to Ken Griffey Jr. in the 1994 Home Run Derby.
McGriff remained with the Braves in 1995 and continued to be a successful cleanup hitter. He hit two home runs in the 1995 World Series en route to his only World Series championship ring. McGriff hit .295/.365/.494 with a career-best 107 RBIs on his way to another World Series appearance in 1996.
With 22 home runs in 1997, McGriff appeared to be in decline. He was called out on strikes by umpire Eric Gregg on a pitch thrown by Liván Hernández during the 1997 NLCS, which was the last significant event for McGriff as a member of the Braves. The team allowed him to be picked up by the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays after the season.
Late career
McGriff, playing for his hometown team, the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, batted .278 with nineteen home runs in his first season with the Devil Rays. His numbers experienced a minor renaissance in 1999 when he hit .310 with 32 home runs the following season. After another solid season in 2000, McGriff got off to a good start in 2001 and was heavily pursued by the contending Chicago Cubs around the trade deadline. He waived his no-trade clause to allow himself to be dealt to Chicago on July 27, 2001. He hit .282 with twelve homers in 49 games with the Cubs, but the team did not reach the postseason.
McGriff had thirty home runs during a strong 2002 campaign, which earned him a one-year contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers for the 2003 season. Twenty-two homers shy of 500 for his career, the forty-year-old McGriff only hit thirteen with a .249 batting average and spent a significant amount of time on the disabled list.
During spring training in 2004, the Devil Rays re-signed McGriff in hopes of letting the veteran ballplayer hit 500 home runs. He ended up with a .181 average and had hit just two home runs in his sporadic play from the end of May until mid-July. The Devil Rays released McGriff on July 28, 2004, seven home runs shy of 500.
McGriff officially declared his retirement during spring training of 2005 when he received no calls from any teams requesting his services. He became eligible for the Hall of Fame in 2010. He received 21.5% of the vote in his first year of eligibility, falling short of the 75% requirement for induction. Over the next four elections, McGriff's vote percentage ranged from a high of 23.9% (137 votes) in 2012 to a low of 11.7% (67 votes) in 2014. As a player who received more than 5.0% of votes cast, McGriff remained eligible for induction by the Baseball Writers' Association of America until 2019, when his time on the ballot expired after ten unsuccessful appearances. On his final ballot, McGriff achieved his highest vote total ever of 39.8% (169 votes), still falling short of the necessary 75% for induction. Excluding players associated with alleged steroid use, McGriff has the most career home runs of any eligible player not in the Hall of Fame.
McGriff ended his career with ten seasons with at least thirty home runs. He and Gary Sheffield are the only players ever to hit at least thirty home runs in one season for five different teams, with McGriff accomplishing the feat with Toronto three times, San Diego twice, and Atlanta, Tampa Bay, and the Chicago Cubs once each.
Life outside sports
McGriff appeared in commercials for Tom Emanski's Baseball Fundamentals training videos in 1991. In the ad, McGriff deadpans the merits of the videos while wearing a "Baseball World" mesh cap perched high atop his head. The commercials ran for over a decade on ESPN, making them some of the longest running commercials on television.
He now hosts a radio show in Tampa.
He fell off the Hall of Fame ballot in 2019 after not receiving the 75% of votes required to make it in during his 10 years of eligibility. He will be eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame as part of the Today's Game Committee in December 2022.
See also
List of Major League Baseball home run records
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
References
External links
1963 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American League All-Stars
American League home run champions
Atlanta Braves players
Atlanta Braves scouts
Baseball players from St. Petersburg, Florida
Chicago Cubs players
Durham Bulls players
Florence Blue Jays players
Gulf Coast Dodgers players
Gulf Coast Yankees players
Kinston Blue Jays players
Knoxville Blue Jays players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball All-Star Game MVPs
Major League Baseball first basemen
National League All-Stars
National League home run champions
San Diego Padres players
Silver Slugger Award winners
Baseball players from Atlanta
Baseball players from Tampa, Florida
Syracuse Chiefs players
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Tampa Bay Rays executives
Thomas Jefferson High School (Tampa, Florida) alumni
Toronto Blue Jays players
Vero Beach Dodgers players
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople
|
[
-0.5061565637588501,
-0.02021481841802597,
-0.4106432795524597,
-0.017200209200382233,
-0.16948601603507996,
0.3545594811439514,
0.4256122410297394,
-0.32273411750793457,
-0.36787813901901245,
0.08789193630218506,
0.34630903601646423,
0.5307789444923401,
-0.5226496458053589,
-0.05873897671699524,
0.15597818791866302,
0.9252423048019409,
0.035865142941474915,
0.23652897775173187,
-0.2680160701274872,
-0.18917962908744812,
-0.09365405887365341,
-0.8529061675071716,
0.29222264885902405,
0.5608012676239014,
-0.3892083168029785,
0.5840815901756287,
-0.28945958614349365,
0.07672850787639618,
-0.14711011946201324,
-0.09730081260204315,
0.10561379790306091,
0.22995825111865997,
0.8755139112472534,
-0.6313884854316711,
-0.529762327671051,
-0.3450126349925995,
0.06664984673261642,
-0.49385353922843933,
0.13889017701148987,
0.11840830743312836,
-0.2163187563419342,
-0.08692190796136856,
-0.12378694117069244,
-0.30404239892959595,
0.26101458072662354,
-0.08815192431211472,
-1.5978842973709106,
-0.0887984111905098,
-0.31170397996902466,
-0.12018581479787827,
0.05279042571783066,
-0.24922171235084534,
0.12072794139385223,
-0.13746586441993713,
0.4928930997848511,
-0.19111795723438263,
-0.002655412768945098,
-0.29027777910232544,
0.09724675118923187,
-0.44801515340805054,
-0.32336392998695374,
-0.4882456660270691,
0.9854526519775391,
-0.5389630198478699,
0.1245894655585289,
0.5274856686592102,
-0.19064383208751678,
0.43921709060668945,
-0.3603956401348114,
-0.24692538380622864,
-0.12818601727485657,
-0.21215644478797913,
0.25868454575538635,
-0.13900543749332428,
0.343555748462677,
-0.19622918963432312,
0.03436865657567978,
-0.028519224375486374,
-0.3264860510826111,
0.6467102766036987,
0.1145138368010521,
0.10408422350883484,
0.22982129454612732,
0.3377014100551605,
-0.005654478445649147,
0.08135718107223511,
-0.38887345790863037,
0.37825697660446167,
-0.2265859842300415,
0.5638380646705627,
-0.4360218942165375,
-0.4078388214111328,
-0.08862710744142532,
0.0087915463373065,
-0.3894486427307129,
-0.9254000782966614,
0.07343259453773499,
0.22111265361309052,
0.1518302708864212,
-0.11711005121469498,
-0.3552680015563965,
-0.14106574654579163,
0.3763231635093689,
-0.06588979810476303,
-0.29041174054145813,
-0.2992306649684906,
0.5595434904098511,
-0.6489952802658081,
-0.38132303953170776,
-0.16960333287715912,
-0.41639092564582825,
0.03587689995765686,
0.20260007679462433,
-0.4199024736881256,
0.28241074085235596,
0.8632498979568481,
0.8763673901557922,
-0.5442043542861938,
-0.264792263507843,
-0.11188379675149918,
-0.11419449746608734,
0.3155648410320282,
-0.34905824065208435,
-0.3039168119430542,
-0.9938455820083618,
-0.4099072813987732,
-0.09292278438806534,
-0.34185585379600525,
-0.2835727334022522,
-0.07172942906618118,
0.18522141873836517,
0.9377508163452148,
-0.15591542422771454,
0.3014119565486908,
-0.7565363645553589,
0.0032707098871469498,
-0.06282328069210052,
0.24086758494377136,
-0.4871501922607422,
-0.1657850593328476,
-0.22855974733829498,
-0.48413732647895813,
-0.2981996238231659,
-0.6864339709281921,
-0.3078473210334778,
0.2131933867931366,
-0.01548184547573328,
0.14273864030838013,
0.22457242012023926,
0.7276080846786499,
0.4915035665035248,
0.5291283130645752,
0.2013477087020874,
-0.6507262587547302,
-0.5402369499206543,
0.9566412568092346,
0.6575896739959717,
0.02710803411900997,
0.334562748670578,
0.25801050662994385,
0.1264808475971222,
-0.2032002955675125,
-0.42155131697654724,
0.19655363261699677,
0.397175133228302,
-0.10743806511163712,
-0.008463828824460506,
-0.007142846006900072,
-0.16045458614826202,
-0.17829573154449463,
0.14036506414413452,
-0.16912029683589935,
0.23114722967147827,
-0.2758917212486267,
0.3160046637058258,
-0.15053704380989075,
0.5812146663665771,
-0.058068424463272095,
0.34920257329940796,
-0.41297459602355957,
-0.72527015209198,
-0.5395788550376892,
0.6413456797599792,
0.00476571312174201,
0.5537979006767273,
0.4610013961791992,
0.09150198101997375,
-0.4679509401321411,
0.976770281791687,
-0.05855302885174751,
-0.1659235805273056,
-0.8824650049209595,
-0.2276088297367096,
-0.19232819974422455,
0.6798791289329529,
0.3878989517688751,
-0.40737733244895935,
0.2465701550245285,
0.16258959472179413,
0.07312466949224472,
-0.18624581396579742,
-0.21532075107097626,
0.3331874907016754,
-0.30900511145591736,
-0.007672589737921953,
0.23679529130458832,
0.13876047730445862,
0.5286197662353516,
-0.2429080456495285,
1.235581636428833,
0.18450406193733215,
-0.4976518750190735,
0.022725723683834076,
0.23986782133579254,
-0.06939847767353058,
-0.6080045700073242,
-0.1677895486354828,
0.06925065070390701,
0.2510469853878021,
-0.8033263087272644,
0.3264153003692627,
0.5251851081848145,
-0.6184203624725342,
1.046650767326355,
-0.3125094473361969,
1.0683226585388184,
-0.10267304629087448,
0.2377394288778305,
-0.3189559280872345,
-1.1076242923736572,
0.49590107798576355,
0.42887407541275024,
0.021415119990706444,
-0.9844815731048584,
0.04668908566236496,
0.46411237120628357,
0.4856823682785034,
-0.18301458656787872,
-0.20260919630527496,
-0.24836507439613342,
0.29188746213912964,
0.21731889247894287,
-0.39525115489959717,
-0.011286703869700432,
0.1327480524778366,
-0.34922149777412415,
0.26332125067710876,
0.4215392470359802,
-0.20270773768424988,
-0.16031986474990845,
0.2876827120780945,
0.5402489304542542,
1.1048400402069092,
-0.1310388445854187,
1.0745645761489868,
0.38350266218185425,
-0.04941000044345856,
0.6082051992416382,
0.2025969922542572,
0.2944332957267761,
0.024349339306354523,
0.17665615677833557,
-0.023996850475668907,
-0.11060826480388641,
-0.08095145970582962,
0.3064657151699066,
-0.06861338764429092,
-0.053910382091999054,
-0.396591454744339,
-0.343126505613327,
-0.3151057958602905,
-0.09233341366052628,
-0.03392663970589638,
0.163729727268219,
-0.2578698694705963,
0.43633195757865906,
0.48470184206962585,
-0.22968225181102753,
-0.40106508135795593,
-1.1686781644821167,
0.41660794615745544,
0.7418867349624634,
-0.26738402247428894,
-0.30834054946899414,
0.48641547560691833,
-0.4151498079299927,
-0.47000014781951904,
-0.3365374505519867,
0.186423659324646,
-0.48859167098999023,
0.13314133882522583,
0.681179940700531,
-0.31845593452453613,
1.2945733070373535,
-0.39568954706192017,
0.2462843507528305,
-0.14462243020534515,
0.13461309671401978,
0.23110966384410858,
-0.1795237958431244,
-0.6657602787017822,
0.20829318463802338,
-0.0367780439555645,
-0.1746280938386917,
0.2595713436603546,
-0.23201796412467957,
-0.04842502251267433,
-0.24647969007492065,
-5.316023826599121,
0.4040868580341339,
0.3125201463699341,
0.14599400758743286,
0.10292457789182663,
0.3629007339477539,
0.23214837908744812,
-0.2939998507499695,
-0.14512398838996887,
0.3854740858078003,
0.08005436509847641,
-0.20243224501609802,
0.08976539969444275,
0.2153436690568924,
0.7698363661766052,
0.44366541504859924,
1.0689564943313599,
-0.8702514171600342,
-0.12609145045280457,
-0.007705906871706247,
-0.13493528962135315,
0.4653282165527344,
-0.42319926619529724,
-0.19946889579296112,
-0.1834036111831665,
0.2252790927886963,
-0.7014058232307434,
0.4736922085285187,
-0.617656946182251,
0.3290523588657379,
0.07643081992864609,
0.6450392007827759,
-0.48010170459747314,
0.561738133430481,
-0.221446231007576,
-0.2500355839729309,
0.7373150587081909,
-0.3022756278514862,
-0.2686678171157837,
-0.4741748571395874,
0.23740163445472717,
0.020643629133701324,
-1.0998553037643433,
-0.16595371067523956,
0.1403779536485672,
-0.5235866904258728,
-0.3828311562538147,
-0.6595413684844971,
-0.26698631048202515,
0.5184590220451355,
0.22155049443244934,
-0.008621856570243835,
0.3213633596897125,
0.4557485580444336,
0.42456579208374023,
-0.8280547857284546,
0.11815796792507172,
-0.004482856951653957,
-0.6017221808433533,
0.636910617351532,
0.19631429016590118,
-0.8768313527107239,
0.25835737586021423,
0.13167913258075714,
-0.29125624895095825,
-0.17713436484336853,
0.1956334412097931,
-0.1979292333126068,
0.04917232692241669,
-0.20111218094825745,
-0.40881410241127014,
0.7068344354629517,
-0.12590359151363373,
-1.019848346710205,
0.48648801445961,
-0.37704378366470337,
0.3042914569377899,
0.5291078686714172,
-0.7908501625061035,
-0.4626582860946655,
-0.24477678537368774,
-0.48620083928108215,
0.3235902786254883,
0.549464762210846,
-0.05787001550197601,
-0.5856673121452332,
-0.693064272403717,
0.6537160277366638,
-0.11501392722129822,
-0.15070003271102905,
0.25967204570770264,
-0.12423984706401825,
0.3024572432041168,
-0.2527254819869995,
-0.113288015127182,
0.0834513008594513,
0.5354980230331421,
0.09408141672611237,
0.3938339054584503,
0.02270176261663437,
0.20287036895751953,
-0.40720322728157043,
-0.48257359862327576,
-0.6839912533760071,
0.13178765773773193,
-0.03374175727367401,
0.04401159659028053,
0.1433643102645874,
0.939537525177002,
0.3691236674785614,
0.33129602670669556,
0.5363996624946594,
-0.18156211078166962,
-0.38004931807518005,
0.2291800081729889,
0.12051276117563248,
-0.06336909532546997,
0.34556129574775696,
0.9499198794364929,
0.31719058752059937,
0.3957529067993164,
0.030532939359545708,
-0.025253314524888992,
-0.3312619924545288,
-0.3255388140678406,
-0.0652991458773613,
0.5916191339492798,
-0.10207635164260864,
-0.6283798217773438,
-0.3696245551109314,
-0.3258436620235443,
0.6032178401947021,
-0.0903799757361412,
0.28733476996421814,
-0.04664255678653717,
-0.0910855084657669,
-0.29533708095550537,
-0.5722692012786865,
-0.2602533996105194,
0.02763848751783371,
-0.03395794704556465,
-0.22435647249221802,
-0.2499382346868515,
0.05583246797323227,
-0.2583480179309845,
-0.13104033470153809,
0.6722790002822876,
0.5850023031234741,
-0.7723122239112854,
0.34412020444869995,
-0.01941572315990925,
-0.48175331950187683,
0.5616603493690491,
-0.40712714195251465,
-0.5775889754295349,
-0.11820487678050995,
-0.4809567332267761,
-0.2852163016796112,
0.14617936313152313,
-0.5197867751121521,
0.6848172545433044,
0.1383376121520996,
-1.1413770914077759,
-0.23943017423152924,
0.32399916648864746,
0.05800225958228111,
-0.8435799479484558,
-0.23994441330432892,
-0.19902941584587097,
0.7083073258399963,
0.5866179466247559,
-0.6456374526023865,
-0.35914409160614014,
0.014584911055862904,
-0.36681365966796875,
0.14538756012916565,
0.05052546039223671,
-0.46430519223213196,
0.38433048129081726,
-0.14395862817764282,
0.9089087843894958,
-0.28419017791748047,
-0.7412577271461487,
-0.010955863632261753,
0.7342457175254822,
-0.3390916585922241,
-0.5137680172920227,
-0.5069385766983032,
-0.3833238482475281,
0.634540319442749,
-0.15242871642112732,
-0.16236858069896698,
0.07772760838270187,
0.7241321802139282,
-0.38856762647628784,
-0.19573214650154114,
0.03440449386835098,
-0.4411504566669464,
-0.7943279147148132,
-0.25951680541038513,
0.25337332487106323,
-0.23242847621440887,
-0.43522265553474426,
-0.2652108371257782,
-0.26215049624443054,
-0.6892305016517639,
-0.07250086963176727,
-0.08537391573190689,
0.20584620535373688,
0.6345858573913574,
-0.42181676626205444,
-0.14705190062522888,
-0.40396708250045776,
-0.0738009586930275,
0.0014973158249631524,
0.21658669412136078,
-0.30251258611679077,
0.5056605935096741,
-0.4321571886539459,
-0.7668297290802002,
-0.4351848065853119,
0.23551471531391144,
-0.38664358854293823,
-0.08207102119922638,
-0.5834441781044006,
0.05030938237905502,
0.2613498866558075,
-0.13024404644966125,
0.5891211628913879,
-0.14014986157417297,
-0.761035144329071,
-0.33254292607307434,
0.04540149122476578,
0.1946432888507843,
-0.2295512855052948,
-0.09242844581604004,
0.1631806194782257,
0.6099210381507874,
-0.5897505283355713,
0.03168225288391113,
0.8384079337120056,
1.3475751876831055,
0.21558482944965363,
-0.06211975961923599,
0.2821385860443115,
-0.12569180130958557,
0.37818998098373413,
-0.5627240538597107,
-0.2663334310054779,
0.49127447605133057,
0.3710808753967285,
0.03828665614128113,
-0.49052971601486206,
0.4371943175792694,
0.9300219416618347,
-0.29142701625823975,
-0.039423685520887375,
-0.06885615736246109,
0.33584192395210266,
0.10846371948719025,
-0.14021846652030945,
0.17108318209648132,
-0.7940331101417542,
0.2704288065433502,
-0.23271946609020233,
0.09132914245128632,
-0.23252497613430023,
0.1953890323638916,
0.0404333733022213,
-1.0029369592666626,
-0.5720084309577942,
-0.30179473757743835,
0.2552608251571655,
1.273140549659729,
-0.6923208236694336,
0.12755663692951202,
0.7460285425186157,
-0.1917344480752945,
0.06290480494499207,
-0.5446026921272278,
-1.0032187700271606,
-0.32488787174224854,
0.01442745141685009,
-0.264379620552063,
-0.22125595808029175,
-0.4766150414943695,
-0.31870222091674805,
-0.3470454812049866,
-0.2040092647075653,
-0.28759512305259705,
-0.6090142726898193,
0.6765686273574829,
-0.45204004645347595,
-0.0320492759346962,
0.05921359360218048,
-0.6111215949058533,
0.3402182161808014,
0.5635358691215515,
-0.07017983496189117,
0.2409747987985611,
-0.5449249744415283,
0.8241814374923706,
0.5658445954322815,
-0.31863927841186523,
0.868261456489563,
-0.3873501121997833,
-0.41449588537216187,
-0.12714585661888123,
-0.33441850543022156,
0.13533736765384674,
0.299577921628952,
-0.5036877989768982,
0.24205629527568817,
-0.08513888716697693,
-0.19748370349407196,
-0.10004442185163498,
0.27600789070129395,
-0.03515799343585968,
-0.18218745291233063,
-0.06300462782382965,
0.07707120478153229,
0.3986102044582367,
0.7551997303962708,
0.3374772369861603,
-0.02821832150220871,
1.464396357536316,
-0.09927679598331451,
-0.25773486495018005,
0.19503472745418549,
0.42152106761932373,
-0.12312204390764236,
-0.6174489259719849,
-0.5655372142791748,
0.5507469773292542,
0.024578992277383804,
-0.25669729709625244,
0.2603916525840759,
-0.33239543437957764,
0.1081918403506279,
0.37205731868743896,
-0.2890276312828064,
0.9090190529823303,
0.4466668963432312,
0.1433376967906952,
-0.2705155611038208,
-0.10952763259410858,
-0.03099714033305645,
0.09976448863744736,
0.30233967304229736,
-0.4026549458503723,
-0.26820436120033264,
0.11185842007398605,
-0.040403906255960464,
-0.722641110420227,
-0.23963452875614166,
-0.17657573521137238,
0.8485605716705322,
-0.5544328093528748,
-0.6898568272590637,
-0.3178744316101074,
-0.108421191573143,
-0.43019965291023254,
0.9201533794403076,
0.1547391712665558,
0.24825407564640045,
-0.1029069796204567,
-0.10908210277557373,
-0.42729365825653076,
-0.28024905920028687,
0.8680844902992249,
0.05732516944408417,
0.32831284403800964,
0.23380008339881897,
0.3235521912574768,
0.4673503041267395,
0.21280768513679504,
0.6492118239402771,
-0.10810548812150955,
-0.20138783752918243,
0.03755056485533714,
-0.4105209708213806,
0.23251226544380188,
-0.3793734610080719,
-0.1140766441822052,
0.12479083985090256,
0.2988108992576599,
-0.08641009777784348,
0.8890480399131775,
0.27539053559303284,
-0.3132607638835907,
0.022074144333600998,
-0.4005317986011505,
-0.5261301398277283,
0.4374886453151703,
0.08793217688798904,
0.30083179473876953,
-0.40951448678970337,
0.6693073511123657,
0.9235935211181641,
0.4749571979045868,
0.2387601137161255,
-0.14960476756095886,
-0.45357847213745117,
-0.13089396059513092,
-0.4015633761882782,
0.22501137852668762,
-0.2824183404445648,
-0.14554361999034882,
0.035849280655384064,
1.0698587894439697,
0.39522454142570496,
0.32706010341644287,
-0.6122660636901855,
-0.14503051340579987,
-0.15666674077510834,
0.06440197676420212,
0.5917810797691345,
-0.6956877708435059,
-0.023038413375616074,
-0.2896506190299988,
0.1629839688539505,
0.48602715134620667,
0.40186527371406555,
0.8133062720298767,
0.048470690846443176,
0.2898554503917694,
0.13483664393424988,
-0.18938809633255005,
-0.3534109890460968,
0.785938024520874,
0.16172285377979279,
-0.6204909682273865,
-0.8034801483154297,
0.08704632520675659,
0.09172188490629196,
-0.7619460821151733,
0.8403832316398621,
0.4567582309246063,
0.8411976099014282,
-0.07202433794736862,
0.9267009496688843,
0.017753753811120987,
0.31505995988845825,
-0.16661633551120758,
-0.22184225916862488,
0.7092148065567017,
0.37959712743759155,
-0.2548227906227112,
0.44799819588661194,
0.2663183808326721,
0.0867546796798706,
-1.020452618598938,
0.21013835072517395,
-0.4563043415546417,
0.026644496247172356,
-0.17985498905181885,
-0.2843050956726074,
1.03171968460083,
0.6028434634208679,
-0.19694824516773224
] |
205910
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trek%20Bicycle%20Corporation
|
Trek Bicycle Corporation
|
Trek Bicycle Corporation is a bicycle and cycling product manufacturer and distributor under brand names Trek, Electra Bicycle Company, Bontrager, and Diamant Bikes. The company has previously manufactured bikes under the Gary Fisher, LeMond Racing Cycles, Klein, and Villiger Bikes brand names. With its headquarters in Waterloo, Wisconsin, Trek bicycles are marketed through 1,700 independently owned bicycle shops across North America, subsidiaries in Europe, Asia, South Africa, as well as distributors in 90 countries worldwide. Most Trek bicycles are manufactured outside the United States, in countries including the Netherlands, Germany, Taiwan, and China.
History
1975–1979 — The early years
In December, 1975, Dick Burke and Bevil Hogg established Trek Bicycle as a wholly owned subsidiary of Roth Corporation, a Milwaukee-based appliance distributor. In early 1976, with a payroll of five, Trek started manufacturing steel touring frames in Waterloo, Wisconsin, taking aim at the mid to high-end market dominated by Japanese and Italian made models. Trek built nearly 900 custom hand-brazed framesets that first year, each selling for just under $200. Later that same year Trek Bicycle was incorporated. In 1977, Penn Cycle in Richfield, Minnesota became the first Trek retailer in the world. Within three years, Trek sales approached $2,000,000 in 1979.
1980–1984 — Trek becomes a business
Hampered without additional manufacturing capacity, Trek sales plateaued in the late 1970s. In just a few years Trek had outgrown its original "red barn" manufacturing facility—a former carpet warehouse. Recognizing the need for expansion, in 1980 Trek broke ground on a new corporate headquarters on the outskirts of Waterloo. Company co-founder Dick Burke would later recall that "it wasn’t until we built the new factory that we became a business." With more factory space available, Trek expanded its manufacturing to include complete bikes. In 1981, Trek entered the steel road racing bike market, introducing the "Pro" line, including the 750 and 950 models, and in 1983, Trek built its first mountain bike, the 850. In 1984, Trek ventured into the aftermarket parts and accessories business, launching its Trek Components Group (TCG) department.
1985–1991 — Technology frontier
In 1985, borrowing technology from the aerospace industry, (and bike companies such as Alan and Vitus), Trek introduced its first bonded aluminum bike frame, the 2000. The introduction of bonded aluminum to Trek's production line proved very problematic for a company that had built itself on hand-brazed steel frames. Manufacturing ground to a halt as Trek worked to figure out how to build bonded frames in a production environment. A year later, Trek followed up the success of the 2000 with a 3-tube carbon composite model, the 2500. Thus began Trek's foray into carbon fiber. That same year, to keep up with rapidly growing sales, Trek added another of manufacturing space to its Waterloo headquarters. In 1988, Trek introduced "Trek Wear," marking the company's entry into the cycling apparel business. A year later, Trek expanded into foreign markets, opening subsidiary offices in the UK and in Germany. That same year, Trek introduced its Jazz brand of bicycles, a collection of entry-level and kids’ bikes designed by Trek but manufactured in Taiwan. Jazz bicycles were discontinued in 1993.
1989 was a pivotal year for Trek, marking the year that the company unveiled its first molded carbon fiber frame, the Trek 5000. The 5000 frameset (monocoque carbon frame plus bonded aluminum fork) had an advertised weight of . Designed by Trek but built by Brent Trimble, an outside manufacturer, the 5000 suffered enough quality problems that it was discontinued after just one year. But the lessons learned from the 5000 would prove to be instrumental in driving Trek to develop its own carbon manufacturing capabilities in the coming years.
In 1990, Trek developed a new category of bicycle that combined the comfort features of a mountain bike with the quick ride of a road bike: MultiTracks, Trek's first line of hybrid bikes, were born. That same year, Trek also introduced its first line of kids’ bikes. In 1991, Trek opened its first company-owned retail store in nearby Madison, Wisconsin. In addition to showcasing a full line of Trek products, the Trek Store served as a hands-on sales training center for employees from Trek's headquarters who lacked retail experience. The store also provided an outlet for Trek to test merchandising and marketing ideas before expanding them to its network of independent bicycle retailers.
1992–1996 — OCLV and acquisitions
In the early 1990s, Trek's director of technology, Bob Read, attended an aerospace industry trade show in Salt Lake City, Utah, eventually meeting up with a closed mold tooling company called Radius Engineering. That visit convinced Read that Trek's future success depended on building frames from carbon fiber, a material he envisioned could be used to make light, strong frames. Having lived through the troubled introduction of the 5000, Trek invested heavily in in-house carbon fiber manufacturing capabilities. In 1992, Trek unveiled its first home-grown, full-carbon framed bicycles, the 5500 and 5200, featuring OCLV Carbon frames. OCLV stands for "Optimum Compaction, Low Void" and refers to Trek's proprietary process for creating carbon structures that exceed aerospace standards. Weighing only , the 5500 frame was the world's lightest production road frame. To make room for its new OCLV manufacturing facility, Trek expanded its Waterloo headquarters again to a total of . 1992 marked another first for Trek: its first full suspension mountain bike, the 9000-series, which featured Trek's T3C (travel is three times compression) suspension system.
In 1993, Trek introduced its first OCLV Carbon mountain bike frames, the 9800 and the 9900, which at was the world's lightest production mountain bike frame.
In 1993, Trek also acquired Gary Fisher Mountain Bikes, named after Gary Fisher, one of the inventors of the mountain bike and one of the most popular names in off-road cycling. Fisher had founded Gary Fisher Mountain Bikes in 1983 and sold his company in 1991 to Taiwan's Anlen company, remaining on as President. In 1992, Howie Cohen, who had previously imported Nishiki, Azuki and Kuwahara bicycles, assisted Gary Fisher with his brand — 18 months later brokering the acquisition of Fisher by Trek (in 1993).
In 1994, Trek entered the growing home fitness arena, introducing Trek Fitness Exercycles. In 1996, Trek discontinued the Exercycle line, spinning off its fitness division into an independently-owned company, renamed Vision Fitness.
In 1995, Trek introduced its full suspension Y bike, a departure from traditional bike design. The Y bike sold well, and won an "Outstanding Design and Engineering Award" from Popular Mechanics magazine. Also in 1995, Trek made a number of business moves in order to diversify its product offering and gain market share, acquiring Klein Bicycles, a Chehalis, WA, manufacturer of premium aluminum-framed bicycles, as well as Bontrager Cycles, a Santa Cruz, CA-based manufacturer of bicycle components and hand-built steel frames. Trek also signed a long-term licensing agreement with Greg LeMond, the 3-time Tour de France champion and the first American to win the Tour—to design, build, and distribute LeMond Racing Cycles. 1995 was also the year Trek opened a state-of-the-art assembly facility in Whitewater, Wisconsin, leaving the Waterloo location free to focus solely on frame production.
1997–2005 — The Armstrong years and further expansion
In 1997, Trek helped sign former world road race champion (1993) Lance Armstrong to the Trek-sponsored United States Postal Service Pro Cycling Team. Armstrong won his first Tour de France in 1999 aboard a Trek 5500, becoming the first American to win the Tour on an American team riding an American made bicycle. Armstrong went on to win a record-setting seven-consecutive Tours de France, all of them aboard Trek bicycles aside from a few early time trial stages that he rode aboard a Litespeed bike, painted and badged as a Trek. In 2012, all of Armstrong's Tour victories were rescinded after Armstrong was found to have violated anti-doping regulations.
In 1998, Trek established its Advanced Concepts Group (ACG), a collection of engineers and technicians dedicated to technologies development. The leading edge of Trek's design and engineering efforts, ACG is perhaps best known for a number of products introduced and used by Lance Armstrong during his historic Tour de France wins, including the original Trek Madone (2003)—named for the Col de la Madone, a 12K climb that starts in the French town of Menton and used by Armstrong to test his fitness—and TTX time trial bike (2005). That same year, Trek opened its first European manufacturing facility, a frame and wheel assembly plant in Carlow, Ireland. The Carlow facility stayed open until late 2004, at which time Trek transferred its European production to a manufacturing facility in Hartmannsdorf, Germany.
Responding to the unique needs of female cyclists, in 2000 Trek introduced Women's Specific Design (WSD) bicycle and accessories. WSD products are designed to fit female riders, and feature sizing and proportions appropriate for women. In October 2001, Trek introduced a custom bike program named Project One, which gave customers the opportunity to customize their Trek bike by selecting the bike's paint scheme and component mix.
Hoping to expand into a new market segment, Trek introduced Trek Travel in December 2002, a provider of luxury cycling vacations in Europe and North America. Trek Travel operated as a wholly owned subsidiary of Trek Bicycle until January 2007, when Trek spun off its interests in the company. Despite the split, Trek and Trek Travel enjoy a close working relationship.
In 2003, Trek acquired Villiger, a Swiss bicycle company, and Diamant, the oldest bicycle company in Germany. The acquisition gave Trek a foothold in the active-leisure bicycle market, an important segment in Europe. As part of the acquisition, Trek took over ownership of the Villiger-Diamant production facility in Hartmannsdorf, Germany. Trek's global expansion continued in 2005, when Trek expanded into the Chinese market by opening two stores in Beijing and signing deals with 20 Chinese distributors.
For the third time in its history, in 2005 Trek again expanded its worldwide headquarters in Waterloo, adding another to house its burgeoning engineering, R&D, and marketing departments. As part of the expansion, Trek included an atrium exhibit to display a number of historically significant bikes from Trek's family of brands, including one of the first mountain bikes ever built by Gary Fisher, and seven bikes used by Lance during his historic Tour de France run (one from each year, 1999–2005).
2006–present
In 2008, after years of behind-the-scenes support for the League of American Bicyclists and the Bikes Belong Coalition (now PeopleForBikes), Trek announced its 1 World 2 Wheels bicycle advocacy campaign at its annual Trek World dealer convention in Madison, Wisconsin. Central to 1 World 2 Wheels is its "Go By Bike" initiative, which urges Americans to ride their bikes instead of drive their cars for trips of two miles (3 km) or less. Through 1 World 2 Wheels Trek also pledged $1,000,000 to help fund the League of American Bicyclists’ "Bicycle Friendly Community" program and committed $600,000 to the International Mountain Bicycling Association's (IMBA) Trail Solutions Services. On January 6, 2014, Trek announced the acquisition of the Electra Bicycle Company.
In 2009, Trek created the Trek Women Triathlon Series. 2011, Trek sponsored three women's triathlon series; the Trek Women Triathlon Series, the Danskin Series and the Iron Girl Series.
As from the 2014 season, Trek became the main sponsor of Pro Tour cycling team Trek Factory Racing, a continuation of its bike sponsorship of Team RadioShack and co-sponsorship of Team Leopard-Trek.
In 2017, Trek paid equal prize money to the male and female winners of the Cyclocross World Cup race hosted at their headquarters in Waterloo, Wisconsin, which was, "the first time in the history of the sport that women would be paid as much as men for racing the same course at the World Cup level."
In 2021, Trek announced the release of its professional level Madone.
2014 unified hour record
In 2014, the UCI unified the two classifications into a single classification in line with regulations for current track pursuit bikes. Following the change in the rules, German Jens Voigt became the first rider to attempt the hour record, on 18 September 2014 at the Velodrome Suisse, Grenchen, Switzerland on a Trek bicycle. He set a new record of 51.110 km, beating the previous record set by Sosenka by 1.410 km.
In the Media
Trek Y series bikes were used in the hit TV series Pacific Blue and outfitted with Spinergy wheels, NiteRider lights and Janned police bags making each bicycle worth $5,000.
Products
Eco-friendly products
For the year 2010, Trek teamed with multiple suppliers to provide eco-friendly products. This includes brand new bikes that are economically priced and are made out of steel. Steel is an easier material to obtain and recycle. Also, Trek is starting to provide bike shops with funds to start recycling old tubes to be sent to Alchemy Goods in Seattle, Washington, to be made into bags, seat bags, and panniers.
Bontrager
Bontrager branded products include helmets, tires, wheels, handlebars, stems, seatposts, saddles, electronics and cycling shoes, water bottles and other cycling clothing and accessories
LeMond brand
The relationship between Trek and Tour-de-France winner Greg LeMond went back to at least 1995 when LeMond licensed Trek to produce LeMond branded bicycles. According to Trek, "In 1999, the LeMond line was one of the fastest growing road bike brands and one of the top five largest road bike brands in the United States".
In March 2008, LeMond Cycling Inc prepared a suit against Trek, accusing it of bowing to pressure from "third parties" to "wind down" his brand through lack of distribution and promotion, especially in the European market. The complaint also says that "Since 2001, Trek has systematically sought to silence Mr. LeMond's right to make comments that constitute an informed and honest opinion on matters of legitimate public interest – the problems associated with the use of performance enhancing substances". The complaint includes examples of Trek threatening its ties with LeMond in 2001 and 2004 after he made public statements against doping, Michele Ferrari, and Lance Armstrong
Trek responded in April 2008 by suing to sever business ties with LeMond. Trek's press release said that "LeMond's suit was characterized by Burke as containing false and irresponsible allegations". Burke also said "for years, Greg LeMond has done and said things that have damaged the LeMond brand and the Trek brand as a whole". . . . "His actions are inconsistent with our values—values we believe in and live everyday. And after years of trying to make it work, we are done." The suit was settled out of court in 2010. As of 2021 LeMond remains the only American Tour de France champion and was eventually awarded a congressional gold medal for his career long commitment to cycling.
Brands
The Trek Bicycle Corporation consists of several brands:
Trek Bikes
Electra Bicycle Company
Klein Bikes (discontinued)
LeMond Racing Cycles (discontinued)
Gary Fisher Bikes (discontinued)
Diamant Bikes (Germany)
Villiger Bikes (discontinued)
Bontrager parts — Trek's in-house parts and accessories
Notes and references
External links
Cycle parts manufacturers
Cycle manufacturers of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Wisconsin
Jefferson County, Wisconsin
American companies established in 1975
1975 establishments in Wisconsin
Mountain bike manufacturers
|
[
0.1174241155385971,
0.2904227674007416,
-0.2888680100440979,
0.16593614220619202,
-0.19321079552173615,
0.3577589988708496,
-0.25299161672592163,
0.010222877375781536,
-0.3087860941886902,
-0.16524921357631683,
0.2041231244802475,
0.06557273864746094,
-0.06287022680044174,
0.5418774485588074,
-0.27091652154922485,
0.36234450340270996,
0.26384562253952026,
0.7440473437309265,
-0.277683287858963,
-0.42808598279953003,
-0.30957528948783875,
-0.1306876242160797,
0.7535566687583923,
0.048919834196567535,
-0.5018128752708435,
0.39732831716537476,
0.32224053144454956,
0.2907172739505768,
-0.3240013122558594,
0.5117848515510559,
0.14918076992034912,
0.6403717994689941,
-0.15545392036437988,
0.18729978799819946,
0.22565501928329468,
-0.1599496304988861,
0.08524917811155319,
-0.39692890644073486,
-0.1871488392353058,
-0.4559266269207001,
-0.10348546504974365,
0.02444191835820675,
-0.6314096450805664,
0.9249812364578247,
0.6734185218811035,
0.1987273246049881,
-0.9013989567756653,
-0.030622614547610283,
-0.652427077293396,
-0.17478106915950775,
-0.8862695097923279,
-0.12775449454784393,
-0.07558861374855042,
0.6900107860565186,
0.1234474927186966,
0.464036226272583,
-0.4176945686340332,
0.21263577044010162,
-0.22124601900577545,
-0.819051206111908,
0.24000895023345947,
0.06744887679815292,
0.06010308489203453,
0.420884907245636,
-0.1755545437335968,
0.11694110184907913,
0.30254513025283813,
0.3408111035823822,
0.025378188118338585,
-0.0266733318567276,
-0.5547430515289307,
-0.11663445085287094,
0.04011833295226097,
0.18530093133449554,
0.24962688982486725,
-0.372035950422287,
0.02467823214828968,
-0.1360350251197815,
0.03188527747988701,
0.08858974277973175,
0.06686791777610779,
0.4865246117115021,
0.43344998359680176,
-0.042461708188056946,
0.09466012567281723,
0.04871949926018715,
-0.6485311388969421,
-0.2970878779888153,
-0.2156047523021698,
0.2938566505908966,
-0.6103042960166931,
-0.12592311203479767,
0.5914388298988342,
0.36253780126571655,
-0.2280830442905426,
-0.49328988790512085,
-0.22992467880249023,
-0.06060409173369408,
0.8640344738960266,
0.3412543833255768,
-0.22267912328243256,
0.06514035165309906,
0.1666804701089859,
0.22099587321281433,
-0.3576756715774536,
-0.39628326892852783,
-0.15548045933246613,
-0.27010610699653625,
0.3266793489456177,
0.20569062232971191,
0.06414168328046799,
-0.07483451068401337,
0.29867660999298096,
-0.4004661738872528,
0.01339668221771717,
0.5639691352844238,
-0.3981855511665344,
-0.5222541093826294,
-0.5582543611526489,
0.018253402784466743,
0.26308807730674744,
0.7290665507316589,
-0.3605548143386841,
0.5728881359100342,
-0.10419445484876633,
0.5509600043296814,
0.27934926748275757,
0.23115940392017365,
-0.2755483388900757,
-0.0719892680644989,
-0.1604480743408203,
0.4887046813964844,
-0.18574316799640656,
0.1690128892660141,
-0.04827611893415451,
-0.0507100373506546,
0.6518447399139404,
0.3829421401023865,
0.20957565307617188,
-0.2929385304450989,
-1.119010090827942,
0.3357110619544983,
-0.4020567834377289,
-0.34015053510665894,
0.691343367099762,
-0.05845591798424721,
0.4505811333656311,
-0.17557393014431,
-0.318302720785141,
-0.3378759026527405,
0.05316736549139023,
-0.3127201497554779,
0.08830220997333527,
0.13988150656223297,
-0.40382325649261475,
0.4919005334377289,
0.5623357892036438,
0.06299883127212524,
0.23891198635101318,
0.030376719310879707,
0.17399390041828156,
-0.0832899659872055,
-0.48039305210113525,
0.16496501863002777,
-0.1569347083568573,
-0.5735121369361877,
-0.2584289014339447,
-0.21871337294578552,
0.7631732821464539,
0.002749117324128747,
-0.2916077673435211,
-0.31067955493927,
0.03623365983366966,
-0.8130242228507996,
0.19965535402297974,
0.036651987582445145,
0.4997236430644989,
0.45992177724838257,
0.04567054286599159,
-0.12783098220825195,
-0.649283230304718,
0.3514499366283417,
0.5864517092704773,
-0.3337491750717163,
0.2901189625263214,
-0.1854383945465088,
0.4955494701862335,
-0.14434294402599335,
0.04441234841942787,
0.2601301074028015,
-0.47455236315727234,
-0.2516769766807556,
0.4886702001094818,
-0.6327728629112244,
0.8758399486541748,
0.20425903797149658,
-0.7810494303703308,
0.5596953630447388,
-0.32507526874542236,
0.37713855504989624,
-0.3769896626472473,
0.42550334334373474,
-0.11865910142660141,
-0.7593033909797668,
-0.524539053440094,
0.43406811356544495,
0.29233741760253906,
-0.2923591434955597,
0.28819921612739563,
0.0647665336728096,
0.5199859738349915,
-0.3802817165851593,
0.12007468938827515,
-0.4050140082836151,
0.5672538876533508,
-0.3791482448577881,
-0.28713950514793396,
0.4391569197177887,
0.1867966204881668,
0.039327844977378845,
0.929599404335022,
0.05966413393616676,
-0.2373499721288681,
0.3559725880622864,
-0.2570554316043854,
0.7135938405990601,
-0.196722149848938,
0.004664673004299402,
0.18792954087257385,
0.526816725730896,
0.5781639814376831,
0.2724686861038208,
-0.08260225504636765,
-0.45664864778518677,
0.12539571523666382,
-0.2696121037006378,
0.07408984750509262,
-0.5199998617172241,
0.6597760319709778,
0.32967254519462585,
0.5228987336158752,
0.27799370884895325,
-0.6837122440338135,
0.3992427885532379,
0.6797531247138977,
-0.17098268866539001,
-0.21489088237285614,
-0.2670712172985077,
0.13130153715610504,
-0.545633852481842,
0.2080395370721817,
0.27887585759162903,
0.3481142818927765,
-0.014926569536328316,
0.07007646560668945,
-0.29370319843292236,
-0.27944067120552063,
0.12669286131858826,
0.38634246587753296,
-0.0922011137008667,
-0.24436892569065094,
-0.13897420465946198,
-0.33838942646980286,
0.028170954436063766,
-0.23816058039665222,
-0.9135363698005676,
-0.3313455283641815,
0.20935595035552979,
-0.1403382122516632,
-0.05286182835698128,
0.3429926633834839,
0.06774910539388657,
-0.29263773560523987,
-0.3820481598377228,
-0.045446205884218216,
-0.04350285232067108,
-0.5337517857551575,
0.5337016582489014,
-0.5753421783447266,
-0.34974491596221924,
0.17566321790218353,
0.44256019592285156,
0.7892152667045593,
-0.5330831408500671,
0.043084513396024704,
0.11279290169477463,
-0.20545829832553864,
-0.05433506891131401,
-0.21550293266773224,
-0.14827094972133636,
0.24982771277427673,
0.18011067807674408,
-0.551002562046051,
0.5825349688529968,
0.21222516894340515,
0.495353639125824,
-0.38714882731437683,
0.1730021983385086,
0.32328706979751587,
-0.46671900153160095,
0.046725157648324966,
-0.15554380416870117,
-0.30141621828079224,
-0.13890375196933746,
0.34712374210357666,
-0.16500802338123322,
0.10322658717632294,
-0.6388055682182312,
-5.623877048492432,
-0.004856039769947529,
-0.43590816855430603,
-0.25187718868255615,
0.5491281747817993,
-0.32026800513267517,
0.6897567510604858,
-0.08327312767505646,
0.1957021951675415,
-0.028949132189154625,
-0.13012424111366272,
-0.08171725273132324,
-0.20357048511505127,
0.06884109228849411,
-0.024246247485280037,
0.7470812797546387,
1.237633228302002,
0.4370838701725006,
0.4895557761192322,
0.20720435678958893,
0.6389721632003784,
-0.8731887936592102,
-0.5286881327629089,
0.16454526782035828,
-0.17064648866653442,
0.401714950799942,
-0.6335423588752747,
0.2738867402076721,
-0.25691109895706177,
0.26587799191474915,
-0.1534651517868042,
-0.2772868275642395,
-0.017373593524098396,
-0.5882629156112671,
0.012695771642029285,
-0.2372417002916336,
0.4067212641239166,
0.1875164806842804,
0.018047066405415535,
-0.34728890657424927,
-0.08743954449892044,
0.2855645418167114,
0.5858584046363831,
-0.18092504143714905,
0.04199518263339996,
0.36796775460243225,
-0.5723190903663635,
0.13395744562149048,
0.13700756430625916,
1.4782170057296753,
0.6492408514022827,
-0.36601048707962036,
0.5251869559288025,
0.4428330063819885,
-0.052827104926109314,
-0.44948410987854004,
0.065374955534935,
-0.05514714494347572,
0.27111491560935974,
0.6259353756904602,
0.5373017191886902,
-0.2284277081489563,
0.0636986643075943,
-0.6614129543304443,
-0.4067389965057373,
-0.2528848350048065,
0.0592944361269474,
-0.40699008107185364,
0.31061094999313354,
-0.054753728210926056,
-0.8545532822608948,
0.9836076498031616,
-0.6419236063957214,
-0.6788386702537537,
0.13751693069934845,
-0.36829572916030884,
0.12120550870895386,
-0.19423972070217133,
-0.46466922760009766,
0.47523343563079834,
-0.3511987328529358,
-0.6384025812149048,
-0.3396731913089752,
0.12549324333667755,
-0.056973326951265335,
-0.43316084146499634,
-0.21482521295547485,
0.371936172246933,
-0.43552082777023315,
-0.35172978043556213,
0.7829746007919312,
0.03579045832157135,
0.16911523044109344,
0.2346847653388977,
0.294842004776001,
-0.1475798636674881,
0.592913031578064,
0.3784360885620117,
-0.04899488762021065,
-0.9873417615890503,
-0.2924359142780304,
-0.252315491437912,
-0.11102248728275299,
-0.8655400276184082,
-0.6687525510787964,
-0.2678469717502594,
-0.3582427203655243,
-0.443875253200531,
0.4309596121311188,
0.2886505722999573,
0.0867697224020958,
-0.0065983375534415245,
-0.8305228352546692,
-0.8487217426300049,
0.740143895149231,
0.19782224297523499,
0.06934957206249237,
0.23455744981765747,
0.21655040979385376,
-0.16984355449676514,
0.47253456711769104,
0.6559414863586426,
-0.03915116935968399,
-0.7928922176361084,
-0.20172297954559326,
-0.2809212803840637,
0.01642262004315853,
0.22866520285606384,
0.24822194874286652,
-0.15488354861736298,
-0.1443394273519516,
0.5414628386497498,
-0.056079864501953125,
0.5320690274238586,
-0.4345836043357849,
-0.5722842812538147,
-0.32543718814849854,
-0.09068356454372406,
-0.1928924322128296,
-0.1773563176393509,
-0.1710982322692871,
0.5239631533622742,
-0.21243765950202942,
-0.099725142121315,
0.3246898055076599,
0.5913728475570679,
-0.05308413878083229,
0.08272524923086166,
-0.2705489993095398,
0.7045676112174988,
0.5500348210334778,
-0.951848030090332,
0.22483129799365997,
-0.0955236479640007,
-0.21884426474571228,
-0.5974215269088745,
0.1392749696969986,
0.008016564883291721,
0.5126153230667114,
-0.3601306676864624,
0.40578773617744446,
-0.1704995334148407,
-0.1747855246067047,
0.21290749311447144,
-0.2554764747619629,
0.10417133569717407,
0.16884729266166687,
-1.2968350648880005,
-0.29589125514030457,
0.692661702632904,
0.3345192074775696,
-0.08035491406917572,
-0.9761443138122559,
-0.5750027894973755,
0.5876650810241699,
0.44651708006858826,
0.2699076533317566,
-0.4236682951450348,
-0.3308914601802826,
0.06602583825588226,
-0.15027675032615662,
0.19367723166942596,
-0.5552105903625488,
0.23273487389087677,
0.2976638376712799,
-1.2956697940826416,
-0.3750029504299164,
-0.23807969689369202,
-0.4641059637069702,
-0.5299755334854126,
0.2770759165287018,
0.4685278534889221,
0.24179324507713318,
0.008254756219685078,
0.2655111849308014,
-0.33429956436157227,
-0.17146643996238708,
0.7306013107299805,
-0.7231232523918152,
-0.5389342904090881,
-0.2549418807029724,
0.36195361614227295,
-0.5195564031600952,
0.39462363719940186,
0.16697630286216736,
-0.3329586088657379,
0.12846358120441437,
-0.0030681437347084284,
-0.3642910122871399,
0.2326596975326538,
-0.3974169194698334,
-0.7475322484970093,
0.432263046503067,
-0.21197077631950378,
-0.6899803280830383,
0.32404178380966187,
0.35410287976264954,
-0.573509693145752,
-0.3118897080421448,
-0.04935585334897041,
-0.6947824954986572,
-0.26670387387275696,
-0.2184947282075882,
-0.6358243227005005,
-0.2940725088119507,
0.981569230556488,
0.6577394008636475,
-0.11965501308441162,
0.05528576672077179,
-0.2711874842643738,
-0.4903164207935333,
-0.5910450220108032,
-0.9123842716217041,
-0.8016632795333862,
0.23824860155582428,
0.5353165864944458,
0.057548291981220245,
0.5323596596717834,
0.6242984533309937,
-0.09712854772806168,
-0.00015005347086116672,
0.8377501964569092,
-0.21705108880996704,
-0.5244603753089905,
0.10731809586286545,
-0.1140473484992981,
0.4980824291706085,
-0.08387470245361328,
-0.4168824553489685,
0.1012439876794815,
0.06434489041566849,
-0.5341894030570984,
-0.7230473756790161,
-0.1818264275789261,
1.1350736618041992,
-0.3744463324546814,
-0.7857106328010559,
0.12556375563144684,
-0.23030845820903778,
-0.19179277122020721,
0.2636575698852539,
0.6927706003189087,
-0.6441555023193359,
-0.12529000639915466,
-0.31344839930534363,
0.19461895525455475,
-0.7397676706314087,
-0.26116347312927246,
0.12153735011816025,
-0.4716359078884125,
-0.004045203328132629,
-0.07931969314813614,
0.21329465508460999,
0.7338646054267883,
-0.12029579281806946,
-0.13010966777801514,
0.2932179868221283,
-0.6968442797660828,
-0.19068284332752228,
-0.39460793137550354,
-0.41205665469169617,
0.18868198990821838,
0.10415036231279373,
0.016978228464722633,
0.39317047595977783,
-0.516663134098053,
-0.29355522990226746,
0.032631807029247284,
-0.6176438927650452,
0.3159453868865967,
-0.324918657541275,
-0.14060428738594055,
0.015676740556955338,
-0.20559565722942352,
-0.6350801587104797,
0.15949706733226776,
0.6995573043823242,
0.11612353473901749,
-0.1911795288324356,
0.3127938508987427,
-0.2871318757534027,
0.7197607755661011,
0.3210032284259796,
-0.6156957745552063,
0.07344160974025726,
0.10829343646764755,
0.1864500343799591,
-0.22443640232086182,
0.238119438290596,
0.01730499416589737,
0.6746507287025452,
-0.9590876698493958,
0.4283623993396759,
1.106618881225586,
-0.5130380988121033,
0.1360240876674652,
0.43685856461524963,
-0.41238248348236084,
0.17333362996578217,
0.04602781683206558,
0.6323688626289368,
0.40372562408447266,
0.17376312613487244,
-0.39590469002723694,
0.09229417890310287,
0.9282422661781311,
-0.7064529657363892,
-0.41431018710136414,
0.7883756756782532,
-0.07685276865959167,
0.24699075520038605,
-0.2717718183994293,
-0.7369394302368164,
0.45827746391296387,
0.03655514866113663,
0.24791976809501648,
0.2420574575662613,
-0.30020204186439514,
-0.8091968894004822,
0.39399123191833496,
0.2336367666721344,
0.1934610903263092,
0.11796222627162933,
-0.24753062427043915,
-0.12624482810497284,
0.4627948999404907,
0.2789728343486786,
0.2069736272096634,
0.5189083814620972,
0.18202601373195648,
-0.23010236024856567,
-0.4635547995567322,
-0.0773540660738945,
0.620833158493042,
-0.0006187366088852286,
-0.46566256880760193,
-0.0377352237701416,
-0.051903922110795975,
0.2945193350315094,
0.25508126616477966,
0.019699636846780777,
0.3716500997543335,
0.6284237504005432,
0.0128116924315691,
-0.21665102243423462,
-0.29032209515571594,
0.4634690582752228,
-0.6358267068862915,
0.27302122116088867,
0.5222947597503662,
-0.26890289783477783,
0.594923734664917,
-0.10288581997156143,
0.3301223814487457,
-0.28678104281425476,
0.010605200193822384,
0.25027933716773987,
0.26848140358924866,
-0.44891104102134705,
0.8069187998771667,
-0.1728283166885376,
0.11224313080310822,
-0.20857609808444977,
-0.24773043394088745,
0.1392500251531601,
-0.10180781781673431,
-0.46947652101516724,
0.6530784964561462,
0.3240443766117096,
0.13051003217697144,
-0.05283455550670624,
-0.5092740058898926,
-0.8951197862625122,
0.417214572429657,
-0.05988965183496475,
0.11093965917825699,
-0.06832227855920792,
0.8640278577804565,
-0.07935988903045654,
0.004981364589184523,
0.5895282030105591,
0.30548378825187683,
0.27640897035598755,
0.586390495300293,
0.35475581884384155,
0.09141296148300171,
-0.5953337550163269,
0.24125251173973083,
-0.39225465059280396,
0.47812941670417786,
-0.28489676117897034,
-0.004863217007368803,
0.3707432448863983,
0.4450814723968506,
0.2916240692138672,
0.1807367503643036,
0.5694071054458618,
-0.42768916487693787,
-0.5091462135314941,
-0.11450766772031784,
-0.04097958281636238,
0.2631526291370392,
0.12055239826440811,
0.7265836596488953,
-0.1700419783592224,
-0.36575543880462646,
0.5991817712783813,
-0.1470032036304474,
-0.7814978361129761,
0.7255657315254211,
0.06456658989191055,
-0.213903546333313,
-0.7931182980537415,
0.11795351654291153,
-0.687272310256958,
-0.6603906154632568,
0.16565141081809998,
0.1346367597579956,
0.621678352355957,
0.039080239832401276,
0.6364055871963501,
-0.12539352476596832,
0.11597300320863724,
0.12512899935245514,
0.09502430260181427,
-0.30797502398490906,
-0.1401849091053009,
0.01408802717924118,
-0.7578660845756531,
0.7198430299758911,
-0.07523741573095322,
-0.1581197828054428,
0.14664310216903687,
-0.5247989296913147,
0.11813710629940033,
-0.10344474017620087,
0.47060003876686096,
0.010837544687092304,
0.04510103166103363,
-0.2190389782190323
] |
205911
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20P.%20Potter
|
William P. Potter
|
William Parker Potter (May 10, 1850 - June 21, 1917) was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy. He served as Chief of the Bureau of Navigation from July to December 1909. Potter previously commanded battleship USS Vermont and then Fourth Division, Atlantic Fleet during the voyage of Great White Fleet.
Early career
William P. Potter was born on May 10, 1850 in Whitehall, New York, the son of Joseph and Catharine Potter. He entered the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland as Cadet-Midshipmen on September 26, 1865 and graduated on June 4, 1869. He was subsequently attached to the frigate USS Sabine which conducted midshipman training cruises to European and Mediterranean ports.
Potter was promoted to Ensign on July 12, 1870 and transferred to the frigate USS Franklin, the Flagship of Rear admiral Charles S. Boggs, Commander of the European Squadron. While aboard Franklin, he was promoted to the rank of Master (equivalent to the present rank of Lieutenant (junior grade) on July 12, 1871 and was transferred to the steamer USS Hartford, which was a part of Asiatic Squadron at the time.
Upon promotion to full Lieutenant on August 9, 1874, Potter was transferred to the staff of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland and joined the Department of English Studies, History, and Law under Professor James R. Soley, future Assistant Secretary of the Navy as an Assistant Instructor.
After four years at Annapolis, Potter was ordered to the steam frigate USS Powhatan in January 1879, which served as the flagship of Rear admiral Robert H. Wyman, Commander of North Atlantic Station. Admiral Wyman later switched his flag to USS Tennessee and Potter served aboard her until September 1881, when he returned to the United States Naval Academy.
Potter then served as an instructor in the Department of Ordnance and Gunnery and remained in this capacity until early 1882, when he joined the USS Dale, which served as the training ship for Cadet-Midshipmen at the Annapolis. In July 1882, he was appointed Assistant to the Commandant of Midshipmen, Commander Norman von Heldreich Farquhar and was co-responsible for the Cadets at the Naval Academy until June 1884.
He was subsequently ordered to the USS Lancaster, which served as the part of South Atlantic Squadron during the protection of American commerce interests in the South Atlantic. Potter returned to the Naval Academy at Annapolis in September 1887 and served again as Assistant to the Commandant of Midshipmen, Henry Glass until June 1891.
Potter was subsequently appointed Flag lieutenant to Rear admiral Bancroft Gherardi, Commander of North Atlantic Station and served aboard his flagship USS Philadelphia until January 1895, when he began his fourth tour of duty at the Naval Academy as Assistant to the Superintendent and Secretary of the Academic Board at the Naval Academy under Captain Philip H. Cooper. He later served as a Head of the Department of English and was promoted to Lieutenant Commander on June 12, 1896. He waited over twenty years for this promotion.
In September 1897, Potter was appointed an Executive officer to Captain French Chadwick aboard armored cruiser USS New York, the Flagship of Rear admiral Montgomery Sicard, Commander North Atlantic Station. Following the sinking of battleship USS Maine in Havana Harbor in February 1898, he was assigned to the Sampson Board's Court of Inquiry, investigating the incident under then-Captain William T. Sampson.
The events in the Caribbean led to the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April that year and Potter served with the armored cruiser USS New York during that conflict and took part in the final phase of the Battle of Santiago de Cuba in July 1898. He was decorated with Sampson Medal for his participation in naval battles in Cuba.
Potter was promoted to Commander on September 9, 1899 and ordered to Philadelphia Navy Yard, where he assumed duty as Ordnance officer under Captain Charles E. Clark. He was transferred to the command of gunboat USS Ranger in November 1901 and commanded this vessel during the protection of American national interests in the Caribbean until June 1903, when he was ordered to Washington, D.C. for special duty in the Office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy under Charles Hial Darling. While in this capacity, Potter was promoted to Captain on September 13, 1904.
Flag assignments
In March 1905, Potter was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff of Bureau of Navigation under Rear admiral George A. Converse. He served in this capacity until June 1907, when he was appointed Commanding officer of the newly commissioned battleship USS Vermont. He commanded the ship during the voyage around the World with the Great White Fleet and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the America, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland.
While with the Great White Fleet in the Philippines, Potter was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral on October 30, 1908 and assumed command of Second Division, Atlantic Fleet. He later assumed command of the Fourth Division, Atlantic Fleet and led it as the part of Great White Fleet and visited Colombo, Ceylon; Suez, Egypt; Gibraltar and returned to Hampton Roads, Virginia in February 1909.
In July 1909, Potter was ordered to Washington, D.C., and assumed duty as Chief of the Bureau of Navigation. While in this assignment, his principal responsibility was personnel management and also held additional duty as a member of the Army and Navy Joint Board.
Potter remained in that capacity until December that year, when he was appointed Aid for Personnel for Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer. Secretary Meyer reorganizated the Navy Department and Potter, who was considered one of the ablest of the nation's naval command era should helped him with that task.
Potter remained in that capacity until the beginning of January 1912, when he was injured by a fall while on his way to the President William H. Taft's reception on New Year's Day. He has been granted, leave of absence of four months, which will carry him up to the date of his mandatory age retirement in May that year. Potter retired on May 10, 1912, after 42 years of active service.
Potter died of apoplexy on June 21, 1917, aged 67, at his home in Whitehall, New York. He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia together with his wife Sarah W. Carter (1854–1936). They had a daughter Catharine Eights Potter (1875-1971).
Notes
References
1850 births
1917 deaths
People from Whitehall, New York
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Naval Academy faculty
United States Navy admirals
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
|
[
-0.3785817623138428,
-0.2490808367729187,
-1.174739122390747,
0.36386653780937195,
0.3506266176700592,
0.5265100002288818,
0.5210238099098206,
0.20681409537792206,
-0.5709225535392761,
-0.5228189826011658,
0.05135929584503174,
0.6079124808311462,
-0.6367462873458862,
0.7911138534545898,
-0.5029155611991882,
0.6755960583686829,
0.12697789072990417,
0.2750014662742615,
-0.5138522386550903,
0.1520354300737381,
-0.47728025913238525,
-0.20957519114017487,
0.4334941506385803,
0.02670365944504738,
-0.31177452206611633,
0.08341559022665024,
-0.07361915707588196,
-0.13120147585868835,
0.38322216272354126,
0.3814006745815277,
-0.20678885281085968,
0.2962567210197449,
0.847579300403595,
0.19970673322677612,
-1.1715483665466309,
-0.24827097356319427,
-0.5647058486938477,
-0.7257627844810486,
0.15983057022094727,
0.5713528990745544,
-0.652418851852417,
0.004253803752362728,
0.2830357253551483,
0.15197783708572388,
-0.4543169140815735,
-0.10535930097103119,
-2.0328760147094727,
-0.3849102854728699,
-0.09975825250148773,
-0.19078877568244934,
-0.1350637823343277,
-0.18842434883117676,
0.2861274480819702,
0.1347908079624176,
-0.21321019530296326,
0.3293994963169098,
-0.029324041679501534,
-0.12067663669586182,
-0.46362000703811646,
-0.8366724848747253,
0.4765245318412781,
0.43636900186538696,
0.9375571608543396,
-0.04595828056335449,
0.15412092208862305,
0.25701743364334106,
-0.6414974927902222,
0.39880436658859253,
-0.15748894214630127,
0.4722141921520233,
0.34386131167411804,
0.374721497297287,
0.490499347448349,
0.06881106644868851,
-0.02501101605594158,
0.35208040475845337,
-0.012286821380257607,
0.009684596210718155,
-0.10720944404602051,
0.6433070302009583,
-0.6270899176597595,
-0.526003897190094,
0.6615874767303467,
0.08321093767881393,
-0.41741424798965454,
0.5563324093818665,
-0.3470167815685272,
0.3831682503223419,
-0.4572077691555023,
-0.013183431699872017,
-0.21422617137432098,
-0.1478661745786667,
0.04855139181017876,
0.3510245680809021,
0.015969570726156235,
-0.17525476217269897,
-0.31727951765060425,
0.15989193320274353,
-0.25721099972724915,
-0.1656634658575058,
-0.1296958327293396,
0.06334991753101349,
0.29017168283462524,
0.2978496849536896,
-0.185512512922287,
0.012460291385650635,
-0.018551379442214966,
-0.5901753306388855,
0.3403073847293854,
0.31761056184768677,
-0.4652809202671051,
-0.12209492921829224,
0.39619743824005127,
-0.13737837970256805,
-0.382767915725708,
0.6316723823547363,
0.13731183111667633,
-0.6885995268821716,
-0.505675196647644,
-0.7159135341644287,
0.06844722479581833,
0.09850537031888962,
-0.00435251509770751,
-0.11790578067302704,
-0.6747559905052185,
0.22745734453201294,
0.2822265326976776,
0.16836373507976532,
0.07546289265155792,
0.25397568941116333,
1.069825530052185,
1.0261961221694946,
-0.38109391927719116,
0.39885422587394714,
-0.8269703984260559,
0.34189537167549133,
-0.06609687954187393,
-0.03583469241857529,
-0.35552024841308594,
0.13011223077774048,
-0.5254709124565125,
-0.20832759141921997,
-0.7549483180046082,
-0.35667064785957336,
-0.25928452610969543,
-0.33509284257888794,
0.19408784806728363,
-0.18567033112049103,
-0.3980121910572052,
0.13269656896591187,
0.14928092062473297,
-0.08033859729766846,
0.9271792769432068,
-0.12948867678642273,
-0.2636384963989258,
-0.15240323543548584,
0.6221070885658264,
0.17677485942840576,
0.3448900878429413,
0.20960596203804016,
-0.49162381887435913,
-0.4238041937351227,
-0.431645005941391,
-0.08442066609859467,
0.40001168847084045,
0.39615362882614136,
0.05176214501261711,
-0.34372830390930176,
-0.6589576005935669,
-0.41001421213150024,
0.2514222264289856,
-0.15118840336799622,
0.9209923148155212,
-0.21507374942302704,
0.3671342730522156,
0.2863300144672394,
0.7247469425201416,
0.17838607728481293,
0.9217262864112854,
-1.0557782649993896,
-0.7481986880302429,
-0.4734933078289032,
0.8073224425315857,
-0.041792381554841995,
0.2991527318954468,
0.27329012751579285,
0.36463481187820435,
-0.4209785759449005,
0.7259947657585144,
-0.4029507339000702,
-0.2013222873210907,
-0.5218159556388855,
-0.5089494585990906,
-0.3225387632846832,
0.9077920317649841,
-0.1903955340385437,
-0.7908655405044556,
0.07334856688976288,
-0.28876444697380066,
0.54161536693573,
0.10648327320814133,
-0.24062086641788483,
0.12245043367147446,
-0.47556644678115845,
-0.1998070627450943,
0.39634406566619873,
0.031415149569511414,
0.13830044865608215,
-0.2035960853099823,
1.0353000164031982,
0.06741712242364883,
-0.6993793845176697,
0.011562188155949116,
0.5725031495094299,
-0.10127732902765274,
-0.6364730596542358,
-0.3657403290271759,
-0.5361413955688477,
0.5368577837944031,
-0.5196268558502197,
0.5699545741081238,
0.21665005385875702,
-0.3873332738876343,
0.7206776142120361,
0.19650886952877045,
0.7920611500740051,
-0.28343573212623596,
0.06954383850097656,
-0.3742569386959076,
-0.20736007392406464,
-0.021160433068871498,
-0.27669861912727356,
0.38734039664268494,
-0.5335710048675537,
0.5759791731834412,
0.2428460717201233,
0.045578040182590485,
-0.07775930315256119,
0.44096139073371887,
-0.9178400635719299,
-0.44613853096961975,
0.22963224351406097,
-0.5013930797576904,
0.2021152228116989,
0.3735281527042389,
0.5131904482841492,
-0.023314710706472397,
-0.4571118652820587,
-0.6715917587280273,
-0.26606878638267517,
0.3918803930282593,
0.7492960095405579,
0.9682891964912415,
-0.6918066143989563,
-0.3982374668121338,
-0.5590433478355408,
0.2341843545436859,
-0.30076131224632263,
0.01175044383853674,
0.31483542919158936,
0.4428562819957733,
0.4044838547706604,
-0.25380751490592957,
0.2151307761669159,
-0.2373274564743042,
-0.6005980968475342,
-0.5416619777679443,
0.07038067281246185,
0.02363499067723751,
0.06717552989721298,
0.5126143097877502,
-0.5252771377563477,
0.22346387803554535,
0.4631388187408447,
0.38845589756965637,
0.04674437642097473,
-0.14270363748073578,
-0.025261959061026573,
-0.5849140286445618,
-0.5579239130020142,
0.5326577425003052,
1.0120378732681274,
-0.5114557147026062,
0.06071120873093605,
0.22216297686100006,
-0.2879812717437744,
-0.2546613812446594,
-0.31138718128204346,
0.15540505945682526,
-0.2788938283920288,
-0.23177523910999298,
0.10269515216350555,
-0.004211843479424715,
0.7606238722801208,
-0.3237610459327698,
0.18383648991584778,
-0.34349241852760315,
-1.1351840496063232,
0.4040902554988861,
-0.1584165096282959,
-0.9723467230796814,
0.2686530649662018,
0.22449295222759247,
0.08332418650388718,
0.10867190361022949,
-0.1878444403409958,
-0.02856128104031086,
0.3537731170654297,
-4.730530261993408,
0.1085447147488594,
0.017730947583913803,
-0.45938345789909363,
0.1984306126832962,
0.4794013500213623,
0.13524162769317627,
-0.2747162878513336,
0.0055526369251310825,
-0.0575452521443367,
0.9515091776847839,
0.40784674882888794,
0.4703851342201233,
0.6360562443733215,
0.4905779957771301,
0.11407359689474106,
1.3886723518371582,
-0.17192506790161133,
0.20272023975849152,
-0.17957501113414764,
-0.10516741126775742,
0.17549172043800354,
0.4912583529949188,
0.056889504194259644,
0.2824815511703491,
-0.1898317188024521,
-0.44579315185546875,
-0.04891864210367203,
-0.4794362187385559,
-0.43324917554855347,
-0.0624222457408905,
0.29544299840927124,
-0.688589334487915,
0.2904156446456909,
0.02493690699338913,
-0.7912019491195679,
0.22935712337493896,
0.3810749650001526,
0.1294129192829132,
0.5256891250610352,
0.4537031650543213,
-0.06562258303165436,
-1.8189938068389893,
-0.5733187198638916,
0.16353841125965118,
-0.3794497549533844,
-0.3573972284793854,
0.5138466358184814,
0.02005835622549057,
0.4107765257358551,
0.7005879878997803,
0.10743791610002518,
0.5743298530578613,
0.153067484498024,
0.46478211879730225,
-0.26561373472213745,
0.33103126287460327,
0.4186510145664215,
-0.9151754975318909,
-0.19176870584487915,
0.41364049911499023,
-0.588046133518219,
-0.03981964662671089,
0.019308537244796753,
-0.4681245982646942,
-0.5259266495704651,
-0.09991802275180817,
-0.2817029654979706,
0.2380073517560959,
-0.3802735209465027,
-0.4527852237224579,
1.4674044847488403,
0.668070912361145,
-1.1852015256881714,
0.6014536619186401,
0.003474666504189372,
-0.3640129268169403,
0.005475094076246023,
-0.7050766944885254,
-0.5949335694313049,
0.198450967669487,
-0.2815127372741699,
0.6044714450836182,
1.084860920906067,
0.4220556616783142,
-0.3196755051612854,
0.0005867283325642347,
0.08909521996974945,
-0.2161969095468521,
-0.43423396348953247,
0.1001952737569809,
-0.2274790108203888,
0.1059470921754837,
0.2926654517650604,
0.3539465367794037,
-0.27074217796325684,
0.14307688176631927,
0.7114965319633484,
0.571709156036377,
-0.2317272275686264,
-0.48021531105041504,
0.002488374477252364,
-0.30568957328796387,
-0.820742130279541,
0.13699336349964142,
0.07725585252046585,
0.44473907351493835,
0.048467546701431274,
0.8889654278755188,
0.5472636222839355,
-0.07949265837669373,
0.163044273853302,
-0.32786667346954346,
-0.3350515365600586,
0.4315674602985382,
-0.24763621389865875,
0.2975335717201233,
0.2705864906311035,
0.9773780703544617,
0.41351258754730225,
0.27335017919540405,
0.8289707899093628,
-0.6252049803733826,
-0.2739771008491516,
-0.3411644399166107,
-0.6814839243888855,
0.4398137331008911,
-0.995659351348877,
-0.8312140703201294,
0.25732117891311646,
0.31904134154319763,
1.2365025281906128,
-0.4665134847164154,
0.6208375096321106,
-0.016800520941615105,
-0.5558463335037231,
-0.042598601430654526,
-0.5592101812362671,
-0.5597524642944336,
-0.08139808475971222,
-0.5325976014137268,
-0.14752647280693054,
-0.6881980895996094,
-0.1359563171863556,
0.540362536907196,
0.24891994893550873,
0.6269751787185669,
0.20009921491146088,
-0.2228119969367981,
0.34140723943710327,
-0.6322604417800903,
-1.0126701593399048,
0.2917005717754364,
-0.5220091342926025,
-0.3938910961151123,
0.04902203753590584,
-0.3179982304573059,
-0.18909120559692383,
-0.7185437083244324,
0.06811854988336563,
-0.28594183921813965,
0.21637104451656342,
-1.1350414752960205,
-0.5708492994308472,
0.5567939877510071,
0.6010420918464661,
-0.7950602769851685,
0.412377268075943,
-0.2659475803375244,
0.43584316968917847,
0.05396341159939766,
-0.14771218597888947,
-0.2521449029445648,
-0.2995040714740753,
0.3876766264438629,
0.3745983839035034,
0.24653223156929016,
-0.1390797644853592,
0.020420541986823082,
0.2614082098007202,
0.584591269493103,
0.01380896382033825,
-0.8121078610420227,
-0.456296443939209,
0.542606770992279,
-0.004525296855717897,
-0.3991754353046417,
-0.7448158264160156,
-0.13613784313201904,
0.2235955446958542,
-0.32691842317581177,
-0.5587486624717712,
0.34774020314216614,
1.2241486310958862,
0.11092250794172287,
0.37057259678840637,
0.7554079294204712,
-0.07892709225416183,
0.13037382066249847,
-0.33308589458465576,
0.18017055094242096,
0.4907243847846985,
-0.4925699830055237,
0.17915694415569305,
-0.7741981744766235,
-1.002686858177185,
-0.29252007603645325,
-0.12715227901935577,
0.20772136747837067,
0.39669129252433777,
0.12198235094547272,
-0.3876241147518158,
-0.36231398582458496,
0.26970145106315613,
-0.0637543797492981,
0.053094442933797836,
0.19222229719161987,
0.3853524327278137,
0.1543320268392563,
-0.523392379283905,
-0.8810219764709473,
-0.05056248605251312,
0.12106820940971375,
-0.3514710068702698,
-0.4891386330127716,
-0.32133981585502625,
0.2835838496685028,
0.37105584144592285,
0.7442845106124878,
-0.11798807978630066,
-0.1325409859418869,
-0.27107611298561096,
-0.2786020338535309,
0.19392216205596924,
0.5500572919845581,
-0.4150705337524414,
0.3795803487300873,
0.032552652060985565,
-0.20218174159526825,
-0.5187879800796509,
0.3921857178211212,
1.2875293493270874,
0.5266097784042358,
-0.3481289744377136,
-0.3583875298500061,
-0.34956222772598267,
0.7452943921089172,
-0.3695177137851715,
-0.3727462589740753,
0.14360687136650085,
0.6292904019355774,
-0.603074312210083,
-0.8652136325836182,
-0.5152882933616638,
1.1591488122940063,
0.05475280061364174,
0.051006000488996506,
0.6213188767433167,
0.36380070447921753,
-0.03868502750992775,
-0.566562831401825,
0.6978111267089844,
-0.23773670196533203,
0.38892072439193726,
0.3535836637020111,
-0.1293521374464035,
-0.39856651425361633,
0.18219056725502014,
0.421797513961792,
-0.5517318844795227,
-0.844484806060791,
-0.19287817180156708,
-0.4602702260017395,
0.6265048980712891,
-0.12189701199531555,
0.2760378122329712,
0.2560611963272095,
-0.4990273714065552,
0.6352577805519104,
0.12258154898881912,
-1.20693039894104,
0.059635452926158905,
-0.46320876479148865,
-0.28455087542533875,
-0.7813979983329773,
-0.7883683443069458,
-0.24941308796405792,
-0.32372957468032837,
-0.21280580759048462,
-0.3442245423793793,
-0.38452568650245667,
0.45983439683914185,
-0.3912631571292877,
-0.3498774766921997,
-0.4321362376213074,
-0.019644828513264656,
-0.2963106036186218,
1.013038158416748,
-0.036389030516147614,
0.36071306467056274,
-0.6189872026443481,
0.5885607600212097,
0.4538664221763611,
0.3173857033252716,
0.5984460711479187,
-0.41313469409942627,
-0.40459296107292175,
-0.29471907019615173,
-0.5108433961868286,
0.16175489127635956,
0.13337400555610657,
-0.7393656373023987,
0.5482915043830872,
0.16224715113639832,
-0.7795140147209167,
-0.4445658028125763,
1.098750352859497,
-0.42044079303741455,
-0.3118624687194824,
-0.09722669422626495,
0.13977603614330292,
-0.09341893345117569,
0.2224135398864746,
0.24962060153484344,
-0.4069419205188751,
0.5571329593658447,
-0.3563545048236847,
-0.054950546473264694,
-0.12996681034564972,
0.5161746740341187,
0.05228201672434807,
-0.41549062728881836,
-0.34735962748527527,
0.5967197418212891,
-0.13775542378425598,
0.24374616146087646,
0.2843993604183197,
-0.12974674999713898,
-0.6682157516479492,
0.42226654291152954,
0.21652808785438538,
0.840681791305542,
0.3527485430240631,
0.2783760130405426,
0.2676631808280945,
0.3334081768989563,
0.019633958116173744,
0.7133855819702148,
-0.07553617656230927,
-0.45295819640159607,
0.5188279151916504,
0.6754233837127686,
0.28575700521469116,
0.02416212111711502,
-0.04765889421105385,
0.24592933058738708,
0.9528478980064392,
-0.2102898359298706,
-0.8733373284339905,
-0.40904685854911804,
0.21157602965831757,
-0.6481324434280396,
1.5485516786575317,
-0.4629034698009491,
-0.03829323127865791,
0.3153911232948303,
-0.06375487893819809,
-0.4140213131904602,
-0.1924392729997635,
0.5386307239532471,
-0.039893101900815964,
-0.1538015455007553,
0.07778071612119675,
0.27301761507987976,
0.12708628177642822,
0.8721153736114502,
0.8738841414451599,
0.38227710127830505,
-0.38819000124931335,
0.22936011850833893,
-0.8478018045425415,
0.46946877241134644,
-0.6696917414665222,
-0.4920949935913086,
-0.12056351453065872,
0.2667546272277832,
-0.013908295892179012,
0.3537229299545288,
0.20013898611068726,
-0.575742781162262,
0.14518120884895325,
-0.3354826271533966,
-0.9316756129264832,
0.7288346886634827,
-0.6138387322425842,
0.4589391350746155,
0.24799436330795288,
0.9470821022987366,
0.7844902873039246,
0.18958355486392975,
-0.32890769839286804,
-0.024238036945462227,
-0.03561510145664215,
0.1639038771390915,
-0.5610976815223694,
-0.23346421122550964,
-0.4983676075935364,
0.18715019524097443,
-1.0929690599441528,
0.29699406027793884,
0.032790444791316986,
0.6065658330917358,
-0.9901065826416016,
0.5083043575286865,
-0.21030272543430328,
-0.5831297636032104,
0.6043893694877625,
-0.42501428723335266,
-0.07221618294715881,
-0.2093745768070221,
0.06667345762252808,
-0.13595184683799744,
0.0922427624464035,
-0.22196021676063538,
-0.13117021322250366,
-0.3602975606918335,
0.3363780081272125,
-0.25529804825782776,
-0.1085008978843689,
0.4847218692302704,
-1.028972864151001,
-1.1007280349731445,
-0.3199536204338074,
0.13774853944778442,
-0.0002587530470918864,
-0.7408640384674072,
0.18084284663200378,
0.6557261347770691,
0.5830416679382324,
-0.5468817949295044,
1.072719693183899,
0.12249569594860077,
0.182709738612175,
-0.5593783855438232,
0.33756178617477417,
0.2872750759124756,
0.06579075753688812,
-0.21515683829784393,
0.6355462670326233,
0.6488075852394104,
-0.04821421951055527,
-0.5936952829360962,
0.5056548118591309,
-0.7491937875747681,
0.8793403506278992,
-0.004296528175473213,
0.1990790218114853,
0.5240119099617004,
0.5123313665390015,
0.32564985752105713
] |
205912
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad%20Rabbani
|
Mohammad Rabbani
|
Mullah Mohammad Rabbani Akhund (1955 – 16 April 2001) was one of the main leaders of the Taliban movement who served as Deputy Head of the Supreme Council of Afghanistan and Prime Minister of Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001. He was second in power only to the supreme leader, Mullah Mohammed Omar, in the Taliban hierarchy.
Rabbani fought the Soviet Union after it invaded Afghanistan in 1979. When the Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, he initially stopped fighting. He joined the Taliban in 1994. After years of civil war, he led the Taliban guerrillas in the final assault against the capital, Kabul.
He served as Prime Minister of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and head of the advisory council. There were also rumors that Mullah Rabbani and the head of the Taliban movement had serious political differences. While Rabbani and the ruling council constituted the public face of Afghanistan, the important decisions were made by Mullah Omar, who resided in the southern city of Kandahar.
Early years
Rabbani was born in 1955. He was from the Kakar tribe. He obtained Islamic education at home in Pashmol in Kandahar province, before participating in an Islamic seminary. The invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union in 1979 put a stop to his education as he volunteered for the jihad.
His role in the civil war ended when the Soviet army withdrew in 1989, but other members and factions of the mujahedin fought on, first against the Afghan communist government and then against each other.
It was a time of lawlessness and chaos. The communist government fell in 1992 and Afghanistan was fought over by factions of the mujahedin. Kandahar was particularly a battleground for commanders turned warlords.
Rabbani and about thirty other religious students (Taliban) decided to take the warlords on, first in the border town of Spin Boldak and then in Kandahar itself. During this period, Rabbani argued "Our concern is the establishment of an Islamic system and the elimination of unrest and cruelty from our country."
Fall of Kabul and creation of the Islamic Emirate
When United Nations Special Envoy Mehmoud Mestiri resumed his peace parleys in Afghanistan in March 1996, he had been assured by the political leadership of the Taliban, represented by Mullah Rabbani, who also commanded the forces encircling Kabul, that the Taliban were ready for discussions with the government of President Burhanuddin Rabbani.
Originally a Taliban idea endorsed by Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and accepted on behalf of the United Front (formerly the Northern Alliance) by Burhanuddin Rabbani in early January 1998, the proposal took shape as a proposed commission of ulema, or religious scholars, to settle the Afghan conflict in the light of the shariah. However, no progress was made until, once again, Sharif intervened two months later, in March, by inviting Mullah Rabbani, now head of the Taliban shura in Kabul, to Islamabad and obtained from him an agreement in principle for the convening of a steering committee in preparation for the ulema commission.
On 9 April, the United Nations Special Envoy went to Kabul and discussed with Mullah Rabbani and other Taliban leaders how to proceed with the idea of a steering committee for preparations for an ulema meeting. With this perceived shift in the Taliban's strategy, Mestiri had moved to Kabul to tie up other details. This would explain in large measure the Taliban's removal of heavy weaponry from areas surrounding Kabul very recently. But no sooner had Mullah Rabbani given this assurance to the visiting UN envoy, the religious leadership based in Kandahar rejected talks with Kabul, scuttling Mestiri's efforts and continuing the civil war.
On 26 September 1996 Taliban forces set up an interim government under Mohammed Rabbani, and Afghanistan was declared a complete Islamic emirate under Sharia law. It was Rabbani who gave the dramatic press conference from the presidential palace claiming victory. Rabbani acted as DeputyHead of the Supreme Council and Prime Minister of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan from 26 September 1996 to 16 April 2001.
Rabbani was the Taliban's second most powerful man and the leader of the moderates in the organization. However, there were differences between him and Mullah Omar regarding the influence of the Arabs and the need to establish a proper consultative government mechanism. Rabbani's power base was Jalalabad and he was not dependent on the Kandahari group for political support within the Taliban.
Quotes about Osama Bin Laden
He declared to the international community that his government did not support terrorism.
We will not allow anyone to perform any terrorist acts inside or from Afghanistan against anyone. We are a free country where Osama is living as a guest. This is the reality and it is up to the world to accept it.
Mullah Rabbani noted that Osama bin Laden had taken up residence when Afghanistan was under the control of the previous regime. He also maintained that there was not sufficient evidence linking him to terrorist bombings in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam and that, at any rate, bin Laden was no longer able to carry out activities from Afghan territory.
Decline and death
Rabbani died in a military hospital in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, of liver cancer on 16 April 2001. According to a press release in Islamabad:
Mullah Mohammad Rabbani was one of the main founders of the Movement and greatly contributed to peace and security in our country. His service to Islam is unforgettable. His demise is an irreparable loss.
Rabbani's body was repatriated to the southern Afghan city of Kandahar by a UN plane, permitted to operate on humanitarian grounds despite the air embargo against the Taliban Movement. He was buried in the Taliban's Martyr's Cemetery in Kandahar.
Regarding him as somewhat of a moderate, members of the opposition voiced fears that hardliners within the Taliban would strengthen their hold on power following Rabbani's death.
References
1955 births
2001 deaths
Pashtun people
Taliban founders
Taliban government ministers of Afghanistan
Prime Ministers of Afghanistan
Politicians of Kandahar Province
Deaths from liver cancer
|
[
-0.5089954733848572,
0.342424601316452,
-0.4893704652786255,
-0.3299609422683716,
-0.9149578809738159,
0.1433401107788086,
0.9722045660018921,
-0.05381205677986145,
0.2794737219810486,
0.056136298924684525,
-0.13473442196846008,
0.01765737310051918,
-0.953220546245575,
0.33394867181777954,
-0.2588130533695221,
0.37145882844924927,
0.23647332191467285,
-0.3079131245613098,
-0.6255524754524231,
-0.08865604549646378,
0.08499059081077576,
-0.16592936217784882,
0.08570720255374908,
-0.019939400255680084,
0.2114482820034027,
0.4237462282180786,
0.36375126242637634,
0.14138926565647125,
-0.05332192778587341,
0.37030985951423645,
0.13015295565128326,
0.3091859221458435,
0.5956048965454102,
-0.24276185035705566,
-0.13657337427139282,
0.12029195576906204,
0.7054083943367004,
0.3747149407863617,
-0.46093255281448364,
-0.524989664554596,
-0.14913253486156464,
-0.04663752764463425,
0.1348101645708084,
0.2499586045742035,
-0.20326080918312073,
-1.2397499084472656,
-0.5884312391281128,
0.6701937913894653,
-0.3656648099422455,
-0.6451161503791809,
0.009074356406927109,
0.2974035143852234,
0.502967119216919,
-0.24467790126800537,
0.5439271330833435,
0.06854874640703201,
-0.48663339018821716,
-0.27020594477653503,
-0.1901453733444214,
-0.2873975336551666,
0.4140504002571106,
0.3789859414100647,
0.4224565029144287,
-0.01700366474688053,
0.057611044496297836,
0.05801175907254219,
0.06033771485090256,
-0.17940093576908112,
0.07694896310567856,
-0.053376227617263794,
-0.03636034578084946,
0.4948539137840271,
0.09812317043542862,
0.07230240106582642,
0.23143978416919708,
-0.4709697961807251,
-0.11751306802034378,
0.06674452871084213,
0.5445148348808289,
0.34920403361320496,
0.3805980384349823,
-0.2900278568267822,
0.41553887724876404,
0.3297959268093109,
-0.20357151329517365,
0.08831249922513962,
0.3302787244319916,
0.4997178614139557,
-0.3895064890384674,
0.039911359548568726,
-0.41556066274642944,
-0.45286625623703003,
0.5107197165489197,
0.3054112493991852,
-0.521366536617279,
-0.3002305030822754,
0.12136533856391907,
0.2203345000743866,
-0.2855485677719116,
-0.30797699093818665,
0.24575947225093842,
0.842449426651001,
0.26885876059532166,
-0.40800291299819946,
-0.49085772037506104,
0.0020653679966926575,
-0.5094353556632996,
-0.044541772454977036,
-0.6186267137527466,
0.03139454871416092,
-0.6632779836654663,
0.6000341176986694,
-0.47926101088523865,
-0.24905522167682648,
0.34048959612846375,
0.5974597930908203,
-0.4786973297595978,
-0.7191379070281982,
-0.10331206768751144,
0.2460515797138214,
-0.6273461580276489,
0.9519776105880737,
-0.5310036540031433,
0.542514979839325,
-0.13866202533245087,
-0.29829302430152893,
0.13041330873966217,
0.0602886788547039,
-0.31474438309669495,
0.7373221516609192,
0.7338427901268005,
0.6327432990074158,
-0.8337985873222351,
0.10682058334350586,
-0.2072906196117401,
-0.7224271297454834,
0.7114408612251282,
-0.3083960711956024,
0.12614896893501282,
0.3722892701625824,
-0.6173439621925354,
-0.15563899278640747,
-0.1778779774904251,
-0.0642031729221344,
0.4541838467121124,
0.287234902381897,
-0.3001754879951477,
-0.17254535853862762,
-0.3759158253669739,
-0.3775312304496765,
-0.09939397126436234,
-0.46459510922431946,
0.14937350153923035,
-0.5613002777099609,
-0.06104123219847679,
0.5950960516929626,
0.37246596813201904,
0.045398689806461334,
0.5884294509887695,
-0.016126304864883423,
0.3611507713794708,
0.4510057866573334,
0.12767763435840607,
0.24677300453186035,
0.6521399021148682,
0.024135923013091087,
0.06808251142501831,
-0.14500397443771362,
-0.09583469480276108,
-0.40701910853385925,
-0.721543550491333,
0.4572816491127014,
-0.2200387567281723,
-0.5138624906539917,
0.3171992599964142,
0.7179694175720215,
0.06547005474567413,
-0.5342808365821838,
0.4379754662513733,
-0.2907138168811798,
-0.45244455337524414,
-0.4890836775302887,
-0.06962647289037704,
0.27414289116859436,
0.5162807703018188,
0.07029696553945541,
0.49847590923309326,
0.0006139663164503872,
0.647703230381012,
-0.2691928744316101,
-0.4017411768436432,
-0.2892471253871918,
0.09436686336994171,
-0.19893261790275574,
0.6383518576622009,
0.3579174876213074,
-0.2948349714279175,
1.1015883684158325,
0.4815049171447754,
1.0337207317352295,
-0.022504718974232674,
-0.2946932315826416,
0.36642882227897644,
-0.5950189232826233,
0.39932653307914734,
0.7567008137702942,
0.36824294924736023,
0.40796053409576416,
0.30928468704223633,
0.74777752161026,
0.3014296293258667,
-0.43754321336746216,
-0.8579930067062378,
0.5022241473197937,
-0.03962963819503784,
-0.4141748547554016,
-0.5948646068572998,
0.32378727197647095,
0.22200502455234528,
-0.1752590835094452,
0.8621245622634888,
-0.0561896413564682,
-0.5684994459152222,
0.7978721261024475,
0.19923464953899384,
0.4743422865867615,
-0.14102090895175934,
-0.1449870467185974,
-0.12068580090999603,
0.19021332263946533,
0.023525813594460487,
0.2894562780857086,
0.5386590957641602,
-0.04968530312180519,
-0.07471087574958801,
0.02011309377849102,
-0.22383025288581848,
0.01257157139480114,
0.8007315993309021,
-0.7211828827857971,
0.4119228422641754,
0.2654612064361572,
0.051267802715301514,
0.09725716710090637,
0.09515205770730972,
0.04280858114361763,
-0.8403621912002563,
0.37348517775535583,
-0.5169161558151245,
0.48037317395210266,
-0.09982173144817352,
0.08591678738594055,
0.5011866688728333,
-0.3475014567375183,
0.13169752061367035,
0.06944280117750168,
0.07203096896409988,
-0.033534735441207886,
-0.2761993408203125,
0.37083321809768677,
0.07913359254598618,
0.22301006317138672,
0.13675686717033386,
0.5217373371124268,
0.11260510236024857,
0.2003938853740692,
-0.09596114605665207,
-0.11655402183532715,
0.3662708103656769,
0.022124288603663445,
0.24574138224124908,
-0.40523722767829895,
-0.4778704047203064,
0.31697648763656616,
0.3440338373184204,
-0.5667791366577148,
-0.42037418484687805,
1.0302354097366333,
-0.3607025444507599,
-0.9813051223754883,
0.26443859934806824,
0.4913550913333893,
0.26031631231307983,
0.0197234358638525,
-0.5770276188850403,
-0.5825686454772949,
-0.353892058134079,
-0.3997862935066223,
-0.14873579144477844,
-0.09295471012592316,
-0.5375263690948486,
0.48510444164276123,
-0.2772044837474823,
-0.2696327567100525,
-1.0951452255249023,
0.37329116463661194,
0.12760639190673828,
-0.1334359347820282,
0.6463409662246704,
0.05201749876141548,
-0.06773550063371658,
0.21495626866817474,
-0.29404065012931824,
0.14361122250556946,
0.5078471899032593,
-0.06321091204881668,
-0.20866815745830536,
-0.2641645073890686,
-5.708902359008789,
0.1369609236717224,
0.48879534006118774,
-0.4591798782348633,
0.17605853080749512,
-0.1318003088235855,
0.6375134587287903,
-0.8832387924194336,
0.18839700520038605,
-0.2697163224220276,
0.010935377329587936,
0.18703210353851318,
0.42326170206069946,
0.30978333950042725,
0.847894012928009,
0.5956894159317017,
1.0721015930175781,
-0.023401038721203804,
0.8295169472694397,
0.15292513370513916,
0.3657234013080597,
-0.21359626948833466,
-0.2585753798484802,
-0.030814416706562042,
0.4600541293621063,
0.8084502220153809,
-0.18316668272018433,
0.31792664527893066,
-0.5285239219665527,
-0.06635641306638718,
0.1046840250492096,
0.006324057467281818,
-0.10225656628608704,
0.015006623230874538,
-0.23539268970489502,
-0.5134900808334351,
0.8473286032676697,
0.3905259072780609,
0.1293235868215561,
-0.22096997499465942,
0.24212758243083954,
-0.13608881831169128,
-0.2824544906616211,
-0.16832967102527618,
0.5753755569458008,
0.09973757714033127,
-0.31255340576171875,
-0.041404128074645996,
-0.6406980752944946,
0.19990526139736176,
0.23604190349578857,
-0.07778806984424591,
0.4452231824398041,
-0.021898269653320312,
0.09457629919052124,
0.19656431674957275,
-0.28186312317848206,
0.02815474197268486,
-0.2942871153354645,
0.7012007236480713,
0.04937255382537842,
-0.3475138545036316,
-0.21190021932125092,
-0.6786602139472961,
0.26828694343566895,
0.1402524709701538,
0.5236307978630066,
-0.17383131384849548,
0.30570825934410095,
-0.24836044013500214,
-0.6680042743682861,
-0.055162254720926285,
-0.057209327816963196,
-0.7694054245948792,
0.5061543583869934,
-0.7309456467628479,
-0.32286491990089417,
0.2874869704246521,
-0.4389800727367401,
-0.178612619638443,
-0.08974887430667877,
-0.4077095091342926,
-0.27625614404678345,
-0.16345271468162537,
0.4518606960773468,
-0.05382065102458,
0.22664083540439606,
-0.016282878816127777,
0.07786503434181213,
0.15402673184871674,
0.17352408170700073,
-0.9095925092697144,
0.23332622647285461,
-0.03287258744239807,
0.4713766872882843,
0.47905898094177246,
-0.5892866849899292,
-0.02322237379848957,
0.17174038290977478,
-0.07290048897266388,
0.11806529015302658,
-0.6899169087409973,
0.5759838819503784,
-0.3784371018409729,
0.40062767267227173,
-0.171479269862175,
0.38093018531799316,
-0.28288400173187256,
0.5832200646400452,
0.09182045608758926,
-0.07522185146808624,
0.31151968240737915,
-0.49048465490341187,
0.022127384319901466,
0.3644179105758667,
-0.7615079283714294,
-0.09580007195472717,
0.079324871301651,
0.3276204764842987,
0.5411564111709595,
-0.07893622666597366,
-0.014155790209770203,
-0.13806283473968506,
0.3569331765174866,
0.011889947578310966,
-0.05272442474961281,
-0.24686183035373688,
0.06817496567964554,
0.009018586948513985,
-0.25225189328193665,
0.6378350853919983,
0.2371252477169037,
-0.16753226518630981,
-0.08042748272418976,
0.09209970384836197,
-0.18398234248161316,
-0.46954992413520813,
-1.0171723365783691,
0.06407146155834198,
-0.11949057877063751,
-0.6830393671989441,
-0.31281229853630066,
-0.07177402079105377,
0.23762862384319305,
-0.17593391239643097,
0.17570362985134125,
0.2960018813610077,
0.17543092370033264,
0.05906573310494423,
0.4848509728908539,
0.008812508545815945,
-0.22694726288318634,
0.6123248338699341,
-0.35893139243125916,
-0.32628101110458374,
0.37495729327201843,
0.2462783008813858,
0.06690605729818344,
-0.6868359446525574,
-0.22498109936714172,
0.2460649609565735,
-0.6793736815452576,
-1.2555795907974243,
0.10098831355571747,
-0.0595528669655323,
0.5152779817581177,
-0.1918114572763443,
-0.0008421466336585581,
-0.03930126130580902,
0.6417856216430664,
0.23087775707244873,
-0.6196485757827759,
-0.03685673326253891,
0.185059055685997,
0.30307120084762573,
-0.24427621066570282,
0.12430556118488312,
-0.30700311064720154,
-0.0005829031579196453,
0.19107384979724884,
0.08887084573507309,
0.49109113216400146,
0.17546124756336212,
0.5472022891044617,
0.1963747888803482,
-0.14677874743938446,
-0.5593307018280029,
-0.5765410661697388,
-0.33854353427886963,
0.12973977625370026,
0.40213900804519653,
0.08852913975715637,
0.24552202224731445,
-0.15551124513149261,
0.35991498827934265,
-0.5335021615028381,
-0.08668255060911179,
0.17736974358558655,
-0.10565812885761261,
-0.2886451184749603,
0.12150518596172333,
0.09749860316514969,
0.04067853093147278,
0.2347746044397354,
-0.4624687731266022,
-0.14062297344207764,
0.22227153182029724,
-0.19079649448394775,
0.1806482970714569,
0.48006734251976013,
-0.09984271228313446,
-0.8322449922561646,
-0.09710803627967834,
0.8373509049415588,
-0.22976702451705933,
-0.05574570596218109,
-0.09762492775917053,
-0.16873577237129211,
-0.0893627256155014,
-0.3647988438606262,
-0.4324296712875366,
-0.5560399889945984,
-0.1070588082075119,
0.05654561519622803,
-0.6137710809707642,
-0.0909990444779396,
0.10358525067567825,
-0.5372800827026367,
0.28755319118499756,
0.11112532019615173,
-0.112895667552948,
-0.12366968393325806,
0.447444885969162,
0.4545307755470276,
-0.357509583234787,
-0.1704319715499878,
0.25317826867103577,
0.1525925248861313,
-0.3849010467529297,
-0.1490127444267273,
0.23085930943489075,
1.0323346853256226,
0.09108875691890717,
-0.8951235413551331,
0.09258958697319031,
-0.0625230073928833,
0.11343953758478165,
-0.06702480465173721,
0.10461050271987915,
-0.29801470041275024,
0.23630331456661224,
0.2518504559993744,
-0.32124578952789307,
-0.3899025022983551,
0.5507386326789856,
-0.6652312874794006,
-0.2277657687664032,
-0.3339166045188904,
-0.05659585818648338,
-0.0009058008436113596,
-0.08594974875450134,
0.08054245263338089,
-0.3436553478240967,
-0.08315249532461166,
0.05094281584024429,
-0.2511303126811981,
-0.19724369049072266,
-0.326749324798584,
-0.2241705060005188,
-0.5511416792869568,
-0.7338360548019409,
-0.6222751140594482,
-0.4428284168243408,
0.7072651386260986,
-0.17177201807498932,
-0.1910325139760971,
0.06231192871928215,
-0.25305378437042236,
0.2391778528690338,
0.18275029957294464,
-1.097458839416504,
-0.6177615523338318,
-0.015179364010691643,
-0.4688226282596588,
-0.44083893299102783,
-1.3827879428863525,
0.322162926197052,
0.2948395609855652,
-0.4459708333015442,
-0.16540592908859253,
-0.4838067293167114,
-0.2596973776817322,
-0.3287939131259918,
0.291756272315979,
-0.23527923226356506,
0.7458192706108093,
0.12515513598918915,
0.5132217407226562,
-0.21917280554771423,
-0.532730221748352,
-0.23173931241035461,
0.07871359586715698,
0.15804730355739594,
0.600405216217041,
-0.010775836184620857,
-0.26315590739250183,
0.1826910674571991,
-0.3846879005432129,
0.20209336280822754,
-0.01208674069494009,
-0.034100472927093506,
0.3347773849964142,
0.23905153572559357,
0.12600526213645935,
-0.6204251050949097,
0.10332337766885757,
0.5972976684570312,
-0.3360516428947449,
-0.22460080683231354,
-0.05490502342581749,
0.7262890934944153,
-0.26411595940589905,
0.3452822268009186,
0.3842640817165375,
0.5033514499664307,
0.6401380300521851,
0.19196069240570068,
-0.08677607029676437,
-0.1737254559993744,
-0.31445854902267456,
-0.08376593887805939,
-0.16428691148757935,
-0.8022936582565308,
-0.3367035686969757,
-0.0863213837146759,
-0.270352840423584,
0.045686542987823486,
0.16721175611019135,
0.2539834976196289,
0.44911590218544006,
0.5332695245742798,
0.8770626187324524,
-0.2713529169559479,
0.04293595626950264,
0.046530794352293015,
0.08980773389339447,
0.233078733086586,
0.7056982517242432,
0.11469607800245285,
-0.10413721948862076,
-0.12773847579956055,
0.07869947701692581,
0.2308582365512848,
-0.8902870416641235,
0.052771780639886856,
0.2344338744878769,
0.3689921200275421,
0.054081499576568604,
0.07563695311546326,
0.0622587651014328,
0.09723896533250809,
-0.5997145771980286,
0.29747724533081055,
0.24093005061149597,
0.5789728760719299,
0.06604590266942978,
-0.5162867307662964,
-0.9552835822105408,
0.055973660200834274,
0.021398507058620453,
0.008542370051145554,
-0.5361391305923462,
-0.5284812450408936,
0.23697642982006073,
-0.30961185693740845,
-0.029293464496731758,
0.3227088153362274,
0.026680756360292435,
0.2606334686279297,
0.3403286039829254,
0.05553431808948517,
-0.3033446669578552,
0.29493197798728943,
-0.6068477034568787,
0.41348952054977417,
0.4105614721775055,
-0.05722064897418022,
0.5894826054573059,
-0.5457839369773865,
0.05822402238845825,
0.3583570122718811,
-0.0955866128206253,
-0.7602160573005676,
0.536233127117157,
0.39632970094680786,
0.06323443353176117,
-0.03834681585431099,
0.3326418995857239,
0.6431703567504883,
-0.32246464490890503,
-0.13649150729179382,
0.2136426419019699,
-0.4740183651447296,
0.2638874053955078,
-0.33922767639160156,
-0.04197075217962265,
-0.8506774306297302,
-0.052007559686899185,
-0.9513867497444153,
0.34749913215637207,
-0.029219452291727066,
0.5088350772857666,
-0.31316035985946655,
0.5428785085678101,
-0.5015653371810913,
0.035691071301698685,
0.5571218729019165,
-0.6279671788215637,
-0.09189055860042572,
-0.10048338770866394,
-0.42040932178497314,
-0.20352156460285187,
0.3105200529098511,
0.35728973150253296,
-0.08755029737949371,
-0.5311694741249084,
0.1439463049173355,
0.2863418161869049,
-0.6761763095855713,
0.32165101170539856,
-0.08485881239175797,
-0.7340817451477051,
-0.14091649651527405,
-0.5007604956626892,
-0.16348116099834442,
0.11975850909948349,
0.7874552607536316,
0.7376333475112915,
0.5085064172744751,
-0.37840840220451355,
0.08933642506599426,
-0.6040958762168884,
0.38638076186180115,
-0.38655635714530945,
0.1563405692577362,
0.08530061691999435,
-0.08168494701385498,
-0.22864623367786407,
-0.0017108573811128736,
0.39463257789611816,
0.3891644775867462,
-0.25009772181510925,
0.5733069181442261,
-0.9492906928062439,
0.507046639919281,
-0.22967588901519775,
-0.0014561705756932497,
-0.3877617120742798,
0.3600163161754608,
-0.23622368276119232
] |
205914
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Taliban%20leaders
|
List of Taliban leaders
|
This is a list of Taliban leaders.
Leaders of the Taliban
Deputies and ministers
Governors
Other high-ranking officials, ambassadors and envoys abroad
Field commanders
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan leaders
See also
Quetta Shura
References
Government of Afghanistan
|
[
-0.3918067216873169,
0.4899373948574066,
-0.7257596850395203,
-0.19141770899295807,
-1.3070921897888184,
-0.027417942881584167,
1.1497416496276855,
0.1928732842206955,
-0.5777264833450317,
0.06486029922962189,
-0.45061373710632324,
-0.1418917328119278,
-0.612853467464447,
0.4324798583984375,
0.25517332553863525,
0.4998076856136322,
-0.5648961663246155,
0.7714586853981018,
-0.29674893617630005,
-0.18844033777713776,
0.3583899438381195,
-0.08604131639003754,
0.4036203622817993,
-0.8384047746658325,
0.2740134596824646,
0.7214100360870361,
0.5575290322303772,
-0.15549732744693756,
-0.5616424679756165,
0.2346133142709732,
-0.2074745148420334,
0.5030087232589722,
0.2804311513900757,
0.2760811746120453,
-0.17157591879367828,
-0.4580749273300171,
0.42289498448371887,
0.24296946823596954,
0.013373705558478832,
-0.7919279932975769,
-0.05791166424751282,
-0.46574822068214417,
0.21368612349033356,
1.170369029045105,
0.01881575956940651,
-0.7804903984069824,
-1.2684054374694824,
-0.03146301954984665,
-0.5702053904533386,
-0.4191869795322418,
-0.046632297337055206,
0.30272412300109863,
0.9290327429771423,
0.06536771357059479,
0.3916088044643402,
0.11214637011289597,
-0.8664117455482483,
0.005260447505861521,
-0.07631176710128784,
0.014193957671523094,
0.5773723125457764,
0.49023550748825073,
0.493276447057724,
-0.20537802577018738,
0.5206933617591858,
-0.22196833789348602,
-0.0005502279964275658,
0.6579405069351196,
-0.41571202874183655,
0.15494194626808167,
0.06270407885313034,
-0.13192492723464966,
0.7512935996055603,
0.2063220590353012,
0.2847575843334198,
-0.2594830393791199,
0.00784484762698412,
0.1430748850107193,
0.47048860788345337,
-0.5198389887809753,
0.012622380629181862,
-0.11913787573575974,
0.19491611421108246,
0.24101774394512177,
-0.0746588185429573,
0.15320932865142822,
0.04533258453011513,
-0.550551176071167,
-0.45844221115112305,
0.914567768573761,
-0.3161896765232086,
0.17800305783748627,
0.39956924319267273,
0.32582053542137146,
-0.28023800253868103,
-0.24630464613437653,
-0.2602180242538452,
0.5254466533660889,
-0.3011535704135895,
0.02155819907784462,
0.7521215677261353,
0.7348051071166992,
0.13843902945518494,
-0.46640098094940186,
-0.398110955953598,
-0.2113374024629593,
-0.7849206924438477,
0.17753423750400543,
-0.01696944236755371,
-1.606066346168518,
-0.6349951028823853,
0.5262737274169922,
-0.25700247287750244,
-0.26689279079437256,
0.17932644486427307,
0.7762781381607056,
0.1341092586517334,
-0.4122893810272217,
0.0410759262740612,
-0.16148141026496887,
-0.9967085123062134,
0.9998257160186768,
-0.3289797604084015,
-0.008462200872600079,
0.051531434059143066,
0.32847073674201965,
0.6657136082649231,
0.04171033948659897,
0.31170549988746643,
0.768256664276123,
0.18268315494060516,
0.5936583280563354,
-0.24823659658432007,
0.0011873937910422683,
0.12296167016029358,
-0.8206004500389099,
0.5557763576507568,
0.3650039732456207,
0.12261496484279633,
0.4890839755535126,
-0.9494480490684509,
-0.13253147900104523,
-1.862594723701477,
0.2394842505455017,
0.3628021776676178,
-0.12087538093328476,
-0.5838045477867126,
-0.16318733990192413,
-0.2554140090942383,
0.1061667874455452,
-0.3795710504055023,
-0.740311324596405,
0.4519415497779846,
0.043899424374103546,
0.11084609478712082,
0.2712939381599426,
0.8075734972953796,
-0.6552679538726807,
0.7665284872055054,
0.1099269688129425,
0.2857119143009186,
0.24192501604557037,
0.3254310190677643,
0.2738302946090698,
0.24907876551151276,
0.06594985723495483,
0.1478336602449417,
0.08505814522504807,
-0.2973991334438324,
0.0809193104505539,
-0.7415395379066467,
0.3636833727359772,
-0.39457887411117554,
-0.25438618659973145,
0.27993109822273254,
0.3166901469230652,
0.19369791448116302,
0.43057170510292053,
0.5655992031097412,
0.04098498076200485,
-0.4194462299346924,
-0.5097744464874268,
0.21012532711029053,
-0.25382891297340393,
0.3894839882850647,
0.30533871054649353,
0.3167879283428192,
0.5275208950042725,
0.17876434326171875,
0.01807691529393196,
-0.23431430757045746,
0.03414727747440338,
0.6568313837051392,
-0.13268578052520752,
0.959584653377533,
0.09094391018152237,
0.006292275618761778,
-0.16321027278900146,
0.35493072867393494,
0.512506902217865,
-0.0055653671734035015,
-0.6205899715423584,
-0.06940893083810806,
-0.20355463027954102,
-0.39442479610443115,
2.216196298599243,
0.035981711000204086,
0.32189875841140747,
0.43426769971847534,
0.12524157762527466,
0.5618586540222168,
-0.45743775367736816,
-0.5200334191322327,
0.31380051374435425,
0.12111819535493851,
0.16473659873008728,
-0.3084184229373932,
0.4003274142742157,
0.12580937147140503,
-0.2950529456138611,
0.8737373948097229,
0.06799522042274475,
0.22965894639492035,
0.36695244908332825,
-0.05976100638508797,
0.4191738963127136,
-0.08059631288051605,
0.25271305441856384,
-0.08333730697631836,
-0.21034374833106995,
0.6102351546287537,
0.10298651456832886,
0.31384649872779846,
-0.35040077567100525,
-0.5661135315895081,
-0.2203669399023056,
-0.3523315191268921,
-0.2258194535970688,
0.5363746285438538,
-0.424980103969574,
0.3457573354244232,
0.28105786442756653,
0.05787348002195358,
-0.19666032493114471,
0.15209415555000305,
0.05823061615228653,
-0.5690081715583801,
0.1965322643518448,
-0.17559140920639038,
-0.05471063405275345,
0.3626173734664917,
-0.0776795819401741,
0.5066220164299011,
-0.7156499028205872,
0.29202285408973694,
0.06115998327732086,
0.015827108174562454,
-0.06456766277551651,
-0.4306955933570862,
0.050249647349119186,
-0.2764036953449249,
0.2725357711315155,
-0.5619421601295471,
0.1628895252943039,
-0.48074105381965637,
-0.1811569333076477,
-0.11076593399047852,
-0.368119478225708,
0.6782358288764954,
-0.16054871678352356,
0.3753946125507355,
-0.1116052120923996,
-0.1489810347557068,
-2.1791226863861084,
0.30391791462898254,
-0.11106451600790024,
0.01958632841706276,
0.6489138007164001,
-0.49039381742477417,
-0.7381566762924194,
0.22727125883102417,
0.3499158024787903,
0.4908426105976105,
0.0780055969953537,
-0.7855827212333679,
-0.8094449639320374,
0.5107420086860657,
-0.06329337507486343,
0.3093322217464447,
-0.33992233872413635,
-0.1521444469690323,
0.3405144214630127,
0.022638684138655663,
-0.1592405140399933,
-0.5303982496261597,
0.31199780106544495,
0.04836956039071083,
0.561497688293457,
-0.21121147274971008,
-0.4094138741493225,
-0.4888010323047638,
0.190873920917511,
-0.5134719610214233,
-0.44399499893188477,
-0.08360809832811356,
0.06169456988573074,
0.005353687796741724,
-0.16682569682598114,
-4.672945499420166,
0.252561092376709,
-0.18564549088478088,
-0.6018446087837219,
-0.014126249589025974,
-0.12776121497154236,
0.6591545939445496,
-0.6148939728736877,
0.028172489255666733,
-0.04415718838572502,
-0.2996838688850403,
-0.031154703348875046,
0.3783855736255646,
0.21594224870204926,
0.8493583798408508,
0.7459203600883484,
0.8998954892158508,
0.3741525709629059,
0.7123692035675049,
-0.34940963983535767,
0.4897509813308716,
0.010927757248282433,
-0.45799821615219116,
-0.123624287545681,
0.31733235716819763,
1.063378095626831,
0.12535983324050903,
0.037236183881759644,
-0.22367145121097565,
-0.04559678956866264,
-0.21274104714393616,
0.00647844048216939,
-0.2999225854873657,
-0.34438538551330566,
-0.5394660830497742,
-0.4668017327785492,
0.45044538378715515,
1.0096478462219238,
-0.004147570114582777,
-0.40359506011009216,
-0.5875292420387268,
0.20557637512683868,
-0.23880939185619354,
0.5474910140037537,
0.7071991562843323,
0.4068721532821655,
-0.6143947243690491,
-0.41833826899528503,
-0.4583218991756439,
0.4583019018173218,
-0.23936641216278076,
-0.45462745428085327,
1.1665669679641724,
0.035402730107307434,
-0.030071958899497986,
-0.4079989194869995,
0.18401755392551422,
-0.008602072484791279,
-0.23976391553878784,
0.7405197620391846,
0.19878968596458435,
-0.39679619669914246,
0.17768332362174988,
-0.7475607991218567,
0.32773497700691223,
-0.06128961592912674,
-0.17372271418571472,
-0.14758069813251495,
0.21025021374225616,
0.22277216613292694,
-0.523057758808136,
-0.08299282938241959,
-0.7545912265777588,
-0.7003210783004761,
0.38443177938461304,
-0.707329273223877,
-0.18501581251621246,
0.5725958943367004,
0.23308973014354706,
0.1170167326927185,
-0.4337030053138733,
-0.12596510350704193,
-0.5591340065002441,
0.15347911417484283,
0.4452252984046936,
-0.16317927837371826,
0.08230473101139069,
-0.25507980585098267,
0.019695039838552475,
-0.023869991302490234,
-0.32853686809539795,
-0.49514153599739075,
0.5053956508636475,
0.32398736476898193,
0.8517104983329773,
0.5162288546562195,
0.37455517053604126,
-0.6275901198387146,
0.3607421815395355,
-0.31958943605422974,
0.31294453144073486,
-0.3107759952545166,
0.5762233734130859,
-0.4375150203704834,
0.2654554843902588,
-0.24908852577209473,
0.029735784977674484,
0.4496946334838867,
0.39102181792259216,
-0.2955310642719269,
0.05761928856372833,
-0.5460491180419922,
-0.5980232954025269,
-0.2830924987792969,
0.5628875494003296,
-0.40468811988830566,
-0.056740812957286835,
0.9319775104522705,
0.3384248912334442,
0.7322016954421997,
0.2500689625740051,
-0.1523287445306778,
-0.09768171608448029,
0.05659271776676178,
-0.2276626080274582,
-0.19836385548114777,
-0.47610557079315186,
-0.3187112808227539,
0.04004434496164322,
0.018163379281759262,
0.7296084761619568,
0.3284909725189209,
-0.31872665882110596,
-0.3161422312259674,
0.1257188320159912,
-0.5952394008636475,
0.05470336973667145,
-0.3464987277984619,
0.19073417782783508,
-0.7074242234230042,
-0.3925975561141968,
-0.1042076125741005,
-0.35814982652664185,
0.43635568022727966,
-0.28634464740753174,
0.7821643352508545,
0.28792932629585266,
-0.009043610654771328,
-0.13061146438121796,
0.6256750822067261,
-0.11873876303434372,
-0.46308788657188416,
0.40144532918930054,
-0.26922407746315,
-0.0706087052822113,
0.5128224492073059,
0.38578441739082336,
0.25024232268333435,
-0.6648877263069153,
-0.4029221534729004,
-0.06682177633047104,
-0.431240439414978,
-1.099414587020874,
0.2029799222946167,
0.36603623628616333,
-0.47654131054878235,
-0.31628283858299255,
0.3589315116405487,
-0.009836720302700996,
0.9944401383399963,
-0.05797963589429855,
-0.5095354914665222,
-0.5921604037284851,
0.22290517389774323,
0.7659946084022522,
-0.42942243814468384,
0.5605029463768005,
0.48347193002700806,
0.26969337463378906,
-0.24905475974082947,
-0.16709662973880768,
0.35580503940582275,
0.01691262051463127,
0.8473929762840271,
-0.10034637153148651,
0.44804647564888,
-0.27839016914367676,
-0.31218841671943665,
-0.43250715732574463,
0.10817054659128189,
0.5803809762001038,
0.5435354709625244,
-0.10847850888967514,
-0.5368824601173401,
-0.5497384667396545,
-0.6151347756385803,
0.07191669940948486,
0.22461357712745667,
0.2465474158525467,
-0.31225284934043884,
0.3864317238330841,
0.5853890776634216,
-0.2798655033111572,
0.30314746499061584,
-0.10921518504619598,
-0.16158095002174377,
0.4470970928668976,
0.251116544008255,
-0.3220519721508026,
-0.026968147605657578,
-0.03708180412650108,
-0.8684545755386353,
-0.43629777431488037,
0.47644123435020447,
0.005553212948143482,
-0.2860279679298401,
0.29780349135398865,
-0.2765945792198181,
-0.012409954331815243,
-0.24022436141967773,
0.15598605573177338,
-0.4424775242805481,
-0.047616202384233475,
-0.20640592277050018,
-0.30392709374427795,
0.13355004787445068,
0.2061767429113388,
-0.8977675437927246,
0.36617451906204224,
-0.09107763320207596,
-0.3333461284637451,
-0.27438676357269287,
0.1344635784626007,
-0.17802941799163818,
-0.4698217511177063,
0.016808563843369484,
-0.30802226066589355,
-0.09909684956073761,
-0.40047672390937805,
0.04078053683042526,
-0.04691668972373009,
0.9131860733032227,
0.5359669327735901,
-0.8706773519515991,
-0.11464172601699829,
-0.2424028366804123,
-0.08030689507722855,
-0.14665602147579193,
-0.04807201772928238,
-0.42023277282714844,
0.1155710443854332,
0.07087703794240952,
-0.8281614184379578,
-0.853412389755249,
1.0028823614120483,
-0.4228544533252716,
-0.18174734711647034,
-0.001591450534760952,
0.07030177861452103,
-0.04751117527484894,
0.29150649905204773,
0.6175803542137146,
-0.24688996374607086,
0.3966062366962433,
0.1587984263896942,
-0.06727365404367447,
-0.4051669239997864,
-0.37672293186187744,
0.015329645946621895,
-0.4346481263637543,
-0.8456441164016724,
-0.49571722745895386,
-0.32387733459472656,
0.7533464431762695,
0.16053009033203125,
0.047033075243234634,
0.3552493155002594,
-0.07252071797847748,
0.05102967098355293,
0.06664836406707764,
0.27551543712615967,
-0.07887211441993713,
0.1639702022075653,
-0.08756199479103088,
0.5464531779289246,
-0.6552591323852539,
-0.34559670090675354,
0.22566981613636017,
-0.2894727885723114,
0.11357187479734421,
-0.39475101232528687,
-0.12906767427921295,
-0.3770579993724823,
0.8869015574455261,
0.38710349798202515,
0.8339318037033081,
0.136113241314888,
-0.22867999970912933,
-0.501819908618927,
-0.3324311375617981,
-0.49565064907073975,
0.8282313942909241,
-0.23182907700538635,
0.14671577513217926,
0.36647865176200867,
-0.01732989400625229,
-0.026622839272022247,
-0.47554558515548706,
0.3966595530509949,
0.03804243355989456,
0.12997089326381683,
0.4526551067829132,
0.6467238664627075,
0.3631236255168915,
-0.01854167878627777,
-0.19901208579540253,
0.6864502429962158,
-0.36948564648628235,
-0.1321050375699997,
-0.06742127239704132,
0.44206199049949646,
-0.399924099445343,
0.4324513375759125,
0.6422758102416992,
0.09880443662405014,
0.5188151001930237,
0.28779515624046326,
-0.8178015351295471,
0.11203508079051971,
-0.16122955083847046,
0.3116915225982666,
0.024520862847566605,
-0.8280741572380066,
0.4171559810638428,
-0.14960239827632904,
-0.3678143620491028,
0.04241117462515831,
0.2794858515262604,
0.016856517642736435,
0.9085240960121155,
0.22314070165157318,
0.37011247873306274,
-0.15405286848545074,
-0.04518832266330719,
-0.47538694739341736,
0.23372483253479004,
-0.5277011394500732,
0.6214459538459778,
0.09036080539226532,
-0.22717943787574768,
0.047165289521217346,
0.41939419507980347,
-0.11014840751886368,
-0.1316225528717041,
0.3097866475582123,
-0.25636711716651917,
0.540220320224762,
0.10996187478303909,
0.2952311038970947,
-2.0590949058532715,
0.19504186511039734,
-0.28637760877609253,
-0.2197878211736679,
0.42435315251350403,
0.5595673322677612,
0.218089297413826,
-0.24670487642288208,
-0.3586396276950836,
-0.0578884482383728,
0.2352052628993988,
0.2198273241519928,
0.06658215820789337,
-0.08122915029525757,
-0.007844284176826477,
-0.31186002492904663,
0.16198693215847015,
-0.33116400241851807,
-0.4130251109600067,
0.0241457037627697,
-0.3070141077041626,
0.0820583701133728,
-0.18191906809806824,
0.024915102869272232,
-0.8406408429145813,
0.6957427859306335,
0.28994619846343994,
-0.5242400169372559,
0.5522254109382629,
-0.2709815800189972,
0.4001975655555725,
0.41354209184646606,
-0.06391174346208572,
-0.05338529869914055,
0.10418164730072021,
0.054388534277677536,
0.241186261177063,
-0.4695742726325989,
0.5542450547218323,
-0.002592944772914052,
-0.8064440488815308,
-0.3987880051136017,
0.3245115280151367,
-0.1485956460237503,
0.44966384768486023,
-0.08511500805616379,
0.021267881616950035,
-0.7145289778709412,
-0.4818457067012787,
-0.521885097026825,
0.3818560838699341,
-0.11117388308048248,
-0.017803704366087914,
0.0464971624314785,
0.25020888447761536,
-0.4481229782104492,
0.08334828913211823,
0.3846920132637024,
-0.755587100982666,
0.015979668125510216,
-0.21135851740837097,
-0.18247170746326447,
-0.8431175351142883,
0.16374686360359192,
0.9314670562744141,
-0.2320529669523239,
-0.6515752077102661,
0.14286336302757263,
0.4207914173603058,
-0.6387282013893127,
0.2799637019634247,
-0.26289132237434387,
-0.21494024991989136,
-0.11952292919158936,
-0.854642391204834,
-0.21648357808589935,
0.2680734395980835,
1.0816982984542847,
0.7460849285125732,
0.5753551125526428,
-0.22213226556777954,
-0.2203431874513626,
-0.2755308747291565,
0.618940532207489,
0.034750111401081085,
-3.942248821258545,
-0.0447513684630394,
-0.04337593540549278,
-0.38255953788757324,
-0.3657265603542328,
0.613315224647522,
0.09366173297166824,
0.4006817042827606,
0.06969285011291504,
-0.43620261549949646,
0.1214292123913765,
0.00018752420146483928,
0.17891095578670502,
-0.6048787236213684,
0.32131221890449524,
0.193497434258461
] |
205917
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Sea%20Canal
|
North Sea Canal
|
The North Sea Canal () is a Dutch ship canal from Amsterdam to the North Sea at IJmuiden, constructed between 1865 and 1876 to enable seafaring vessels to reach the port of Amsterdam. This man-made channel terminates at Amsterdam in the closed-off IJ Bay, which in turn connects to the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal.
The drainage of the canal to the North Sea is done through the Spui Locks at IJmuiden, augmented by the largest pumping station in Europe. This system is vital to the groundwater management of the Western Netherlands.
History
To improve the connection between the harbour of Amsterdam and the North Sea, the North Holland Canal was built in 1824. But this long and narrow canal was quickly inadequate to handle the growing boat traffic. A few decades later it was decided to dig a new canal at the narrowest point in Holland and thereby providing the shortest route to the sea.
Digging began on 8 March 1865, at the dunes of Breesaap and lasted until 1876. Since no Dutch company was willing to take on this task, the project was awarded to an English contractor.
The North Sea Canal was built by digging a channel through the old IJ Bay and lining it with dikes, after which the remaining portions of the IJ Bay were reclaimed and turned into polders. From this bay to the sea, a new canal was dug through the dunes at Velsen. To accommodate drainage of and shipping on the tributaries of the IJ, such as the Spaarne, the Zaan, and the Nauerna Canal, nine auxiliary canals needed to be dug as well (Side Canals "A" to "I").
A small set of locks () were built at the mouth in 1876 where the new town of IJmuiden (Dutch for "IJ Mouth") formed. In 1896 the Middle Locks () were built, followed by the North Locks () in 1929, which were Europe's largest locks at that time.
At the eastern end of the canal, east of Amsterdam, the IJ Bay was open to the Zuiderzee until 1872 when the Oranje Locks () were built. With the completion of these locks the North Sea Canal and IJ Bay were no longer open to the sea and a specific water level could be maintained.
The canal was dug using manual labour. The workers lived in horrid conditions, being housed in huts built from twigs, driftwood, sod, and straw, where disease, fights, and alcohol abuse were rampant.
On 1 November 1876, the North Sea Canal was officially opened by King William III of the Netherlands. Over the years the canal has been widened and deepened several times.
Side canals
The North Sea Canal and the IJ have 10 side canals (in Dutch: Zijkanaal), which connect to rivers and other canals which used to flow into the former IJ Bay before its reclamation.
Zijkanaal A - connects the harbour of Beverwijk to the North Sea Canal, also an inundation canal of the Stelling van Amsterdam.
Zijkanaal B - connected Spaarndam to the North Sea Canal, but was cut off from it by the construction of the A9 motorway in the 1960s. It is now used for canoeing and mooring of houseboats.
Zijkanaal C - connects the Spaarne river at Spaarndam to the North Sea Canal at Buitenhuizen, and also functions as the main drainage canal of the Rijnland water board. The A9 motorway has an operable bridge over this side canal.
Zijkanaal D - connects the Nauerna Canal to the North Sea Canal.
Zijkanaal E - a very short canal connecting the south end of Westzaan to the North Sea Canal.
Zijkanaal F - connected Halfweg to the North Sea Canal, but is now mostly backfilled. A small portion remains and is used as a drainage canal.
Zijkanaal G - connects Zaandam and the Zaan River to the North Sea Canal.
Zijkanaal H - connects the Barndegat to the North Sea Canal.
Zijkanaal I - connects the East Zaan Overtoom to the IJ Bay.
Zijkanaal K - connects the harbour of Nieuwendam to the IJ Bay.
Approach
Vessels with a draft of more than 14 metres should use the IJgeul.
To protect access to the channel jetties were built in the sea.
In 1957 the Delft Hydraulics Laboratory began research for the best solution. The result was two jetties with 500 m difference in length between the southern and the northern one. The length of the north pier should be 1500 m to 2500 m and the south jetty of about 3000 m. This is to prevent the silting of the entrance channel and to ensure that vessels entering suffer less from the prevailing south-west and north-south flow along the coast.
Locks
There are four locks, of various sizes at the North Sea mouth of the canal: When the north canal lock was opened in 1929 it was the largest canal lock in the world.
Crossings
Railway and metro tunnels (with nearest station on the south and north bank):
between Amsterdam Centraal station and Noorderpark metro station
between Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station and Zaandam railway station
between Driehuis railway station and Beverwijk railway station
Road tunnels, from east to west:
Zeeburger Tunnel and Zeeburger Bridge (part of the A10 motorway)
IJ Tunnel
Coen Tunnel (part of the A10 motorway)
Wijker Tunnel (part of the A9 motorway)
Velser Tunnel (part of the A22 motorway)
The most western crossing is the road over the locks. The route depends on which of the locks is closed.
Several ferries. In Amsterdam there are several across the IJ; at least one is frequent, operating 24 hours a day, free of charge.
Bicyclists may only cross the canal at the locks in IJmuiden or at the Schellingwouderbrug, a bridge in the very east of Amsterdam or via ferries. Tunnels for bicyclists still do not exist.
References
Canals in the Netherlands
Canals in North Holland
Canals opened in 1876
|
[
0.03130268305540085,
-0.5051153302192688,
0.7459691762924194,
-0.3717615604400635,
0.6854642629623413,
0.23881076276302338,
0.016432642936706543,
0.3662795126438141,
-0.12490998953580856,
-0.37637802958488464,
0.13195914030075073,
-0.12641829252243042,
-0.1615859419107437,
0.28345412015914917,
-0.2696727216243744,
0.025387918576598167,
0.3872792720794678,
0.12086153030395508,
0.27035388350486755,
-0.24787601828575134,
-0.5182744264602661,
0.08147566020488739,
0.6312933564186096,
0.33122557401657104,
0.41598379611968994,
-0.7152234315872192,
-0.2773127257823944,
0.3800305426120758,
-0.09423336386680603,
-0.39666256308555603,
0.4071923494338989,
-0.2858473062515259,
-0.23771126568317413,
-0.5810425281524658,
-0.02460637129843235,
-0.1332111656665802,
-0.40668976306915283,
-0.31051328778266907,
-0.7590139508247375,
-0.08820412307977676,
-0.5258986353874207,
0.25708532333374023,
-0.16090035438537598,
-0.12598246335983276,
-0.12490945309400558,
-0.16115844249725342,
-0.6907608509063721,
-0.014119163155555725,
-0.34134605526924133,
0.08897565305233002,
-0.48496976494789124,
-0.11349483579397202,
-0.3019702732563019,
0.8114845752716064,
0.40828874707221985,
0.08914444595575333,
-0.628440260887146,
-0.18110527098178864,
0.1466299295425415,
-0.3810926377773285,
0.49423640966415405,
0.34282252192497253,
0.16933466494083405,
0.7256641983985901,
0.4708579480648041,
0.3508799374103546,
0.02999637834727764,
0.5877970457077026,
-0.1658363938331604,
-0.3960811197757721,
0.6177228689193726,
0.24297365546226501,
-0.34618449211120605,
0.1131499633193016,
-0.15231755375862122,
-0.32416537404060364,
0.21039649844169617,
-0.35207849740982056,
-0.0034508195240050554,
0.37238141894340515,
0.11917168647050858,
-0.1203560158610344,
1.001004695892334,
-0.06285618990659714,
0.9684826731681824,
0.2438044548034668,
-0.023892154917120934,
0.24699567258358002,
-0.5595526099205017,
-0.48335790634155273,
0.043761447072029114,
-0.02671385183930397,
-0.043658412992954254,
-0.2468639612197876,
0.07488596439361572,
0.17295515537261963,
-0.18419355154037476,
0.41512221097946167,
0.43499982357025146,
0.3450283110141754,
-0.10535233467817307,
0.5193836688995361,
-0.07665147632360458,
0.06422804296016693,
-0.925135612487793,
-0.2054605334997177,
0.2353680431842804,
-0.7801876068115234,
0.12776842713356018,
-0.14460012316703796,
-0.20956780016422272,
0.1609046310186386,
0.6352343559265137,
0.12415581941604614,
-0.12052680552005768,
0.037958040833473206,
-0.043488629162311554,
0.07073915749788284,
0.05499536171555519,
0.11279920488595963,
-0.05326620489358902,
0.41833987832069397,
0.15484477579593658,
0.39455291628837585,
-0.007191878743469715,
0.2036595195531845,
-0.19777439534664154,
0.9345001578330994,
-0.6611444354057312,
-0.535033106803894,
0.5952464938163757,
1.0443079471588135,
-0.2030428797006607,
0.08134525269269943,
-0.5897318124771118,
0.3379043638706207,
-0.01869349554181099,
0.7849817872047424,
0.6008780002593994,
0.1093418300151825,
-1.0186539888381958,
-0.04472032189369202,
-0.03412850946187973,
-0.1243211105465889,
-0.348134845495224,
0.16447611153125763,
-0.3958028256893158,
-0.5833467245101929,
-0.025558337569236755,
0.3499550223350525,
0.20899321138858795,
0.5479515194892883,
-0.4992331564426422,
-0.07281642407178879,
-0.6812272667884827,
0.34453684091567993,
0.447110652923584,
0.4473104178905487,
0.343054860830307,
0.06459790468215942,
-0.4380404055118561,
0.3006914556026459,
0.25233229994773865,
0.7083651423454285,
-0.19475123286247253,
-0.1620582789182663,
0.38982492685317993,
-0.15891657769680023,
0.4312537908554077,
0.006185309030115604,
0.09866441041231155,
0.030879735946655273,
0.5856520533561707,
-0.23674945533275604,
-0.23761236667633057,
-0.05260953679680824,
0.39176079630851746,
0.3610018789768219,
-0.07703951001167297,
-0.6106683015823364,
-0.5078687071800232,
0.8207457065582275,
0.08499331027269363,
0.09079882502555847,
0.14881430566310883,
0.15521913766860962,
-0.07533971965312958,
0.22737236320972443,
-0.5879025459289551,
0.031612034887075424,
0.3939014673233032,
-0.5449329018592834,
0.06865572184324265,
-0.26943668723106384,
0.6335861086845398,
-0.07307056337594986,
-0.23124566674232483,
1.0096287727355957,
-0.6821050047874451,
0.8716469407081604,
0.13128754496574402,
-0.7129979133605957,
0.6340582370758057,
-0.3195589482784271,
-0.010660014115273952,
0.357181578874588,
-0.04058963805437088,
-0.18681101500988007,
0.5095632076263428,
0.12304171919822693,
-0.14053966104984283,
-0.17061494290828705,
0.018269464373588562,
-0.563076376914978,
0.35611438751220703,
-0.6898026466369629,
0.17923994362354279,
0.434081107378006,
0.1091080904006958,
0.46983346343040466,
1.087857723236084,
0.014428737573325634,
-0.5798069834709167,
0.5662217140197754,
-0.2984204888343811,
0.66007000207901,
0.00726484227925539,
0.4881151616573334,
0.18153563141822815,
-0.31226930022239685,
-0.2671162486076355,
-0.03896643966436386,
-0.26814737915992737,
-0.08499234169721603,
0.4314497709274292,
-0.2678365111351013,
-0.12726151943206787,
0.1508011817932129,
0.25072991847991943,
0.3785339593887329,
0.5849574208259583,
0.09248136729001999,
-0.9049082398414612,
1.0779768228530884,
0.26667866110801697,
0.6664697527885437,
0.27928969264030457,
0.16891101002693176,
-0.417496919631958,
-0.4401962161064148,
-0.43851587176322937,
0.04584720730781555,
-0.21025210618972778,
-0.19154925644397736,
0.22643905878067017,
-0.4191027283668518,
-0.16841848194599152,
-0.0742657408118248,
0.6414120197296143,
0.5950542688369751,
-0.28144264221191406,
-0.40882834792137146,
-0.23735368251800537,
0.4998173415660858,
-0.20427201688289642,
-0.050518762320280075,
-0.127300426363945,
-0.7338564991950989,
0.4469901919364929,
0.10886761546134949,
0.4937792420387268,
0.24922220408916473,
-0.3141176402568817,
-0.37408164143562317,
-0.3487306237220764,
-0.4429459869861603,
-0.09394314140081406,
0.11717057228088379,
-0.31380411982536316,
-0.3476899564266205,
0.01934017986059189,
0.5603501796722412,
-0.6378065943717957,
-0.6808212399482727,
0.6071103811264038,
-0.09454070031642914,
-0.3646354675292969,
-0.1615726202726364,
0.046888645738363266,
0.14458522200584412,
-0.24610517919063568,
-0.5234560966491699,
-0.2828155755996704,
0.16261358559131622,
0.09265965223312378,
-0.022090483456850052,
-0.387085884809494,
-0.1390964835882187,
0.647301971912384,
0.014574151486158371,
-1.141929268836975,
-0.04443741962313652,
-0.5057597160339355,
0.3967418670654297,
0.07027854025363922,
-0.4653012454509735,
-0.45858752727508545,
0.3315593898296356,
-5.578989505767822,
0.348757803440094,
-0.5290265679359436,
0.4399869740009308,
-0.03647613152861595,
-0.23131896555423737,
0.09308341890573502,
0.12010058015584946,
0.6598666310310364,
-0.20109890401363373,
0.3526166081428528,
0.2825968861579895,
-0.11009979248046875,
0.6508292555809021,
-0.009416093118488789,
0.08520782738924026,
-0.20256999135017395,
-0.13082927465438843,
0.06431321799755096,
-0.4702417552471161,
-0.13582900166511536,
-0.12203271687030792,
-0.2229580283164978,
0.14593558013439178,
0.6502667665481567,
0.1827913522720337,
-0.6048921346664429,
0.003921558614820242,
-0.7847107648849487,
-0.47436103224754333,
-0.3171257972717285,
-0.8243365287780762,
0.1868341714143753,
-0.060594361275434494,
-0.07806345075368881,
-0.5910554528236389,
0.3225449323654175,
0.8099358677864075,
-0.0590861551463604,
-0.5970033407211304,
-0.1694871038198471,
1.0419825315475464,
-0.06275124847888947,
-0.170410618185997,
0.05653727054595947,
-0.70815509557724,
-0.3166691064834595,
-0.02584254741668701,
0.20523220300674438,
0.8127551078796387,
0.14554284512996674,
0.22864677011966705,
0.31198060512542725,
-0.4093594551086426,
0.33207201957702637,
-0.7253862023353577,
-0.6131575107574463,
-0.6417210698127747,
-0.3909193277359009,
0.39418911933898926,
0.2977888286113739,
-0.282711923122406,
-0.15612556040287018,
-0.23956289887428284,
-0.2908218204975128,
-0.48033663630485535,
0.09747061133384705,
-0.365832656621933,
0.9008013010025024,
0.09023334830999374,
-0.2238515317440033,
0.6459651589393616,
-0.03131731599569321,
-0.5103111267089844,
-0.028232432901859283,
-0.3076222836971283,
-0.5465198159217834,
-0.45275235176086426,
0.4604576528072357,
-0.564631462097168,
-0.11850351840257645,
0.06489324569702148,
-0.25064149498939514,
0.9943835139274597,
0.5542817115783691,
-0.5014190077781677,
0.16606175899505615,
0.051898371428251266,
-0.2785780131816864,
-0.2572406232357025,
0.8975359797477722,
-0.5425205230712891,
0.12538769841194153,
-0.02050057426095009,
-0.4154719114303589,
0.08462438732385635,
-1.243634581565857,
0.1806393414735794,
0.26697424054145813,
-0.39886850118637085,
1.0300695896148682,
-0.2241477221250534,
-0.038447532802820206,
0.08101732283830643,
0.2929455041885376,
-0.3833434581756592,
0.22461262345314026,
0.11542700976133347,
0.44689157605171204,
0.037479568272829056,
-0.4166697859764099,
-0.043271102011203766,
0.3199569880962372,
-0.563115656375885,
-0.3088955879211426,
-0.19624921679496765,
-0.6763397455215454,
0.8204249739646912,
0.5391073822975159,
-0.39450034499168396,
0.28343743085861206,
0.9386101961135864,
0.25875136256217957,
-0.1671190857887268,
0.17936421930789948,
-0.1472935825586319,
-0.2825070321559906,
0.3769337832927704,
-0.14232483506202698,
0.30602195858955383,
-0.08218809962272644,
-0.16223447024822235,
0.3187733292579651,
-0.9064173102378845,
0.4447867274284363,
-0.607370138168335,
-0.37611010670661926,
-0.5588819980621338,
-0.16414985060691833,
0.268892765045166,
-0.275809109210968,
-0.26577675342559814,
0.5458914637565613,
-0.03545727953314781,
-0.048658087849617004,
0.0528082512319088,
0.22101683914661407,
0.05521988496184349,
-0.46884533762931824,
-0.18393321335315704,
-0.10368483513593674,
-0.19273394346237183,
0.09678570181131363,
-0.011224353685975075,
0.09630975872278214,
-0.44360440969467163,
0.4172445833683014,
0.6290904879570007,
0.06540127843618393,
0.07781227678060532,
0.28130844235420227,
-0.3205653429031372,
-0.219173401594162,
0.07885283976793289,
0.13803090155124664,
0.1134786456823349,
-0.7249875664710999,
-0.1385708600282669,
-0.05601757392287254,
0.38507866859436035,
0.11271999776363373,
-0.37956398725509644,
-0.5418428778648376,
-0.329975962638855,
-0.2770839333534241,
0.5062289834022522,
-0.7092812061309814,
0.2424946278333664,
-0.6254495978355408,
-0.5776031613349915,
0.2722999155521393,
0.07035568356513977,
-0.3032207787036896,
0.6084622144699097,
0.5941497683525085,
-0.2909974455833435,
-0.25690558552742004,
0.0026266362983733416,
0.1030518189072609,
0.18619152903556824,
0.5679213404655457,
0.07439246028661728,
0.04902488738298416,
0.6046569347381592,
-0.40970370173454285,
-0.4329226315021515,
-0.39139997959136963,
0.8829408288002014,
-0.17432722449302673,
0.04750823602080345,
-0.11394965648651123,
0.31612738966941833,
-0.626033365726471,
-0.16461272537708282,
-0.24594785273075104,
-0.5094731450080872,
0.09139159321784973,
-0.06397425383329391,
0.07859541475772858,
0.6055325269699097,
-0.1958620250225067,
-0.6956409811973572,
0.21844074130058289,
0.44724541902542114,
-0.8825130462646484,
0.1587733030319214,
0.16717763245105743,
-0.7910354733467102,
-0.4072374999523163,
-0.12011221051216125,
-0.3646755516529083,
-0.2810421288013458,
-0.8023955821990967,
0.24816423654556274,
-0.487398624420166,
0.9542302489280701,
0.16533967852592468,
-0.3019528388977051,
0.1864519864320755,
0.15665340423583984,
0.3817523419857025,
-0.674013614654541,
0.4278188943862915,
0.5540338754653931,
0.22745893895626068,
-0.17925478518009186,
0.6474375128746033,
-0.03322442248463631,
0.08391286432743073,
0.29165735840797424,
0.6317368745803833,
0.39561164379119873,
0.12529020011425018,
-0.5029444694519043,
0.27416011691093445,
0.2655639946460724,
0.34175416827201843,
-0.3128429651260376,
-0.6513855457305908,
-0.1839216649532318,
0.4143033027648926,
0.323438823223114,
-1.057966947555542,
-0.4844115078449249,
1.198140025138855,
0.005900160409510136,
0.012098824605345726,
0.1961209625005722,
-0.10809051990509033,
0.03308004513382912,
0.1967046558856964,
-0.31714388728141785,
-0.6597660779953003,
0.1952189952135086,
0.4860934019088745,
-0.8417425155639648,
-0.9463669061660767,
-0.18975579738616943,
-0.26062196493148804,
-0.6614875197410583,
-0.2925819158554077,
-0.6414566040039062,
0.7314935922622681,
0.3678622543811798,
0.30843737721443176,
0.0018578446470201015,
0.4149889349937439,
-0.22376525402069092,
0.924483597278595,
-0.09164793789386749,
-0.6494879722595215,
0.08452792465686798,
-0.7989210486412048,
-0.3955047130584717,
-0.6866030097007751,
-0.25651293992996216,
-0.24472269415855408,
-0.08077292144298553,
-0.12054549902677536,
0.2885838449001312,
0.041826967149972916,
-0.16373401880264282,
-0.38502737879753113,
0.19835522770881653,
-0.13281026482582092,
0.4045446813106537,
0.22669242322444916,
0.8479512333869934,
0.4419490098953247,
0.2552594244480133,
-0.7305828332901001,
-0.004480620846152306,
0.39098888635635376,
-0.3725350797176361,
0.038540977984666824,
0.5394316911697388,
0.23991316556930542,
0.24025577306747437,
0.26993700861930847,
0.4864068627357483,
0.6171318292617798,
0.2317594289779663,
-0.4954729676246643,
0.7036247253417969,
0.11083222180604935,
-0.09436254948377609,
0.8163558840751648,
-0.5003441572189331,
-0.11044639348983765,
0.2948242723941803,
0.30225512385368347,
0.29693663120269775,
-0.3829680383205414,
0.28594425320625305,
0.31607189774513245,
0.9253607988357544,
0.12012918293476105,
-0.10550151020288467,
-0.34021928906440735,
-0.0053990609012544155,
0.21813108026981354,
0.07629053294658661,
-0.4935457408428192,
0.3096502125263214,
-0.13106803596019745,
0.20795829594135284,
-0.055055826902389526,
-0.4854806363582611,
0.19053643941879272,
0.22054482996463776,
0.26486557722091675,
0.6562725901603699,
-0.21457384526729584,
-0.22570960223674774,
-0.16168807446956635,
0.6342545747756958,
0.12745463848114014,
-0.0796164721250534,
0.029374945908784866,
0.21700449287891388,
0.5110649466514587,
-0.37694627046585083,
-0.1491934359073639,
-0.7740892767906189,
0.07715640217065811,
0.2734672427177429,
0.06714507192373276,
0.21201932430267334,
0.2389174848794937,
0.12506310641765594,
0.42199206352233887,
0.19246460497379303,
0.3137750029563904,
-0.35885104537010193,
-0.1961720883846283,
0.010445225052535534,
0.31061941385269165,
-0.5011152029037476,
0.17729994654655457,
0.16938261687755585,
0.08825621753931046,
-0.1169825941324234,
-0.44221070408821106,
-0.5208614468574524,
-0.4007059335708618,
0.7860245704650879,
0.09089439362287521,
0.5561392307281494,
-0.06330947577953339,
0.06814100593328476,
-0.18567779660224915,
0.6935282349586487,
-0.15352538228034973,
0.005072267260402441,
-1.1160802841186523,
-0.8076474666595459,
-0.3885388970375061,
-0.2076282501220703,
-1.0242184400558472,
-0.3241479992866516,
-0.4485994279384613,
-0.5841330289840698,
0.48391321301460266,
0.1460016816854477,
-0.725792646408081,
0.04606597125530243,
-0.1375868171453476,
0.6210489273071289,
-0.14866042137145996,
-0.6358277201652527,
-0.31678828597068787,
0.6520607471466064,
0.2747337818145752,
0.3941158950328827,
-0.20375308394432068,
0.46762487292289734,
-0.5268818736076355,
-0.016839148476719856,
0.6720548272132874,
0.17528869211673737,
0.6261575222015381,
-0.11671513319015503,
-0.520727813243866,
0.11685383319854736,
0.37046295404434204,
0.5173001289367676,
0.6939980387687683,
-0.41174203157424927,
-0.21340373158454895,
0.17436711490154266,
-0.19565634429454803,
-0.29179421067237854,
-0.7740265130996704,
0.023382434621453285,
-0.11478593945503235,
-0.2520116865634918,
0.6963337063789368,
0.22818134725093842,
-0.35837677121162415,
0.2668391466140747,
-0.0015339575475081801,
-0.3927159011363983,
-0.9004442095756531,
0.40555691719055176,
-0.7200407385826111,
-0.2453254610300064,
0.3323668837547302,
0.3385621905326843,
0.4521217346191406,
-0.2342604547739029,
0.05902785807847977,
0.3513786196708679,
0.6823530793190002,
0.05413254722952843,
0.12153514474630356,
-0.3944626450538635,
0.12143190950155258,
-0.0711364820599556,
-1.1581823825836182,
0.6231561303138733,
0.29758092761039734,
-0.4662444591522217,
0.43504610657691956,
0.025242943316698074,
0.4900764226913452,
-0.5017930865287781,
0.13748526573181152,
-0.6358500719070435,
0.10621722787618637,
-0.15899911522865295
] |
205920
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian%20Bashir
|
Julian Bashir
|
Julian Subatoi Bashir, MD is a fictional character from the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, portrayed by Alexander Siddig. Bashir is the Chief Medical Officer (CMO) of space station Deep Space Nine and the USS Defiant.
Overview
As a child, Julian Bashir fell behind in school, and was evaluated as having learning difficulties. Because of this, his parents, Richard and Amsha Bashir, had him subjected to genetic engineering. The procedure made him mentally superior to most humans, and greatly enhanced his physical abilities. However, because human genetic engineering is illegal in the United Federation of Planets, Bashir and his parents kept his procedure a secret throughout most of his adult life (DS9 episode: "Doctor Bashir, I Presume?").
Bashir graduated second in his class at Starfleet Medical Academy, having intentionally missed a question on his final exam (DS9: "Distant Voices"). He had his choice of assignments anywhere in the fleet, and so chose Deep Space Nine for the opportunity to practice "real-life frontier medicine" (DS9: "Emissary"). He holds the rank of Lieutenant (j.g.) at the time of the series pilot, and Lieutenant from the fourth season premiere until the series finale.
Early on, his overly enthusiastic and self-important nature made some members of the crew, such as Miles O'Brien and Kira Nerys, reluctant to spend time with him. However, he eventually becomes friends with O'Brien, Jadzia Dax, and Elim Garak. Bashir flirts with Jadzia, who rejects his advances and goes on to marry Worf. After her death, Bashir joins Worf on a dangerous mission to ensure Jadzia's soul a place in Sto-Vo-Kor.
Bashir's closest friend is O'Brien, and they are frequently shown playing games (like darts) or visiting the holodeck for the recreation of one of several historical battles such as the Alamo or the Battle of Britain. He is also close friends with Elim Garak, with whom he often shares lunch in the Replimat.
During pre-Dominion war tensions, Bashir is kidnapped (sometime before "Rapture," when new uniforms are introduced) and sent to a Dominion prison camp and replaced with a Changeling (revealed during "In Purgatory's Shadow"). His replacement attempts to destroy the Bajoran sun, with the goal of wiping out Bajor, DS9, and a fleet of Federation, Klingon, and Romulan ships ("By Inferno's Light"). The DS9 crew foil the plan, and the real Bashir, along with his fellow captives, shortly thereafter free themselves. The experience (and his outing as a genetically engineered person) began a slow personality change over the course of the series into a much more somber, dark character.
Later, Bashir attempts to integrate several other genetically engineered individuals into Federation culture, with mixed success ("Statistical Probabilities," "Chrysalis").
The covert operations group Section 31 also becomes interested in him and tries twice, unsuccessfully, to "recruit" him ("Inquisition," "Inter Arma Enim Silent Leges").
As depicted in the series finale "What You Leave Behind," Bashir remains aboard Deep Space Nine, and begins a romantic relationship with Ezri Dax.
In the Mirror Universe, the alternate Bashir is a freedom fighter in the Terran Rebellion. It is unknown whether he was ever given the genetic enhancements his counterpart was. Unlike the regular Bashir, who is friendly and personable, alternate Bashir is an angry, unkempt former slave who joins the rebellion against the Klingon/Cardassian Alliance.
Reception
The character of Julian Bashir initially sparked fan criticism. Alexander Siddig expressed his enthusiasm for the fact that he, with his English accent, unusual screen name at time of casting (Siddig El Fadil), and North African heritage was a main character on a prominent television show despite being not as easily racially identifiable to audiences as many other actors and characters were on TV at the time.
In 2016, Bashir was ranked as the 25th most important character of Starfleet within the Star Trek science fiction universe by Wired magazine.
In 2016, SyFy ranked Bashir as the fifth best of the seven main-cast space doctors of the Star Trek franchise.
In 2018, CBR ranked Bashir the 16th best Starfleet character of Star Trek.
In 2018, The Wrap placed Bashir as 15th out 39 in a ranking of main cast characters of the Star Trek franchise prior to Star Trek: Discovery.
Guest appearances
Alexander Siddig also played his role of Dr. Julian Bashir in the Star Trek: The Next Generation season six episode "Birthright, Part I", a season concurrent to DS9's first season.
References
External links
Julian Bashir at StarTrek.com
Fictional physicians
Fictional surgeons
Fictional genetically engineered characters
Fictional lieutenants
Fictional medical personnel
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters
Star Trek: The Next Generation characters
Starfleet officers
Fictional Arabs
Starfleet medical personnel
Starfleet lieutenants
Television characters introduced in 1993
Eugenics in fiction
Fictional British people
Crossover characters in television
|
[
-0.36037546396255493,
0.4803312122821808,
0.11800820380449295,
-0.065337173640728,
0.4188423156738281,
0.305781751871109,
0.1071426048874855,
0.269378125667572,
-0.3083328604698181,
-0.04998881369829178,
-0.8020739555358887,
0.16668805480003357,
-0.46280187368392944,
0.13860487937927246,
0.8082067370414734,
0.6536833643913269,
0.30055782198905945,
0.12266150861978531,
-0.3275671899318695,
-0.04240581393241882,
-0.059330180287361145,
-0.2181752771139145,
0.41426804661750793,
-0.1355808675289154,
-0.31415992975234985,
0.14520961046218872,
-0.11988355964422226,
0.058928392827510834,
-0.05316908657550812,
0.27568477392196655,
0.08998376131057739,
0.4299076795578003,
0.03708461672067642,
-0.048679500818252563,
-0.5655292868614197,
-0.03640362247824669,
-0.38547980785369873,
0.6083235144615173,
0.007108750753104687,
0.026874631643295288,
-0.01941898837685585,
-0.6706858277320862,
0.13816848397254944,
-0.16049233078956604,
-0.304635614156723,
-0.849442183971405,
-0.9290168881416321,
0.06871788948774338,
-0.39067596197128296,
-0.07676583528518677,
0.13638485968112946,
0.4503278434276581,
0.6612750291824341,
-0.5443618893623352,
-0.03327605873346329,
0.25481417775154114,
-0.49416831135749817,
0.02312341146171093,
-0.07458386570215225,
-0.6535109877586365,
0.37611123919487,
0.09982699900865555,
0.16829270124435425,
-0.6500239372253418,
0.15075020492076874,
0.37770769000053406,
0.14863944053649902,
-0.4150102734565735,
-0.26973363757133484,
-0.09478691965341568,
-0.14970612525939941,
0.29976680874824524,
-0.3049916625022888,
0.17134977877140045,
-0.07176610082387924,
0.03306593745946884,
0.3518494665622711,
0.257224977016449,
-0.0011894091730937362,
0.4887509346008301,
0.17811070382595062,
-0.39329561591148376,
0.3873342275619507,
0.6430280804634094,
-0.2684939205646515,
-0.3665849268436432,
-0.22612270712852478,
0.34002459049224854,
0.12150641530752182,
-0.060543619096279144,
-0.5646365284919739,
-0.06879697740077972,
0.8425525426864624,
-0.020791493356227875,
0.12971174716949463,
-0.18204329907894135,
-0.4610297977924347,
-0.0854414626955986,
-0.05992176756262779,
-0.13384811580181122,
-0.1912551373243332,
0.16071660816669464,
0.010100893676280975,
-0.3130851686000824,
-0.18915298581123352,
0.2801963686943054,
0.08240345865488052,
-0.12780864536762238,
-0.6923154592514038,
0.28107210993766785,
-0.5952703952789307,
-0.283500075340271,
-0.3594278395175934,
-0.5296611189842224,
-0.745924174785614,
0.28532466292381287,
0.06060827150940895,
-0.881891667842865,
-0.109262615442276,
-0.30413368344306946,
-0.03441109508275986,
0.6790751218795776,
-0.4821034371852875,
0.0756576806306839,
-0.07087986916303635,
-0.08990827947854996,
0.267154723405838,
-0.28816744685173035,
-0.7271485924720764,
0.5255692005157471,
0.4304759204387665,
0.318288654088974,
-0.10996060818433762,
0.5732239484786987,
-0.14157292246818542,
-0.21683749556541443,
0.4047374725341797,
-0.24255400896072388,
-0.25034835934638977,
0.2058163285255432,
-0.02698737010359764,
-0.32126620411872864,
-0.5650553107261658,
-0.14557304978370667,
0.36173683404922485,
-0.30531343817710876,
0.1043664962053299,
-0.13576249778270721,
-0.20538529753684998,
-0.566160261631012,
-0.4349365532398224,
0.07892406731843948,
0.19551540911197662,
-0.8153938055038452,
0.3196718692779541,
0.2961048483848572,
0.858366072177887,
0.04401031881570816,
0.25764498114585876,
-0.0796675756573677,
0.33504992723464966,
-0.20577383041381836,
-0.2230185866355896,
-0.5791665315628052,
0.869047224521637,
0.07577197998762131,
0.025480153039097786,
-0.4928652048110962,
0.13146382570266724,
0.03639649599790573,
0.05845298990607262,
0.20540322363376617,
0.21605606377124786,
-0.4596497416496277,
-0.42061954736709595,
0.5094223618507385,
0.1980307549238205,
0.3305644989013672,
0.1371876299381256,
-0.35531046986579895,
-0.6869426965713501,
-0.6902047991752625,
-0.09492383897304535,
-0.14497794210910797,
1.1392779350280762,
-0.081734299659729,
-0.02359788864850998,
0.0556522011756897,
0.6514336466789246,
0.5701249837875366,
-0.8344618082046509,
-0.42878130078315735,
0.5408964157104492,
0.21626149117946625,
0.4922700524330139,
-0.05790334567427635,
-0.33417120575904846,
0.591189444065094,
0.48458215594291687,
0.2104230523109436,
-0.5229385495185852,
0.4284572899341583,
0.16134823858737946,
0.40168648958206177,
-0.10018907487392426,
0.5746366381645203,
0.4103032946586609,
-0.2593172788619995,
0.05403267219662666,
0.4619007408618927,
0.22411908209323883,
-0.6469287276268005,
-0.17989428341388702,
0.07393418252468109,
0.0428924635052681,
-0.3432425558567047,
-0.711980402469635,
-0.29616978764533997,
-0.3694710433483124,
-0.24205008149147034,
0.5246810913085938,
-0.10570008307695389,
0.11152412742376328,
0.1898031383752823,
-0.4553743004798889,
0.5318166017532349,
-0.1929669827222824,
0.009889788925647736,
-0.2337084263563156,
-0.04823395982384682,
-0.06462723761796951,
-0.2732253074645996,
-0.11005857586860657,
-0.375323086977005,
-0.28930699825286865,
0.2485903799533844,
0.1726926863193512,
-0.3721831738948822,
0.2980435788631439,
-0.25983262062072754,
0.2512761056423187,
0.4736824631690979,
-0.757779061794281,
-0.025689031928777695,
0.034669484943151474,
0.12127251923084259,
-0.05525555834174156,
-0.06266497820615768,
-0.27692070603370667,
0.31968170404434204,
-0.4226137101650238,
0.2701549530029297,
-0.039991822093725204,
-0.19518671929836273,
0.35267022252082825,
0.3105885982513428,
0.3952042758464813,
0.3457510471343994,
-0.4097188413143158,
0.00641795014962554,
-0.17810998857021332,
-0.08587417751550674,
-0.2801362872123718,
-0.07985121756792068,
-0.17672716081142426,
-0.1628282070159912,
-0.010934588499367237,
-0.44018813967704773,
0.37722247838974,
0.15194731950759888,
0.5404239296913147,
-0.4068015217781067,
-0.34359419345855713,
0.3153132200241089,
-0.034874409437179565,
0.05091235414147377,
-0.10278891772031784,
0.26399534940719604,
-0.020442204549908638,
-0.5066522359848022,
0.7059885859489441,
0.39443328976631165,
0.424281507730484,
0.15179823338985443,
-0.31636714935302734,
-0.6713372468948364,
-0.7518052458763123,
0.04556503891944885,
-0.141317680478096,
-0.32779183983802795,
-0.21950632333755493,
0.4400937259197235,
0.5963597893714905,
0.24305054545402527,
-0.41362786293029785,
0.5317250490188599,
0.44318583607673645,
0.3575723469257355,
0.31197381019592285,
0.2755318284034729,
-0.4626605808734894,
0.37726396322250366,
0.3979288935661316,
0.10497760027647018,
0.5113712549209595,
-0.2903841733932495,
-0.2850341498851776,
-0.05764680728316307,
-5.993898868560791,
0.31905174255371094,
-0.20587556064128876,
0.14718253910541534,
0.11388608068227768,
0.32045456767082214,
0.7693518996238708,
-0.27581796050071716,
-0.4754711091518402,
-0.07880495488643646,
-0.7757620215415955,
0.40582510828971863,
0.41397151350975037,
0.14020216464996338,
0.25582554936408997,
0.8827918171882629,
0.5838309526443481,
-0.23728206753730774,
0.5321738719940186,
0.4071378707885742,
-0.02008466050028801,
-0.3577462136745453,
-0.49114611744880676,
-0.07164160907268524,
0.48783719539642334,
0.5005220770835876,
-0.8642005920410156,
0.5706621408462524,
-0.7128934860229492,
0.4231509268283844,
-0.21237240731716156,
0.1707271933555603,
-0.6127728223800659,
0.1302407681941986,
-0.0919722318649292,
-0.27069395780563354,
0.03416872024536133,
-0.8378029465675354,
0.26567187905311584,
-0.313330739736557,
-0.286963552236557,
0.01771915890276432,
-0.6372838020324707,
-0.24202795326709747,
0.12025924026966095,
0.25455084443092346,
-0.7350281476974487,
-0.24628189206123352,
0.32493647933006287,
0.21639378368854523,
-0.03918808698654175,
-0.1919732689857483,
-0.2571796178817749,
0.16307635605335236,
-0.05736945942044258,
0.388839453458786,
0.41930943727493286,
0.5759658813476562,
-0.29668930172920227,
-0.0749845877289772,
0.19733411073684692,
-0.05440521985292435,
-0.30300676822662354,
-0.32876211404800415,
0.25549638271331787,
0.05147677659988403,
0.4345928132534027,
-0.5617700219154358,
0.07540053129196167,
-0.08280254900455475,
-0.41375455260276794,
0.3168218731880188,
0.11882422864437103,
-0.7647244930267334,
-0.06474650651216507,
-0.8768441677093506,
-0.16850458085536957,
-0.09198853373527527,
-0.4944302439689636,
-0.2787945568561554,
-0.30291232466697693,
-0.35901564359664917,
0.19146189093589783,
0.024587268009781837,
0.20797099173069,
-0.4078986942768097,
0.2146337479352951,
-0.05163762345910072,
0.6346028447151184,
-0.08064030855894089,
-0.07933171093463898,
-0.7594496011734009,
-0.008639988489449024,
0.45517614483833313,
0.1906767040491104,
0.19792993366718292,
-0.11918596178293228,
0.7652350664138794,
0.5570173859596252,
0.042728595435619354,
0.1721213012933731,
-0.5454753637313843,
0.039883870631456375,
-0.6627170443534851,
0.4748189151287079,
0.02739132009446621,
0.2306453287601471,
0.10977700352668762,
0.38351675868034363,
0.4268234968185425,
0.08077287673950195,
0.28938028216362,
-0.16782516241073608,
0.12205587327480316,
0.6865271329879761,
-0.03467075154185295,
-0.07367085665464401,
0.2745233178138733,
0.2231963872909546,
0.6102048754692078,
-0.28825563192367554,
-0.4123566448688507,
-0.5889039635658264,
0.2703019380569458,
-0.10919539630413055,
0.1510736495256424,
-0.17460869252681732,
-0.2695315182209015,
-0.01928705908358097,
0.14098842442035675,
0.22544896602630615,
0.9724879264831543,
0.1507299542427063,
0.42126962542533875,
0.6693078279495239,
-0.4055601954460144,
0.24235737323760986,
-0.1656142622232437,
0.10060015320777893,
0.17703722417354584,
0.014409560710191727,
-0.0909411683678627,
-0.3050515055656433,
0.2565326392650604,
0.30407893657684326,
0.004100815858691931,
0.23351351916790009,
0.2271355241537094,
0.2812412679195404,
0.5080158114433289,
0.5327873826026917,
-0.05161247029900551,
0.32761815190315247,
-0.42542681097984314,
-0.14026467502117157,
0.1857060045003891,
0.04596632346510887,
-0.1693173050880432,
-0.02270921878516674,
0.6221282482147217,
0.35751107335090637,
-0.20308028161525726,
-1.144438624382019,
-0.5111400485038757,
0.3280505836009979,
-0.4026980400085449,
-0.06849519163370132,
-1.020492434501648,
-0.1723414659500122,
0.5374164581298828,
-0.2293863445520401,
-0.013644170016050339,
-0.1123901829123497,
0.09557077288627625,
0.37342196702957153,
0.015434673056006432,
-0.3197043836116791,
0.19472110271453857,
0.12452402710914612,
0.5343413352966309,
0.006901328451931477,
0.3252015709877014,
-0.8351696729660034,
0.38834673166275024,
-0.012791893444955349,
0.18865223228931427,
-0.5437385439872742,
-0.030456097796559334,
0.01601160503923893,
-0.07791298627853394,
-0.054064832627773285,
0.24286788702011108,
-0.026761120185256004,
0.3415653705596924,
0.040578652173280716,
-0.11386290192604065,
0.11048562079668045,
0.6699900031089783,
0.03590003773570061,
0.2924962639808655,
-0.1373763382434845,
0.3218354880809784,
-0.5679367780685425,
0.22696343064308167,
0.39323335886001587,
-0.04313511773943901,
0.2634120285511017,
0.06632306426763535,
0.07000681012868881,
0.16716137528419495,
-0.4104204773902893,
-0.46802037954330444,
0.10320333391427994,
0.18731197714805603,
-0.26393988728523254,
0.6333946585655212,
0.2164505571126938,
-0.4671623110771179,
-0.1967829316854477,
-0.019207358360290527,
-0.5540580749511719,
-0.21784533560276031,
0.123898945748806,
-0.39143767952919006,
-0.20932519435882568,
-0.4510670304298401,
1.118817687034607,
-0.05819923058152199,
0.021745411679148674,
0.024094024673104286,
-0.1683388203382492,
-0.37423011660575867,
0.27424368262290955,
-0.017772657796740532,
-0.5360732078552246,
-0.09362100809812546,
-0.10262762755155563,
0.052474718540906906,
-0.15538157522678375,
-0.19745588302612305,
0.5277650952339172,
0.6485865712165833,
-0.19669945538043976,
-0.534965455532074,
-0.16888926923274994,
-0.08876610547304153,
0.6036027073860168,
-0.3068349361419678,
-0.02614208310842514,
-0.061893004924058914,
0.7660878300666809,
-0.327036052942276,
-0.6200428009033203,
-0.1479927897453308,
0.6355677843093872,
-0.06143360957503319,
0.29762914776802063,
-0.42566391825675964,
-0.2991812825202942,
-0.16243524849414825,
0.18048149347305298,
0.028283672407269478,
-0.5205390453338623,
0.04612886533141136,
-0.42180997133255005,
-0.22292044758796692,
0.0042821625247597694,
0.13754715025424957,
0.24848099052906036,
-0.3200858235359192,
-0.6006855964660645,
0.16279886662960052,
-0.016793595626950264,
0.5563740134239197,
-0.46574610471725464,
0.05390481278300285,
0.4255883991718292,
0.48663511872291565,
-0.2737827003002167,
0.22259575128555298,
-0.5723866820335388,
0.4435291588306427,
0.13094282150268555,
-0.5946857333183289,
-0.24556201696395874,
-0.7287376523017883,
0.3061683773994446,
-0.005928994156420231,
-0.2775889039039612,
-0.052747949957847595,
-0.5079331994056702,
-0.028483595699071884,
-0.5605993270874023,
-0.3577234148979187,
-0.09952089190483093,
-0.4257791042327881,
-0.2059020698070526,
0.1737516224384308,
0.0318421795964241,
-0.24582955241203308,
-0.3106018900871277,
0.9600527286529541,
0.1408175379037857,
0.02845221944153309,
-0.09286019951105118,
-0.3374532461166382,
0.5625607371330261,
-0.5657030940055847,
0.15346361696720123,
-0.18040338158607483,
0.3942312002182007,
-0.41682183742523193,
0.16814470291137695,
0.3961338698863983,
-0.21812547743320465,
-0.47952303290367126,
0.6399690508842468,
0.36563795804977417,
-0.008251545019447803,
0.2454567700624466,
-0.00030796643113717437,
-0.44021284580230713,
0.4850856363773346,
-0.23956994712352753,
-0.03561263903975487,
0.3824256360530853,
0.40001729130744934,
-0.04752681404352188,
0.027445808053016663,
0.9247066378593445,
0.24857103824615479,
-0.184596449136734,
-0.03252475708723068,
0.04360273480415344,
-0.13437719643115997,
-0.28263136744499207,
0.4678823947906494,
-0.07458668202161789,
-0.06995546817779541,
0.1155356615781784,
0.01967628300189972,
0.6045054197311401,
0.07771407812833786,
0.582956075668335,
0.1616767793893814,
0.38033610582351685,
0.04489322751760483,
0.6306511163711548,
0.3231903910636902,
-0.3684117794036865,
-0.3752337694168091,
0.21790839731693268,
-0.1891777515411377,
-0.33417871594429016,
0.2385311871767044,
-0.29645273089408875,
0.32028287649154663,
-0.25606203079223633,
-0.568686842918396,
0.08578779548406601,
-0.13304215669631958,
-0.27996692061424255,
0.8810940980911255,
0.45311152935028076,
-0.2504758834838867,
0.10407363623380661,
-0.020064685493707657,
-0.9234070777893066,
0.3582807779312134,
-0.23823702335357666,
0.20518937706947327,
0.21710100769996643,
-0.19252273440361023,
0.6234043836593628,
0.3514448404312134,
-0.233021542429924,
0.0941661074757576,
0.2585288882255554,
-0.23220834136009216,
0.18325023353099823,
0.04823824390769005,
-0.09071969240903854,
0.17826415598392487,
-0.45437997579574585,
0.5308095812797546,
0.5333278775215149,
-0.0477064773440361,
0.1766788512468338,
-0.13578058779239655,
0.06471259891986847,
0.15409477055072784,
-0.8847373127937317,
-0.40060368180274963,
0.05140472948551178,
-0.04891207814216614,
-0.21821780502796173,
-0.09610617905855179,
0.5063722729682922,
0.39521458745002747,
-0.2297600656747818,
0.40769538283348083,
0.3685331344604492,
0.3583885729312897,
0.07265622168779373,
-0.2689891457557678,
-0.2585153579711914,
-0.568456768989563,
-0.27354690432548523,
-0.8630943298339844,
0.07265162467956543,
0.5079599618911743,
0.3382076025009155,
-0.5919041037559509,
0.6649420261383057,
-0.2654389441013336,
0.5008025169372559,
-0.08705439418554306,
-0.07742845267057419,
0.18467818200588226,
-0.3353559374809265,
-0.5556585192680359,
0.3270743787288666,
0.09897924959659576,
0.06932469457387924,
-0.29179731011390686,
0.4343406558036804,
-0.031689662486314774,
0.05647291615605354,
-0.042686671018600464,
0.5797604918479919,
-0.08511769026517868,
-0.0018098223954439163,
-0.5035639405250549,
0.4577656686306,
-0.12509246170520782,
-0.419862300157547,
0.40151721239089966,
0.6609737277030945,
-0.06987445801496506,
-0.5326802730560303,
0.3323701024055481,
-0.03630667179822922,
-0.2729739546775818,
-0.475816011428833,
0.4538683593273163,
-0.4319942593574524,
-0.8881393074989319,
-0.4421495199203491,
-0.0275520421564579,
0.27754083275794983,
0.39265909790992737,
-0.3605652451515198,
0.07713352888822556,
-1.0332423448562622,
-0.12162952125072479,
-0.13650357723236084,
-0.12362115830183029,
0.33672046661376953,
0.6419366598129272,
-0.08971434086561203
] |
205924
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20associated%20with%20the%202003%20invasion%20of%20Iraq
|
List of people associated with the 2003 invasion of Iraq
|
This is a list of notable people associated with the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Australia
John Howard, Prime Minister
Andrew Wilkie
China
Hu Jintao, President
Li Zhaoxing, Foreign Minister
France
Jacques Chirac, President
Dominique de Villepin, Foreign Minister
Germany
Gerhard Schröder, Chancellor
Joschka Fischer, Foreign Minister
Iraq
Rafid Ahmed Alwan, aka "Curveball"
Tariq Aziz
Ahmed Chalabi – Iraqi National Congress
Qusay Hussein
Saddam Hussein
Uday Hussein
Taha Yassin Ramadan – Vice President
Amir Hamudi Hasan al-Sadi – Liaison to UNSCOM
Muhammed Saeed al-Sahaf – Information Minister
Abdul Razak al-Hashimi – coordinated with human shields
Russia
Vladimir Putin, President
Igor Ivanov, Foreign Minister
Spain
José María Aznar
UK
Government
Tony Blair, Prime Minister
Lord Goldsmith, Attorney General for England and Wales
Jeremy Greenstock, UK ambassador to the UN during the buildup, and then UK representative in Iraq post-invasion.
Geoff Hoon, Secretary of State for Defence
Clare Short, International Development Secretary
Jack Straw, Foreign Secretary
Elizabeth Wilmshurst, Deputy chief legal adviser to the Foreign Office
Military
Major-General Tim Cross
Johnson Beharry, Awarded a rare Victoria Cross for two separate acts of bravery. First living recipient of the award since 1969.
Air Marshal Brian Burridge, In charge of UK invasion, Operation Telic
Other
Robin Cook
Katharine Gun
David Kelly
United Nations
Kofi Annan, Secretary-General
Hans Blix, head of UNSCOM
Mohamed ElBaradei – Director General of the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency
United States
CPA
Paul Bremer – former head of the CPA
Jay Garner – former head of ORHA
Government
George W. Bush, President
Dick Cheney, Vice President
I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby – Former Chief of Staff to the Vice President and his Assistant for Security Affairs; founding member of the Project for the New American Century; former student and close associate of Paul Wolfowitz
Richard Perle – former Assistant Secretary of Defense
Colin Powell – Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice – National Security Advisor
Donald Rumsfeld – Defense Secretary
George Tenet – CIA Director
Paul Wolfowitz – Deputy Secretary of Defense
Military
Lynndie England
General Tommy Franks
Corporal Sean Huze, USMC, RCT-1, 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion
PFC Jessica Lynch
Lieutenant General David D. McKiernan, CFLCC Commander
General David Petraeus-Commander, Multi-National Force-Iraq
Lieutenant Colonel Eddie Ray USMC Battalion Commander, 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion
General Ricardo Sanchez
Gunnery Sergeant Justin LeHew USMC, RCT-2 Task Force Tarawa
Theorists
Bruce P. Jackson – Chairman of the Project for the New American Century (PNAC) and current chair of the Committee for the Liberation of Iraq
Bernard Lewis
Michael Rubin – A specialist on Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy
Randy Scheunemann – President of the Committee for the Liberation of Iraq, which was created by the Project for the New American Century
Harlan K. Ullman – Military theorist responsible for the shock and awe strategy
James Woolsey – former CIA Director
Other
Peter Arnett – journalist
Joseph C. Wilson – Former diplomat whose criticism of the claim Saddam sought uranium from Niger led to the Plame affair
See also
U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis
References
Peop
Iraq
People associated with the invasion of Iraq
|
[
-0.14284861087799072,
0.8944479823112488,
-0.8397862911224365,
-0.4982508420944214,
-1.1576167345046997,
0.04032818600535393,
0.8177382946014404,
0.35249897837638855,
-0.7144314050674438,
0.3624640107154846,
-0.4482901394367218,
0.315886527299881,
-0.14776885509490967,
0.2810046374797821,
0.24927429854869843,
0.41640037298202515,
-0.5107685923576355,
0.5961864590644836,
0.08358567953109741,
-0.08575323969125748,
0.10455867648124695,
-0.37561681866645813,
0.41360044479370117,
-0.505116879940033,
-0.04359837993979454,
0.6124439835548401,
0.730030357837677,
0.09912051260471344,
-0.24226751923561096,
-0.1413099765777588,
-0.4089798629283905,
0.5807713270187378,
0.30056628584861755,
-0.4371449649333954,
-0.024261437356472015,
-0.2105173021554947,
0.4471442997455597,
0.16133476793766022,
0.008159492164850235,
-0.30859678983688354,
-0.10039025545120239,
-0.039836470037698746,
0.1387307196855545,
0.8745067715644836,
0.18655113875865936,
-0.7611076235771179,
-1.5278685092926025,
-0.4080272614955902,
-0.739192545413971,
-0.363525390625,
0.35854458808898926,
0.21576280891895294,
0.9429520964622498,
0.42787426710128784,
0.5180329084396362,
0.544350266456604,
-0.9890598058700562,
-0.011824389919638634,
0.15442220866680145,
0.09902297705411911,
0.41407474875450134,
0.3076763451099396,
0.3815109133720398,
-0.33734431862831116,
0.12467753142118454,
0.08129533380270004,
0.1725771576166153,
1.0145429372787476,
-0.12578552961349487,
-0.21259702742099762,
0.12988275289535522,
-0.7182208895683289,
0.5856579542160034,
0.27059879899024963,
0.13184604048728943,
-0.06357916444540024,
0.47110405564308167,
-0.3171342611312866,
-0.18274752795696259,
-0.13633674383163452,
0.0005630021332763135,
-0.16505011916160583,
0.16025865077972412,
-0.04852466657757759,
0.4203591048717499,
-0.01570969447493553,
-0.15161603689193726,
-0.27576276659965515,
-0.1490669697523117,
0.8417955636978149,
-0.2227669358253479,
-0.00928731169551611,
0.4222400486469269,
0.38798660039901733,
-0.06204880401492119,
0.12213510274887085,
-0.11572214215993881,
0.36279627680778503,
-0.04058019071817398,
0.3229861855506897,
0.47732555866241455,
0.8485192656517029,
0.2095373272895813,
-0.4673307538032532,
-0.520839512348175,
-0.2740742266178131,
-0.25088220834732056,
-0.26382437348365784,
-0.012432356365025043,
-2.234522581100464,
0.05328981205821037,
0.7119593024253845,
-0.5699729323387146,
-0.13926631212234497,
-0.20420598983764648,
0.8710486888885498,
0.3971366882324219,
-0.18111532926559448,
0.10409165918827057,
0.22300346195697784,
-0.675491452217102,
1.2250405550003052,
-0.6031545400619507,
0.05821340158581734,
-0.2589408755302429,
0.5104645490646362,
0.4016690254211426,
-0.006143941543996334,
0.1776813268661499,
1.1746188402175903,
0.12218361347913742,
1.0574746131896973,
-0.35599151253700256,
-0.17698420584201813,
0.15222904086112976,
-0.6684022545814514,
0.4733232855796814,
0.48862287402153015,
0.0421673059463501,
0.21563073992729187,
-0.8015687465667725,
-0.5942131280899048,
-2.328765630722046,
-0.07782312482595444,
0.3732014000415802,
-0.2553757131099701,
-0.25571247935295105,
0.02117570862174034,
-0.08556777983903885,
-0.04032808914780617,
0.21006491780281067,
-0.6157615184783936,
0.2447218894958496,
0.3532012701034546,
-0.08305687457323074,
0.6247671246528625,
0.23134924471378326,
-0.6014381647109985,
0.8293655514717102,
0.21541975438594818,
0.481729120016098,
0.09842188656330109,
0.14474286139011383,
0.2921522557735443,
-0.13189643621444702,
0.5227473378181458,
0.045853689312934875,
-0.037127796560525894,
0.3321043848991394,
-0.06741217523813248,
-0.7903057336807251,
0.26421037316322327,
0.2413499355316162,
-0.5959729552268982,
0.28308212757110596,
0.33224061131477356,
0.7858273386955261,
0.39221471548080444,
0.211044579744339,
-0.09246382117271423,
-0.7447925209999084,
-0.18752697110176086,
0.03551338613033295,
-0.04573420435190201,
0.525011420249939,
0.1982794851064682,
0.3415990173816681,
-0.21715383231639862,
-0.24342794716358185,
0.1092415302991867,
0.05771386995911598,
-0.4404541850090027,
0.5398536920547485,
-0.5131679177284241,
1.2689307928085327,
0.2542217969894409,
-0.07696865499019623,
-0.44163456559181213,
0.47349199652671814,
0.9894689321517944,
-0.2912122905254364,
-0.15269061923027039,
0.573652982711792,
0.061745960265398026,
-0.5396414995193481,
2.1304354667663574,
0.12138187885284424,
-0.06661088019609451,
0.6737902760505676,
1.030321717262268,
0.4786159098148346,
0.17228804528713226,
-0.44205525517463684,
0.10694620758295059,
-0.06148188188672066,
0.45836538076400757,
-0.047839339822530746,
0.5395512580871582,
0.002375120995566249,
-0.14093701541423798,
0.15696313977241516,
0.04836133122444153,
0.056150488555431366,
0.15993070602416992,
0.33587217330932617,
0.7618610262870789,
-0.3724537789821625,
0.5644376277923584,
-0.3880198001861572,
-1.102079153060913,
0.4887887239456177,
0.6627040505409241,
-0.06585145741701126,
-0.5342355370521545,
-0.5167936086654663,
-0.19006188213825226,
-0.172188863158226,
-0.7647638320922852,
0.03687557950615883,
0.09558036923408508,
0.16462820768356323,
0.3069084584712982,
-0.33394211530685425,
0.18472833931446075,
-0.3421964645385742,
0.0324101448059082,
-0.10027250647544861,
-0.32967525720596313,
0.3221585154533386,
-0.040330804884433746,
0.4554745554924011,
0.1728915274143219,
0.38757622241973877,
-0.9862075448036194,
0.20874203741550446,
0.10310845077037811,
-0.2744300663471222,
-0.4158976376056671,
-0.05354466661810875,
-0.2463369220495224,
-0.27656102180480957,
0.34548527002334595,
0.45768851041793823,
0.43199416995048523,
0.01328993123024702,
-0.4420623779296875,
-0.36726006865501404,
-0.40349897742271423,
-0.24085396528244019,
-0.017755458131432533,
0.36234599351882935,
-0.49706926941871643,
-0.17693494260311127,
-2.6279211044311523,
0.22426198422908783,
0.25974252820014954,
-0.8282688856124878,
0.3721754252910614,
-0.8168147802352905,
-0.4067392647266388,
0.312436044216156,
0.926677405834198,
0.14328132569789886,
0.47368714213371277,
-0.6285991072654724,
0.053504250943660736,
0.20109480619430542,
-0.20903237164020538,
0.31441473960876465,
-0.12559323012828827,
-0.6654769778251648,
-0.18664395809173584,
0.032442305237054825,
0.07256761938333511,
-0.1286419779062271,
0.19193536043167114,
-0.5068896412849426,
0.05128573626279831,
-0.026548493653535843,
-0.3207254111766815,
-0.7405768036842346,
0.7340346574783325,
-1.1098688840866089,
-0.3974936604499817,
0.4116725027561188,
-0.06023271009325981,
-0.5180554986000061,
0.3051636815071106,
-3.7079885005950928,
0.2602609694004059,
-0.3405372202396393,
-0.3025752305984497,
-0.17709361016750336,
0.18934541940689087,
0.5076755285263062,
-0.8825612664222717,
-0.540790319442749,
0.4750678837299347,
0.40564438700675964,
0.182973250746727,
-0.08148113638162613,
0.9606297612190247,
1.0246227979660034,
0.10528581589460373,
0.6795300841331482,
-0.009648505598306656,
0.7091028690338135,
-0.099420465528965,
0.29009875655174255,
0.30612921714782715,
-0.47268468141555786,
-0.11820071935653687,
0.5077857971191406,
0.906067430973053,
0.1335795819759369,
0.2228662073612213,
-0.7338757514953613,
0.27319663763046265,
0.09542234987020493,
0.008054947480559349,
0.0033518383279442787,
-0.156575009226799,
-0.7127535343170166,
0.06531637907028198,
0.294214129447937,
0.4025995135307312,
0.22996850311756134,
-0.6634425520896912,
-0.5579609870910645,
0.31294819712638855,
-0.33148130774497986,
0.5515918135643005,
1.172304391860962,
0.17610658705234528,
-0.572649359703064,
-0.09497860074043274,
-0.25896894931793213,
0.7760194540023804,
0.08151628822088242,
-0.25084561109542847,
0.8198638558387756,
0.8300594687461853,
-0.118821881711483,
-0.5926795601844788,
0.1714036613702774,
-0.24434345960617065,
-0.28034505248069763,
0.6298477649688721,
0.2860771119594574,
-0.45308783650398254,
0.454397052526474,
-0.9772908687591553,
0.28099939227104187,
-0.6597563624382019,
-0.09155119210481644,
-0.6182498335838318,
-0.08509988337755203,
0.09464361518621445,
-0.48166534304618835,
0.09227196127176285,
-0.6119312644004822,
-0.7591424584388733,
0.320311963558197,
-0.13646045327186584,
-0.3713739514350891,
0.49899065494537354,
-0.13884153962135315,
-0.1503540426492691,
-0.3971644341945648,
-0.06818115711212158,
-0.5109233260154724,
0.18089772760868073,
0.4245888590812683,
-0.3182638883590698,
0.05136565491557121,
-0.10129106044769287,
0.0658436119556427,
-0.288257896900177,
0.06571552902460098,
-0.5005422830581665,
0.5431030988693237,
0.5282804369926453,
-0.015243042260408401,
0.5361668467521667,
0.5714917778968811,
0.03877671808004379,
0.9166689515113831,
-0.47689786553382874,
-0.43559685349464417,
-0.7341699600219727,
-0.05664496496319771,
-0.14631177484989166,
0.14385570585727692,
-0.4463411867618561,
-0.12339451164007187,
0.044046368449926376,
0.25719180703163147,
-0.343529611825943,
0.24683287739753723,
-0.7017971277236938,
-0.4089391827583313,
-0.07838299125432968,
0.225955992937088,
-0.3327139616012573,
0.3407387435436249,
0.7411226630210876,
0.7450945973396301,
0.73763108253479,
0.24584458768367767,
-0.24384906888008118,
-0.18459467589855194,
0.05745649337768555,
-0.1815350502729416,
-0.3362460434436798,
-0.15281906723976135,
-0.220531165599823,
-0.27497804164886475,
0.13687360286712646,
0.32934194803237915,
0.2273273915052414,
-0.21948698163032532,
-0.15895910561084747,
0.17495694756507874,
-0.8128530979156494,
-0.5651670098304749,
-0.2664239704608917,
0.19757375121116638,
0.12544971704483032,
0.28405123949050903,
-0.27892035245895386,
-0.6587992906570435,
0.5491414666175842,
-0.155606210231781,
0.6228018999099731,
0.3599565327167511,
-0.28279367089271545,
-0.5640600919723511,
0.38569581508636475,
-0.528246283531189,
-0.07109212130308151,
0.5148727893829346,
-0.20019946992397308,
-0.1621508151292801,
0.7412083148956299,
0.635506272315979,
0.7327665686607361,
-0.835278332233429,
-0.5384991765022278,
-0.03894348815083504,
0.03932899609208107,
-0.8322934508323669,
0.4097735285758972,
0.7191383838653564,
-0.5328918695449829,
0.21237708628177643,
0.24113969504833221,
-0.38642698526382446,
1.004372239112854,
0.18803197145462036,
-0.1032620444893837,
-0.9362701773643494,
0.5422058701515198,
0.8115038871765137,
-0.774895966053009,
0.15755246579647064,
0.505272388458252,
0.14288407564163208,
-0.5261453986167908,
-0.068609818816185,
0.19475387036800385,
-0.03912603110074997,
0.16561594605445862,
0.38117390871047974,
0.2959973216056824,
-0.6591683030128479,
-0.49059727787971497,
-0.5440916419029236,
0.0562378466129303,
0.15424565970897675,
0.4765615165233612,
0.06939470767974854,
-0.2872583270072937,
-0.4745974838733673,
-0.8657284379005432,
-0.019812945276498795,
0.3912900984287262,
0.3155094087123871,
-0.527870237827301,
0.7823926210403442,
0.5798109173774719,
-0.5262097716331482,
0.6366195678710938,
-0.025620002299547195,
-0.6367815136909485,
0.5390385985374451,
0.3040564954280853,
-0.6089096665382385,
0.5926591157913208,
-0.0827404260635376,
-0.8301346302032471,
-0.6340789794921875,
0.8090378642082214,
-0.27906808257102966,
-0.23754113912582397,
0.4415958523750305,
0.27794715762138367,
-0.2954739034175873,
-0.10365170985460281,
0.059079624712467194,
-0.40547510981559753,
-0.41897353529930115,
-0.5174468755722046,
-0.6782552003860474,
0.502722442150116,
0.08094601333141327,
-1.4026544094085693,
0.48509901762008667,
-0.29255029559135437,
-0.3499033749103546,
0.060165248811244965,
0.5122536420822144,
0.03192770481109619,
-0.004482702352106571,
0.06368784606456757,
0.1138349398970604,
0.2284899204969406,
-0.3638288974761963,
0.4841326177120209,
0.24817553162574768,
0.8439496159553528,
0.5757849216461182,
-0.7079310417175293,
-0.364624559879303,
-0.201899915933609,
-0.12575611472129822,
-0.5359126925468445,
-0.523216724395752,
-0.5336089730262756,
0.010761920362710953,
0.16975876688957214,
-0.7837642431259155,
-1.189793586730957,
0.7028036713600159,
-0.6109738349914551,
-0.5831552147865295,
-0.1416095644235611,
0.5296508073806763,
0.2720218598842621,
0.02412235364317894,
0.12670724093914032,
-0.26629024744033813,
0.5578402280807495,
0.6011531949043274,
-0.006363940890878439,
-0.12091419845819473,
-0.08584615588188171,
-0.10531535744667053,
-0.03433886170387268,
-0.7717648148536682,
-0.3626759350299835,
0.15368711948394775,
0.8460482954978943,
0.06497766822576523,
-0.3086760938167572,
0.38663187623023987,
-0.7477490901947021,
0.01375094149261713,
-0.391889750957489,
0.7668837308883667,
-0.15522189438343048,
0.1404295116662979,
-0.28599467873573303,
0.476777046918869,
-0.7254549860954285,
-0.2987401783466339,
0.19222623109817505,
-0.2861675024032593,
0.024089260026812553,
-0.0918303057551384,
0.24335072934627533,
-0.6116304397583008,
0.3302929997444153,
0.4080621302127838,
0.5053932070732117,
-0.2132316529750824,
-0.01606460101902485,
-0.775471031665802,
-0.16394993662834167,
-0.6945684552192688,
0.682532787322998,
0.08184822648763657,
-0.05466044321656227,
0.3985992670059204,
0.01723295822739601,
-0.08937017619609833,
-0.34616172313690186,
0.12941715121269226,
0.1256113350391388,
0.2325439304113388,
0.49692463874816895,
0.2565573453903198,
0.5225948095321655,
-0.3554461896419525,
-0.4333593249320984,
0.5897720456123352,
-1.2543578147888184,
0.20212572813034058,
0.11599360406398773,
0.17036618292331696,
-0.46555906534194946,
0.7258999943733215,
0.5757833123207092,
0.11176075786352158,
0.6533545851707458,
0.2913694381713867,
-0.28475016355514526,
0.5743781924247742,
-0.45362064242362976,
0.2905294597148895,
-0.18998844921588898,
-0.9416846632957458,
0.37989291548728943,
-0.08394777029752731,
-0.22326655685901642,
-0.06265904009342194,
-0.7237710356712341,
-0.14296121895313263,
0.7704218626022339,
0.5415021181106567,
0.06775381416082382,
0.04381949082016945,
-0.03557402640581131,
-0.1956779658794403,
0.18523946404457092,
-0.8196588754653931,
0.2656000256538391,
0.7512160539627075,
0.0342399999499321,
0.1292797029018402,
0.844211995601654,
0.03152107447385788,
-0.524925172328949,
0.05992541462182999,
-0.1509701907634735,
0.06056659296154976,
0.032037924975156784,
0.10084918141365051,
-1.7572181224822998,
0.5831218957901001,
-0.2195611447095871,
0.23196379840373993,
0.1511613130569458,
0.4473334550857544,
-0.2190100997686386,
-0.3950757086277008,
0.3145311772823334,
-0.04632438346743584,
0.5217559337615967,
0.600050151348114,
0.2517574429512024,
-0.3557056784629822,
-0.335985004901886,
0.1918354630470276,
0.10800108313560486,
-0.14471647143363953,
-0.7813612818717957,
-0.1918836236000061,
-0.3345267176628113,
0.056318499147892,
-0.13273416459560394,
-0.31596460938453674,
-0.44352278113365173,
0.21158427000045776,
-0.04416079446673393,
-0.1258920133113861,
0.3755548298358917,
0.2266041487455368,
-0.19537541270256042,
0.34641939401626587,
-0.20105783641338348,
0.004390180576592684,
-0.10886989533901215,
-0.5891910195350647,
-0.09019847959280014,
-0.19577550888061523,
0.4491800367832184,
-0.12147551029920578,
-0.7432684898376465,
-0.08038872480392456,
0.24630242586135864,
0.10947047919034958,
0.6489748954772949,
-0.5532967448234558,
0.3003982603549957,
-1.1351706981658936,
-0.010303066112101078,
-0.612213671207428,
0.3413442373275757,
-0.30138567090034485,
0.3093416392803192,
-0.07108116149902344,
0.2345375269651413,
-0.5408520698547363,
-0.02250346727669239,
0.3045033812522888,
-0.8114299774169922,
-0.2654387652873993,
-0.16756917536258698,
-0.37576204538345337,
-0.5469917058944702,
-0.16600079834461212,
0.6496317982673645,
-0.10000636428594589,
-0.2864043712615967,
0.5968208312988281,
0.11995261162519455,
0.27564990520477295,
0.13407284021377563,
-0.18768155574798584,
-0.08987545967102051,
-0.13484469056129456,
-0.9012503027915955,
-0.05130702629685402,
0.023000959306955338,
1.2734179496765137,
0.6231572031974792,
0.5950849652290344,
0.027223877608776093,
0.0813605785369873,
-0.8438220620155334,
1.0213983058929443,
-0.10319362580776215,
-5.018619060516357,
-0.5074897408485413,
-0.04163685441017151,
-0.5511944890022278,
0.11374419182538986,
0.8479211926460266,
0.1399325281381607,
0.19007673859596252,
0.15425658226013184,
-0.33009907603263855,
0.16165503859519958,
0.16386328637599945,
-0.08735224604606628,
-0.8061707615852356,
0.5001792907714844,
0.23519673943519592
] |
205928
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Moore%20%28novelist%29
|
George Moore (novelist)
|
George Augustus Moore (24 February 1852 – 21 January 1933) was an Irish novelist, short-story writer, poet, art critic, memoirist and dramatist. Moore came from a Roman Catholic landed family who lived at Moore Hall in Carra, County Mayo. He originally wanted to be a painter, and studied art in Paris during the 1870s. There, he befriended many of the leading French artists and writers of the day.
As a naturalistic writer, he was amongst the first English-language authors to absorb the lessons of the French realists, and was particularly influenced by the works of Émile Zola. His writings influenced James Joyce, according to the literary critic and biographer Richard Ellmann, and, although Moore's work is sometimes seen as outside the mainstream of both Irish and British literature, he is as often regarded as the first great modern Irish novelist.
Life
Family origins
George Moore's family had lived in Moore Hall, near Lough Carra, County Mayo, for almost a century. The house was built by his paternal great-grandfather—also called George Moore—who had made his fortune as a wine merchant in Alicante. The novelist's grandfather—another George—was a friend of Maria Edgeworth, and author of An Historical Memoir of the French Revolution. His great-uncle, John Moore, was president of the Province of Connacht in the short-lived Irish Republic of 1798 during the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
George Moore's father, George Henry Moore, sold his stable and hunting interests during the Great Irish Famine, and from 1847 to 1857 served as an Independent Member of Parliament (MP) for Mayo in the British House of Commons. George Henry was renowned as a fair landlord, fought to uphold the rights of tenants, and was a founder of the Catholic Defence Association. His estate consisted of 5000 ha (50 km2) in Mayo, with a further 40 ha in County Roscommon.
Early life
Moore was born in Moore Hall in 1852. As a child, he enjoyed the novels of Walter Scott, which his father read to him. He spent a good deal of time outdoors with his brother, Maurice George Moore, and also became friendly with the young Willie and Oscar Wilde, who spent their summer holidays at nearby Moytura. Oscar was to later quip of Moore: "He conducts his education in public".
His father had again turned his attention to horse breeding and in 1861 brought his champion horse, Croagh Patrick, to England for a successful racing season, together with his wife and nine-year-old son. For a while George was left at Cliff's stables until his father decided to send him to his alma mater facilitated by his winnings. Moore's formal education started at St. Mary's College, Oscott, a Catholic boarding school near Birmingham, where he was the youngest of 150 boys. He spent all of 1864 at home, having contracted a lung infection brought about by a breakdown in his health. His academic performance was poor while he was hungry and unhappy. In January 1865, he returned to St. Mary's College with his brother Maurice, where he refused to study as instructed and spent time reading novels and poems. That December the principal, Spencer Northcote, wrote a report that: "he hardly knew what to say about George." By the summer of 1867 he was expelled, for (in his own words) 'idleness and general worthlessness', and returned to Mayo. His father once remarked, about George and his brother Maurice: "I fear those two redheaded boys are stupid", an observation which proved untrue for all four sons.
London and Paris
In 1868, Moore's father was again elected MP for Mayo and the family moved to London the following year. Here, Moore senior tried, unsuccessfully, to have his son follow a career in the military though, prior to this, he attended the School of Art in the South Kensington Museum where his achievements were no better. He was freed from any burden of education when his father died in 1870. Moore, though still a minor, inherited the family estate that was valued at £3,596. He handed it over to his brother Maurice to manage and in 1873, on attaining his majority, moved to Paris to study art. It took him several attempts to find an artist who would accept him as a pupil. Monsieur Jullian, who had previously been a shepherd and circus masked man, took him on for 40 francs a month. At Académie Jullian he met Lewis Weldon Hawkins who became Moore's flatmate and whose trait, as a failed artist, show up in Moore's own characters. He met many of the key artists and writers of the time, including Pissarro, Degas, Renoir, Monet, Daudet, Mallarmé, Turgenev and, above all, Zola, who was to prove an influential figure in Moore's subsequent development as a writer.
While still in Paris his first book, a collection of lyric poems called The Flowers of Passion, was self-published in 1877. The poems were derivative, and were maliciously reviewed by the critics who were offended by some of the depravities in store for moralistic readers. The book was withdrawn by Moore. He was forced to return to Ireland in 1880 to raise £3,000 to pay debts incurred on the family estate, owing to his tenants refusing to pay their rent and the drop in agricultural prices. During his time back in Mayo, he gained a reputation as a fair landlord, continuing the family tradition of not evicting tenants and refusing to carry firearms when travelling round the estate. While in Ireland, he decided to abandon art and move to London to become a professional writer. There he published his second poetry collection, Pagan Poems, in 1881. These early poems reflect his interest in French symbolism and are now almost entirely neglected. In 1886 Moore published Confessions of a Young Man, a lively memoir about his 20s spent in Paris and London among bohemian artists. It contains a substantial amount of literary criticism for which it has received a fair amount of praise, for instance The Modern Library chose it in 1917 to be included in the series as "one of the most significant documents of the passionate revolt of English literature against the Victorian tradition."
Controversy in England
During the 1880s, Moore began work on a series of novels in a realist style. His first novel, A Modern Lover (1883) was a three-volume work, as preferred by the circulating libraries, and deals with the art scene of the 1870s and 1880s in which many characters are identifiably real. The circulating libraries in England banned the book because of its explicit portrayal of the amorous pursuits of its hero. At this time the British circulating libraries, such as Mudie's Select Library, controlled the market for fiction and the public, who paid fees to borrow their books, expected them to guarantee the morality of the novels available. His next book, a novel in the realist style, A Mummers Wife (1885) was also regarded as unsuitable by Mudie's and W H Smith refused to stock it on their news-stalls. Despite this, during its first year of publication the book was in its fourteenth edition mainly because of the publicity stirred up by its opponents. The French newspaper Le Voltaire published it in serial form as La Femme du cabotin in July–October 1886. His next novel A Drama in Muslin was again banned by Mudie's and Smith's. In response Moore declared war on the circulating libraries by publishing two provocative pamphlets; Literature at Nurse and Circulating Morals. In these, he complained that the libraries profit from salacious popular fiction while refusing to stock serious literary fiction.
Moore's publisher Henry Vizetelly began to issue unabridged mass-market translations of French realist novels that endangered the moral and commercial influence of the circulating libraries around this time. In 1888, the circulating libraries fought back by encouraging the House of Commons to implement laws to stop "the rapid spread of demoralising literature in this country". However, Vizetelly was brought to court by the National Vigilance Association (NVA) for "obscene libel". The charge arose from the publication of the English translation of Zola's La Terre. A second case was brought the following year to force implementation of the original judgement and to remove all of Zola's works. This led to the 70-year-old publisher becoming involved in the literary cause. Throughout Moore stayed loyal to Zola's publisher, and on 22 September 1888, about a month before the trial, wrote a letter that appeared in the St. James Gazette. In it Moore suggested that it was improper for Vizetelly's fate to be determined by a jury of twelve tradesmen, explaining that it would be preferable to be judged by three novelists. Moore pointed out that the NVA could make the same claims against such books as Madame Bovary and Gautier's Mademoiselle de Maupin, as their morals are equivalent to Zola's, though their literary merits might differ.
Because of his willingness to tackle such issues as prostitution, extramarital sex and lesbianism, Moore's novels were initially met with disapproval. However, as the public's taste for realist fiction grew, this subsided. Moore began to find success as an art critic with the publication of books such as Impressions and Opinions (1891) and Modern Painting (1893)—which was the first significant attempt to introduce the Impressionists to an English audience. By this time Moore was first able to live from the proceeds of his literary work.
Other realist novels by Moore from this period include A Drama in Muslin (1886), a satiric story of the marriage trade in Anglo-Irish society that hints at same-sex relationships among the unmarried daughters of the gentry, and Esther Waters (1894), the story of an unmarried housemaid who becomes pregnant and is abandoned by her footman lover. Both of these books have remained almost constantly in print since their first publication. His 1887 novel A Mere Accident is an attempt to merge his symbolist and realist influences. He also published a collection of short stories: Celibates (1895).
Dublin and the Celtic Revival
In 1901, Moore returned to Ireland to live in Dublin at the suggestion of his cousin and friend, Edward Martyn. Martyn had been involved in Ireland's cultural and dramatic movements for some years, and was working with Lady Gregory and William Butler Yeats to establish the Irish Literary Theatre. Moore soon became deeply involved in this project and in the broader Irish Literary Revival. He had already written a play, The Strike at Arlingford (1893), which was produced by the Independent Theatre. The play was the result of a challenge between Moore and George Robert Sims over Moore's criticism of all contemporary playwrights in Impressions and Opinions. Moore won the one hundred pound bet made by Sims for a stall to witness an "unconventional" play by Moore, though Moore insisted the word "unconventional" be excised.
The Irish Literary Theatre staged his satirical comedy The Bending of the Bough (1900), adapted from Martyn's The Tale of a Town, originally rejected by the theatre but unselfishly given to Moore for revision, and Martyn's Maeve. Staged by the company who would later become the Abbey Theatre, The Bending of the Bough was a historically important play and introduced realism into Irish literature. Lady Gregory wrote that it: "hits impartially all round". The play was satire on Irish political life, and as it was unexpectedly nationalist, was considered the first to deal with a vital question that had appeared in Irish life. Diarmuid and Grania, a poetic play in prose co-written with Yeats in 1901, was also staged by the theatre, with incidental music by Elgar. After this production Moore took up pamphleteering on behalf of the Abbey, and parted company with the dramatic movement.
Moore published two books of prose fiction set in Ireland around this time; a second book of short stories, The Untilled Field (1903) and a novel, The Lake (1905). The Untilled Field deal with themes of clerical interference in the daily lives of the Irish peasantry, and of the issue of emigration. The stories were originally written for translation into Irish, to serve as models for other writers working in the language. Three of the translations were published in the New Ireland Review, but publication was then paused because of a perceived anti-clerical sentiment. In 1902 the entire collection was translated by Tadhg Ó Donnchadha and Pádraig Ó Súilleabháin, and published in a parallel-text edition by the Gaelic League as An-tÚr-Ghort. Moore later revised the texts for the English edition. These stories were influenced by Turgenev's A Sportsman's Sketches, a book recommended to Moore by W. K. Magee, a sub-librarian of the National Library of Ireland, and had earlier suggested that Moore "was best suited to become Ireland's Turgenev". The tales are recognised by some as representing the birth of the Irish short story as a literary genre.
In 1903, following a disagreement with his brother Maurice over the religious upbringing of his nephews, Moore declared himself to be Protestant. His conversion was announced in a letter to the Irish Times newspaper. Moore remained in Dublin until 1911. In 1914, he published a gossipy, three-volume memoir of his time there under the collective title Hail and Farewell, which entertained its readers but infuriated former friends. Moore himself said of these memoirs, "Dublin is now divided into two sets; one half is afraid it will be in the book, and the other is afraid that it won't".
In his later years he was increasingly friendless, having quarrelled bitterly with Yeats and Osborn Bergin, among others: Oliver St. John Gogarty said: "It was impossible to be a friend of his, because he was incapable of gratitude".
Later life
Moore returned to London in 1911, where, with the exception of frequent trips to France, he was to spend much of the rest of his life. In 1913, he travelled to Jerusalem to research for his next novel, The Brook Kerith (1916). The book saw Moore once again embroiled in controversy, as it was based on the supposition that a non-divine Christ did not die on the cross but instead was nursed back to health and repented of his pride in declaring himself Son of God. Other books from this period include a further collection of short-stories called A Storyteller's Holiday (1918), a collection of essays called Conversations in Ebury Street (1924) and a play, The Making of an Immortal (1927). Moore also spent considerable time revising and preparing his earlier writings for new editions.
Partly because of Maurice's pro-treaty activity, Moore Hall was burnt by anti-treaty forces in 1923, during the final months of the Irish Civil War. Moore eventually received compensation of £7,000 from the government of the Irish Free State. By this time George and Maurice had become estranged, mainly because of an unflattering portrait of the latter which appeared in Hail and Farewell. Tension also arose as a result of religious differences: Maurice frequently made donations to the Roman Catholic Church from estate funds. Moore later sold a large part of the estate to the Irish Land Commission for £25,000.
Moore was friendly with many members of the expatriate artistic communities in London and Paris, and had a long-lasting relationship with Maud, Lady Cunard. Moore took a special interest in the education of Maud's daughter, the well-known publisher and art patron, Nancy Cunard. It has been suggested that Moore, rather than Maud's husband, Sir Bache Cunard, was Nancy's father, but this is not generally credited by historians, and it is not certain that Moore's relationship with Nancy's mother was ever other than platonic. Moore was believed by some to be impotent and was described as "one who told but didn't kiss". Moore's last novel, Aphrodite in Aulis, was published in 1930.
He died at his address of 121 Ebury Street in the London district of Belgravia in early 1933, leaving a fortune of £70,000. He was cremated in London at a service attended by Ramsay MacDonald among others. An urn containing his ashes was interred on Castle Island in Lough Carra in view of the ruins of Moore Hall. A blue plaque commemorates his residency at his London home.
Works
Flowers of Passion London: Provost & Company, 1878
Martin Luther: A Tragedy in Five Acts London: Remington & Company, 1879
Pagan Poems London: Newman & Company, 1881
A Modern Lover London: Tinsley Brothers, 1883
A Mummer's Wife London: Vizetelly & Company, 1885
Literature at Nurse London: Vizetelly & Company, 1885
A Drama in Muslin London: Vizetelly & Company, 1886
A Mere Accident London: Vizetelly & Company, 1887
Parnell and His Island London: Swan Sonnenshein Lowrey & Company, 1887
Confessions of a Young Man London: Swan Sonnenshein Lowrey & Company, 1888
Spring Days London: Vizetelly & Company, 1888
Mike Fletcher London: Ward & Downey, 1889
Impressions and Opinions London: David Nutt, 1891
Vain Fortune London: Henry & Company, 1891
Modern Painting London: Walter Scott, 1893
The Strike at Arlingford London: Walter Scott, 1893
Esther Waters London: Walter Scott, 1894
Celibates London: Walter Scott, 1895
Evelyn Innes London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898
The Bending of the Bough London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1900
Sister Theresa London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1901
The Untilled Field London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1903
The Lake London: William Heinemann, 1905
Memoirs of My Dead Life London: William Heinemann, 1906
The Apostle: A Drama in Three Acts Dublin: Maunsel & Company, 1911
Hail and Farewell London: William Heinemann, 1911, 1912, 1914
The Apostle: A Drama in Three Acts Dublin: Maunsel & Company, 1911
Elizabeth Cooper Dublin: Maunsel & Company, 1913
Muslin London: William Heinemann, 1915
The Brook Kerith: A Syrian Story London: T. Warner Laurie, 1916
Lewis Seymour and Some Women London: William Heinemann, 1917 (reworking of A Modern Lover)
A Story-Teller's Holiday London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1918
Avowals London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1919
The Coming of Gabrielle London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1920
Heloise and Abelard London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1921
In Single Strictness London: William Heinemann, 1922
Conversations in Ebury Street London: William Heinemann, 1924
Pure Poetry: An Anthology London: Nonesuch Press, 1924
The Pastoral Loves of Daphnis and Chloe London: William Heinemann, 1924
Daphnis and Chloe, Peronnik the Fool New York: Boni & Liveright, 1924
Ulick and Soracha London: Nonesuch Press, 1926
Celibate Lives London: William Heinemann, 1927 (reworking of Celibates including the short story "Albert Nobbs" from A Story-Teller's Holiday, which was made into a film starring Glenn Close in 2011.)
The Making of an Immortal New York: Bowling Green Press, 1927
The Passing of the Essenes: A Drama in Three Acts London: William Heinemann, 1930
Aphrodite in Aulis New York: Fountain Press, 1930
The Talking Pine Paris: The Hours Press, 1931
A Communication to My Friends London: Nonesuch Press, 1933
Diarmuid and Grania: A Play in Three Acts Co-written with W. B. Yeats, Edited by Anthony Farrow, Chicago: De Paul, 1974
Letters
Moore Versus Harris Detroit: privately printed, 1921
Letters to Dujardin New York: Crosby Gaige, 1929
Letters of George Moore Bournemouth: Sydenham, 1942
GM: Memories of George Moore by Nancy Cunard. London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956
Letters to Lady Cunard Ed. Rupert Hart-Davis. London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1957
George Moore in Transition Ed. Helmut E. Gerber, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1968
Notes
Sources
External links
The Brook Kerith by George Moore, 1916
George Moore at the Princess Grace Irish Library (archived link)
Finding aid to George Moore papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
The official website of the George Moore Association, with pages about his life and works.
George Moore Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
1852 births
1933 deaths
19th-century Irish novelists
19th-century Irish poets
19th-century Irish short story writers
19th-century Anglo-Irish people
20th-century Irish male writers
20th-century Irish novelists
20th-century Irish poets
20th-century Anglo-Irish people
Alumni of St Mary's College, Oscott
Alumni of the Académie Julian
Irish male dramatists and playwrights
Irish male novelists
Irish male short story writers
20th-century Irish short story writers
Irish memoirists
Moore family of Mayo
People from County Mayo
Victorian poets
19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights
|
[
0.18560828268527985,
0.5393455624580383,
-0.7780803442001343,
-0.5074549317359924,
0.1315353959798813,
0.8157370090484619,
0.9746016263961792,
0.12678873538970947,
-0.43133747577667236,
-0.7041813731193542,
-0.05342888459563255,
-0.16708460450172424,
-0.5961130857467651,
0.2922433018684387,
0.3562713861465454,
0.2574450373649597,
-0.540700376033783,
-0.00441697845235467,
-0.20813089609146118,
-0.19036753475666046,
-0.3563629984855652,
-0.19424833357334137,
0.1384914219379425,
-0.41512542963027954,
-0.38155263662338257,
-0.27459731698036194,
0.3182390630245209,
-0.28310608863830566,
0.326090008020401,
-0.11169878393411636,
0.046205393970012665,
0.7605574131011963,
0.5254836678504944,
-0.1129695475101471,
-0.5537425875663757,
-0.012199238874018192,
-0.7095932960510254,
-0.16448183357715607,
-0.04531807452440262,
0.2761682868003845,
-0.19917069375514984,
0.15108610689640045,
0.7558401226997375,
-0.2606261968612671,
0.009014693088829517,
-0.5339117646217346,
-2.2510428428649902,
-0.0039057445246726274,
-0.4873557984828949,
0.005161178298294544,
0.1437900960445404,
0.4356318712234497,
1.1361347436904907,
-0.058348655700683594,
-0.26329344511032104,
0.8955496549606323,
-0.5476999282836914,
-0.12197593599557877,
0.23099185526371002,
-0.554969310760498,
0.028597243130207062,
0.1576135754585266,
0.39339515566825867,
0.27969327569007874,
0.030276920646429062,
0.5492495894432068,
-0.29143160581588745,
0.24194727838039398,
-0.0005649132654070854,
0.21065635979175568,
0.1504252403974533,
-0.012100119143724442,
0.4717731773853302,
0.4150923490524292,
-0.18785160779953003,
-0.006157873198390007,
0.23244743049144745,
-0.31443190574645996,
-0.20474408566951752,
-0.045841094106435776,
-0.34636709094047546,
-0.21195317804813385,
0.9635813236236572,
0.5262385606765747,
0.21678000688552856,
0.014333914034068584,
-0.6793781518936157,
0.47212737798690796,
-0.29517507553100586,
0.20312820374965668,
-0.31191590428352356,
-0.06836429983377457,
-0.11037468910217285,
0.15525300800800323,
-0.07184512913227081,
0.42847755551338196,
-0.40039145946502686,
0.5023431777954102,
-0.2724362313747406,
-0.2696121335029602,
0.10307291895151138,
0.24059142172336578,
0.3433360159397125,
0.2208465188741684,
-0.6980549097061157,
0.03842795640230179,
-0.11151653528213501,
-0.3561750054359436,
0.43264254927635193,
-0.0901801735162735,
-0.41509994864463806,
0.23500114679336548,
-0.39670810103416443,
0.034355245530605316,
0.1186966672539711,
0.47121843695640564,
0.21216259896755219,
-0.5406441688537598,
-0.5876802206039429,
-0.14829421043395996,
-0.5674804449081421,
0.28158777952194214,
0.20932556688785553,
0.34621483087539673,
-0.8296082019805908,
0.22191664576530457,
0.22804126143455505,
0.02210385911166668,
0.11637305468320847,
0.5590405464172363,
0.24918338656425476,
1.252337098121643,
-0.6589267253875732,
-0.44280457496643066,
-0.06436683982610703,
-0.005712582264095545,
-0.305319607257843,
0.055223483592271805,
-0.11168300360441208,
0.2057669460773468,
-0.4142329692840576,
0.17325201630592346,
-1.0837568044662476,
-0.006325002759695053,
0.3191627562046051,
-0.09848381578922272,
0.16935330629348755,
-0.09976490586996078,
-0.13184094429016113,
-0.19722780585289001,
-0.03690609335899353,
0.11698653548955917,
-0.20479267835617065,
0.0525066964328289,
-0.37390395998954773,
0.34618520736694336,
0.5664708018302917,
0.685049831867218,
0.4179554283618927,
-0.1858963966369629,
0.14673812687397003,
0.27341946959495544,
-0.0003857959236484021,
-0.17515502870082855,
-0.08992455154657364,
-0.028607767075300217,
0.0854932889342308,
-0.4244775176048279,
-0.2445998191833496,
-0.09755473583936691,
-0.3057140111923218,
-0.1494515836238861,
0.39745545387268066,
-0.1443096399307251,
-0.1674368530511856,
0.3349478244781494,
0.761132538318634,
0.732677161693573,
0.2303077131509781,
-0.5393165946006775,
-0.8965607285499573,
-0.16019269824028015,
-0.15185365080833435,
-0.01877712458372116,
0.35325226187705994,
0.14313949644565582,
0.5367032885551453,
-0.317667692899704,
0.5340234041213989,
-0.11246167868375778,
-0.3448014259338379,
-0.3239341080188751,
-0.017408419400453568,
-0.7109424471855164,
0.7699731588363647,
0.40635088086128235,
-0.5575711727142334,
0.9217755794525146,
0.2911609411239624,
0.7177960276603699,
0.45341402292251587,
0.23264120519161224,
-0.18725617229938507,
-0.356642484664917,
-0.09716860204935074,
0.6526221632957458,
0.0992487370967865,
0.5428353548049927,
-0.318678617477417,
0.6039794087409973,
0.693327784538269,
-0.6737957000732422,
0.1088884025812149,
0.40975409746170044,
-0.25090423226356506,
-0.4953693449497223,
-0.3547890782356262,
-0.382975697517395,
0.3163999915122986,
-0.10457853227853775,
0.5820809602737427,
-0.09753484278917313,
0.4398083984851837,
0.5711431503295898,
0.43230125308036804,
0.7745628952980042,
-0.11817728728055954,
-0.14178605377674103,
0.14689627289772034,
-1.0617674589157104,
-0.39760270714759827,
0.4558907151222229,
0.36233246326446533,
-0.49269965291023254,
0.3955376148223877,
0.38436973094940186,
0.07833138108253479,
-0.05850454419851303,
-0.1704382598400116,
0.1295340210199356,
0.18447424471378326,
-0.020397214218974113,
-0.3648514449596405,
0.17745505273342133,
0.17620617151260376,
0.6412976980209351,
-0.09383592754602432,
-0.4743059277534485,
0.036864183843135834,
0.205325186252594,
1.0000652074813843,
0.4773191511631012,
0.3488045930862427,
0.4054480493068695,
-0.3549077808856964,
-0.4572971761226654,
0.10104451328516006,
-0.4060501456260681,
0.22026880085468292,
0.23148863017559052,
-0.5654873251914978,
-0.0614105686545372,
-0.05235239863395691,
0.16542211174964905,
-0.042011138051748276,
-0.31519556045532227,
0.20189855992794037,
-1.0345616340637207,
-0.12345079332590103,
0.07877308875322342,
0.5319800972938538,
-0.04837273433804512,
-0.28799116611480713,
0.10385699570178986,
0.5806214213371277,
0.16942161321640015,
-0.35914820432662964,
0.051145039498806,
-0.7474985122680664,
-0.4610332250595093,
-0.005360239185392857,
0.970227062702179,
-0.33919277787208557,
-0.21021385490894318,
-0.04464659094810486,
-0.3260098099708557,
-0.05733853206038475,
0.14028334617614746,
-0.4918903112411499,
-0.24406655132770538,
-0.19554506242275238,
0.5834994316101074,
-0.24462057650089264,
-0.26738765835762024,
-0.7495411038398743,
0.17210380733013153,
-0.5520918965339661,
-0.36737507581710815,
-0.4034009277820587,
-0.22073735296726227,
-0.2794119417667389,
0.24295124411582947,
0.3612053692340851,
0.5048587322235107,
0.5763481855392456,
0.20937657356262207,
-0.15381911396980286,
0.34045419096946716,
-5.5967607498168945,
-0.14124314486980438,
0.13319885730743408,
-0.5126447081565857,
0.022891512140631676,
0.06693939864635468,
0.47733139991760254,
0.11628062278032303,
0.06933127343654633,
-0.507602334022522,
0.7986851334571838,
0.07806657999753952,
-0.10827475786209106,
0.6796814203262329,
0.7348511219024658,
0.5584747195243835,
0.3405765891075134,
-0.18042780458927155,
-0.08788356930017471,
0.4472264051437378,
-0.008153132162988186,
0.36696308851242065,
-0.06426471471786499,
0.036961719393730164,
0.32494428753852844,
0.42442524433135986,
-0.2287524789571762,
0.11967995762825012,
-0.6745337247848511,
0.09416456520557404,
0.3577572703361511,
0.29484856128692627,
0.08910568803548813,
-0.21403586864471436,
-0.3324739933013916,
-0.07710892707109451,
0.3372873067855835,
0.6025277972221375,
0.0015672972658649087,
0.27890220284461975,
-0.16822309792041779,
0.23317186534404755,
-0.6990727186203003,
0.057873837649822235,
-0.028231030330061913,
-0.7093515396118164,
-0.9280110001564026,
0.45469146966934204,
0.010663479566574097,
0.46686580777168274,
-0.013602541759610176,
-0.2938781678676605,
0.41528862714767456,
0.5767347812652588,
-0.19541236758232117,
0.0644320398569107,
-0.01861046813428402,
-0.1162346825003624,
-0.7215648293495178,
0.25256431102752686,
0.37549105286598206,
-0.2117166370153427,
0.1643604189157486,
-0.32341280579566956,
-0.09521635621786118,
-0.2642003297805786,
-0.06561805307865143,
0.1656419336795807,
0.03303363546729088,
-0.4837638735771179,
-0.4347618520259857,
0.5680619478225708,
0.26861584186553955,
-1.234498143196106,
-0.5078067183494568,
-0.2829459607601166,
0.02066110260784626,
-0.15341493487358093,
-0.37247851490974426,
-0.2269391268491745,
-0.005499593913555145,
-0.7167105674743652,
-0.14260463416576385,
0.8276986479759216,
0.653721034526825,
-0.2259637713432312,
-0.43245846033096313,
0.6306208372116089,
-0.7510399222373962,
-0.5889976620674133,
0.1288212388753891,
0.1779603660106659,
0.12758508324623108,
0.7489078640937805,
0.597195029258728,
0.320933997631073,
0.5071516036987305,
-0.01016183290630579,
0.4348265528678894,
-0.06408435106277466,
-0.6542685627937317,
-0.4705287516117096,
0.36245420575141907,
-0.08718515187501907,
0.11049149930477142,
-0.19784462451934814,
-0.26071321964263916,
0.3112316131591797,
0.4811926484107971,
-0.014463678002357483,
0.19512678682804108,
-0.12199841439723969,
-0.33985885977745056,
0.0007868266548030078,
0.284308522939682,
-0.262145072221756,
0.5393989086151123,
0.43716293573379517,
0.4525146782398224,
0.35564467310905457,
-0.22698286175727844,
0.7076224684715271,
-0.16638125479221344,
-0.26687946915626526,
-0.5030466318130493,
-0.33974185585975647,
0.4540650248527527,
-0.8008935451507568,
-0.2240467369556427,
-0.01918608695268631,
-0.22489553689956665,
0.4758765995502472,
0.10245717316865921,
0.05046356841921806,
-0.16886933147907257,
-0.2732800543308258,
-0.7680091261863708,
-0.14765115082263947,
0.05475180223584175,
0.20906856656074524,
0.38337674736976624,
-0.17720679938793182,
-0.501052975654602,
0.11554155498743057,
0.0636390820145607,
-0.23866179585456848,
-0.26466628909111023,
0.05697231739759445,
-0.0907207503914833,
0.6238827705383301,
-0.45702478289604187,
-0.054774992167949677,
0.2850756347179413,
-0.4202589690685272,
-0.6641998291015625,
0.19594818353652954,
-0.8641694784164429,
0.13028068840503693,
-0.24151550233364105,
-0.07546505331993103,
-0.04054772108793259,
0.002576847095042467,
-0.8621156215667725,
-0.1031571477651596,
0.009800621308386326,
0.0013611980248242617,
-0.10231123119592667,
-0.12484492361545563,
-0.3774004280567169,
0.46328574419021606,
-0.22841541469097137,
-0.1641262024641037,
-0.15686403214931488,
-0.05103452131152153,
0.3528439402580261,
0.07294216006994247,
-0.5603330731391907,
-0.1570194512605667,
-0.06595387309789658,
0.02082000859081745,
-0.27262601256370544,
-0.014345429837703705,
-0.6483105421066284,
0.046383559703826904,
0.7214798331260681,
-0.04317497834563255,
-0.23589898645877838,
-0.5908383131027222,
-0.2565152645111084,
0.025654997676610947,
0.20718587934970856,
0.1843721866607666,
0.46629124879837036,
1.2181611061096191,
-0.2535381317138672,
-0.22253955900669098,
-0.029498817399144173,
0.10553500056266785,
-0.02367435395717621,
-0.3285224437713623,
0.008843992836773396,
-0.14209282398223877,
-0.6617485880851746,
-0.19849678874015808,
-0.389739453792572,
-1.398152232170105,
0.08452901989221573,
-0.5387890934944153,
-0.016682235524058342,
0.6505137085914612,
-0.15532135963439941,
-0.35848984122276306,
-0.09289083629846573,
0.45049384236335754,
-0.12353450059890747,
-0.012751002795994282,
-0.0653616413474083,
0.1984362155199051,
-0.1227755919098854,
-0.31769734621047974,
-0.5280259251594543,
-0.4431053698062897,
-0.6117578148841858,
-0.05498477816581726,
-0.15291595458984375,
0.5668042898178101,
0.3686181604862213,
-0.2511703670024872,
0.41365864872932434,
-0.07785672694444656,
-0.1784970611333847,
0.3636675775051117,
0.0669131875038147,
0.12417188286781311,
-0.24931830167770386,
0.1291319727897644,
0.4939142167568207,
0.011101337149739265,
0.010096938349306583,
0.06601272523403168,
0.6250561475753784,
1.168735384941101,
0.5992670059204102,
-0.13764004409313202,
0.14721184968948364,
-0.30663636326789856,
0.16633138060569763,
-0.4122646450996399,
-0.365079790353775,
0.19853384792804718,
0.39289531111717224,
-0.3699323534965515,
-0.486206591129303,
-0.32998815178871155,
0.8062143921852112,
-0.20633812248706818,
-0.17167454957962036,
0.5904693603515625,
0.10870564728975296,
0.15761710703372955,
0.44948610663414,
-0.09836863726377487,
0.12595152854919434,
0.08535189926624298,
0.048011839389801025,
0.22230751812458038,
-0.10010372847318649,
0.04591446742415428,
0.6288210153579712,
-0.2788096070289612,
-0.5169684886932373,
-0.31461915373802185,
-0.508631706237793,
0.6475726366043091,
-0.0042191906832158566,
-0.07310410588979721,
0.07690384984016418,
-0.40498828887939453,
0.4675491750240326,
-0.5473303198814392,
-0.45211368799209595,
0.16710928082466125,
-0.1698775291442871,
-0.6395038366317749,
-0.9028358459472656,
-0.30373361706733704,
0.20446723699569702,
-0.37608566880226135,
-0.1328442096710205,
0.06613131612539291,
-0.4955473244190216,
-0.015122511424124241,
0.0012958274455741048,
-0.18450185656547546,
0.2584962546825409,
0.1314942091703415,
-0.566102921962738,
0.5432483553886414,
-0.12653137743473053,
-0.03738773241639137,
-0.3982616662979126,
0.4677514433860779,
0.5376096963882446,
-0.2847805321216583,
0.67262864112854,
-0.3494120240211487,
-0.32683059573173523,
-0.42744332551956177,
-0.4494919776916504,
0.27714505791664124,
0.39321306347846985,
-0.38408908247947693,
0.3597413897514343,
0.38001587986946106,
-0.6026217937469482,
-0.14366652071475983,
0.39281702041625977,
-0.6683493852615356,
-0.11923016607761383,
0.06520557403564453,
0.03437797352671623,
0.36381417512893677,
0.6324045658111572,
-0.53171306848526,
-0.014474653638899326,
0.7236503958702087,
-0.411737322807312,
0.43687641620635986,
-0.2683544158935547,
0.22008483111858368,
0.029050327837467194,
-0.7445303797721863,
-0.5891386866569519,
1.0912703275680542,
-0.07076925039291382,
-0.31608840823173523,
0.4494927227497101,
-0.5623416304588318,
-0.2502066195011139,
-0.5207266211509705,
0.43042194843292236,
0.49118730425834656,
0.0987551137804985,
0.23219040036201477,
-0.05118808522820473,
-0.47506675124168396,
-0.07646369189023972,
0.10791560262441635,
-0.3807705044746399,
-0.05188873037695885,
0.769709587097168,
0.7807357907295227,
0.3362276256084442,
-0.8284204602241516,
0.28791454434394836,
0.18070299923419952,
0.17327722907066345,
-0.2706485688686371,
-0.30648672580718994,
0.04017297551035881,
-0.09101346135139465,
-0.24753084778785706,
0.7765268087387085,
-0.375172883272171,
-0.09135092794895172,
-0.14998464286327362,
0.7298642992973328,
-0.20104852318763733,
-0.24897262454032898,
0.7084651589393616,
0.2852318584918976,
-0.25843504071235657,
0.074033722281456,
0.7455441355705261,
0.37059909105300903,
0.4407571256160736,
0.5100908875465393,
0.1508069783449173,
0.2348964959383011,
-0.2569850981235504,
-0.5881370306015015,
0.3924139440059662,
-0.21163740754127502,
0.05412692949175835,
0.09702003747224808,
-0.3417600989341736,
-0.1596773862838745,
0.4162910282611847,
0.07641909271478653,
-0.683817982673645,
0.1937272548675537,
0.19417907297611237,
-0.5579221844673157,
0.2567306458950043,
-0.54507976770401,
0.31489428877830505,
-0.5966431498527527,
1.6015299558639526,
0.09631548821926117,
-0.3504164516925812,
-0.2221803367137909,
-0.059862688183784485,
-0.23837482929229736,
0.2210727334022522,
-0.024946296587586403,
0.2911907732486725,
-0.4413849413394928,
0.33071210980415344,
-1.2783910036087036,
0.18311673402786255,
-0.00823845062404871,
0.4753536880016327,
-0.3915863335132599,
0.24625469744205475,
-0.42380064725875854,
0.002680783625692129,
0.4176936149597168,
-0.2061460167169571,
0.02597283013164997,
-0.12397631257772446,
0.31543686985969543,
0.3998962938785553,
0.37924128770828247,
-0.2048783302307129,
-0.6285397410392761,
0.2681316137313843,
0.05927649885416031,
0.03494586795568466,
0.10060343146324158,
0.35640791058540344,
0.03887505829334259,
0.07781485468149185,
-0.24241483211517334,
0.3884787857532501,
-0.46994873881340027,
-0.08668987452983856,
0.21637210249900818,
0.9471316933631897,
-0.014349586330354214,
-0.4794885218143463,
0.36852675676345825,
-0.23419679701328278,
0.18869678676128387,
-0.1666293442249298,
-0.7693254947662354,
-0.004499237053096294,
-0.18929453194141388,
-0.13952302932739258,
0.14978830516338348,
0.6216457486152649,
-0.10453448444604874,
-0.24975544214248657,
-0.37246090173721313,
-0.44533276557922363,
0.522386372089386,
-0.0044600386172533035,
-0.03923863545060158,
-0.5382028818130493,
0.7169013023376465,
-0.2341727465391159
] |
205933
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam%E2%80%93Rhine%20Canal
|
Amsterdam–Rhine Canal
|
The Amsterdam–Rhine Canal (Dutch: Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal) is a canal in the Netherlands that was built to connect the port and capital city of Amsterdam to the main shipping artery of the Rhine. Its course follows a generally southeasterly direction as it goes through the city of Utrecht towards Wijk bij Duurstede where it intersects the Lek branch of the Rhine and then continues on to the river Waal near Tiel, with a branch, the Lek Canal, to the Lek near Nieuwegein.
Bridges
Rail bridges (with nearest train station on the west and east bank):
between Diemen/Diemen-Zuid and Weesp
Demkaspoorbrug, between Maarssen and Utrecht Centraal
Vleutensespoorbrug, between Utrecht Leidsche Rijn and Utrecht Centraal
between Culemborg and Houten
between Tiel and Kesteren
Canals in the Netherlands
Canals opened in 1952
Canals in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Canals in North Holland
Canals in Utrecht (province)
Canals in Amsterdam
Buildings and structures in Utrecht (city)
Transport in Utrecht (city)
Wijk bij Duurstede
|
[
-0.10464369505643845,
-0.6276283860206604,
0.5463901162147522,
0.008900758810341358,
0.5253041982650757,
0.3538789749145508,
0.13774175941944122,
0.0891619548201561,
-0.004330174997448921,
-0.5880470871925354,
0.2650270164012909,
-0.022754080593585968,
-0.23572582006454468,
0.398101806640625,
-0.21326227486133575,
0.07688312232494354,
0.26448655128479004,
-0.06020963191986084,
0.23665912449359894,
-0.22785797715187073,
-0.11322353035211563,
0.4215838611125946,
0.6104220151901245,
0.6075729131698608,
-0.010439395904541016,
-0.5558851957321167,
0.2234281450510025,
0.4394451081752777,
-0.10430685430765152,
-0.5651352405548096,
0.3537662625312805,
-0.19034552574157715,
-0.3893795311450958,
-0.7482979893684387,
-0.02970043011009693,
-0.0003776412340812385,
-0.260899156332016,
-0.5531885623931885,
-0.5166622996330261,
-0.5707817673683167,
-0.6595081090927124,
0.49767348170280457,
-0.2781665623188019,
0.2449982762336731,
-0.38095834851264954,
-0.336025595664978,
-1.1175832748413086,
0.14709079265594482,
-0.5607564449310303,
0.19682636857032776,
-0.16907663643360138,
-0.2286287397146225,
0.2330833226442337,
1.0960780382156372,
0.12897589802742004,
0.015749743208289146,
-0.8910731077194214,
-0.41566887497901917,
0.29628825187683105,
-0.20298993587493896,
0.8430010080337524,
0.4979771673679352,
-0.01756947673857212,
0.7353209853172302,
0.15378685295581818,
0.5250615477561951,
0.023082459345459938,
0.40099290013313293,
-0.4001501500606537,
-0.3206203281879425,
0.6307624578475952,
0.06053156778216362,
-0.3846612870693207,
0.1220739409327507,
-0.27637308835983276,
-0.41486144065856934,
-0.22731615602970123,
0.023147504776716232,
-0.12762510776519775,
0.3621576726436615,
-0.047614533454179764,
0.028596417978405952,
1.0402344465255737,
-0.41851601004600525,
1.060439944267273,
0.25289690494537354,
-0.18594522774219513,
0.029803510755300522,
-0.3938136696815491,
-0.3589003086090088,
-0.030391130596399307,
-0.13094143569469452,
-0.12176161259412766,
-0.2915603816509247,
-0.04958043619990349,
-0.1732572764158249,
-0.14780904352664948,
0.3183709681034088,
0.45677825808525085,
0.6880053281784058,
-0.11286488175392151,
0.23829548060894012,
-0.1022888571023941,
-0.1616222858428955,
-0.7314977049827576,
-0.2872590720653534,
-0.1948697417974472,
-0.9374144673347473,
-0.2006869912147522,
0.13682283461093903,
-0.38183844089508057,
0.25157755613327026,
0.7729188799858093,
-0.4248398244380951,
-0.3008166551589966,
-0.24565814435482025,
0.1126195564866066,
-0.2167704701423645,
0.08753960579633713,
0.13885554671287537,
0.301753431558609,
0.6640908122062683,
0.07055772095918655,
0.2390512079000473,
-0.00863391999155283,
0.12163817882537842,
0.012420929968357086,
0.8289375305175781,
-0.7719810605049133,
-0.22453603148460388,
0.7676997780799866,
1.173424243927002,
-0.3431210219860077,
-0.3427707254886627,
-0.6399664282798767,
-0.012422801926732063,
0.1944447159767151,
1.053808331489563,
0.3631470501422882,
-0.21687857806682587,
-1.0838828086853027,
-0.32429105043411255,
-0.22000232338905334,
-0.29348474740982056,
-0.2734791040420532,
-0.06386350840330124,
-0.41857200860977173,
-0.8368486762046814,
0.2574383616447449,
-0.05004472658038139,
-0.09103541076183319,
0.6871865391731262,
-0.6735913157463074,
0.34649166464805603,
-0.85688716173172,
0.32628563046455383,
0.9432112574577332,
0.13021883368492126,
0.5350282192230225,
0.31253716349601746,
-0.08708281069993973,
0.1238132193684578,
-0.03209392726421356,
0.3754707872867584,
-0.10161745548248291,
-0.011626641266047955,
0.37688061594963074,
0.010385129600763321,
0.49838700890541077,
0.3764585554599762,
-0.2098955363035202,
0.12707211077213287,
0.44693613052368164,
-0.4399636387825012,
0.00020206441695336252,
0.15122580528259277,
0.3629104495048523,
0.3021334707736969,
0.16161368787288666,
-0.5859066247940063,
-0.5785386562347412,
0.530512809753418,
-0.010494760237634182,
-0.10898809134960175,
0.09071189910173416,
0.38307657837867737,
-0.014976875856518745,
0.28697359561920166,
-0.18356016278266907,
0.2586857080459595,
0.40838178992271423,
-0.5192719101905823,
-0.4697152078151703,
-0.17046916484832764,
0.7403601408004761,
-0.4702037274837494,
-0.3484257757663727,
0.8361282348632812,
-0.45016565918922424,
0.5166688561439514,
-0.25566965341567993,
-0.626431405544281,
0.6101202964782715,
-0.3658336102962494,
-0.1557883769273758,
0.11985726654529572,
-0.030467726290225983,
-0.270046204328537,
0.22448481619358063,
0.395011842250824,
0.35887205600738525,
-0.32597312331199646,
0.31040099263191223,
-1.0048282146453857,
0.6230739951133728,
-0.5667853951454163,
-0.22048334777355194,
0.2357911765575409,
-0.03720533475279808,
0.8060559630393982,
1.1477851867675781,
0.003362176474183798,
-0.45414263010025024,
0.9076701402664185,
-0.525234580039978,
0.5080142021179199,
0.14382046461105347,
0.49231016635894775,
0.19857600331306458,
-0.6611276268959045,
-0.07586739212274551,
-0.0968036949634552,
0.056871723383665085,
-0.24588525295257568,
0.14077238738536835,
-0.4824128746986389,
-0.3899073302745819,
-0.2051294595003128,
0.34617021679878235,
0.15635937452316284,
0.6117658615112305,
0.3614928722381592,
-1.0348782539367676,
0.8663017153739929,
0.20843930542469025,
0.49101051688194275,
0.2882283329963684,
0.15622510015964508,
-0.4212438762187958,
-0.4340670108795166,
0.19835445284843445,
0.3196476995944977,
0.08347146958112717,
-0.3288814127445221,
0.4565402567386627,
-0.7504618167877197,
0.10073188692331314,
0.10925707966089249,
0.6205630898475647,
0.49339500069618225,
-0.2879478335380554,
-0.19559110701084137,
-0.1503693163394928,
0.496407687664032,
-0.03066432476043701,
0.20636281371116638,
-0.39480793476104736,
-0.8425000905990601,
0.23727180063724518,
0.4919227957725525,
0.6890577673912048,
0.2828729450702667,
-0.49039798974990845,
-0.3999214768409729,
-0.1693149209022522,
-0.4485320746898651,
-0.25323039293289185,
0.3791557550430298,
-0.5342358946800232,
0.022054921835660934,
-0.0717526376247406,
0.40123188495635986,
-0.4675057530403137,
-0.7803359627723694,
0.3969203233718872,
0.06263301521539688,
-0.15610410273075104,
0.12239133566617966,
-0.09828567504882812,
0.1729981154203415,
-0.14792093634605408,
-0.6867114305496216,
-0.1330101490020752,
0.24326881766319275,
0.08386967331171036,
-0.04076927527785301,
-0.15826649963855743,
0.09947090595960617,
0.6750496625900269,
-0.5508298873901367,
-0.7037591338157654,
0.13564777374267578,
-0.5741233229637146,
0.26691046357154846,
-0.15534988045692444,
-0.47355344891548157,
-0.19135475158691406,
0.5185743570327759,
-5.37362003326416,
0.19035261869430542,
-0.2774229943752289,
0.6560594439506531,
0.016390671953558922,
-0.29781433939933777,
0.07748360186815262,
0.19629353284835815,
0.1626746952533722,
-0.08234851062297821,
0.39364829659461975,
0.12988382577896118,
0.009538083337247372,
0.3565428555011749,
-0.18107113242149353,
0.10914359241724014,
-0.21156728267669678,
0.019470494240522385,
0.08627263456583023,
-0.15362797677516937,
-0.3279708921909332,
0.12225322425365448,
-0.005576664116233587,
0.30012327432632446,
0.5674704909324646,
-0.08013375848531723,
-0.6559016108512878,
-0.04728609696030617,
-0.7747538089752197,
-0.5251479744911194,
-0.37482619285583496,
-0.5477645993232727,
0.41044846177101135,
0.07495974749326706,
-0.03362857922911644,
-0.48095428943634033,
0.3267245292663574,
0.6541621685028076,
0.3046085834503174,
-0.7489418387413025,
-0.5318856835365295,
0.9086105823516846,
0.10467564314603806,
-0.08207707107067108,
-0.1966121792793274,
-1.0612610578536987,
-0.49334409832954407,
0.30455610156059265,
0.11631975322961807,
1.0577731132507324,
-0.12685798108577728,
0.13225626945495605,
0.5220614075660706,
0.0021921098232269287,
0.3340993821620941,
-0.6744834780693054,
-0.16745831072330475,
-0.20117123425006866,
-0.3524770736694336,
0.702548623085022,
0.05170602351427078,
-0.3798561096191406,
-0.34749355912208557,
0.014921748079359531,
-0.36828696727752686,
-0.6767662763595581,
0.10029688477516174,
-0.07934341579675674,
0.8563111424446106,
0.08017530292272568,
-0.21234504878520966,
0.45853134989738464,
-0.0749572142958641,
-0.8688331246376038,
0.3621259033679962,
-0.34744778275489807,
-0.7967831492424011,
-0.47745564579963684,
0.3961445391178131,
-0.5621379613876343,
-0.012219779193401337,
0.02394060604274273,
-0.024059783667325974,
1.0642207860946655,
0.5608639717102051,
-0.4681287407875061,
-0.020857466384768486,
0.13038648664951324,
-0.46290919184684753,
-0.11829732358455658,
0.3100006580352783,
-0.4227622449398041,
0.15350769460201263,
-0.049428362399339676,
-0.8836172223091125,
0.05148771032691002,
-0.8420191407203674,
0.14720752835273743,
0.4761258065700531,
-0.32759422063827515,
1.1868394613265991,
0.18954797089099884,
-0.2604723572731018,
0.04364142566919327,
0.2686828672885895,
-0.3542534112930298,
0.20211952924728394,
0.3381952941417694,
0.6374914646148682,
0.12547190487384796,
-0.6775520443916321,
0.12731559574604034,
-0.07670679688453674,
-0.7064377069473267,
-0.19272612035274506,
-0.18180520832538605,
-1.1885290145874023,
0.6052283048629761,
0.34643715620040894,
-0.0784975066781044,
0.3051137626171112,
1.0657273530960083,
0.1912844479084015,
-0.17969557642936707,
0.6023364663124084,
0.022916648536920547,
-0.22443459928035736,
0.23159876465797424,
0.14595617353916168,
0.25586384534835815,
-0.1783205270767212,
-0.19002804160118103,
-0.11675523221492767,
-0.8027502298355103,
0.34590446949005127,
-0.7531275749206543,
-0.3459313213825226,
-0.4455968737602234,
-0.06412535160779953,
0.07827167212963104,
-0.1646895408630371,
-0.11951248347759247,
0.20935890078544617,
-0.11751631647348404,
0.41888755559921265,
0.26099008321762085,
-0.009748988784849644,
-0.07017786800861359,
-0.5882492661476135,
-0.08110103756189346,
-0.44242778420448303,
-0.3965492248535156,
0.27315834164619446,
-0.1048005223274231,
-0.04616590589284897,
-0.49907591938972473,
0.07766665518283844,
0.618948221206665,
0.2514532208442688,
-0.10608942806720734,
0.4369412958621979,
-0.7095719575881958,
-0.21824470162391663,
0.3583616018295288,
0.09686025232076645,
0.5934965014457703,
-0.384866863489151,
-0.2649467885494232,
-0.4550270438194275,
0.22536054253578186,
0.03689909353852272,
0.2756924331188202,
-0.6051369309425354,
-0.1473878026008606,
-0.4169369637966156,
0.6100572943687439,
-0.7458470463752747,
0.659117579460144,
0.1462165117263794,
-0.4798351228237152,
0.47924286127090454,
0.06663468480110168,
-0.1358104646205902,
0.8108499646186829,
0.6154661178588867,
-0.7929711937904358,
-0.05765996500849724,
0.22201572358608246,
-0.05847346782684326,
-0.05518920347094536,
0.42070624232292175,
0.2887387275695801,
0.18137840926647186,
0.5317674279212952,
-0.2305472195148468,
-0.8880481719970703,
-0.2912268042564392,
0.4867093861103058,
-0.25423553586006165,
-0.1979246586561203,
-0.05392071232199669,
0.5136597752571106,
-0.6943575143814087,
0.15907438099384308,
-0.23787498474121094,
-0.37677350640296936,
-0.13131515681743622,
-0.12074637413024902,
0.2921895980834961,
0.7424169778823853,
0.041286081075668335,
-0.6408429145812988,
-0.03890232741832733,
0.31155404448509216,
-1.1745744943618774,
0.175742968916893,
0.13825854659080505,
-0.9271720051765442,
-0.5186676979064941,
-0.16048932075500488,
-0.5403066873550415,
-0.28389936685562134,
-0.5914682149887085,
0.09170437604188919,
-0.35952937602996826,
0.779926598072052,
0.05609072372317314,
-0.43862277269363403,
0.23928260803222656,
0.23800057172775269,
0.2868078052997589,
-0.6030597686767578,
0.5921773314476013,
0.3873148262500763,
0.05994754657149315,
-0.05548667907714844,
0.5274643898010254,
0.21293966472148895,
-0.4092516005039215,
0.5049124956130981,
0.37856388092041016,
0.9277617931365967,
0.22937266528606415,
-0.423801451921463,
0.2872892916202545,
0.4757958650588989,
0.36506253480911255,
-0.721738874912262,
-1.005577802658081,
-0.29775193333625793,
0.4178684651851654,
0.2717938721179962,
-0.8760605454444885,
-0.2400895655155182,
1.0127711296081543,
-0.33931002020835876,
0.04267430305480957,
0.10554593056440353,
-0.10305032134056091,
0.2644430696964264,
-0.12535688281059265,
-0.29742738604545593,
-0.6864367723464966,
0.3892655670642853,
0.4082496464252472,
-0.7987096905708313,
-0.7303580045700073,
-0.3198661506175995,
-0.09594444185495377,
-0.8860985636711121,
-0.18411244451999664,
-0.6610710620880127,
0.5253006219863892,
0.17842282354831696,
0.37614908814430237,
-0.14803993701934814,
0.3451089560985565,
-0.5064154863357544,
0.8928487300872803,
-0.290825217962265,
-0.4701768159866333,
0.1541445106267929,
-0.6354120373725891,
-0.524975061416626,
-0.30193811655044556,
-0.0457453727722168,
-0.678114116191864,
0.007829402573406696,
-0.03738383576273918,
0.38329944014549255,
-0.1176840141415596,
-0.3931584656238556,
-0.3467062711715698,
0.44266942143440247,
0.1040230318903923,
0.6902409195899963,
0.03583879768848419,
0.5131641030311584,
0.5718417167663574,
0.3661523759365082,
-0.40110674500465393,
0.17511305212974548,
0.42296841740608215,
-0.23620256781578064,
0.08847641944885254,
0.5624057054519653,
0.12330395728349686,
0.2932906150817871,
0.2830870747566223,
0.5092475414276123,
0.6422710418701172,
0.08913914859294891,
-0.44696328043937683,
0.66749107837677,
0.35684624314308167,
-0.0036767921410501003,
0.8603127598762512,
-0.17116767168045044,
0.0779825821518898,
0.43049806356430054,
0.034145575016736984,
0.2673494815826416,
-0.19861803948879242,
0.3426825702190399,
0.0996459349989891,
0.8590272665023804,
-0.24065513908863068,
-0.04495194926857948,
-0.21134698390960693,
0.22658373415470123,
0.29866909980773926,
0.39585864543914795,
-0.9317878484725952,
0.48668205738067627,
-0.2548401951789856,
-0.061943169683218,
0.04559329152107239,
-0.47184374928474426,
0.24701854586601257,
0.19495369493961334,
0.3031468689441681,
0.8764871954917908,
-0.14904987812042236,
-0.2022218555212021,
-0.1476840227842331,
0.8056482076644897,
-0.08416503667831421,
0.041259001940488815,
-0.28961271047592163,
0.20378582179546356,
0.6628221273422241,
-0.3646523952484131,
0.04059481993317604,
-0.5478527545928955,
-0.1341821402311325,
0.41570156812667847,
0.4375004172325134,
0.06469879299402237,
0.7293091416358948,
0.29098039865493774,
0.5707561373710632,
0.21607457101345062,
-0.07677562534809113,
-0.45149096846580505,
-0.5624772906303406,
-0.23778028786182404,
0.03333866596221924,
-0.48364031314849854,
0.06268619000911713,
-0.1133255809545517,
0.10844315588474274,
0.012684667482972145,
-0.16991740465164185,
-0.5858356952667236,
0.17132829129695892,
0.6603925228118896,
-0.0382821299135685,
0.23669910430908203,
-0.06702744960784912,
0.4064444601535797,
-0.2562467157840729,
0.8012688755989075,
0.07919329404830933,
0.22758691012859344,
-1.059995412826538,
-0.8189193606376648,
-0.4052239954471588,
-0.22728176414966583,
-0.8829175233840942,
-0.5670074224472046,
-0.37089622020721436,
-0.47052353620529175,
-0.13247832655906677,
0.1446143239736557,
-0.48401913046836853,
-0.22392822802066803,
-0.3902290463447571,
0.7269057035446167,
-0.2646530568599701,
-0.3665607273578644,
-0.493647962808609,
0.8838542103767395,
0.2934040129184723,
0.49771344661712646,
-0.18204042315483093,
0.661115825176239,
-0.3670135736465454,
0.23331426084041595,
0.39481768012046814,
0.48257210850715637,
0.778312623500824,
-0.3545072674751282,
-0.3547933101654053,
0.4316135048866272,
0.3096809685230255,
0.412700891494751,
0.46569013595581055,
-0.6543605327606201,
-0.6086969375610352,
-0.07308565080165863,
-0.04829457774758339,
-0.3745375871658325,
-0.5954237580299377,
-0.21817338466644287,
-0.2905930280685425,
-0.23840075731277466,
0.6893559694290161,
0.14353059232234955,
-0.07774095237255096,
0.3514636158943176,
0.007056619040668011,
-0.40637436509132385,
-0.7375388145446777,
0.24821175634860992,
-0.6406010389328003,
-0.2206287980079651,
0.3516719341278076,
0.5256720781326294,
0.5546172857284546,
-0.19863107800483704,
0.18339328467845917,
0.35686013102531433,
0.5321131944656372,
0.20799708366394043,
-0.07780314981937408,
-0.12319712340831757,
0.21320094168186188,
-0.2576858699321747,
-0.8460790514945984,
0.901177167892456,
0.18697959184646606,
-0.15021230280399323,
0.30461376905441284,
-0.08540664613246918,
0.20651662349700928,
-0.2819611430168152,
0.28430041670799255,
-0.8258824944496155,
0.0023249872028827667,
-0.1523354947566986
] |
205936
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emitter-coupled%20logic
|
Emitter-coupled logic
|
In electronics, emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is a high-speed integrated circuit bipolar transistor logic family. ECL uses an overdriven bipolar junction transistor (BJT) differential amplifier with single-ended input and limited emitter current to avoid the saturated (fully on) region of operation and its slow turn-off behavior.
As the current is steered between two legs of an emitter-coupled pair, ECL is sometimes called current-steering logic (CSL),
current-mode logic (CML)
or current-switch emitter-follower (CSEF) logic.
In ECL, the transistors are never in saturation, the input/output voltages have a small swing (0.8 V), the input impedance is high and the output impedance is low. As a result, the transistors change states quickly, gate delays are low, and the fanout capability is high. In addition, the essentially constant current draw of the differential amplifiers minimises delays and glitches due to supply-line inductance and capacitance, and the complementary outputs decrease the propagation time of the whole circuit by reducing inverter count.
ECL's major disadvantage is that each gate continuously draws current, which means that it requires (and dissipates) significantly more power than those of other logic families, especially when quiescent.
The equivalent of emitter-coupled logic made from FETs is called source-coupled logic (SCFL).
A variation of ECL in which all signal paths and gate inputs are differential is known as differential current switch (DCS) logic.
History
ECL was invented in August 1956 at IBM by Hannon S. Yourke. Originally called current-steering logic, it was used in the Stretch, IBM 7090, and IBM 7094 computers. The logic was also called a current-mode circuit. It was also used to make the ASLT circuits in the IBM 360/91.
Yourke's current switch was a differential amplifier whose input logic levels were different from the output logic levels. "In current mode operation, however, the output signal consists of voltage levels which vary about a reference level different from the input reference level." In Yourke's design, the two logic reference levels differed by 3 volts. Consequently, two complementary versions were used: an NPN version and a PNP version. The NPN output could drive PNP inputs, and vice versa. "The disadvantages are that more different power supply voltages are needed, and both pnp and npn transistors are required."
Instead of alternating NPN and PNP stages, another coupling method employed Zener diodes and resistors to shift the output logic levels to be the same as the input logic levels.
Beginning in the early 1960s, ECL circuits were implemented on monolithic integrated circuits and consisted of a differential-amplifier input stage to perform logic and followed by an emitter-follower stage to drive outputs and shift the output voltages so they will be compatible with the inputs. The emitter-follower output stages could also be used to perform wired-or logic.
Motorola introduced their first digital monolithic integrated circuit line, MECL I, in 1962. Motorola developed several improved series, with MECL II in 1966, MECL III in 1968 with 1-nanosecond gate propagation time and 300 MHz flip-flop toggle rates, and the 10,000 series (with lower power consumption and controlled edge speeds) in 1971.
The MECL 10H family was introduced in 1981.
Fairchild introduced the F100K family.
The ECLinPS ("ECL in picoseconds") family was introduced in 1987. ECLinPS has 500 ps single-gate delay and 1.1 GHz flip-flop toggle frequency. The ECLinPS family parts are available from multiple sources, including Arizona Microtek, Micrel, National Semiconductor, and ON Semiconductor.
The high power consumption of ECL meant that it has been used mainly when high speed is a vital requirement. Older high-end mainframe computers, such as the Enterprise System/9000 members of IBM's ESA/390 computer family, used ECL, as did the Cray-1; and first-generation Amdahl mainframes. (Current IBM mainframes use CMOS.) Beginning in 1975, Digital Equipment Corporation's highest performance processors were all based on multi-chip ECL CPUs—from the ECL KL10 through the ECL VAX 8000 and finally the VAX 9000. By 1991, the CMOS NVAX was launched which offered comparable performance to the VAX 9000 despite costing 25 times less and consuming considerably less power. The MIPS R6000 computers also used ECL. Some of these computer designs used ECL gate arrays.
Implementation
ECL is based on an emitter-coupled (long-tailed) pair, shaded red in the figure on the right. The left half of the pair (shaded yellow) consists of two parallel-connected input transistors T1 and T2 (an exemplary two-input gate is considered) implementing NOR logic. The base voltage of the right transistor T3 is held fixed by a reference voltage source, shaded light green: the voltage divider with a diode thermal compensation (R1, R2, D1 and D2) and sometimes a buffering emitter follower (not shown on the picture); thus the emitter voltages are kept relatively steady. As a result, the common emitter resistor RE acts nearly as a current source. The output voltages at the collector load resistors RC1 and RC3 are shifted and buffered to the inverting and non-inverting outputs by the emitter followers T4 and T5 (shaded blue). The output emitter resistors RE4 and RE5 do not exist in all versions of ECL. In some cases 50 Ω line termination resistors connected between the bases of the input transistors and −2 V act as emitter resistors.
Operation
The ECL circuit operation is considered below with assumption that the input voltage is applied to T1 base, while T2 input is unused or a logical "0" is applied.
During the transition, the core of the circuit – the emitter-coupled pair (T1 and T3) – acts as a differential amplifier with single-ended input. The "long-tail" current source (RE) sets the total current flowing through the two legs of the pair. The input voltage controls the current flowing through the transistors by sharing it between the two legs, steering it all to one side when not near the switching point. The gain is higher than at the end states (see below) and the circuit switches quickly.
At low input voltage (logical "0") or at high input voltage (logical "1") the differential amplifier is overdriven. The transistor (T1 or T3) is cutoff and the other (T3 or T1) is in active linear region acting as a common-emitter stage with emitter degeneration that takes all the current, starving the other cutoff transistor.The active transistor is loaded with the relatively high emitter resistance RE that introduces a significant negative feedback (emitter degeneration). To prevent saturation of the active transistor so that the diffusion time that slows the recovery from saturation will not be involved in the logic delay, the emitter and collector resistances are chosen such that at maximum input voltage some voltage is left across the transistor. The residual gain is low (K = RC/RE < 1). The circuit is insensitive to the input voltage variations and the transistor stays firmly in active linear region. The input resistance is high because of the series negative feedback. The cutoff transistor breaks the connection between its input and output. As a result, its input voltage does not affect the output voltage. The input resistance is high again since the base-emitter junction is cutoff.
Characteristics
Other noteworthy characteristics of the ECL family include the fact that the large current requirement is approximately constant, and does not depend significantly on the state of the circuit. This means that ECL circuits generate relatively little power noise, unlike other logic types which draw more current when switching than quiescent. In cryptographic applications, ECL circuits are also less susceptible to side channel attacks such as differential power analysis.
The propagation time for this arrangement can be less than a nanosecond, including the signal delay getting on and off the IC package. Some type of ECL has always been the fastest logic family.
Radiation hardening: While normal commercial-grade chips can withstand 100 gray (10 krad), many ECL devices are operational after 100,000 gray (10 Mrad).
Power supplies and logic levels
ECL circuits usually operate with negative power supplies (positive end of the supply is connected to ground). Other logic families ground the negative end of the power supply. This is done mainly to minimize the influence of the power supply variations on the logic levels. ECL is more sensitive to noise on the VCC and is relatively immune to noise on VEE. Because ground should be the most stable voltage in a system, ECL is specified with a positive ground. In this connection, when the supply voltage varies, the voltage drops across the collector resistors change slightly (in the case of emitter constant current source, they do not change at all). As the collector resistors are firmly "tied up" to ground, the output voltages "move" slightly (or not at all). If the negative end of the power supply was grounded, the collector resistors would be attached to the positive rail. As the constant voltage drops across the collector resistors change slightly (or not at all), the output voltages follow the supply voltage variations and the two circuit parts act as constant current level shifters. In this case, the voltage divider R1-R2 compensates the voltage variations to some extent. The positive power supply has another disadvantage - the output voltages will vary slightly (±0.4 V) against the background of high constant voltage (+3.9 V). Another reason for using a negative power supply is protection of the output transistors from an accidental short circuit developing between output and ground (but the outputs are not protected from a short circuit with the negative rail).
The value of the supply voltage is chosen so that sufficient current flows through the compensating diodes D1 and D2 and the voltage drop across the common emitter resistor RE is adequate.
ECL circuits available on the open market usually operated with logic levels incompatible with other families. This meant that interoperation between ECL and other logic families, such as the popular TTL family, required additional interface circuits. The fact that the high and low logic levels are relatively close meant that ECL suffers from small noise margins, which can be troublesome.
At least one manufacturer, IBM, made ECL circuits for use in the manufacturer's own products. The power supplies were substantially different from those used in the open market.
PECL
Positive emitter-coupled logic, also called pseudo-ECL, (PECL) is a further development of ECL using a positive 5 V supply instead of a negative 5.2 V supply. Low-voltage positive emitter-coupled logic (LVPECL) is a power-optimized version of PECL, using a positive 3.3 V instead of 5 V supply. PECL and LVPECL are differential-signaling systems and are mainly used in high-speed and clock-distribution circuits.
A common misconception is that PECL devices are slightly different than ECL devices.
In fact, every ECL device is also a PECL device.
Logic levels:
Note: is the common mode voltage range.
See also
Motorola MC10800
References
Further reading
External links
Motorola MECL logic family datasheets, 1963
General Information for MECL 10H and MECL 10K
Logic families
|
[
-0.029848240315914154,
-0.14249852299690247,
0.316986620426178,
0.27035248279571533,
-0.4375447630882263,
-0.0940021276473999,
-0.1321817934513092,
-0.08068228513002396,
-0.06333564221858978,
0.06428682059049606,
-0.2679527997970581,
0.23191216588020325,
-0.6824309229850769,
0.4142155051231384,
0.190109521150589,
0.28929370641708374,
0.46337518095970154,
0.04918993264436722,
-0.28629860281944275,
-0.2803453803062439,
0.14680327475070953,
0.32989591360092163,
0.6808760166168213,
0.03417271003127098,
0.2980421781539917,
-0.3237800896167755,
0.048270393162965775,
-0.7008514404296875,
0.42350009083747864,
-0.16916672885417938,
0.20786447823047638,
0.8238390684127808,
-0.24669937789440155,
0.0813688337802887,
0.253968209028244,
0.22274573147296906,
-0.37964919209480286,
-0.13402138650417328,
-0.37929028272628784,
-0.3999537229537964,
-0.026562973856925964,
-0.49405986070632935,
0.09644662588834763,
0.2992936670780182,
-0.365239679813385,
-0.5189944505691528,
-1.2045801877975464,
-0.03575185686349869,
-0.5878068208694458,
-0.17030075192451477,
-0.6769766807556152,
0.2870025932788849,
0.0050828903913497925,
0.495147168636322,
0.5126788020133972,
0.0460236594080925,
-0.8581538200378418,
-0.32613199949264526,
0.935957670211792,
0.1862407922744751,
0.30728474259376526,
-0.21389168500900269,
-0.49123409390449524,
0.16265138983726501,
0.16355514526367188,
0.4038456380367279,
-0.16854558885097504,
0.09954354912042618,
-0.8085557222366333,
-0.2405664622783661,
-0.028442200273275375,
-0.3452526330947876,
0.12440887838602066,
-0.3622059226036072,
0.18947763741016388,
-0.4158079922199249,
-0.2548975944519043,
-0.38716018199920654,
-0.1732051819562912,
0.1278882920742035,
-0.2655832767486572,
0.826400637626648,
0.31127607822418213,
0.05277242138981819,
0.39232581853866577,
0.34522953629493713,
-0.7734396457672119,
0.4019261598587036,
-0.7409182190895081,
0.7074610590934753,
0.17527058720588684,
0.09437979757785797,
0.2606250047683716,
0.6070204377174377,
-0.06926446408033371,
-0.3453543484210968,
-0.09680081158876419,
-0.1452435851097107,
0.12330804020166397,
0.658523678779602,
0.3429470658302307,
0.38624176383018494,
0.1701434701681137,
-0.4754991829395294,
0.11666252464056015,
-0.34018561244010925,
-0.22958803176879883,
-0.5044520497322083,
-0.15663526952266693,
-0.015482845716178417,
-0.8360663056373596,
-0.14514337480068207,
-0.03747503459453583,
-0.08226343989372253,
-0.5031415224075317,
0.1610431969165802,
0.19952501356601715,
-0.22972121834754944,
0.141349196434021,
0.3940443694591522,
0.663420557975769,
0.7796454429626465,
-0.12701137363910675,
0.1534973680973053,
-0.3044646382331848,
0.17513997852802277,
0.06450895220041275,
0.7989804744720459,
-0.5384594798088074,
0.20672371983528137,
-0.29837748408317566,
1.0517683029174805,
-0.04642842337489128,
0.09203409403562546,
-0.39329102635383606,
0.03762795403599739,
0.13077205419540405,
0.14298318326473236,
0.2066846787929535,
0.32283490896224976,
-0.24215658009052277,
-0.3621711730957031,
-0.21518948674201965,
-0.46688932180404663,
0.15120352804660797,
-0.5504574179649353,
-0.5023050904273987,
-0.3454010784626007,
0.05846182629466057,
-0.10773344337940216,
-0.29877910017967224,
0.12863053381443024,
-0.6160367727279663,
0.036837294697761536,
-0.27729716897010803,
-0.26767903566360474,
0.3491246998310089,
0.45177775621414185,
-0.5403631329536438,
0.05433044582605362,
-0.2899225354194641,
-0.1526918262243271,
-0.2716345489025116,
0.12856240570545197,
0.35313284397125244,
-0.22548852860927582,
0.42037326097488403,
0.17827674746513367,
0.5168828368186951,
0.2947380840778351,
0.08090899884700775,
-0.5742982625961304,
-0.2619095742702484,
0.06466203182935715,
-0.4089653789997101,
-0.18699903786182404,
0.2506604492664337,
0.3426516354084015,
0.18914619088172913,
0.05275994539260864,
-0.9178354740142822,
0.32431939244270325,
0.2478983849287033,
-0.4351567327976227,
0.1192505806684494,
0.6643776297569275,
0.00021306415146682411,
-0.205832839012146,
-0.6369903087615967,
-0.18393740057945251,
0.1295175552368164,
0.15256527066230774,
0.09993486106395721,
-0.576221227645874,
0.9883168339729309,
0.16705487668514252,
-0.48050957918167114,
0.6053419709205627,
-0.4039858877658844,
0.12893131375312805,
0.01295977272093296,
-0.11895199120044708,
0.10922910273075104,
-0.12280330806970596,
-0.46263226866722107,
0.5176000595092773,
0.29578837752342224,
0.21424272656440735,
0.2350943237543106,
-0.21117258071899414,
0.5149115920066833,
-0.42908063530921936,
0.5380512475967407,
-0.3468148708343506,
-0.07403281331062317,
-0.39122632145881653,
-0.749424934387207,
0.17101788520812988,
0.22350984811782837,
-0.048875175416469574,
0.5674118399620056,
-0.11716366559267044,
0.04593804478645325,
1.0464404821395874,
-0.5458895564079285,
0.6610205173492432,
0.6254719495773315,
0.49523821473121643,
0.8537143468856812,
-0.3424127697944641,
0.6445832252502441,
-0.7304285168647766,
0.44827136397361755,
-0.5079439878463745,
-0.395195335149765,
0.2175341546535492,
-0.01075353380292654,
-0.04294838011264801,
0.31173422932624817,
-0.12633240222930908,
0.056489497423172,
0.5616570711135864,
-0.8220089673995972,
0.15605255961418152,
0.6666836142539978,
-0.6417926549911499,
0.06326384842395782,
-0.14028926193714142,
-0.022042695432901382,
0.1315983086824417,
0.16413554549217224,
0.35295382142066956,
0.40719857811927795,
-0.8938653469085693,
0.24048523604869843,
0.0312445517629385,
-0.27136746048927307,
0.27146875858306885,
0.2714250683784485,
0.49411022663116455,
-0.029536310583353043,
-0.22723986208438873,
0.14679452776908875,
-0.6642802357673645,
-0.49530062079429626,
-0.36031416058540344,
-0.15459901094436646,
-0.058354977518320084,
0.588546872138977,
-0.10337205231189728,
0.4248708188533783,
0.12667658925056458,
-0.2192259579896927,
-0.322653204202652,
-0.6576874256134033,
-0.9681199789047241,
0.3167807459831238,
0.4101969301700592,
-0.1093035563826561,
-0.17439642548561096,
0.25840073823928833,
0.5080374479293823,
0.501228928565979,
-0.20708830654621124,
-0.5614334344863892,
-0.12844820320606232,
-0.14808136224746704,
-0.34964868426322937,
0.2751740515232086,
-0.7987892031669617,
-0.003966914024204016,
0.1284177005290985,
-0.49175864458084106,
0.08027028292417526,
0.11785480380058289,
0.8795872330665588,
0.07186230272054672,
-0.21930232644081116,
0.6307457089424133,
-0.6770616173744202,
-0.2560550570487976,
0.02362033724784851,
-0.5926735401153564,
0.3535011410713196,
-0.3085612654685974,
0.121505506336689,
-0.029667146503925323,
0.13110694289207458,
-5.640630722045898,
0.10027257353067398,
-0.38627365231513977,
-0.14312438666820526,
0.05568710342049599,
0.052207134664058685,
0.8676578998565674,
0.40995997190475464,
-0.19960162043571472,
0.39690759778022766,
-0.18833574652671814,
-0.1488603800535202,
-0.2139691263437271,
0.37767142057418823,
0.7885664105415344,
0.38407576084136963,
0.2942410707473755,
-0.5163975954055786,
0.4701235592365265,
-0.1895393282175064,
0.005202377215027809,
-0.34600478410720825,
-0.024278081953525543,
0.4096890687942505,
-0.4058504104614258,
-0.5211985111236572,
-0.24572612345218658,
-0.06699785590171814,
-0.34754320979118347,
-0.16350476443767548,
-0.1304679661989212,
-0.5228443145751953,
-0.3374035954475403,
-0.6170507669448853,
-0.12321796268224716,
-0.1858927309513092,
1.063104271888733,
0.5546718835830688,
0.05081653222441673,
-0.474418580532074,
0.5875120759010315,
0.8863412737846375,
0.1527113914489746,
0.36294659972190857,
0.16089531779289246,
0.08198731392621994,
-0.6001258492469788,
-0.1965615451335907,
-0.31808963418006897,
0.9382117986679077,
-0.572023868560791,
0.08326137065887451,
0.5651834607124329,
0.13558556139469147,
0.5310114622116089,
-0.1571364402770996,
0.14680346846580505,
-0.009678381495177746,
-0.5910468697547913,
0.41211801767349243,
-0.14464928209781647,
-0.19043630361557007,
-0.10263780504465103,
-0.4791226089000702,
-0.13228487968444824,
0.2739739716053009,
-1.1380281448364258,
-0.27962055802345276,
0.7202867865562439,
0.30252060294151306,
0.006550471298396587,
0.058737613260746,
0.0018805362051352859,
-0.7424888014793396,
0.5076063275337219,
-0.03937142342329025,
0.963676393032074,
-0.0826951414346695,
0.12304563075304031,
0.4164087474346161,
0.041772451251745224,
0.12970054149627686,
-0.42048078775405884,
0.14327387511730194,
0.2098323255777359,
-0.14143367111682892,
-0.16324502229690552,
-0.28798985481262207,
-0.20594944059848785,
0.00018506521882954985,
0.4454534947872162,
0.4678204655647278,
0.2924935817718506,
-0.010942276567220688,
0.16093266010284424,
0.06723713874816895,
0.18563371896743774,
0.840795636177063,
0.09442556649446487,
-0.5435550808906555,
0.6591976284980774,
0.12345534563064575,
0.03977720066905022,
-0.5299110412597656,
-0.17665766179561615,
0.13560183346271515,
-0.2925487160682678,
-0.1801864504814148,
0.600577712059021,
-0.4051443934440613,
-0.0999574288725853,
0.14813072979450226,
-0.5967323780059814,
-0.451476126909256,
0.3897506594657898,
-0.09437346458435059,
-0.6529717445373535,
0.6108169555664062,
0.5136796832084656,
-0.04126579314470291,
-0.03533186390995979,
0.021399399265646935,
-0.03448152169585228,
-0.19893866777420044,
-0.40535902976989746,
-0.29097282886505127,
-0.26734644174575806,
0.5205591320991516,
-0.2271834760904312,
-0.4732789397239685,
0.5511718392372131,
0.1550157368183136,
-0.4711450934410095,
0.10745134949684143,
-0.1258559674024582,
-0.7921505570411682,
-0.4440343976020813,
0.37353065609931946,
-0.16596047580242157,
-0.4056398868560791,
0.8046983480453491,
-0.6243314146995544,
0.13469694554805756,
0.014156457036733627,
0.48241376876831055,
0.2519124150276184,
-0.2832431495189667,
-0.1837257742881775,
-0.23628486692905426,
0.4296204447746277,
0.5548771023750305,
-0.06291243433952332,
0.12463203072547913,
0.0037042023614048958,
-0.29705923795700073,
0.8752845525741577,
0.33052340149879456,
0.11457742750644684,
0.23034606873989105,
-0.5657795071601868,
0.26425811648368835,
0.8762025833129883,
-1.054500937461853,
0.19763971865177155,
0.030459454283118248,
0.3749139606952667,
-0.9007743000984192,
-0.45230937004089355,
0.19483137130737305,
0.40845006704330444,
-0.31069040298461914,
-0.5034705400466919,
-0.2654089331626892,
-0.38323238492012024,
0.3771739602088928,
0.8531126976013184,
0.4040318429470062,
-0.01594584807753563,
0.18990905582904816,
-0.5596272945404053,
0.1157408282160759,
-0.015084334649145603,
-0.7874836325645447,
0.9831147193908691,
0.18628931045532227,
-0.6475156545639038,
0.19164060056209564,
0.2910078763961792,
-0.6917505264282227,
-0.42237624526023865,
0.39035648107528687,
0.019646739587187767,
0.21720823645591736,
-0.2374044805765152,
-0.29222869873046875,
-0.574326753616333,
0.0630914494395256,
0.3451900780200958,
-0.2676614224910736,
-1.1381551027297974,
0.009383926168084145,
0.6178550124168396,
0.008822046220302582,
0.359002947807312,
0.1390344202518463,
-0.17655086517333984,
0.02664453350007534,
-0.05119960010051727,
-0.3017088770866394,
0.23826822638511658,
-0.16556714475154877,
-0.4365279972553253,
-0.14562876522541046,
0.2627040445804596,
0.01461161207407713,
-0.1340247094631195,
0.37745970487594604,
-0.1107119768857956,
-0.4323929250240326,
0.07910710573196411,
-0.30072346329689026,
-0.016267092898488045,
0.16841408610343933,
-0.165269136428833,
-0.5224049687385559,
0.5320421457290649,
0.34869977831840515,
-0.3478088974952698,
0.49237117171287537,
0.22383683919906616,
-0.5347216129302979,
-0.19866357743740082,
-0.24598711729049683,
-0.4452737867832184,
-0.5455105304718018,
0.06274201720952988,
-0.8407170176506042,
0.2155197113752365,
-0.19654740393161774,
0.416841059923172,
0.05798547342419624,
0.4710700511932373,
-0.1370878368616104,
-0.4671916365623474,
0.0028311435598880053,
0.34102585911750793,
0.6331168413162231,
-0.7115588784217834,
-0.7661923170089722,
0.4420636296272278,
-0.10569434612989426,
-0.18459013104438782,
-0.32174497842788696,
-0.16969357430934906,
1.4495803117752075,
0.17363126575946808,
0.293950617313385,
-0.45035818219184875,
0.06482917070388794,
-0.010388946160674095,
-0.89024817943573,
-0.48085200786590576,
-0.6081928610801697,
-0.048827651888132095,
0.0871518924832344,
0.11342077702283859,
-0.24754741787910461,
-0.542570948600769,
0.4372701644897461,
0.038435764610767365,
0.3510303199291229,
-0.5792793035507202,
0.9928901791572571,
0.6886751651763916,
-0.08703949302434921,
0.2188348025083542,
0.004133771173655987,
-0.5402487516403198,
-0.24432556331157684,
-0.11126326769590378,
-0.5305849313735962,
-0.4952812194824219,
0.3099963665008545,
-0.26615020632743835,
0.5959762930870056,
-0.2673950493335724,
-0.01353526022285223,
-0.5544734597206116,
-0.03507943078875542,
-0.09527426213026047,
-0.4422299861907959,
0.049705103039741516,
-0.1938994824886322,
0.37456539273262024,
-0.09142177551984787,
-0.15905939042568207,
-0.11283184587955475,
0.061589810997247696,
-0.5626469254493713,
0.05433078482747078,
-0.24564993381500244,
0.5712634921073914,
0.14602084457874298,
-0.5940334796905518,
0.25042909383773804,
0.23119871318340302,
0.4433401823043823,
0.06017152592539787,
-0.2684590518474579,
-0.33029890060424805,
0.10175871104001999,
0.058954548090696335,
-0.08892140537500381,
0.432463139295578,
-0.06241980940103531,
0.14758387207984924,
0.8069232106208801,
0.0015792333288118243,
0.22821728885173798,
0.18585112690925598,
0.25857555866241455,
0.2715468108654022,
0.32617396116256714,
-0.09258819371461868,
-0.44049254059791565,
0.5960695147514343,
-0.29525983333587646,
-0.5403871536254883,
-0.031223062425851822,
0.23715528845787048,
0.8677796125411987,
-0.16489282250404358,
-0.561826229095459,
0.8286324143409729,
-0.07743857055902481,
0.061665456742048264,
-0.13318097591400146,
-0.2807416021823883,
-0.7382650971412659,
0.7290684580802917,
0.5632169246673584,
0.9983152747154236,
-0.1707884520292282,
0.42823857069015503,
-0.23310865461826324,
0.3203951418399811,
0.6213816404342651,
0.5911045074462891,
-0.4579918086528778,
-0.06295286118984222,
0.32520872354507446,
-0.22022663056850433,
0.8044196367263794,
-0.41292402148246765,
-0.2117711752653122,
0.08909102529287338,
0.5411280393600464,
-0.3324081003665924,
0.6026964783668518,
-0.007012225221842527,
-0.23284611105918884,
0.6067700386047363,
0.324483186006546,
-0.06874074786901474,
-0.06610141694545746,
-0.08291045576334,
-0.07567434757947922,
-0.5757185220718384,
-0.039231136441230774,
-0.20059862732887268,
0.10801929980516434,
0.23877578973770142,
-0.3650248348712921,
0.6707664132118225,
-0.20706956088542938,
-0.210372194647789,
0.21966619789600372,
0.35013705492019653,
-0.26264142990112305,
-0.05726785212755203,
0.06762364506721497,
0.34330224990844727,
0.08678046613931656,
-1.018624186515808,
0.18834194540977478,
-0.31321361660957336,
0.18392232060432434,
-0.018360383808612823,
0.13092584908008575,
-0.08585060387849808,
0.05600784718990326,
-0.6311208605766296,
0.09169448167085648,
-0.23773884773254395,
0.20029160380363464,
0.30791521072387695,
-0.05806894227862358,
0.9264718890190125,
0.10597845166921616,
-0.021501511335372925,
0.2982483208179474,
0.5182257294654846,
0.3041914403438568,
-0.052223753184080124,
-0.6208755373954773,
0.7812181711196899,
0.09251326322555542,
0.35336053371429443,
-0.7862178087234497,
-0.1950707584619522,
0.8515103459358215,
-0.18045997619628906,
0.37357762455940247,
-0.021309634670615196,
0.14290572702884674,
-0.005118081346154213,
0.5747408866882324,
-0.8253262639045715,
-0.38419267535209656,
-0.2092042714357376,
-0.43090832233428955,
-0.3707162141799927,
0.13209104537963867,
0.25023263692855835,
-0.1191760003566742,
-0.02783258818089962,
0.7214694023132324,
0.2069399207830429,
-0.19791993498802185,
0.23512227833271027,
0.020853191614151,
-0.3740653693675995,
-0.08494435250759125,
0.5202887058258057,
0.33535075187683105,
-0.020157257094979286,
-0.7708861231803894,
0.41355547308921814,
0.3712318539619446,
0.21285100281238556,
0.4273185431957245,
0.03805418685078621,
-0.3174457252025604,
0.08737358450889587,
-0.4736119210720062,
0.053094491362571716,
-0.5389463901519775,
-0.8436977863311768,
-0.3767349123954773,
0.3794304132461548,
0.1873321533203125,
-0.8030043244361877,
-0.5051160454750061,
0.2763063609600067,
-0.35966211557388306,
0.19945625960826874,
0.22026947140693665,
-0.39225342869758606,
-0.6345993280410767,
0.011403968557715416
] |
205937
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECL
|
ECL
|
ECL may refer to:
Science and technology
Electrochemiluminescence
Enhanced chemiluminescence
Emitter-coupled logic
Enterochromaffin-like cell
Computing
ECL programming language, an extensible programming language
ECL (data-centric programming language)
Embeddable Common Lisp
Sport
East Cornwall League, an English football league
Eastern Colored League, a defunct American baseball league
Eastern Counties Football League, in England
European Cricket League, a professional cricket league organized by ICC member federations
UEFA Europa Conference League, annual football club competition organised by UEFA
Other uses
Eccleston Park railway station, in England
Ecolab, a sanitation supply company
École centrale de Lyon, a graduate engineering school in Lyon, France
Educational Community License, a software license
Exit Control List, system of border control maintained by the Government of Pakistan
Extended collective licensing, collective copyright and related rights laws and licensing agreement
|
[
0.17094987630844116,
-0.2883189916610718,
0.2026108205318451,
0.1208367720246315,
0.5487933158874512,
-0.5218141078948975,
-0.2630622982978821,
0.4345478415489197,
-0.06273731589317322,
-0.0015089017106220126,
-0.6504400372505188,
0.26843106746673584,
-0.11702676117420197,
0.01459446270018816,
0.3182224631309509,
0.10854554921388626,
0.532676100730896,
0.5850354433059692,
-0.12704238295555115,
-0.3709867298603058,
-0.4268038868904114,
0.1131424829363823,
0.1705377995967865,
-0.25816795229911804,
0.2442682683467865,
0.10884320735931396,
-0.2045004963874817,
-0.5322675108909607,
-0.2754538059234619,
-0.1086590364575386,
0.19717036187648773,
0.4325730502605438,
-0.22742128372192383,
0.004658290650695562,
0.27400994300842285,
-0.2986733317375183,
-0.4659929573535919,
-0.37452298402786255,
-0.541126549243927,
-1.1004219055175781,
0.01564239338040352,
-0.26438868045806885,
0.24817505478858948,
0.07186030596494675,
-0.6462419629096985,
-0.15150690078735352,
-1.3783661127090454,
-0.011879322119057178,
-0.8686801195144653,
0.5143048167228699,
-0.15896423161029816,
0.3653944432735443,
-0.4078303873538971,
0.37099599838256836,
0.3605985939502716,
0.04195244982838631,
-0.1712825447320938,
-0.7909905910491943,
0.8505189418792725,
-0.4075668752193451,
0.7600127458572388,
0.09886547923088074,
-0.3871350586414337,
0.4349108338356018,
0.4321320950984955,
-0.3801732659339905,
-0.1573440134525299,
-0.22794798016548157,
-0.7726043462753296,
-0.34066271781921387,
0.32336801290512085,
-0.07351665198802948,
-0.39670953154563904,
-0.1631099432706833,
-0.07834330201148987,
-0.23124296963214874,
0.046412914991378784,
-0.2647339105606079,
0.044460635632276535,
-0.03861552104353905,
0.06456075608730316,
0.4907098710536957,
0.5445858240127563,
0.4526694118976593,
0.6992541551589966,
0.27255839109420776,
-0.7166337370872498,
0.5148402452468872,
-0.3756251931190491,
0.43765440583229065,
0.6285411715507507,
-0.40241578221321106,
0.10186260938644409,
0.2374097853899002,
0.08334723860025406,
-0.07794839143753052,
-0.08915095031261444,
-0.7194914221763611,
-0.09932372719049454,
-0.017446983605623245,
-0.12695226073265076,
0.020571382716298103,
-0.4302772879600525,
-0.22438281774520874,
-0.43313324451446533,
0.40732020139694214,
-0.5825645327568054,
-0.2224317044019699,
0.29416772723197937,
0.07494843006134033,
-0.22632436454296112,
-0.0879257321357727,
0.03578260913491249,
0.1156369000673294,
-0.19048941135406494,
-0.1751078963279724,
0.5159454345703125,
0.16290585696697235,
0.14481809735298157,
0.46037641167640686,
0.16259196400642395,
0.8943973183631897,
0.2587527930736542,
0.09635118395090103,
0.38924238085746765,
0.06510750949382782,
0.07861265540122986,
0.6195083856582642,
-0.3521172106266022,
-0.35006722807884216,
0.31579917669296265,
0.8460797667503357,
-0.27167534828186035,
0.12824252247810364,
-0.18224287033081055,
0.24436846375465393,
-0.09112729132175446,
-0.14638715982437134,
0.56707763671875,
0.7738364934921265,
-0.7355529069900513,
-0.4783005714416504,
0.038916539400815964,
-0.14843669533729553,
0.05154619365930557,
-0.35691723227500916,
-0.5193554759025574,
-0.21091799437999725,
-0.03106722980737686,
0.468849778175354,
0.0515272319316864,
-0.019655868411064148,
-0.5546156764030457,
-0.19220566749572754,
-0.06588764488697052,
0.66141676902771,
0.5425797700881958,
-0.08908898383378983,
-0.24295057356357574,
-0.17026230692863464,
-0.1520051211118698,
-0.1602005958557129,
-0.35330259799957275,
-0.0783357098698616,
0.24122241139411926,
-0.08907897025346756,
0.34211331605911255,
0.22747935354709625,
0.04897083342075348,
0.30129677057266235,
-0.15519462525844574,
-0.14531660079956055,
0.14209730923175812,
0.1923711895942688,
-0.1384001225233078,
-0.2129688560962677,
0.235995814204216,
0.3693930506706238,
0.5263894200325012,
0.37168022990226746,
-0.9150763750076294,
0.23877231776714325,
0.058284252882003784,
-0.6881393790245056,
-0.17245535552501678,
0.3215782046318054,
0.201852947473526,
-0.009758383966982365,
-0.8053263425827026,
-0.08762045949697495,
-0.08288848400115967,
-0.33897385001182556,
-0.07914485037326813,
-0.7930082678794861,
0.9965860247612,
-0.49154821038246155,
-0.13892441987991333,
0.9691630601882935,
-0.6265507340431213,
0.13544411957263947,
-0.08622580021619797,
0.1377909928560257,
0.8729068040847778,
-0.41539281606674194,
-0.3365475535392761,
0.06161480396986008,
0.34413978457450867,
-0.02090699039399624,
-0.1050177812576294,
-0.3817491829395294,
0.4841059744358063,
-0.059401825070381165,
0.45118045806884766,
-0.06257139146327972,
0.3685758113861084,
-0.5371289253234863,
-0.814028263092041,
0.6948750019073486,
0.11858636885881424,
0.042893558740615845,
0.626638650894165,
-0.3511066138744354,
0.07754824310541153,
0.769779622554779,
-0.3318147659301758,
0.41706788539886475,
0.15093666315078735,
0.3822266459465027,
0.9976598024368286,
-0.579495906829834,
0.28869375586509705,
-0.49053269624710083,
-0.05271928757429123,
-0.47845956683158875,
-0.3116912543773651,
-0.2515662908554077,
-0.19448232650756836,
-0.09754735976457596,
0.16652369499206543,
-0.1057659313082695,
-0.3094259202480316,
0.1679377555847168,
-0.7607818245887756,
0.15617941319942474,
0.6374755501747131,
-0.23389793932437897,
0.0850033089518547,
0.3439558744430542,
0.08544713258743286,
0.01865336298942566,
0.0277981236577034,
0.6241727471351624,
0.05600595474243164,
-0.39541149139404297,
0.6013885140419006,
0.03582582622766495,
0.31340378522872925,
0.4691658020019531,
0.009700206108391285,
0.4755402207374573,
-0.5622228384017944,
-0.3463941812515259,
-0.045199405401945114,
0.03410857915878296,
-0.08722133189439774,
-0.828867495059967,
-0.252092182636261,
-0.4310603737831116,
0.613375723361969,
0.23054280877113342,
0.39409637451171875,
0.34952113032341003,
-0.021947020664811134,
0.05022694543004036,
-0.6102205514907837,
-0.671958327293396,
0.3426194489002228,
0.21050865948200226,
-0.16892504692077637,
-0.1961347609758377,
-0.3142164349555969,
0.21188056468963623,
0.14962565898895264,
-0.3179808557033539,
0.36540645360946655,
0.354346364736557,
-0.166688472032547,
-0.3373303711414337,
0.14794878661632538,
-0.3409934341907501,
0.36484697461128235,
-0.04354800656437874,
-0.17748132348060608,
0.06850377470254898,
0.3730551600456238,
0.7538512945175171,
0.0450642853975296,
0.02801152877509594,
-0.14205390214920044,
-0.3038926124572754,
-0.2874651551246643,
0.44617095589637756,
-0.2385498583316803,
0.08258979022502899,
0.5963782668113708,
-0.2378760427236557,
-0.023374447599053383,
-0.29137560725212097,
-5.818285942077637,
0.2642398476600647,
-0.2735757529735565,
0.22925490140914917,
0.13768337666988373,
0.233540341258049,
0.518841028213501,
0.08498404920101166,
-0.2947859764099121,
0.15847055613994598,
0.07221117615699768,
0.324924111366272,
-0.018031716346740723,
0.6439517736434937,
0.7531476020812988,
0.7334990501403809,
-0.1949135959148407,
-0.02759542688727379,
-0.06501041352748871,
-0.14493128657341003,
-0.18355514109134674,
-0.35195502638816833,
0.18553540110588074,
0.948273241519928,
0.0012894851388409734,
-0.34254494309425354,
-0.7462174296379089,
-0.015652598813176155,
0.09626185148954391,
-0.18503977358341217,
0.22394900023937225,
-0.1493425965309143,
-0.12254716455936432,
-0.3146577775478363,
-0.22839094698429108,
0.02591506578028202,
0.9456003904342651,
0.5919227004051208,
0.3289484977722168,
-0.4470568597316742,
0.11276692897081375,
0.5939000844955444,
-0.25001880526542664,
-0.016027001664042473,
0.0680684819817543,
-0.1996627300977707,
0.1945224404335022,
0.19156956672668457,
-0.16913744807243347,
0.6156184673309326,
-0.7979689240455627,
0.3404179811477661,
0.5373801589012146,
0.03084949590265751,
0.29538339376449585,
-0.3126305341720581,
0.15129168331623077,
0.2795117497444153,
-0.06095799431204796,
0.33408236503601074,
0.10091807693243027,
-0.42396411299705505,
-0.04772237688302994,
-0.6892462968826294,
-0.376170814037323,
0.06755197793245316,
-1.0248339176177979,
-0.3952291011810303,
0.6121758818626404,
0.3349582552909851,
-0.24192050099372864,
-0.2299986034631729,
-0.11785945296287537,
-0.8837682008743286,
-0.043123576790094376,
-0.42734265327453613,
0.6949148178100586,
0.1504397690296173,
0.566807746887207,
0.6097767949104309,
-0.07334383577108383,
-0.0721328929066658,
-0.452341765165329,
-0.061608679592609406,
-0.009469696320593357,
-0.5708763599395752,
0.022344976663589478,
-0.034750621765851974,
-0.25324031710624695,
-0.31525328755378723,
0.49407827854156494,
0.04006388783454895,
0.21885287761688232,
0.35044026374816895,
0.5272951126098633,
0.07799675315618515,
-0.23937076330184937,
0.22716809809207916,
0.025967789813876152,
-0.3354613184928894,
0.4005153775215149,
0.23616786301136017,
-0.08927402645349503,
-0.5888105630874634,
-0.2548635005950928,
-0.2521227300167084,
-0.3081806004047394,
-0.08568602800369263,
0.31601473689079285,
-0.19908082485198975,
-0.2675074636936188,
0.37526240944862366,
-0.3620195984840393,
-0.4406017065048218,
-0.3389151692390442,
0.2812579274177551,
-0.4684324264526367,
0.42016035318374634,
0.23798659443855286,
-0.715327262878418,
0.06397289782762527,
0.4741249084472656,
-0.23166006803512573,
-0.17415834963321686,
-0.23754915595054626,
-0.5556700229644775,
0.2892403304576874,
0.31857746839523315,
-0.08409141004085541,
-0.5651090145111084,
0.2528541684150696,
0.14047957956790924,
-0.04138875752687454,
0.010471461340785027,
-0.046846337616443634,
-0.23717796802520752,
-0.70703125,
0.20165236294269562,
-0.2673441469669342,
-0.4281674921512604,
0.4392273724079132,
-0.40981578826904297,
0.20217087864875793,
0.23819643259048462,
0.4943546652793884,
-0.07151632755994797,
-0.054532241076231,
0.26162269711494446,
0.06583944708108902,
0.24977116286754608,
0.5102567672729492,
-0.008211496286094189,
0.4033522605895996,
-0.2189018875360489,
-0.11455322802066803,
0.1726156622171402,
0.23720653355121613,
0.18811999261379242,
0.5213145017623901,
-0.6441982388496399,
0.15578210353851318,
0.6410144567489624,
-1.0784157514572144,
-0.010119390673935413,
0.5891106724739075,
-0.027821537107229233,
-0.7803422808647156,
-0.29359108209609985,
-0.13644687831401825,
0.06390894949436188,
-0.10730111598968506,
-0.9126967787742615,
-0.5240368247032166,
-0.20355217158794403,
0.07362278550863266,
0.4126855731010437,
0.14433947205543518,
-0.21469920873641968,
-0.15767265856266022,
-0.26121196150779724,
0.6244041919708252,
-0.1831200271844864,
-0.12022276222705841,
0.4322150945663452,
0.46906471252441406,
-0.5096455812454224,
0.3473677337169647,
0.2384692281484604,
-0.02539651282131672,
-0.2631582021713257,
0.3423750102519989,
0.21739812195301056,
0.7001100778579712,
0.3471777141094208,
0.02061721868813038,
-0.049638714641332626,
0.2567332684993744,
0.5484298467636108,
0.10267718881368637,
-0.9801161289215088,
0.3146709203720093,
-0.0013439550530165434,
0.3446081280708313,
0.12374971807003021,
-0.15635468065738678,
-0.1607649326324463,
0.10272578150033951,
-0.5731991529464722,
-0.15585702657699585,
0.4594614505767822,
-0.25575295090675354,
-0.3256702423095703,
0.5234876275062561,
0.19161422550678253,
-0.4061751067638397,
-0.10086551308631897,
0.3110697865486145,
-0.04841866344213486,
-1.0120997428894043,
0.03726494312286377,
-0.1728190779685974,
0.43670573830604553,
-0.18974390625953674,
-0.19910255074501038,
-0.6211956739425659,
-0.21671169996261597,
0.23489727079868317,
-0.25606220960617065,
0.45714443922042847,
0.19691631197929382,
-0.2191116064786911,
-0.2863782048225403,
-0.027362041175365448,
0.029666109010577202,
-0.06085185334086418,
0.1949019879102707,
-0.2905375361442566,
-0.0868586078286171,
-0.0551588274538517,
-0.0943274199962616,
0.08756802976131439,
-0.030374066904187202,
-0.0497785247862339,
-0.5500954389572144,
-0.3235902786254883,
1.0804702043533325,
0.557113766670227,
-0.596156656742096,
-0.8899245858192444,
-0.04470333456993103,
0.4842663109302521,
0.17615312337875366,
0.039993688464164734,
-0.051365625113248825,
0.645672619342804,
-0.19318847358226776,
0.053863972425460815,
-0.22518348693847656,
-0.03829912096261978,
0.27986228466033936,
-0.4653218984603882,
-0.5689927339553833,
-0.8137423992156982,
0.27404215931892395,
0.27773624658584595,
0.07067787647247314,
-0.36379802227020264,
-0.5302703380584717,
-0.23553620278835297,
-0.28562211990356445,
0.23443114757537842,
-0.10402277112007141,
0.9031216502189636,
0.3303701877593994,
0.35526832938194275,
-0.517964243888855,
0.04602137580513954,
-1.010936975479126,
-0.20055164396762848,
0.059031374752521515,
-0.7998457551002502,
-0.0864291563630104,
0.21181170642375946,
-0.49260538816452026,
0.2981448471546173,
-0.39922046661376953,
0.22867333889007568,
-0.1338203251361847,
-0.08191881328821182,
-0.09272976964712143,
-0.3440362811088562,
-0.020735234022140503,
-0.5214674472808838,
-0.19924335181713104,
-0.30606919527053833,
-0.23193694651126862,
-0.15390853583812714,
-0.21012207865715027,
0.03870970755815506,
0.035169463604688644,
-0.926593542098999,
0.7697423696517944,
0.6248502135276794,
-0.7956963181495667,
0.5546408891677856,
0.538505494594574,
-0.16399849951267242,
0.025019630789756775,
-0.05863801762461662,
-0.32280564308166504,
0.035777315497398376,
-0.08276219666004181,
-0.051321808248758316,
0.9369765520095825,
0.31816035509109497,
-0.028988506644964218,
0.2787877023220062,
-0.7637085318565369,
0.5368674993515015,
0.26012280583381653,
0.3797120749950409,
0.24957309663295746,
0.2949204444885254,
-0.30219581723213196,
-0.27091577649116516,
0.43618184328079224,
-0.054026857018470764,
-0.429422527551651,
0.07439541071653366,
0.529259979724884,
0.8255540132522583,
0.43354907631874084,
-0.10602332651615143,
0.6811597347259521,
-0.30576732754707336,
-0.3616061210632324,
-0.41472235321998596,
0.020091405138373375,
-0.3211086690425873,
0.9412688612937927,
0.6746231913566589,
0.7320030331611633,
-0.2991744875907898,
0.23073123395442963,
-0.5302139520645142,
0.4206671416759491,
0.52403324842453,
0.31344300508499146,
-0.45909231901168823,
0.325840026140213,
0.44733428955078125,
-0.3615278899669647,
0.35572633147239685,
-0.31110256910324097,
0.07660412788391113,
-0.312663733959198,
0.15522459149360657,
-0.1746116429567337,
0.41256245970726013,
-0.14596997201442719,
-0.09538116306066513,
0.7968798875808716,
0.6582401990890503,
0.028692876920104027,
-0.32553818821907043,
-0.17005378007888794,
0.21150563657283783,
-0.49747613072395325,
0.030879901722073555,
-0.11563949286937714,
0.2793102562427521,
0.40278002619743347,
-0.7942460179328918,
0.1949000507593155,
-0.34653711318969727,
-0.32912206649780273,
0.07122593373060226,
0.36169785261154175,
0.2162512093782425,
-0.017585966736078262,
-0.38425213098526,
-0.3033444881439209,
-0.034924305975437164,
-0.632111668586731,
0.6553037762641907,
-0.2337232381105423,
-0.12271013855934143,
0.20940786600112915,
-0.5410284399986267,
0.2891786992549896,
-0.5281441807746887,
-0.6198218464851379,
0.1596372127532959,
0.21311679482460022,
-0.003833221737295389,
-0.1389205902814865,
-0.11501742899417877,
0.6475473642349243,
-0.07283857464790344,
0.15862160921096802,
-0.0989246740937233,
0.294491171836853,
0.3658655881881714,
-0.4461032450199127,
-0.7360676527023315,
0.24050290882587433,
-0.43247324228286743,
0.29410606622695923,
-0.6955517530441284,
0.1421048790216446,
1.0320203304290771,
0.36637839674949646,
0.010096417739987373,
0.15849274396896362,
0.4134819507598877,
0.2059563249349594,
0.3684972822666168,
-0.004224263597279787,
-0.08001253008842468,
0.19743016362190247,
-0.3087618947029114,
0.09715262055397034,
0.642566442489624,
0.03815088048577309,
0.0009113193955272436,
0.21530716121196747,
0.7678472399711609,
0.0948568731546402,
-0.4316686987876892,
0.5492395758628845,
-0.45649027824401855,
-0.7264257073402405,
-0.3244982659816742,
0.9173696041107178,
-0.1578163057565689,
0.03591538593173027,
-0.6376302242279053,
0.24108092486858368,
-0.023347709327936172,
-0.13654659688472748,
0.11931531876325607,
0.14213991165161133,
0.13186900317668915,
-0.05916427820920944,
-0.5317323803901672,
0.0007893980946391821,
-0.391510546207428,
-0.5772498846054077,
-0.5302003026008606,
-0.0602094829082489,
0.7345048785209656,
-0.7895113229751587,
0.10628237575292587,
0.3429394066333771,
-0.07049697637557983,
-0.0013098400086164474,
0.08768519014120102,
-0.053086407482624054,
-0.15991346538066864,
0.07855971157550812
] |
205939
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof%20Rudbeck%20the%20Younger
|
Olof Rudbeck the Younger
|
Olof Rudbeck the Younger or Olaus Rudbeckius d.y. (15 March 1660 – 23 March 1740) was a Swedish explorer, scientist, botanist, ornithologist and rector of Uppsala University.
Biography
Olof Rudbeck was born in Uppsala, Sweden as the son of Olaus Rudbeck Sr. (1630–1702). His father was a noted scientist professor of medicine at Uppsala University. He travelled to England, Holland and Germany in 1687 to study botany. Rudbeck took a medical degree at the Utrecht University in 1690. Returning to his home country in 1692, he succeeded his father as professor of medicine at Uppsala University. Serving aside Lars Roberg (1664–1742), he specialized in anatomy, botany, zoology, and pharmacology, while Roberg gave lectures in medicine, surgery, physiology and chemistry.
He travelled to Lapland in 1695, joining an expedition commissioned by the King Charles XI of Sweden (1655–1697), for which his mission was to study nature, the mountainous region in particular. He returned and published Lapponia illustrata, an album of beautifully colored pictures of birds, flowers and scenery, for which he is best remembered. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Rudbeck turned his attention away from nature studies to speculation about the relationship between Sami languages to Finnish and Hungarian.
To honour his accomplishments (and posthumously, those of his namesake father), he was ennobled in 1719 by Queen Ulrika Eleonora, Queen of Sweden (1688–1741), as a "naturalized nobleman" (noble family of Rudbeck, nr. 1637). His student, the botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), named a genus of flowers Rudbeckia in honor of him and his father.
Personal life
Rudbeck was married three times. Rudbeck had 24 children with three wives. His sister, Wendela, married Peter Olai Nobelius, and from them descends the Nobel family, including Ludvig Nobel, founder of Branobel and Alfred Nobel, founder of the Nobel Prizes.
References
Other sources
Krook, Hans (1988) Olof Rudbeck d.y:s Svenska fåglar (Stockholm : Coeckelberghs)
External links
Olof Rudbeck Lapponia illustrata
Rudbeck, Olaus junior
Rudbeck, Olaus junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
Rudbeck, Olaus junior
Rudbeck, Olaus junior
Rudbeck, Olaus junior
Rudbeck, Olaus junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
Rudbeck, Olof junior
|
[
-0.5992582440376282,
0.5276336073875427,
-0.0020749757532030344,
-0.16489946842193604,
-1.186486005783081,
0.847469687461853,
0.9271698594093323,
0.4353695809841156,
-0.9217216968536377,
-0.5721482634544373,
0.11069519072771072,
-0.40657323598861694,
-0.06535349041223526,
0.4194917678833008,
0.36435139179229736,
0.3464730679988861,
0.21094174683094025,
0.7762438058853149,
-0.1369699090719223,
-0.40783271193504333,
0.07681336998939514,
-0.5639792680740356,
-0.17064878344535828,
-0.16776923835277557,
0.06313222646713257,
-0.010448324494063854,
0.6487541198730469,
-0.22326424717903137,
-0.24362525343894958,
-0.11277496069669724,
-0.22065407037734985,
1.030670166015625,
0.31519651412963867,
0.10504388064146042,
-0.19055724143981934,
-0.07842902094125748,
0.14495526254177094,
-0.10997223109006882,
0.5319658517837524,
0.008979256264865398,
-0.538780927658081,
0.6249536871910095,
0.19797657430171967,
0.1584402620792389,
0.26188138127326965,
-0.8116246461868286,
-2.185617685317993,
-0.12535512447357178,
-0.4253654181957245,
-0.5975037813186646,
0.327332079410553,
-0.46569547057151794,
0.6868534088134766,
1.4610706567764282,
0.23850195109844208,
0.3593744933605194,
-0.7938017249107361,
-0.1671214997768402,
0.9022368788719177,
0.5130794644355774,
0.6702115535736084,
0.17044256627559662,
0.000571383920032531,
0.30746152997016907,
0.353017657995224,
0.1970273107290268,
-0.6283538937568665,
1.5052956342697144,
-0.6999667882919312,
-0.5228449702262878,
-1.0865815877914429,
0.437997043132782,
0.7435551881790161,
-0.4589184522628784,
0.40218812227249146,
-0.4997728765010834,
0.16989077627658844,
0.22260074317455292,
-0.4032990336418152,
-1.0844887495040894,
-0.034233640879392624,
-0.024463387206196785,
0.08845608681440353,
0.09573826193809509,
0.44876158237457275,
0.16050347685813904,
-0.4449554979801178,
-0.986746072769165,
-0.373107373714447,
-0.0813182145357132,
-0.18307983875274658,
0.17062214016914368,
0.2500039339065552,
0.8404402136802673,
0.0712650939822197,
0.2995121479034424,
-0.45596879720687866,
0.12648442387580872,
-0.36815333366394043,
0.7073560953140259,
0.5269457101821899,
0.7121608257293701,
0.7533167004585266,
0.08854702860116959,
0.18717332184314728,
0.3170635998249054,
-0.37563833594322205,
-0.041564393788576126,
-0.5421953201293945,
-1.2441068887710571,
-0.8947851061820984,
0.47328266501426697,
-0.5366310477256775,
0.21034689247608185,
-0.2705334424972534,
0.37061959505081177,
0.1748763769865036,
-0.5732786059379578,
-0.2579199969768524,
-0.29436615109443665,
-0.016362106427550316,
0.6455000042915344,
-0.6141306757926941,
0.6067564487457275,
-0.7282565236091614,
0.4907238185405731,
-0.40398821234703064,
0.6790434122085571,
0.21359935402870178,
0.41842398047447205,
0.38163048028945923,
1.1455796957015991,
0.07752248644828796,
-0.451083242893219,
-0.6221050024032593,
0.008823358453810215,
0.8049913644790649,
0.5846205949783325,
0.2652665972709656,
-0.1327424794435501,
-0.844980776309967,
-0.7576705813407898,
-1.8367223739624023,
-0.2734895348548889,
0.567431628704071,
0.09684653580188751,
-0.1840839982032776,
-0.18666139245033264,
0.011026076041162014,
0.526025116443634,
0.27381691336631775,
-0.9825446009635925,
0.5888826251029968,
0.06575781852006912,
-0.3460674285888672,
0.7382416725158691,
0.10644617676734924,
-0.04635785520076752,
0.8522774577140808,
0.6164735555648804,
0.03562052547931671,
0.06684420257806778,
-0.002488718368113041,
0.2381764054298401,
0.27766889333724976,
0.7097111344337463,
0.35130345821380615,
-0.04271818324923515,
-0.36028313636779785,
-0.10890108346939087,
-0.9181448221206665,
0.5609411001205444,
-0.003271170426160097,
-0.9418621063232422,
0.46739861369132996,
0.33167707920074463,
0.2688440680503845,
0.2967339754104614,
0.22235605120658875,
-0.438667356967926,
-0.8899275064468384,
-0.06636296957731247,
0.31125104427337646,
-0.08282002061605453,
-0.04947274923324585,
0.488240122795105,
0.4796922504901886,
0.025527266785502434,
0.207538440823555,
0.061086807399988174,
-0.5811889171600342,
-0.6135420203208923,
0.42107653617858887,
0.1566895693540573,
0.6713491678237915,
0.030755681917071342,
-0.018328595906496048,
-0.3548332452774048,
0.05246659368276596,
1.5241057872772217,
-0.4766846001148224,
-0.5500438213348389,
-0.14344115555286407,
-0.07943359762430191,
0.2587486505508423,
2.3449482917785645,
-0.023226939141750336,
-0.11209751665592194,
0.45118600130081177,
0.5947371125221252,
0.605292797088623,
-0.6671568155288696,
0.1799875795841217,
0.13609559834003448,
-0.1659468412399292,
-0.032033082097768784,
-0.1478610783815384,
0.2159707099199295,
0.0403604619204998,
-0.26984137296676636,
0.0013484801165759563,
0.22814945876598358,
-0.09080368280410767,
1.1237657070159912,
-0.006830472033470869,
1.2368288040161133,
-0.0913509950041771,
0.4844382405281067,
-0.7833076119422913,
-1.431004285812378,
0.8772420287132263,
0.408141165971756,
0.024036524817347527,
-0.33587542176246643,
-0.41308364272117615,
-0.5434110164642334,
-0.9012361764907837,
-0.5830112099647522,
0.5594711899757385,
-0.23572847247123718,
0.44549402594566345,
0.47436001896858215,
-0.31589847803115845,
0.2604287266731262,
-0.05239963158965111,
0.9544312953948975,
0.3701155185699463,
-0.35902684926986694,
-0.44489172101020813,
-0.5490260124206543,
0.18333686888217926,
0.10057108104228973,
-0.4690122604370117,
-0.9072166085243225,
-0.042755767703056335,
0.08447732031345367,
0.12327275425195694,
-0.1657358855009079,
-0.2431008368730545,
-0.23271317780017853,
0.08111657947301865,
-0.4003876745700836,
0.21258482336997986,
0.16747650504112244,
-0.13271234929561615,
-0.3954637050628662,
0.07097578048706055,
-0.0024819402024149895,
-0.01823408156633377,
-0.7864060401916504,
-0.2923203110694885,
-0.3689081370830536,
-0.31836119294166565,
-2.463052749633789,
-0.14197573065757751,
-0.4030718505382538,
0.4098352789878845,
0.205743670463562,
-0.738221287727356,
0.1550830751657486,
0.27232638001441956,
0.6639009714126587,
-0.7564811110496521,
0.5050867199897766,
-0.9121659994125366,
0.4043041169643402,
0.4218876361846924,
0.07507733255624771,
-0.08271730691194534,
-0.36890387535095215,
0.31924936175346375,
-0.3870236575603485,
-0.6605745553970337,
0.3275942802429199,
-0.19053798913955688,
0.6808621287345886,
-0.10041869431734085,
-0.9098164439201355,
0.32474619150161743,
-0.15125739574432373,
-0.8350427150726318,
0.05699481442570686,
-0.3029497563838959,
0.14306338131427765,
-0.2078133523464203,
-0.0018400808330625296,
-0.4584479331970215,
0.26191577315330505,
-2.527369260787964,
-0.0890357717871666,
-0.09149305522441864,
0.2535044252872467,
0.29350313544273376,
0.2602424621582031,
0.886431097984314,
-0.2719825208187103,
-0.2406802475452423,
0.24561862647533417,
0.36368921399116516,
-0.06915920227766037,
-0.12780047953128815,
0.8558822870254517,
1.097719669342041,
0.5669335722923279,
1.622012734413147,
0.2919974625110626,
0.35694918036460876,
-0.614719808101654,
0.17297525703907013,
-0.42763328552246094,
-0.36686789989471436,
0.09128712862730026,
0.6664711833000183,
0.5245498418807983,
0.20243610441684723,
0.17088662087917328,
-1.066754937171936,
-0.4625503718852997,
-0.4134589731693268,
0.12321768701076508,
0.1646779477596283,
0.08357825130224228,
-0.3306677043437958,
0.012400422245264053,
0.6862198710441589,
1.3194522857666016,
0.37172895669937134,
0.10279054939746857,
0.021823681890964508,
0.6064291596412659,
-0.6764792203903198,
1.3059372901916504,
0.22873541712760925,
-0.1213882714509964,
-1.4265213012695312,
0.2963363528251648,
-0.5785937309265137,
1.0904160737991333,
-0.6037444472312927,
0.010297943837940693,
0.7711765170097351,
0.7047919034957886,
0.4027821123600006,
-0.3459058403968811,
0.16184432804584503,
0.1273283213376999,
-0.19258664548397064,
-0.36768198013305664,
1.009002685546875,
-0.2165442705154419,
0.28532126545906067,
-0.23911112546920776,
0.7070410251617432,
-1.0258910655975342,
0.2648313343524933,
-0.5306482911109924,
0.4950128197669983,
-0.15192623436450958,
-0.26213008165359497,
0.9034762382507324,
0.03806760534644127,
-0.8719541430473328,
0.4854125678539276,
-0.4256448745727539,
-0.37756940722465515,
0.5479412078857422,
0.057396017014980316,
-0.15529507398605347,
0.16284112632274628,
0.04116227850317955,
-1.0485239028930664,
1.4417760372161865,
0.5682000517845154,
0.6875087022781372,
-0.14666615426540375,
0.03895149379968643,
-1.004044532775879,
-0.41189444065093994,
-0.4220401644706726,
-0.07829344272613525,
-0.7351446151733398,
1.188866138458252,
-0.850546658039093,
0.38506853580474854,
-0.14119158685207367,
-1.2813713550567627,
0.4003418982028961,
-0.28599977493286133,
0.23227396607398987,
-0.15533830225467682,
-0.547468900680542,
-0.2506553530693054,
-0.27894821763038635,
-0.4339079260826111,
-0.20501558482646942,
0.2660090923309326,
-0.1502515822649002,
0.4292154014110565,
-0.006072265096008778,
-0.4852500557899475,
0.40818455815315247,
-0.450173020362854,
0.717151403427124,
-1.275468111038208,
-0.3182925283908844,
0.8672391176223755,
0.0028515560552477837,
0.35989585518836975,
0.3833150267601013,
0.04378208890557289,
0.16697821021080017,
-0.5480430126190186,
-0.5666523575782776,
-0.13113397359848022,
0.07575089484453201,
-0.20691078901290894,
-0.6455819606781006,
-0.02818494290113449,
-0.3519936203956604,
0.16926157474517822,
-0.26896384358406067,
-0.22124843299388885,
-0.5284101963043213,
-0.6816756129264832,
0.13397590816020966,
0.2358447164297104,
-0.16371338069438934,
-0.7971013188362122,
-0.06378700584173203,
-0.09261281788349152,
0.2212301641702652,
0.16082808375358582,
-0.0918511152267456,
0.9326993823051453,
0.8074731826782227,
-0.17163152992725372,
-1.1083558797836304,
0.15207740664482117,
-0.6920320987701416,
-0.5668287873268127,
0.1195843368768692,
-0.8955192565917969,
-0.2576048672199249,
-0.09781773388385773,
-0.11266262084245682,
0.1273011714220047,
0.02287055179476738,
-0.13793478906154633,
-0.4841417670249939,
0.06010349839925766,
-0.9845678806304932,
0.5511877536773682,
0.31740573048591614,
-0.5816762447357178,
-0.27285096049308777,
-0.5311457514762878,
-0.5514627695083618,
1.2689437866210938,
-0.31268495321273804,
-0.5741909742355347,
-1.0579748153686523,
-0.286802738904953,
0.6243721842765808,
0.0001424464862793684,
0.6403687000274658,
0.4302264153957367,
0.4712534248828888,
-0.3905338644981384,
0.08449675887823105,
0.393417090177536,
-0.38485947251319885,
0.5341807007789612,
0.6213307976722717,
-0.17535096406936646,
-0.9507492184638977,
-0.2546367943286896,
-0.608715832233429,
-0.34436458349227905,
0.0402885302901268,
0.339104026556015,
0.23355096578598022,
0.4261327087879181,
-0.20917168259620667,
-1.0740385055541992,
0.25075840950012207,
0.42701947689056396,
0.4072384238243103,
-0.11968991160392761,
0.5013302564620972,
1.1540299654006958,
-0.4495237469673157,
0.7796828150749207,
-0.1862839013338089,
-0.8670669794082642,
0.043947163969278336,
0.4584697186946869,
-0.8036395907402039,
0.9864055514335632,
-0.20022143423557281,
-0.5462654232978821,
-0.3780616521835327,
0.8046867251396179,
-0.19980382919311523,
-0.2608307898044586,
1.0922579765319824,
-0.29775509238243103,
-0.2586163878440857,
-0.7823708653450012,
-0.6936291456222534,
-0.7840640544891357,
-0.725816547870636,
-0.48979657888412476,
-0.5717031955718994,
-0.34157881140708923,
-0.1407449096441269,
-0.28701937198638916,
1.0512746572494507,
-0.2798250913619995,
0.13698026537895203,
-0.19853180646896362,
0.7117114067077637,
-0.12106781452894211,
-0.5703902840614319,
0.2048940360546112,
-0.8733405470848083,
0.38083428144454956,
0.0328151099383831,
0.3484085500240326,
1.0277780294418335,
0.9065110683441162,
0.9579381942749023,
-0.41972923278808594,
-0.26967787742614746,
0.05456918478012085,
-0.3634231686592102,
-0.045078206807374954,
-0.029281748458743095,
0.013858677819371223,
-0.48104479908943176,
-0.48192551732063293,
-0.24474027752876282,
-0.6274875402450562,
1.5632365942001343,
0.135374054312706,
0.2558880150318146,
0.6570267081260681,
-0.36748871207237244,
-0.21388348937034607,
-0.07810759544372559,
0.7515742182731628,
0.46883514523506165,
0.48744404315948486,
0.24612294137477875,
0.532891035079956,
-0.16946148872375488,
0.02036423236131668,
0.42614632844924927,
-0.21816034615039825,
-1.2873409986495972,
-0.7196440696716309,
-0.37351536750793457,
-0.09142308682203293,
-0.15073812007904053,
-0.24493379890918732,
0.49090635776519775,
-0.3160511255264282,
0.4505407214164734,
-0.27175772190093994,
0.8268560171127319,
0.1713123619556427,
0.5280462503433228,
-0.4229455590248108,
-0.20364221930503845,
-0.4414367973804474,
-0.7415923476219177,
-0.03671297803521156,
-0.21342161297798157,
0.3540852963924408,
-0.7239997982978821,
-0.053239013999700546,
-0.25075364112854004,
1.2117102146148682,
0.15207432210445404,
0.9966453313827515,
-0.6033266186714172,
-0.6159855723381042,
-0.6564196348190308,
-0.47573357820510864,
-1.0282924175262451,
0.45370325446128845,
0.6146422028541565,
0.1287340670824051,
0.6410347819328308,
0.8384348750114441,
-0.7665248513221741,
-0.10410813987255096,
-0.16883035004138947,
-0.12186096608638763,
0.064674012362957,
0.2857169210910797,
0.007698144298046827,
0.3871682286262512,
-0.09951237589120865,
-0.19665193557739258,
0.7576656937599182,
0.08386342227458954,
-0.4443124830722809,
-0.15503257513046265,
0.37842798233032227,
-0.561756432056427,
0.6808670163154602,
-0.1617782860994339,
0.20113766193389893,
0.5466986894607544,
0.08814379572868347,
-0.5452368855476379,
-0.03997413441538811,
-0.41483381390571594,
-0.8359876871109009,
-0.2209826409816742,
-0.916181743144989,
1.2808030843734741,
-0.7274156212806702,
0.7968279719352722,
0.2079920470714569,
-0.9843031764030457,
0.36776572465896606,
0.49120041728019714,
-0.2709956169128418,
1.2345924377441406,
-0.22814078629016876,
-0.790580689907074,
-0.45753997564315796,
-0.0756005346775055,
-0.32968875765800476,
-0.28075990080833435,
0.4079311788082123,
-0.42236101627349854,
0.3720305860042572,
0.024486621841788292,
-0.27731654047966003,
-0.37464410066604614,
-0.025325335562229156,
0.20550774037837982,
0.5421992540359497,
-0.3924429714679718,
-0.4623616933822632,
-1.970079779624939,
-0.40573495626449585,
-0.48728522658348083,
0.5459501147270203,
0.18040543794631958,
-0.7472546100616455,
-0.5487477779388428,
0.2808401882648468,
0.2878854274749756,
0.3112352192401886,
0.2724819481372833,
0.9286330938339233,
-0.8941786885261536,
1.0074723958969116,
0.21455295383930206,
0.8873596787452698,
0.5339368581771851,
0.414635568857193,
-0.7083320021629333,
0.11135084182024002,
0.08726520836353302,
-0.3769111633300781,
0.1899130642414093,
0.16946987807750702,
-0.38446056842803955,
0.3396546244621277,
0.09131740778684616,
-0.7219474911689758,
0.22164863348007202,
0.33204811811447144,
-0.1910787969827652,
0.41515395045280457,
-0.3403633236885071,
0.32153400778770447,
0.6675385236740112,
-1.5589040517807007,
0.49609193205833435,
-0.49297356605529785,
0.7942054867744446,
-0.59513258934021,
-0.35480737686157227,
-0.30078360438346863,
0.3989560008049011,
-0.11632894724607468,
0.05401083454489708,
-0.6195923089981079,
0.4311102628707886,
-0.6711968183517456,
1.0141890048980713,
-0.11695858091115952,
0.8301742672920227,
-0.08852697163820267,
-0.10680962353944778,
-0.3074972629547119,
0.7908603549003601,
-0.5721283555030823,
0.07165491580963135,
0.5747014880180359,
-0.5284997224807739,
-0.5532705783843994,
0.6088573932647705,
0.24090638756752014,
-0.2903596758842468,
-0.2950036823749542,
-0.0002625171619001776,
-0.4815787076950073,
-0.8757844567298889,
0.1545960158109665,
0.2746502161026001,
0.246577188372612,
0.22232520580291748,
-0.0721258744597435,
0.18691198527812958,
-0.2405102550983429,
-0.4607737064361572,
0.22232721745967865,
-0.16898363828659058,
0.9810536503791809,
0.8754799962043762,
0.8323277235031128,
-0.5121792554855347,
0.16477185487747192,
-0.4230474531650543,
0.9008979797363281,
0.35134196281433105,
-3.788667917251587,
-0.3742386996746063,
-0.06918492913246155,
-0.8259626626968384,
0.816359281539917,
0.2809023857116699,
0.35783469676971436,
-0.10005245357751846,
0.4223997890949249,
-0.12581488490104675,
0.33865851163864136,
0.13737910985946655,
-0.7925223112106323,
-0.5639486908912659,
0.6444129347801208,
0.015021822415292263
] |
205943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zabriskie%20Point
|
Zabriskie Point
|
Zabriskie Point is a part of the Amargosa Range located east of Death Valley in Death Valley National Park in California, United States, noted for its erosional landscape. It is composed of sediments from Furnace Creek Lake, which dried up 5 million years ago—long before Death Valley came into existence.
Name
The location was named after Christian Brevoort Zabriskie, vice-president and general manager of the Pacific Coast Borax Company in the early 20th century. The company's twenty-mule teams were used to transport borax from its mining operations in Death Valley.
History
Millions of years prior to the actual sinking and widening of Death Valley and the existence of Lake Manly (see Geology of the Death Valley area), another lake covered a large portion of Death Valley including the area around Zabriskie Point. This ancient lake began forming approximately nine million years ago. During several million years of the lake's existence, sediments were collecting at the bottom in the form of saline muds, gravels from nearby mountains, and ashfalls from the then-active Black Mountain volcanic field. These sediments combined to form what we today call the Furnace Creek Formation. The climate along Furnace Creek Lake was dry, but not nearly as dry as in the present. Camels, mastodons, horses, carnivores, and birds left tracks in the lakeshore muds, along with fossilized grass and reeds. Borates, which made up a large portion of Death Valley's historical past were concentrated in the lakebeds from hot spring waters and alteration of rhyolite in the nearby volcanic field. Weathering and alteration by thermal waters are also responsible for the variety of colors represented there.
Regional mountains building to the west influenced the climate to become more and more arid, causing the lake to dry up, and creating a dry lake. Subsequent widening and sinking of Death Valley and the additional uplift of today's Black Mountains tilted the area. This provided the necessary relief to accomplish the erosion that produced the badlands we see today. The dark-colored material capping the badland ridges (to the left in the panoramic photograph) is lava from eruptions that occurred three to five million years ago. This hard lava cap has retarded erosion in many places and possibly explains why Manly Beacon, the high outcrop to the right, is much higher than other portion of the badlands. Manly Beacon was named in honor of William L. Manly, who along with John Rogers, guided members of the ill-fated Forty-niners out of Death Valley during the gold rush of 1849.
The primary source of borate minerals gathered from Death Valley's playas is Furnace Creek Formation. The Formation is made up of over 5000 feet (1500 m) of mudstone, siltstone, and conglomerate. The borates were concentrated in these lakebeds from hot spring waters and altered rhyolite from nearby volcanic fields.
In popular culture
Zabriskie Point is also the name of a 1970 movie by Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni; its soundtrack features music by British band Pink Floyd and Jerry Garcia.
The philosopher Michel Foucault called his 1975 acid trip at Zabriskie Point the greatest experience of his life.
This location is featured prominently on the cover of U2's album The Joshua Tree.
This location was used to represent the surface of Mars in the 1964 film Robinson Crusoe on Mars.
Zabriskie Point is the name of Radio Massacre International's album released in 2000.
Zabriskie Point is a Soviet code for a location on the surface of the Moon in Omon Ra, a dystopian thriller novel by Victor Pelevin.
Zabriskie Point is a significant location in the novels Fall of Night, Dust and Decay, and Fire and Ash by Jonathan Maberry, in each case, as the location of a top secret chemical and biological research station.
Zabriskie Point was used as a film location for the 1960 Universal film Spartacus, showing Gladiator school boss Peter Ustinov on muleback trekking to an Egyptian mine to buy slaves to put in training.
Shots taken from Zabriskie Point of Red Cathedral and Manly Beacon were used as the basis for shots that were then digitally altered to form the planet of Arvala-7 in the first season of The Mandalorian.
References
Death Valley
Death Valley National Park
Rock formations of California
Mojave Desert
Landforms of Inyo County, California
|
[
-0.36084768176078796,
0.5466800928115845,
-0.36885806918144226,
-0.5717414617538452,
0.3444226086139679,
0.4617730677127838,
0.552700936794281,
0.5543631911277771,
0.18994107842445374,
-0.710159957408905,
-0.03905799239873886,
-0.15159888565540314,
-0.19862668216228485,
0.79058837890625,
-0.49468645453453064,
0.18711327016353607,
-0.32156795263290405,
0.35737326741218567,
0.4092599153518677,
0.0969720333814621,
0.47932299971580505,
-0.5321892499923706,
0.27284184098243713,
0.06581604480743408,
0.022708948701620102,
0.13359469175338745,
0.6585713624954224,
0.10413434356451035,
0.1270587146282196,
0.8311287760734558,
-0.4977688193321228,
0.5746991038322449,
-0.19700229167938232,
-0.4635901153087616,
0.003897446673363447,
0.12104220688343048,
-0.0009221279178746045,
0.09523753076791763,
-0.4637371897697449,
0.1609354019165039,
0.003443452762439847,
0.005122610833495855,
0.5794711709022522,
0.33206266164779663,
0.28421494364738464,
0.5521758198738098,
-1.1080044507980347,
0.8892801403999329,
-0.1313917338848114,
-0.3704615831375122,
-0.3834543526172638,
0.6014156341552734,
0.3393343389034271,
0.05241775140166283,
0.050254207104444504,
-0.02731185406446457,
-0.23031659424304962,
0.13464690744876862,
0.5624769330024719,
-0.19532886147499084,
0.02048124372959137,
0.575264573097229,
-0.13936948776245117,
-0.26141899824142456,
-0.050008758902549744,
0.6427696347236633,
-0.18019579350948334,
0.863143265247345,
-0.28661125898361206,
-0.2882364094257355,
-0.18349631130695343,
0.14320746064186096,
0.16917571425437927,
0.4348101019859314,
-0.41847434639930725,
0.29016125202178955,
-0.5690259337425232,
0.437222957611084,
0.3854864835739136,
-0.039034631103277206,
0.2768714427947998,
0.04254475235939026,
0.7249760031700134,
-0.1937321424484253,
0.1484314352273941,
0.13650542497634888,
-0.522224485874176,
0.04746433347463608,
-0.5524005889892578,
0.44480589032173157,
-0.5944181680679321,
-0.4225523769855499,
0.15385791659355164,
-0.044644758105278015,
0.061189670115709305,
-0.16095924377441406,
0.27427938580513,
0.5398669242858887,
-0.05034307762980461,
0.6779913306236267,
-0.26789942383766174,
0.5879319906234741,
0.8995867967605591,
0.029924506321549416,
-0.2656415104866028,
-0.58855140209198,
-0.3268829584121704,
0.6308366060256958,
-0.15571363270282745,
-0.5558147430419922,
-0.8506432771682739,
0.0725175216794014,
-0.48462069034576416,
0.048470377922058105,
-0.39458349347114563,
0.7529186606407166,
0.19203613698482513,
-0.6383135914802551,
0.33427757024765015,
-0.7394945621490479,
0.7430189251899719,
0.4507766366004944,
-0.7974494695663452,
-0.33632439374923706,
0.017071811482310295,
0.4476689100265503,
0.5187427997589111,
-0.14821892976760864,
-0.5895235538482666,
0.6723272800445557,
-0.32351985573768616,
0.5478270649909973,
0.12282814085483551,
-0.13092772662639618,
0.47116562724113464,
-0.2742335796356201,
0.0511702224612236,
-0.3230297863483429,
0.1860029101371765,
0.16067108511924744,
-0.5944687724113464,
-0.3877524435520172,
-0.8172945976257324,
-0.42584067583084106,
0.6826112866401672,
-0.2061619907617569,
-0.12464262545108795,
-0.718849778175354,
-0.30882978439331055,
-0.18069759011268616,
0.16882194578647614,
-0.316313773393631,
-0.3407205641269684,
0.013135883957147598,
-0.2343970388174057,
-0.3470861613750458,
0.2661695182323456,
-0.396125465631485,
0.42978718876838684,
0.10176882147789001,
0.020145995542407036,
0.7251012921333313,
0.3790028989315033,
0.503171443939209,
0.5019214153289795,
-0.05051169544458389,
0.8786261081695557,
-0.7138457298278809,
-0.12463735789060593,
0.8761423826217651,
-0.4803215563297272,
0.7501908540725708,
0.9877064228057861,
-0.4157211184501648,
0.18055321276187897,
-0.07263696193695068,
0.17579972743988037,
0.146889328956604,
0.020236993208527565,
-0.24061718583106995,
-0.7076255083084106,
0.024844763800501823,
0.27042555809020996,
0.5384402275085449,
-0.601742684841156,
-0.4251639246940613,
0.7335781455039978,
-0.04440193250775337,
-0.13151179254055023,
-0.4338319003582001,
-0.6413676738739014,
-0.6955813765525818,
0.5152348875999451,
0.32859206199645996,
1.0068515539169312,
0.3936779797077179,
-0.5464610457420349,
0.3241146504878998,
0.15850621461868286,
0.7345057129859924,
-0.3254339098930359,
-0.4687780737876892,
0.3611796498298645,
-0.5106891393661499,
-0.8967639207839966,
0.5184374451637268,
0.15012480318546295,
-0.017613576725125313,
0.46783557534217834,
0.33829009532928467,
0.12114063650369644,
-0.9759461283683777,
0.5894418358802795,
0.4547499716281891,
-0.19946609437465668,
-0.3530105650424957,
-0.06537279486656189,
-0.20940448343753815,
0.1675717979669571,
-0.8358104825019836,
-0.16271665692329407,
0.7094891667366028,
-0.12514778971672058,
-0.11662987619638443,
0.11550977826118469,
0.34100669622421265,
0.2803317606449127,
0.2591871917247772,
0.46523070335388184,
-0.4227003753185272,
0.10446406900882721,
-0.17067524790763855,
0.016562385484576225,
-0.08265617489814758,
0.4388240575790405,
0.12033912539482117,
-0.0012704827822744846,
-0.7059423327445984,
0.8750409483909607,
-0.6596481204032898,
-0.6121231317520142,
-0.03988221287727356,
-0.518804132938385,
0.3910031020641327,
0.10712424665689468,
0.23535026609897614,
0.71567302942276,
0.4784107506275177,
-0.7365077137947083,
0.3649657666683197,
-0.10350644588470459,
0.60130375623703,
0.1298493891954422,
-0.0037040384486317635,
-0.23156364262104034,
0.1370377093553543,
0.09918665140867233,
-0.09228922426700592,
0.4388309121131897,
-0.5962634682655334,
-0.2722104787826538,
-0.09803221374750137,
-0.1288355439901352,
-0.02272038720548153,
0.20156581699848175,
0.07095063477754593,
0.08351834863424301,
-0.3979954719543457,
0.39101120829582214,
-0.14825516939163208,
0.4265546500682831,
-0.5345274806022644,
0.08565062284469604,
0.2173505425453186,
-0.204522505402565,
0.12619216740131378,
-0.18116596341133118,
-0.13090476393699646,
-0.8867059350013733,
0.28713467717170715,
0.7300471663475037,
0.8461599946022034,
-0.045133888721466064,
-0.48996496200561523,
-0.6037863492965698,
-0.3403579294681549,
0.6108226180076599,
-0.0731612965464592,
-0.8823547959327698,
0.13495874404907227,
-0.37563806772232056,
-0.33548450469970703,
0.04377666488289833,
0.8989012241363525,
-0.7662652730941772,
0.33327335119247437,
-0.06374479830265045,
-0.41029229760169983,
0.4627191424369812,
-0.6222435832023621,
-0.37032803893089294,
-0.24052909016609192,
-0.9785310626029968,
-0.06548237800598145,
-0.3710915446281433,
0.3514832556247711,
-0.06470785290002823,
0.23995044827461243,
-5.080266952514648,
1.1737875938415527,
-0.5181066393852234,
-0.48749440908432007,
-0.21609367430210114,
0.03969253972172737,
0.37778353691101074,
-0.08460038900375366,
-0.47198188304901123,
-0.07034846395254135,
-0.26001274585723877,
-0.2933448851108551,
0.023379314690828323,
0.5939143896102905,
0.16776010394096375,
0.3897738456726074,
0.48495468497276306,
-0.26880648732185364,
0.1702844649553299,
0.4034370183944702,
-0.09905272722244263,
0.17997634410858154,
-0.40454602241516113,
0.009148435667157173,
0.15240460634231567,
0.9635939598083496,
-0.22997541725635529,
-0.08328612893819809,
-0.9857279658317566,
-0.5095577836036682,
0.4590771198272705,
-0.4377593398094177,
-0.16631057858467102,
0.15222680568695068,
-0.10413449257612228,
0.13572166860103607,
0.6912673115730286,
0.313221275806427,
0.28489822149276733,
-0.11320281028747559,
-0.4633403420448303,
0.48699840903282166,
-0.5171062350273132,
0.10467290878295898,
0.9226198792457581,
0.1100015714764595,
-0.37168827652931213,
-0.016364166513085365,
0.20839481055736542,
0.3202262818813324,
0.37170422077178955,
0.3009834289550781,
0.5598629117012024,
0.2604617774486542,
0.15214979648590088,
0.26962995529174805,
0.40673527121543884,
-0.6660034656524658,
-0.5167637467384338,
0.37056609988212585,
0.4290781319141388,
-0.2006150484085083,
0.15097548067569733,
-0.5552900433540344,
0.8875360488891602,
-0.6136581301689148,
0.37644392251968384,
0.0024316676426678896,
-0.20171743631362915,
-0.12692394852638245,
1.0501412153244019,
0.44253993034362793,
-0.6824672222137451,
-1.3043652772903442,
-0.101667121052742,
-0.9709669947624207,
-0.46042242646217346,
-0.20228004455566406,
-0.7751218676567078,
0.27969297766685486,
0.08437571674585342,
0.6271039247512817,
-0.3635304570198059,
0.7706285119056702,
-0.072242371737957,
-0.18698818981647491,
-0.12093914300203323,
0.3219429552555084,
-0.28827330470085144,
-0.5203803777694702,
0.17679433524608612,
0.27659741044044495,
0.24249248206615448,
-0.22164911031723022,
-0.1701992005109787,
0.4311269521713257,
0.11789920181035995,
0.4074581563472748,
0.211442768573761,
0.1363806575536728,
0.6241317391395569,
-0.4761548936367035,
0.16616526246070862,
-0.09623926132917404,
-0.05560828372836113,
-0.4216967523097992,
0.13015690445899963,
0.5385690927505493,
0.6930684447288513,
-0.5177916288375854,
-0.4631861448287964,
0.2909190356731415,
-0.08295642584562302,
-0.3200707733631134,
0.7737155556678772,
-0.04709310457110405,
-0.271356999874115,
0.550931990146637,
0.4839784502983093,
-0.34229275584220886,
0.2635131776332855,
-0.4478478729724884,
-0.3913736045360565,
0.46654847264289856,
-0.013392401859164238,
-0.4102090001106262,
0.12343674898147583,
-0.01622888259589672,
-0.3971565067768097,
0.09633917361497879,
0.14809736609458923,
0.3470853865146637,
-0.1004517674446106,
-0.04489634558558464,
-0.2242463231086731,
-0.09541226178407669,
-0.7008957862854004,
-0.7449700832366943,
0.3229496479034424,
0.08845267444849014,
0.23660774528980255,
0.3747645914554596,
0.1395851969718933,
0.09891992807388306,
0.5241168737411499,
0.6523560881614685,
-0.271658331155777,
-0.21044689416885376,
-0.9735121726989746,
0.35995420813560486,
-0.6639214754104614,
0.1523905247449875,
-0.9343699216842651,
-0.991507887840271,
0.014128119684755802,
0.39071813225746155,
0.11930660903453827,
0.4661301374435425,
-0.1899380385875702,
0.21548856794834137,
0.49066904187202454,
-0.07382091879844666,
-1.0569669008255005,
-0.34326300024986267,
-0.34591078758239746,
-0.40233269333839417,
-0.35553261637687683,
-0.36869361996650696,
-0.1432238072156906,
0.13219742476940155,
0.14786194264888763,
-0.42439815402030945,
-0.41378918290138245,
-0.10744331032037735,
0.5347849130630493,
-0.31684017181396484,
-0.5854319334030151,
0.24028484523296356,
0.48020032048225403,
-0.37418222427368164,
-0.30699995160102844,
0.18223679065704346,
-0.30241870880126953,
0.4408120810985565,
-0.04617379605770111,
-0.4975512623786926,
-0.7900904417037964,
0.27827754616737366,
-0.13625693321228027,
-0.38903188705444336,
0.19283661246299744,
-0.49359330534935,
0.32296839356422424,
0.26265883445739746,
-0.025653481483459473,
-0.34826451539993286,
0.4184550940990448,
0.19285805523395538,
-0.2223077267408371,
-0.695513904094696,
-0.030708767473697662,
0.06476427614688873,
-0.8275818824768066,
0.40962761640548706,
0.2658440172672272,
-0.9922849535942078,
0.3422827124595642,
0.9124545454978943,
-1.2495900392532349,
0.8722912669181824,
-0.02011612057685852,
-1.174281120300293,
-0.5005306601524353,
0.13492360711097717,
0.3714906871318817,
-0.1762378066778183,
0.43775129318237305,
0.005216329358518124,
-0.38383832573890686,
-0.1448497623205185,
-0.43728289008140564,
0.22927293181419373,
-0.11250052601099014,
-0.30789321660995483,
-0.8257472515106201,
0.4343244433403015,
-0.11427532136440277,
-0.09241311252117157,
1.0015883445739746,
-0.7477560043334961,
-0.20602534711360931,
0.4755702316761017,
0.5655398964881897,
0.3984968960285187,
-0.23351573944091797,
0.040886957198381424,
-0.2775363326072693,
-0.0987919494509697,
0.4658159613609314,
0.9334407448768616,
0.5268219113349915,
1.0100338459014893,
0.5774965286254883,
-0.3980964422225952,
0.07362442463636398,
-0.03773592785000801,
0.29244697093963623,
-0.06903991103172302,
-0.6495766639709473,
0.4948587715625763,
0.5421276092529297,
-0.40785691142082214,
-1.1405175924301147,
-0.0733126848936081,
0.91456538438797,
-0.4152687191963196,
-0.07540532201528549,
-0.5794224739074707,
-0.2809208035469055,
-0.04623860865831375,
-0.19487003982067108,
0.04397556930780411,
0.11052858084440231,
0.3512336015701294,
0.24179969727993011,
-0.3368913531303406,
-0.058983612805604935,
0.11129697412252426,
0.706744909286499,
-0.7368685603141785,
0.6650157570838928,
-0.5707889199256897,
0.6489408016204834,
0.006621345411986113,
-0.7337223291397095,
0.12165898084640503,
0.39780133962631226,
-0.04420122504234314,
-0.2493102252483368,
-0.5630289912223816,
-0.22574272751808167,
0.16346758604049683,
0.5000306963920593,
-1.2778178453445435,
-0.2620583474636078,
-0.5394518375396729,
0.26719826459884644,
-0.29317671060562134,
-0.8396626114845276,
0.06975182145833969,
-0.34282779693603516,
0.0704604759812355,
0.17097803950309753,
-0.581998884677887,
0.26095595955848694,
0.3014987111091614,
-0.21816939115524292,
0.2647438049316406,
-0.2989864647388458,
-0.12403367459774017,
-1.2607731819152832,
0.8786994218826294,
-0.6951772570610046,
-0.21866075694561005,
-0.07705573737621307,
-0.4959733188152313,
-0.22658582031726837,
-0.4002602696418762,
0.01381266675889492,
-0.5926806926727295,
0.10666095465421677,
0.4771328568458557,
0.13752925395965576,
1.039844274520874,
-0.3427727520465851,
0.35086914896965027,
0.35757508873939514,
-0.049077920615673065,
-0.26854002475738525,
0.8322836756706238,
-0.7501347661018372,
-0.3594781160354614,
0.8580228090286255,
-0.30742529034614563,
0.4240805506706238,
0.5290315747261047,
-0.41190025210380554,
0.23287414014339447,
0.02631804160773754,
0.410867840051651,
-0.16704431176185608,
-0.9046713709831238,
-0.2973315417766571,
0.5295315384864807,
0.03008115291595459,
-0.6897957921028137,
0.09453846514225006,
-0.6732412576675415,
-0.3643854856491089,
0.4043501913547516,
-0.10782131552696228,
0.7011000514030457,
0.2652722895145416,
0.0017536586383357644,
0.08904574066400528,
-0.3701607286930084,
0.3942403793334961,
0.5923638939857483,
0.20559503138065338,
-0.2067987024784088,
-0.11860022693872452,
-0.37811538577079773,
0.021693140268325806,
-0.1366540938615799,
0.3306361436843872,
0.15038280189037323,
0.3730764091014862,
-0.8046072125434875,
-0.8667300939559937,
0.19179822504520416,
-0.3500171899795532,
-0.053455252200365067,
-0.06538549810647964,
-0.22519852221012115,
-0.25065675377845764,
-0.4324381649494171,
0.3683505356311798,
-0.6227332949638367,
0.22219733893871307,
0.08402270078659058,
1.1458680629730225,
0.5809782147407532,
0.19435203075408936,
0.10456445068120956,
0.2955305278301239,
0.675372838973999,
-0.29835134744644165,
0.592795729637146,
0.02298020012676716,
0.10935467481613159,
-0.46548017859458923,
0.41343820095062256,
0.3401528596878052,
-0.7281274795532227,
0.22909453511238098,
-0.5281742215156555,
-0.0974041074514389,
0.14125651121139526,
0.31968826055526733,
0.0810130313038826,
0.1101023480296135,
-0.6103941798210144,
-0.43828070163726807,
0.05739510431885719,
-0.027171924710273743,
-0.1500519961118698,
0.2960577607154846,
0.22140644490718842,
0.196003720164299,
0.19024904072284698,
0.4746275544166565,
0.2256547212600708,
0.16404947638511658,
0.05117335915565491,
-0.5287960171699524,
0.992756187915802,
-0.3113038241863251,
0.13088884949684143,
0.018268363550305367,
0.6485489010810852,
0.37127578258514404,
0.2529100477695465,
0.23112881183624268,
0.861144483089447,
-0.9590344429016113,
0.3781823217868805,
0.6521281599998474,
-0.30066433548927307,
-0.20320823788642883,
-0.48449426889419556,
0.2663058042526245,
-0.6917925477027893,
0.2644975781440735,
0.5147311091423035,
-0.14892825484275818,
-0.5296582579612732,
0.306025892496109,
-0.34659242630004883,
-0.08708996325731277,
0.2411440908908844,
0.061825912445783615,
-0.3488607108592987,
-0.21565166115760803,
0.5850518345832825,
-0.5755363702774048,
-0.9024291634559631,
0.24190914630889893,
1.259463906288147,
0.3561999201774597,
-0.595898449420929,
0.2889852821826935,
-0.31715378165245056,
0.3170159161090851,
-0.12107151001691818,
-0.1224844753742218,
0.1259823888540268,
-0.8769733309745789,
-0.9307972192764282,
-0.40709128975868225,
0.11893627792596817,
0.4060802459716797,
-0.2583860456943512,
0.05776442214846611,
-0.20826180279254913,
0.10174870491027832,
-0.5757127404212952,
-0.18149863183498383,
-0.6639910936355591,
0.01719050295650959,
0.11718840152025223
] |
205948
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%20Talk
|
Talk Talk
|
Talk Talk were an English band formed in 1981, led by Mark Hollis (vocals, guitar, piano), Lee Harris (drums), and Paul Webb (bass). The group achieved early chart success with the synth-pop singles "Talk Talk" (1982), "It's My Life", and "Such a Shame" (both 1984) before moving towards a more experimental approach informed by jazz and free improvisation in the mid-1980s, pioneering what became known as post-rock. Talk Talk achieved widespread critical success in Europe and the UK with the singles "Life's What You Make It" (1985) and "Living in Another World" (1986); in 1988, they released their fourth album Spirit of Eden, which was critically acclaimed yet failed to sell.
Friction with the band's label, EMI, resulted in legal action and countersuing. Webb departed, and the band switched to Polydor for their final studio album, 1991's Laughing Stock, but split soon afterwards. Singer Mark Hollis released one solo album in 1998 before retiring from the music industry; he died in 2019. The band's founding bass player and drummer, Paul Webb and Lee Harris, played in several bands together; long-term collaborator Tim Friese-Greene continued in the business as a musician and producer.
History
1981–1983: Formation
Talk Talk began as a quartet consisting of Mark Hollis, formerly from The Reaction (vocals/main songwriter), Lee Harris (drums), Paul Webb (bass guitar), and Simon Brenner (keyboards). In their early years they were often compared with Duran Duran. In addition to a band name consisting of a repeated word, the two shared a Roxy Music-inspired musical direction, as well as the same record label (EMI) and producer (Colin Thurston). The band also supported Duran Duran on tour in late 1981.
The band released their first single, "Mirror Man", on EMI in February 1982. The single was not a great success, but was quickly followed by their self-titled single in April 1982 (a rerecording of a track by The Reaction) which reached No. 52 in the UK. The band's first album, titled The Party's Over, was released in July 1982. The band had their first UK Top 40 hits with the singles "Today" (UK No. 14) and a re-release of "Talk Talk" (UK No. 23). These singles also were hits in other countries including Ireland, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The re-release of the "Talk Talk" single reached the U.S. Top 75. The album was produced by Colin Thurston, who was Duran Duran's in-house EMI producer at the time, but picked by Hollis because of his involvement with David Bowie's Heroes. It was a moderate success in the UK reaching No. 21, and was later certified Silver by the BPI for sales of 60,000 copies by 1985. It was a Top 10 hit in New Zealand.
Brenner left after the 1983 non-LP hit single "My Foolish Friend", which was produced by frequent Roxy Music collaborator Rhett Davies. At this point, Talk Talk was now a trio, as Brenner was never officially replaced. However, Tim Friese-Greene was recruited to assist with the recording of their second album, It's My Life, and he became the band's producer as well as keyboardist and Hollis' songwriting partner. Although a major contributor to the band's studio output and a de facto fourth member, Friese-Greene never officially joined the band. As such, he did not play with the touring band on live dates, and was absent from the band's publicity material.
1984–1986: Commercial success
Although major success eluded them in the UK, Talk Talk achieved considerable international success in 1984/85, particularly in continental Europe, North America and New Zealand, with the album It's My Life. The accompanying single "Such a Shame" (inspired by the book The Dice Man) became a Top 10 hit in Austria, Italy, France, Germany, Netherlands and Switzerland during this period. The title track of the album entered the U.S., Canadian, French, German, New Zealand and Netherlands Top 40. A third single, "Dum Dum Girl", was a success in some European countries and in New Zealand; however, the album and its singles were largely ignored in the UK. Commercial success notwithstanding, the band made deliberate choices that moved them away from the mainstream. The music video for "It's My Life", for instance, featured a grumpy Hollis who mocks lip-synching; after EMI protested, they re-shot the video, turning it into "a total piss-take of lip-synching", in Alan McGee's words.
The artist James Marsh designed the first cover image for It's My Life based on the band's name. He followed the theme for subsequent singles, remaining the band's artistic frontman and creating all their covers and posters throughout their career.
Talk Talk abandoned the synthpop style completely with their third album, 1986's The Colour of Spring. It became their biggest success in the UK, making the Top 10 (and certified Gold by the BPI for sales over 100,000 copies), in part due to the Top 20 single "Life's What You Make It", which was also successful internationally. Another single, "Living in Another World", charted in the Top 40 in Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium and Italy (and just outside the Top 40 in the UK and France). By this time, all Talk Talk songs were being written by Hollis and Friese-Greene. The extended line-up for the 1986 tour consisted of Hollis, Webb and Harris, plus John Turnbull (guitars), Rupert Black and Ian Curnow (keyboards), Phil Reis and Leroy Williams (percussion), and Mark Feltham (harmonica). Most notable among these concerts was their appearance at the Montreux Jazz Festival, 11 July 1986, released on DVD in 2008 as Live at Montreux 1986.
1987–1991: Experimental period
The success of The Colour of Spring afforded the band a bigger budget and schedule for the recording of their next album. Over a year in the making, and featuring contributions from many outside musicians, Spirit of Eden was released in 1988, on EMI's Parlophone label. The album was assembled from many hours of improvised instrumentation that Hollis and Friese-Greene had edited and arranged using digital equipment. The result was a mix of rock, jazz, classical, and ambient music. Critically praised, the album reached the UK Top 20 and was certified Silver by the BPI for sales of over 60,000 copies. The band announced they would not be attempting to recreate the album live (since, according to Hollis, "People would just want to hear the songs as they are on the album and for me that's not satisfying enough"). Without touring or music videos or singles as the band intended, there was little marketing left that the record company could do; in the end the band grudgingly agreed to a video for the remixed version of "I Believe in You", released as first single. Hollis, though, was unhappy with the video, as he made clear in an interview with Q Magazine: "I really feel that [the video] was a massive mistake ... I thought just by sitting there and listening and really thinking about what it was about, I could get that in my eyes. But you cannot do it. It just feels stupid. It was depressing and I wish I'd never done it."
During the making of Spirit of Eden, Talk Talk manager Keith Aspden had attempted to free the band from their record contract with EMI. "I knew by that time that EMI was not the company this band should be with," Aspden said. "I was fearful that the money wouldn't be there to record another album."> EMI, however, wished to keep the band on their roster. After many months of litigation, the band ultimately succeeded in extracting themselves from the contract. EMI then sued the band, claiming that Spirit of Eden was not "commercially satisfactory", but the case was thrown out of court. Webb left the band in late 1988.
With the band now released from EMI, the label released the retrospective compilation Natural History in 1990. It peaked at number 3 on the UK album chart and was certified Gold by the BPI for sales of over 100,000 copies. It was also an international success and eventually went on to sell more than 1 million copies worldwide. The 1984 single "It's My Life" was also re-released, and this time became the band's highest charting single in their native country, reaching number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. A re-release of the single "Life's What You Make It" also reached the Top 30. Following up on this renewed popular interest in the band, the label then released History Revisited in 1991, a compilation of new remixes, which made the UK Top 40 (it also reached the Top 30 in Germany and the Top 75 in the Netherlands). The band sued EMI for releasing the remixed material without their permission.
By 1990 the band had essentially morphed into a vehicle for the studio recordings of Hollis and long-term collaborator Friese-Greene, along with session musicians (including long-term Talk Talk drummer Harris). The group signed a two-album contract with Polydor Records and released Laughing Stock on Polydor's Verve Records imprint in 1991. Laughing Stock crystallised the experimental sound the band started with Spirit of Eden (which has been retroactively categorised as "post-rock" by some critics). Despite being even more minimalist than its predecessor, Laughing Stock reached just No. 26 on the UK Albums Chart.
Post break-up
After Laughing Stock, Talk Talk disbanded in 1991; Hollis said that he wished to focus on his family. Paul Webb rejoined Lee Harris, and the two went on to form the band .O.rang, while Tim Friese-Greene started recording under the name Heligoland. In 1998, Mark Hollis released his self-titled solo début Mark Hollis, which was much in keeping with the minimalist post-rock sound of Spirit of Eden and Laughing Stock, but he retired from the music industry shortly afterwards.
Webb also collaborated under the name of Rustin Man with Portishead lead singer Beth Gibbons and released Out of Season in 2002, Drift Code in 2019 and Clockdust in 2020, while Lee Harris featured on the Bark Psychosis 2004 album, ///Codename: Dustsucker.
Mark Hollis died on 25 February 2019, aged 64.
Legacy and influence
Talk Talk's influence upon musicians has exceeded the band's visibility among the general public. Along with the band Slint, Talk Talk are credited with inventing "post-rock" in their last two albums, Spirit of Eden and Laughing Stock. The artists who have praised the band or cited them as an influence include Pearl Jam's Jeff Ament, Tears for Fears, Matthew Good, Radiohead, Doves, Elbow, Shearwater, M83, Bark Psychosis, The Notwist, Cedric Bixler-Zavala of the Mars Volta, Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree, Storm Corrosion (a joint project between Opeth's Mikael Åkerfeldt and Porcupine Tree's Steven Wilson), Steve Hogarth of Marillion, Richard Barbieri of Japan and Porcupine Tree, and Death Cab for Cutie.
The bands Placebo, Weezer, the Divine Comedy and the Gathering covered their song "Life's What You Make It" and No Doubt scored a global hit with a cover of "It's My Life" in 2003 which reached number 20 on the UK charts. Lights recorded a cover of "Living in Another World" Guy Garvey of the band Elbow said: "Mark Hollis started from punk and by his own admission he had no musical ability. To go from only having the urge, to writing some of the most timeless, intricate and original music ever is as impressive as the moon landings for me."
A tribute album and anthological book, both titled Spirit of Talk Talk, were released in 2012. The book includes all the artwork James Marsh did for the band, and hand-written lyrics (by the band). The album includes covers by various artists, proceeds going to the conservation organisation BirdLife International.
On Tuesday 26 November 2019, Spirit of Talk Talk organised A Celebration of Mark Hollis and Talk Talk concert at the Royal Festival Hall, London, UK. Founding band member Simon Brenner, who played keyboards on studio album, The Party's Over was amongst the long list of guest musicians who performed songs from all five Talk Talk studio albums and Mark Hollis' solo album. The evening was described as A Majestic Tribute by the London-based daily newspaper The Evening Standard.
In March 2020, a documentary about Talk Talk was screened for the first time at the Copenhagen International Documentary Film Festival. Entitled In a Silent Way, filmed before Mark Hollis' death and without the participation of the main band members, it pays tribute to the musical journey and integrity of Talk Talk. In September 2021, the film won the prize for best music documentary awarded by the jury of the Musical Ecran festival in France.
Hollis and Talk Talk continue to be praised as artists who did not cave in to the pressures of corporate and commercial interests. Says Alan McGee, "I find the whole story of one man against the system in a bid to maintain creative control incredibly heartening."
Discography
The Party's Over (1982)
It's My Life (1984)
The Colour of Spring (1986)
Spirit of Eden (1988)
Laughing Stock (1991)
Notable covers
In 2003, No Doubt released a cover version of "It's My Life" which became a major international hit, reaching number 20 in the UK charts in December 2003 and number 10 on the US Billboard charts in January 2004.
References
External links
1981 establishments in England
1991 disestablishments in England
English art rock groups
English post-rock groups
Musical groups from London
Musical groups established in 1981
Musical groups disestablished in 1991
British synth-pop new wave groups
English new wave musical groups
English synth-pop groups
|
[
0.3041514456272125,
0.07544924318790436,
0.1379130780696869,
0.07933666557073593,
-0.34319213032722473,
0.4335448443889618,
0.14019711315631866,
0.21928264200687408,
-0.16455981135368347,
-0.08324334025382996,
0.010186765342950821,
1.1392359733581543,
-0.5152292251586914,
-0.36629748344421387,
-0.44287097454071045,
-0.5249475240707397,
0.052155036479234695,
-0.23394101858139038,
-0.29123637080192566,
-0.26784202456474304,
0.4609585702419281,
0.07666140794754028,
0.07906994968652725,
-0.003268404630944133,
0.03600919991731644,
0.36343252658843994,
-0.20821404457092285,
0.19036772847175598,
0.08740641176700592,
-0.2538045048713684,
0.15041813254356384,
0.29091888666152954,
0.6913634538650513,
-0.2611314356327057,
0.255510151386261,
0.42497971653938293,
0.043621767312288284,
0.29812493920326233,
-0.27218472957611084,
0.03260455280542374,
-0.13133575022220612,
-0.0954151526093483,
0.3250947594642639,
0.4930175840854645,
-0.40645337104797363,
-0.10963679105043411,
-0.8274702429771423,
0.3562464118003845,
-1.1957743167877197,
-0.28526046872138977,
-0.10967406630516052,
0.48665472865104675,
0.47470083832740784,
0.8160290718078613,
0.22586841881275177,
-0.33420777320861816,
0.07724609971046448,
-0.5365384817123413,
-0.08326591551303864,
-0.052514731884002686,
-0.2473844587802887,
0.11283663660287857,
0.46451953053474426,
-0.5549111366271973,
0.1269715428352356,
-0.045983701944351196,
-0.12264996021986008,
0.13532939553260803,
-0.16322572529315948,
-0.2474043220281601,
0.12993645668029785,
-0.25878629088401794,
-0.40977612137794495,
0.3886660635471344,
0.31269240379333496,
0.2431773692369461,
0.6188719868659973,
-0.196798637509346,
0.09651978313922882,
0.3035952150821686,
-0.23747561872005463,
0.321791410446167,
0.6960973739624023,
0.4744560122489929,
0.17573332786560059,
-0.5335618257522583,
-0.22802415490150452,
0.4963928163051605,
-0.53132563829422,
0.1408993899822235,
-0.6601654887199402,
-0.37872183322906494,
-0.06464994698762894,
0.01808503083884716,
-0.21080012619495392,
-0.03312181308865547,
0.2972477674484253,
0.016900181770324707,
0.6956073641777039,
-0.37625399231910706,
-0.08129645884037018,
0.026642579585313797,
0.4581385850906372,
0.05408160015940666,
-0.9640608429908752,
0.09397143125534058,
-0.13861775398254395,
-0.661807656288147,
-0.5563047528266907,
0.2669115960597992,
-0.2963305413722992,
-0.018014585599303246,
0.412614643573761,
-0.08180440217256546,
0.1094408854842186,
0.339625746011734,
-0.04829656705260277,
-0.34110352396965027,
-0.7162478566169739,
0.22338281571865082,
-0.7271161675453186,
0.5146121382713318,
0.18601010739803314,
0.38667774200439453,
-0.361542284488678,
0.11999409645795822,
0.3706532418727875,
0.6026001572608948,
-0.35459402203559875,
0.14559106528759003,
0.20068103075027466,
0.7714717388153076,
0.2538169026374817,
0.03229806572198868,
0.29815977811813354,
-0.33887001872062683,
0.5284044146537781,
0.14028945565223694,
-0.18297059834003448,
0.49486076831817627,
0.32446789741516113,
0.22036322951316833,
-0.1878642439842224,
-0.4168316423892975,
0.09734338521957397,
0.04293941706418991,
-0.8124052286148071,
-0.412623792886734,
-0.1707022339105606,
-0.016220012679696083,
0.23786839842796326,
-0.37456491589546204,
0.3848937749862671,
-0.5999163389205933,
-0.07238883525133133,
0.15981705486774445,
-0.02964741177856922,
-0.32263147830963135,
-0.047827206552028656,
-0.11652640998363495,
-0.4001058042049408,
0.15970149636268616,
-0.08456341177225113,
0.200179785490036,
0.35904228687286377,
-0.3052164316177368,
-0.2170380800962448,
-0.39250648021698,
0.2735253870487213,
0.1704867035150528,
-0.4428650140762329,
-0.08268251270055771,
0.11231502145528793,
0.05196096748113632,
0.1349961757659912,
-0.053056348115205765,
0.8963114023208618,
0.10376463085412979,
0.2720741331577301,
-0.20162639021873474,
-0.5424506664276123,
-0.17384657263755798,
0.18455907702445984,
-0.33429262042045593,
-0.1420855075120926,
0.14460082352161407,
0.35064584016799927,
0.04981577768921852,
0.4176138937473297,
-0.09384819865226746,
-0.2906762361526489,
-0.5104789733886719,
0.8416658639907837,
-0.1429411768913269,
0.720675528049469,
0.18801546096801758,
-0.17906492948532104,
0.3724035620689392,
0.4798583388328552,
0.70616215467453,
0.5101306438446045,
-0.20821036398410797,
0.5488564968109131,
-0.29670053720474243,
-0.3907771706581116,
0.09200062602758408,
0.3141968250274658,
-0.1450919657945633,
-0.11924723535776138,
0.2792743444442749,
-0.5453968048095703,
-0.6117819547653198,
0.09620629996061325,
0.11371556669473648,
-0.5173213481903076,
-0.5180302858352661,
0.001082460512407124,
0.32319527864456177,
0.01981154829263687,
-0.4261949956417084,
0.9405649304389954,
0.5132967829704285,
-0.04269140586256981,
0.4739235043525696,
0.2608382999897003,
1.5390119552612305,
0.622258722782135,
0.456495076417923,
0.27198922634124756,
-0.12971842288970947,
0.028063973411917686,
0.5985108613967896,
-0.12065381556749344,
-0.5070607662200928,
0.12247149646282196,
0.38671645522117615,
0.23927955329418182,
-0.49832162261009216,
-0.29313021898269653,
-0.3767949044704437,
0.4535055458545685,
-0.7434110641479492,
-0.4541524052619934,
-0.27449649572372437,
0.6990606188774109,
-0.03480471298098564,
0.2916603684425354,
-0.11106710880994797,
-0.20822812616825104,
0.539405107498169,
0.06291604042053223,
0.6165562272071838,
0.42093637585639954,
-0.1596618890762329,
-0.24366529285907745,
0.4022699296474457,
0.2057606279850006,
-0.17384935915470123,
0.7446456551551819,
0.4845438003540039,
-0.5054030418395996,
0.1055976152420044,
0.16384731233119965,
-0.012811046093702316,
-0.6398645043373108,
-0.8389009237289429,
0.20694176852703094,
-0.34553056955337524,
0.32411372661590576,
-0.4593008756637573,
0.2779976427555084,
0.15278607606887817,
0.06453008204698563,
0.5701539516448975,
-0.17948685586452484,
-0.5298299193382263,
-0.30791932344436646,
-0.356229692697525,
0.17510753870010376,
-1.5129414796829224,
0.14815686643123627,
0.6109639406204224,
0.2066376656293869,
-0.2110053300857544,
-0.18678836524486542,
0.31206971406936646,
-0.12212257832288742,
-0.2508784532546997,
0.2971811294555664,
-0.012435877695679665,
-0.30546170473098755,
0.0012074123369529843,
-0.3808808922767639,
0.44368451833724976,
0.6245487332344055,
0.09825494885444641,
0.21099652349948883,
-0.2599133253097534,
-0.29764798283576965,
0.24194881319999695,
0.1344432532787323,
0.9064468741416931,
-0.3786993622779846,
-0.43026450276374817,
0.2588024437427521,
-0.21877770125865936,
-0.2785887122154236,
-0.823885977268219,
-5.825909614562988,
0.35679206252098083,
0.47548893094062805,
-0.49275025725364685,
0.6116905808448792,
0.2718750238418579,
0.2738105058670044,
-1.0550942420959473,
-0.2795780301094055,
0.283221036195755,
-0.5037708878517151,
0.3553440570831299,
-0.3019624650478363,
0.29556331038475037,
0.6914911866188049,
-0.25103461742401123,
-0.0575563907623291,
-0.8066023588180542,
0.5995089411735535,
0.615398108959198,
-0.14279219508171082,
0.2517961263656616,
0.4396968483924866,
0.2301918864250183,
-0.555830180644989,
0.5585959553718567,
0.4403633773326874,
0.30792075395584106,
-0.22994552552700043,
-0.6852825284004211,
-0.05056852474808693,
0.21993981301784515,
0.0847562700510025,
-0.20277370512485504,
-0.5033504962921143,
0.059012770652770996,
0.49716153740882874,
0.2250923365354538,
0.17307952046394348,
-0.26549166440963745,
-0.08500085771083832,
0.5841061472892761,
0.58061683177948,
-0.5582321286201477,
0.2680508494377136,
0.3393334746360779,
-0.18809467554092407,
-0.8270436525344849,
-0.8032864928245544,
0.7451037764549255,
0.32333680987358093,
-0.10714749246835709,
0.47120150923728943,
-0.15770037472248077,
-0.005774722434580326,
-0.026774538680911064,
0.42113688588142395,
0.3434008061885834,
-0.3038758337497711,
0.34646108746528625,
0.2783378064632416,
-0.11343485862016678,
-0.2837805151939392,
-0.6460798382759094,
0.11362498998641968,
-0.27277693152427673,
0.0700862854719162,
0.7152284979820251,
0.7536293268203735,
0.3265335261821747,
0.03322282060980797,
0.15661533176898956,
0.26343756914138794,
-1.189462661743164,
-0.07825502008199692,
-0.13034316897392273,
0.14527490735054016,
-0.004080887418240309,
-0.23465904593467712,
0.6604713201522827,
0.06609664112329483,
0.021152149885892868,
-0.08732274919748306,
-0.1290230005979538,
-0.3101482391357422,
-0.7557160258293152,
-0.14644640684127808,
0.3563573360443115,
-0.47448381781578064,
-0.2340523898601532,
-0.18287856876850128,
-0.5997856855392456,
-0.3324221670627594,
-0.041110724210739136,
0.4554898738861084,
0.26844051480293274,
0.15651646256446838,
0.3119988739490509,
0.27904579043388367,
-0.35864827036857605,
0.4986267387866974,
-0.11899872869253159,
-0.1766490638256073,
-0.9070525765419006,
-0.3455393314361572,
-0.295342355966568,
-0.4231351613998413,
0.03526650369167328,
-0.08200808614492416,
0.07828222215175629,
0.09501031786203384,
0.10296420007944107,
-0.45858532190322876,
-0.23323442041873932,
0.1629280149936676,
0.14685727655887604,
-0.22108609974384308,
0.02026437781751156,
0.11379210650920868,
-0.05681443214416504,
0.0926075279712677,
0.3687661588191986,
0.17165648937225342,
-0.051062215119600296,
-0.43137937784194946,
-0.16448760032653809,
-0.5386994481086731,
0.3240393102169037,
-0.22769524157047272,
0.5301177501678467,
0.1440383344888687,
-0.03197583183646202,
0.45852333307266235,
0.2191314697265625,
0.2919718623161316,
-0.45005351305007935,
-0.6912744045257568,
0.639397144317627,
-0.04277099668979645,
0.29949480295181274,
0.1590144783258438,
-0.5724196434020996,
0.08366282284259796,
0.24868237972259521,
0.901225745677948,
0.02864249050617218,
-0.7587360143661499,
0.1916116178035736,
-0.23194998502731323,
0.15004029870033264,
0.01455510314553976,
-0.5749991536140442,
0.6683107614517212,
-0.5363004207611084,
0.34795042872428894,
0.10906757414340973,
-0.08082202076911926,
-0.04388668015599251,
-0.09352792799472809,
-0.6060344576835632,
0.14758135378360748,
-0.2579418122768402,
-0.6632125377655029,
-0.38553184270858765,
0.2534037232398987,
-0.02009347639977932,
-0.21348583698272705,
-0.6104385256767273,
-0.16729635000228882,
-0.4538416564464569,
-0.22238190472126007,
-0.5362071990966797,
-0.3111936151981354,
0.04239879921078682,
0.7488558888435364,
0.321129709482193,
0.10143706202507019,
-0.35947245359420776,
-0.0013626801082864404,
0.21339918673038483,
-0.3186657428741455,
0.1919824331998825,
-0.2930128574371338,
0.07240549474954605,
0.920517086982727,
-0.2991563379764557,
-0.7201672196388245,
-0.1612110286951065,
-0.0950048416852951,
-0.043058592826128006,
-0.327803373336792,
-0.043832339346408844,
0.12155255675315857,
0.7532547116279602,
-0.10564885288476944,
-0.49337175488471985,
0.7517150044441223,
-0.24050337076187134,
-0.27344706654548645,
-0.6347847580909729,
0.43267306685447693,
-0.3133380711078644,
-0.01826273277401924,
0.37541210651397705,
0.7218363881111145,
-0.42630472779273987,
0.3132072687149048,
-0.3008185625076294,
-0.5277082324028015,
0.33953070640563965,
-0.1095522940158844,
-0.3897746205329895,
-0.09398374706506729,
-0.3086594343185425,
-0.48833078145980835,
0.018940234556794167,
-0.14007054269313812,
-0.5630449652671814,
-0.2882491946220398,
-0.40632686018943787,
-0.008216476067900658,
-0.01732986979186535,
-0.42231929302215576,
0.11824028193950653,
-0.49680349230766296,
0.30952808260917664,
0.134601429104805,
0.057859256863594055,
0.7822100520133972,
-0.23584692180156708,
-0.23206448554992676,
0.10674624145030975,
0.0029621960129588842,
0.66874098777771,
-0.1884980946779251,
-0.22040815651416779,
-0.4598507583141327,
0.5705448389053345,
0.5153718590736389,
0.1367587447166443,
0.5903801918029785,
0.8076492547988892,
-0.039824627339839935,
-0.5473758578300476,
-0.4002121686935425,
0.3151151239871979,
0.9034959673881531,
0.05564920976758003,
0.022181948646903038,
0.1012953445315361,
0.5813702940940857,
-0.1525115966796875,
-0.26071664690971375,
-0.015489350073039532,
0.373012900352478,
-0.3687282204627991,
-0.4556531608104706,
-0.6654013395309448,
-0.0016937912441790104,
-0.0852777287364006,
0.22115778923034668,
-0.23292694985866547,
-0.20245195925235748,
0.2473340481519699,
0.09822799265384674,
0.07485359907150269,
0.0875275731086731,
-0.06886576116085052,
-0.30265012383461,
-0.6351190209388733,
-0.4871516823768616,
0.06356988847255707,
-0.45420289039611816,
0.07400082796812057,
-0.11106210201978683,
-0.3654341399669647,
-0.14193744957447052,
-0.8811306953430176,
0.17578035593032837,
0.2281678020954132,
-0.25307902693748474,
0.2140815407037735,
-0.0920964702963829,
-0.4912526309490204,
0.6355181932449341,
-0.23328055441379547,
-0.24696660041809082,
-0.1660803258419037,
0.18479396402835846,
0.22107821702957153,
-0.28850680589675903,
0.3063870072364807,
-0.17462913691997528,
0.5732949376106262,
-0.13458654284477234,
0.07002655416727066,
0.135291188955307,
0.292501300573349,
-0.3550487756729126,
-0.04844305291771889,
-0.11306538432836533,
0.21126754581928253,
0.4913945496082306,
0.18200087547302246,
0.20064188539981842,
0.013314636424183846,
-0.341530442237854,
-0.9349115490913391,
0.009869824163615704,
0.07122483104467392,
-0.2824360728263855,
0.1786043345928192,
-0.12339860200881958,
0.46045982837677,
-0.8191969394683838,
-0.21720077097415924,
0.9909133315086365,
-0.6761552691459656,
0.19446417689323425,
0.08465253561735153,
0.25685030221939087,
-0.024818923324346542,
0.1397259682416916,
0.39440932869911194,
0.1154717355966568,
0.29213106632232666,
0.3588545620441437,
-0.16288785636425018,
0.2722023129463196,
0.12036816030740738,
0.10178117454051971,
0.7039724588394165,
0.17246182262897491,
-0.027536259964108467,
-0.06707777827978134,
-0.5955637097358704,
-0.06759484857320786,
-0.01825709082186222,
0.024775629863142967,
0.4065162241458893,
-0.4699269235134125,
0.3489542007446289,
0.009361819364130497,
-0.2159871608018875,
-0.16803574562072754,
0.1375751495361328,
0.060681942850351334,
-0.0896083191037178,
0.4827439785003662,
0.476947158575058,
0.4177442789077759,
0.2699371874332428,
-0.35672488808631897,
-0.5898405909538269,
0.33834555745124817,
-0.1676519513130188,
-0.09312210232019424,
-0.4005710780620575,
-0.06603829562664032,
0.1374000906944275,
0.3117680251598358,
0.22821244597434998,
0.31730905175209045,
0.6536697149276733,
-0.653489887714386,
0.3004964292049408,
0.09157624840736389,
-0.16036364436149597,
0.028206951916217804,
0.5710424780845642,
-0.07155686616897583,
0.525841236114502,
-0.30077865719795227,
0.2275168001651764,
-0.387300968170166,
-0.7259767651557922,
0.6077627539634705,
0.4164291322231293,
-0.30395859479904175,
0.07314584404230118,
0.18024791777133942,
-0.31648996472358704,
-0.6705904006958008,
-0.5506967306137085,
0.28380537033081055,
-0.19488516449928284,
-0.5588800311088562,
0.10443013906478882,
-0.575607419013977,
-0.0151103800162673,
-0.0040054963901638985,
-0.901387631893158,
-0.4437456429004669,
0.1210436075925827,
-0.7178736329078674,
0.035022836178541183,
0.25565144419670105,
0.6788079738616943,
0.3643811345100403,
0.2017745077610016,
0.2731352746486664,
0.24737393856048584,
-0.05410220846533775,
0.1366334706544876,
0.019863547757267952,
0.12386170774698257,
-0.9973087310791016,
-0.70380038022995,
-0.7794225811958313,
0.9757021069526672,
0.17657189071178436,
-0.07023980468511581,
-0.46485885977745056,
0.09819328039884567,
-0.12499906867742538,
0.05148172378540039,
0.7117652297019958,
0.16276970505714417,
-0.37402570247650146,
0.32326725125312805,
-0.019152970984578133,
0.32742899656295776,
0.62689608335495,
0.08666910976171494,
0.3951649069786072,
0.3372793197631836,
0.24001018702983856,
-0.2720834016799927,
-0.6052817702293396,
0.10375145077705383,
-0.07455349713563919,
-0.15100409090518951,
-0.3892025351524353,
-0.30591920018196106,
0.002079840749502182,
-0.26194334030151367,
0.28283408284187317,
0.5224860310554504,
0.27466481924057007,
-0.12716832756996155,
0.36171236634254456,
-0.031530238687992096,
-0.10594377666711807,
-0.1414254903793335,
-0.1449509859085083,
0.12211557477712631,
0.44095832109451294,
-0.6503838300704956,
-0.9335172772407532,
0.3412327766418457,
0.1444326490163803,
-0.8088881969451904,
-0.059037946164608,
-0.5436927080154419,
-0.08813741058111191,
0.035221654921770096,
-0.017268333584070206,
0.023344021290540695,
-0.03887363523244858,
-0.8625916838645935
] |
205951
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20Manning
|
Laurence Manning
|
Laurence Manning (July 20, 1899 – April 10, 1972) was a Canadian science fiction author.
Manning was born in Saint John, New Brunswick, and attended Kings College in Halifax, Nova Scotia. As did his two older brothers, Manning signed up to participate in WWI, but he was too young - when the War ended, he was still in training, and never saw action overseas. He signed his attestation papers for the RFC on 14 May 1918.
In the 1920s he moved to the United States, living initially with his great uncle, Craven Langstroth Betts, the noted Canadian poet. In the US, he lived in Manhattan before moving to Staten Island in 1928, where he began writing short stories for several pulp science fiction magazines. After teaming with SF writer Fletcher Pratt in "City of the Living Dead" in the May, 1930 issue of Science Wonder Stories, he wrote "The Voyage of the 'Asteroid'", which appeared in the Summer 1932 issue of Wonder Stories Quarterly, and The Man Who Awoke, a series of stories that was later published as a novel. He also translated at least one German-language story for Hugo Gernsback's magazines (this may have been the translation of his popular story "The Man Who Awoke," published as Der Jahrtausendschläfer (The Millennium Sleeper). However, In the July, August and September, 1932 issues of Wonder Stories appeared "In the Year 8000", by Otfrid von Hanstein, translated by Manning, teamed with Konrad Schmidt.
Manning lost his two older brothers at very early ages: the oldest Frederick Charles died of wounds suffered fighting for the 85th Battalion, C.E.F in the battle of Vimy Ridge, France, on April 9, 1917; James Harold suffered wounds in the same battle but survived the war. He died working as an engineer for the Standard Oil Company in Maturin, Venezuela, in October, 1924 at age 27. It is possible the loss of these brothers and the horrors of war the country had just endured caused Laurence to become interested in the idea of Utopia. In the early 1930s he had over 500 books in his collection on the subject. It was in hopes of obtaining more book titles on Utopia that Manning contacted Wonder Stories magazine. He hoped to talk with Hugo Gernsback, but instead got David Lasser. They formed a strong friendship that lasted until Manning's death in 1972. They ate lunch together frequently, and it was at one of them that Manning mentioned having an idea for a story. After some discussion, Lasser suggested that Manning contact Fletcher Pratt, who could help with the story. This resulted in Manning's first published science fiction work, co-written by Pratt, entitled City of the Living Dead, which appeared in the May, 1930 Science Wonder Stories.
Manning gave up his successful writing career at the end of 1935 (with the exceptions of "Coal Thief" in the April, 1936 The Planeteer and "Expedition to Pluto" in the winter, 1939 Planet Stories), and devoted his time to Kelsey mail order nursery business he owned and managed. Apart from several short stories in the 1950s (Good-Bye, Ilha!, Mr. Mottle Goes Pouf, Men on Mars), he never wrote any more science fiction. However, he was the author of a successful book on gardening, The How and Why of Better Gardening (1951), Van Nostrand & Co, used for more than 40 years as a textbook by the Garden Clubs of America.
He was a founding member of the American Interplanetary Society, serving as both president and editor of the Society's publication, Astronautics. For his involvement in the Society, Manning is recognized by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum as an early rocketry pioneer. It was during his tenure as president of the society that the organization's name was changed to the American Rocket Society. Manning retired from the Society in the mid-1940s, stating that rocketry had 'grown up', and was no longer a place for amateurs. In 1960, Manning was awarded a fellowship in the Society, presumably given at the Society's annual meeting.
Manning married Edith Mary Finette Burrows in 1928 and had three children: Helen Louise, Dorothy, and James Edward. His daughter Dorothy has mentioned that Laurence was not only a skilled writer, but a pianist as well. He composed his own pieces, primarily as Music Director of his church, though only one, Peter Pan, was ever published. He also smoked pipe. He lived in Highlands, New Jersey, from 1951 until his death in 1972.
Works
Native Flowering Evergreens (American Forests and Forest Life, July 1925)
Fuzzy (American Forests and Forest Life, October 1925)
Elaiah, an Easter Story of the Trees (American Forests and Forest Life, April 1927)
Several articles in Better Homes and Gardens (Need Volume/Issue Numbers)
City of the Living Dead co-authored with Fletcher Pratt (May, 1930 Science Wonder Stories), reprinted by Gernsback Publications in 1939
The Voyage of the Asteroid (Summer, 1932 Wonder Stories Quarterly)
In The Year 8000 (by Otfrid von Hanstein, translated by Laurence Manning and Konrad Schmidt)(Jul, Aug, Sep, 1932 Wonder Stories)
Wreck of the Asteroid, Part One (Dec, 1932 Wonder Stories)
Wreck of the Asteroid, Part Two (January, 1933 Wonder Stories)
Wreck of the Asteroid, Part Three (February, 1934 Wonder Stories)
The Man Who Awoke, Part 1 (March, 1933 Wonder Stories)
The Man Who Awoke, Part 2 (April, 1933 Wonder Stories)
The Man Who Awoke, Part 3 (May, 1933 Wonder Stories)
The Man Who Awoke, Part 4 (June, 1933 Wonder Stories)
The Man Who Awoke, Part 5 (August, 1933 Wonder Stories)
The Call of the Mech Men (November, 1933 Wonder Stories)
Caverns of Horror (March, 1934 Wonder Stories)
Voice of Atlantis (July, 1934 Wonder Stories)
Interview with Laurence Manning (July, 1934 Fantasy Magazine)
The Living Galaxy (September, 1934 Wonder Stories)
The Moth Message (December, 1934 Wonder Stories)
The Prophetic Voice (April, 1935 Wonder Stories)
Seeds From Space (June, 1935 Wonder Stories)
World of the Mist, Part 1 (September, 1935 Wonder Stories)
World of the Mist, Part 2 (October, 1935 Wonder Stories)
Coal Thief (April, 1936 The Planeteer)
Expedition to Pluto (Winter, 1939 Planet Stories (With Fletcher Pratt))
References
"Laurence (Edward) Manning" Contemporary Authors Online, Gale, 2004.
Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 251: Canadian Fantasy and Science-Fiction Writers. A Bruccoli Clark Layman Book. Edited by Douglas Ivison, University of Western Ontario.
Oral history passed down by Helen Louise Manning Tomlinson and Dorothy C. Manning Sachs.
External links
1899 births
1972 deaths
Canadian science fiction writers
Writers from Saint John, New Brunswick
|
[
-0.24949252605438232,
0.3998964726924896,
-0.9679415822029114,
0.37736645340919495,
0.13496153056621552,
0.8153688907623291,
0.23159417510032654,
0.3495223820209503,
-0.023959945887327194,
-0.5016893744468689,
-0.13329295814037323,
0.23184649646282196,
0.32840827107429504,
0.1446087509393692,
0.10688423365354538,
0.18279898166656494,
-0.461745023727417,
-0.4102714955806732,
-0.4150257706642151,
-0.28870558738708496,
-0.6379591822624207,
-0.6487568616867065,
0.4985318183898926,
0.39121484756469727,
-0.5234545469284058,
0.39717575907707214,
0.09174339473247528,
-0.3391379117965698,
0.2267008274793625,
0.35539481043815613,
-0.3708409368991852,
0.4113942086696625,
0.4724768400192261,
-0.15553617477416992,
-0.7753450274467468,
-0.27207058668136597,
-0.5924979448318481,
-0.13447479903697968,
-0.09102919697761536,
0.16233935952186584,
-0.12228567153215408,
0.39775294065475464,
0.29794806241989136,
-0.12812413275241852,
0.20724427700042725,
-0.2536904215812683,
-2.2411203384399414,
-0.2938971221446991,
-0.8518969416618347,
-0.2900685966014862,
-0.10317303985357285,
0.2530089020729065,
0.7478638887405396,
0.0414094552397728,
0.38123735785484314,
0.2915647625923157,
-0.014068039134144783,
0.1783774346113205,
-0.4384172558784485,
-0.36223533749580383,
0.33106523752212524,
-0.2649907171726227,
0.8482506275177002,
0.08249054849147797,
0.29915979504585266,
0.06756008416414261,
-0.005104567855596542,
-0.12297967821359634,
0.1180221438407898,
0.34555307030677795,
-0.10398976504802704,
0.49578696489334106,
0.8404136896133423,
-0.22193092107772827,
0.33865058422088623,
-0.04268753156065941,
0.5434781908988953,
0.06935149431228638,
0.04344680905342102,
0.22082333266735077,
-0.5182154178619385,
-0.18909220397472382,
0.28130656480789185,
0.47091737389564514,
-0.1573973447084427,
-0.09907975047826767,
-0.6196746826171875,
0.5190484523773193,
-0.2582605481147766,
-0.22881343960762024,
-0.8371370434761047,
-0.5349258184432983,
-0.16302642226219177,
0.1569211632013321,
0.06815622746944427,
-0.17864681780338287,
-0.12549147009849548,
0.40941089391708374,
-0.034566741436719894,
-0.24455581605434418,
-0.16385067999362946,
-0.17009910941123962,
0.5933172106742859,
-0.39263221621513367,
-0.7532661557197571,
-0.06736688315868378,
0.0018585944781079888,
-0.6393311619758606,
0.24123339354991913,
-0.7490463852882385,
-0.2713845670223236,
0.380452036857605,
-0.13959290087223053,
0.16405810415744781,
0.19336095452308655,
0.5695440769195557,
-0.2454753816127777,
-0.30734744668006897,
-0.6801915168762207,
0.1650957614183426,
-0.6133764982223511,
-0.20206591486930847,
-0.2589476406574249,
-0.27523714303970337,
-0.7943956851959229,
-0.15811419486999512,
-0.06978333741426468,
-0.15850596129894257,
-0.1950692981481552,
0.1744084507226944,
0.5203129053115845,
0.7821781039237976,
-0.9103111624717712,
-0.26136714220046997,
-0.3351539373397827,
0.347320556640625,
-0.1276441216468811,
-0.07837986201047897,
-0.4144538342952728,
0.3145821988582611,
-0.6632936596870422,
-0.10103438794612885,
-1.302506446838379,
-0.20309273898601532,
0.17229647934436798,
0.22743374109268188,
0.0493757501244545,
-0.2873370051383972,
0.07787838578224182,
-0.40911832451820374,
-0.22186332941055298,
-0.09666962921619415,
0.092675119638443,
-0.5809628963470459,
-0.1373504400253296,
0.2436029464006424,
0.4305582046508789,
0.9163376092910767,
0.30330055952072144,
-0.1382160782814026,
0.6194429993629456,
0.07578089833259583,
-0.3954663872718811,
0.056194860488176346,
0.5453053116798401,
-0.055312205106019974,
0.048770830035209656,
-0.6677869558334351,
0.11158327758312225,
0.18682779371738434,
0.0430605486035347,
0.08808917552232742,
0.24536284804344177,
-0.17282001674175262,
0.012420919723808765,
0.13354657590389252,
0.7757531404495239,
0.8684588074684143,
-0.002008629497140646,
-0.38706034421920776,
-0.6635709404945374,
-0.23829475045204163,
0.040220506489276886,
-0.21083882451057434,
0.21304067969322205,
0.4691564440727234,
0.22093833982944489,
-0.24750018119812012,
0.9084791541099548,
0.4635497033596039,
-0.32242539525032043,
-0.3717379868030548,
0.1369544267654419,
-0.5224480032920837,
1.2415765523910522,
-0.020603274926543236,
-0.4297221899032593,
1.130071759223938,
-0.06638827174901962,
0.37535855174064636,
-0.08866846561431885,
-0.2840006947517395,
0.38461488485336304,
-0.17727434635162354,
-0.1843114197254181,
1.2980870008468628,
0.19760438799858093,
0.3912770450115204,
0.10845795273780823,
0.8840687870979309,
0.286464661359787,
-0.4280429780483246,
0.10528028011322021,
0.9106700420379639,
-0.34713515639305115,
-0.866187334060669,
-0.28410476446151733,
0.0353984571993351,
0.3428923189640045,
-0.3988615572452545,
0.6666028499603271,
0.34898829460144043,
0.18364767730236053,
0.6062663793563843,
-0.03480938449501991,
0.7569902539253235,
0.26529619097709656,
-0.06521233916282654,
0.5218639969825745,
-0.6818201541900635,
-0.22976438701152802,
0.6681037545204163,
0.3436085879802704,
-0.4181545078754425,
0.29599055647850037,
0.5088400840759277,
0.4539640545845032,
-0.17774242162704468,
0.0198659710586071,
-0.06516381353139877,
0.014996466226875782,
-0.022047577425837517,
-0.8159245848655701,
0.3629955053329468,
0.3460901379585266,
0.12772013247013092,
0.16291643679141998,
-0.013456640765070915,
0.4485495984554291,
-0.06341247260570526,
0.5309039950370789,
0.7528253197669983,
0.3240390419960022,
0.5974147319793701,
0.02474266104400158,
-0.06997383385896683,
0.05540444701910019,
-0.08338740468025208,
0.9230218529701233,
0.19357261061668396,
-0.13447442650794983,
0.08526284992694855,
-0.26735779643058777,
0.23352283239364624,
0.10079542547464371,
-0.4960634708404541,
0.011661014519631863,
-0.635647177696228,
-0.31123656034469604,
0.33876630663871765,
0.1462009698152542,
-0.43438881635665894,
-0.352132648229599,
-1.1044725179672241,
0.5222405791282654,
0.1288526952266693,
-0.44925087690353394,
0.27030616998672485,
-0.6730362176895142,
-0.6087727546691895,
0.41767796874046326,
1.0502822399139404,
-0.2488299161195755,
0.18730033934116364,
0.4378019869327545,
0.0403643362224102,
-0.09339497983455658,
-0.3902096152305603,
0.27494528889656067,
-0.2661953270435333,
-0.5978438854217529,
0.42501094937324524,
-0.3560006320476532,
0.18205523490905762,
-0.12044776231050491,
0.4253154695034027,
-0.4574957489967346,
-0.46022313833236694,
0.009777807630598545,
0.0827992632985115,
0.16489873826503754,
0.2152874916791916,
0.1901288628578186,
0.14727336168289185,
0.5649079084396362,
0.4930044710636139,
-0.17099282145500183,
-0.4356859624385834,
-5.432692527770996,
0.0025372495874762535,
-0.11916108429431915,
-0.548342227935791,
0.005037212278693914,
0.44360587000846863,
0.379574179649353,
0.14674389362335205,
0.31695985794067383,
-0.6161336898803711,
-0.14608995616436005,
-0.2655123174190521,
-0.11035706102848053,
0.5962889194488525,
1.0582786798477173,
0.6624294519424438,
0.42132797837257385,
-0.297797828912735,
0.0383780375123024,
0.34686407446861267,
0.2842520475387573,
-0.17963439226150513,
-0.5398446917533875,
0.22166050970554352,
0.23853044211864471,
0.24773059785366058,
-0.02063596248626709,
0.33304136991500854,
-0.5058161020278931,
-0.18472708761692047,
0.11447138339281082,
-0.1698611080646515,
-0.22414809465408325,
-0.1327955722808838,
-0.07451274991035461,
-0.47966617345809937,
0.5818897485733032,
0.6764237880706787,
0.4638345539569855,
0.26924246549606323,
-0.173386812210083,
0.087760329246521,
-0.7070832848548889,
-0.3503425121307373,
-0.3204154968261719,
0.03141568601131439,
-0.5107640027999878,
0.4469250440597534,
0.14103245735168457,
0.4550286531448364,
0.2396567463874817,
0.3297564387321472,
0.38533157110214233,
0.21198156476020813,
-0.0037609939463436604,
-0.03926876187324524,
0.1908574104309082,
-0.17622746527194977,
-1.1127500534057617,
0.29422521591186523,
0.1822231411933899,
-0.4261889159679413,
0.09489136189222336,
-0.43676072359085083,
-0.6144829392433167,
-0.4708828628063202,
-0.20993967354297638,
0.3360215425491333,
0.14771179854869843,
-0.649216890335083,
-0.2003433108329773,
0.6351075768470764,
0.254427045583725,
-1.4604679346084595,
0.01404274720698595,
-0.5108664631843567,
-0.4880148470401764,
0.30594709515571594,
-0.755755603313446,
-0.5778566002845764,
0.22752822935581207,
-0.2694752812385559,
-0.23226943612098694,
0.5045516490936279,
0.7950912714004517,
0.13121066987514496,
-0.45101794600486755,
0.6239879727363586,
-0.64378821849823,
-0.17807962000370026,
0.04111194238066673,
-0.049015868455171585,
0.38376617431640625,
0.30648577213287354,
0.33894839882850647,
-0.17053888738155365,
0.6396132111549377,
-0.18166594207286835,
0.44273343682289124,
-0.17230059206485748,
-0.6719393134117126,
0.014606312848627567,
0.27254942059516907,
-1.0510938167572021,
-0.4456091523170471,
0.00927209947258234,
0.0351421944797039,
0.0441814549267292,
0.6904106140136719,
0.056687407195568085,
-0.24179261922836304,
0.430504709482193,
-0.829978883266449,
-0.2310863733291626,
0.5017387270927429,
0.08607062697410583,
-0.11470820009708405,
0.23813897371292114,
0.2350112348794937,
0.2093304544687271,
-0.06953419744968414,
0.3585713803768158,
-0.11072289943695068,
-0.17836399376392365,
0.7262164354324341,
-0.09099624305963516,
-0.11457730084657669,
-0.42917877435684204,
-0.07308603823184967,
0.2941299378871918,
-0.193060964345932,
0.41174501180648804,
0.07159474492073059,
0.11820321530103683,
-0.1619507223367691,
-0.2875700294971466,
-0.5237643122673035,
-0.19721312820911407,
-0.12484382092952728,
0.08560996502637863,
0.06557873636484146,
0.09272338449954987,
0.29161569476127625,
-0.01541772298514843,
0.0817919448018074,
-0.14788223803043365,
0.24923057854175568,
0.30329856276512146,
0.42621010541915894,
0.4216558039188385,
-0.22086729109287262,
0.0956081673502922,
0.468050092458725,
-0.43842872977256775,
-0.2813185751438141,
0.25077393651008606,
-0.4045685827732086,
-0.06021576747298241,
-0.10282735526561737,
-0.2739861309528351,
0.2700924873352051,
-0.5021317601203918,
-1.0650655031204224,
0.0660996064543724,
-0.26159241795539856,
0.09182810038328171,
-0.4086305499076843,
-0.07544844597578049,
-0.5585213303565979,
0.5115039348602295,
0.13700337707996368,
-0.11824461072683334,
-0.32941633462905884,
0.6143726110458374,
0.3534165620803833,
-0.0556442067027092,
-0.10912220925092697,
-0.45802465081214905,
0.21570299565792084,
0.020865468308329582,
-0.12753510475158691,
0.15915122628211975,
-0.8861267566680908,
-0.2407408356666565,
0.6814391613006592,
-0.35547804832458496,
-0.34697237610816956,
-0.26643499732017517,
-0.01784776896238327,
-0.027625611051917076,
0.23005476593971252,
-0.11237131059169769,
0.2594752311706543,
0.9170515537261963,
-0.037808455526828766,
0.45103177428245544,
0.1440209597349167,
-0.6166484951972961,
-0.048064254224300385,
0.26076194643974304,
-0.0798959732055664,
-0.06911089271306992,
-0.08458326011896133,
-0.4029642343521118,
0.2921467125415802,
-0.9325246214866638,
-0.2566772401332855,
-0.5790718197822571,
0.12216412276029587,
0.9126148819923401,
-0.3617314398288727,
0.16522574424743652,
0.2203945368528366,
0.04564033821225166,
-0.3462308943271637,
0.1602751612663269,
0.241260826587677,
0.49881282448768616,
-0.4831516146659851,
-0.3742976784706116,
-0.5088449716567993,
0.09414153546094894,
-0.28953567147254944,
-0.19194954633712769,
-0.4669091999530792,
0.003658861154690385,
0.27585554122924805,
0.02772587165236473,
0.4212770462036133,
0.07819963991641998,
-0.10668645054101944,
-0.4223822355270386,
0.023555029183626175,
-0.3577260971069336,
0.34981194138526917,
-0.0064194342121481895,
0.3814592659473419,
0.24361971020698547,
-0.14306704699993134,
-0.1718616783618927,
0.5144977569580078,
0.8670688271522522,
0.5646759271621704,
-0.44353699684143066,
-0.16129711270332336,
-0.22686320543289185,
0.559455156326294,
-0.23004239797592163,
-0.46530818939208984,
-0.28235146403312683,
0.4664681851863861,
-0.6083573698997498,
-0.6387758255004883,
0.09012164175510406,
0.793808102607727,
-0.3918941020965576,
-0.2660216987133026,
0.3878503143787384,
0.01941310241818428,
-0.1319258213043213,
0.275129497051239,
0.1526641994714737,
-0.15067896246910095,
0.49427682161331177,
0.1360865980386734,
0.5054020881652832,
-0.21725380420684814,
0.2653603255748749,
0.02077752724289894,
-0.18044513463974,
-0.18866907060146332,
-0.1611916869878769,
-0.6098431348800659,
0.5711420774459839,
0.042351122945547104,
-0.08983969688415527,
0.3715464174747467,
-0.19313868880271912,
0.211726576089859,
-0.8179250359535217,
-0.057729851454496384,
0.2202649712562561,
0.39663639664649963,
-0.4182945787906647,
-0.30316808819770813,
-0.2826341390609741,
-0.08430175483226776,
0.0036746959667652845,
-0.15142910182476044,
0.09027329832315445,
-0.5131002068519592,
-0.01584360934793949,
-0.17316919565200806,
-0.14107155799865723,
-0.03608894348144531,
-0.3710993528366089,
-0.4273209869861603,
0.758579671382904,
-0.27679315209388733,
-0.018807457759976387,
-0.4491080939769745,
0.24216024577617645,
0.3502157926559448,
-0.1683589667081833,
0.7912939786911011,
-0.07676783949136734,
-0.3084986209869385,
-0.019129397347569466,
-0.6696162819862366,
0.4419601261615753,
0.7666239738464355,
-0.3355013430118561,
0.11365368962287903,
0.21350416541099548,
-0.6500827074050903,
-0.256290078163147,
0.20730547606945038,
-0.6501823663711548,
-0.22941109538078308,
0.021145999431610107,
0.3921901285648346,
0.5245954990386963,
0.30343469977378845,
-0.4099273979663849,
-0.1255529820919037,
0.4618516266345978,
0.04362691938877106,
-0.15711337327957153,
-0.2549850046634674,
0.041310738772153854,
0.26270216703414917,
-0.5201244950294495,
-0.2838938534259796,
0.5022987127304077,
-0.4425809383392334,
-0.2687760293483734,
0.2734437882900238,
-0.1310514211654663,
-0.0992189422249794,
0.3197241425514221,
-0.135009303689003,
0.923292875289917,
-0.19985368847846985,
0.25935783982276917,
-0.09409710764884949,
0.23160257935523987,
-0.06536556780338287,
0.8605653047561646,
-0.05984468758106232,
-0.18524399399757385,
0.5309547781944275,
0.14374065399169922,
0.14588099718093872,
-0.14387968182563782,
0.10624796897172928,
-0.12671983242034912,
0.42878586053848267,
-0.46965473890304565,
-0.11531638354063034,
-0.9508741497993469,
-0.5112794637680054,
-0.4654390215873718,
0.8088313341140747,
0.4020804762840271,
0.2735421061515808,
0.20145143568515778,
0.36410123109817505,
-0.7133263349533081,
0.20626284182071686,
0.21981379389762878,
0.15114735066890717,
-0.09144376218318939,
0.015570142306387424,
0.5979639291763306,
0.06417899578809738,
0.5293110013008118,
0.4864981174468994,
-0.1987096220254898,
-0.032259609550237656,
-0.17262251675128937,
-0.1829979419708252,
0.2310810536146164,
-0.11231344938278198,
0.053190119564533234,
0.4377788007259369,
-0.5985677242279053,
-0.030196022242307663,
0.42898833751678467,
0.058673158288002014,
-0.13346487283706665,
0.15547700226306915,
-0.7604264616966248,
-0.7409936785697937,
0.31498023867607117,
-0.44778743386268616,
0.22659029066562653,
-0.283672958612442,
0.7318662405014038,
0.2613792419433594,
0.32946857810020447,
-0.3039533495903015,
-0.10440274327993393,
0.2928026616573334,
0.0797048956155777,
0.024080220609903336,
0.21483184397220612,
0.2543783187866211,
0.06102118268609047,
-1.0960309505462646,
0.301931768655777,
0.016636719927191734,
0.7165388464927673,
-0.42527666687965393,
0.3143409788608551,
-0.5298048853874207,
-0.662530779838562,
0.11036918312311172,
0.21129223704338074,
-0.10498751699924469,
-0.10264578461647034,
0.06930064409971237,
0.16504301130771637,
0.16966836154460907,
-0.3398197889328003,
-0.2981910705566406,
0.24738718569278717,
-0.07691310346126556,
-0.2605229616165161,
0.1636832356452942,
0.1116095632314682,
0.026032349094748497,
-0.24065181612968445,
-0.6436892151832581,
0.2459089308977127,
-0.07953447103500366,
-0.14126116037368774,
0.9654684066772461,
0.6921796202659607,
0.3002983033657074,
-0.6348038911819458,
0.6945016980171204,
0.097808837890625,
-0.31914234161376953,
-0.09145916253328323,
-2.32620906829834,
-0.02337406948208809,
0.3845333755016327,
-0.46743184328079224,
0.06820186972618103,
0.5175732374191284,
-0.6477619409561157,
-0.29182225465774536,
0.12862218916416168,
-0.8011894822120667,
-0.024308836087584496,
0.22822540998458862,
0.1282976120710373,
0.0005533672519959509,
0.6900428533554077,
0.5586342811584473
] |
205952
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20Who%20Awoke
|
The Man Who Awoke
|
The Man Who Awoke is a science fiction novel by Canadian writer Laurence Manning. It was initially serialized in five parts during 1933 in Wonder Stories magazine. In 1975 it was published by Ballantine Books as one complete novel.
Norman Winters puts himself into suspended animation for 5,000 years at a time. The stories detail his ensuing adventures as he tries to make sense of the societies he encounters each time he wakes.
Plot summary
Part 1 of the series describes Norman Winters’ previous life and his process of suspended animation.
After the disappearance of Norman Winters, his son, Vincent, questions the servants working on his New York estate. After receiving a suspicious answer from the groundskeeper Carstairs, one of his father's most loyal workers, Vincent threatens to turn him in to the police. Preserving his freedom, Carstairs presents Vincent with a letter from his father detailing his whereabouts.
In the letter, Norman explains his collaborations with various scientists to determine how to build a chamber which will shield him from cosmic rays and a coma-inducing drug. Norman constructs an underground chamber with six-foot leaden walls impervious to the outside radiation's influence on his cells. Once in the chamber, Norman will use the sleep-drug to fall into a coma where he “shall not awake until [he is] again subjected to radiation,” which will be provided by an X-ray lamp (similar to what one finds next to any dentist's chair) set to power on after five thousand years. In hopes of awaking to a Utopian future, Norman encourages Vincent to live his life in the absence of his father.
Upon waking up, Norman discovers that he had lain dormant for five thousand years. Realizing the success of his time travelling system, Norman explores the futuristic world briefly, and then returns to suspended animation, planning to wake again after another 5,000 years. He repeats this several times, giving the reader a brief view of various social results.
5000 AD. Humanity staggers to save itself amid the world's littered, stagnant wreckage after what has become known as the great Age of Waste. There is a political rivalry between the younger generation opposing the older generation's proposed waste of resources that they (the younger generation) assert that they are entitled to.
10,000 AD. The world is dominated by the Brain – the immovable in purpose super computer that knows all, sees all, and feels nothing. Thanks to its cradle-to-grave supervision, human life is easy and comfortable, but what will happen when The Brain realizes people are superfluous?
15,000 AD. People can now program their choice of dreams and sleep their lives away. Winters awakes to find the sleeping outnumber the living. He cannot stop the implosion of civilization by himself.
20,000 AD. After an abused Age of Freedom came an Age of License. Genetic experiment heralded the terrifying Age of Anarchy. Each Individual had his own mobile "City" that provided for all his needs, resulting in a society where people had no need for each other and were incapable of cooperating, resulting in nearly all interpersonal encounters being small wars.
25,000 AD. Scientists discover the secret sought through the centuries – immortality. But is Mankind ready for it? Immortality is frightfully boring without a purpose. Humanity scatters to the far corners of the cosmos seeking knowledge and experience, leading to a quest toward "the meaning of it all."
The novel might be easily dismissed as standard pulp fare if it had not presaged concepts popularized decades later: the sexual revolution, green consumerism, strong AI, full-immersion virtual reality as a surgical procedure (like The Matrix), desktop molecular manufacturing, global warming, and stem cell therapies. Many of these have only appeared in most peoples' worldview in the 21st century.
Notes
References
External links
1933 Canadian novels
1933 science fiction novels
Canadian science fiction novels
Works originally published in Wonder Stories
Novels first published in serial form
Future history
|
[
-0.34321027994155884,
0.3145553469657898,
-0.5445314049720764,
-0.06753529608249664,
-0.23681999742984772,
0.526857316493988,
0.10501259565353394,
0.06809879839420319,
0.028367914259433746,
-0.7496161460876465,
-0.467562198638916,
0.36203375458717346,
-0.47433847188949585,
0.3425460755825043,
0.8636922240257263,
-0.025059213861823082,
-0.041600849479436874,
-0.3965086340904236,
-0.23467601835727692,
-0.592222273349762,
-0.14681312441825867,
-0.19914771616458893,
0.15570972859859467,
0.14117825031280518,
0.020059293136000633,
0.08628392219543457,
0.018394455313682556,
-0.6487874984741211,
-0.02960822917521,
-0.1478194296360016,
-0.4340284466743469,
0.24261616170406342,
-0.250173419713974,
-0.43451619148254395,
-0.27450093626976013,
0.13699087500572205,
-0.7279602289199829,
-0.49386635422706604,
-0.8310125470161438,
0.014081265777349472,
-0.2877212464809418,
0.20306779444217682,
0.9730458855628967,
0.609671413898468,
-0.44922998547554016,
-0.09819582104682922,
-1.3186863660812378,
-0.4486680328845978,
-0.9558268785476685,
-0.035486336797475815,
0.3461951017379761,
0.24348601698875427,
0.962058424949646,
-0.4914279282093048,
-0.01584136299788952,
0.6397705078125,
-0.4968108832836151,
0.3005663752555847,
0.10941746085882187,
-0.44409939646720886,
1.1664549112319946,
0.09373477846384048,
0.3422112464904785,
-0.08897870779037476,
0.006621161941438913,
1.0358833074569702,
0.01311577670276165,
0.17992176115512848,
0.5043379664421082,
0.3825138807296753,
-0.6237401366233826,
-0.10450487583875656,
0.15606775879859924,
0.42126789689064026,
-0.1868152916431427,
-0.20955884456634521,
0.7875558733940125,
-0.3435133397579193,
-0.1770772784948349,
0.11283042281866074,
-0.7364597320556641,
0.16820189356803894,
0.8305178880691528,
0.09624875336885452,
0.027103979140520096,
0.26334118843078613,
-0.5819039344787598,
0.4130469560623169,
0.25898391008377075,
0.6328054070472717,
-0.49291595816612244,
-0.7364746928215027,
-0.16039922833442688,
0.6235540509223938,
-0.05757879093289375,
-0.04874086752533913,
-0.34743255376815796,
0.25678256154060364,
-0.31857478618621826,
0.1211153119802475,
0.21185676753520966,
0.670201301574707,
0.9482254981994629,
-0.22399064898490906,
0.20204077661037445,
-0.46660348773002625,
-0.29576894640922546,
-0.7230756878852844,
0.3646654486656189,
-0.5004244446754456,
-0.17558713257312775,
0.2609274387359619,
-0.6759958863258362,
0.14051011204719543,
0.20180143415927887,
0.933120846748352,
0.1409386247396469,
-0.4166550040245056,
-0.6903808116912842,
-0.32634150981903076,
-0.10937553644180298,
0.251713365316391,
0.19705019891262054,
0.2861364483833313,
-0.3592148721218109,
-0.4617932438850403,
0.6394453644752502,
-0.48438698053359985,
-0.45507436990737915,
0.2954811751842499,
-0.16976670920848846,
0.5348678827285767,
-0.23283343017101288,
-0.3699829578399658,
-0.30879244208335876,
0.5284151434898376,
0.5064981579780579,
0.043958794325590134,
-0.791834831237793,
0.5794304013252258,
-0.43361347913742065,
-0.06304594874382019,
-0.9661878347396851,
0.02504733018577099,
-0.05517098307609558,
0.1254051923751831,
-0.2657640278339386,
-0.20228636264801025,
0.08661293983459473,
-0.045134708285331726,
-0.33277225494384766,
-0.19764716923236847,
0.08546112477779388,
-0.28389444947242737,
-0.11333020776510239,
0.4731110632419586,
0.3231659233570099,
0.49649256467819214,
0.5017514228820801,
-0.24587947130203247,
0.248061865568161,
0.8040187954902649,
0.10008300840854645,
-0.2794262170791626,
0.23214992880821228,
-0.5842904448509216,
0.6928826570510864,
-0.5780407786369324,
0.2865135669708252,
0.1525249034166336,
0.0069879572838544846,
-0.4540320634841919,
-0.19574414193630219,
-0.4594850540161133,
-0.2538284957408905,
0.1069217249751091,
1.427067756652832,
0.6805550456047058,
-0.043304212391376495,
-0.3004818856716156,
-0.45706263184547424,
-0.1400262713432312,
-0.26362237334251404,
-0.8006396889686584,
0.8316810131072998,
0.010189084336161613,
-0.24199475347995758,
0.1755942404270172,
-0.06808742135763168,
0.330572247505188,
-0.763374388217926,
-0.3880646824836731,
0.748696506023407,
-0.2639771103858948,
0.7165260314941406,
-0.2578207552433014,
-0.6452931761741638,
0.49964314699172974,
-0.1758108139038086,
0.4983638823032379,
-0.15160086750984192,
0.20139414072036743,
0.3416643738746643,
0.1500539928674698,
0.1394956260919571,
0.7837256193161011,
-0.306096613407135,
0.1575665920972824,
0.6785457134246826,
0.6196492910385132,
0.42487621307373047,
-0.03789810836315155,
0.8298760056495667,
0.5611125826835632,
0.2561838924884796,
0.15767011046409607,
0.2167271226644516,
0.04939929395914078,
0.17989057302474976,
-0.22980660200119019,
0.8894144296646118,
0.5767253041267395,
0.05337481573224068,
0.810171365737915,
0.09344051033258438,
1.006198525428772,
0.04430131986737251,
-0.4385450780391693,
-0.16351675987243652,
-0.4251337945461273,
-0.3681955933570862,
0.41720396280288696,
0.14029359817504883,
-0.1387304812669754,
0.1431109458208084,
-0.2620507478713989,
-0.16301512718200684,
-0.9084758758544922,
0.02345597743988037,
0.2974708378314972,
0.741313099861145,
-0.11319532245397568,
0.17920570075511932,
0.5646724104881287,
0.5520429611206055,
-0.0349288173019886,
0.36720481514930725,
0.5613304376602173,
-0.18655245006084442,
0.035495318472385406,
-0.33640533685684204,
0.40518060326576233,
0.3959972560405731,
0.5205721259117126,
0.30494189262390137,
-0.3545879125595093,
-0.6259583234786987,
-0.3706097900867462,
0.5617379546165466,
0.24884985387325287,
0.23807337880134583,
-0.10132056474685669,
0.25289538502693176,
-0.10425187647342682,
0.02706330642104149,
-0.5522986054420471,
-0.20369358360767365,
-0.8188442587852478,
0.1774759292602539,
0.4412193298339844,
0.2844665050506592,
-0.15079793334007263,
-0.3496691584587097,
-0.5618419051170349,
0.463365375995636,
-0.21600934863090515,
0.4041752517223358,
-0.022177916020154953,
-0.07320565730333328,
-0.4973336458206177,
0.5070351958274841,
0.8316382765769958,
0.2707921266555786,
0.043528277426958084,
0.350466251373291,
-0.4876316487789154,
0.3556908965110779,
-0.03325963765382767,
-0.08888101577758789,
0.19931967556476593,
-0.2698342800140381,
0.47832366824150085,
-0.0333700068295002,
-0.23564060032367706,
0.07530926913022995,
0.30194979906082153,
-0.05410182476043701,
0.010035660117864609,
0.0894419327378273,
0.17253729701042175,
-0.07774552702903748,
-0.006307897623628378,
-0.22371496260166168,
0.19359873235225677,
0.3695479929447174,
-0.38699814677238464,
0.24676446616649628,
-0.016067037358880043,
-5.606490135192871,
0.11124101281166077,
0.7875479459762573,
0.04832620918750763,
-0.18629823625087738,
0.5838095545768738,
0.8168073892593384,
-0.10787508636713028,
-0.01328103244304657,
-0.18857158720493317,
-0.24806183576583862,
-0.09293242543935776,
0.2739516496658325,
0.4947918653488159,
-0.08871980756521225,
0.3906104862689972,
-0.15329958498477936,
0.02407563105225563,
-0.1486852467060089,
0.206716388463974,
0.1174803376197815,
0.200656920671463,
-0.29393914341926575,
-0.3740476965904236,
-0.06882600486278534,
0.6874969601631165,
-0.5117172002792358,
0.21823206543922424,
-0.3196144700050354,
0.1713293194770813,
0.46049144864082336,
-0.5359554290771484,
-0.15955498814582825,
0.04850205034017563,
-0.12282007932662964,
0.0674532875418663,
0.36744242906570435,
0.4933302104473114,
0.3409534990787506,
-0.2461862415075302,
-0.6406688094139099,
0.15897168219089508,
-0.20817135274410248,
0.252636194229126,
0.4791898727416992,
-0.02359325811266899,
-1.0394738912582397,
-0.5227250456809998,
0.277932733297348,
0.6836232542991638,
-0.10864745825529099,
-0.1904335618019104,
0.06824405491352081,
-0.12772920727729797,
0.0179628636687994,
0.6271749138832092,
0.3253808915615082,
0.22444087266921997,
-0.14980314671993256,
0.15970028936862946,
0.011510784737765789,
-0.35560137033462524,
0.4145030379295349,
-0.7169947028160095,
0.3266594707965851,
-0.14202474057674408,
0.06380186229944229,
0.13615049421787262,
0.2828786075115204,
0.8064121007919312,
0.05391437187790871,
0.47793036699295044,
0.3496510684490204,
-1.3487169742584229,
-0.3127596378326416,
-0.4564073383808136,
-0.5272972583770752,
-0.13844136893749237,
-0.4849538803100586,
-0.426413893699646,
0.07446721196174622,
0.09531137347221375,
-0.6331968307495117,
0.5869590044021606,
0.412144273519516,
-0.37188252806663513,
-0.3079962730407715,
0.019838523119688034,
-0.3963989317417145,
-0.0715503916144371,
0.02700754627585411,
-0.09494392573833466,
-0.5389827489852905,
0.003441497450694442,
0.5524835586547852,
0.017267625778913498,
-0.07632527500391006,
0.3129602074623108,
0.8268058896064758,
-0.2894847095012665,
-0.2816334366798401,
-0.6332389712333679,
-0.04053106531500816,
-0.5716692805290222,
-0.22291459143161774,
0.11221449822187424,
-0.3726694881916046,
0.3839843273162842,
0.26333436369895935,
-0.09726587682962418,
0.2477639764547348,
0.14285992085933685,
-0.572024405002594,
-0.3248547911643982,
0.7939814329147339,
0.059280361980199814,
0.12133720517158508,
0.10795757174491882,
0.5226806998252869,
0.2564660310745239,
-0.084808848798275,
0.07714363932609558,
-0.1390688121318817,
-0.6625230312347412,
0.0833122581243515,
-0.4341620206832886,
0.3425314128398895,
-0.194809690117836,
0.15808212757110596,
-0.11958422511816025,
-0.05843256041407585,
0.026417778804898262,
-0.007383724674582481,
0.04152029752731323,
-0.08457876741886139,
-0.7264204025268555,
-0.4376105070114136,
-0.45080792903900146,
0.021924912929534912,
1.0745707750320435,
-0.07149773836135864,
-0.4104797840118408,
0.4731507897377014,
0.31409120559692383,
0.09097415208816528,
-0.2729491889476776,
0.07416670769453049,
-0.24000589549541473,
-0.31435003876686096,
0.34234514832496643,
0.2919280529022217,
-0.21090112626552582,
1.03206467628479,
-0.20306336879730225,
-0.14899323880672455,
0.0942608043551445,
-0.268545925617218,
-0.042335037142038345,
-0.720221757888794,
-0.4860401451587677,
0.4347518980503082,
-0.24019454419612885,
-0.7393882870674133,
-0.5176818370819092,
-0.021249812096357346,
0.2200344204902649,
-0.6872575879096985,
-0.4774954617023468,
-0.07859697192907333,
0.08589261770248413,
0.09864626824855804,
-0.6312075257301331,
0.0026999383699148893,
-0.183299720287323,
0.5008919835090637,
-0.01578885316848755,
-0.15350569784641266,
0.36464181542396545,
0.17300710082054138,
-0.3070366382598877,
0.2086694836616516,
0.5141388177871704,
-0.3879036009311676,
0.16510629653930664,
0.8423596620559692,
-0.3320290744304657,
-0.21134552359580994,
-0.3627566695213318,
-0.5129387974739075,
0.17344586551189423,
0.018026404082775116,
0.7073326110839844,
0.8723710775375366,
0.2581765651702881,
-0.550570011138916,
-0.41753220558166504,
-0.09695558995008469,
-0.41261035203933716,
0.15738290548324585,
-0.13472674787044525,
-0.0956835150718689,
0.08933261781930923,
-0.14265598356723785,
0.2593592703342438,
0.3367944061756134,
-0.9990264773368835,
-0.02751844748854637,
-0.5130088925361633,
-0.5015802383422852,
0.5056256055831909,
-0.4647113084793091,
-0.11834865063428879,
-0.3163343667984009,
0.23731014132499695,
0.056420207023620605,
0.5407255291938782,
-0.1963660717010498,
-0.2344880998134613,
-0.14718486368656158,
-0.32795706391334534,
0.0503004752099514,
0.10926228761672974,
-0.3699115514755249,
-0.3253464996814728,
-0.7861765027046204,
-0.2973247766494751,
0.9271941184997559,
-0.24821501970291138,
0.389819473028183,
-0.4072625935077667,
-0.21230922639369965,
-0.042335569858551025,
-0.09321490675210953,
-0.20081903040409088,
-0.6422581076622009,
-0.06152962148189545,
0.6499444246292114,
-0.24969696998596191,
0.2107817679643631,
0.770936906337738,
0.8776989579200745,
0.7795587182044983,
0.49316054582595825,
-0.3524593114852905,
-0.1451108455657959,
0.7095317244529724,
0.18739478290081024,
-0.3147897720336914,
-0.2714105546474457,
0.22474434971809387,
0.054624851793050766,
-0.3116285502910614,
-0.387410968542099,
-0.29564329981803894,
0.8248825669288635,
-0.391808420419693,
0.10546345263719559,
0.17635895311832428,
-0.3615208864212036,
-0.7557142376899719,
0.25167161226272583,
-0.031989820301532745,
-0.5936589241027832,
0.5846214294433594,
0.032016459852457047,
0.4693307876586914,
0.041196614503860474,
0.06270624697208405,
-0.12475983053445816,
-0.37324798107147217,
-0.458403080701828,
-0.29084277153015137,
-0.27330249547958374,
0.4999656081199646,
-0.09596206992864609,
0.10386723279953003,
-0.08054056763648987,
-0.0814315676689148,
0.19810780882835388,
-0.6684125065803528,
-0.06343542784452438,
-0.11888991296291351,
0.28264349699020386,
-0.3317311704158783,
-0.19225816428661346,
-0.39276984333992004,
-0.049913834780454636,
-0.8828119039535522,
-0.028934495523571968,
-0.418680876493454,
0.00862063281238079,
-0.4638969898223877,
0.16399960219860077,
-0.268551766872406,
0.3402827978134155,
-0.04084935039281845,
-0.17185015976428986,
-0.1324133574962616,
-0.2590116262435913,
-0.5750680565834045,
-0.30257222056388855,
1.0430241823196411,
0.6698930859565735,
-0.000016023373973439448,
0.36465778946876526,
0.04544484615325928,
-0.07048352807760239,
0.08002861589193344,
-0.5251860618591309,
-0.2967296540737152,
0.39355435967445374,
-0.03761947527527809,
-0.3369883596897125,
0.30700650811195374,
-0.8058418035507202,
-0.5653534531593323,
0.1921186000108719,
-0.821517288684845,
0.10586871951818466,
0.3211737275123596,
0.07051806896924973,
0.047977086156606674,
0.9139242172241211,
-0.0451103076338768,
-0.033414702862501144,
0.7560493350028992,
-0.5182836651802063,
0.018527749925851822,
-0.050167255103588104,
-0.14236785471439362,
0.22720515727996826,
0.2605506479740143,
-0.35573625564575195,
0.7595897912979126,
-0.06360698491334915,
0.1022089272737503,
0.35876771807670593,
-0.5148460268974304,
-0.4122096598148346,
-0.03574037924408913,
-0.015978820621967316,
0.5364998579025269,
0.06706472486257553,
0.41441887617111206,
-0.056299224495887756,
-0.01179161574691534,
0.14794670045375824,
0.6229169368743896,
0.31952738761901855,
0.24634423851966858,
0.1281002014875412,
0.26263853907585144,
0.08366154879331589,
-0.5177651643753052,
-0.10496463626623154,
0.17387701570987701,
-0.037430018186569214,
-0.28513067960739136,
-0.08059331774711609,
-0.31029418110847473,
-0.29427921772003174,
-0.12064730376005173,
0.5983008742332458,
0.5863447785377502,
0.038977574557065964,
0.3095960021018982,
-0.0381450355052948,
-0.3350406587123871,
-0.16551876068115234,
-0.14903521537780762,
0.5521255135536194,
0.05472811684012413,
0.3280602693557739,
-0.1976928412914276,
0.06778392195701599,
0.7128010988235474,
-0.3170996904373169,
-0.22554944455623627,
-0.3992011547088623,
0.1701595038175583,
-0.2981475293636322,
-0.15347492694854736,
-0.31534889340400696,
-0.011461802758276463,
0.33779004216194153,
0.35830458998680115,
-0.1448899209499359,
0.2755681574344635,
-0.1368059664964676,
0.06188834831118584,
-0.1375742405653,
-0.7265087962150574,
0.01135201659053564,
-0.11641231924295425,
-0.21157985925674438,
-0.12023679167032242,
0.059801988303661346,
0.6139718890190125,
-0.37062889337539673,
0.1349881887435913,
-0.1088169515132904,
0.08213748782873154,
-0.06860456615686417,
0.3085407614707947,
-0.15130512416362762,
0.4934709370136261,
-0.6233213543891907,
0.5141398906707764,
-0.9475221633911133,
0.7368425726890564,
-0.10015097260475159,
-0.04127296060323715,
-0.3627576231956482,
0.6308103203773499,
-0.31422239542007446,
-0.22076630592346191,
-0.1294444352388382,
0.13376618921756744,
0.28383082151412964,
-0.06573142111301422,
-0.401069700717926,
-0.19208882749080658,
0.3600848615169525,
0.3948405385017395,
-0.3735036253929138,
-0.12088710069656372,
0.19867420196533203,
0.26797163486480713,
-0.08588869869709015,
0.3771638572216034,
-0.0834382101893425,
-0.18517939746379852,
-0.4218915104866028,
-0.4558712840080261,
0.24100613594055176,
-0.5943265557289124,
0.6732032895088196,
0.6733437180519104,
-0.0931481420993805,
-0.05202583596110344,
0.46487537026405334,
-0.5975937843322754,
-0.18433870375156403,
0.027353430166840553,
-1.864349126815796,
-0.7326549887657166,
-0.13615818321704865,
-0.5351296663284302,
-0.0852615162730217,
0.32479941844940186,
0.3692656457424164,
-0.1545223593711853,
0.08236083388328552,
-0.5493732690811157,
-0.43394359946250916,
0.508762538433075,
-0.04357165843248367,
-0.15258298814296722,
0.7174931168556213,
-0.420389324426651
] |
205954
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Rocket%20Society
|
American Rocket Society
|
The American Rocket Society (ARS) began its existence on April 4, 1930, under the name of the American Interplanetary Society. It was founded by science fiction writers G. Edward Pendray, David Lasser, Laurence Manning, and others. Pendray corresponded with Willy Ley of the German rocket society, Verein für Raumschiffahrt, and visited him in 1931. The members originally conducted their own rocket experiments in New York and New Jersey. The society printed its own journal. The AIS did pioneering work in testing the design requirements of liquid-fueled rockets, with a number of successful test launches of ARS rockets occurring in this period and pointing the way to the United States space program. Its name was changed to American Rocket Society on April 6, 1934. In 1936, the American Rocket Society and its member Alfred Africano were awarded the Prix d'Astronautique by the Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) in recognition of their pioneering tests with liquid fueled rockets.
The Journal of the American Rocket Society was published from 1945–53.
Membership increased rapidly in the 1950s as the government funded "upper air research", and by the end of the decade it had reached 21,000. In early 1963, the ARS merged with the Institute of the Aerospace Sciences to become the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA).
References and notes
Rocketry
1930 establishments in the United States
Scientific organizations established in 1930
Organizations disestablished in 1963
|
[
0.21665939688682556,
0.6373699307441711,
-0.06465286761522293,
0.09134899079799652,
0.24764080345630646,
-0.38248032331466675,
-0.05151066929101944,
0.1942232996225357,
-0.3774870038032532,
0.12574560940265656,
-0.25287875533103943,
0.10217229276895523,
-0.47931626439094543,
0.3707983195781708,
-1.0081018209457397,
0.08380521833896637,
0.059253912419080734,
0.37327444553375244,
-0.46244966983795166,
-0.031811296939849854,
-0.678528904914856,
-0.08654015511274338,
0.9636841416358948,
-0.27883490920066833,
-0.2572706937789917,
-0.2043798863887787,
0.1778312772512436,
-0.2908916175365448,
0.20319274067878723,
0.4396449029445648,
-0.006398238707333803,
0.2621203660964966,
0.23127955198287964,
-0.5875360369682312,
-0.3432827293872833,
-0.05914366617798805,
0.016379550099372864,
-0.0034291259944438934,
0.09176768362522125,
-0.20926609635353088,
-0.06385067850351334,
-0.1843230128288269,
-0.014036230742931366,
0.3188391923904419,
0.23148413002490997,
-0.15653787553310394,
-1.3982281684875488,
0.6650923490524292,
-0.5132606029510498,
0.34267905354499817,
0.1357835978269577,
-0.10647160559892654,
-0.08725555986166,
0.7834345102310181,
0.3518919348716736,
0.5699198246002197,
-0.26813840866088867,
0.06544843316078186,
-0.7621939778327942,
0.03155026584863663,
0.36840131878852844,
0.5529766082763672,
0.24638567864894867,
-0.03679677098989487,
-0.0260198712348938,
0.05366912856698036,
0.3725893497467041,
0.18915678560733795,
-0.43570831418037415,
0.01923728547990322,
-0.10511482506990433,
-0.4565874934196472,
-0.48041194677352905,
-0.3961084485054016,
0.12082187831401825,
-1.0368939638137817,
0.2817802429199219,
0.10784539580345154,
-0.04456999525427818,
-0.4326489567756653,
0.23204739391803741,
0.1709650456905365,
0.1411745697259903,
0.25869274139404297,
-0.0840618908405304,
-0.11000727862119675,
-0.9432129859924316,
-0.4185771048069,
-0.3384055197238922,
0.3606295585632324,
0.054917894303798676,
-0.09256473928689957,
0.8469462990760803,
0.13305646181106567,
0.4854307472705841,
-0.37182947993278503,
-0.3777227997779846,
0.013154220767319202,
-0.1004844680428505,
0.05152151361107826,
-0.11572267860174179,
0.5281797647476196,
0.3410826027393341,
-0.28014132380485535,
0.04354892671108246,
0.47398847341537476,
0.27700698375701904,
-0.7590385675430298,
0.13114143908023834,
0.009798514656722546,
-0.17733298242092133,
0.5538490414619446,
-0.057311125099658966,
-0.05360398441553116,
-0.3645850718021393,
0.5446756482124329,
0.44650405645370483,
-1.0993900299072266,
-0.002875743666663766,
-0.2999955415725708,
0.12674356997013092,
1.6004072427749634,
-0.3424750864505768,
-0.269711971282959,
-0.16380412876605988,
1.0383872985839844,
0.7224330306053162,
0.6709491014480591,
-0.7311510443687439,
-0.46699172258377075,
0.02206679992377758,
0.21090489625930786,
-0.2698460519313812,
-0.05502420291304588,
-0.05991630256175995,
0.37499284744262695,
0.8680780529975891,
0.08170819282531738,
0.2594158351421356,
0.49307939410209656,
-0.6238213181495667,
-0.7546066045761108,
-0.5002139210700989,
-0.12039129436016083,
0.49778318405151367,
0.41220349073410034,
0.14148937165737152,
-0.6411494016647339,
-1.1314250230789185,
0.0022885999642312527,
0.22965902090072632,
-0.9871741533279419,
-0.26852932572364807,
0.3538024127483368,
0.14154157042503357,
-0.17471802234649658,
0.6412447690963745,
0.09857037663459778,
0.29013586044311523,
0.5582888126373291,
0.20530124008655548,
-0.7444895505905151,
-0.36395227909088135,
-0.12762637436389923,
0.3526872992515564,
0.3426559865474701,
0.4438732862472534,
0.2722710072994232,
0.20347891747951508,
0.24646645784378052,
-0.15800811350345612,
-0.4841850996017456,
0.19644691050052643,
-0.19628113508224487,
0.15337258577346802,
-0.37933090329170227,
1.0546373128890991,
0.40974611043930054,
0.20339930057525635,
0.03790375962853432,
-0.684773862361908,
0.1041080504655838,
-0.07881157845258713,
-0.48758262395858765,
0.4448884129524231,
-0.19433288276195526,
0.38177624344825745,
-0.13695821166038513,
-0.11034392565488815,
0.3506620526313782,
0.07997637242078781,
-0.4143660068511963,
-0.003445967100560665,
-0.42479655146598816,
1.5624477863311768,
0.15901394188404083,
-0.4902835190296173,
0.764769971370697,
-0.49313780665397644,
0.5986122488975525,
-0.35781458020210266,
0.11951488256454468,
0.6210967302322388,
-0.23893946409225464,
-0.5455623865127563,
0.2886508107185364,
0.2771357297897339,
-0.042527858167886734,
0.32002726197242737,
0.10548802465200424,
0.15990272164344788,
-0.4865919053554535,
0.22369851171970367,
0.02325567789375782,
0.26548293232917786,
-0.012880795635282993,
-0.24474425613880157,
0.9013882279396057,
0.14022859930992126,
-0.11374682933092117,
1.1220768690109253,
-0.07899616658687592,
0.17099426686763763,
-0.11433503776788712,
0.32350239157676697,
1.0401544570922852,
-0.07771985977888107,
0.30713385343551636,
0.16655108332633972,
0.26445072889328003,
1.053524374961853,
-0.6094188094139099,
0.48171111941337585,
-0.6199276447296143,
-0.04032927751541138,
-0.20751462876796722,
-0.1910286694765091,
-0.8304308652877808,
0.1261076033115387,
0.37565597891807556,
0.22872713208198547,
0.33851468563079834,
-1.212571144104004,
0.5986224412918091,
-0.29081541299819946,
-0.37534987926483154,
0.26342034339904785,
-0.05393700301647186,
0.3690810203552246,
0.09970364719629288,
-0.5961000323295593,
-0.1825254112482071,
0.3646661341190338,
-0.1318071186542511,
-0.17408815026283264,
0.525196373462677,
-0.08856680244207382,
0.14434655010700226,
0.25572362542152405,
0.22699278593063354,
-0.2702091932296753,
-0.028334835544228554,
0.1308269500732422,
0.4028795659542084,
0.22580143809318542,
-1.0440130233764648,
0.004481134470552206,
-0.7078103423118591,
-0.14609786868095398,
0.14376923441886902,
1.2924444675445557,
0.3505345582962036,
0.20677100121974945,
0.029330402612686157,
-0.08446373045444489,
-0.4890989661216736,
-0.2301005721092224,
0.38025975227355957,
-0.8183438777923584,
-0.1057053953409195,
-0.02977873384952545,
0.3868941068649292,
0.40771254897117615,
-0.10791783779859543,
-0.33141806721687317,
0.7275457382202148,
-0.07483212649822235,
-0.2879893183708191,
0.051110927015542984,
-0.2542306184768677,
0.031611330807209015,
-0.16651077568531036,
-0.3176718056201935,
0.06150607019662857,
0.39805662631988525,
0.4414175748825073,
0.34856125712394714,
0.5976285934448242,
-0.22749970853328705,
-0.0558965764939785,
-0.6072345972061157,
-0.16581186652183533,
-0.9711896181106567,
-0.6073822379112244,
0.49074786901474,
-0.0685703456401825,
0.0555012971162796,
-0.25106897950172424,
-5.46107292175293,
-0.5196459293365479,
-0.7270686030387878,
0.03298402577638626,
0.4726365804672241,
0.2786950469017029,
0.6630423665046692,
-0.606502890586853,
-0.1241610124707222,
-0.2638917863368988,
0.05209304764866829,
-0.10145583003759384,
0.009588382206857204,
0.48485201597213745,
0.15458953380584717,
0.5735037326812744,
-0.19104982912540436,
-0.06173256039619446,
0.22205492854118347,
0.021207330748438835,
0.6987438201904297,
-0.7531405687332153,
-0.13821907341480255,
0.43054208159446716,
0.37466543912887573,
0.6295260190963745,
-0.1505451202392578,
0.07426314800977707,
0.49921879172325134,
0.20860816538333893,
0.42810681462287903,
-0.21032950282096863,
-0.06872135400772095,
-0.5199756622314453,
-0.17178237438201904,
-0.04497026279568672,
0.9603219032287598,
0.1225118488073349,
0.4137662649154663,
-0.040470901876688004,
-0.22771477699279785,
0.1407707929611206,
-0.14938104152679443,
-0.4003278911113739,
0.1964021623134613,
-0.5251057744026184,
0.30684712529182434,
0.10035361349582672,
0.004986226093024015,
0.3184145987033844,
0.40534546971321106,
0.5488846898078918,
0.6053334474563599,
-0.18868690729141235,
-0.009809720329940319,
-0.4686928689479828,
0.012072679586708546,
0.4933038055896759,
0.2907488942146301,
-0.08875876665115356,
-0.12974607944488525,
0.24692979454994202,
0.19008009135723114,
-0.5514798760414124,
-0.8901408910751343,
-0.46223679184913635,
-0.20517860352993011,
0.24081771075725555,
0.6894721388816833,
-0.1529257595539093,
-0.33209288120269775,
0.8758923411369324,
-0.4134771525859833,
-0.9739356637001038,
0.6027840375900269,
-0.43363040685653687,
0.686555027961731,
-0.3606964945793152,
-0.49861764907836914,
0.6410158276557922,
-0.33643171191215515,
-0.08092427253723145,
-0.27299728989601135,
0.5291545987129211,
-0.03412165492773056,
-0.020563004538416862,
0.06298382580280304,
-0.22499005496501923,
-0.8927024006843567,
-0.2963021695613861,
0.6304777264595032,
-0.24829649925231934,
0.15416717529296875,
0.5718146562576294,
0.3289475440979004,
0.149966761469841,
0.4060276448726654,
0.30632665753364563,
0.9644935727119446,
0.15762384235858917,
-0.18235427141189575,
-0.051685720682144165,
-0.08656803518533707,
-0.7469606995582581,
-0.8926942944526672,
-0.11526523530483246,
-0.202034130692482,
-0.13035358488559723,
0.7054988741874695,
0.05481422692537308,
-0.45289692282676697,
-0.2095966786146164,
-0.7037264108657837,
-0.22364391386508942,
0.14166668057441711,
0.3621484637260437,
-0.06473518908023834,
0.13117031753063202,
-0.006026161834597588,
0.7065823674201965,
-0.5505015850067139,
0.31862688064575195,
-0.22119154036045074,
-0.029131831601262093,
0.16210059821605682,
-0.3039637804031372,
-0.32122135162353516,
0.39360037446022034,
0.44293904304504395,
-0.04596187546849251,
0.35157397389411926,
0.6168331503868103,
-0.10041572153568268,
0.679884135723114,
0.5465360879898071,
0.3101155459880829,
-0.42704129219055176,
-0.27308252453804016,
0.006463595200330019,
-0.2170872688293457,
0.20680662989616394,
-0.1754770278930664,
-0.015509425662457943,
0.1929323375225067,
0.2524208724498749,
0.8312345147132874,
0.15727487206459045,
0.1716000735759735,
0.15463684499263763,
0.8950507044792175,
0.016248049214482307,
-0.5432881116867065,
0.1962212473154068,
0.020082587376236916,
-0.348755419254303,
-0.025323722511529922,
0.10951334238052368,
-0.3703705072402954,
-0.7165010571479797,
-0.4288007318973541,
-0.06414677202701569,
-0.49665534496307373,
-0.32445287704467773,
-0.24104903638362885,
0.1296621561050415,
-0.024889450520277023,
-0.23594720661640167,
-0.44377896189689636,
-0.11622672528028488,
0.4072871506214142,
0.042266588658094406,
-0.011766519397497177,
-0.14314524829387665,
-0.5447409749031067,
0.5127108097076416,
0.5232987403869629,
0.09613878279924393,
-0.4048616886138916,
-0.5205327868461609,
-0.47912147641181946,
0.18471266329288483,
0.1488569676876068,
-0.7229832410812378,
0.30115607380867004,
-0.07882153242826462,
-1.0465675592422485,
0.04527135193347931,
-0.03625635430216789,
0.22289960086345673,
0.0010528878774493933,
-0.2623945474624634,
0.42576247453689575,
0.5561457872390747,
0.13865359127521515,
-0.2896191477775574,
-0.22980502247810364,
-0.42479443550109863,
0.7064444422721863,
-0.15942251682281494,
-0.04879918694496155,
0.2725054621696472,
-0.18397577106952667,
0.10463318228721619,
-0.0797015130519867,
-0.2855493724346161,
-0.3202414810657501,
-0.27928176522254944,
-0.044853806495666504,
0.23548632860183716,
0.4593654274940491,
0.09063221514225006,
-0.3201899528503418,
0.31893616914749146,
0.22474758327007294,
-0.5996599197387695,
0.2775000035762787,
-0.17628848552703857,
-0.005784749519079924,
0.0435132272541523,
-0.38913869857788086,
-0.4078832268714905,
0.2860204875469208,
-0.13677024841308594,
-0.22398225963115692,
-0.12324053049087524,
0.6278665065765381,
0.2179563194513321,
-0.1455572098493576,
0.004376819357275963,
-0.8411322832107544,
-0.08866605162620544,
-0.41992616653442383,
-0.6621676683425903,
-0.6791269183158875,
0.14589674770832062,
0.03603293001651764,
0.1635337769985199,
0.1034301370382309,
-0.31706011295318604,
0.24708949029445648,
-0.11871751397848129,
0.3377881348133087,
-0.07192660868167877,
-0.3683340549468994,
-0.2037726193666458,
0.1628609001636505,
0.5199117064476013,
-0.40099453926086426,
-0.31741783022880554,
-0.11374902725219727,
0.7111181020736694,
-0.47223398089408875,
-1.030568242073059,
0.06919272243976593,
0.5934311151504517,
-0.09629897028207779,
-0.5766445398330688,
0.13979463279247284,
-0.4488341808319092,
-0.3101080358028412,
0.18140128254890442,
0.045306745916604996,
-1.2440876960754395,
-0.16877947747707367,
-0.4434276819229126,
0.196016326546669,
-0.031741656363010406,
-1.1068419218063354,
-0.050703052431344986,
-0.3961608409881592,
0.09248291701078415,
0.029933353886008263,
0.3832205832004547,
0.7345154285430908,
-0.3459746539592743,
0.11294518411159515,
0.47654208540916443,
-0.4818553626537323,
-0.25602394342422485,
0.34199875593185425,
-0.3825799524784088,
0.3426116108894348,
0.059301044791936874,
0.09607579559087753,
0.11978111416101456,
-1.038428544998169,
-0.32397425174713135,
-0.012941545806825161,
-0.3805888891220093,
-0.0033033841755241156,
-0.4650343060493469,
-0.33422040939331055,
-0.6446208953857422,
0.25568199157714844,
-0.2431562840938568,
-0.2109341025352478,
0.5034047365188599,
0.12480045109987259,
0.005262674298137426,
0.2900460362434387,
-1.1539241075515747,
0.30940544605255127,
0.4334965944290161,
-0.6052398681640625,
-0.146703839302063,
0.26445746421813965,
0.5528963208198547,
0.2166167050600052,
-0.12800221145153046,
0.33973291516304016,
0.31513845920562744,
-0.9463145136833191,
-0.17565079033374786,
0.8677664399147034,
-1.0781834125518799,
0.010364317335188389,
0.31350958347320557,
-0.944614052772522,
-0.03342925384640694,
0.24215905368328094,
-0.2061634510755539,
0.7293267250061035,
-0.019137924537062645,
-0.01721757836639881,
-0.3548295795917511,
0.17223462462425232,
-0.045444291085004807,
0.20608723163604736,
-0.23199525475502014,
-0.17377698421478271,
0.6978223919868469,
-0.021536553278565407,
-0.024568183347582817,
0.9542233347892761,
-0.5727617144584656,
-0.4406639337539673,
-0.1820840686559677,
-0.9879342913627625,
-1.1219120025634766,
0.6019591689109802,
-0.19637009501457214,
0.4750629961490631,
0.20790281891822815,
-0.3287618160247803,
-0.21718929708003998,
0.48320576548576355,
0.24667547643184662,
0.40782809257507324,
0.13637199997901917,
-0.2757875919342041,
0.35291144251823425,
-0.4203520119190216,
-0.1775479018688202,
-0.18398559093475342,
0.3560420572757721,
-0.3878328502178192,
0.25201866030693054,
0.07001043856143951,
0.12362018972635269,
0.14416852593421936,
0.36878055334091187,
0.36582332849502563,
0.7751328349113464,
0.11051396280527115,
-0.19560228288173676,
-0.04579874873161316,
-0.33598917722702026,
-0.6669180393218994,
0.22473594546318054,
-0.030598394572734833,
0.36878150701522827,
0.1693338304758072,
-0.5528279542922974,
0.2939494550228119,
-0.22849802672863007,
0.671708345413208,
0.618165910243988,
0.4443303942680359,
0.30088454484939575,
-0.04577966779470444,
-0.31776162981987,
0.07786621153354645,
-0.23280926048755646,
-0.9341964721679688,
0.03029019571840763,
-0.02358248643577099,
0.054195817559957504,
0.2364618331193924,
0.6237043142318726,
-0.20677487552165985,
0.1652430295944214,
-1.107606053352356,
0.14278103411197662,
0.06321422755718231,
-0.14586599171161652,
-0.1849156618118286,
0.24438928067684174,
-0.08568599820137024,
0.3247542083263397,
0.255855917930603,
-0.34735360741615295,
-0.17422859370708466,
0.6038605570793152,
-0.0674763172864914,
-0.25747203826904297,
0.3059406280517578,
-0.1672438383102417,
-0.16517920792102814,
0.2422851324081421,
0.8137474060058594,
-0.10905888676643372,
-0.026448016986250877,
0.18359969556331635,
0.7089745998382568,
0.18943758308887482,
-0.3086337447166443,
0.6702338457107544,
-0.33168044686317444,
-0.17279496788978577,
-0.03802325949072838,
-0.07275872677564621,
-0.02602517604827881,
-0.33820000290870667,
0.36367037892341614,
-0.7723660469055176,
-0.6123729944229126,
0.12162982672452927,
-0.2710247039794922,
-0.2294960618019104,
0.06614939123392105,
0.11780009418725967,
-0.6751731634140015,
-0.5955767631530762,
0.32265400886535645,
-0.47787198424339294,
-0.5762479901313782,
0.2967436611652374,
0.4193688929080963,
0.46849679946899414,
-0.03370029479265213,
-0.22809191048145294,
0.06772119551897049,
-0.08707055449485779,
-0.20908527076244354,
0.9347238540649414,
0.5485989451408386,
0.10835730284452438,
-0.03771551325917244,
-0.3908088505268097,
0.7706072330474854,
-0.44613176584243774,
-0.5660165548324585,
-0.054818008095026016,
-0.3936728239059448,
-0.1923046112060547,
-0.6919578909873962,
0.2430315762758255,
-0.43234023451805115,
0.5353597402572632,
0.5203843116760254
] |
205960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish%20College%20of%20the%20Arts
|
Cornish College of the Arts
|
Cornish College of the Arts (CCA) is a private art college in Seattle, Washington, founded in 1914.
History
Cornish College of the Arts was founded in 1914 as the Cornish School of Music, by Nellie Cornish (1876–1956), a teacher of piano. Cornish would go on to serve as the school's director for its first 25 years, until 1939. The Cornish School of Music began its operations in rented space in the Boothe (or Booth) Building on Broadway and Pine Street.
As Cornish developed the idea of her school, she initially turned to the Montessori-based pedagogical method of Evelyn Fletcher-Copp, but turned at last to the progressive musical pedagogy of Calvin Brainerd Cady, who had worked as musical director with John Dewey as the latter set up his seminal progressive educational project, what is now the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. Conceived by Cornish as "an elementary school of the arts—all the arts—with music as its major subject," the school initially taught only children, but it soon expanded to functioning also as a normal school (a teachers' college) under Cady. Within three years it had enrolled over 600 students, expanded the age range of its students to college age, and was the country's largest music school west of Chicago.
Nellie Cornish recruited opportunistically where she saw talent, and the school soon offered classes as diverse as eurhythmics, French language, painting, dance (folk and ballet), and theater. In 1915, the first full academic year, eurhythmics was added and the first studio arts classes taught. Dance, with a ballet focus, became a department in 1916 headed by Chicago-trained Mary Ann Wells. That year, Cornish became one of the first West Coast schools of any type to offer a summer session. After the closing of their influential Chicago Little Theatre, Maurice Browne and Ellen Van Volkenburg were brought in to found the Drama Department in 1918; the department, with its incorporation of scenic design, music, and dance in its productions, became central to Cornish's plans to ally the arts. Van Volkenburg also began a marionette department, the first such department in the country. By 1923, opera and modern dance had been added to the curriculum as well.
In 1920, in recognition that music was no longer the school's central focus, the school's name was simplified to The Cornish School. By this time, too, the school had expanded its age range, and was offering classes and lessons from early childhood to the undergraduate level. The school gathered a board of trustees from among Seattle's elite, who funded the school through the hard economic times during and after World War I, and raised money for a purpose-built school building. Finished in 1921, the Cornish School building, now known as Kerry Hall, opened for the 1921–22 academic year.
The Cornish Trio of the 1920s—Peter Meremblum, Berthe Poncy (later Berthe Poncy Jacobson), and Kola Levienne—may have been the first resident chamber music group at an American school. In 1935, Cornish established the first (but ultimately short-lived) college-level school of radio broadcasting in the U.S.
Through the 1920s, the school was often on the edge of financial failure, but was of a caliber that prompted Anna Pavlova to call it "the kind of school other schools should follow." Although the mortgage was paid off and the building had been donated to the school in 1929, financial difficulties inevitably grew during the Great Depression. Ultimately, convinced that finances would not allow the school to do more than "tread water", Nellie Cornish resigned her position as head of the school in 1939.
While there were difficult years for the school after 1939, in the long run Cornish did much more than "tread water". With support from local arts organizations and a core of dedicated faculty and staff, the school ultimately "reinvented" itself many times, and in 1977 earned full accreditation as a degree granting college from the Northwest Commission on Colleges. That was one year after the establishment of the Theatre Department as the fifth fully fledged academic department. In 1982, the college received a large Title III grant which was instrumental in establishing the Video Art program in the Art department, and in the genesis of the Performance Production Department, which was granted full departmental status with the graduation of its first class in 1986. The BFA in Performance Production added concentrations in Costume, Lighting, Scenic and Sound Design, Stage Management and Technical Direction. Performance Production was established as an independent department so that it would be able to provide support to major productions of the Theatre, Dance and Music departments and provide its students with experience in all three. Recognizing the vital importance of liberal arts studies as a part of the education of an artist, Cornish established its seventh department, Humanities and Sciences, some years later. Humanities and Sciences had been an important part of the Cornish education even before the accreditation process of the 1970s, but the important step of granting department status reaffirmed the commitment to "whole person" education.
Miss Aunt Nellie: The Autobiography of Nellie C. Cornish, was published by the University of Washington Press in 1964, largely with funds from the Cornish School Alumni Association. Produced a decade after Nellie Cornish's death, the book was co-edited by Ellen Van Volkenburg and Edward Nordhoff Beck.
Campus
Cornish College of the Arts operates a three-part campus in the Capitol Hill, Denny Triangle, and Seattle Center areas of Seattle, Washington.
Cornish's historic campus is composed of its original 1921 building on Capitol Hill and its grounds. The building, now known as Kerry Hall, contains the 200-seat PONCHO Concert Hall. Kerry Hall was designed in the Spanish Colonial Revival style by leading Seattle architect Abraham H. Albertson and is on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) as the "Cornish School".
Cornish opened its new Main Campus in 2003 in the Denny Triangle area of downtown Seattle. The 1928, Art Deco-style Main Campus Center is listed on the NRHP as "William Volker Building". Other buildings of note are the Raisbeck Performance Hall constructed in 1915, a Seattle City Landmark under the name "Old Norway Hall", and the 1929 Notion Building. In 2015, the college opened the new 20-story Cornish Commons, which contains a residence hall, studios, and meeting rooms.
Located on the Seattle Center grounds is the Cornish Playhouse at Seattle Center, the college's premier performance venue. Built for the Century 21 Exposition of 1962, the Playhouse was leased to Cornish by the City of Seattle in 2013. Along with the 440-seat main stage, the complex includes the 100+ seat Alhadeff Studio Theater and a scene shop.
Library
The library at Cornish College specializes in art, dance, design, music, performance production, and theatre. it held 4,700 CDs, 40,000 books, has 2,200 videos, and subscribed to 154 periodicals. Its special collections include an image collection and 35 mm slides.
Notable alumni
Actors
Brendan Fraser, who graduated from Cornish in 1990, is one of Cornish's best known graduates.
Jinkx Monsoon, who graduated in 2010, is a drag queen, actor and singer and best known for winning the 5th season of RuPaul's Drag Race.
Fine artists
Aleah Chapin, who graduated in 2009, became the first American painter to win the prestigious BP Portrait Award from the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Terry Fox, first generation Conceptual artist and a central participant in the West Coast performance art, video and sound scene of the late 1960s and 1970s.
Heather Hart, graduated in 1998, is best known for her large art installations.
Kumi Yamashita graduated with a B.F.A. in Art 1994.
Musicians
Mary Lambert, a Grammy-nominated singer-songwriter, debuted on Capitol Records with her album Heart on My Sleeve.
Catherine Harris-White, aka SassyBlack, is co-creator of non defunct group Thee Satisfaction, recording artists on Sub Pop Records, graduated from the Music Department in 2008.
Reggie Watts, musician and comedian, studied music at Cornish in the early 1990s.
Dancers
Merce Cunningham is the best known alumnus in the dance department, matriculated in 1937 and was lured away by Martha Graham and her dance company in 1939.
Dancer and choreographer Robert Joffrey, studied at Cornish at some point, and is listed as a member of the alumni association.
References
Mildred Andrews, Cornish School, HistoryLink Essay 596, December 26, 1998, updated on June 28, 2006.
External links
Universities and colleges in Seattle
Art schools in Washington (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Seattle
Educational institutions established in 1914
Design schools in the United States
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
1914 establishments in Washington (state)
Private universities and colleges in Washington (state)
|
[
0.6953625082969666,
0.7645047903060913,
-0.5058704018592834,
0.1995886266231537,
0.3303788900375366,
0.3080114722251892,
0.525273859500885,
0.40116363763809204,
-0.3510321080684662,
-0.026996957138180733,
-0.19464558362960815,
0.11012767255306244,
0.39919671416282654,
0.7112976908683777,
-0.5021640658378601,
-0.4638221561908722,
0.5940535068511963,
0.2110445201396942,
0.23953910171985626,
-0.025090795010328293,
-0.32942691445350647,
-0.008532309904694557,
0.6792797446250916,
0.0621463879942894,
-0.7629575729370117,
0.03988508880138397,
0.3386933207511902,
0.13601039350032806,
-0.33055582642555237,
-0.21450607478618622,
-0.4744166135787964,
0.12370525300502777,
0.24495819211006165,
-0.860442578792572,
-0.276577889919281,
-0.16367383301258087,
0.0941140428185463,
-0.6746489405632019,
-0.30062735080718994,
-0.7589823603630066,
0.24512967467308044,
-0.5520660281181335,
0.4163648784160614,
0.05315634608268738,
-0.050447601824998856,
0.0013617168879136443,
-1.4014390707015991,
0.39032483100891113,
-0.9114307761192322,
0.1358436942100525,
-0.2251308411359787,
0.3894807994365692,
0.9802555441856384,
0.01884284056723118,
0.4288753569126129,
0.47071510553359985,
-1.0007734298706055,
0.0735553503036499,
0.21278952062129974,
-0.20555798709392548,
-0.017071453854441643,
0.890501081943512,
0.004087039269506931,
0.05469908192753792,
-0.3084619641304016,
-0.14178650081157684,
-0.07036382704973221,
0.18806658685207367,
0.14771610498428345,
-0.6310913562774658,
0.39993515610694885,
-0.19360686838626862,
0.014333607628941536,
0.3598771095275879,
-0.10597560554742813,
-0.09884462505578995,
0.0567893385887146,
-0.6814708113670349,
0.4563458263874054,
-0.20112727582454681,
-0.1908913403749466,
0.09058777242898941,
1.0000492334365845,
0.43376481533050537,
0.4755951464176178,
-0.0483270026743412,
-0.5486021041870117,
-0.25018757581710815,
-0.11307914555072784,
0.32867559790611267,
-1.0533617734909058,
-0.13532108068466187,
0.7154245376586914,
0.5513938069343567,
0.1832173615694046,
-0.3714681565761566,
-0.33031991124153137,
0.4614110589027405,
0.07578547298908234,
-0.13408038020133972,
-0.3556970953941345,
0.3226085603237152,
0.17340050637722015,
0.5990254878997803,
-0.6775069236755371,
-0.0690096914768219,
-0.19797486066818237,
0.16241976618766785,
-0.17569762468338013,
-0.04638748988509178,
-0.1547582596540451,
0.2749089002609253,
-0.309600830078125,
-0.00900229625403881,
0.1554488241672516,
-0.08282860368490219,
0.43412062525749207,
-0.6591920852661133,
-0.613037645816803,
-0.2931102216243744,
0.06907982379198074,
0.5756535530090332,
-0.043040886521339417,
-0.16293270885944366,
-0.21523743867874146,
0.7234112024307251,
0.21172833442687988,
0.5275419354438782,
-0.2955302894115448,
-0.7523388266563416,
0.24215565621852875,
0.3549019992351532,
0.39634549617767334,
-0.1399570107460022,
0.2474796622991562,
-0.31324872374534607,
0.0335317924618721,
-0.3179137408733368,
-0.046259474009275436,
0.6996650695800781,
-0.5791801810264587,
-0.14476871490478516,
-0.2873706519603729,
-0.3808678686618805,
0.37458354234695435,
-0.4444364607334137,
0.08879290521144867,
0.2074415236711502,
-0.21276679635047913,
0.20344921946525574,
0.2244507521390915,
0.1686749905347824,
-0.5185209512710571,
-0.18508633971214294,
-0.006709257606416941,
0.28888049721717834,
0.5743513107299805,
0.6772600412368774,
0.868919849395752,
0.49403274059295654,
-0.3469471037387848,
0.09119997918605804,
0.06379841268062592,
0.18992047011852264,
0.17276319861412048,
-0.44867709279060364,
0.03817792981863022,
-0.0017901947721838951,
-0.3918415904045105,
0.543887734413147,
-0.9101383090019226,
0.5546229481697083,
0.40836843848228455,
0.3523992598056793,
-0.39790794253349304,
-0.8774058222770691,
0.5180273652076721,
0.47468993067741394,
0.30933451652526855,
-0.4796096980571747,
-0.5644700527191162,
0.1840714067220688,
0.4062404930591583,
-0.03166681155562401,
0.06518290191888809,
-0.5434032082557678,
0.369907408952713,
0.12532776594161987,
0.2467864602804184,
0.07970082759857178,
-0.387908399105072,
-0.2301437258720398,
0.3817216753959656,
-0.5710356831550598,
0.6773360967636108,
0.21210621297359467,
-1.3654074668884277,
0.7736908197402954,
-0.15081419050693512,
0.665608823299408,
0.19498896598815918,
-0.2648654580116272,
-0.31043559312820435,
-0.4529918134212494,
-0.24069052934646606,
-0.08483268320560455,
0.09639304131269455,
0.20508113503456116,
0.23062624037265778,
0.2641216218471527,
0.1308177411556244,
-0.7506331205368042,
0.38458195328712463,
0.9979524612426758,
-0.37328997254371643,
-0.6624636650085449,
-0.3777705132961273,
-0.13415175676345825,
0.255542516708374,
-0.5181702971458435,
0.4626789689064026,
-0.3198027014732361,
0.19781509041786194,
0.0714142769575119,
-0.14001993834972382,
0.47575464844703674,
-0.27579131722450256,
-0.06990447640419006,
0.43985506892204285,
0.06404459476470947,
0.00036250383709557354,
0.5003159046173096,
-0.14393948018550873,
-0.8996700644493103,
0.8247888088226318,
0.28077423572540283,
-0.10546243190765381,
-0.5647985339164734,
1.036199927330017,
-0.17505227029323578,
-0.07760263979434967,
-0.18557919561862946,
-0.6293795108795166,
0.3960069417953491,
0.35543325543403625,
0.4387120306491852,
-0.007136229425668716,
0.3911146819591522,
-0.14559876918792725,
0.2187892347574234,
0.4932206869125366,
-0.16778084635734558,
-0.41546890139579773,
-0.07806435972452164,
-0.5045421719551086,
-0.02239224500954151,
-0.1163530945777893,
-1.1543729305267334,
0.3429553806781769,
-0.11989501118659973,
0.1807946413755417,
0.006973979063332081,
-0.1207226887345314,
0.29013705253601074,
0.3657926917076111,
-0.40517064929008484,
0.20663295686244965,
-0.805702805519104,
0.4860261082649231,
0.22454619407653809,
0.25872865319252014,
0.37029942870140076,
-0.009136008098721504,
0.16437093913555145,
-0.025010112673044205,
0.3256683349609375,
-0.6800057888031006,
-0.03680664673447609,
-0.63009113073349,
-0.3240436315536499,
-0.27920013666152954,
0.7408782243728638,
-0.3563443422317505,
-0.08099203556776047,
-0.3907240033149719,
0.01739196479320526,
-0.04058879613876343,
-0.4799008369445801,
-0.46750107407569885,
-0.2681466042995453,
0.11997749656438828,
-0.26337796449661255,
0.13711395859718323,
0.23336169123649597,
-0.5259857177734375,
0.20934036374092102,
0.09437709301710129,
-0.4122866094112396,
-0.09810668975114822,
-0.17844423651695251,
-0.4045611321926117,
-0.0655846819281578,
-0.6020829677581787,
-0.001902068848721683,
0.16462291777133942,
0.17864002287387848,
0.2267710268497467,
-0.7152407765388489,
-5.525800704956055,
0.03604872524738312,
-0.49084094166755676,
-0.16316872835159302,
-0.2554480731487274,
-0.3656291961669922,
0.1460871696472168,
-0.2983707785606384,
-0.009699733927845955,
-0.14647763967514038,
-0.10324447602033615,
-0.15644559264183044,
-0.1812056452035904,
1.2099769115447998,
0.6702011823654175,
0.4564749300479889,
0.3794853389263153,
-0.624153196811676,
-0.2880561053752899,
0.25950849056243896,
0.07622801512479782,
-0.08549436181783676,
0.12983782589435577,
0.7116427421569824,
0.4680141508579254,
0.35301196575164795,
-0.29384586215019226,
0.11032567918300629,
-0.42036473751068115,
-0.0634695366024971,
0.05663908272981644,
-0.19350408017635345,
0.1798797845840454,
0.037246424704790115,
0.09640821814537048,
0.36907580494880676,
1.0422955751419067,
-0.0775710865855217,
0.44438064098358154,
-0.46658819913864136,
0.10377790778875351,
-0.186648428440094,
-0.3363618850708008,
-0.26068854331970215,
0.09786547720432281,
-0.34579434990882874,
-0.16632583737373352,
0.2001517415046692,
-0.3539465069770813,
0.45872706174850464,
0.3814724087715149,
0.31953468918800354,
0.5591347217559814,
0.5504723787307739,
-0.6185300946235657,
-0.408024400472641,
0.24429762363433838,
-0.176381453871727,
-0.5512275695800781,
-0.05783040449023247,
0.10628844052553177,
-0.34369996190071106,
0.5582357048988342,
-0.12526878714561462,
-0.2062104195356369,
-0.28167852759361267,
-0.35872727632522583,
0.9283695816993713,
0.20113229751586914,
0.268963098526001,
0.07554730772972107,
0.06604606658220291,
-0.8701249361038208,
-0.9517794847488403,
0.34809693694114685,
-0.2932576537132263,
0.18257048726081848,
-0.16679789125919342,
0.08657165616750717,
-0.03707868233323097,
0.1978866159915924,
0.1559852659702301,
0.39942649006843567,
0.9287317991256714,
-0.022763213142752647,
-0.36425286531448364,
0.29329344630241394,
0.48900240659713745,
-0.46989983320236206,
-0.046135663986206055,
0.25852683186531067,
0.7374064922332764,
-0.10449143499135971,
-0.013823424465954304,
0.06254611909389496,
-0.23478783667087555,
0.9686107039451599,
-0.0537768229842186,
0.36286669969558716,
-0.3175937533378601,
0.12153005599975586,
-0.3951546549797058,
-0.12772856652736664,
-0.020314814522862434,
-0.3474668860435486,
-0.7592703700065613,
0.12809550762176514,
-0.11875472217798233,
1.0862542390823364,
-0.09657403826713562,
-0.34148484468460083,
0.04399503394961357,
-0.46523556113243103,
-0.01748618856072426,
0.322620689868927,
-0.2794644236564636,
0.0013953755842521787,
0.524029016494751,
0.2740563452243805,
0.03021193854510784,
0.05752205476164818,
0.4472283124923706,
0.18532143533229828,
0.4547109305858612,
0.11998967826366425,
-0.7496927380561829,
0.05201726034283638,
0.3450879156589508,
-0.6361798644065857,
0.21516022086143494,
0.0647280365228653,
-0.2150706946849823,
-0.2066057175397873,
0.22178888320922852,
-0.11306308954954147,
0.5856237411499023,
-0.6213708519935608,
-0.6993729472160339,
-0.16038542985916138,
0.2845982015132904,
0.24269531667232513,
0.001623595948331058,
0.13106948137283325,
0.7346445322036743,
0.7361280918121338,
0.6365903615951538,
0.07467442750930786,
0.1639220267534256,
-0.9496934413909912,
0.13997219502925873,
-0.19044427573680878,
-0.1264950931072235,
0.29486799240112305,
0.3179932236671448,
0.6536173224449158,
-0.04169083759188652,
-0.739838719367981,
0.08873486518859863,
-0.12394288927316666,
0.31180867552757263,
0.03534921258687973,
-0.024366648867726326,
-0.7978870868682861,
-0.0026783347129821777,
0.12694506347179413,
-0.7546913027763367,
-0.7839415669441223,
-0.33661043643951416,
-0.5361072421073914,
0.06616920232772827,
0.7947714328765869,
-0.08036511391401291,
-0.02984228916466236,
-0.2620753049850464,
0.899040162563324,
-0.004127930849790573,
-0.17143860459327698,
-0.4781780540943146,
-0.09857957810163498,
-0.6300384402275085,
0.2666323184967041,
-0.566209077835083,
-0.11137434840202332,
-0.37821751832962036,
0.33154603838920593,
0.049853477627038956,
-0.9539434313774109,
-0.38791990280151367,
-0.014413577504456043,
0.20943096280097961,
-0.12751248478889465,
-0.24729424715042114,
0.18975669145584106,
0.7479246854782104,
-0.5460115671157837,
-0.429610013961792,
0.20031136274337769,
0.8631175756454468,
-0.12360408157110214,
-0.29769304394721985,
0.11984707415103912,
0.36571529507637024,
-0.7444542646408081,
-0.07195954769849777,
-0.01612737961113453,
-0.5925602912902832,
0.47591570019721985,
0.03836893290281296,
-0.24724426865577698,
0.31268325448036194,
0.05327046290040016,
-0.22174571454524994,
0.5332764387130737,
0.3200417757034302,
-0.3086358606815338,
0.05241709202528,
0.1379823386669159,
-0.20525164902210236,
0.0517083965241909,
-0.534224808216095,
0.12325093895196915,
0.31774431467056274,
-0.5190725326538086,
-0.08658549934625626,
-0.8256912231445312,
-0.05576716363430023,
0.36878111958503723,
0.07637400925159454,
-0.3268834054470062,
-0.3245473802089691,
0.5028078556060791,
-0.19039025902748108,
-0.5413854122161865,
-0.0389062725007534,
0.5830879807472229,
0.0016113657038658857,
-0.12196438014507294,
0.2498314529657364,
0.3594757914543152,
-0.03378751501441002,
0.5725611448287964,
1.0202910900115967,
0.06208763271570206,
-0.2837360203266144,
0.1003480777144432,
0.4750789999961853,
0.08282805234193802,
-0.017319057136774063,
-0.7258753776550293,
0.21039773523807526,
0.7119308710098267,
-0.93988436460495,
-0.43552732467651367,
-0.6466099619865417,
0.4996918737888336,
-0.6278374791145325,
0.048517439514398575,
-0.041509099304676056,
-0.16256782412528992,
0.08255773782730103,
0.11331629753112793,
-0.2672947943210602,
-0.7778784036636353,
-0.042801838368177414,
-0.4806723892688751,
0.022413019090890884,
-0.08980555832386017,
-0.7224598526954651,
-0.30657705664634705,
-1.2155146598815918,
0.40789133310317993,
-0.12777958810329437,
-0.04200729355216026,
0.44998952746391296,
-0.34890079498291016,
-0.45947718620300293,
0.0305568166077137,
-0.8139755725860596,
0.19361086189746857,
-0.26744526624679565,
-0.20953167974948883,
0.3904930055141449,
-0.47435587644577026,
-0.5873983502388,
-0.10028376430273056,
-0.6683474779129028,
-0.1827503889799118,
-0.06580207496881485,
-0.6469893455505371,
0.1773921698331833,
-0.052361004054546356,
-0.4674835801124573,
0.2934889793395996,
-0.3648816645145416,
-0.17479905486106873,
-0.04515758156776428,
0.46061229705810547,
0.5640541911125183,
0.4153778553009033,
0.40539416670799255,
-0.606502890586853,
0.7620718479156494,
0.45816922187805176,
-0.3047080636024475,
0.1144474670290947,
-0.010535629466176033,
-0.15059439837932587,
-0.1258641928434372,
-0.24347853660583496,
0.27220800518989563,
0.22672238945960999,
-0.1021091490983963,
0.4052134156227112,
0.6731382608413696,
-0.9019362926483154,
-0.05562666431069374,
0.6473207473754883,
-0.7975053787231445,
0.4245746433734894,
0.09444974362850189,
-0.6645364165306091,
0.3353763818740845,
0.5314454436302185,
0.23719842731952667,
0.40844103693962097,
0.49866896867752075,
-0.6963194608688354,
-0.11697223782539368,
0.050411928445100784,
0.10398157685995102,
0.004772425629198551,
-0.23599836230278015,
-0.16999487578868866,
0.5743029117584229,
-0.056767307221889496,
-0.28243058919906616,
-0.3121308386325836,
-0.6115753054618835,
-0.3356136381626129,
0.3534294664859772,
0.4699232578277588,
0.574142336845398,
0.26812607049942017,
0.13183894753456116,
0.04559493809938431,
-0.015291974879801273,
0.49331095814704895,
-0.23773761093616486,
-0.23256205022335052,
0.2515795826911926,
0.621133029460907,
-0.23088330030441284,
0.5413591861724854,
-0.37541866302490234,
0.08220662921667099,
-0.07795201987028122,
-0.3644999861717224,
0.2735685110092163,
0.0535450205206871,
0.5762537717819214,
-0.0039887637831270695,
-0.035986389964818954,
0.44903984665870667,
-0.8548035621643066,
-0.8118563294410706,
-0.48604142665863037,
0.8195037245750427,
-0.40241551399230957,
-0.08822174370288849,
0.4285312294960022,
0.5198215842247009,
0.6411192417144775,
-0.32289358973503113,
0.2524510324001312,
0.045721713453531265,
0.4133714437484741,
1.052268385887146,
0.2575824558734894,
0.035090893507003784,
0.32262274622917175,
-0.4528888165950775,
-0.03659985214471817,
-0.5415256023406982,
-0.26174822449684143,
-0.15389788150787354,
-0.41178449988365173,
0.23591120541095734,
0.5725908875465393,
-0.522178590297699,
-0.3723636269569397,
0.29917097091674805,
0.09188961982727051,
0.20413976907730103,
0.5481051802635193,
-0.3037923574447632,
0.2413475513458252,
-0.6027136445045471,
0.3592579662799835,
-0.11442889273166656,
-0.05033944174647331,
-0.20082886517047882,
0.40058279037475586,
0.39243558049201965,
0.050913382321596146,
-0.5708820819854736,
0.058457087725400925,
-0.4098726511001587,
-0.4200339615345001,
-0.217278853058815,
0.27638599276542664,
-0.05038868635892868,
0.14916837215423584,
-0.10134845227003098,
0.21684448421001434,
-0.5593250393867493,
0.30313563346862793,
0.9976450204849243,
0.26141202449798584,
-0.46020641922950745,
-0.21156443655490875,
-0.29133090376853943,
-0.2136806845664978,
0.5552487373352051,
0.48066842555999756,
-0.015851370990276337,
-0.18281929194927216,
0.0649026557803154,
0.07456866651773453,
-0.22445005178451538,
0.47977420687675476,
-0.2650892436504364,
-0.4348840117454529,
-0.4196537435054779,
1.2884360551834106,
-0.49336373805999756,
-0.5322686433792114,
-0.24071571230888367,
1.2055859565734863,
0.9492434859275818,
-0.695491373538971,
0.25240978598594666,
-0.4191291630268097,
0.4037763178348541,
-0.11453515291213989,
0.507630467414856,
0.4695633053779602,
-0.4401017725467682,
0.09046255797147751,
-0.5452487468719482,
0.06876704096794128,
-0.29925981163978577,
-0.3562825620174408,
-0.00016661573317833245,
0.25120213627815247,
-0.15714102983474731,
-0.12472276389598846,
0.20168954133987427,
-0.47365880012512207,
0.33467087149620056,
0.15893740952014923
] |
205966
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%20Allyson
|
June Allyson
|
June Allyson (born Eleanor Geisman; October 7, 1917July 8, 2006) was an American stage, film, and television actress, dancer, and singer.
Allyson began her career in 1937 as a dancer in short subject films and on Broadway in 1938. She signed with MGM in 1943, and rose to fame the following year in Two Girls and a Sailor. Allyson's "girl next door" image was solidified during the mid-1940s when she was paired with actor Van Johnson in six films. In 1951, she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for her performance in Too Young to Kiss. From 1959 to 1961, she hosted and occasionally starred in her own anthology series, The DuPont Show with June Allyson, which aired on CBS.
In the 1970s, she returned to the stage starring in Forty Carats and No, No, Nanette. In 1982, Allyson released her autobiography June Allyson by June Allyson, and continued her career with guest starring roles on television and occasional film appearances. She later established the June Allyson Foundation for Public Awareness and Medical Research and worked to raise money for research for urological and gynecological diseases affecting senior citizens. During the 1980s, Allyson also became a spokesperson for Depend undergarments, in a successful marketing campaign that has been credited in reducing the social stigma of incontinence. She made her final onscreen appearance in 2001.
Allyson was married four times (to three husbands) and had two children with her first husband, Dick Powell. She died of respiratory failure and bronchitis in July 2006 at the age of 88.
Early life
Allyson was born Eleanor Geisman, nicknamed Ella, in the Bronx, New York City. She was the daughter of Clara (née Provost) and Robert Geisman. She had a brother, Henry, who was two years older. She said she had been raised as a Catholic, but a discrepancy exists relating to her early life, and her studio biography was often the source of the confusion. Her paternal grandparents, Harry Geisman and Anna Hafner, were immigrants from Germany although Allyson claimed her last name was originally "Van Geisman", and was of Dutch origin. Studio biographies listed her as Jan Allyson born to French-English parents. Upon her death, her daughter said Allyson was born "Eleanor Geisman to a French mother and Dutch father."
In April 1918 (when Allyson was six months old), her alcoholic father, who had worked as a janitor, abandoned the family. Allyson was brought up in near poverty, living with her maternal grandparents. To make ends meet, her mother worked as a telephone operator and restaurant cashier. When she had enough funds, she occasionally reunited with her daughter, but more often Allyson was "farmed" to her grandparents or other relatives.
Accident
In 1925 (when Allyson was eight), a tree branch fell on her while she was riding her tricycle with her pet terrier in tow. Allyson sustained a fractured skull and broken back, and her dog was killed. Her doctors said she never would walk again and confined her to a heavy steel brace from neck to hips for four years, and she ultimately regained her health, but when Allyson had become famous, she was terrified that people would discover her background from the "tenement side of New York City", and she readily agreed to studio tales of a "rosy life", including a concocted story that she underwent months of swimming exercises in rehabilitation to emerge as a star swimmer. In her later memoirs, Allyson describes a summer program of swimming that did help her recovery.
After gradually progressing from a wheelchair to crutches to braces, Allyson's true escape from her impoverished life was to go to the cinema, where she was enraptured by Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire movies. As a teen, Allyson memorized the trademark dance routines of Ginger Rogers; she claimed later to have watched The Gay Divorcee 17 times. She also tried to emulate the singing styles of movie stars, but she never mastered reading music.
When her mother remarried and the family was reunited with a more stable financial standing, Allyson was enrolled in the Ned Wayburn Dancing Academy and began to enter dance competitions with the stage name of Elaine Peters.
Career
Early work
With the death of her stepfather and a bleak future ahead, she left high school midway her junior year to seek jobs as a dancer. Her first $60-a-week job was as a tap dancer at the Lido Club in Montreal. Returning to New York, she found work as an actress in movie short subjects filmed by Educational Pictures at its Astoria, Queens NY studio.
Fiercely ambitious, Allyson tried her hand at modeling, but to her consternation became the "sad-looking before part" in a before-and-after bathing suit magazine ad.
Musical shorts
Her first career break came when Educational cast her as an ingenue opposite singer Lee Sullivan, comic dancers Herman Timberg, Jr., and Pat Rooney, Jr., and future comedy star Danny Kaye in a series of shorts. These included Swing for Sale (1937), Pixilated (1937), Ups and Downs (1937), Dime a Dance (1938), Dates and Nuts (1938) and Sing for Sweetie (1938).
When Educational ceased operations, Allyson moved to Vitaphone in Brooklyn and starred or co-starred (with dancer Hal Le Roy) in musical shorts. These included The Prisoner of Swing (1938), The Knight Is Young (1938), Rollin' in Rhythm (1939) and All Girl Revue (1940).
Broadway
Interspersing jobs in the chorus line at the Copacabana Club with acting roles at Vitaphone, the diminutive 5'1", below-100-pound Allyson landed a chorus job in the Broadway show Sing Out the News in 1938.
The “legend” around her stage name is that the choreographer gave her a job and a new name: Allyson, a family name, and June, for the month, although like many aspects of her career resume, the story is highly unlikely as she was already dubbing herself "June Allyson" prior to her Broadway engagement. At one point she attributed the name to a director she worked with even later.
Allyson subsequently appeared in the chorus in the Jerome Kern–Oscar Hammerstein II musical Very Warm for May (1939).
When Vitaphone discontinued New York production in 1940, Allyson returned to the stage to take on more chorus roles in Rodgers and Hart's Higher and Higher (1940) and Cole Porter's Panama Hattie (1940).
Her dancing and musical talent led to a stint as an understudy for the lead, Betty Hutton, and when Hutton contracted measles, Allyson appeared in five performances of Panama Hattie. Broadway director George Abbott caught one of performances and offered Allyson one of the lead roles in his production of Best Foot Forward (1941).
Early films
After her appearance in the Broadway musical, Allyson was selected for the 1943 film version of Best Foot Forward. When she arrived in Hollywood, the production had not started, so MGM "placed her on the payroll" of Girl Crazy (1943). Despite playing a bit part", Allyson received good reviews as a sidekick to Best Foot Forwards star, Lucille Ball, but was still relegated to the "drop list.
MGM's musical supervisor Arthur Freed saw her screen test sent up by an agent and insisted that Allyson be put on contract immediately. Another musical, Thousands Cheer (1943), was a showcase for her singing, albeit still in a minor role.
As a new starlet, although Allyson had already been a performer on stage and screen for over five years, she was presented as an "overnight sensation", with Hollywood press agents attempting to portray her as an ingenue, selectively slicing years off her true age. Studio bios listed her variously as being born in 1922 and 1923.
Rising fame
Allyson's breakthrough was in Two Girls and a Sailor (1944) where the studio image of the "girl next door" was fostered by her being cast alongside long-time acting chum Van Johnson, the quintessential "boy next door." As the "sweetheart team", Johnson and Allyson were to appear together in four later films.
Allyson supported Lucille Ball again in Meet the People (1944), which was a flop. It was on this film she met Dick Powell, whom she later married.
She supported Margaret O'Brien in Music for Millions (1944) and was billed after Robert Walker and Hedy Lamarr in the romantic comedy Her Highness and the Bellboy (1945).
Stardom
Allyson was top-billed along with Walker in The Sailor Takes a Wife (1945). She had a role in Two Sisters from Boston (1946) with Kathryn Grayson and Peter Lawford, and was one of several MGM stars in Till the Clouds Roll By (1946). She also appeared in her first drama, The Secret Heart, in 1946 with Claudette Colbert and Walter Pidgeon.
She was reunited with Johnson in High Barbaree (1947) and followed with the musical Good News, also in 1947.
Allyson starred with Johnson in the 1948 comedy The Bride Goes Wild, then played Constance in the hugely popular 1948 The Three Musketeers (1948). Her song "Thou Swell" was a high point of the Rodgers and Hart biopic Words and Music (1948), as performed in the "A Connecticut Yankee" segment with the Blackburn Twins.
Allyson played the tomboy Jo March in Little Women (1949), which was a huge hit. She was adept at crying on cue, and many of her films incorporated a crying scene. Fellow MGM player Margaret O'Brien recalled that she and Allyson were known as "the town criers". "I cried once in a picture and they said 'Let's do it again', and I cried for the rest of my career", she later said.
The same year, MGM announced Allyson would be in Forever by Mildred Crann, but the project was dropped. Instead, she starred in The Stratton Story (1949) with James Stewart, which she later said was her favorite film.
She made two films with Dick Powell: The Reformer and the Redhead (1950) and Right Cross (1950), after which she was reunited with Johnson in Too Young to Kiss (1951).
In 1950, Allyson had been signed to appear opposite her childhood idol Fred Astaire in Royal Wedding, but had to leave the production due pregnancy. She was replaced initially by Judy Garland, who in turn was replaced by Jane Powell.
Allyson played a doctor in The Girl in White (1952), which lost revenue, and a nurse in Battle Circus (1953), a hit. She started in Remains to Be Seen (1953) with Johnson, which was a flop. In May 1953, she and MGM agreed to part ways by mutual consent.
Post MGM
In 1954, Allyson was in a huge Universal Pictures hit, The Glenn Miller Story, as well as another successful MGM film, Executive Suite. She also starred the Fox Film Woman's World, which did less well.
Allyson was teamed with Stewart again in Strategic Air Command (1955) at Paramount, another success.
She had a change of pace in The Shrike (1955) with José Ferrer at Universal; it flopped. More popular was The McConnell Story (1955) with Alan Ladd at Warner Bros..
Allyson did some musical remakes of classic films, The Opposite Sex (1956) at MGM and You Can't Run Away from It (1956) at Columbia, which was directed by Powell.
In 1957, she signed with Universal and did two more remakes: Interlude, a drama for Douglas Sirk, and My Man Godfrey, a comedy with David Niven. She then made A Stranger in My Arms (1958) with Jeff Chandler. The box office failure of these films effectively ended her reign as an A-list movie star.
Television
The DuPont Show with June Allyson (1959–60) ran for two seasons on CBS and was an attempt to use a high budget formula. She later called it "the hardest thing I ever did." Her efforts were dismissed by an entertainment critic in the LA Examiner as "reaching down to the level of mag fiction." However, TV Guide and other fan magazines such as TV Magazine considered Allyson's foray into television as revitalizing her fame and career for a younger audience, and remarked that her typecasting by the movie industry as the "girl next door" was a "waste and neglect of talent on its own doorstep."
She also appeared on shows like Zane Grey Theater, The Dick Powell Theatre and Burke's Law before retiring for several years after the death of Powell in 1963.
Return to acting
Allyson returned to acting with an appearance in The Name of the Game. In 1970, she briefly starred in Forty Carats on Broadway.
Throughout the 1970s, she appeared regularly on television shows such as See the Man Run (1971), The Sixth Sense (1972), and Letters from Three Lovers (1973), as well as in the film They Only Kill Their Masters (1972).
Later appearances include Curse of the Black Widow (1977), Three on a Date (1978), Vega$ (1978), Blackout (1978), House Calls, The Kid with the Broken Halo (1982) Simon & Simon, The Love Boat, Hart to Hart, Murder, She Wrote, Misfits of Science, Crazy Like a Fox, and Airwolf. Her last appearance was in These Old Broads (2001).
Personal life
Marriages and children
On her arrival in Hollywood, studio heads attempted to enhance the pairing of Van Johnson and Allyson by sending out the two contracted players on a series of "official dates", which were highly publicized and led to a public perception that a romance had been kindled. Although dating David Rose, Peter Lawford, and John F. Kennedy, Allyson was actually being courted by Dick Powell, who was 13 years her senior and had been previously married to Mildred Maund and Joan Blondell.
On August 19, 1945, Allyson caused MGM studio chief Louis B. Mayer some consternation by marrying Dick Powell. After defying him twice by refusing to stop seeing Powell, in a "tactical master stroke", she asked Mayer to give her away at the wedding. He was so disarmed that he agreed but put Allyson on suspension anyway.
The Powells had two children, Pamela Allyson Powell (adopted in 1948 through the Tennessee Children's Home Society in an adoption arranged by Georgia Tann) and Richard Powell, Jr., born December 24, 1950.
In the mid 1950s, Allyson reportedly had an affair with actor Alan Ladd.
In 1961, Allyson underwent a kidney operation and later, throat surgery, temporarily affecting her trademark raspy voice. She filed for divorce that year, the reason being Powell's devotion to work. In February 1961, Allyson was awarded $2.5 million in settlement, along with custody of their children, in an interlocutory divorce decree. However, before the divorce was finalized they reconciled and remained married until his death on January 2, 1963. Later, Allyson reflected on how the loss of Powell affected her:
This loss prompted Allyson to start drinking heavily. In 1963, she was going to elope with Powell's barber, Glenn Maxwell, but decided against it. She and Maxwell would later get married and divorced, then married and divorced again.
She also went through a bitter court battle with her mother over the custody of the children. Reports at the time revealed that writer/director Dirk Summers, with whom Allyson was romantically involved from 1963 to 1975, was named legal guardian for Ricky and Pamela as a result of a court petition. Members of the nascent jet-set, Allyson and Summers were frequently seen in Cap d'Antibes, Madrid, Rome, and London. However, Summers refused to marry her and the relationship did not last.
During this time, Allyson struggled with alcoholism, which she overcame in the mid-1970s.
In 1976, Allyson married David Ashrow, a dentist turned actor. The couple occasionally performed together in regional theater, and in the late 1970s and early 1980s, toured the US in the stageplay My Daughter, Your Son. They also appeared on celebrity cruiseship tours on the Royal Viking Sky ocean liner in a program that highlighted Allyson's movie career.
Philanthropy
After Dick Powell's death, Allyson committed herself to charitable work on his behalf, championing the importance of research in urological and gynecological diseases in seniors, and thus, chose to represent the Kimberly-Clark Corporation in commercials for adult incontinence products.
Following a lifelong interest in health and medical research (Allyson had initially wanted to use her acting career to fund her own training as a doctor), she was instrumental in establishing the June Allyson Foundation for Public Awareness and Medical Research.
Allyson also financially supported her brother, Dr. Arthur Peters, through his medical training, and he went on to specialize in otolaryngology.
Politics
Allyson was a staunch Republican and strong supporter of Richard Nixon. Allyson also supported Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election.
Later years
Powell's wealth made it possible for Allyson effectively to retire from show business after his death, making only occasional appearances on talk and variety shows. Allyson returned to the Broadway stage in 1970 in the play Forty Carats and later toured in a production of No, No, Nanette.
Her autobiography, June Allyson by June Allyson (1982), received generally complimentary reviews due to its insider look at Hollywood in one of its golden ages. A more critical appraisal came from Janet Maslin at the New York Times in her review, "Hollywood Leaves Its Imprint on Its Chroniclers", who noted: "Miss Allyson presents herself as the same sunny, tomboyish figure she played on screen in Hollywood... like someone who has come to inhabit the very myths she helped to create on the screen." Privately, Allyson admitted that her earlier screen portrayals had left her uneasy about the typecast "good wife" roles she had played.
As a personal friend of Ronald and Nancy Reagan, she was invited to many White House dinners, and in 1988, Reagan appointed her to the Federal Council on Aging. Allyson and her later husband, David Ashrow, actively supported fund-raising efforts for both the James Stewart and Judy Garland museums; both Stewart and Garland had been close friends.
In 1993, actor-turned-agent Marty Ingels publicly charged Allyson with not paying his large commission on the earlier deal on incontinence product advertising. Allyson denied owing any money, and Ashrow and she filed a lawsuit for slander and emotional distress, charging that Ingels was harassing and threatening them, stating Ingels made 138 phone calls during a single eight-hour period. Earlier that year, Ingels had pleaded no contest to making annoying phone calls.
In December 1993, Allyson christened the Holland America Maasdam, one of the flagships of the Holland America line. Although her heritage, like much of her personal story, was subject to different interpretations, Allyson always claimed to be proud of a Dutch ancestry.
Allyson made a special appearance in 1994 in That's Entertainment III, as one of the film's narrators. She spoke about MGM's golden era and introduced vintage film clips.
In 1996, Allyson became the first recipient of the Harvey Award, presented by the James M. Stewart Museum Foundation, in recognition of her positive contributions to the world of entertainment.
Until 2003, Allyson remained busy touring the country making personal appearances, headlining celebrity cruises, and speaking on behalf of Kimberly-Clark, a long-time commercial interest.
The American Urogynecologic Society established the June Allyson Foundation in 1998 made possible by a grant from Kimberly-Clark. As the first celebrity to undertake the role of public spokesperson for promoting the use of the Depend undergarment, Allyson did "more than any other public figure to encourage and persuade people with incontinence to lead fuller and more active lives".
Death
Following hip-replacement surgery in 2003, Allyson's health began to deteriorate. With her husband at her side, she died July 8, 2006, aged 88 at her home in Ojai, California. Her death was a result of pulmonary respiratory failure and acute bronchitis. On her death, Kimberly-Clark Corporation contributed $25,000 to the June Allyson Foundation to support research advances in the care and treatment of women with urinary incontinence.
Awards and honors
1951: won the Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture Actress-Musical/Comedy, for Too Young to Kiss.
1954: awarded the Special Jury Prize for Ensemble Acting at the Venice Festival, for Executive Suite, in the same year that she was voted Most Popular Female Star by Photoplay magazine.
1955: named the ninth most popular movie star in the annual Quigley Exhibitors Poll and the second most popular female star, after Grace Kelly.
1960: received a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1537 Vine Street for her contributions to the film industry.
1985: received the Cannes Festival Distinguished Service Award.
2007: received a special tribute during the Academy Awards as part of the annual memorial tribute.
Broadway credits
Filmography
Box office ranking
For a number of years exhibitors voted Allyson among the most popular stars in the country:
1949 – 16th (US)
1950 – 14th (US)
1954 – 11th (US)
1955 – 9th (US)
1956 – 15th (US)
1957 – 23rd (US)
Radio appearances
See also
List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars
ReferencesExplanatory notesCitationsBibliography'''
Allyson, June. June Allyson's Feeling Great: A Daily Dozen Exercises for Creative Aging. New York: Da Capo Press, 1987. .
Basinger, Jeanine. The Star Machine. New York: Knopf, 2007. .
Becker, Christine. It's the Pictures That Got Small: Hollywood Film Stars on 1950s Television (Wesleyan Film). Indianapolis, Indiana: Wesleyan, 2009. .
Davis, Ronald L. Van Johnson: MGM's Golden Boy (Hollywood Legends Series). Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2001. .
Eyman, Scott. Lion of Hollywood: The Life and Legend of Louis B. Meyer. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. .
Fordin, Hugh. M-G-M's Greatest Musicals. New York: Da Capo Press, 1996. .
Hirschhorn, Clive. The Hollywood Musical. London: Pyramid Books, 1991, first edition 1981. .
Kennedy, Matthew. Joan Blondell: A Life between Takes (Hollywood Legends Series). Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2007. .
Milner, Jay Dunston. Confessions of a Maddog: A Romp through the High-flying Texas Music and Literary Era of the Fifties to the Seventies. Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press, 1998. .
Mormon, Robert. Demises of the Distinguished. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse, 2007. .
Parish, James Robert and Michael R. Pitts. Hollywood Songsters: Singers Who Act and Actors who can Sing. London: Routledge, 2003. .
Wayne, Jane Ellen. The Golden Girls of MGM: Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, Lana Turner, Judy Garland, Ava Gardner, Grace Kelly and Others. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2002. .
Wayne, Jane Ellen. The Leading Men of MGM. New York: Da Capo Press, 2006. .
External links
Joe Daurril's Allyson Without Tears
Obituary in the Los Angeles Daily News Obituary in The New York Times'' (July 11, 2006)
Photographs and literature
1917 births
2006 deaths
American film actresses
American musical theatre actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American female dancers
Dancers from New York (state)
20th-century American memoirists
American women memoirists
Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
Deaths from bronchitis
Deaths from respiratory failure
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Actresses from New York City
Entertainers from the Bronx
California Republicans
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
Age controversies
20th-century American women singers
Actresses from the Golden Age of Hollywood
American people of German descent
New York (state) Republicans
|
[
-0.16570623219013214,
0.04155019670724869,
-0.48843854665756226,
-0.11475401371717453,
0.007693801075220108,
1.0030075311660767,
0.6642124056816101,
-0.17915715277194977,
-0.6829655766487122,
0.14355584979057312,
-0.12396139651536942,
0.38477277755737305,
0.4758072793483734,
0.10401669144630432,
-0.6444615721702576,
0.1430974155664444,
0.19890114665031433,
0.5837815999984741,
0.45368704199790955,
-0.5652483701705933,
-0.7460600137710571,
-0.051629047840833664,
-0.018670514225959778,
0.19917719066143036,
-0.9218297004699707,
0.5050026178359985,
-0.6405277252197266,
-0.12991711497306824,
0.37014010548591614,
0.18678689002990723,
-0.43737486004829407,
0.3227689266204834,
0.7504828572273254,
0.08520261198282242,
-0.7657496929168701,
0.5080506205558777,
-0.24237418174743652,
-0.20814095437526703,
-0.218150332570076,
-0.33185723423957825,
-0.5110783576965332,
-0.25725534558296204,
0.9061549305915833,
-0.023095756769180298,
-0.567040741443634,
-0.4374132454395294,
-2.3021554946899414,
0.4255540370941162,
-0.5538991689682007,
-0.40501999855041504,
-0.40110209584236145,
0.19797421991825104,
0.59816575050354,
0.09294115006923676,
0.14124134182929993,
-0.6827361583709717,
-0.644006609916687,
0.0030756606720387936,
0.030807923525571823,
-0.11626149713993073,
0.3777375817298889,
-0.31756940484046936,
0.6486680507659912,
-0.8112341165542603,
0.33864063024520874,
0.2908717393875122,
0.6961272954940796,
0.13682954013347626,
0.19072990119457245,
-0.4598292112350464,
0.2546895444393158,
0.9457876086235046,
0.4050045609474182,
-0.4482957124710083,
-0.06281404942274094,
-0.8545582294464111,
0.795377254486084,
-0.15500548481941223,
0.117549367249012,
0.1941964477300644,
0.3864295184612274,
-0.26655828952789307,
0.5434339642524719,
0.3647487461566925,
0.2822781205177307,
-0.5969653725624084,
-0.8327562212944031,
0.2732292413711548,
-0.5860999226570129,
-0.2662108242511749,
-0.848209798336029,
-0.2935998737812042,
-0.08453687280416489,
0.40346401929855347,
-0.7258609533309937,
-0.2372962236404419,
0.3722427487373352,
-0.21723401546478271,
0.5303062200546265,
-0.0985388308763504,
-0.39511415362358093,
-0.385996013879776,
0.448230504989624,
-0.6223689913749695,
-0.42342931032180786,
0.6351637244224548,
0.09574522823095322,
-0.17530684173107147,
-0.10890862345695496,
0.16538581252098083,
-0.22814983129501343,
-0.14688634872436523,
-0.056025099009275436,
-0.22265423834323883,
-0.21363428235054016,
0.37508827447891235,
0.1276094913482666,
-0.0026616633404046297,
-0.8806329369544983,
0.0589115135371685,
0.629762589931488,
0.029191497713327408,
0.18037009239196777,
-0.12382704764604568,
-0.6149064898490906,
0.5131312012672424,
-0.41538992524147034,
0.14254796504974365,
0.039373092353343964,
0.2778468728065491,
-0.0035543323028832674,
0.4498375356197357,
-0.4596438407897949,
-0.2711798846721649,
-0.19572757184505463,
-0.16147945821285248,
0.4063537120819092,
0.11666121333837509,
0.2481408417224884,
0.24545331299304962,
-0.3466291129589081,
0.3376794755458832,
-0.447250634431839,
0.36268627643585205,
1.3252208232879639,
-0.0266233142465353,
0.07162151485681534,
0.3135233223438263,
-0.5308235287666321,
-0.2610780894756317,
-0.193307027220726,
0.11777389049530029,
0.5764648914337158,
-0.21115456521511078,
-0.9003478288650513,
0.31101223826408386,
0.6973495483398438,
-0.05538760870695114,
0.22254100441932678,
-0.10275070369243622,
0.6013070940971375,
0.43877169489860535,
-0.054660364985466,
0.07839781790971756,
0.3380201756954193,
-0.5932811498641968,
-0.6418805122375488,
-0.11135515570640564,
-0.40210220217704773,
0.3264261484146118,
0.055716175585985184,
0.7177972793579102,
0.20766089856624603,
0.18340107798576355,
-0.7923043966293335,
0.5075440406799316,
-0.25540733337402344,
0.230666846036911,
-0.23681843280792236,
-0.369920015335083,
-0.6188750863075256,
0.6229127645492554,
-0.08048588037490845,
-0.1663094460964203,
-0.1237538754940033,
0.6172307729721069,
-0.157675638794899,
-0.12474100291728973,
0.29992806911468506,
0.004052898846566677,
-0.5145875215530396,
-0.49945640563964844,
-0.06934762001037598,
0.31032630801200867,
-0.06914503872394562,
-0.1420191526412964,
-0.09943149983882904,
-0.0035044574178755283,
-0.36180028319358826,
-0.040445178747177124,
0.04201071336865425,
-0.23043186962604523,
0.4042050838470459,
0.024160025641322136,
-0.19099853932857513,
0.276022732257843,
0.3534451425075531,
0.15550057590007782,
0.599288821220398,
0.5116035342216492,
0.032206326723098755,
-0.6044144630432129,
0.47777941823005676,
0.6329644322395325,
-0.04691401496529579,
-0.45425906777381897,
-1.195260763168335,
0.1434064507484436,
0.8574232459068298,
-0.07627153396606445,
0.32361307740211487,
0.9014432430267334,
-0.4832903742790222,
-0.3062191307544708,
0.30852484703063965,
0.43105095624923706,
-0.21248775720596313,
-0.04268753528594971,
0.16057825088500977,
-0.028780117630958557,
0.6910638809204102,
0.24901795387268066,
-0.08501116186380386,
-1.108887791633606,
0.21484877169132233,
-0.262895405292511,
0.4172263443470001,
0.29485055804252625,
0.2863750457763672,
-1.0464425086975098,
0.25660425424575806,
-0.145189568400383,
-0.6355956196784973,
0.9337482452392578,
0.06110164150595665,
0.36120420694351196,
0.15855281054973602,
-0.2554604113101959,
-0.09728400409221649,
-0.22787794470787048,
0.4935157001018524,
0.457897424697876,
0.24216178059577942,
-0.03241848945617676,
-0.00012012928345939144,
-0.004859297536313534,
-0.10727954655885696,
0.2115132063627243,
1.0608844757080078,
0.46189531683921814,
0.5121485590934753,
-0.33628594875335693,
0.24266590178012848,
0.21522584557533264,
0.05410876125097275,
-0.29895147681236267,
-0.33879604935646057,
-0.5345896482467651,
0.23701079189777374,
-0.17948022484779358,
0.12259047478437424,
-0.122693732380867,
-0.31054818630218506,
0.31622010469436646,
-0.4589075744152069,
0.48129287362098694,
-0.3935402035713196,
-0.09406914561986923,
-0.7485871911048889,
-0.9093499183654785,
0.6139013171195984,
0.5680475234985352,
-0.47674453258514404,
-0.5804217457771301,
0.11152783781290054,
-0.30662673711776733,
-0.013222306035459042,
-0.004972247872501612,
-0.20986801385879517,
-0.23603899776935577,
0.007213808596134186,
0.9185742139816284,
-0.9089680910110474,
0.5236372947692871,
0.1315717250108719,
0.01630439981818199,
-0.288246750831604,
0.8145748972892761,
-0.6551855802536011,
0.35121646523475647,
0.27954816818237305,
0.582116425037384,
-0.06286640465259552,
-0.21894042193889618,
0.609084963798523,
0.33519235253334045,
0.21081165969371796,
-0.19665402173995972,
-5.227631092071533,
0.08583401143550873,
0.2600260078907013,
-0.3281615376472473,
0.4285396337509155,
-0.35405004024505615,
0.13095690310001373,
-0.01772366836667061,
0.3201148509979248,
0.3252803087234497,
0.1676047295331955,
-0.09814881533384323,
-0.7250998616218567,
0.6896879076957703,
0.18195423483848572,
0.19177022576332092,
0.1080906018614769,
-0.6348519921302795,
-0.17113380134105682,
1.1293283700942993,
-0.40187448263168335,
-0.4564129412174225,
0.005599814001470804,
0.6273795366287231,
-0.10040000081062317,
-0.5717531442642212,
0.002842584392055869,
-0.2788292467594147,
-0.7136232852935791,
-0.49144402146339417,
-0.31662413477897644,
0.01367944572120905,
-0.2839207351207733,
-0.34046491980552673,
0.2956143617630005,
0.0047075748443603516,
0.012837326154112816,
-0.528380274772644,
-0.4527363181114197,
-0.3983912765979767,
-0.3304559886455536,
0.2096782922744751,
-0.2828349173069,
0.3871990144252777,
0.17154346406459808,
-0.23402388393878937,
-0.12868691980838776,
-0.34206679463386536,
0.009168882854282856,
0.680700957775116,
0.7466906905174255,
-0.25758013129234314,
0.38169220089912415,
-0.8585300445556641,
0.62082839012146,
-0.35622432827949524,
-0.039836280047893524,
0.20215217769145966,
-0.2608725428581238,
0.1506442278623581,
0.4070643186569214,
-0.33606359362602234,
-0.06564665585756302,
0.20890896022319794,
-0.49544280767440796,
-0.24098779261112213,
0.024222776293754578,
0.27796173095703125,
0.09494888037443161,
-0.4728029668331146,
0.14245934784412384,
0.21934112906455994,
-0.23218253254890442,
-1.143240213394165,
-0.1760656237602234,
-0.7058972716331482,
0.23845739662647247,
-0.22109873592853546,
-0.7225680947303772,
0.2708387076854706,
0.20094448328018188,
-0.5154610276222229,
0.864482045173645,
0.8297043442726135,
0.5920331478118896,
-0.22598406672477722,
-0.02960100583732128,
0.7920072078704834,
-0.034580301493406296,
-0.11106041073799133,
-0.42562100291252136,
-0.1516001969575882,
0.01607821322977543,
-0.3326829671859741,
0.07591485977172852,
-0.03309393301606178,
-0.06887822598218918,
0.23742638528347015,
0.1094646230340004,
0.5746949315071106,
-0.2999412417411804,
-0.4624215066432953,
0.7426366806030273,
-0.42868196964263916,
0.7483668327331543,
-0.33756223320961,
0.3006194233894348,
-0.3651633858680725,
0.6014125347137451,
-0.49482715129852295,
0.16457025706768036,
0.09945184737443924,
0.0006655924953520298,
-0.773114800453186,
0.4272686541080475,
-0.15880592167377472,
0.4146599769592285,
0.6167786717414856,
0.2492693066596985,
0.28104421496391296,
-0.10807899385690689,
0.6762852668762207,
-0.3306860327720642,
0.7218577861785889,
0.15176258981227875,
-0.22439488768577576,
-0.127039834856987,
-0.2908416986465454,
-0.5903072357177734,
0.029392661526799202,
-0.5051648020744324,
0.32822421193122864,
0.23497655987739563,
-0.027194039896130562,
0.7575926780700684,
-0.08680281788110733,
-0.08099579811096191,
-0.21843479573726654,
-0.28284284472465515,
-0.4680286943912506,
-0.2093597799539566,
-0.4091295003890991,
0.13676998019218445,
0.6719328165054321,
0.12760648131370544,
0.002944795647636056,
0.4128473997116089,
-0.4710344970226288,
-0.3686113655567169,
0.46255379915237427,
0.5553632974624634,
0.3729347884654999,
0.5219271183013916,
-0.21170565485954285,
-0.5880387425422668,
-0.5081939697265625,
0.05162758752703667,
-0.6370396614074707,
0.16959834098815918,
0.08155599236488342,
-0.21800664067268372,
-0.08985624462366104,
-0.3438621461391449,
-0.023086022585630417,
-0.12438642233610153,
-0.2497393786907196,
-0.18235275149345398,
-0.40091651678085327,
-0.3195436894893646,
0.35475754737854004,
-0.734408438205719,
-0.9424105286598206,
0.43342527747154236,
0.3134195804595947,
0.1592661738395691,
0.6572430729866028,
-0.3293360769748688,
-0.44971102476119995,
0.04946514964103699,
-0.6993774175643921,
0.16079844534397125,
-0.4395298957824707,
-1.39365553855896,
-0.23605850338935852,
0.1314270794391632,
-0.5200380086898804,
-0.548741340637207,
-0.4027867913246155,
-0.4718356430530548,
-0.11526720225811005,
-0.1173689141869545,
-0.022025682032108307,
-0.0541754886507988,
0.42051997780799866,
-0.7540687322616577,
0.18397654592990875,
-0.12791267037391663,
0.3732820451259613,
0.2496780902147293,
0.278820276260376,
-0.5595359206199646,
0.02049790695309639,
-0.552584707736969,
-0.7000515460968018,
0.7068395018577576,
-0.8297817707061768,
0.5400914549827576,
0.47845458984375,
-0.31799033284187317,
0.7600002288818359,
-0.42796996235847473,
-0.6379024982452393,
0.16957926750183105,
-0.0036380954552441835,
-0.07278826832771301,
0.6823675632476807,
0.43177902698516846,
-0.21305792033672333,
0.27621471881866455,
-0.4838915467262268,
-0.3905366063117981,
-0.710862398147583,
-0.10529648512601852,
0.1330600380897522,
-0.7791593670845032,
-0.048286955803632736,
-0.0420590341091156,
0.06105635687708855,
0.6399842500686646,
-0.2742939591407776,
-0.17718994617462158,
0.1517428755760193,
0.16133873164653778,
-0.14565026760101318,
-0.6261737942695618,
-0.26999375224113464,
-0.05286084860563278,
0.43701764941215515,
-0.22601835429668427,
0.19758149981498718,
0.2808137834072113,
0.39951473474502563,
-0.31046321988105774,
0.778840184211731,
0.00493666110560298,
0.38545122742652893,
-0.5776951909065247,
-0.6010087728500366,
-0.09598657488822937,
-0.13937008380889893,
-0.007297020871192217,
0.25098446011543274,
-0.47717297077178955,
-0.025372030213475227,
-0.07465340942144394,
-0.36569249629974365,
0.12186329811811447,
0.20189420878887177,
-0.5529122948646545,
0.0036454363726079464,
0.11659424751996994,
0.09834419935941696,
0.060950424522161484,
0.015417736023664474,
-0.36927559971809387,
0.4097920358181,
0.006334408652037382,
-0.24496990442276,
0.18842847645282745,
-0.5960001945495605,
0.28818202018737793,
0.11454790830612183,
-0.20102091133594513,
0.2169128805398941,
0.09200002253055573,
0.41945764422416687,
0.2363261729478836,
-0.48317405581474304,
-0.2741283178329468,
-0.42244723439216614,
-0.10184678435325623,
0.3864571452140808,
-0.48219048976898193,
-0.7707982659339905,
-0.38138672709465027,
-0.5177255868911743,
0.0956505611538887,
-0.818317174911499,
-0.520440936088562,
0.026153748854994774,
0.3048870265483856,
0.8914743065834045,
0.32105398178100586,
-0.03229004517197609,
-0.3817461133003235,
0.42390477657318115,
-0.13923215866088867,
0.9795415997505188,
-0.19966168701648712,
-0.24299532175064087,
-0.13214167952537537,
0.3563888669013977,
0.31409257650375366,
-0.31920838356018066,
-0.007261011749505997,
-0.17733384668827057,
0.059092313051223755,
-1.2495903968811035,
-0.19429709017276764,
1.1811844110488892,
0.1661490947008133,
-0.0451539009809494,
0.5742701888084412,
0.8037835359573364,
-0.3859514594078064,
0.3402270972728729,
0.7371889352798462,
-0.4345686435699463,
-0.2926856577396393,
0.27297449111938477,
-0.5708561539649963,
-0.45396196842193604,
0.5273305177688599,
-0.015993906185030937,
0.5156763195991516,
0.4416395425796509,
0.514887809753418,
0.540292501449585,
-0.5162072777748108,
0.19894357025623322,
-0.005368162412196398,
-0.2171010673046112,
0.46277016401290894,
0.7609037756919861,
0.02207285165786743,
-0.5839625000953674,
0.3338913023471832,
-0.2235051542520523,
0.26927468180656433,
0.2412203997373581,
-0.15834136307239532,
0.8064661622047424,
0.49009016156196594,
0.26111486554145813,
0.21045798063278198,
0.01517076138406992,
-0.19606898725032806,
1.0319790840148926,
-0.6561009287834167,
-0.6501784324645996,
0.32897692918777466,
-0.025486066937446594,
0.07999029010534286,
-0.7217505574226379,
1.311955451965332,
-0.11062552779912949,
0.04692981019616127,
-0.46730855107307434,
-0.27748921513557434,
0.22851935029029846,
-0.7349551916122437,
-0.600102424621582,
1.2199053764343262,
0.29643502831459045,
-0.5606126189231873,
-0.4719366133213043,
0.07163450121879578,
-0.2572076916694641,
0.09070926904678345,
0.0868518203496933,
0.11598378419876099,
0.15963925421237946,
-0.4577668607234955,
0.1379653364419937,
0.44242969155311584,
0.2154543250799179,
0.31073325872421265,
-0.8505476713180542,
-0.11964622884988785,
0.0676405280828476,
-0.6115038990974426,
0.3052680194377899,
0.06360344588756561,
-0.17500624060630798,
0.4127664864063263,
-0.1816924512386322,
-0.10937802493572235,
-0.29049375653266907,
0.5513510704040527,
-0.035658061504364014,
0.7866684198379517,
-0.6518862843513489,
0.4445628821849823,
0.37634530663490295,
-0.37619608640670776,
0.14581391215324402,
-0.0027382199186831713,
0.6748903393745422,
0.774232029914856,
-0.23576825857162476,
0.46950066089630127,
1.077089786529541,
0.10391360521316528,
0.07091566175222397,
0.15031000971794128,
0.5381631255149841,
-0.4337303638458252,
0.17353102564811707,
-0.11329992860555649,
0.29154616594314575,
-0.1585514396429062,
-0.23253540694713593,
-0.16273996233940125,
0.11895684897899628,
-0.31063520908355713,
0.28838497400283813,
0.8274897336959839,
0.7950829863548279,
-0.11505894362926483,
-0.13765470683574677,
0.11700774729251862,
0.41779497265815735,
0.24322496354579926,
-0.5791464447975159,
-0.23410363495349884,
1.3329017162322998,
-0.8696233630180359,
-0.298272967338562,
-0.48403215408325195,
-0.35492992401123047,
-0.00886236410588026,
0.3178725838661194,
-0.08081818372011185,
-0.01600274257361889,
-0.3715345859527588,
-0.15094274282455444,
0.4582121968269348,
0.16531260311603546,
0.9429781436920166,
-0.5032910108566284,
0.441999614238739,
0.6605507135391235,
0.26078659296035767,
0.029193947091698647,
0.46149709820747375,
-0.11195332556962967,
0.01552948635071516,
0.04218106344342232,
-0.02468930184841156,
0.7159904837608337,
-0.5404155254364014,
-0.7405261397361755,
0.1245153546333313,
-0.2779552638530731,
-0.7257106900215149,
-0.1464819312095642,
0.2771631181240082,
0.17139160633087158,
0.29782482981681824,
-0.057814665138721466
] |
205967
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Maryland%20%28BB-46%29
|
USS Maryland (BB-46)
|
USS Maryland (BB-46), also known as "Old Mary" or "Fighting Mary" to her crewmates, was a . She was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the seventh state. She was commissioned in 1921, and serving as the flagship of the fleet, cruised to Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil.
During World War II, she was on Battleship Row during the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and was lightly damaged by Japanese bombs. Returning to duty in 1942, she saw service in the Pacific War, first supporting the rest of the fleet at the Battle of Midway, and then patrolling the Fiji Islands to guard against Japanese incursion. Next, she went on the offensive, commencing shore bombardments in the Battle of Tarawa and later in the Battle of Kwajalein. During the Battle of Saipan she took torpedo damage to her bow, necessitating repairs and refits. She then participated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf where she was hit by a kamikaze. She took another kamikaze hit at the Battle of Okinawa, and was under repair toward the end of World War II. The USS Maryland had completed repairs at Bremerton, WA and was sailing back to the Pacific Theater when word was received that the war had ended. The ship turned around and returned to the Port of Long Beach, CA.
After service in Operation Magic Carpet, she was decommissioned in 1947, and sold for scrap in 1959. She received seven battle stars for World War II service.
Design
In 1916, design work was completed on the next class of battleships to be built for the United States Navy beginning in 1917. These ships were nearly direct copies of the preceding , with the exception of the main battery, which increased from twelve guns to eight guns. The Colorado class proved to be the last class of battleships completed of the standard type.
Maryland was long overall and she had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric turbo-electric drives with steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The ship's propulsion system was rated at for a top speed of , though on speed trials she reached and a speed of . She had a normal cruising range of at , but additional fuel space could be used in wartime to increase her range to at that speed. Her crew numbered 64 officers and 1,241 enlisted men.
She was armed with a main battery of eight 16 in /45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four twin-gun turrets on the centerline, two forward and two aft in superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen /51 caliber guns, mounted individually in casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. She carried an anti-aircraft battery of eight /50 caliber guns in individual high-angle mounts. As was customary for capital ships of the period, she had a torpedo tube mounted in her hull below the waterline on each broadside. Marylands main armored belt was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces on barbettes. Her conning tower had thick sides.
Service history
Inter-war period
Maryland was one of four dreadnought battleships of the Colorado class to be constructed. Her keel was laid down on 24 April 1917, by Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News, Virginia. She was launched on 20 March 1920, and she was commissioned on 21 July 1921. She was the third ship named for the state of Maryland. The [[USS Maryland (1799)|first Maryland]] was a sloop commissioned in 1799 and the second Maryland was an armored cruiser commissioned in 1905.
Following her commissioning, Maryland undertook an East Coast shakedown cruise. Shortly thereafter, Maryland was made flagship of Admiral Hilary P. Jones. Maryland found herself in great demand for special occasions. She appeared at Annapolis, Maryland, for the 1922 United States Naval Academy graduation and at Boston, Massachusetts, for the anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill and the Fourth of July. From 18 August to 25 September, she paid her first visit to a foreign port transporting Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes to Rio de Janeiro for Brazil's Centennial Exposition. The next year, after fleet exercises off the Panama Canal Zone, Maryland transited the canal in the latter part of June to join the battle fleet stationed on the west coast. She continued to be a flagship until 1923 when the flag was shifted to Pennsylvania.
She made another voyage to a foreign port in 1925, this time to Australia and New Zealand. Several years later, in 1928, she transported President-elect Herbert Hoover on the Pacific leg of his tour of Latin America. She was overhauled in 1928–1929, and the eight 3-inch anti-aircraft guns were replaced by eight 5-inch/25 cal guns. Throughout these years and the 1930s, she served as a mainstay of fleet readiness through tireless training operations. She conducted numerous patrols in the 1930s.
In 1940, Maryland and the other battleships of the battle force changed their bases of operations to Pearl Harbor. She was present at Battleship Row along Ford Island during the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
On the morning of 7 December, Maryland was moored along Ford Island, with to port, connected by lines and a gangway. To her fore was , while and were astern. Further aft were and . The seven battleships, in what is now known as "Battleship Row," had recently returned from maneuvers. Many of Marylands crew were preparing for shore leave at 09:00 or eating breakfast when the Japanese attack began. As the first Japanese aircraft appeared and explosions rocked the outboard battleships, Marylands bugler blew general quarters.
Seaman Leslie Short—addressing Christmas cards near his machine gun—brought the first of his ship's guns into play, shooting down one of two torpedo bombers that had just released against Oklahoma. Inboard of Oklahoma, and thus protected from the initial torpedo attack, Maryland managed to bring all her antiaircraft (AA) batteries into action. The devastating initial attack sank Oklahoma, and she capsized quickly, with many of her surviving men climbing aboard Maryland to assist her with anti-aircraft defenses.Maryland was struck by two armor-piercing bombs which detonated low on her hull. The first struck the forecastle awning and made a hole about by . The second exploded after entering the hull at the water level at Frame 10. The latter hit caused flooding and increased the draft forward by . Maryland continued to fire and, after the attack, sent firefighting parties to assist her compatriots, especially attempting to rescue survivors from the capsized Oklahoma. The men continued to muster the AA defenses in case the Japanese returned to attack. In all, two officers and two men were killed in the attack.
The Japanese erroneously announced that Maryland had been sunk, but on 30 December, the damaged ship entered Puget Sound Navy Yard for repairs just behind Tennessee. Two of the original twelve 5-inch/51 cal guns were removed and the 5-inch/25 cal guns were replaced by an equal number of 5-inch/38 cal dual purpose guns. Over the course of the next two months, she was repaired and overhauled, receiving new fighting equipment. Repairs were complete on 26 February 1942. She then underwent a series of shakedown cruises to West Coast ports and the Christmas Islands. She was sent back into action in June 1942,
the second battleship damaged at Pearl Harbor to return to duty.
Supporting patrols
During the important Battle of Midway, Maryland played a supporting role. Like the other older battleships, she was not fast enough to accompany the aircraft carriers, so she operated with
a backup fleet protecting the West Coast. Maryland stood by on security, awaiting call from other ships if she was needed, until the end of the battle. At the end of the action around Midway, Maryland was sent to San Francisco.
Thereafter, Maryland engaged in almost constant training exercises with Battleship Division 2, Battleship Division 3, and Battleship Division 4 until 1 August, when she returned to Pearl Harbor for repairs, her first time in the harbor since the Japanese attack. She departed Pearl Harbor in early November with Colorado, bound for the forward area. On 12 November, King Neptune came aboard Maryland to initiate her "pollywogs" for the line-crossing ceremony. Maryland steamed for the Fiji Islands where she patrolled against Japanese incursion. The two battleships acted as sentinels to guard against Japanese advance to prevent Japanese forces from threatening Australia. During this duty, the two battleships conducted frequent sweeps for Japanese forces.
In early 1943, with the success of the Solomon Islands campaign, Allied forces went on the offensive. In February 1943, Maryland and Colorado moved to New Hebrides, operating off of Efate. Intense heat there proved difficult and unpleasant for the crew. She then moved to Espiritu Santo to guard against Japanese incursion, but heat and heavy rains plagued this tour of duty. Maryland and Colorado stood out of Aore Island Harbor in August. During a five-week overhaul at Pearl Harbor's shipyard, several AA guns were installed on the top decks and foremast as protection against anticipated Japanese air raids in future operations.
Battle of Tarawa
Departing the Hawaiian Islands on 20 October 1943 for the South Pacific, Maryland became flagship for Rear Admiral Harry W. Hill's V Amphibious Force and Southern Attack Force in the Gilbert Islands Invasion. Also aboard her were Major General Julian C. Smith, commander of 2nd Marine Division, and Colonel Evans Carlson, commander of Carlson's Raiders. Maryland returned to Efate Island staging area, where she joined a large task force preparing for an assault on Tarawa.
The battle of Tarawa commenced on 20 November. In her first offensive action of the war, Maryland's guns opened fire at 05:00, destroying a shore battery with five salvos on the southwestern point of Betio Island in the Tarawa Atoll. At 06:00 she commenced a scheduled shore bombardment to soften up Japanese defenses ahead of the landings. Maryland moved closer to shore to attract Japanese fire and locate artillery emplacements, in the process raking Japanese gun emplacements, control stations, pillboxes and any Japanese installations she could spot. At 09:00 as Marine landing forces encountered heavy Japanese resistance and began taking casualties to emplaced crossfire, Maryland provided covering fire to eliminate several Japanese machine gun nests. Her scouting plane then began to cover the progress of the Marines' assault, with Maryland providing artillery support. The plane was damaged and pilot wounded in this action.
After three days of covering the offensive on Betio Island, she moved to Apamama Island to guard Marine landings there. Marines met with only light resistance from 30 Japanese soldiers there, and two prisoners were brought to Maryland. On 7 December, Maryland left Apamama Island for Pearl Harbor. After a brief stopover there, Maryland left for San Francisco for repairs.
Battle of Kwajalein Atoll Maryland steamed from San Pedro, California on 13 January 1944, rendezvoused with Task Force 53 at Lahaina Roads for two days of loading ammunition, refueling, and provisioning ahead of a new operation supporting the Marshall Islands campaign. On 30 January 1944, she moved to support landings on Roi Island, along with Santa Fe, Biloxi, and Indianapolis, which formed the Northern Support Group of TF 35.
In the predawn hours of 31 January, the ships began a bombardment of Kwajalein Atoll, the opening moves of the battle of Kwajalein. Maryland destroyed numerous Japanese stationary guns and pillboxes. In the course of the battle, she fired so much that she split the liners in the guns of Turret No. 1, putting it out of action for the rest of the day. On 1 February, she continued her attack on Japanese positions as the U.S. landing forces advanced. She became the flagship for Admiral Connally for the next two weeks, resupplying and refueling many of the smaller ships in the operation until she departed with a task unit of carriers and destroyers on 15 February 1944, steaming for Bremerton Navy Yard, where she underwent another overhaul, with her guns being replaced.
Battle of Saipan
Two months later, Maryland sailed westward on 5 May, joining Task Force 52 headed for Saipan. Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner allotted TF 52 three days to soften up the island's defenses ahead of the assault. Firing commenced at 05:45 on 14 June. They quickly destroyed two coastal guns, then began bombarding Garapan, destroying ammunition dumps, gun positions, small boats, storage tanks, blockhouses and buildings. She then turned her guns to Tanapag, leveling it in heavy bombardment. The invasion commenced 15 June, and Maryland provided fire support for the landing forces.
The Japanese attempted to counter the battleships through the air. On 18 June, the ship's guns shot down their first Japanese aircraft, but on 22 June, a Mitsubishi G4M3 "Betty" medium bomber flew low over the still-contested Saipan hills and found Maryland and Pennsylvania. The Japanese plane dropped a torpedo, opening a large hole in Marylands starboard bow. The attack caused light casualties, and in 15 minutes she was underway for Eniwetok, and from there she steamed for the repair yards at Pearl Harbor (in reverse the whole time so as not to do further damage to her bow), escorted by two destroyers. Two men were killed in the attack.
With an around-the-clock effort by the shipyard workers, Maryland was repaired in 34 days, departing on 13 August. She then embarked for the Solomon Islands with a large task force, anchoring in Purvis Bay off Florida Island for two weeks before steaming for the Palau Islands on 6 September. She then joined Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf's Western Fire Support Group (Task Group 32.5; TG 32.5). Firing first on 12 September to cover minesweeping operations and underwater demolition teams at the opening of the Battle of Peleliu, Maryland again conducted shore bombardment supporting the landing craft as they approached the beaches on 15 September. Four days later, organized resistance collapsed, permitting the fire support ships to retire to the Admiralty Islands at the end of the month.
Battle of Leyte Gulf Maryland steamed for Seeadler Harbor, Manus where she was assigned to the 7th Fleet under Admiral Kinkaid. The fleet sortied 12 October, and Maryland joined Task Group 77.2, which was the gunfire and covering force for the invasion of Leyte. She, along with four other battleships and numerous cruisers and destroyers, steamed into Leyte Gulf on the morning of 18 October. Maryland took position between Red and White Beaches and began bombarding them ahead of the invasion, which began at 10:00 20 October. Securing the beaches quickly, Maryland then took up a sentinel position in Leyte Gulf to guard the beaches against Japanese counterattack by sea.
For the next several days, Japanese forces launched air raids to counter the incursion. These included the first widespread use of the kamikaze suicide attack. Several days later, U.S. submarines in the South China Sea spotted two Japanese forces on approach: five battleships steaming toward San Bernardino Strait, and another force of four Japanese carriers in northern Luzon.
On 24 October, Maryland, West Virginia, , Tennessee, California, and Pennsylvania sailed to the southern end of Leyte Gulf to protect Surigao Strait with several cruisers, destroyers, and PT Boats. Early on 25 October, during the Battle of Surigao Strait, Japanese battleships and , with their screens, led the Japanese advance into the Strait. At 03:55, the waiting Americans ships launched an ambush of the two Japanese battleships, pounding them with torpedoes and main guns. Torpedoes from the destroyers sunk Fusō. Continued attacks by the task force also claimed Yamashiro. A few of the remaining Japanese ships then fled to the Mindanao Sea, pursued by Allied aircraft.
Following the victory, Maryland patrolled the southern approaches to Surigao Strait until 29 October; she then steamed for the Admiralty Isles for brief replenishment and resumed patrol duty around Leyte on 16 November, protecting the landing forces from continued Japanese air attacks. On 29 November, during another Japanese air attack, a kamikaze aircraft surprised and struck Maryland. The aircraft crashed into Maryland between Turrets No. 1 and 2, piercing the forecastle, main, and armored decks and blowing a hole in the 4-inch steel, causing extensive damage and starting fires. In all, 31 men were killed and 30 wounded in the attack, and the medical department was destroyed but still functional.
The battleship continued her patrols until relieved on 2 December, when she sailed with two heavily damaged destroyers for repairs. She reached Pearl Harbor on 18 December, and was extensively repaired and refitted over the next couple of months.
Battle of Okinawa
After refresher training, Maryland headed for the western Pacific on 4 March 1945, arriving Ulithi on 16 March. There she joined the 5th Fleet and Rear Admiral Morton Deyo's Task Force 54 (TF 54), which was preparing for the invasion of Okinawa. The fleet departed on 21 March, bound for Okinawa.Maryland was assigned targets on the southern coast of Okinawa to support a diversionary landing, which would distract Japanese forces away from the main landing on the west coast. Japanese forces responded with several air raids, with two of Maryland's radar picket destroyers being struck by kamikaze planes, with Luce sinking. On 3 April, she was moved to the west coast invasion beaches to assist Minneapolis in destroying several shore batteries. Following the land invasion, she remained with the support force off Bolo Point providing artillery support for the invading troops.Maryland continued fire support duty until 7 April, when she steamed north to intercept a Japanese surface force with TF 54. The Japanese ships, including the , came under constant U.S. air attacks that day, and planes of the Fast Carrier Task Force sank six of the 10 ships in the force. At dusk, a kamikaze loaded with a bomb crashed the top of Turret No. 3 from starboard. The explosion wiped out the 20 mm mounts and caused a large fire. The 20mm ammunition ignited from the heat, causing further casualties. In all, 10 were killed, 37 injured and 6 missing following this attack. Maryland remained on station for the next week and continued her artillery support mission through several more air raids. Turret No. 3, damaged but usable, remained silent for the remainder of this mission.
On 14 April, Maryland left the firing line at Okinawa and escorted several retiring transports. They steamed via the Mariana Islands and Guam to Pearl Harbor, and she reached the Puget Sound Navy Yard at Bremerton on 7 May for extensive overhaul. All of her 5 in guns were removed and replaced by sixteen 5 inch/38 cal guns in new twin mounts. Turret No. 3 was repaired and the crew quarters were improved. She completed repairs in August, leaving for tests and training runs just as Japan surrendered, ending the war.
She next entered Operation Magic Carpet fleet. During the remaining months of 1945, Maryland made five voyages between the west coast and Pearl Harbor, returning more than 8,000 servicemen to the United States.
Post-war
Arriving at Seattle, Washington on 17 December, Maryland completed her Operation Magic Carpet duty. She entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 15 April 1946, and was placed in commission in inactive reserve on 16 July. She was decommissioned at Bremerton on 3 April 1947, and remained there as a unit of the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Maryland was sold for scrapping to Learner Company of Oakland, California on 8 July 1959.
On 2 June 1961, Governor of Maryland J. Millard Tawes, dedicated a monument to the memory of Maryland'' and her men. Built of granite and bronze and incorporating the bell of "Fighting Mary", this monument is located on the grounds of the State House in Annapolis.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
External links
US Navy Historical Center USS Maryland gallery
MaritimeQuest USS Maryland BB-46 Photo Gallery
DANFS photographs of USS Maryland (BB-46)
Image of USS Maryland battleship on the water, 1923-1925. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
Colorado-class battleships
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
1920 ships
World War II battleships of the United States
Ships present during the attack on Pearl Harbor
Maritime incidents in December 1941
United States Navy Maryland-related ships
|
[
-0.24960707128047943,
-0.11312209814786911,
-0.8034439086914062,
0.3294108211994171,
0.22941185534000397,
0.5576430559158325,
0.48420801758766174,
-0.3492325246334076,
-0.590832531452179,
0.07153863459825516,
-0.10786014050245285,
0.6689813733100891,
-0.3527115285396576,
0.4550003111362457,
-0.23829282820224762,
0.3876051604747772,
0.35775694251060486,
0.5987752079963684,
0.03852757811546326,
-0.7186126112937927,
-0.25759586691856384,
-0.12652115523815155,
0.22472985088825226,
0.0762220174074173,
-0.14372143149375916,
0.148599311709404,
0.6293796896934509,
0.202570840716362,
0.41625767946243286,
-0.17687606811523438,
-0.3145345449447632,
0.3634120523929596,
0.22101740539073944,
-0.07559245079755783,
-0.36412301659584045,
-0.10955046862363815,
-0.24179412424564362,
-0.030758850276470184,
0.43884339928627014,
-0.40837663412094116,
-0.5762678980827332,
-0.4496038854122162,
0.4950741231441498,
0.35956642031669617,
-0.15965263545513153,
0.15441149473190308,
-1.6534068584442139,
-0.07381382584571838,
0.14663711190223694,
-0.3335410952568054,
-0.26787275075912476,
0.26733481884002686,
0.04437447711825371,
0.6144324541091919,
-0.04100765287876129,
0.5603644847869873,
-0.7639336585998535,
-0.17339318990707397,
-0.1862327605485916,
-0.5345078706741333,
0.3674847185611725,
0.10728587955236435,
0.8224501609802246,
0.5294699668884277,
-0.1001819521188736,
0.16476888954639435,
-0.42936578392982483,
0.2892290949821472,
-0.2525393068790436,
-0.42329245805740356,
0.38935723900794983,
-0.23334552347660065,
0.07657569646835327,
0.08825892210006714,
-0.35755395889282227,
0.15311670303344727,
-0.34994739294052124,
-0.4770450294017792,
0.2562221884727478,
0.462018758058548,
0.2323979139328003,
0.5413338541984558,
0.6578834056854248,
0.33432450890541077,
0.264145165681839,
0.6607040762901306,
-0.40280428528785706,
0.09679257124662399,
-0.49557623267173767,
0.6559093594551086,
-0.6315898299217224,
0.12921851873397827,
-0.19108723104000092,
0.41616764664649963,
-0.43028849363327026,
0.13556788861751556,
-0.1559906303882599,
0.28120461106300354,
0.508865475654602,
0.010168233886361122,
-0.0723419338464737,
0.13999706506729126,
0.6045894622802734,
0.2281268984079361,
-0.8554009795188904,
0.28263604640960693,
-0.43562647700309753,
-0.21005068719387054,
-0.4458898901939392,
0.017650974914431572,
-0.32457464933395386,
0.23708222806453705,
-0.12797781825065613,
0.0976126417517662,
-0.3033568561077118,
0.2477772980928421,
0.55498868227005,
-0.7626535296440125,
-0.10477305203676224,
-0.2624775767326355,
0.2873618006706238,
0.4873899221420288,
-0.4352448284626007,
-0.10368369519710541,
0.27356672286987305,
0.4945548176765442,
0.280181348323822,
0.8461192846298218,
-0.795111894607544,
0.3210054934024811,
0.6312341094017029,
1.0808056592941284,
-0.14144916832447052,
0.4349282681941986,
-0.22710901498794556,
-0.3311392664909363,
-0.06788921356201172,
0.26666969060897827,
0.10227499902248383,
0.24328748881816864,
-1.0179450511932373,
-0.162627175450325,
-0.5317434668540955,
-0.40530338883399963,
0.14838656783103943,
-0.501277506351471,
0.19153790175914764,
0.053383130580186844,
-0.28682634234428406,
-0.1944037526845932,
0.38543829321861267,
-0.6976555585861206,
0.26003748178482056,
0.16524195671081543,
-0.8578487634658813,
-0.006046718452125788,
0.35345038771629333,
-0.41565999388694763,
0.5939855575561523,
0.769243597984314,
-0.6968828439712524,
0.31765398383140564,
-0.3637200891971588,
0.04514887183904648,
-0.0031609199941158295,
0.3655828833580017,
0.4956762492656708,
-0.3331226706504822,
-0.039180852472782135,
-0.10351181775331497,
-0.4963110685348511,
0.017719218507409096,
0.3206579089164734,
0.050341565161943436,
-0.11099390685558319,
0.46202027797698975,
0.5433882474899292,
0.10480484366416931,
0.36976292729377747,
-0.9184073805809021,
-0.3147934079170227,
0.031954169273376465,
0.552392840385437,
0.05619477853178978,
0.35856691002845764,
-0.04099814593791962,
0.3581809997558594,
-0.18747320771217346,
-0.15683871507644653,
0.24909818172454834,
-0.4262106418609619,
-0.133915975689888,
0.010458080098032951,
0.15129046142101288,
1.4008941650390625,
-0.3462432324886322,
-0.47731825709342957,
0.33107951283454895,
0.11676815897226334,
0.49102723598480225,
0.6519798040390015,
-0.3558240830898285,
0.4545708894729614,
-0.27009814977645874,
-0.6050503849983215,
0.2699476480484009,
0.20725034177303314,
0.7217211127281189,
0.32567116618156433,
0.9149401783943176,
0.3502272069454193,
-0.5218003988265991,
0.049556516110897064,
0.29343658685684204,
0.14846567809581757,
0.09925869107246399,
0.08387228101491928,
-0.6139044761657715,
0.3760959208011627,
-0.25266554951667786,
0.4573306739330292,
0.01992318034172058,
-0.10436918586492538,
-0.221834197640419,
0.03304136544466019,
0.07582896202802658,
-0.9579669237136841,
0.21935750544071198,
-0.003716412466019392,
-0.2767609655857086,
0.12166095525026321,
0.1988873928785324,
-0.4843609631061554,
-0.14630001783370972,
0.2832275629043579,
-0.025432679802179337,
-0.194350466132164,
-0.5194975733757019,
0.4888927936553955,
-0.3307575583457947,
-0.0053055789321660995,
0.7095340490341187,
-0.5579237341880798,
0.14924466609954834,
-0.013367113657295704,
-0.7433371543884277,
0.0751575380563736,
-0.04222549870610237,
-0.21962504088878632,
-1.0675327777862549,
0.578570544719696,
0.8739854097366333,
0.2073563188314438,
-0.21069467067718506,
0.06799803674221039,
-0.25616711378097534,
-0.3667311668395996,
0.029167460277676582,
0.1712685376405716,
-0.15771226584911346,
-0.09312162548303604,
0.5761066675186157,
0.23391473293304443,
0.4609178304672241,
0.6084144711494446,
-0.21428817510604858,
-0.7235236763954163,
0.07137196511030197,
0.197383314371109,
-0.06894901394844055,
0.28799328207969666,
0.23200348019599915,
0.2193911373615265,
-0.27436113357543945,
0.1294660121202469,
0.10465488582849503,
-0.2724473476409912,
0.5668893456459045,
-1.0327465534210205,
-0.9664269685745239,
0.418081670999527,
0.7928324937820435,
-0.01152762770652771,
-0.9341025948524475,
-0.39054685831069946,
-0.42417603731155396,
0.031044211238622665,
-0.08722364902496338,
-0.4701949656009674,
-0.24004657566547394,
-0.16020070016384125,
-0.06835823506116867,
-0.2236873209476471,
0.4493890404701233,
0.1742822676897049,
0.5733141899108887,
-0.15155814588069916,
0.1829070746898651,
0.0558965727686882,
0.09873254597187042,
-0.5983421206474304,
0.30868783593177795,
-0.04475957155227661,
0.10342903435230255,
0.23170074820518494,
-0.6476942896842957,
-0.4287261664867401,
0.8760113716125488,
-5.402444839477539,
0.10055171698331833,
-0.11500685662031174,
0.38046887516975403,
0.4001530110836029,
0.4468521177768707,
-0.03608183190226555,
0.08403927087783813,
-0.3131534159183502,
-0.5557854175567627,
0.7655656933784485,
0.3544389009475708,
0.23461057245731354,
-0.0991651862859726,
0.23846478760242462,
0.08029642701148987,
1.2029248476028442,
-0.31684479117393494,
0.42438822984695435,
-0.21024170517921448,
-0.15067529678344727,
0.11278114467859268,
0.1033279299736023,
0.1048705130815506,
-0.012964846566319466,
0.04478548839688301,
-0.5574440956115723,
0.18184788525104523,
-0.2814463973045349,
0.10559545457363129,
0.014673717319965363,
-0.42608872056007385,
-0.0728832334280014,
-0.0717153251171112,
0.23421768844127655,
-0.5999825596809387,
0.485186368227005,
-0.12708495557308197,
0.059148963540792465,
-0.6166444420814514,
-0.4608759582042694,
0.04488091170787811,
-0.19509096443653107,
0.4618837833404541,
0.1485733687877655,
-0.19630852341651917,
-0.07565534859895706,
-0.24121852219104767,
0.430433452129364,
0.8995221853256226,
0.1182827576994896,
0.008727933280169964,
0.7573534250259399,
0.371810644865036,
0.8865890502929688,
-0.7972079515457153,
-0.3137129843235016,
0.32625409960746765,
-0.2985683083534241,
-0.057323336601257324,
0.25831905007362366,
-0.3963398337364197,
-0.11565601825714111,
-0.5031826496124268,
-0.3833022117614746,
-0.4338774085044861,
-0.24517324566841125,
-0.002184966579079628,
0.5803434252738953,
-0.02226121723651886,
-0.1048826351761818,
1.3330029249191284,
0.023796502500772476,
-1.073482632637024,
0.3818398118019104,
-0.4835462272167206,
-0.5843250155448914,
-0.3254983425140381,
-0.472053200006485,
-0.046449799090623856,
0.5033408999443054,
-0.47316575050354004,
-0.059137921780347824,
0.7752043008804321,
0.23746831715106964,
-0.5668827295303345,
-0.1288203001022339,
0.12075675278902054,
-0.1978781819343567,
-0.18442599475383759,
-0.1432880312204361,
-0.5959570407867432,
0.28077980875968933,
0.3350227177143097,
0.3017710745334625,
-0.4684694707393646,
-0.3860287368297577,
0.5617074966430664,
0.49369731545448303,
-0.09866529703140259,
0.8697280883789062,
-0.6813518404960632,
0.1306871771812439,
-0.3728436231613159,
-0.41595330834388733,
-0.2302304059267044,
-0.12469511479139328,
0.14115458726882935,
0.7508089542388916,
-0.19311966001987457,
-0.5619088411331177,
-0.5250721573829651,
-0.04491245746612549,
-0.7728733420372009,
0.5548126697540283,
0.28490760922431946,
0.25592339038848877,
0.1799107789993286,
0.6677744388580322,
0.32636329531669617,
0.24257883429527283,
0.8439997434616089,
-0.1365210860967636,
-0.514045000076294,
-0.1458919495344162,
-0.5248596668243408,
0.5534974932670593,
-0.41594141721725464,
-1.2120610475540161,
0.006225689314305782,
0.12527255713939667,
0.3449398875236511,
-0.04799299314618111,
0.34578484296798706,
-0.00914925429970026,
-0.4777362048625946,
0.04356669634580612,
-0.1981043815612793,
-0.10943294316530228,
-0.2371850609779358,
-1.0883406400680542,
-0.19782309234142303,
-0.5917239189147949,
0.04689882695674896,
0.8707359433174133,
0.09002447873353958,
0.03417159989476204,
-0.28827911615371704,
-0.3593004643917084,
0.2967956066131592,
-0.5891060829162598,
-1.0947253704071045,
0.22554261982440948,
-0.57296222448349,
0.03720016032457352,
0.04014444351196289,
0.4503215551376343,
0.1793554723262787,
-0.0761948749423027,
-0.6294749975204468,
-0.04819370061159134,
0.05685816705226898,
-0.6008079648017883,
-0.4039223790168762,
0.2249172329902649,
0.08778854459524155,
0.3249134421348572,
-0.6782334446907043,
-0.3977810740470886,
0.582032322883606,
-0.035512566566467285,
-0.2916206419467926,
-0.4383954405784607,
0.17513197660446167,
0.2181096225976944,
0.39339664578437805,
-0.8661820292472839,
-0.040941137820482254,
0.15291182696819305,
-0.033795859664678574,
0.3961453437805176,
-0.08016134053468704,
-0.16738104820251465,
-0.016609476879239082,
0.2665015459060669,
-0.03098531998693943,
-0.31956109404563904,
0.3599402904510498,
-0.6408736705780029,
0.5046932697296143,
0.06818443536758423,
-0.39623233675956726,
0.4698573350906372,
0.6955531239509583,
-1.174025535583496,
0.3620466887950897,
0.10385380685329437,
0.0912061482667923,
0.6436762809753418,
-0.44105345010757446,
0.33786657452583313,
0.8939283490180969,
-1.034966230392456,
0.270596981048584,
-0.08190923929214478,
-0.372444212436676,
0.31750473380088806,
-0.13398857414722443,
-0.18630371987819672,
0.7854095101356506,
0.21909993886947632,
-1.0410484075546265,
0.24589399993419647,
0.6480815410614014,
-0.3338855803012848,
-0.005444968119263649,
-0.15104933083057404,
0.1426766812801361,
-0.16868636012077332,
-0.9218387603759766,
-0.689290463924408,
-0.13227875530719757,
-0.11580773442983627,
-0.1366346925497055,
-0.8315803408622742,
-0.2521849572658539,
-0.11126652359962463,
-0.687898576259613,
0.01195494644343853,
-0.2801209092140198,
-0.6683230400085449,
-0.3107635974884033,
0.5220598578453064,
-0.17133772373199463,
0.29335111379623413,
-0.28539568185806274,
0.6773291826248169,
-0.17451493442058563,
-0.25149527192115784,
0.25598469376564026,
0.487929105758667,
1.0137401819229126,
-0.14754895865917206,
-0.435673326253891,
-0.30890920758247375,
0.06329119950532913,
0.3590826988220215,
-0.20289592444896698,
-0.3255838453769684,
0.27322372794151306,
0.5393691658973694,
-0.6840681433677673,
-0.9831005334854126,
-0.13178150355815887,
0.8916323184967041,
-0.8872645497322083,
0.05967579036951065,
-0.1521313190460205,
0.2251194417476654,
0.13513918220996857,
-0.5113344192504883,
0.20346270501613617,
-1.2604594230651855,
-0.10852295160293579,
0.36402127146720886,
0.19025854766368866,
-0.007851354777812958,
0.14148618280887604,
0.06644976139068604,
-0.32882824540138245,
-0.36347702145576477,
0.4585961699485779,
0.10649506747722626,
0.10456565767526627,
-0.14795702695846558,
0.24746766686439514,
-0.027670204639434814,
-0.44056639075279236,
0.7506935596466064,
0.23406830430030823,
-0.3788054287433624,
0.16555754840373993,
-0.41408994793891907,
-0.17749087512493134,
-0.4640214741230011,
-0.4961293041706085,
-0.15134312212467194,
-0.658930242061615,
-0.12191123515367508,
0.45499536395072937,
0.6471443176269531,
0.2601316273212433,
-0.2785446345806122,
-0.2804218828678131,
0.08192049711942673,
0.7404244542121887,
-0.401930034160614,
0.29064956307411194,
0.2354842871427536,
0.6538166403770447,
-0.7936989665031433,
0.9279590249061584,
0.14401021599769592,
0.21584761142730713,
0.0664239451289177,
-0.12957602739334106,
0.07708808034658432,
-0.12371861934661865,
-0.1566823124885559,
-0.011285562999546528,
-0.1777842938899994,
-0.5784955024719238,
0.2915523052215576,
0.6902567148208618,
-0.554473876953125,
-0.525018572807312,
0.8583417534828186,
-0.20348495244979858,
-0.40368255972862244,
-0.05454150214791298,
-0.15171827375888824,
0.24730226397514343,
0.3878992199897766,
0.824770987033844,
-0.1616627275943756,
0.8769968748092651,
-1.1905839443206787,
0.05775581672787666,
0.31765395402908325,
0.7817122936248779,
0.278158575296402,
-0.6470457911491394,
-0.020580381155014038,
0.56817227602005,
-0.06209126114845276,
0.22839845716953278,
0.563666820526123,
-0.6739148497581482,
-0.08783481270074844,
0.8006443977355957,
-0.006771990098059177,
0.0854615718126297,
0.14432434737682343,
-0.30211180448532104,
-0.2555811107158661,
0.20983120799064636,
-0.4019595980644226,
-0.35933539271354675,
0.3750131130218506,
-0.33670860528945923,
0.3062938451766968,
0.18523859977722168,
0.23239687085151672,
0.0677628368139267,
0.30733850598335266,
0.22066661715507507,
0.44114962220191956,
-0.4880061149597168,
-0.13123124837875366,
-0.32885101437568665,
-0.33276844024658203,
-0.07677815854549408,
0.5204508304595947,
-0.5480623245239258,
-0.4153653383255005,
0.08819331973791122,
0.17413677275180817,
0.2568846344947815,
-0.04978343844413757,
0.33844608068466187,
0.010819709859788418,
0.009402343071997166,
-0.22252340614795685,
-0.2738834619522095,
0.48816075921058655,
0.397573322057724,
0.6642579436302185,
-0.07021404802799225,
-0.1561889946460724,
0.40709248185157776,
-0.27089831233024597,
0.48869577050209045,
-0.22471468150615692,
-1.1236013174057007,
0.29977884888648987,
0.24811209738254547,
-0.2072487473487854,
0.2317945957183838,
0.02296583727002144,
-0.02226373739540577,
0.21596291661262512,
-0.5892540216445923,
-0.4761045277118683,
0.19597579538822174,
0.1778355985879898,
0.21572107076644897,
0.12686873972415924,
0.6140005588531494,
0.21594975888729095,
0.9215219020843506,
-0.6358973979949951,
0.39358657598495483,
0.023204613476991653,
-0.25955793261528015,
-0.2281743586063385,
0.05932676047086716,
-0.5129044055938721,
0.8252890110015869,
-0.10731975734233856,
0.24538306891918182,
-0.24634003639221191,
0.16880887746810913,
-0.46234801411628723,
0.039709944278001785,
-0.7076751589775085,
-0.6595965623855591,
1.1978332996368408,
-0.7781820297241211,
-0.49046915769577026,
-0.15687279403209686,
0.11208085715770721,
-0.2867094576358795,
-0.1406451016664505,
0.17808949947357178,
-0.27205124497413635,
-0.17699486017227173,
-0.19955366849899292,
-0.4524090886116028,
-0.2854544520378113,
0.2308751791715622,
0.20650240778923035,
-0.16136491298675537,
-0.4226014018058777,
-0.05036267265677452,
-0.34900835156440735,
0.30617794394493103,
0.3320316672325134,
0.09644254297018051,
0.2086501568555832,
0.1782483011484146,
0.8234378099441528,
-0.6079514026641846,
0.394575297832489,
0.09835001826286316,
0.056957755237817764,
-0.061493292450904846,
-0.06332818418741226,
-0.469765305519104,
0.5010707378387451,
0.49672767519950867,
-0.16359417140483856,
-0.5716488361358643,
0.7591196894645691,
-0.4495577812194824,
0.3357347249984741,
-0.028862986713647842,
0.4306415319442749,
-0.14888998866081238,
-0.05937950685620308,
0.36862248182296753
] |
205968
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZTT%20Records
|
ZTT Records
|
ZTT Records is a British record label founded in 1983 by record producer Trevor Horn, Horn's wife and businesswoman Jill Sinclair, and New Musical Express (NME) journalist Paul Morley. The label's name was also stylised as ZANG TUMB TUUM and ZANG TUUM TUMB on various releases.
In December 2017, Universal Music Group (UMG) acquired ZTT Records, along with Stiff Records. The ZTT and Stiff back catalogues are owned by BMG Rights Management under Union Square Music.
History
ZTT is an initialism of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's sound poem Zang Tumb Tumb, which described 'zang tumb tumb' as the sound of a machine gun. The majority of the creative team at ZTT had first assembled when Horn produced the album The Lexicon of Love for the British pop band ABC. A precursor to ZTT was the short-lived Perfect Recordings label, spun off from the newly founded Perfect Songs publishing subsidiary of Trevor Horn and Jill Sinclair's company. Perfect Recordings only released The Buggles' Adventures in Modern Recording, along with the singles derived from it.
In 1983, Horn, Sinclair and Morley founded ZTT Records, which soon boomed. Sinclair became ZTT's managing director, while Paul Morley concentrated on marketing. In the same year, Sinclair and Horn acquired Basing Street Studios from Island Records in exchange for distributing the ZTT label.
ZTT's first major signing was Frankie Goes to Hollywood (FGTH), whose hits Relax and Two Tribes were among the most influential and best-selling singles of the decade. It was the label's second single, Relax, that became the label's first number one in January 1984. Relax stayed in the UK Singles Chart for a full year, and ZTT was well and truly established. During the 1980s, Grace Jones and Art of Noise were other ZTT acts to chart. During ZTT's fledgling period, ZTT Records also helped define the structure and formats of the UK pop music scene. ZTT issued various 12" remixes of existing singles; these charted at positions in their own right as a separate 12" single. ZTT Records also licensed graphically iconic T-shirts of its acts, and these became an important fashion phase of the 1980s. ZTT cannily seemed to turn every aspect of the business of pop into entertainment.
In 1984, the Horn-Sinclair family businesses were reorganised as SPZ Group, which then consisted of Sarm West Studios, Perfect Songs, and ZTT Records. From the beginning, the majority of ZTT releases were published by Perfect Songs, and recorded at Sarm West Studios. The latter part of the decade was eclipsed by the bitter legal battle between ZTT and Holly Johnson, who fought his way out of the strict, long recording agreement. Similarly in disagreement, a few other ZTT artists, such as Art of Noise and Propaganda, left the label. Propaganda's case was settled out of court; Johnson won his outright.
In the late 1980s, ZTT refocused on the emerging dance music scene. Manchester trance group 808 State would reach the top 10 with Pacific State, and three other singles and one album during the early 1990s. Seal was the next major ZTT act to emerge in the 1990s, and the label also scored hit singles and albums with MC Tunes and Shades of Rhythm.
ZTT Records have produced forty-five Top 40 hits in the United Kingdom, with fifteen of those being Top 10 hits.
In May 2022, UMG will release the new album by Propaganda vocalists Claudia Brücken and Susanne Freytag on the ZTT Label. Credited to xPropaganda, the album has been recorded with producer Stephen Lipson and is called The Heart Is Strange.
Music videos and cover art
ZTT Records pioneered music video and cover art as forms of high art in their own right. Paul Morley commissioned videos from then-unknown directors, who would go on to become acclaimed in their field, such as Anton Corbijn, Godley & Creme, Zbigniew Rybczyński, and Andy Morahan.
Morley also commissioned early ZTT sleeve design and photography to pioneers of the medium such as Accident, Malcolm Garrett/Assorted Images, AJ Barratt, Anton Corbijn, Mark Farrow, Jean-Paul Goude, Johnson Panas, The London Design Partnership, Mat Maitland, Me Company, John Stoddard, Stylorouge, T&CP Associates, and XL.
The label's work in the visual field was profiled by Tony Enoch in Design Week, who positioned ZTT as "from a time when a record label meant something – a happening, a sense of belonging. Labels defined people's youth. Think Apple, Virgin, Beggar's Banquet, ZTT, and Stiff: small, independent British labels appearing to be able to do anything they wanted, reinventing the rules."
In 2008, journalist Ian Peel curated a first exhibition of ZTT sleeve art for galleries in London and Tokyo, and in 2013, he curated the visual archives of ZTT and Sarm West Studios before the studios were demolished. In 2009, Peel compiled a DVD of the labels' most acclaimed videos, entitled 'The Television is Watching You', which received a British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) 15 Certificate.
Notable acts on the ZTT label
† as one-time UK distributor for Tommy Boy Records
Action Series
As part of ZTT internal cataloguing of releases, they maintained two series; the Action Series, and the Incidental Series. The Action Series was issued mainly to singles and albums by a majority of the labels artists. However to confuse matters, the series also contains a booklet and a concert.
The Action series paused in 1988, and was restarted by record label manager Ian Peel in 2012.
See also
Lists of record labels
List of electronic music record labels
List of independent UK record labels
References
External links
British record labels
Record labels established in 1983
Electronic music record labels
Drum and bass record labels
Electronic dance music record labels
Alternative rock record labels
British independent record labels
Indie rock record labels
Pop record labels
IFPI members
|
[
0.1337117701768875,
0.2717829942703247,
-0.11503487825393677,
-0.22672496736049652,
-0.0283077210187912,
0.1642768234014511,
-0.14552877843379974,
0.2305515855550766,
0.07074306160211563,
0.28352656960487366,
-0.3064626157283783,
0.9257479906082153,
-0.16215242445468903,
0.5372288823127747,
-0.139127716422081,
-0.13833624124526978,
0.2732691764831543,
0.13178037106990814,
-0.46634694933891296,
-0.2746298611164093,
0.2787488102912903,
-0.1302158683538437,
0.08628790080547333,
0.08672912418842316,
-0.012793121859431267,
-0.17506331205368042,
0.2561180591583252,
0.014526749029755592,
-0.0765102207660675,
-0.017904100939631462,
0.3898794651031494,
0.856230616569519,
0.10278194397687912,
-0.43988877534866333,
-0.29897788166999817,
0.18873445689678192,
-0.3137695789337158,
0.0344613678753376,
-0.17951978743076324,
-0.7057488560676575,
0.1530233770608902,
-0.13163542747497559,
-0.12695449590682983,
0.4232913851737976,
-0.39247363805770874,
-0.21487784385681152,
-1.7362511157989502,
0.018827009946107864,
-0.7958934903144836,
-0.3004401624202728,
-0.09426001459360123,
0.3888621926307678,
0.3555741310119629,
0.047027766704559326,
0.054393868893384933,
-0.2993004024028778,
-0.24760200083255768,
-0.11449845135211945,
0.12279307097196579,
-0.3380613923072815,
0.55974280834198,
-0.1543562114238739,
0.253966361284256,
-0.04443955793976784,
0.1136319637298584,
-0.17423363029956818,
0.46850812435150146,
0.7203723788261414,
-0.34027162194252014,
-0.10196962207555771,
-0.2525683641433716,
-0.20566272735595703,
0.15242266654968262,
-0.8808934092521667,
-0.3109467923641205,
-0.030729278922080994,
0.24304300546646118,
-0.3451545536518097,
0.8075625896453857,
0.43980875611305237,
0.17775043845176697,
0.35575610399246216,
0.9713475108146667,
-0.09383896738290787,
0.19452416896820068,
-0.3447122871875763,
-0.25497937202453613,
-0.019994601607322693,
-0.5311911702156067,
0.7176641225814819,
-0.266557514667511,
-0.45219865441322327,
0.4905083477497101,
-0.19162283837795258,
-0.1562301367521286,
-0.18813031911849976,
0.3529096841812134,
0.07499349862337112,
0.18162572383880615,
0.11011185497045517,
0.34032413363456726,
0.2612716555595398,
-0.47581589221954346,
-0.5757142305374146,
-0.36203038692474365,
-0.35700732469558716,
-0.011823257431387901,
-0.592748761177063,
-0.13314422965049744,
0.10878512263298035,
-0.4597322344779968,
-0.295414537191391,
-0.15247562527656555,
0.19134563207626343,
0.22091959416866302,
0.223504900932312,
0.03958116099238396,
-0.3740924298763275,
-0.6644807457923889,
0.07846134155988693,
0.2657020688056946,
0.18251772224903107,
-0.04627969115972519,
0.33993449807167053,
-0.27153757214546204,
-0.004891944117844105,
0.17829029262065887,
0.12050365656614304,
-0.12032526731491089,
0.1559164822101593,
-0.30161169171333313,
0.6125795841217041,
0.43282192945480347,
-0.3567233383655548,
-0.14479966461658478,
0.10860922932624817,
0.5791619420051575,
0.1615872085094452,
-0.3100835680961609,
0.14407525956630707,
-0.16191737353801727,
0.0435006208717823,
-1.101907730102539,
-0.4701625406742096,
0.49981603026390076,
-0.004771719221025705,
-0.16478270292282104,
-0.001720716361887753,
-0.23679791390895844,
-0.28898128867149353,
-0.03718281164765358,
-0.23990608751773834,
-0.5800991058349609,
-0.37668073177337646,
0.02260642498731613,
0.035562265664339066,
0.5356616973876953,
-0.012638945132493973,
0.00980851799249649,
-0.062244392931461334,
0.11349927634000778,
0.1790551096200943,
0.10603086650371552,
0.11259444057941437,
-0.39316117763519287,
-0.3113217055797577,
-0.1097494438290596,
0.45266199111938477,
-0.2083449512720108,
-0.14345793426036835,
-0.40588805079460144,
-0.148164764046669,
-0.0249146968126297,
-0.0841260775923729,
0.20390194654464722,
0.42346012592315674,
1.403580904006958,
-0.06977777183055878,
0.2482534497976303,
0.12832960486412048,
-0.4529827833175659,
0.5088084936141968,
0.7010732889175415,
0.17133325338363647,
0.5706132650375366,
0.02854277938604355,
-0.2622357904911041,
-0.3856050670146942,
0.0766100361943245,
0.0683242529630661,
-0.4362330734729767,
-0.4378564953804016,
0.8693575263023376,
-0.39445120096206665,
0.42182061076164246,
0.9506329894065857,
-0.21504686772823334,
0.4636969268321991,
-0.053459491580724716,
0.1435350775718689,
0.021822111681103706,
0.28544294834136963,
-0.3854374587535858,
-0.42077603936195374,
-0.2812281548976898,
0.08145066350698471,
0.562653660774231,
-0.8239394426345825,
-0.09724193066358566,
0.2673109471797943,
0.030653761699795723,
-0.6779152154922485,
0.7527392506599426,
-0.44372057914733887,
0.15158404409885406,
-0.10485649108886719,
-0.2003694325685501,
0.05890437215566635,
-0.5202118754386902,
-0.6009993553161621,
0.39938777685165405,
0.07193615287542343,
-0.22848457098007202,
-0.12835924327373505,
-0.3220047354698181,
0.9421170949935913,
-0.2592640519142151,
0.003988292999565601,
-0.0764910951256752,
-0.10094832628965378,
0.12233257293701172,
0.7859185934066772,
0.08236408978700638,
-0.402635782957077,
0.4067496657371521,
0.629931628704071,
-0.1345818191766739,
-0.49344125390052795,
-0.3241192400455475,
-0.0686519593000412,
0.1919305920600891,
0.006459770258516073,
-0.5987271666526794,
0.44011297821998596,
0.3227999210357666,
-0.1732688546180725,
-0.07454842329025269,
-0.3059494197368622,
-0.3835754990577698,
0.4127841591835022,
0.6353487968444824,
0.3772395849227905,
0.15090765058994293,
0.6515488624572754,
0.1652689278125763,
-0.33104825019836426,
0.2119569182395935,
0.21933890879154205,
0.3274432122707367,
0.29684656858444214,
-0.006480731535702944,
-0.5785092711448669,
0.02131188102066517,
0.03972082957625389,
-0.3688291609287262,
-0.8365526795387268,
0.03802315518260002,
0.14702270925045013,
0.5121452808380127,
-0.652609646320343,
0.005736509803682566,
0.14585472643375397,
-0.2516024708747864,
0.46502551436424255,
-0.33383020758628845,
-0.3630843460559845,
-0.27982646226882935,
-0.056836750358343124,
0.567067563533783,
-0.43686217069625854,
0.49653539061546326,
0.4280206263065338,
0.09952343255281448,
-0.9228872656822205,
-0.3910643458366394,
0.2822345495223999,
-0.05266730114817619,
-0.36640265583992004,
0.5074840188026428,
-0.12192122638225555,
-0.4946051836013794,
0.48593586683273315,
-0.2938418388366699,
-0.046534985303878784,
0.19408480823040009,
0.5834079384803772,
-0.20197205245494843,
0.19934721291065216,
-0.6086602210998535,
-0.37452325224876404,
-0.22165381908416748,
0.6478402614593506,
-0.4737105071544647,
0.05780983716249466,
0.19567953050136566,
-0.04751981794834137,
0.049123115837574005,
-0.8323794007301331,
-5.91925573348999,
0.5391189455986023,
-0.31543397903442383,
-0.20516203343868256,
0.13813330233097076,
-0.05836711823940277,
0.5311098694801331,
-0.4649420380592346,
-0.2897016406059265,
-0.4303309917449951,
-0.5239126086235046,
0.07349219173192978,
-0.560379147529602,
0.23016142845153809,
0.5681545734405518,
0.3293073773384094,
-0.008466987870633602,
0.13217943906784058,
-0.12000101059675217,
0.14537812769412994,
-0.0754321813583374,
-0.5907227396965027,
0.19790126383304596,
0.1199377179145813,
-0.2387709617614746,
0.7466038465499878,
-0.2899934649467468,
-0.007433770224452019,
-0.7261798977851868,
0.11292703449726105,
0.1849617063999176,
-0.6299269199371338,
-0.6894568800926208,
-0.11216438561677933,
0.02975422888994217,
0.06830693036317825,
0.6913690567016602,
-0.302958607673645,
0.2892686426639557,
-0.043963104486465454,
0.4483398497104645,
0.8955598473548889,
0.1191311925649643,
0.013406787067651749,
0.0939399003982544,
0.049302056431770325,
-0.44759461283683777,
-0.04297242686152458,
-0.6574554443359375,
1.0978355407714844,
0.23989556729793549,
-0.37495851516723633,
-0.6926618814468384,
-0.307338684797287,
-0.10612135380506516,
-0.398865282535553,
-0.2544364035129547,
-0.11669614911079407,
0.30306270718574524,
0.6494541764259338,
0.32851263880729675,
-0.28515613079071045,
0.23964078724384308,
-0.46763479709625244,
-0.3708086311817169,
0.059205006808042526,
-0.5642765760421753,
-0.4027162492275238,
0.5033624172210693,
0.42161035537719727,
0.7772137522697449,
-0.1777818500995636,
-0.03794011101126671,
-0.7818256616592407,
-0.41689470410346985,
-0.2882643938064575,
0.24173767864704132,
0.13784827291965485,
-0.12124203890562057,
0.5829235911369324,
-0.09625253081321716,
-0.2280905544757843,
-0.06742087751626968,
0.19380713999271393,
-0.6994755864143372,
-0.44139641523361206,
-0.540945827960968,
0.4917975068092346,
-0.5161539912223816,
-0.25121259689331055,
0.03356616571545601,
-0.3309013247489929,
0.02154681272804737,
0.7169880867004395,
0.07334878295660019,
0.026131121441721916,
0.28650781512260437,
0.7079541087150574,
0.20959125459194183,
-0.21048922836780548,
-0.34503865242004395,
-0.37952494621276855,
0.0882972851395607,
-0.46422475576400757,
0.10669218003749847,
-0.21558931469917297,
-0.40511587262153625,
-0.5102854371070862,
0.444987952709198,
-0.3517675995826721,
-0.01609347201883793,
-0.12093447893857956,
-0.6170316338539124,
-1.0642204284667969,
0.5964258909225464,
-0.4489094316959381,
-0.14628000557422638,
0.46892276406288147,
-0.02750064991414547,
0.4072357714176178,
0.4904615879058838,
0.12044551223516464,
-0.20157675445079803,
-0.38291817903518677,
-0.49600908160209656,
0.1503998041152954,
0.17780476808547974,
-0.3652876913547516,
0.5489032864570618,
-0.17772693932056427,
-0.23738250136375427,
-0.22927068173885345,
0.06642123311758041,
0.35970211029052734,
0.2718358635902405,
-0.27420246601104736,
-1.0455423593521118,
-0.19407565891742706,
-0.5001335740089417,
0.059898678213357925,
0.521356463432312,
-0.003453959245234728,
-0.13050684332847595,
0.2782551348209381,
0.6196496486663818,
0.2026354819536209,
0.18434201180934906,
-0.13693180680274963,
0.09424778819084167,
-0.06649220734834671,
-0.06759719550609589,
-0.23785878717899323,
0.6604436635971069,
-0.41506871581077576,
-0.37820538878440857,
0.0007890953565947711,
0.0903487429022789,
-0.08006555587053299,
-0.2276049107313156,
-0.23693618178367615,
0.14647911489009857,
-0.315206915140152,
-0.37548625469207764,
-0.008921453729271889,
0.5780928134918213,
0.22866904735565186,
-0.06521481275558472,
-0.5491886734962463,
-0.33397889137268066,
0.06804630160331726,
-0.26251542568206787,
-0.14892402291297913,
0.011957661248743534,
-0.2584557831287384,
0.014156374149024487,
0.5639324188232422,
0.18200939893722534,
-0.011239093728363514,
0.30231982469558716,
0.054899271577596664,
-0.061266832053661346,
-0.43623438477516174,
-0.789604127407074,
0.12359759956598282,
0.19885718822479248,
-0.6082824468612671,
-0.5005803108215332,
-0.2233169823884964,
-0.44133612513542175,
-0.20037351548671722,
-0.20993322134017944,
-0.08713552355766296,
0.4998904764652252,
0.2636756896972656,
-0.21617236733436584,
-0.7656775712966919,
0.03368091210722923,
0.180238738656044,
-0.42387834191322327,
-0.6409019231796265,
0.035062555223703384,
0.27344536781311035,
-0.11664237082004547,
0.08350551128387451,
0.7271619439125061,
-0.4945848882198334,
0.17247392237186432,
0.136943981051445,
-0.31721827387809753,
0.6001394987106323,
-0.3319718539714813,
-0.35456812381744385,
0.06734807044267654,
0.23958252370357513,
-0.2935124337673187,
-0.3003401756286621,
0.11294661462306976,
-0.34642714262008667,
0.08350342512130737,
0.03851977735757828,
-0.007017439231276512,
0.02541937120258808,
-0.8089196681976318,
0.023498492315411568,
-0.11425211280584335,
0.8919205665588379,
0.2847621738910675,
-0.22681386768817902,
0.023916708305478096,
-0.2335052341222763,
-0.5817328691482544,
0.09332264959812164,
-0.0032488673459738493,
0.37693846225738525,
-0.17637194693088531,
0.08050405979156494,
-0.09776932746171951,
0.5018920302391052,
0.11762411892414093,
0.0034870232921093702,
0.4236505925655365,
0.3614240884780884,
-0.0053047556430101395,
-0.04926220327615738,
0.25527626276016235,
0.30230769515037537,
0.4202002286911011,
0.18302175402641296,
-0.32380953431129456,
-0.040120240300893784,
-0.03358244523406029,
0.11922850459814072,
-0.8784394264221191,
0.23927459120750427,
0.5263679623603821,
-0.35052838921546936,
-0.1596851944923401,
-0.3735314607620239,
-0.3290010690689087,
-0.15219873189926147,
0.2155502289533615,
0.2923823893070221,
-0.26378530263900757,
0.26990869641304016,
0.15083882212638855,
0.7051543593406677,
-0.3932553827762604,
-0.24651916325092316,
-0.09166830778121948,
-0.5550920963287354,
0.22168055176734924,
-0.05731765553355217,
0.08152014017105103,
0.5787827372550964,
0.48602548241615295,
0.09945464134216309,
0.04908369109034538,
-0.6190406680107117,
-0.5577913522720337,
-0.006383368279784918,
0.20893990993499756,
0.11845770478248596,
0.36530226469039917,
-0.47551074624061584,
0.30431631207466125,
-0.4463040828704834,
-0.4332110583782196,
-0.13288909196853638,
0.45390555262565613,
0.034290287643671036,
-0.048632070422172546,
0.08502339571714401,
0.5087541341781616,
0.40666937828063965,
-0.4492347836494446,
-0.2259657084941864,
0.5778162479400635,
-0.11615563184022903,
0.27790361642837524,
0.14944958686828613,
0.07311060279607773,
0.4043246805667877,
0.6153404116630554,
-0.7085148096084595,
0.6187547445297241,
0.3481568992137909,
-0.3889172077178955,
0.00848330743610859,
0.03693251311779022,
0.2531362771987915,
-0.13452431559562683,
-0.386909157037735,
0.1979326754808426,
0.38016965985298157,
-1.1092522144317627,
0.4139646887779236,
0.5504534840583801,
-0.28678062558174133,
0.6608171463012695,
0.14385029673576355,
0.05256705731153488,
0.45324382185935974,
0.16230268776416779,
0.22586803138256073,
-0.1633991003036499,
0.29048362374305725,
0.004017460625618696,
0.33905118703842163,
0.8337437510490417,
0.14622965455055237,
0.4170840084552765,
-0.3590727150440216,
0.053755175322294235,
0.2731213867664337,
-0.09127480536699295,
-0.591291069984436,
-0.16094417870044708,
0.022355759516358376,
-0.5806708335876465,
0.6741300225257874,
0.20448575913906097,
-0.3664768934249878,
-0.13795727491378784,
0.3078722059726715,
-0.212494894862175,
0.01764463633298874,
0.36195239424705505,
-0.14719870686531067,
0.10307519137859344,
-0.006926638074219227,
0.5048508048057556,
-0.03402618318796158,
0.028584174811840057,
0.21366766095161438,
0.6002901196479797,
-0.38744834065437317,
0.8420082330703735,
0.11290744692087173,
0.18160822987556458,
-0.08375956863164902,
-0.015460621565580368,
0.8109877705574036,
0.717603325843811,
0.5063222050666809,
0.6296418905258179,
0.3117559850215912,
0.6046456694602966,
-0.49740612506866455,
0.577496349811554,
0.3844379782676697,
-0.06883826851844788,
0.1498948037624359,
-0.15793566405773163,
0.7623160481452942,
-0.23783284425735474,
0.008136648684740067,
0.2973909080028534,
0.32385268807411194,
0.19205114245414734,
0.40658122301101685,
-0.24760916829109192,
0.054641082882881165,
0.040858201682567596,
0.21229130029678345,
0.8622981309890747,
-0.42835989594459534,
-0.4332423806190491,
-0.058466553688049316,
-0.15348103642463684,
0.05956085026264191,
0.1815490573644638,
-0.48359817266464233,
-0.4938475489616394,
-0.4192594587802887,
-0.16104359924793243,
0.012638503685593605,
-0.025604326277971268,
0.72554612159729,
-0.32628369331359863,
0.3047165274620056,
0.06331180781126022,
0.719408392906189,
-0.11356879025697708,
0.13087689876556396,
-0.0919104814529419,
0.4303781986236572,
-0.30605149269104004,
-0.49635404348373413,
-0.5380433797836304,
0.9309608340263367,
-0.16766475141048431,
0.009674598462879658,
0.029154198244214058,
0.49638670682907104,
0.1847909390926361,
-0.005463940557092428,
0.6477623581886292,
0.21489329636096954,
-0.04786137118935585,
-0.1554156243801117,
0.4291588068008423,
0.23127830028533936,
-0.2596796751022339,
0.28376519680023193,
-0.22822830080986023,
0.1816967874765396,
0.4340849220752716,
-0.4820840060710907,
-0.7521744966506958,
0.6447587013244629,
0.27621689438819885,
0.08289812505245209,
-0.08027524501085281,
-0.3595098555088043,
-0.7028313279151917,
-0.5342668294906616,
0.31394773721694946,
0.1860993653535843,
0.2606929838657379,
-0.1603117287158966,
0.3418053388595581,
-0.06519132852554321,
0.12996402382850647,
-0.021679922938346863,
-0.1012510284781456,
-0.23015356063842773,
0.051563624292612076,
-0.6094653010368347,
-1.344382405281067,
0.2943323850631714,
0.11388102173805237,
-0.3454633951187134,
-0.032911308109760284,
-0.33583614230155945,
0.3321335017681122,
-0.2802237570285797,
0.3407251238822937,
-0.024884453043341637,
0.4820575714111328,
-0.5234780311584473
] |
205969
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20for%20life
|
President for life
|
President for life is a title assumed by or granted to some presidents to extend their tenure up until their death. The title sometimes confers on the holder the right to nominate or appoint a successor. The usage of the title of "president for life" rather than a traditionally autocratic title, such as that of a monarch, implies the subversion of liberal democracy by the titleholder (although republics need not be democratic per se). Indeed, sometimes a president for life can proceed to establish a self-proclaimed monarchy, such as Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe in Haiti.
Similarity to a monarch
A president for life may be regarded as a de facto monarch. In fact, other than the title, political scientists often face difficulties in differentiating a state ruled by a president for life (especially one who inherits the job from a family dictatorship) and a monarchy – indeed, Samoa's long-serving President for life, Malietoa Tanumafili II, was frequently and mistakenly referred to as King. In his proposed plan for government at the United States Constitutional Convention Alexander Hamilton proposed that the chief executive be a governor elected to serve for good behavior, acknowledging that such an arrangement might be seen as an elective monarchy. It was for that very reason that the proposal was rejected. A notable difference between a monarch and a president-for-life, is based on the fact that the successor of the president do not necessarily possess a for-life term, like in Turkmenistan and Samoa.
Most leaders who have proclaimed themselves president for life have not in fact successfully gone on to serve a life term. Most have been deposed long before their death while others achieve a lifetime presidency by being assassinated while in office. However, some have managed to rule until their (natural) deaths, including José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia of Paraguay, Alexandre Pétion of Haiti, Rafael Carrera of Guatemala, François Duvalier of Haiti, Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, and Saparmurat Niyazov of Turkmenistan. Others made unsuccessful attempts to have themselves named president for life, such as Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire in 1972.
People frequently cited as being examples of Presidents for Life include very long-serving authoritarian or totalitarian presidents such as Zaire's Mobutu, North Korea's Kim Il-sung, Bulgaria's Todor Zhivkov, Romania's Nicolae Ceaușescu, Syria's Hafez al-Assad, Indonesia's Suharto, Nationalist China's Chiang Kai-shek, Communist China's Mao Zedong, Iraq's Saddam Hussein, Russia's Vladimir Putin, Belarus's Alexander Lukashenko and Vietnam's Hồ Chí Minh. They were never officially granted life terms and, in fact, underwent periodic renewals of mandate that were in some cases sham elections. Following the abolition of term limits for the President of the People's Republic of China, the current President Xi Jinping has been identified by some observers as a potential or aspiring President for life, who is also the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the de facto highest position in China without term limit. According to reports from US-funded Freedom House, official election results in Belarus and Russia show implausibly high levels of support (in some cases, unanimous support).
In popular culture
In the film Escape from LA, the President played by Cliff Robertson is given a life term by a constitutional amendment after an earthquake ravages Los Angeles and leads to the President's shocking electoral victory. At the end of the film, Snake played by Kurt Russell puts an end to his regime when he uses an EMP aiming device remote ending all governments including that of his dictatorship.
Most notable
Julius Caesar
One of the most well-known incidents of a republican leader extending his term indefinitely was Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who made himself "Perpetual Dictator" in 45 BC. Traditionally, the office of dictator could only be held for six months, and although he was not the first Roman dictator to be given the office with no term limit, it was Caesar's dictatorship that inspired the string of Roman emperors who ruled after his assassination.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Caesar's actions would later be copied by the French Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, who was appointed "First Consul for life" in 1802 before elevating himself to the rank of Emperor two years later. Since then, many dictators have adopted similar titles, either on their own authority or having it granted to them by rubber stamp legislatures.
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg in January 1933. On Hindenburg's death in August 1934, the German Reichstag voted to (unconstitutionally) merge the offices of President and Chancellor, giving Hitler the title of Führer. Later the Reichstag voted to allow Hitler to hold the positions of Chancellor and Führer for life.
North Korea
After Kim Il-sung's death in 1994, the North Korean government wrote the presidential office out of the constitution, declaring him "Eternal President" in 1998. Since there can be no succession when the President maintains control through death, the powers of the office were nominally split between the Chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly, the premier, and the chairman of the National Defence Commission. Even though it was not stated by the amended constitution, the Chairman of the National Defense Commission became the de facto highest leadership position and the highest office in the state. In 2009, these powers of the Chairman of the National Defense Commission were realised and the position was designated as the supreme leader of the country.
After Kim Jong-il's death in 2011, he received a similar treatment to his father Kim Il-sung, being declared "Eternal General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea" and "Eternal Chairman of the National Defense Commission". These two positions were abolished and replaced with the First Secretary of the Worker's Party of Korea and the First Chairman of the National Defence Commission respectively, with First Chairman being declared as the supreme leader. Both these positions were filled by Kim Jong-un in 2012. Since 2016, the National Defence Commission was abolished with the State Affairs Commission established in its place. The President of the State Affairs (commission chairman) was placed as the head of state and supreme leader.
The validity and nature of these titles have been raised into question, as Kim Jong-un was elected General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea in January 2021, taking his father's eternal position.
List of leaders who became president for life
Note: The first date listed in each entry is the date of proclamation of the status as President for Life.
References
Further reading
External links
The List: Presidents for Life // Foreign Policy, November 5, 2007
Heads of state
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
Term limits
|
[
0.007053892128169537,
0.03448020666837692,
-0.02102517895400524,
0.3382421135902405,
0.11734839528799057,
-0.6021585464477539,
0.4315377473831177,
0.7426865696907043,
-0.7110852599143982,
-0.10530988872051239,
-0.7332861423492432,
-0.03148931264877319,
-0.6178215742111206,
0.5799134373664856,
-0.027438269928097725,
-0.26924189925193787,
0.19752033054828644,
0.7504831552505493,
-0.5166451334953308,
-0.4462905824184418,
-0.08998594433069229,
0.564594566822052,
0.374921977519989,
-0.8372565507888794,
0.08312917500734329,
-0.06157200038433075,
-0.2010749727487564,
-0.5496094226837158,
-0.3560193181037903,
-0.00955800712108612,
0.08578330278396606,
-0.43269655108451843,
0.13890039920806885,
0.23544977605342865,
0.0195867121219635,
-0.20157407224178314,
-0.03440697118639946,
-0.2876181900501251,
-0.29911351203918457,
-0.24623934924602509,
-0.05898989737033844,
-0.17096780240535736,
0.10842311382293701,
-0.40177416801452637,
-0.34778061509132385,
-0.6487946510314941,
-1.1529849767684937,
0.010738901793956757,
-0.17572081089019775,
0.1288943737745285,
-0.15651465952396393,
-0.005985204596072435,
-0.2790551483631134,
0.25731170177459717,
0.2793889045715332,
0.3554166257381439,
-0.06696102768182755,
0.1844652146100998,
-0.6231140494346619,
-0.9382984042167664,
-0.040111079812049866,
-0.08329282701015472,
0.0062523833476006985,
0.3527727723121643,
0.47859057784080505,
-0.05611985921859741,
0.29882583022117615,
-0.1393955796957016,
-0.3558836579322815,
-0.12314543128013611,
-0.3328630030155182,
-0.22770529985427856,
0.7154881358146667,
0.22438590228557587,
-0.030195171013474464,
-0.5119323134422302,
0.3957867920398712,
0.35661056637763977,
0.28190872073173523,
-0.31616100668907166,
0.2085501104593277,
-0.07642505317926407,
0.1103137731552124,
0.5898017287254333,
-0.7845029234886169,
0.2141544073820114,
-0.34289953112602234,
-0.025845445692539215,
-0.01990174688398838,
0.8038080930709839,
-0.2582305371761322,
0.3129485249519348,
1.0423479080200195,
0.27253347635269165,
-0.11197315156459808,
-0.31726697087287903,
0.40504470467567444,
-0.35292571783065796,
-0.19102218747138977,
-0.28692176938056946,
-0.5642443895339966,
-0.5226618647575378,
-0.08648452162742615,
-0.7124648094177246,
-0.2635203003883362,
-0.2368668168783188,
-0.6437574028968811,
-0.21735115349292755,
0.23695240914821625,
0.03423800691962242,
-0.20547175407409668,
0.09379791468381882,
0.1356918215751648,
0.5266608595848083,
-0.7299936413764954,
0.11280690133571625,
0.12271065264940262,
-0.4758065938949585,
0.14592266082763672,
-0.28648149967193604,
0.22853876650333405,
0.48746681213378906,
0.19488810002803802,
-0.46031132340431213,
-0.08451035618782043,
-0.16288666427135468,
0.48722854256629944,
0.1884688436985016,
-0.2911387085914612,
-0.31209656596183777,
0.19935813546180725,
0.2845645248889923,
-0.3879801630973816,
0.1981317698955536,
-0.12675891816616058,
-0.2594273090362549,
-0.04249256104230881,
-0.634057343006134,
0.3388880789279938,
0.3243509829044342,
-0.5291593074798584,
-0.050905827432870865,
-0.26192060112953186,
-0.1420200765132904,
0.3483627140522003,
0.23752230405807495,
0.42849424481391907,
0.05322703719139099,
-0.33945077657699585,
-0.055105313658714294,
-0.017734581604599953,
-0.38168320059776306,
0.1079125851392746,
0.19137760996818542,
-0.01008132379502058,
0.22986753284931183,
0.503761887550354,
-0.35383185744285583,
0.6360589265823364,
0.5991084575653076,
0.48582902550697327,
-0.11580140888690948,
0.057011138647794724,
-0.17917603254318237,
0.37226346135139465,
0.5616483092308044,
-0.05057276785373688,
0.6208816766738892,
-0.480109304189682,
-0.2507372796535492,
-0.1254415512084961,
0.2813103497028351,
-0.1919817477464676,
-0.7444904446601868,
-0.37935954332351685,
0.5845539569854736,
0.20632778108119965,
0.13907983899116516,
0.45846641063690186,
-0.16486845910549164,
-0.5148977041244507,
0.2611654996871948,
-0.19982032477855682,
0.16404423117637634,
0.4587734341621399,
-0.7943717241287231,
-0.22518737614154816,
0.24505287408828735,
0.2925407886505127,
-0.3255254626274109,
-0.6448689103126526,
-0.055192843079566956,
-0.27811199426651,
-0.7651373147964478,
0.007696853950619698,
-0.23351089656352997,
-0.16774804890155792,
0.8846760988235474,
0.0013562479289248586,
0.625442624092102,
-0.3569762408733368,
0.15014298260211945,
0.04975997656583786,
-0.5133371949195862,
-0.4529939591884613,
1.1311054229736328,
0.45051413774490356,
-0.105586938560009,
0.4192811846733093,
0.5417937636375427,
0.8705412745475769,
0.26829764246940613,
0.3718205392360687,
0.09075386077165604,
0.0977909043431282,
0.17014360427856445,
-0.4425981044769287,
-0.4397830069065094,
-0.5252347588539124,
-0.2315901517868042,
1.164086937904358,
0.39985430240631104,
-0.033741842955350876,
0.6451090574264526,
-0.31688910722732544,
0.3482036590576172,
-0.2869071066379547,
-0.29142701625823975,
-0.13562314212322235,
-0.05888357013463974,
0.36306387186050415,
-0.5139815211296082,
0.41108134388923645,
-0.05854695290327072,
0.128196582198143,
-0.011007276363670826,
-0.36784934997558594,
-0.3011704087257385,
-0.09631677716970444,
-0.0853191688656807,
0.2548949718475342,
-0.07269754260778427,
0.19250507652759552,
0.5350649952888489,
0.08075006306171417,
0.28340327739715576,
-0.5083699822425842,
0.4247347414493561,
-0.5735064744949341,
-0.44168490171432495,
0.44812822341918945,
0.2062009871006012,
0.7368136048316956,
-0.04926324263215065,
-0.1956266462802887,
-0.17309939861297607,
-0.6883987188339233,
0.7905529737472534,
-0.3373846113681793,
0.08996576815843582,
-0.15716835856437683,
0.025531306862831116,
0.057202160358428955,
-0.08189638704061508,
-0.21586288511753082,
-0.39292454719543457,
-0.0594501756131649,
-0.16841451823711395,
0.04712212458252907,
0.15550413727760315,
0.00819004699587822,
0.17198114097118378,
-0.47755762934684753,
-0.011110808700323105,
-0.19920876622200012,
0.12304170429706573,
0.28878381848335266,
0.2985426187515259,
-0.8085554242134094,
-0.558268129825592,
0.6437178254127502,
0.08829570561647415,
-0.125636488199234,
-0.13965079188346863,
-0.48928406834602356,
-0.6897890567779541,
-0.01894468069076538,
-0.28217199444770813,
-0.403116375207901,
0.269593745470047,
-0.42498475313186646,
0.046178292483091354,
0.29727691411972046,
0.053715094923973083,
0.3271736800670624,
0.03942139819264412,
0.31313419342041016,
-0.24252723157405853,
0.09339490532875061,
-0.25348323583602905,
0.008717906661331654,
-0.3997412919998169,
0.1086127832531929,
-0.36218106746673584,
0.6635798215866089,
0.14233247935771942,
-0.024202175438404083,
-0.008714934810996056,
-5.898564338684082,
0.22837847471237183,
-0.7511254549026489,
0.16404257714748383,
0.04869906231760979,
0.059305913746356964,
0.7323140501976013,
-0.1798948049545288,
-0.22560006380081177,
-0.3830380141735077,
0.28664079308509827,
0.2929181158542633,
0.8654593825340271,
0.825067937374115,
0.020044464617967606,
0.39510104060173035,
0.11879196017980576,
0.11446721106767654,
-0.36428970098495483,
0.3028985261917114,
0.11133575439453125,
-0.18701791763305664,
0.17059023678302765,
0.4876590371131897,
0.44835755228996277,
0.08121073991060257,
-0.5565546154975891,
0.3260017931461334,
-0.39627912640571594,
0.43115687370300293,
0.2880289852619171,
0.4865448474884033,
-0.020372822880744934,
-0.7237957119941711,
-0.0768418163061142,
0.41843435168266296,
-0.11593486368656158,
0.296019583940506,
0.33485478162765503,
0.07710539549589157,
0.31195709109306335,
-0.1667572259902954,
-0.7330761551856995,
0.5738438367843628,
-0.3057103753089905,
-0.004703262355178595,
-0.3451090157032013,
0.01908557116985321,
0.10858020931482315,
0.1742473542690277,
-0.6503399014472961,
0.872477650642395,
0.6874182820320129,
-0.10324076563119888,
0.12130086869001389,
0.1491890400648117,
0.20058633387088776,
0.13779142498970032,
-0.6944958567619324,
-0.4089421033859253,
0.4109395742416382,
-0.4092535078525543,
0.3614223003387451,
0.33556196093559265,
-0.06040269136428833,
-0.0832596942782402,
-0.5799850821495056,
-0.017059018835425377,
0.5846430659294128,
0.6291100978851318,
-0.06400356441736221,
0.49173587560653687,
0.34856611490249634,
-0.8145216703414917,
-0.09805651754140854,
-0.6527845859527588,
-0.16792097687721252,
0.34584149718284607,
0.035413410514593124,
0.17611470818519592,
-0.08189109712839127,
0.6694999933242798,
-0.5836929678916931,
0.3817855715751648,
0.1396113485097885,
-0.6487225294113159,
0.3148650825023651,
0.5630380511283875,
-0.39872100949287415,
0.10744277387857437,
0.2856893241405487,
-0.3657713830471039,
-0.05739415064454079,
0.03600955381989479,
0.3686005473136902,
0.3962553143501282,
-0.49263718724250793,
0.23348279297351837,
0.3101222813129425,
0.048507340252399445,
0.34499406814575195,
-0.034701552242040634,
0.13136151432991028,
-1.1229021549224854,
-0.38607290387153625,
-0.2979520857334137,
-0.48436278104782104,
0.07565288990736008,
-0.12161572277545929,
-0.010269139893352985,
0.21158231794834137,
-0.022773392498493195,
0.061705414205789566,
-0.5771421790122986,
-0.11919284611940384,
0.21869395673274994,
-0.00528526259586215,
0.7391487956047058,
0.2567308843135834,
0.18814842402935028,
-0.03534083068370819,
0.227986142039299,
-0.09429232031106949,
-0.15020407736301422,
-0.4341852366924286,
0.3317711651325226,
0.057645928114652634,
-0.24779990315437317,
0.5481885075569153,
-0.01656554639339447,
0.4111577868461609,
0.7433028221130371,
0.07664996385574341,
0.13023969531059265,
0.31944799423217773,
-0.32878437638282776,
-0.05510350316762924,
-0.35073861479759216,
-0.44033297896385193,
-0.6945707201957703,
-0.06902322173118591,
-0.2850058674812317,
-0.18286950886249542,
-0.4325508773326874,
-0.033885881304740906,
0.4040517508983612,
-0.4617471694946289,
-0.09039820730686188,
-0.3572652041912079,
0.8379938006401062,
-0.18047858774662018,
-0.21828773617744446,
0.1970052868127823,
-0.7392879724502563,
-0.3319745659828186,
-0.44010406732559204,
-0.05730785056948662,
-0.14745211601257324,
0.4064849317073822,
-0.10342293977737427,
-0.5333051085472107,
-0.7993341684341431,
-0.6833628416061401,
-0.2508396506309509,
0.07979340851306915,
0.7107052803039551,
-0.3030443787574768,
-0.14105293154716492,
-0.7745285630226135,
0.5678127408027649,
-0.36390960216522217,
-0.11617549508810043,
-0.22485077381134033,
-0.7146849036216736,
0.3752850592136383,
-0.13203434646129608,
0.541737973690033,
0.14127999544143677,
0.3023259937763214,
-0.16068965196609497,
0.16737991571426392,
-0.5551565885543823,
-0.23002448678016663,
-0.16041414439678192,
-0.051562778651714325,
-0.7343539595603943,
0.17247357964515686,
-0.17835254967212677,
-0.2314652055501938,
-0.2143462747335434,
0.39850881695747375,
0.07760537415742874,
0.31405696272850037,
-0.574677050113678,
-0.6362884640693665,
0.09418313950300217,
-0.11202695220708847,
0.1642383188009262,
-0.0067475829273462296,
-0.20406505465507507,
0.2516995668411255,
-0.4082888066768646,
-0.48165327310562134,
0.11361651867628098,
-0.004460356198251247,
-0.3988019526004791,
-0.43048062920570374,
0.08918757736682892,
0.10654030740261078,
0.4803578853607178,
-0.2372104972600937,
-0.5262562036514282,
0.24867355823516846,
0.2771705090999603,
-0.1812739372253418,
0.32134824991226196,
0.04029058292508125,
-0.014703446067869663,
-0.3727392852306366,
-0.5569369196891785,
0.5533114671707153,
-0.10773587226867676,
0.07005564868450165,
-0.2005276083946228,
0.13086619973182678,
0.2857874929904938,
0.3318491280078888,
-0.26352351903915405,
0.6198622584342957,
-0.29271069169044495,
-0.4295458495616913,
-0.14461404085159302,
-0.2559642791748047,
-0.1966496855020523,
-0.21029895544052124,
-0.33721715211868286,
0.30474963784217834,
0.09283000230789185,
-0.5744503140449524,
-0.6307497620582581,
0.05566161498427391,
1.081202745437622,
-0.005014806520193815,
-0.7556585073471069,
-0.5865083932876587,
0.63213050365448,
0.025218568742275238,
-0.22278456389904022,
0.07809746265411377,
0.4964650273323059,
0.724102258682251,
-0.04140332713723183,
-0.1669272929430008,
-0.12316671013832092,
0.21930690109729767,
-0.4582439363002777,
0.23254719376564026,
0.397858202457428,
0.37746670842170715,
0.29019811749458313,
0.5806913375854492,
0.2945307493209839,
-0.37390199303627014,
0.37217652797698975,
0.020855311304330826,
0.07701803743839264,
0.15462879836559296,
0.1412103921175003,
0.3827349841594696,
-0.07660015672445297,
0.3902777433395386,
0.2989465892314911,
-0.4021507501602173,
0.20210042595863342,
0.12402869760990143,
0.7996695041656494,
-0.2930436432361603,
0.17233555018901825,
-0.6285873055458069,
0.04827004671096802,
-0.28786906599998474,
0.18765388429164886,
-0.49981358647346497,
-0.1441451460123062,
0.6969224810600281,
-1.2498053312301636,
0.4174698293209076,
0.08500419557094574,
-0.07358548045158386,
-0.18009057641029358,
-0.5366747379302979,
0.20733124017715454,
-0.07848281413316727,
0.05007389187812805,
-0.43460601568222046,
0.6206145882606506,
0.10089406371116638,
0.355510950088501,
0.1487947255373001,
-0.4291883111000061,
-0.33843639492988586,
0.11169562488794327,
0.44008344411849976,
-0.08791787177324295,
-0.5759834051132202,
0.017282044515013695,
-0.046519383788108826,
-0.19103851914405823,
-0.22077354788780212,
-0.2840650677680969,
0.4334612190723419,
0.10425568372011185,
0.371121346950531,
0.5838624238967896,
-0.44290292263031006,
-0.5853070616722107,
0.10703185200691223,
0.38896989822387695,
-0.39288634061813354,
0.11519636958837509,
0.05012685805559158,
-0.4668724536895752,
0.08084788173437119,
-0.41436436772346497,
-0.08275530487298965,
-0.014771291054785252,
-0.3763766884803772,
-0.30426469445228577,
0.25278154015541077,
0.08198513835668564,
0.7182005047798157,
0.4713541269302368,
-0.4818193316459656,
0.4525282680988312,
-0.16398334503173828,
-0.4925670027732849,
-0.06406158208847046,
-0.6316842436790466,
0.04598474130034447,
0.4069322943687439,
0.3239854872226715,
0.347526490688324,
0.009742103517055511,
0.07407478988170624,
0.02050110325217247,
0.09165491908788681,
-0.5220994353294373,
0.5754100680351257,
0.4276007413864136,
-0.3531310558319092,
0.3720620572566986,
-0.22732970118522644,
-0.27168136835098267,
-0.20791712403297424,
0.48161882162094116,
-0.6553319096565247,
0.3008161187171936,
0.14117790758609772,
0.0764637216925621,
-0.5835452675819397,
-0.22590652108192444,
0.25376495718955994,
0.1569186896085739,
0.004483974073082209,
0.39008864760398865,
-0.5510596036911011,
0.03334512934088707,
0.1170516163110733,
0.23603740334510803,
-0.1832592636346817,
0.49928155541419983,
0.009220314212143421,
-0.12655514478683472,
-0.28465762734413147,
0.5142264366149902,
0.270425021648407,
0.39785036444664,
0.5853580236434937,
0.13212445378303528,
-0.054216787219047546,
0.04824023321270943,
-0.21431516110897064,
-0.051468826830387115,
-0.5481942296028137,
-0.5154408812522888,
0.3116120398044586,
-0.23705659806728363,
0.3089611530303955,
0.07959476113319397,
-0.10708341747522354,
0.7927746176719666,
-0.11494487524032593,
-0.27778932452201843,
0.2842523157596588,
0.8256343603134155,
-0.0452636256814003,
0.3837715685367584,
0.4579923748970032,
0.6648425459861755,
-0.45474618673324585,
-0.025554005056619644,
0.1607763171195984,
0.18855397403240204,
-0.0962749645113945,
-0.20248492062091827,
0.08760503679513931,
0.115301214158535,
-0.3268313407897949,
-0.537221372127533,
0.5445470213890076,
0.0466698557138443,
-0.6818140745162964,
-0.10271529853343964,
0.8894492387771606,
0.7211123704910278,
0.5756624341011047,
0.662755012512207,
-0.20948927104473114,
0.3380601108074188,
-0.5187358856201172,
0.36975860595703125,
0.08579948544502258,
0.03416583314538002,
0.6148408055305481,
0.21449419856071472,
-0.039580345153808594,
0.02425319142639637,
-0.13728167116641998,
0.07089291512966156,
0.31360259652137756,
-0.17150363326072693,
0.18951652944087982,
-0.14918528497219086,
-0.0592915304005146,
-0.29576802253723145,
-0.23954817652702332,
0.22750574350357056,
0.7596626281738281,
-0.5972903966903687,
-0.5860030055046082,
-0.6878655552864075,
0.7841174602508545,
0.23620304465293884,
-0.3075416386127472,
0.04588615894317627,
-0.15476322174072266,
-0.008748414926230907,
-0.3857453465461731,
-0.5212331414222717,
-0.29645535349845886,
-0.2871215343475342,
0.2941022217273712,
1.0593435764312744,
-0.08172126859426498,
0.7536741495132446,
0.2091386616230011,
-0.014835627749562263,
-0.2852015793323517,
0.1424947828054428,
0.6554061770439148
] |
205988
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyah%20Willcox
|
Toyah Willcox
|
Toyah Ann Willcox (born 18 May 1958) is an English musician, actress, and TV presenter. In a career spanning more than 40 years, Willcox has had 8 top 40 singles, released over 20 albums, written two books, appeared in over 40 stage plays and 10 feature films, and voiced and presented numerous television shows.
Between 1977 and 1983, she fronted the band Toyah, before embarking on a solo career in the mid-1980s. At the 1982 BPI/Brit Awards, Toyah was nominated for British Breakthrough Act, and Best Female Solo Artist. Toyah was nominated a further two times in this category in 1983, and in 1984. Her biggest hits include "It's a Mystery", "Thunder in the Mountains" and "I Want to Be Free".
Childhood and early life
Willcox was born in Kings Heath, Birmingham. Her father Beric Willcox ran a successful joinery business and owned three factories. Her mother Barbara Joy, née Rollinson, was a professional dancer, with whom he fell in love after seeing her on stage in Weston-super-Mare with Flanagan and Allen, and married in 1949. Barbara had to give up her career after giving birth to Nicola (born 1950) and Kim (born 1953), Willcox's elder sister and brother, respectively.
Willcox has suggested her unusual first name could be reference to Toyah, Texas, or to a Native American word "toyah" meaning "water," although she notes her parents deny both origins.
Willcox enjoyed a financially comfortable childhood, attending a private girls' school, but was bullied. Requiring physiotherapy for a spinal condition, she behaved violently towards her mother, to whom she was close. An absentee pupil and frequently rebellious, she sat O-levels a year late, owing to corrective surgery on her feet. She achieved one O-level pass, in music. Alienated by her background and surroundings, her rebellious behaviour led to her shunning male company and adopting an aggressive and flamboyant identity.
Her early interest in music, dance and acting, combined with her alienation, and her uncertainty regarding her sexuality, led Willcox to seek an outlet, initially in acting and then in music. She attended the Old Rep Drama School in Birmingham, paying privately because she was denied a grant, the assessor noting: "She has a lisp and isn't attractive." She began working as a dresser in local theatres, including The Alexandra, Birmingham, and the Birmingham Hippodrome. Because of her distinctive appearance and gaudily dyed hair, repertory actors referred to her as "The Bird of Paradise."
A friend's suggestion that she should see the Sex Pistols led to her being attracted to the punk movement, but she resolved to do better, travelling to London to take up a career in acting and music.
Move to London
After appearing as an extra in a drama being made at the BBC Pebble Mill studios in Birmingham, an opening came to take a role in Glitter, a play in the BBC "Second City Firsts" series, alongside Noel Edmonds and Phil Daniels. Recommended to the play's director by a member of the wardrobe department because of her distinctive appearance and oddball character, Willcox was given the role of Sue, a girl who sang with a band called Bilbo Baggins and who dreamed of appearing on Top of the Pops. In the course of the 30-minute play, Willcox performed two songs she had co-written: "Floating Free" (an acoustic ballad, with Phil Daniels accompanying her on guitar) and "Dream Maker". The play was seen by Kate Nelligan and Maximilian Schell, who offered her work with the National Theatre in London, where she got the part of Emma in Tales from the Vienna Woods, directed by Schell. The opening led to her relocating to London.
In 1977, while playing Emma in Tales from the Vienna Woods at the National Theatre, Willcox, inspired by her role as a musician in Glitter, fronted a band called Toyah which featured Joel Bogen on guitar, Mark Henry on bass, Steve Bray on drums, Peter Bush on keyboards, and herself on vocals. Having never considered herself a musician, she found herself fronting a successful band, although still uncertain about her own sexuality and repelled by her bandmates' antics with groupies.
Introduced by actor Ian Charleson to director Derek Jarman, Willcox was offered 'any part you want' in Jubilee (called Down with the Queen at the time). Plagued by budgetary issues, the film featured Willcox as the murderous 'Mad', as well as a number of other prominent figures from the punk scene. She went on to play 'Monkey' in the 1979 film of The Who's Quadrophenia, having been introduced to director Franc Roddam through an association with John Lydon. Willcox demanded the part of Monkey from Roddam. She completed filming despite requiring medical attention for pneumonia.
The possibility of a role in the Sex Pistols' film, The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle under director Russ Meyer having fallen through, Willcox went on to play Miranda in Derek Jarman's version of The Tempest, which won her a nomination as Best Newcomer at the 1980 Evening Standard Awards. Continuing a stage career alongside film work, in 1979, on London's Royal Court Theatre stage, Willcox played Sharon in Nigel Williams' Sugar and Spice, Tallulah in Stephen Poliakoff's American Days at the ICA, playing alongside Mel Smith, Antony Sher and Phil Daniels and taking a film role opposite Katharine Hepburn in the made-for-television film The Corn Is Green, directed by George Cukor.
Willcox found her dual careers as a musician and actress frequently in conflict, leading to confusion as to which role constituted a 'compartment' into which to put her. Feeling her musical career was not taken as seriously as her acting, she nevertheless viewed her acting role as 'highbrow' and her musical career as 'lowbrow'.
Acting career
Willcox played Calamity Jane at the Shaftesbury Theatre and was a guest vocalist in the anniversary concert of The Rocky Horror Show at the Royal Court Theatre. She had many television roles, including series such as Quatermass (1979) and Minder. She starred opposite Laurence Olivier in The Ebony Tower (1984) and also appeared on Kavanagh QC and Secret Diary of a Call Girl. During the late 1980s and 1990s, Willcox forged ahead with a career as a stage performer. Notable credits include Trafford Tanzi (at the Mermaid Theatre, leading role), Cabaret (Sally Bowles), Three Men and a Horse (winner of an Olivier Award for Best New Comedy), and the UK tour of Arthur Smith's Live Bed Show. In 1990, she played Costanza in the national tour of Amadeus.
Although she had presented the magazine series Look! Hear! for BBC Birmingham between 1979 and 1981, it was in the 1990s that Toyah's career as a TV presenter took off. She began by presenting arts programmes First Night and Time Off in 1993. By the mid to late 1990s, Toyah could be seen presenting items on shows such as Watchdog:healthcheck, This Morning and The Heaven and Earth Show. She also worked on VH1 for three years, presenting Toyah and Toyah and Chase for the cable music station. Viewers could accompany Toyah to various locations worldwide during her tenure as a reporter on BBC travel shows such as Holiday and Holiday- Fasten Your Seatbelts. In 1996, Toyah had the unique honour of simultaneously hosting both Songs Of Praise on the BBC and Good Sex Guide Late on ITV. At the turn of the millennium, Toyah continued to work on The Heaven And Earth Show as a newspaper reviewer and also presented a series of Whose Recipe Is It Anyway on the Carlton Food channel and 40 episodes of Beyond Medicine on the Discovery Health Channel. As the noughties progressed, Toyah had stints presenting Head2Head and Destination Lunch on the Overseas Property Channel, was a newspaper reviewer on Sky News, hosted various music programmes for Vintage TV and was a guest presenter on Loose Women in 2007.
In 1999, she took the lead in the children's television series Barmy Aunt Boomerang. She also provided the voices for the children's television programmes Teletubbies and Brum. She has also appeared in the reality television series I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! and I'm Famous and Frightened!. In December 2018, she won her heat of Celebrity Mastermind.
In the 2000s, Willcox had a busy schedule with theatre commitments, including appearing on stage in London's West End performing the title role of Calamity Jane (nominated for an Evening Standard Award for Best Musical) at the Shaftesbury Theatre in 2003. In June 2008, Willcox appeared on Living with the Dead on Living to share her experiences of living in her haunted home. On 24 July 2008, Willcox appeared on UK ITV1's This Morning to discuss her role as a vampire in the rock musical Vampires Rock. Toyah has also appeared in shows looking back on popular culture, including the I'm a Celebrity series, and various 'Top 100 favourite' shows. More recently, Willcox played Queen Ivannah in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at the Lyceum in Sheffield for the 2009 Christmas season. In October 2009, she made a guest appearance in the BBC drama series Casualty. Willcox has also been heard on radio, including the 2002 BBC Radio 4 series The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. She is also played the widow Fantine in Focus on the Family radio theatre's version of Les Misérables. In December 2006, she joined the radio drama series Silver Street on the BBC Asian Network as Siobhan Brady. In November 2017, she played Queen Elizabeth in a theatre adaptation of Derek Jarman's film Jubilee at Manchester Royal Exchange Theatre. This production transferred to the Lyric Hammersmith for a London run in March 2018.
In recent years, there has been renewed interest in Toyah as a film actress, as she has appeared in a number of British films. These include: Aaaaaaaah!, Extremis, Lies We Tell, SwipeRight, Hound, Heckle and Invasion Planet Earth.
Musical career
In London, Willcox lived in a place called "Mayhem", a converted British Rail warehouse serving as a studio. It was here the band Toyah recorded their first demos. For the lack of proper bed she slept for a while in a "second-hand" coffin, reportedly used by the French Red Cross to transport victims of fatal accidents. Citing her role in Quadrophenia as a boost to her musical career, with growing audiences Toyah signed to Safari Records, releasing a debut single "Victims of the Riddle", which topped the UK Indie Charts. This was followed by the Sheep Farming in Barnet EP, produced by Steve James and Keith Hale. Initially released in Germany, in 1979 it was re-released as an LP, comprising the original six tracks, "Victims of the Riddle" A and B sides and three tracks that were previously unavailable on vinyl. Willcox's second album, The Blue Meaning, went up to no. 40 in the UK Albums Chart in June 1980. By this time she is reported as announcing she had severed all ties with punk aesthetics.
In January 1981, the live album Toyah! Toyah! Toyah!, recorded at the Lafayette Club in Wolverhampton the previous June, made it to the Top 30, backed up by a TV documentary Toyah. By now the original band had broken up and a new lineup was in place, consisting of Phil Spalding, Nigel Glocker and Adrian Lee, only Joel Bogen remaining and Toyah. 1981 saw Willcox's strengthened presence in the charts with hits such as Four from Toyah EP (no. 4, February 1981, including "It's a Mystery"), the third album Anthem that went to no. 2 in May 1981 to be later certified platinum, "I Want to Be Free" (no. 8, June 1981), "Thunder in the Mountains" (no. 4, October 1981) and Four More from Toyah EP (no. 14, November 1981). She became one of the first acts to score regularly in the UK Singles Chart with EPs, which were also successful on an international level. At the end of the year Willcox won the Smash Hits''' reader's poll in two categories: Best Female Singer and Most Fanciable Female (beating Kim Wilde to the second place). In 1981 she alone, according to Safari, sold in the UK more units than the whole of the Warner Bros. put together.
In 1982 The Changeling album was released, produced by Steve Lillywhite, marking a turn for a more goth-tinged sound, it went up to no. 6 in the UK. The Changeling was followed in the same year by a double live album Warrior Rock: Toyah on Tour. Also in 1982, Willcox appeared in Urgh! A Music War, a British film released in 1982 featuring performances by punk rock, new wave, and post-punk acts, filmed in 1980, in which she performed "Danced". Three more of her singles, "Brave New World", "Ieya" and "Be Proud Be Loud (Be Heard)" charted in the Top 50.
The making of Love Is the Law (1983) was the happiest period of her life, according to Willcox, combining work in the critically acclaimed stage play Trafford Tanzi and the film The Ebony Tower with Laurence Olivier with work on the album. By this time, though, her popularity started to decline: the album reached no. 28 (with singles "Rebel Run" and "The Vow" peaking at no. 24 and no. 50 respectively), and with a 1984 greatest hits compilation, released by K-tel and called confusingly Toyah! Toyah! Toyah!, failing to chart.
Toyah Willcox disbanded her group, signed to Portrait Records, and in 1985 released the solo album Minx, which contained several cover versions including Alice Cooper's "School's Out", as well as her own hit, "Don't Fall in Love".
Willcox married UK guitarist Robert Fripp, founding member of King Crimson, in Poole, Dorset on his 40th birthday (May 16, 1986) and with him formed a new band, called Fripp Fripp on the initial tours, later changing its name to Sunday All Over The World which released the critically acclaimed Kneeling at the Shrine album. She referred to Fripp as her 'soul mate'. The same year she also sang lead on the Tony Banks' track "Lion of Symmetry". Her next solo album Desire (1987) was less successful although the single with her version of "Echo Beach" made it Top 50. Then in 1988 Prostitute came out, an album through which Willcox vented her frustrations which started to accumulate as a result of having made the transformation "from all-powerful artist to invisible woman" in the course of just one year of marriage. This experimental concept album, marking a considerable divergence from previous works, was released on E.G. Records. The attitude to Prostitute, according to Willcox, in the UK and the US was radically different: "In the UK, when my management tried to sell it to the music reps, an awful lot got up and walked out of meetings; all male I hasten to add. In America, Billboard magazine said it was the dawning of a new era for me as a producer and that it was an antidote to Madonna. I started to receive mail from professors at eminent universities telling me they played the album at their lectures as an example of the new way of thinking coming from contemporary women." Robert Fripp joined his wife on her 1991 album Ophelia's Shadow (1991) which, along with Dreamchild (1994), received good reviews. In 1996 Willcox released The Acoustic Album on Aardvark Records, featuring strings from Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and produced by Oliver Davis.
Later career
In 2001 Willcox was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Central England in recognition of her achievements in performing arts, media and broadcasting. The 2001 May issue of Q magazine named Willcox number 48 in their top 100 Greatest Women in Music poll, as voted for by readers of the magazine. She returned to music in 2002 with new material for a limited edition Little Tears of Love EP and a one-off preview concert at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club. The same year she sold out eleven stadium gigs for the Here and Now tour. She continued to perform with her band, releasing a mini-album Velvet Lined Shell in 2003 on her own record label, Vertical Species Records, showcasing a darker, edgier direction. In 2004 she performed as part of The Best of the 80s tour in the UK alongside Nick Heyward, Curiosity Killed the Cat and Altered Images. A live DVD followed in 2005, the year that also saw two parts of The Safari Records Singles Collection being issued.
In May 2007 she collaborated with Bill Rieflin as the Humans for live dates in Estonia where she had been invited by the Estonian president. According to The Northern Echo, that resulted "from reading one of her husband's emails". The invitation was for him to go, but he was not keen, so Willcox accepted. Also in 2007, Willcox signed a new worldwide publishing deal with Zomba Music Group. She continued to write and record solo material with long-term collaborator Simon Darlow. On 29 October 2007 a new single "Latex Messiah (Viva la Rebel in You)" came out, followed by the In the Court of the Crimson Queen album, written and produced in collaboration with Darlow and released by Willow Recordings Ltd. on 15 September 2008. As part of Liverpool's European Capital of Culture year, she performed for the first time ever at the newly opened Liverpool Echo Arena and Conference Centre.
In 2009 a new version of Vampires Rock was created, called Vampires Rock Christmas, and Willcox was back in her role as the Killer Queen, alongside the writer and one of the stars of the show, Steve Steinman. Willcox continued to perform with The Humans, featuring Bill Reiflin, Chris Wong and occasionally husband Robert Fripp. Described as "European experimental meets West Coast American grunge", The Humans recorded their debut album We Are the Humans in Seattle in 2008, released in Estonia in May 2009 to coincide with the band's return to play in front of the country's president. The album received a UK digital release in September 2009, along with a single "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'". At the end of the year Willcox came seventh in a BBC series naming the "Queens of British Pop", as voted for by the British public. In 2010 Willcox with The Humans performed at the London's Roundhouse Haiti earthquake fundraiser concert. On 17 June 2011, Willcox commenced on a special From Sheep Farming to Anthem tour, celebrating the 30th anniversary of her breakthrough hit "It's a Mystery" and the platinum-selling album Anthem, starting at the London's Leicester Square Theatre. The set included selections drawn exclusively from Toyah's first three albums, Sheep Farming in Barnet (1979), The Blue Meaning (1980) and Anthem (1981). Andi Fraggs, a British electronic musician, supported her on chosen dates.
On 14 April 2012, Willcox launched the Changeling Resurrection 2012 tour at the Concorde 2 in Brighton to celebrate the 30th anniversary of her album The Changeling (1982). On 16 July 2012, Willcox performed a concert in her birthplace of Kings Heath, Birmingham, to celebrate being the first artist with a star on the King's Heath Walk of Fame. Andi Fraggs made a surprise appearance, duetting Willcox's 1981 hit single "Thunder in the Mountains". In 2013, Willcox released a deluxe edition of her 2008 album In the Court of the Crimson Queen and embarked on the tour revisiting the Love Is the Law (1983)-era material.
Willcox continued to tour both with her full band and also with an acoustic line-up for her "Up Close And Personal" shows.
In 2018 Willcox toured her #Toyah60 show, which marked her sixtieth birthday and fortieth year in music. This was accompanied by the release of her Four From Toyah- Birthday Edition EP of new material, which charted highly in the digital charts.
In 2019 Willcox charted at #74 in the UK album charts with a re-issue of her 2008 album In The Court Of The Crimson Queen. It also peaked at #22 on the Official Charts Company's sales chart and #7 in the independent chart. This was Willcox' first appearance in the British album charts since 'Minx' in 1985.
In 2020 the box set Toyah Solo was released, containing six solo albums with bonus material, one Rare, Remixed and Revisited CD, and a DVD with promo videos and interviews.
In 2020, following their acquisition of the Toyah Safari catalogue, Cherry Red Records began reissuing Toyah's early albums in deluxe 2CD/DVD and vinyl formats. Both Sheep Farming In Barnet and Blue Meaning have been reissued at the time of writing, both charting in the UK album charts and the independent charts.
During the first UK lockdown of 2020, Toyah began broadcasting from her home across social media and YouTube. On Saturdays she answers fan questions and shares archive performances in Toyah At Home and co-hosts Agony Aunts alongside her husband Robert Fripp. However, it is her "Sunday Lunch" series with Robert that has garnered the most notoriety, frequently going viral and racking up millions of hits on YouTube.
She released Posh Pop, her first solo studio album since 2008, on CD and vinyl via DMG on 27 August 2021, with the album featuring 10 tracks composed by Toyah and "Slave to the Rhythm" co-writer Simon Darlow. The album reached #22 in the charts.
Personal life
Married since 1986 to musician Robert Fripp, founder and guitarist of the progressive rock group King Crimson, the couple have no children and have arranged their wills so as to leave their entire fortune to the establishment of a musical educational trust for children.
In 1987, Willcox was invited to make a speech at Women of the Year ceremony in the presence of Diana, Princess of Wales, expressing her views on the subject of how being disabled incites creativity and craving for a fuller life experience.
In 2002, she became a prominent opponent of planned accommodation centres for asylum seekers near the Worcestershire village of Throckmorton, protesting together with more than one thousand villagers.
In November 2007, Willcox took on the role of sponsoring the Black Country Urban Park for the People's £50 million Big Lottery Fund. In April 2008, she took part in the Great Walk to Beijing alongside other celebrities, to raise money for Olivia Newton-John's cancer charity.
Discography
Sheep Farming in Barnet (1980)
The Blue Meaning (1980)
Anthem (1981)
The Changeling (1982)
Love Is the Law (1983)
Minx (1985)
Desire (1987)
Prostitute (1988)
Ophelia's Shadow (1991)
Take the Leap! (1993)
Dreamchild (1994)
Looking Back (1995)
The Acoustic Album (1996)
Velvet Lined Shell (2003)
In the Court of the Crimson Queen (2008)
Posh Pop (2021)
Tours
1979: The Resurrection Tour
1979: Sheep Farming in Barnet Tour
1980: Bird in Flight Tour
1980: Ieya Tour
1981: College Tour
1981: Anthem Tour
1981: Good Morning Universe: European Tour
1982: Changeling Tour
1982: Mini Tour
1983: Rebel Run Tour
1988: Fripp Fripp Tour
1989: Sunday All Over the World Tour
1993: Take the Leap! Tour
1994: Leap 2 Dream Tour
1994: Acoustic Dreamchild Tour
1994: Has God Ceased 2 Dream You? Tour
2002: Here and Now Tour
2004: Best of the 80s Tour
2006: The Hitmakers Tour
2010: From Sheep Farming to Anthem: Classics Revisited Tour
2012: The Changeling Resurrection Tour
2012: The Changeling Resurrection II
2013: Love Is the Law & More Tour
2014: Crimson Queen/Greatest Hits... Live!
2014: Acoustic, Up Close & Personal
2014: North American Tour (with The Humans)
2014: Songs From The Intergalactic Ranch House... and Beyond!
2015: Loud, Proud & Electric Tour
2017: 80s Invasion Tour
2018: #Toyah60 Tour
2019: Thunder in the Highlands Scottish Tour
2021/22: Posh Pop Tour
2022: Electric Ladies with Hazel O'Connor
Filmography
Feature films
1978: Jubilee as Mad
1979: The Corn Is Green as Bessie Watty
1979: The Tempest as Miranda
1979: Quadrophenia as Monkey
1981: the Urgh! A Music War as herself
1984: Murder: Ultimate Grounds for Divorce as Valerie Cunningham
1984: The Ebony Tower as Anne, 'The Freak'
1993: Anchoress as Pauline Carpenter
1999: Julie and the Cadillacs as Barbara Gifford
1999: The Most Fertile Man in Ireland as Dr. Johnson
2011: The Power of Three as Michelle
2015: Aaaaaaaah!
2017: The Last Laugh
2017: Lies We Tell
2017: In Extremis
2017: The Apple Picker
2018: Hound
2019: Heckle
2019: Invasion Planet Earth
2020: To Be Someone (post-production)
2020: SwipeRight (post-production)
2020: Doll House (in production)
2020: Give Them Wings as Alice Hodgson
2021: Ghosts Of Borley Rectory as Estelle Roberts
TV appearances
1976: Second City Firsts as Sue
1977: Three Piece Suite as Buzz – This Situation
1978: Premier as Fran
1979: The Quatermass Conclusion as Sal
1980: Shoestring
1980: A Question of Guilt as Alice Fulcher
1980: Minder
1982: ITV Playhouse as Sheryl
1982: Animal Magic as herself
1982: Dear Heart as Super Advice Person
1982: Tales of the Unexpected as Myra, known as Marigold
1984: The Ebony Tower as Anne (The Freak)
1984: Pop Quiz – Christmas Special
1985: Function Room
1985: Pob as herself
1987: The Grand Knockout Tournament as herself
1988: French and Saunders as herself
1988: Boudicca
1990: Cluedo as Miss Scarlet
1990: The Tale of Little Pig Robinson as Ship's Cat
1991–1994: Brum as Narrator
1992 Hairy Jeremy as Narrator
1992: First Night on TV – hosting
1993: Maigret as Gigi
1993: Doctor Who: Thirty Years in the TARDIS as herself
1994: The Ink Thief
1995: Kavanagh QC
1995: The Shooting Gallery
1996: Good Sex Guide Late
1997: Presenting... Toyah on VH1
1997: Light Lunch
1997-2001: Teletubbies as Narrator (opening and closing)
1998: Boys from the Black Country – The Slade Story – hosting
1998–2005: Never Mind the Buzzcocks
1999: It's Slade
1999: Barmy Aunt Boomerang
2000: Doctors as Marcy Preston
2002: Mr Bean: The Animates Series Additional Voices
2002: Rock Legends as herself
2002: Open House Panto Special
2005: QueenMania
2006: Proud Parents as herself
2007-8: Secret Diary of a Call Girl
2007: Loose Women – One Time Panellist
2008: In Your Dreams as herself
2008: Living with the Dead
2008: Celebrity Mastermind
2008: Ready Steady Cook – Celebrity Christmas Special as herself
1982: FM (TV series) as Herself
2009: Psychic Therapy as herself
2009: Celeb Experiences as herself
2009: Hole in the Wall as herself
2009: Celebrity Brides Unveiled as herself
2009: Celebrity Life Skills as herself
2009: The One Show
2009: Casualty
2010: Greatest Christmas TV Moments (TV Movie documentary)
2010: Gayle Tuesday: The Comeback
2010: Greatest Christmas TV Ads (TV Movie documentary)
2011: Celebrity Ghost Stories
2012: The Women of Doctor Who (TV Movie documentary)
2012: Doctor Who: Best of Specials (TV Mini-Series documentary)
2013: The Big Fat Quiz of the 80s (TV Movie)
2013: All Star Mr & Mrs
2013: 3 Sides of the Coin (Short)
2013: The Power of Three
2013: Dun Punkin: Ep.1 – 'Boys Will Be Boys' (Short)
2014: Splash!
2014: Pointless
2014: Who's Doing The Dishes?
2015: Doctors as Bill
2016: The Chase Celebrity Special
2018: Celebrity Mastermind as herself
2020: Celebrity Catchphrase
2021: Pointless Celebrities
2021: Celebrity Tipping Point
2021: Britain's Biggest 80s Hits (also known as The 80s Greatest Hits) various episodes as herself (talking head contributor)
2021: Britain's Biggest 70s Hits (later years) as herself (talking head/punk-era expert)
Books
2000: Living Out Loud
2005: Diary of a Facelift
Sources
General
References
External links
1958 births
E.G. Records artists
English new wave musicians
English stage actresses
English television actresses
Women new wave singers
Living people
Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands
Musicians from Worcestershire
People from Pershore
English women pop singers
English film actresses
Toyah (band) members
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) participants
|
[
0.11325597018003464,
-0.33760032057762146,
-0.22495903074741364,
-0.6689500212669373,
0.3215978145599365,
0.8265386819839478,
0.07357334345579147,
0.11513026803731918,
-0.0626051053404808,
0.3978896141052246,
-0.45442909002304077,
0.5650862455368042,
0.15608559548854828,
0.15212200582027435,
-0.4173359274864197,
-0.020143087953329086,
0.08876705914735794,
0.6465210914611816,
0.06215168908238411,
-0.40389180183410645,
0.021239517256617546,
0.043186064809560776,
-0.11776376515626907,
-0.03347920626401901,
-0.4601195156574249,
0.3459778130054474,
0.022517850622534752,
0.18305127322673798,
0.235066220164299,
-0.24706079065799713,
0.17332983016967773,
0.19617806375026703,
0.6825295686721802,
-0.42108526825904846,
0.3206826150417328,
0.8411709666252136,
-0.1944265067577362,
-0.050935231149196625,
-0.5891531109809875,
-0.28197336196899414,
-0.43714073300361633,
-0.12272162735462189,
0.3356750011444092,
0.08153215050697327,
-0.46668457984924316,
-0.5072323083877563,
-1.814456582069397,
0.3459966778755188,
-0.6991897225379944,
-0.8264292478561401,
0.009224841371178627,
0.28737199306488037,
1.0911840200424194,
-0.3299017548561096,
0.47651997208595276,
-0.3517817258834839,
-0.6729044318199158,
-0.3287391662597656,
0.06278517097234726,
0.3395906984806061,
0.6370065808296204,
-0.462891548871994,
0.09809180349111557,
-0.6540998816490173,
0.0013454295694828033,
-0.17546270787715912,
0.8984571099281311,
0.6168256998062134,
-0.14070047438144684,
-0.27117231488227844,
0.09334596246480942,
0.89580899477005,
0.26693210005760193,
-0.4515779912471771,
-0.4100641906261444,
-0.2930990159511566,
0.36721572279930115,
0.04081549495458603,
0.2518264949321747,
0.4692508578300476,
0.6476835012435913,
0.17458543181419373,
0.628631591796875,
0.5164885520935059,
0.05846937373280525,
-0.6662938594818115,
-0.4634978771209717,
0.3655824661254883,
-1.1249620914459229,
0.5032764673233032,
-0.5703209638595581,
-0.4320072531700134,
-0.5157756209373474,
0.46972593665122986,
0.16560420393943787,
-0.02925204113125801,
-0.2662518620491028,
-0.1320226490497589,
0.4626869559288025,
0.15209759771823883,
0.07944992184638977,
-0.053221821784973145,
0.03882647678256035,
-1.0312917232513428,
-0.011354039423167706,
-0.12033000588417053,
-0.17157864570617676,
-0.6139023900032043,
0.00907911267131567,
0.028401952236890793,
-0.36143776774406433,
0.04899599030613899,
-0.13232268393039703,
0.23517607152462006,
0.16659602522850037,
-0.006216706708073616,
0.30890268087387085,
-0.10716309398412704,
-0.6668528914451599,
0.05941350758075714,
0.42425981163978577,
-0.33694106340408325,
-0.11041992157697678,
-0.006006955169141293,
-0.47861891984939575,
0.5275047421455383,
0.09720189869403839,
-0.17693299055099487,
-0.395463228225708,
0.161585733294487,
-0.06968649476766586,
0.6319252848625183,
-0.5579268336296082,
-0.726581871509552,
0.019138697534799576,
-0.027193251997232437,
0.14443504810333252,
0.5212044715881348,
0.38529160618782043,
0.40099066495895386,
-0.04543451964855194,
0.18343152105808258,
-0.609866738319397,
0.2395460456609726,
1.0172436237335205,
0.1809992790222168,
-0.5668226480484009,
0.18434345722198486,
-0.6640151739120483,
-0.22613395750522614,
-0.41552120447158813,
0.023909753188490868,
0.01023893617093563,
-0.6711471676826477,
-0.7882562279701233,
0.05748327448964119,
0.5729029774665833,
-0.14697489142417908,
-0.38831034302711487,
0.169516921043396,
0.46284791827201843,
0.005778055638074875,
0.14825791120529175,
0.07192980498075485,
-0.11514689773321152,
-0.335840106010437,
0.21871988475322723,
-0.07746822386980057,
-0.16681113839149475,
0.17380069196224213,
-0.40329381823539734,
0.1368631273508072,
0.052025046199560165,
0.20867429673671722,
-0.405832439661026,
0.3428001403808594,
0.19280369579792023,
0.25950372219085693,
-0.5694410800933838,
-0.010484913364052773,
-0.5987458825111389,
0.2823029160499573,
0.17719408869743347,
0.10962360352277756,
0.45505544543266296,
0.25221285223960876,
0.12337978929281235,
0.0411900132894516,
0.3155132532119751,
0.20866736769676208,
-0.8395116329193115,
-0.5736615657806396,
0.6893750429153442,
0.21622221171855927,
0.12621907889842987,
0.22161301970481873,
0.23653393983840942,
0.2525551915168762,
0.1332787573337555,
0.42955315113067627,
0.14416836202144623,
-0.4049690067768097,
0.07262711226940155,
0.008226960897445679,
-0.22824597358703613,
0.14417237043380737,
1.3715118169784546,
-0.2344817817211151,
0.1517418771982193,
0.43178126215934753,
0.11462998390197754,
-0.788835883140564,
0.25465431809425354,
0.46110862493515015,
-0.04317806288599968,
-0.7611814737319946,
-0.32290035486221313,
-0.1800423413515091,
0.1456790566444397,
-0.8216221332550049,
-0.054305750876665115,
1.1430639028549194,
-0.5402722954750061,
-0.5171308517456055,
-0.013996823690831661,
0.6163797974586487,
-0.4347773790359497,
-0.05150488018989563,
0.20116311311721802,
-0.6638616323471069,
-0.06480607390403748,
0.40213504433631897,
-0.09377044439315796,
-0.21360072493553162,
-0.05600053444504738,
-0.15970027446746826,
0.09796225279569626,
0.07052838802337646,
-0.5297442078590393,
-0.9855048656463623,
0.19638808071613312,
0.2715844511985779,
-1.1019104719161987,
0.5999111533164978,
-0.17755189538002014,
0.2830975651741028,
0.13724607229232788,
-0.032714150846004486,
0.0821671187877655,
-0.284729927778244,
0.4194813668727875,
0.22904157638549805,
0.6327386498451233,
0.26801323890686035,
0.2978784143924713,
-0.2298058122396469,
0.1253676563501358,
0.4127189517021179,
0.970253050327301,
0.590904712677002,
0.08267725259065628,
-0.2024395912885666,
0.4664106070995331,
0.07076848298311234,
-0.7303677797317505,
-0.43477192521095276,
0.33221760392189026,
-0.9750088453292847,
0.5905119776725769,
-0.4163975715637207,
0.23509381711483002,
-0.23577913641929626,
0.011414028704166412,
0.36337441205978394,
-0.13497263193130493,
0.2578583359718323,
0.010991713963449001,
0.05279151350259781,
-0.03512438386678696,
-0.7302964925765991,
0.7992902994155884,
1.1630527973175049,
-0.3063631057739258,
-0.41312935948371887,
-0.4389103353023529,
0.04048680141568184,
-0.06693211942911148,
0.10919743031263351,
-0.23158781230449677,
-0.04150588810443878,
-0.24629828333854675,
0.7317708134651184,
-0.35500645637512207,
0.3132478594779968,
-0.02126963995397091,
-0.1568489670753479,
-0.08335669338703156,
0.2282770723104477,
-0.4369994103908539,
0.14343136548995972,
-0.015493086539208889,
1.1104403734207153,
-0.3208509683609009,
0.13140001893043518,
0.4023180902004242,
-0.06677603721618652,
-0.5814834833145142,
-0.31730392575263977,
-5.509113311767578,
0.2919464707374573,
0.3687530755996704,
-0.26454731822013855,
0.8001627922058105,
0.021019600331783295,
0.14554189145565033,
-0.5012899041175842,
0.06803956627845764,
0.1285158395767212,
-0.17922358214855194,
0.541415810585022,
-0.567405104637146,
0.3844504654407501,
0.2931159436702728,
0.19003279507160187,
-0.3683381974697113,
-0.6304801106452942,
0.5175827741622925,
0.6814749240875244,
0.24212568998336792,
-0.3082379102706909,
-0.13337047398090363,
0.3014245629310608,
-0.29236266016960144,
-0.1275479644536972,
-0.4456843137741089,
-0.64340740442276,
-0.6888267993927002,
-0.07765485346317291,
-0.34072354435920715,
-0.10218027979135513,
-0.829863965511322,
-0.02478463016450405,
-0.27168986201286316,
-0.23646479845046997,
0.4885658323764801,
-0.46977221965789795,
0.02028142288327217,
-0.7659944891929626,
-0.2541132867336273,
0.20404352247714996,
-0.2180832028388977,
0.5628472566604614,
0.37331193685531616,
0.16427886486053467,
-0.18309850990772247,
-0.4279794991016388,
0.004445774480700493,
0.8328031897544861,
0.1917247623205185,
-0.02992447279393673,
0.34210875630378723,
-1.205509901046753,
0.31605565547943115,
0.06991969048976898,
0.12841567397117615,
0.31995701789855957,
-0.28387778997421265,
-0.2533752918243408,
-0.206560879945755,
-0.319683700799942,
0.10281865298748016,
-0.0424652025103569,
-0.2528800964355469,
0.01638566330075264,
0.43943479657173157,
0.3036227226257324,
0.6679156422615051,
-0.6648455858230591,
0.1836320012807846,
-0.3661828637123108,
-0.05266314744949341,
-1.2539677619934082,
-0.1546691358089447,
-0.27077439427375793,
-0.03619575873017311,
0.12453971058130264,
-0.7008293867111206,
-0.3369225561618805,
0.41666263341903687,
-0.39638495445251465,
0.8448361158370972,
0.7232262492179871,
0.1543847620487213,
-0.37711426615715027,
-0.2071913629770279,
0.2888338565826416,
-0.07272206246852875,
-0.3096693158149719,
-0.5312057137489319,
-0.5234516263008118,
-0.3662634789943695,
0.20766012370586395,
0.6473666429519653,
0.30938979983329773,
0.3453402817249298,
0.6080990433692932,
-0.08113344758749008,
0.3695105314254761,
0.022681526839733124,
-0.2466215342283249,
0.17028531432151794,
-0.30172231793403625,
0.049658358097076416,
-0.23188093304634094,
0.048118866980075836,
-0.2239372730255127,
0.5020446181297302,
-0.5121912956237793,
0.3212983012199402,
-0.028169650584459305,
-0.20957215130329132,
-0.3981292247772217,
-0.7151594758033752,
-0.6112369894981384,
0.2635539770126343,
0.5269646048545837,
0.4135507047176361,
0.5601967573165894,
-0.3368453085422516,
0.16535162925720215,
-0.49363526701927185,
0.11422212421894073,
0.10678986459970474,
0.2341597080230713,
0.06226222217082977,
0.0060022082179784775,
-0.03280488774180412,
0.06514135003089905,
-0.7106783390045166,
-0.2803501784801483,
0.25782451033592224,
0.16446375846862793,
0.28274983167648315,
-0.4075793921947479,
-0.565473735332489,
0.18562304973602295,
-0.09989643841981888,
-0.030263587832450867,
0.15255644917488098,
-0.34879785776138306,
-0.03874029591679573,
0.5375695824623108,
0.49174293875694275,
-0.5884799957275391,
0.38433364033699036,
0.03600858896970749,
-0.4545699656009674,
0.4666486084461212,
0.33309197425842285,
0.35816842317581177,
0.5924237966537476,
-0.6603596210479736,
-0.08960920572280884,
0.26830655336380005,
-0.5086416602134705,
-0.23653893172740936,
0.10225467383861542,
-0.2653152644634247,
-0.37797796726226807,
-0.05209004506468773,
-0.6653525829315186,
0.04925274848937988,
0.2723446488380432,
0.1608380526304245,
-0.08276289701461792,
-0.12977968156337738,
-0.5890119671821594,
0.37816888093948364,
-0.6777071952819824,
-1.1338945627212524,
0.03556719794869423,
0.3054499924182892,
0.32917141914367676,
0.017894288524985313,
0.18382267653942108,
-0.31269633769989014,
0.22939057648181915,
0.01336156576871872,
-0.43004631996154785,
-0.18322628736495972,
-0.49015119671821594,
-0.4520360231399536,
-0.1293662190437317,
0.06741658598184586,
-0.4502212703227997,
-0.630159318447113,
-0.22669926285743713,
-0.31511440873146057,
-0.07308466732501984,
0.30112016201019287,
-0.2476007640361786,
0.49816983938217163,
-0.6389103531837463,
0.11222662031650543,
0.14124633371829987,
-0.12263282388448715,
0.7203192710876465,
-0.08617915958166122,
-0.13300694525241852,
0.0007266977918334305,
-0.4087918996810913,
0.09120886027812958,
0.5350413918495178,
-0.4975075125694275,
-0.2895488142967224,
0.30168694257736206,
-0.03617102652788162,
0.47519949078559875,
-0.4890090823173523,
-0.0883755087852478,
0.4964872896671295,
0.2875553071498871,
-0.46703144907951355,
-0.13299301266670227,
0.33892568945884705,
0.14026668667793274,
0.4656793177127838,
-0.6557810306549072,
-0.9560184478759766,
-0.618402361869812,
-0.1441434919834137,
0.05762031674385071,
-0.7924980521202087,
0.13140535354614258,
0.48989468812942505,
-0.1230660155415535,
0.7599726319313049,
-0.6076610684394836,
-0.3080025017261505,
0.05349750071763992,
0.23957958817481995,
0.6526857614517212,
-0.337758868932724,
-0.4639875888824463,
-0.16383016109466553,
-0.12026896327733994,
0.024910900741815567,
0.27847039699554443,
0.6572984457015991,
0.11110858619213104,
-0.2244318574666977,
0.0951322391629219,
-0.6477933526039124,
0.6564845442771912,
0.4337383508682251,
-0.6402102112770081,
-0.546719491481781,
0.09957652539014816,
0.25375768542289734,
0.3157437741756439,
-0.12845845520496368,
-0.14268040657043457,
-0.04632117599248886,
-0.7675877213478088,
0.21819065511226654,
-0.2823895812034607,
-0.23568259179592133,
-0.44848695397377014,
0.26531967520713806,
-0.5255547165870667,
0.044588200747966766,
0.11132088303565979,
0.2032037377357483,
0.4874259829521179,
-0.2676798105239868,
-0.535092830657959,
0.27487844228744507,
-0.47865980863571167,
0.13404592871665955,
0.07596991956233978,
0.02048998698592186,
0.3910196125507355,
0.12893548607826233,
0.1243053525686264,
0.2695331871509552,
-0.379265159368515,
0.373004287481308,
0.3931775391101837,
0.28643038868904114,
0.4129941761493683,
-0.5157397389411926,
-1.0670310258865356,
0.723505437374115,
-0.3560962378978729,
0.4161069095134735,
-0.8252978920936584,
0.09015185385942459,
0.06259365379810333,
0.030864398926496506,
0.6410741209983826,
-0.028316320851445198,
-0.00531189888715744,
-0.10743489861488342,
-0.027883430942893028,
-0.315398633480072,
0.3840775787830353,
-0.024102676659822464,
-0.5165442228317261,
-0.11649256944656372,
0.2479429394006729,
0.6904087662696838,
-0.39426910877227783,
0.39687830209732056,
-0.1299099624156952,
-0.04085502773523331,
-0.5702003240585327,
-0.14773397147655487,
0.5564632415771484,
0.014959901571273804,
0.22902221977710724,
0.0597713440656662,
0.5181909799575806,
-0.015270477160811424,
-0.22001107037067413,
0.35177919268608093,
-0.6796842217445374,
0.0682557225227356,
0.34639638662338257,
-0.6289215683937073,
-0.14487922191619873,
0.34601494669914246,
-0.13773831725120544,
0.08937490731477737,
0.6589705348014832,
0.7679882645606995,
0.19820845127105713,
-0.11594685167074203,
0.3432375490665436,
0.034855034202337265,
-0.35000211000442505,
0.8662457466125488,
0.8138288259506226,
0.12366919219493866,
-0.948996901512146,
0.06759154051542282,
0.2536974847316742,
0.5399680137634277,
0.8469014763832092,
-0.10662291944026947,
0.26943862438201904,
0.058994878083467484,
0.097779780626297,
-0.018615713343024254,
0.29465967416763306,
-0.05273451656103134,
0.7063472867012024,
-0.5873358845710754,
-0.3850298523902893,
0.4661114513874054,
0.22167764604091644,
0.06835626810789108,
-0.5923487544059753,
0.7864303588867188,
0.03350486233830452,
0.5550000071525574,
-0.5363826155662537,
-0.3280337452888489,
0.30219417810440063,
-0.021250121295452118,
-0.1837407499551773,
1.1065717935562134,
0.6912527680397034,
-0.10643075406551361,
-0.5170454382896423,
-0.43554192781448364,
-0.35975581407546997,
-0.011382541619241238,
0.4180169403553009,
0.6164057850837708,
0.5001272559165955,
-0.4289064109325409,
0.27133551239967346,
0.4419868290424347,
-0.058765001595020294,
0.1717652529478073,
-0.42134159803390503,
-0.3699527680873871,
-0.03421027213335037,
-0.3793565630912781,
0.031665582209825516,
-0.0422540009021759,
-0.027176905423402786,
0.7904710173606873,
-0.2927165925502777,
-0.2934795916080475,
0.2699245512485504,
-0.2429034411907196,
-0.12967602908611298,
0.7632104754447937,
-0.18411965668201447,
0.1132848709821701,
-0.17531394958496094,
-0.5839477181434631,
-0.05281731113791466,
0.04101899266242981,
0.8503615856170654,
0.23685549199581146,
-0.06329745054244995,
0.5826156735420227,
0.9212715029716492,
-0.04272666946053505,
0.12655502557754517,
-0.3609764277935028,
0.5364572405815125,
-0.46594125032424927,
0.5310614705085754,
-0.8873544931411743,
0.2658171057701111,
0.3332689106464386,
0.025219876319169998,
-0.09764550626277924,
-0.17919939756393433,
-0.5545724630355835,
0.21185393631458282,
0.7773987054824829,
0.5425795316696167,
0.24441254138946533,
-0.46917104721069336,
0.07899284362792969,
0.49605318903923035,
0.12014643847942352,
-0.06402838230133057,
-0.40792056918144226,
0.8044650554656982,
-0.15119300782680511,
-0.07202723622322083,
-0.3638530969619751,
0.3027270436286926,
-0.29745814204216003,
0.5241281390190125,
0.21296252310276031,
-0.15036754310131073,
-0.5443022847175598,
0.16978155076503754,
0.42860373854637146,
0.25086596608161926,
0.5179445743560791,
-0.3165746033191681,
0.5070197582244873,
0.03804777190089226,
0.3957459628582001,
0.22422434389591217,
-0.1707359403371811,
-0.449532151222229,
0.028010688722133636,
-0.3972107172012329,
-0.2532776892185211,
0.2980652451515198,
0.3695412874221802,
-0.26580554246902466,
0.12090067565441132,
-0.7444815635681152,
-0.4560764729976654,
-0.3693755865097046,
0.32692837715148926,
-0.07462946325540543,
0.3294931948184967,
-0.6303525567054749
] |
205989
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milman%20Parry
|
Milman Parry
|
Milman Parry (June 23, 1902 – December 3, 1935) was an American Classicist whose theories on the origin of Homer's works have revolutionized Homeric studies to such a fundamental degree that he has been described as the "Darwin of Homeric studies". In addition, he was a pioneer in the discipline of oral tradition.
Early life and education
Parry was born in 1902 in Oakland, California. He grew up in a house full of books, with a father who was self-taught and widely read. He and his siblings often recited poems from memory as a game.
He graduated from Oakland Technical High School in 1919, and studied at the University of California, Berkeley (B.A. and M.A.) where he became proficient in ancient Greek and the Classics. He then studied for a PhD at the Sorbonne in Paris and was a student of the linguist Antoine Meillet.
In his dissertations, which were published in French in 1928, Parry demonstrated that the Homeric style is characterized by the extensive use of fixed expressions, or "formulas", adapted for expressing a given idea under the same metrical conditions. For example, "divine Odysseus", "many-counseled Odysseus", or "much-enduring divine Odysseus" had less to do with moving the story forward than with being in accordance with the amount of material to be fitted into the remainder of the hexameter verse. The oral nature of the poem was evident in the dependence on these devices, both as memory aids and to allow for easier improvisation. They were clues suggesting that the two Homeric epics were not the inventions of a single poet but had been gradually evolved in a long-standing tradition. As one scholar put it, "Parry never solved the Homeric Question [who was Homer]; he demonstrated that it was irrelevant".
Meillet introduced Parry to Matija Murko, who had worked on oral epic traditions in Yugoslavia and had made phonograph recordings of some performances.
Academic career
Between 1933 and 1935 Parry, at the time an assistant professor at Harvard University, made two visits to Yugoslavia, where he studied and recorded oral traditional poetry in Serbo-Croat with the help of his assistant Albert Lord, and a native singer and fixer named Nikola Vujnović, who became essential to finding and communicating with other singers, known as the guslar. They worked in Bosnia, where literacy was lowest and the oral tradition was, in the term used by Parry and Lord, "purest". They made thousands of hours of recordings in remote mountain villages of illiterate farmers who sang epic songs of prodigious length from memory. Parry and Lord recorded on newly invented equipment, flat aluminum records instead of vinyl, custom made for the expedition, with only a five minute recording time. Discs were continually swapped with a special two-disc machine to create a single long recording, later transcribed. They also recorded conversations between guslari after it became apparent this was also part of the creative process that fertilized improvisation.
The "jewel of the collection" is The Wedding Song of Smailagić Meho, by a young Muslim poet named Avdo Međedović, "by far the most skillful and versatile performer whom Milman encountered". At over 12,000 lines and performed over five days, it was the closest analogue to Homer in quality and quantity; Parry said one "has the overwhelming sense that, in some way, he is hearing Homer". Međedović boasted he knew longer songs.
In his American publications of the 1930s, Parry introduced the hypothesis that the formulaic structure of Homeric epic is to be explained as a characteristic feature of oral composition, the so-called Oral Formulaic Hypothesis. After Parry's death, the idea was championed by Albert Lord, most notably in The Singer of Tales (1960).
Death and commemoration
When Parry returned to the United States in 1935, he learned that his wealthy mother-in-law had fallen in with some people who were stealing from her without her knowledge. During his field excursions in the Balkans, Parry had developed the habit of carrying a gun, and he packed one in his luggage for a visit to California with his wife for the purpose of aiding his mother-in-law. In the late afternoon of December 3, at the Palms Hotel in Los Angeles, Parry was dressing for a dinner with friends, while his wife was in another room. Accounts differ, but she either heard a muffled shot or Parry groaning, and found him shot in the heart. He died soon afterwards. Police detectives determined that the gun was fired accidentally as he was removing clothing from his luggage. The safety had not been set and the trigger had become entangled in a shirt, which bore gunpowder burns.
Various rumors circulated, including the ideas that Parry committed suicide because he was despondent over Harvard's failure to give him a permanent appointment, or that his wife killed him. Parry's daughter, Marian, believed for the rest of her life that her mother killed him, and pointed to her mother's insane fits and accusations of infidelity. Detailed examination of the evidence by classicist Steve Reece concurs with the contemporary official conclusion that Parry's death was accidental.
Parry's collected papers were published posthumously in The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, edited by his son Adam Parry (Oxford University Press, 1971). The Milman Parry collection of records and transcriptions of South Slavic heroic poetry is now in the Widener Library of Harvard University. The journal Oral Tradition is devoted to advancing Parry's work.
Influence
According to Steve Reece, there is "an enormous body of literature on Parry’s intellectual legacy". His influence is evident in the work of later scholars who have argued that there was a fundamental break in institutional structure between Homeric Greece and Platonic Greece, a break characterized by the transition from an oral culture to a written culture. This line of thought holds that in Homeric society, oral poetry served as a record of institutional and cultural practices. This thesis is associated with Eric Havelock, who cites Parry. Havelock argues that the fixed expressions that Parry identified can be understood as mnemonic aids, which were vital to the well-being of society, given the importance of the information carried by the poetry.
Personal life
Parry was married to Marian Thanhouser, who came from a German Jewish family, and endured anti-Semitic comments from some of her husband's colleagues. They had two children, Marian and Adam (1928–1971). The latter became the chairman of Yale University's Classics Department.
Notes
External links
The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature at Harvard University
The On-Line Database of Harvard's Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature (MPCOL)
The New Yorker - The Classicist Who Killed Homer, by Adam Kirsch (June 7, 2021)
1902 births
1935 deaths
American classical scholars
Epic poetry collectors
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of Paris alumni
Classical scholars of Harvard University
American people of Welsh descent
American folklorists
Scholars of ancient Greek literature
Scholars of epic poetry
|
[
-0.1583552360534668,
0.7484956979751587,
-0.7949056029319763,
-0.17208807170391083,
0.14631101489067078,
0.5177202820777893,
0.4556179344654083,
-0.1529247909784317,
0.004069354385137558,
-0.09419557452201843,
-0.442678838968277,
0.2600012421607971,
0.20821143686771393,
0.6775305271148682,
-0.4286850094795227,
0.35105329751968384,
-0.004923295695334673,
-0.4633646607398987,
-0.5896367430686951,
-0.02235807478427887,
-0.12056464701890945,
0.29728981852531433,
0.4361950159072876,
-0.2508282959461212,
-0.45635324716567993,
0.22355426847934723,
0.23367641866207123,
-0.34788572788238525,
-0.10783219337463379,
-0.003991126082837582,
-0.10643794387578964,
0.029872780665755272,
-0.054530031979084015,
-0.3892101049423218,
-0.662293553352356,
-0.23260261118412018,
-0.5004278421401978,
-0.03462200239300728,
-0.02550273761153221,
-0.009160654619336128,
0.23572561144828796,
-0.3581084609031677,
0.13934996724128723,
-0.10157106071710587,
-0.36303919553756714,
0.2067563831806183,
-2.023254156112671,
0.0473909005522728,
-0.8015021681785583,
-0.5172449350357056,
-0.3318469524383545,
0.1807045340538025,
0.33530789613723755,
0.10730148106813431,
-0.4205368757247925,
0.7795857787132263,
-0.7532340288162231,
-0.19976778328418732,
0.2532995939254761,
-0.45251989364624023,
0.3732762634754181,
0.6217062473297119,
0.04405502602458,
0.007678892929106951,
0.3972102999687195,
0.28700873255729675,
-0.4427306354045868,
-0.00552710983902216,
0.157777801156044,
-0.3012283444404602,
0.016246069222688675,
0.4376237988471985,
-0.197074294090271,
0.7466221451759338,
0.07628460228443146,
0.014832044020295143,
0.33265700936317444,
-0.09072337299585342,
0.4496504068374634,
-0.10453245788812637,
-0.4716809391975403,
-0.012784807942807674,
0.9179255366325378,
0.43925467133522034,
0.1514255404472351,
-0.10545012354850769,
-0.16306820511817932,
0.273203581571579,
-0.027831466868519783,
0.027213487774133682,
-0.24911430478096008,
-0.7280833125114441,
0.3238471448421478,
0.4275830388069153,
0.050356097519397736,
0.15945684909820557,
0.21963436901569366,
0.49152180552482605,
-0.4475802183151245,
-0.4474058449268341,
-0.5195394158363342,
0.37166348099708557,
0.2067396640777588,
0.1337255835533142,
-0.25279471278190613,
0.02150650881230831,
0.2891048789024353,
-0.5375552773475647,
0.1632767617702484,
0.19851680099964142,
-0.059614382684230804,
-0.10853856056928635,
0.1931128054857254,
0.27491432428359985,
0.057531826198101044,
0.4106932282447815,
0.41467681527137756,
-0.7502555251121521,
-0.8754385709762573,
0.1732715368270874,
-0.39420846104621887,
0.5672661662101746,
0.13683490455150604,
-0.08865322917699814,
-0.47648900747299194,
-0.0908491238951683,
0.2963793873786926,
0.1781158596277237,
-0.8219316601753235,
0.10584400594234467,
0.38848215341567993,
0.9507118463516235,
-0.26185914874076843,
-0.22138793766498566,
-0.293006032705307,
-0.09915759414434433,
0.32324206829071045,
-0.14457236230373383,
-0.2283402681350708,
0.7119660377502441,
-0.31821876764297485,
-0.3505728244781494,
-0.7626755237579346,
-0.1006648913025856,
0.43353596329689026,
-0.726748526096344,
0.5266727805137634,
0.05383089929819107,
-0.0835190936923027,
0.022218696773052216,
0.15789204835891724,
0.4221608340740204,
-0.03489851579070091,
-0.26919791102409363,
-0.15079687535762787,
0.3244781196117401,
0.6484901309013367,
0.42297980189323425,
0.34713253378868103,
0.3984120786190033,
-0.15239113569259644,
-0.7484170794487,
-0.2592610716819763,
-0.7656489610671997,
0.1317659467458725,
-0.2521114945411682,
0.5853525400161743,
0.21134495735168457,
0.14006683230400085,
-0.24004238843917847,
-0.6253864765167236,
-0.38079890608787537,
0.5679910182952881,
0.20651280879974365,
-0.3793632686138153,
-0.021015193313360214,
0.8760579824447632,
0.6448183655738831,
0.3573530912399292,
-0.39260444045066833,
-0.7620077729225159,
-0.5209834575653076,
-0.19756709039211273,
-0.016083085909485817,
0.5252612829208374,
0.050495486706495285,
0.2022516429424286,
0.11658870428800583,
0.4180721640586853,
-0.3137446641921997,
-0.2140081375837326,
-0.7514784336090088,
0.09258238226175308,
-0.41269898414611816,
1.12599778175354,
0.18429654836654663,
-0.5773723721504211,
0.8076809048652649,
0.37158238887786865,
0.5666177272796631,
-0.24282991886138916,
0.092289038002491,
-0.23921678960323334,
0.3470291197299957,
0.24791911244392395,
0.2916905879974365,
0.1265733391046524,
0.15811650454998016,
0.38198322057724,
0.2939360439777374,
0.13532285392284393,
-0.09511148184537888,
0.22438529133796692,
0.37828701734542847,
-1.122031331062317,
-0.4412585496902466,
0.06549166142940521,
-0.21672335267066956,
0.4727068245410919,
-0.42735353112220764,
0.576485276222229,
0.0974244773387909,
0.5332402586936951,
0.1091308519244194,
0.17378193140029907,
0.5816848278045654,
-0.14274699985980988,
0.14920233190059662,
-0.07678714394569397,
-0.19502738118171692,
-0.6085964441299438,
0.04150779917836189,
0.31937408447265625,
-0.4523043930530548,
0.29105353355407715,
-0.2565787732601166,
-0.07695071399211884,
-0.6169205904006958,
0.27345502376556396,
0.014898494817316532,
0.32375073432922363,
0.22697503864765167,
0.007853127084672451,
0.04070752114057541,
-0.1497800648212433,
0.34205320477485657,
-0.28214412927627563,
-0.3483642339706421,
-0.18654902279376984,
0.263814240694046,
0.2710588872432709,
0.7022390365600586,
-0.13580352067947388,
-0.0769016444683075,
-0.40845128893852234,
0.31873801350593567,
-0.019729718565940857,
-0.14123837649822235,
0.43397223949432373,
0.12723012268543243,
0.03616228327155113,
-0.18584340810775757,
0.04332790896296501,
-0.011326245032250881,
0.09469970315694809,
-0.5308830142021179,
0.12120717763900757,
-0.7953450083732605,
-0.3535026013851166,
-0.039949823170900345,
0.5240722894668579,
0.46714460849761963,
-0.38464051485061646,
0.8278650641441345,
-0.09637189656496048,
0.3504045307636261,
-0.18668928742408752,
-0.5235298871994019,
-0.3324919641017914,
-0.7675597071647644,
0.09224168956279755,
1.0051134824752808,
-0.550499677658081,
-0.32547885179519653,
-0.8073810935020447,
-0.4802812933921814,
0.036639101803302765,
-0.7091546058654785,
0.3213789165019989,
0.14007879793643951,
-0.052183978259563446,
0.8098071813583374,
-0.1076812595129013,
-0.15178008377552032,
-0.14390403032302856,
0.5458818078041077,
-0.36227312684059143,
-0.6836738586425781,
0.041846297681331635,
-0.16234330832958221,
-1.2035727500915527,
-0.0044524939730763435,
-0.1429099142551422,
0.6954450011253357,
0.8285260200500488,
-0.05140550062060356,
-0.2626543343067169,
0.3595349192619324,
-5.604607105255127,
-0.1605609953403473,
-0.3640604019165039,
0.11422418057918549,
0.6741505861282349,
0.3965524137020111,
0.29059529304504395,
-0.21516525745391846,
0.058272626250982285,
-0.08068445324897766,
0.4664772152900696,
-0.021643102169036865,
-0.15195545554161072,
1.0424474477767944,
0.602298378944397,
0.23028682172298431,
0.600487232208252,
0.2502952516078949,
-0.32494351267814636,
0.31061509251594543,
0.5530295968055725,
-0.30471742153167725,
-0.20929749310016632,
0.9293929934501648,
0.03891979902982712,
-0.1517273634672165,
-0.1636994481086731,
0.46575477719306946,
-0.6027499437332153,
0.20737014710903168,
0.3228089511394501,
-0.1295827478170395,
-0.0667584091424942,
0.3341629207134247,
-0.13640624284744263,
0.20105746388435364,
0.1491890698671341,
0.22119833528995514,
-0.13172750174999237,
0.17455166578292847,
0.07963632792234421,
-0.27924302220344543,
-0.6717578768730164,
-0.593824028968811,
-0.47812050580978394,
-0.15478788316249847,
-0.3028589189052582,
0.39328324794769287,
0.0033044221345335245,
0.2585029900074005,
0.03628038987517357,
0.09585022181272507,
0.5904568433761597,
0.5398833155632019,
-0.25812360644340515,
-0.3970077335834503,
0.603389322757721,
-0.7375681400299072,
-0.41229575872421265,
-0.16539278626441956,
0.6207521557807922,
-0.450787752866745,
0.07343332469463348,
-0.044932298362255096,
-0.5061156749725342,
-0.18369875848293304,
-0.11545408517122269,
-0.22441333532333374,
-0.26026803255081177,
0.14077019691467285,
-0.8879207968711853,
1.1866633892059326,
-0.10465981066226959,
-1.169811487197876,
-0.4215295612812042,
0.06368695944547653,
0.07186020165681839,
0.1888919472694397,
-0.518667995929718,
-0.031278494745492935,
0.06575664132833481,
-0.6744019985198975,
-0.40811893343925476,
0.865128755569458,
0.3586459457874298,
-0.001888404949568212,
-0.3106399476528168,
0.13169154524803162,
-0.5005185604095459,
-0.5068069100379944,
0.6373327374458313,
-0.015021479688584805,
-0.29149681329727173,
0.5217458009719849,
0.5792756676673889,
0.18829546868801117,
-0.4989364743232727,
1.0315701961517334,
1.0544333457946777,
0.4828244745731354,
-0.09740788489580154,
-0.20651037991046906,
0.42167362570762634,
0.05848691239953041,
0.26776424050331116,
-0.32904374599456787,
-0.5656536817550659,
-0.22753462195396423,
0.2520450949668884,
-0.17299030721187592,
0.06931616365909576,
0.48967793583869934,
-0.5851115584373474,
0.3497983515262604,
-0.2587774991989136,
-0.20241627097129822,
0.4882257878780365,
0.07295681536197662,
0.5944094061851501,
0.12562479078769684,
-0.2908889055252075,
0.02054334431886673,
-0.39013761281967163,
-0.29328227043151855,
0.3604746460914612,
-0.6041537523269653,
0.43052443861961365,
0.016186324879527092,
-0.5441703200340271,
-0.08376233279705048,
0.26927438378334045,
0.32498157024383545,
0.03379272669553757,
0.21506719291210175,
-0.1376667022705078,
0.0289295744150877,
-0.3480704128742218,
-0.16658855974674225,
-0.5601382851600647,
0.28021806478500366,
-0.34403011202812195,
-0.3625098466873169,
0.15375521779060364,
0.45306000113487244,
0.5836793780326843,
-0.3372249901294708,
0.22424401342868805,
-0.37895527482032776,
-0.5554570555686951,
0.5159202218055725,
0.23309646546840668,
0.07865423709154129,
0.7678075432777405,
-0.16101601719856262,
0.3123904764652252,
-0.03138928860425949,
-0.2087656408548355,
0.44476941227912903,
-0.4081268608570099,
0.03453812375664711,
-0.6643664240837097,
0.009700492024421692,
-0.7095710039138794,
-0.2884776294231415,
-0.31451740860939026,
-0.30068227648735046,
-0.8651407957077026,
-0.23230507969856262,
-0.023767774924635887,
0.2628820538520813,
0.27376386523246765,
-0.23010803759098053,
-0.11932936310768127,
-0.10330431163311005,
0.4724522531032562,
0.05561528727412224,
-0.4921353757381439,
-0.12936921417713165,
-0.31815269589424133,
-0.42591622471809387,
0.1425190418958664,
-0.35528364777565,
-0.38594308495521545,
0.24057623744010925,
0.5630350112915039,
-0.4730101525783539,
-0.37314289808273315,
-0.49004504084587097,
-0.49881839752197266,
0.002237005392089486,
-0.11357861012220383,
-0.037394654005765915,
0.31977832317352295,
0.4998137652873993,
-0.11490374803543091,
0.075990229845047,
0.6770976781845093,
0.1725296825170517,
-0.243919238448143,
-0.7911430597305298,
0.06388391554355621,
0.10140704363584518,
-0.47203513979911804,
-0.015072277747094631,
0.42329302430152893,
-1.4240773916244507,
-0.34857240319252014,
-0.547509491443634,
-0.03767717629671097,
0.8785380125045776,
-0.3731347322463989,
-0.19305519759655,
0.06321092694997787,
0.04887900874018669,
0.08020411431789398,
0.22603513300418854,
0.32237881422042847,
-0.23209969699382782,
0.06626090407371521,
-0.4499252438545227,
-0.05744257941842079,
-0.02517254464328289,
-0.4343297481536865,
-0.048017535358667374,
-0.3319457173347473,
0.06066431850194931,
0.1809176802635193,
-0.38307610154151917,
0.4098328649997711,
-0.598598301410675,
0.2811112701892853,
-0.32818275690078735,
-0.12589602172374725,
0.24244624376296997,
0.3013465404510498,
-0.46986761689186096,
0.0996638834476471,
0.3173152804374695,
-0.07198596000671387,
0.2561018764972687,
0.5091150999069214,
0.4352562725543976,
0.4704095721244812,
0.5176922678947449,
-0.2584027945995331,
0.027536790817975998,
0.5212377905845642,
-0.538800060749054,
-0.5322113633155823,
0.4648623764514923,
0.20396576821804047,
-0.26572126150131226,
-0.30601316690444946,
-0.5627764463424683,
0.7031532526016235,
-0.6498743295669556,
-0.09855426847934723,
-0.27784064412117004,
0.2647484242916107,
-0.14526042342185974,
0.357886403799057,
0.28787514567375183,
-0.39006632566452026,
0.1708407998085022,
-0.25544118881225586,
0.3323023021221161,
0.4160405099391937,
-0.02151678130030632,
0.2643004059791565,
-0.14866547286510468,
-0.05473862960934639,
-0.7104576230049133,
-0.2979825437068939,
0.508490264415741,
-0.29430049657821655,
0.05055306851863861,
0.20310066640377045,
0.07846855372190475,
0.7549701929092407,
-0.27725136280059814,
-0.47575119137763977,
0.21754497289657593,
-0.2720213234424591,
-0.5716123580932617,
-0.48375219106674194,
-0.3486228287220001,
-0.6067408919334412,
-0.4523175358772278,
0.0295159500092268,
0.18860504031181335,
-0.4966679811477661,
0.39145609736442566,
0.1276784986257553,
-0.17395755648612976,
0.01644033193588257,
0.1594795137643814,
0.017258215695619583,
0.4607701599597931,
-0.47269782423973083,
-0.37020841240882874,
0.017264124006032944,
0.45225754380226135,
0.38505804538726807,
-0.3277907073497772,
0.09739797562360764,
-0.025994012132287025,
0.3154689371585846,
0.2513742446899414,
-0.502116858959198,
-0.07016687095165253,
0.8072232007980347,
-0.0028665249701589346,
0.5761833190917969,
0.7217198610305786,
-0.6023569107055664,
-0.3675929605960846,
0.605163037776947,
0.09818793833255768,
-0.11880140751600266,
0.2549934685230255,
-0.26017796993255615,
0.3557198643684387,
0.7687622308731079,
-0.756385087966919,
-0.006451119668781757,
0.3116341233253479,
-0.31521841883659363,
-0.08194650709629059,
-0.5884964466094971,
0.5154584646224976,
0.43430450558662415,
-0.3275853395462036,
-0.5502426624298096,
0.7788597941398621,
0.24633532762527466,
-0.6488425731658936,
-0.0411156564950943,
-0.31505027413368225,
0.06210755184292793,
0.32551389932632446,
0.132401704788208,
-0.009362921118736267,
-0.05699150264263153,
0.13669395446777344,
-0.06664092093706131,
-0.019970359280705452,
-0.13933329284191132,
0.026974685490131378,
-0.1448211818933487,
0.3403342068195343,
0.17949751019477844,
0.37765252590179443,
0.23699215054512024,
-0.7869578003883362,
0.16353388130664825,
-0.7198818922042847,
0.4170371890068054,
0.07035540044307709,
0.030460964888334274,
0.37441712617874146,
0.10843774676322937,
0.38611939549446106,
0.47004416584968567,
-0.7761431336402893,
-0.16995254158973694,
0.06427468359470367,
0.1650538444519043,
-0.26999446749687195,
0.04499468207359314,
0.37708592414855957,
0.12581758201122284,
0.07198401540517807,
-0.4059041738510132,
0.6168392896652222,
0.43650421500205994,
0.3117016851902008,
1.115281581878662,
0.21498143672943115,
0.2035437971353531,
-0.04419264942407608,
-0.36100906133651733,
-0.3921278417110443,
-0.029201112687587738,
0.023778147995471954,
-0.14796753227710724,
-0.04772462695837021,
0.5041540265083313,
0.6560362577438354,
-0.7385005950927734,
-0.4300735294818878,
0.04730828478932381,
-0.7029637098312378,
-0.7454957365989685,
0.006042176857590675,
-1.038439154624939,
-0.3229450285434723,
-0.25969362258911133,
0.63450026512146,
-0.06539774686098099,
0.027020642533898354,
0.014924968592822552,
0.08885267376899719,
0.5734743475914001,
0.009322188794612885,
-0.3515150547027588,
-0.22210898995399475,
-0.20323975384235382,
0.08158255368471146,
-0.6803011298179626,
0.2876187264919281,
0.249008446931839,
0.47187504172325134,
-0.39109858870506287,
0.10139189660549164,
-0.4137669503688812,
-0.31120502948760986,
0.06373556703329086,
-0.26956817507743835,
0.46695080399513245,
-0.13545556366443634,
0.4443621337413788,
0.27406764030456543,
-0.33152151107788086,
0.12767502665519714,
-0.3737736940383911,
0.19099079072475433,
0.41672974824905396,
0.1655680239200592,
0.05945679172873497,
0.8418160676956177,
0.11211660504341125,
0.072439044713974,
-0.6533564329147339,
-0.037714164704084396,
0.22717493772506714,
-0.7474048733711243,
-0.14241141080856323,
0.27004289627075195,
0.07146845757961273,
-1.15737783908844,
0.6068620085716248,
0.17575603723526,
-0.37205231189727783,
0.22625195980072021,
-0.12977269291877747,
0.4950292408466339,
-0.005998976528644562,
0.011708754114806652,
0.1929425746202469,
0.7943805456161499,
0.5261989235877991,
0.25406327843666077,
0.023734934628009796,
-0.5752452611923218,
0.5044458508491516,
-0.07201137393712997,
-0.020911656320095062,
-0.5503597855567932,
0.9861295223236084,
0.17914752662181854
] |
205993
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjalmar%20Andersen
|
Hjalmar Andersen
|
Hjalmar "Hjallis" Johan Andersen (12 March 1923 – 27 March 2013) was a speed skater from Norway who won three gold medals at the 1952 Winter Olympic Games of Oslo, Norway. He was the only triple gold medalist at the 1952 Winter Olympics, and as such, became the most successful athlete there.
Nicknamed King Glad for his famous cheerful mood, he was one of Norway's most popular sportsmen ever. Four statues of him were raised during his lifetime; in Trondheim, Hamar, Rødøy and outside Bislett Stadium in Oslo. He was honored with a funeral at the state’s expense.
Early life
Andersen was born on Rødøy, an island off the coast of Nordland in Norway, where his mother hailed from. His father, who originally was from Hammerfest, was a boatswain. While Andersen was still an toddler, the family moved to Lademoen, a working-class neighborhood in Trondheim, where sport and friendship was an important part of life.
He began speed skating at the age of 10, and became a member of the sports club Falken. The club was part of the Workers' Sports Federation (AIF), and the first competitions he participated in were small, local competitions organized by the AIF. Other members of the club were Sverre Farstad and Henry Wahl; later Andersen, Farstad and Wahl would be known by the nickname The Falken Trio.
After the German occupation of Norway in 1940, when Andersen was 17 years old, all organized sports competitions were halted as a result of the sports boycott against the Nazi regime. Like others of his generation, he had to wait until the winter of 1946 to take up his sports career again.
Professionally, he began working as a delivery boy in a sports store after having completed the folkeskole at about 14. He later worked as a lorry driver for several years. In 1950, when he was at the height of his speed skating career, he opened his own sports store in Trondheim, which he ran until 1960.
Career
He made his international debut at the 1948 Winter Olympic Games of St. Moritz, Switzerland, winning the qualifying race for 1500 m, but he was still not selected for the Norwegian team for this distance. He was selected for the 10000 m team, but because of the terrible ice conditions he did not finish the race.
During the European Championship in Davos he noted a personal best at 2:16.4 at 1,500 m and set a new world record in the 10,000 m with 16:57.4. He placed second overall in the championship.
Andersen was the best skater of the world in the period of 1950 to 1952. In each of those three years, he became World Allround Champion, making him one of only five male skaters to have won this title in three consecutive years – the other four being Oscar Mathisen (1912–1914), Ard Schenk (1970–1972), Eric Heiden (1977–1979), and Sven Kramer (2007–2010). In those same years, 1950–1952, he was also European Allround Champion and Norwegian Allround Champion, thus winning the "triple" (World, European, and National Allround Championships) for three consecutive years. In addition, he also set three world records in those three years.
A notable event in his career was the European Championship in 1951 at Bislett Stadium. Speed skating was immensely popular in Norway at the time and 25,000 people cheered the skaters during the two-day event. King Haakon VII was present at the event.
During the event, Andersen won the three first distances and was a clear favourite to become allround champion before the 10,000 metres. After 11 laps, however, Andersen fell. He tried to continue on, but one of his skates had been damaged and he was taken off the rink. Andersen’s fall was soon linked to a flash used by photographer Johan Brun from Dagbladet at the moment of the fall. It was decided to let Andersen run the 10,000 metres for a second time, while a jury was to consider whether the second run should actually count. In the meantime, Brun rushed to Dagbladet to get his film developed. He returned with the photo he had taken when the fall happened. It showed that Andersen had his eyes shut at the time. The jury concluded that the flash had blinded Andersen. The result from his second 10,000 metres run became official and he won both the 10,000 metres and the overall championship. Brun and Andersen had friendly contact later in life. Brun has stated that the electronic flash he had used couldn't possibly have blinded Andersen, and he believes the jury made a mistake due to lack of knowledge of photography equipment.
In a speed skating international between Norway and the rest of the world at Hamar on 10 February 1952, Hjalmar Andersen set a world record in the 10,000 meters with the time 16:32.6. It was the first time a speed skater took less than 40 seconds to complete every lap in the 10,000 meters, and it was regarded as an amazing world record. In Norway, the record achieved legendary status, and is often referred to as the best known sports record ever. The record stood for eight years, until Kjell Bäckman broke it.
The record created enormous interest in Andersen in the 1952 Winter Olympics that started in Oslo one week later. On 17 February, Andersen won his first Olympic gold medal in the 5,000 meters with a new Olympic record. The next day, he won gold in the 1,500 meters, and he ended the competition by setting a new Olympic record in winning the 10,000 meters on 19 February. The three days of skating competitions were attended by 75,000 enthusiastic spectators.
Andersen quit skating after the 1952 Olympics, but he was talked into giving it a new try in 1954. He became Norwegian champion for the fourth time and won both the 5,000 m and 10000 m at the European Championships in Davos, Switzerland that year, winning silver in the overall standings. He qualified for the 1956 Olympics and earned sixth place on the 10,000 m.
During his career, he set four world records. His 10,000 m world record in 1949 (16:57.4) was the first official world record below 17 minutes for the distance. As it was skated outside of Norway, it did not count as a Norwegian national record, of which Andersen set eight during his skating career. Andersen represented Sportsklubben Falken (Sports Club Falcon) in Trondheim.
Later years
After he ended his skating career, Andersen moved to Tønsberg. In addition to his skating triumphs, Andersen was also a great cyclist on a national level, and he was awarded the Egebergs Ærespris in 1951 for his achievements in speed skating and cycling.
He started a long and joyful career in "the welfare service for merchant shipping", which he worked with until he reached retirement age in 1990.
Earning the nickname "Kong Glad" (English: King Happy") and known for his sense of humour, he was a popular speaker. He also published several books, partly memories from his sports career and partly humoristic stories.
He received the King's Medal of Merit in gold in 1998 and The Honor Prize at Idrettsgallaen together with Knut Johannesen in 2013, just two months before his death.
Personal life
Andersen married his teenage sweetheart, Gerd, and they lived together until she died in 2004. They had three children.
Death and funeral
On 25 March 2013, Andersen suffered a serious fall in his home in Tønsberg, Norway, was rushed to the hospital and never regained consciousness. He died two days later on 27 March, two weeks after his 90th birthday. His survivors include three children and grandson Fredrik van der Horst, a speedskater who represented Norway at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The Norwegian government decided that Hjalmar Andersen should be honored with a funeral at the state’s expense. The third athlete to be given this honor since 1998.
Prime minister Jens Stoltenberg stated that “Hjalmar Andersen became a sport legend at a time when speed skating was part of the Norwegian identity, and got involved in the work for sailors at time when ship transport was interwoven with the nation’s soul. In this way, 'Hjallis' contributed to forming post-war Norway in an important way and won a huge place in the hearts of several generations of Norwegians.”
The funeral ceremony in Tønsberg Cathedral on 4 April 2013 was attended by King Harald V and by Norway's Prime minister Jens Stoltenberg who gave a speech.
Medals and Records
An overview of medals won by Andersen at important championships he participated in, listing the years in which he won each:
Over the course of his career, Andersen skated four world records:
Source: SpeedSkatingStats.com
Norwegian records
Note that in the days Hjalmar skated a Norwegian record could only be skated in Norway itself, so his Davos world record could not become a Norwegian record as well.
Personal records
To put these personal records in perspective, the WR column lists the official world records on the dates that Andersen skated his personal records.
Ranking as speed skater
Andersen had a final Adelskalender score of 187.446 points. He held first place on the Adelskalender for 708 days between 1952 and 1954.
Awards
Morgenbladets gold medal, 1949
Egebergs Ærespris, 1951
Fearnleys olympiske ærespris, 1952
Norwegian Sportsperson of the Year, 1952
Olavstatuetten (awarded by Adresseavisen), 1976
King's Medal of Merit in gold, 1998
The Honor Prize at Idrettsgallaen, 2013
Books
Hjalmar Andersen: Harde løp (1951). Self-published.
Hjalmar Andersen:Siste runde (1952). Norsk idrettsforlag.
Hjalmar Andersen and Sverre E. Mortensen: Hva idretten ga meg (1983). Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.
Hjalmar Andersen and Sverre E. Mortensen: Medaljens bakside (1985). Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.
Hjalmar Andersen: Den gode, gamle, gale istida (1989). Det Norske Samlaget.
Hjalmar Andersen and Knut-Anders Løken: Gull og glis (1990) Det Norske Samlaget.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Eng, Trond. All Time International Championships, Complete results 1889 – 2002. Askim, Norway: WSSSA Skøytenytt, 2002.
Eng, Trond and Teigen, Magne. Norske Mesterskap på Skøyter, 1894 – 2005. Askim/Veggli, Norway: WSSSA-Norge, 2005.
Eng, Trond; Gjerde, Arild; Teigen, Magne and Petersen, Preben Gorud. Norsk Skøytestatistikk Gjennom Tidene 1999. Askim/Skedsmokorset/Veggli, Norway: WSSSA-Norge, 1999.
Teigen, Magne. Komplette Resultater Norske Mesterskap på Skøyter, 1887 – 1989. Veggli, Norway: WSSSA-Norge, 1989.
External links
Hjalmar Andersen is dead NRK (Norwegian)
Hjalmar Andersen at SpeedSkatingStats.com
Hjalmar Anderson. Deutsche Eisschnelllauf Gemeinschaft e. V. (German Skating Association).
National Championships results. Norges Skøyteforbund (Norwegian Skating Association).
Development of Norwegian records 1880–2007. Norges Skøyteforbund (Norwegian Skating Association).
1923 births
2013 deaths
Norwegian male speed skaters
Olympic speed skaters of Norway
Speed skaters at the 1948 Winter Olympics
Speed skaters at the 1952 Winter Olympics
Speed skaters at the 1956 Winter Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Norway
World record setters in speed skating
Norwegian humorists
Olympic medalists in speed skating
Recipients of the King's Medal of Merit in gold
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in Norway
Medalists at the 1952 Winter Olympics
World Allround Speed Skating Championships medalists
Sportspeople from Tønsberg
|
[
-0.550663948059082,
-0.012607591226696968,
-0.08943864703178406,
0.13930563628673553,
-0.02795638144016266,
0.7092081904411316,
1.0133988857269287,
-0.04477057233452797,
-1.0860704183578491,
-0.0627376139163971,
0.552108883857727,
-0.20078866183757782,
-0.20105062425136566,
-0.3580787777900696,
-0.33398085832595825,
0.05863657966256142,
0.271500825881958,
0.3453032970428467,
-0.8433464765548706,
0.34464383125305176,
0.046531639993190765,
-0.6882609128952026,
0.4788990616798401,
-0.1173468753695488,
0.22512009739875793,
0.28381556272506714,
-0.36772966384887695,
0.39174672961235046,
0.30283141136169434,
0.06599999964237213,
0.0015369743341580033,
0.07564397901296616,
0.3479979634284973,
0.11084584146738052,
-0.5400493741035461,
-0.15720118582248688,
-0.17872053384780884,
-0.2842416763305664,
0.15239766240119934,
0.20576106011867523,
-0.5261644721031189,
0.1018691211938858,
-0.5219866037368774,
0.17460185289382935,
-0.13517126441001892,
-0.6388512253761292,
-1.5779142379760742,
-0.02945820614695549,
-0.5673328638076782,
-0.014597265049815178,
-0.6507558822631836,
-0.17042365670204163,
-0.21041539311408997,
0.9429828524589539,
0.5795966982841492,
0.09963427484035492,
-0.2519584894180298,
-0.11549708992242813,
-0.1978921890258789,
-0.03287492319941521,
0.423724502325058,
-0.47543030977249146,
0.6379322409629822,
-0.5248140096664429,
0.45128318667411804,
-0.25556761026382446,
0.6925199627876282,
-0.10217543691396713,
0.8338645100593567,
-0.385864794254303,
-0.2965911328792572,
0.7804273366928101,
-0.05693535879254341,
0.33022448420524597,
0.4839099645614624,
-0.5913876295089722,
0.22052228450775146,
-0.9394434094429016,
0.4116470515727997,
-0.4163014590740204,
-0.004612292163074017,
-0.5985683798789978,
1.0810503959655762,
1.1960415840148926,
-0.02474820427596569,
0.1846204698085785,
-0.739301860332489,
0.057891178876161575,
-0.5435147881507874,
0.14422084391117096,
-0.3260604739189148,
-0.6281430721282959,
0.12349449843168259,
0.16050474345684052,
-0.5076653361320496,
0.604883074760437,
-0.1638973206281662,
0.6192108988761902,
0.01066439040005207,
-0.03644407540559769,
0.4554571509361267,
-0.5623412132263184,
0.10026808083057404,
-0.15169234573841095,
-0.0785774514079094,
-0.5723894238471985,
0.3425561487674713,
0.2733442783355713,
0.06324104964733124,
-0.7112491130828857,
-0.8702194690704346,
-0.030172618106007576,
0.7499273419380188,
-0.0007986522396095097,
0.29966041445732117,
0.29527848958969116,
0.05780094489455223,
-0.7210507988929749,
-0.7993371486663818,
0.03806959092617035,
-0.7977617383003235,
0.15966802835464478,
-0.007996397092938423,
-0.17684714496135712,
-0.17479030787944794,
0.4775494337081909,
-0.10876785963773727,
0.6672611236572266,
-0.31790539622306824,
0.2994413375854492,
0.3395991027355194,
0.036560364067554474,
-0.9590946435928345,
-0.07814501971006393,
0.4166187047958374,
-0.22225244343280792,
0.14575143158435822,
0.05558251217007637,
-0.5823552012443542,
0.557712733745575,
-0.515374481678009,
-0.6069338917732239,
-0.40954118967056274,
-0.446159303188324,
-0.1764572411775589,
-0.27183839678764343,
-0.35821548104286194,
-0.05525040626525879,
0.43018296360969543,
0.002434950089082122,
0.42109915614128113,
0.4035784602165222,
0.269712895154953,
-0.6535391211509705,
-0.031179901212453842,
0.6258216500282288,
0.08241471648216248,
0.14938710629940033,
0.5801344513893127,
0.0201558880507946,
0.34246692061424255,
0.6012446880340576,
-0.6466721892356873,
0.08727013319730759,
0.5232692956924438,
-0.4358719289302826,
0.35589709877967834,
0.48349156975746155,
0.2000778764486313,
-0.2609367370605469,
0.19312815368175507,
-0.20993663370609283,
0.29201826453208923,
0.45387932658195496,
-0.08378499746322632,
0.06442965567111969,
0.21472769975662231,
-0.06853529810905457,
-0.10911060124635696,
-0.420765221118927,
-1.1870919466018677,
-0.12206772714853287,
0.2798985242843628,
-0.30875715613365173,
0.14775978028774261,
0.5055513978004456,
0.2643566429615021,
0.17505940794944763,
0.18502651154994965,
-0.5583391785621643,
0.0507889986038208,
-0.5067729949951172,
0.5539177656173706,
0.13523925840854645,
0.7694976329803467,
0.028570571914315224,
0.3380836248397827,
-0.050370968878269196,
-0.4623836576938629,
0.5047628879547119,
-0.10349062830209732,
-0.6229612231254578,
0.5539881587028503,
-0.8117186427116394,
0.566094696521759,
0.3282240927219391,
0.49976637959480286,
-0.4296404719352722,
-0.5460537075996399,
0.9870771169662476,
-0.3880801498889923,
-0.65976482629776,
-0.14027264714241028,
1.0848411321640015,
-1.21807062625885,
-0.12009229511022568,
-0.6217151880264282,
0.37875524163246155,
0.5806589722633362,
0.058525606989860535,
0.6774210333824158,
0.31622377038002014,
-0.4933285117149353,
0.6500536799430847,
0.08395133912563324,
0.8825836181640625,
0.10868553817272186,
0.2674935460090637,
-0.3050811290740967,
-0.4250430464744568,
0.26304081082344055,
0.17205795645713806,
0.7406946420669556,
-0.2484334111213684,
-0.37382182478904724,
0.2533295154571533,
0.5978795886039734,
-0.16439005732536316,
0.7750722765922546,
-1.033442735671997,
-0.10226291418075562,
0.3186109960079193,
-0.48496127128601074,
0.45688241720199585,
0.21882517635822296,
0.6375135183334351,
-0.06782469153404236,
0.0899258553981781,
-0.49862584471702576,
-0.7457385063171387,
0.10908686369657516,
0.3113209307193756,
-0.1699686050415039,
-0.3888564109802246,
0.13221561908721924,
-0.15799084305763245,
0.5823974609375,
-0.31486746668815613,
0.27554866671562195,
0.18836693465709686,
0.2799183428287506,
-0.5182788968086243,
0.4309197962284088,
-0.10226622223854065,
-0.05522923916578293,
-0.9791293740272522,
-0.1356123685836792,
-1.0980515480041504,
0.9574388265609741,
-0.1817295402288437,
0.3607848584651947,
-0.10372408479452133,
-0.5425547957420349,
0.8089317679405212,
0.06370698660612106,
-0.44962337613105774,
-0.5157368183135986,
-0.32535746693611145,
-0.30881237983703613,
-0.2665931284427643,
0.4974302649497986,
1.2023124694824219,
-0.44645988941192627,
-0.08519112318754196,
-0.1750267744064331,
-0.32670968770980835,
-0.320452481508255,
-0.1598023623228073,
0.39259085059165955,
-0.34039539098739624,
0.0292119849473238,
0.8239143490791321,
-0.8159794807434082,
0.3041957914829254,
-0.2215009182691574,
0.3933866322040558,
-0.33509713411331177,
-0.20778745412826538,
0.6140312552452087,
0.020214783027768135,
-0.8783712387084961,
-0.00016396386490669101,
0.3409023582935333,
-0.3776439130306244,
-0.1366846114397049,
0.17616216838359833,
-0.32024404406547546,
-0.3426233232021332,
-4.686594009399414,
0.17000383138656616,
-0.05287519842386246,
-0.47694388031959534,
-0.013342493213713169,
0.30170121788978577,
0.5517195463180542,
0.5936669707298279,
0.4853448271751404,
-0.5913333892822266,
0.916511058807373,
-0.8193351626396179,
0.23347006738185883,
0.831742525100708,
0.5371691584587097,
0.3651290535926819,
0.4717150330543518,
-0.10134062170982361,
0.26184383034706116,
0.027930084615945816,
-0.13444113731384277,
-0.46187660098075867,
-0.25901755690574646,
-0.08197040110826492,
-0.3283786177635193,
0.4001881182193756,
-0.507141649723053,
-0.40615591406822205,
-0.8395337462425232,
0.09590719640254974,
0.035637449473142624,
-0.15300600230693817,
-0.173781618475914,
-0.1422964632511139,
-0.23819756507873535,
0.10490024834871292,
0.39058753848075867,
0.9378432631492615,
0.10531847178936005,
-0.35980838537216187,
0.175284281373024,
0.5126093029975891,
-0.2613321542739868,
-0.5519358515739441,
0.5617111325263977,
0.3902357816696167,
-0.10886839032173157,
0.02327885664999485,
-1.2470037937164307,
0.7242872714996338,
0.12574823200702667,
-0.4610152840614319,
0.02186981774866581,
-0.09842085838317871,
0.03632568567991257,
-0.37700849771499634,
-0.23626276850700378,
0.05291276425123215,
-0.7020803689956665,
0.3359074294567108,
-0.14863543212413788,
-0.4161035716533661,
0.13985086977481842,
-1.380049705505371,
-0.6601305603981018,
0.4266033172607422,
-0.17765940725803375,
0.23096369206905365,
0.23346079885959625,
-0.12469429522752762,
0.13153940439224243,
0.9026198983192444,
-0.05920833349227905,
-1.1295920610427856,
0.2289458066225052,
-0.6708577275276184,
-0.02144519053399563,
-0.0402790829539299,
-0.45627179741859436,
-0.04725365340709686,
-0.11273632943630219,
-0.5514817833900452,
-0.43476471304893494,
0.45425403118133545,
1.2220379114151,
0.0677373856306076,
0.07314064353704453,
-0.3147289454936981,
0.2587781250476837,
-0.3441598415374756,
1.0339819192886353,
-0.7534682154655457,
0.46287018060684204,
0.7499081492424011,
-0.5363519191741943,
0.6968702077865601,
0.05062742903828621,
0.09184151142835617,
0.6844271421432495,
-0.4743839204311371,
0.06345738470554352,
0.2400585114955902,
0.5563110113143921,
-0.4341448247432709,
0.01055457815527916,
-0.38855499029159546,
0.28548604249954224,
0.19453875720500946,
0.6796990633010864,
0.21648305654525757,
0.08028575032949448,
0.07792793214321136,
-0.36952516436576843,
-0.36618199944496155,
0.45645076036453247,
-0.86965411901474,
-0.24137063324451447,
0.5974008440971375,
0.6064313054084778,
0.09073209017515182,
0.14479558169841766,
-0.040450043976306915,
-0.06519556790590286,
-0.36347123980522156,
0.2774946987628937,
-0.5661934018135071,
-0.4310395121574402,
0.14899460971355438,
-0.16466820240020752,
0.573727011680603,
-0.2264590859413147,
1.3407903909683228,
0.14896489679813385,
0.0068454924039542675,
-0.03457758203148842,
-0.10716597735881805,
-0.7012836933135986,
-0.12596838176250458,
0.038023557513952255,
-0.23490574955940247,
0.2654617428779602,
0.0860094353556633,
0.012322012335062027,
0.8800072073936462,
-0.13215111196041107,
0.49758392572402954,
0.3520103096961975,
-0.20212891697883606,
-0.49069082736968994,
0.9198314547538757,
-0.7779732942581177,
0.08448939025402069,
0.1187644824385643,
-0.502029299736023,
0.07852806895971298,
0.678301990032196,
0.1785968840122223,
0.45493337512016296,
-1.1330260038375854,
0.0005653052940033376,
0.17886683344841003,
-0.47865936160087585,
-1.474334478378296,
0.3885287344455719,
-0.5073609352111816,
-0.2662563621997833,
-1.1199411153793335,
-0.050063688308000565,
-0.1968415528535843,
0.1732957512140274,
0.180210143327713,
-1.1561942100524902,
-0.6188459396362305,
-0.390057235956192,
-0.3881429433822632,
-0.46385276317596436,
-0.08350685238838196,
-0.013572465628385544,
-0.21646834909915924,
-0.6751706004142761,
0.2677863836288452,
0.5266047120094299,
-0.40575551986694336,
-0.08852031826972961,
0.9817677140235901,
-0.011682414449751377,
0.029178448021411896,
-0.2760579586029053,
0.1684076339006424,
0.42550936341285706,
0.317654013633728,
0.0390094630420208,
-0.18515418469905853,
0.8490960597991943,
0.2399938404560089,
-0.5266709327697754,
-0.2897809147834778,
-0.3807789981365204,
-0.49644362926483154,
0.2557504177093506,
-0.07090981304645538,
0.27750125527381897,
-0.19641989469528198,
0.06231929734349251,
-0.0019961048383265734,
-0.6773037910461426,
-0.2995601296424866,
0.8395127654075623,
-0.08545541018247604,
0.2761968970298767,
-1.0100150108337402,
-0.12185939401388168,
-0.17836277186870575,
0.7334349751472473,
-0.0403268039226532,
0.6053619980812073,
0.3806084990501404,
0.09360020607709885,
-0.11126299947500229,
-0.6232786774635315,
-0.6076507568359375,
0.27648285031318665,
-0.34447571635246277,
-0.24424110352993011,
-0.6244409680366516,
-0.6233752965927124,
-0.07852315157651901,
0.6305585503578186,
1.192080020904541,
-0.5684314966201782,
0.5221008658409119,
-0.17166724801063538,
0.02492641843855381,
0.1555383801460266,
0.048345714807510376,
0.8957383036613464,
0.521352231502533,
0.4120194613933563,
0.2301940619945526,
0.09746138006448746,
1.4434117078781128,
1.4493803977966309,
0.525611162185669,
0.3482339382171631,
-0.050077762454748154,
-0.0016017891466617584,
0.4478316605091095,
-0.06783560663461685,
0.1255342662334442,
-0.020193537697196007,
0.034831076860427856,
-0.223241925239563,
-0.24115648865699768,
-0.11146485805511475,
1.0087449550628662,
-0.30418795347213745,
0.5068231821060181,
-0.06741272658109665,
0.4358861744403839,
-0.5575844645500183,
-0.20617341995239258,
-0.07919616997241974,
-0.2736777067184448,
-0.18815188109874725,
0.1731230765581131,
1.453215479850769,
-0.5932877659797668,
0.5983721017837524,
0.07590021938085556,
0.22864362597465515,
-0.9945003390312195,
-0.8846667408943176,
-0.15447980165481567,
0.09063812345266342,
-0.8390631079673767,
0.6489464044570923,
0.2550995349884033,
0.09058760106563568,
0.0023736217990517616,
-0.48776179552078247,
-0.5635905861854553,
-0.004128201398998499,
0.27664458751678467,
-0.04451535642147064,
-0.9850018620491028,
-0.4970809817314148,
-0.12879134714603424,
-0.04850431904196739,
-0.2022264301776886,
0.6708752512931824,
-0.9322893619537354,
0.2182028740644455,
0.018654044717550278,
0.33900636434555054,
0.35900577902793884,
0.09832117706537247,
0.2461758852005005,
1.178417682647705,
-0.722296416759491,
0.3408230245113373,
-0.22504585981369019,
0.6763941049575806,
-0.26203668117523193,
-0.6251248121261597,
0.09554169327020645,
0.21164831519126892,
-0.11108531057834625,
-0.432234525680542,
0.27601373195648193,
0.15123490989208221,
0.3151513636112213,
0.25470486283302307,
-0.5244584083557129,
0.7062355875968933,
-0.6810911893844604,
-0.5398470163345337,
0.5261986255645752,
-0.5686688423156738,
-0.1908182054758072,
0.09474547952413559,
-0.21429920196533203,
0.6863451600074768,
0.39805713295936584,
-0.06652005016803741,
0.07874664664268494,
0.4704451262950897,
0.6745331883430481,
0.23187457025051117,
-0.5200597643852234,
0.1595509648323059,
-0.45546209812164307,
-0.010712100192904472,
-0.4327661991119385,
0.4969354271888733,
-0.2666318118572235,
0.2364455908536911,
-0.32604607939720154,
-0.8623668551445007,
-0.352481484413147,
0.47250065207481384,
0.03656260296702385,
0.9101607799530029,
-0.14844244718551636,
-0.08071397244930267,
0.41177093982696533,
-0.41448119282722473,
-0.20247791707515717,
-0.2195143848657608,
0.20180228352546692,
-0.022611137479543686,
0.20313484966754913,
-0.24774299561977386,
-0.18668709695339203,
-1.0415574312210083,
-0.2704732418060303,
0.11826159060001373,
0.6035654544830322,
-0.9454694986343384,
-0.2446971833705902,
0.44961050152778625,
-0.07846783101558685,
-1.282569169998169,
1.211358904838562,
0.2071623057126999,
-0.34268030524253845,
-0.6820452213287354,
0.4487834870815277,
-0.5948769450187683,
0.18450811505317688,
0.435516357421875,
-0.2888728678226471,
-0.44250115752220154,
-0.14319714903831482,
0.29800090193748474,
0.30429700016975403,
0.3598030209541321,
0.5190592408180237,
0.022359786555171013,
-0.046003978699445724,
-0.3483630120754242,
-0.6262876391410828,
0.34656843543052673,
0.20005705952644348,
-0.5925391316413879,
-0.5276199579238892,
-0.2225857526063919,
-0.1367800384759903,
0.1064407229423523,
0.410297155380249,
0.5695221424102783,
0.9151054620742798,
-0.31875285506248474,
0.38110968470573425,
0.13961666822433472,
-0.9937402606010437,
-0.39397358894348145,
-0.7103539109230042,
0.6356135606765747,
0.5440325140953064,
-0.16681526601314545,
-0.560642421245575,
0.43446430563926697,
-0.08601643890142441,
0.5956995487213135,
0.18747928738594055,
0.407447874546051,
-0.7808122634887695,
0.4846467673778534,
0.11547480523586273,
-0.17625607550144196,
0.11404999345541,
0.21380583941936493,
-0.3652442395687103,
0.010851919651031494,
-0.28494295477867126,
-0.21225054562091827,
0.4442829191684723,
-0.26986464858055115,
-0.7494301795959473,
0.21552328765392303,
-0.3183436393737793,
0.05546572059392929,
0.1625199317932129,
0.37132635712623596,
-0.1671048402786255,
0.18122269213199615,
0.116055428981781,
-0.3533150851726532,
-0.3577294647693634,
0.42339250445365906,
-0.4869272708892822,
-0.22177089750766754,
-0.41810375452041626,
-0.3661237061023712,
0.23954014480113983,
-0.8419351577758789,
0.4411875307559967,
0.2559818625450134,
0.7123754024505615,
-0.6584829092025757,
0.8659106492996216,
0.3926352262496948,
-0.45660948753356934,
0.056543558835983276,
0.5206547379493713,
0.7293781638145447,
-0.24644778668880463,
-0.04551168903708458,
-0.7086480855941772,
-0.4267260432243347,
0.1903785914182663,
-0.2791534662246704,
0.7303857207298279,
-0.8901615738868713,
0.5833674669265747,
0.5536048412322998,
0.5097547173500061,
-0.4767765700817108,
0.11077284812927246,
-0.19935883581638336
] |
205997
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagh%20El%20Birket
|
Wagh El Birket
|
Wagh El Birket ( (here, pronounced with the 'g' and the 'h' separate), lit. "the face of the blessing" was, through the first half of the 20th century, the entertainment district (or red-light district) of Cairo, Egypt. The lake was where Azbakeya is now.
Events
In the 19th century as Cairo expanded, Wagh El Birket developed as a contact zone between the wealthy area round the Azbakeya lake and expanding central Cairo. The street ran from the Hotel Bristol to Clot Bey Square.
In 1911 the street was described as "the most unblushing in Cairo". On one side was an arcade with cafes underneath. On the other were houses with balconies on the upper floors. "Ladies of the night" dressed in flimsy gowns would display themselves on the balconies. Towards the Clot Bey end was the Fishmarket, a particularly squalid area.
WWI
In World War I there were violent incidents in the Wagh El Birket, including the major incident known as the Battle of the Wazzir.
WWII
During the Second World War, the street was known as "the Berka" by troops. The military set up brothels on the street, which were controlled by the Medical Corps. Medical centres, officially known as PA centres (preventative ablution), to try and prevent servicemen catching STI were set up in the area, and the army medical services oversaw the regular check-ups of prostitutes which were carried out by civilian authorities. The street had warning signs of a cross on a white background at both ends.
After two Australian soldiers were killed on the street, the authorities closed the Berka down in May 1942. Some of the troops blamed General Bernard Montgomery for the closure as he had a reputation as a puritan.
Fiction
The Wagh El Birket features prominently in several novels by Egyptian author Naguib Mahfouz, particularly the Cairo Trilogy.
References
Inline citations
Bibliography
External links
Probably the aftermath of the April 1915 riot. Blogger.
A wrecked hotel in the Birka after the riot. Blogger.
Riot damage. Blogger.
"Riot" in the Esbekia". Blogger.
Districts of Cairo
Red-light districts in Egypt
History of Cairo
Culture in Cairo
|
[
-0.08348594605922699,
0.895378828048706,
-0.9604875445365906,
-1.0019350051879883,
-1.2956645488739014,
0.7112552523612976,
0.6316547393798828,
-0.01349522452801466,
-0.22854985296726227,
0.0944824367761612,
-1.0139328241348267,
0.3586569130420685,
-0.2912324070930481,
0.26774683594703674,
0.1607716977596283,
0.8138889670372009,
0.2676013708114624,
0.6013844609260559,
-0.26055002212524414,
-0.5562006831169128,
0.08014914393424988,
-0.2655264139175415,
0.1290566325187683,
-0.451401025056839,
0.5582100749015808,
-0.008465052582323551,
0.7412617206573486,
0.27996858954429626,
0.3947003483772278,
-0.0478774718940258,
-0.28226757049560547,
0.7531166672706604,
0.12039975821971893,
-0.40307268500328064,
0.7261874079704285,
0.33930134773254395,
0.3181975781917572,
-0.5069621205329895,
0.016948146745562553,
-0.4107956290245056,
-0.16792012751102448,
0.24677366018295288,
0.3257036805152893,
0.39316850900650024,
-0.14700493216514587,
-0.6853938698768616,
-1.9449994564056396,
-0.10213394463062286,
-0.9133608937263489,
-0.47458940744400024,
-0.6367079615592957,
0.04957842081785202,
0.22639572620391846,
0.3287034034729004,
0.1991572231054306,
1.037551999092102,
-1.134878158569336,
0.38823193311691284,
1.0463773012161255,
0.25220730900764465,
0.4749797582626343,
-0.4408470690250397,
0.4374517500400543,
0.36560019850730896,
0.07517339289188385,
0.5214228630065918,
-0.8282981514930725,
0.6996756792068481,
-0.30894047021865845,
0.30766013264656067,
-0.6724352240562439,
-0.3006201684474945,
-0.4622270166873932,
-0.05252921208739281,
-0.20646944642066956,
0.25923997163772583,
-0.1417710930109024,
-0.35027480125427246,
-0.0930883139371872,
0.5505489110946655,
-0.2610171437263489,
-0.29987409710884094,
0.7737218737602234,
0.23632760345935822,
0.13782112300395966,
0.26278847455978394,
-0.33318957686424255,
0.26976367831230164,
-0.01938546821475029,
0.9161375761032104,
0.02445114776492119,
-0.7781801819801331,
-0.17397984862327576,
-0.043968528509140015,
-0.00743372505530715,
0.12001652270555496,
0.021780379116535187,
0.30314189195632935,
-0.04465257376432419,
0.09210928529500961,
0.2002747803926468,
0.6745453476905823,
0.3955521285533905,
0.20628033578395844,
-1.2374475002288818,
0.5175480842590332,
-0.7868092656135559,
-1.0116550922393799,
0.48240017890930176,
-1.064324140548706,
0.05987684428691864,
0.8193933367729187,
0.022149283438920975,
-0.23467116057872772,
-0.5228197574615479,
-0.06483997404575348,
0.21547991037368774,
0.2048693299293518,
-0.30340269207954407,
0.5692316293716431,
-0.29003727436065674,
0.8799641728401184,
0.06673164665699005,
0.021683918312191963,
0.5237842798233032,
-0.10419485718011856,
-0.033599790185689926,
0.6246179938316345,
-0.3983040750026703,
0.26927870512008667,
0.37904277443885803,
0.38052764534950256,
0.21635125577449799,
-0.1122869998216629,
-0.2832992672920227,
-0.9251740574836731,
0.12311921268701553,
-0.07954057306051254,
0.5241014361381531,
0.12715265154838562,
-1.169602394104004,
0.22791840136051178,
-1.520932674407959,
0.1607949137687683,
0.6698442101478577,
0.09926528483629227,
-0.4168391525745392,
0.12902021408081055,
-0.24759213626384735,
0.1871165633201599,
0.16262298822402954,
-0.37128254771232605,
0.04051624983549118,
0.0403866320848465,
-0.5059120059013367,
0.3277825713157654,
-0.26218417286872864,
0.20458783209323883,
0.30907192826271057,
-0.15230832993984222,
-0.07190241664648056,
-0.20324990153312683,
0.1695903092622757,
0.18518632650375366,
-0.2520386874675751,
0.10525888949632645,
0.49742183089256287,
-0.207902193069458,
-0.05448942258954048,
0.4536275267601013,
-0.4560658037662506,
-0.6140507459640503,
0.633068859577179,
-0.5380176901817322,
-0.12158951908349991,
-0.03188660368323326,
1.132361650466919,
-0.11289741843938828,
0.6752059459686279,
-0.5846030116081238,
-0.5659725666046143,
0.03917156159877777,
0.8198127746582031,
0.10938841849565506,
0.10167349129915237,
0.003744367277249694,
-0.1383996456861496,
-0.3613315522670746,
0.3413645327091217,
0.21283870935440063,
-0.3081137239933014,
-0.2823946177959442,
0.059166230261325836,
-0.08536769449710846,
0.7086689472198486,
-0.1212092712521553,
0.10928894579410553,
0.039546798914670944,
0.30006518959999084,
0.14493073523044586,
-0.1079438179731369,
-0.39529547095298767,
0.5788734555244446,
-0.3134136199951172,
-0.41723647713661194,
1.6240586042404175,
-0.5251815915107727,
0.47978079319000244,
0.14638027548789978,
0.485904335975647,
1.0396965742111206,
-0.46361324191093445,
0.46161141991615295,
-0.16961073875427246,
-0.20642511546611786,
0.07017838209867477,
-0.007345408666878939,
0.3655954599380493,
0.3680364191532135,
-0.04178115725517273,
0.4583880305290222,
-0.7645580768585205,
-0.4615481197834015,
-0.0780271664261818,
0.04071545973420143,
-0.05654536560177803,
0.0320797823369503,
0.01791924238204956,
-0.16512146592140198,
-0.643402636051178,
0.31589481234550476,
0.051458511501550674,
0.29392579197883606,
0.03068755380809307,
-0.7061915993690491,
-0.48724421858787537,
-0.2814893424510956,
-0.3800078332424164,
0.5853658318519592,
-0.6558802127838135,
0.42549929022789,
0.3523396849632263,
-0.2792482376098633,
-0.5170199871063232,
0.5194211602210999,
0.18418613076210022,
0.19749538600444794,
0.23339655995368958,
0.20167309045791626,
0.06459042429924011,
0.3770202696323395,
0.6178735494613647,
0.2228626012802124,
-0.7131900191307068,
0.09926160424947739,
-0.3265441954135895,
0.044477324932813644,
0.6198061108589172,
0.8671870231628418,
0.0813078060746193,
0.12139332294464111,
0.6986000537872314,
0.3112046718597412,
0.03683140501379967,
-0.041679322719573975,
-0.36942121386528015,
-0.3761497735977173,
-0.14900390803813934,
-0.16876249015331268,
0.11908597499132156,
0.8460814952850342,
0.18608833849430084,
-0.01606883481144905,
-0.9916685223579407,
0.1364445686340332,
0.01883520372211933,
0.4707475006580353,
0.36997926235198975,
-1.333162784576416,
0.09489048272371292,
0.380302757024765,
0.39545169472694397,
0.1908278912305832,
0.2771646976470947,
-0.35517582297325134,
-0.5056838989257812,
0.42226478457450867,
-0.15893924236297607,
-0.007666390854865313,
-0.37377357482910156,
-0.19167903065681458,
0.19385050237178802,
-0.012626132927834988,
0.06185304746031761,
-0.051548659801483154,
-0.03317223861813545,
-0.2742825746536255,
0.1933843493461609,
0.011761188507080078,
-0.3332618474960327,
0.07949966192245483,
0.42292916774749756,
-0.6250138282775879,
-0.2919827997684479,
-0.04336557909846306,
-0.0644003227353096,
-0.5296086668968201,
0.15805387496948242,
-4.85425329208374,
0.42499205470085144,
-0.2770211398601532,
-0.3438693881034851,
-0.15577010810375214,
-0.4710105359554291,
0.008024447597563267,
-0.6830971837043762,
0.30075010657310486,
0.30663061141967773,
-0.6198002696037292,
-0.6881164908409119,
-0.24435900151729584,
0.28171306848526,
0.7863110899925232,
0.19408705830574036,
0.520065426826477,
0.05332837626338005,
0.4433731138706207,
-0.3468552827835083,
0.056090258061885834,
0.08816761523485184,
-0.5162894129753113,
1.0282396078109741,
0.7910533547401428,
0.3060324192047119,
0.06187938153743744,
-0.05305108055472374,
-0.40847504138946533,
-0.20151902735233307,
0.3587505519390106,
-0.4685446321964264,
0.3796340525150299,
0.16819719970226288,
-0.19138136506080627,
-0.488847017288208,
1.0403910875320435,
0.22616887092590332,
0.9531155228614807,
-0.31476014852523804,
-0.4398050904273987,
0.8650174736976624,
-0.4662834107875824,
-0.21820560097694397,
1.017616868019104,
-0.338966965675354,
-0.7274913787841797,
-0.7320805788040161,
0.14669229090213776,
0.3953632712364197,
-0.056178804486989975,
-0.316714346408844,
0.01860181987285614,
-0.020115824416279793,
0.01036759652197361,
0.16170963644981384,
0.05144442245364189,
-0.22964347898960114,
0.35119858384132385,
0.31730958819389343,
0.7965359091758728,
-0.3450479209423065,
-0.47931113839149475,
-0.5994635820388794,
0.6307106614112854,
-0.7448633909225464,
-0.03312964737415314,
-0.6499780416488647,
0.051828302443027496,
0.7927971482276917,
-0.5801258087158203,
0.2118004858493805,
0.29575857520103455,
-0.6210033297538757,
0.36306771636009216,
-0.5909125208854675,
-0.2545354664325714,
0.05924224480986595,
-0.12523871660232544,
0.1573759764432907,
-0.16665184497833252,
-1.0404598712921143,
-0.04570072144269943,
0.22401463985443115,
0.3739180266857147,
-0.30491510033607483,
-0.6540006995201111,
-0.376935750246048,
0.0496990941464901,
0.1223650649189949,
1.2124898433685303,
-0.5390673279762268,
0.6587446331977844,
0.36818134784698486,
-0.29786258935928345,
0.8206281661987305,
0.15144257247447968,
-0.3395010828971863,
0.9487386345863342,
-0.15954887866973877,
0.18196788430213928,
-0.6487680673599243,
0.019495470449328423,
0.13590101897716522,
0.6089056730270386,
0.14566241204738617,
-0.48892664909362793,
0.26780569553375244,
1.1326942443847656,
-0.12659893929958344,
-0.1411074846982956,
0.6360335350036621,
-0.5927329063415527,
-0.0019661281257867813,
0.35787975788116455,
-0.2853109836578369,
-0.047507405281066895,
0.5223991870880127,
0.6544662714004517,
1.129243016242981,
0.45661166310310364,
0.1703718602657318,
-0.1047421246767044,
-0.5755190253257751,
-0.027606796473264694,
-0.16403180360794067,
-0.07918256521224976,
0.13375654816627502,
-0.2557854652404785,
-0.22535833716392517,
-0.10893315076828003,
-0.5160489082336426,
-0.12944070994853973,
-0.2611054480075836,
-0.10324196517467499,
-0.5580191016197205,
-0.6001803278923035,
-0.14055407047271729,
-0.043918218463659286,
-0.17611287534236908,
-0.21972070634365082,
-0.18653088808059692,
-0.051126912236213684,
0.1352592408657074,
0.6526630520820618,
0.8803898096084595,
0.15456826984882355,
0.14422456920146942,
-1.4201395511627197,
0.45504990220069885,
0.24147404730319977,
-0.1803583949804306,
0.17601551115512848,
-0.5791893005371094,
-0.5154129862785339,
0.244794100522995,
0.3032166361808777,
0.8162906765937805,
-0.5483074188232422,
-0.3370361328125,
0.09666973352432251,
-0.6863589882850647,
-1.1048113107681274,
0.35799679160118103,
-0.32964563369750977,
-0.20518657565116882,
0.5781829953193665,
0.25335341691970825,
-0.25686559081077576,
0.8641844987869263,
-0.2574528753757477,
-0.5501052737236023,
-0.8538606762886047,
-0.03154132887721062,
0.4030371904373169,
0.45231786370277405,
0.2177811861038208,
0.26595011353492737,
0.4611612558364868,
-0.10933169722557068,
-0.04491373151540756,
-0.1616791933774948,
-0.026992324739694595,
0.5858982801437378,
0.3033212423324585,
-0.14774446189403534,
-0.13678078353405,
0.008635072968900204,
-0.8326874375343323,
0.230587899684906,
0.27539920806884766,
-0.04868190363049507,
0.4145345389842987,
0.327816903591156,
-0.5025581121444702,
-0.8427183032035828,
-0.12081468850374222,
0.6585408449172974,
-0.1895965039730072,
-0.8432151675224304,
0.3997717499732971,
0.6196383833885193,
-0.345557302236557,
0.3088224232196808,
-0.3084382116794586,
-1.150349736213684,
0.46238869428634644,
0.07688959687948227,
-0.7039853930473328,
0.3805067539215088,
0.03737952932715416,
-1.01516592502594,
-0.05913206934928894,
0.23444174230098724,
-0.5295948386192322,
-0.3961285352706909,
0.47063159942626953,
0.3614245653152466,
0.05698081851005554,
-0.9655606150627136,
0.22463415563106537,
-1.036137580871582,
-0.29939937591552734,
0.23645901679992676,
-0.11984920501708984,
0.449993759393692,
-0.2305254191160202,
-0.41838085651397705,
0.4380101263523102,
-0.1339280754327774,
0.007696009706705809,
0.029385875910520554,
0.6581194400787354,
0.7864333391189575,
-0.12782852351665497,
0.2084077000617981,
-0.48332223296165466,
-0.014316912740468979,
-0.3254164457321167,
0.09755819290876389,
0.6153584718704224,
0.5675961971282959,
0.1606217920780182,
-0.033262599259614944,
-0.7376731634140015,
0.5610147714614868,
0.3292231559753418,
-0.6564196944236755,
-0.1625894457101822,
0.25837159156799316,
0.10678571462631226,
0.3224022090435028,
-0.545302152633667,
-0.4734378159046173,
0.5234058499336243,
-0.22596636414527893,
0.001847452251240611,
0.3893076181411743,
-0.3738638162612915,
0.5061655640602112,
0.09607286751270294,
0.8367100358009338,
-0.5336006283760071,
0.5629345178604126,
0.0568559467792511,
0.08071225136518478,
-0.47532960772514343,
-0.4149950444698334,
0.34768760204315186,
-0.10232466459274292,
-0.2522152364253998,
-0.38949310779571533,
-0.07981573045253754,
0.24717235565185547,
0.027261430397629738,
0.2972319722175598,
-0.549835205078125,
-0.4277379810810089,
0.17058071494102478,
-0.42896270751953125,
-0.15167666971683502,
-0.4693402349948883,
0.29488328099250793,
0.14579957723617554,
0.02274872176349163,
-0.6470193266868591,
-0.09394589066505432,
0.2210123986005783,
-0.492270290851593,
-0.12194617092609406,
-0.19130662083625793,
0.7215808033943176,
-0.8164390325546265,
0.7522245049476624,
0.010601352900266647,
0.38867253065109253,
0.22906000912189484,
0.37604883313179016,
0.08771486580371857,
0.03737494722008705,
-0.49401164054870605,
0.2968390882015228,
-0.2415330857038498,
-0.25143736600875854,
0.28324416279792786,
-0.0011757926549762487,
0.30672699213027954,
-0.1002269983291626,
0.6208857893943787,
-0.5529838800430298,
-0.18461106717586517,
0.5739977955818176,
0.35546353459358215,
1.0149133205413818,
0.3830125033855438,
-0.1889677792787552,
0.7633312344551086,
-0.20456114411354065,
-0.23453208804130554,
0.652251660823822,
0.4233607053756714,
-0.7121016383171082,
1.0220181941986084,
0.6122954487800598,
-0.8998641967773438,
0.5469592213630676,
0.3231290280818939,
-0.7115232348442078,
0.24642609059810638,
-0.17091836035251617,
0.5629070401191711,
-0.21108649671077728,
-0.9885842204093933,
-0.02527236007153988,
0.16726963222026825,
-0.18850521743297577,
-0.20990043878555298,
-0.4491071403026581,
-0.17176011204719543,
0.798362672328949,
0.17819900810718536,
0.8335898518562317,
-0.43490275740623474,
-0.43991073966026306,
-0.140309140086174,
0.41400179266929626,
-0.2587398290634155,
0.1898476630449295,
0.3360450267791748,
0.13041725754737854,
0.4030269980430603,
0.24663139879703522,
0.3131825625896454,
-0.5924770832061768,
-0.032956916838884354,
0.09168025106191635,
-0.14422081410884857,
-0.029506182298064232,
-0.5773829817771912,
-0.2972041666507721,
-0.07969841361045837,
-0.08593175560235977,
0.18985897302627563,
-0.6139569878578186,
0.3028446137905121,
-0.5227137804031372,
-0.11024761945009232,
-1.0642627477645874,
-0.3621540069580078,
0.6133531928062439,
0.17966878414154053,
0.3341991603374481,
-0.12812133133411407,
-0.12627151608467102,
0.11659321933984756,
0.2906511127948761,
-0.3610004186630249,
0.21802149713039398,
0.23211953043937683,
0.05448056757450104,
0.11417917162179947,
-0.2718452513217926,
-0.163993239402771,
-0.2567284405231476,
0.3831588327884674,
-0.19752883911132812,
-0.08275987952947617,
0.16756634414196014,
-0.799241840839386,
0.07888751477003098,
-0.22094719111919403,
0.03371191397309303,
-0.6022051572799683,
-0.14641012251377106,
0.06641944497823715,
-0.6915881037712097,
-0.0821196436882019,
0.6597788333892822,
-0.39341604709625244,
-0.1709475964307785,
0.28414463996887207,
0.543179452419281,
0.08366504311561584,
0.09948965907096863,
-0.5310599207878113,
-0.06481814384460449,
0.027454450726509094,
0.8606166243553162,
-0.43463876843452454,
0.24089772999286652,
0.399870365858078,
-0.003932379651814699,
0.07373052835464478,
0.5045235753059387,
-0.23920193314552307,
0.1000012755393982,
-0.020077630877494812,
-0.5455577969551086,
-0.3474469482898712,
-0.8592419028282166,
0.09525306522846222,
-0.342439740896225,
-0.2984400987625122,
0.6171379089355469,
0.22469601035118103,
-0.13914349675178528,
0.3104710280895233,
0.06475288420915604,
-0.3382127583026886,
0.06287813931703568,
-0.03212233632802963,
0.06429144740104675,
-0.4738486707210541,
-0.7803938388824463,
-0.19561752676963806,
-0.009591920301318169,
0.5465452075004578,
0.5304616093635559,
0.0527975894510746,
-0.19186800718307495,
-0.1566781997680664,
-0.9027605652809143,
0.025231903418898582,
0.28136157989501953,
-2.793890953063965,
0.08919138461351395,
-0.1277405321598053,
-0.41357719898223877,
-0.12997524440288544,
0.62403404712677,
0.4507509768009186,
-0.5600269436836243,
0.3570226728916168,
0.28202658891677856,
0.1491335928440094,
-0.23884674906730652,
0.06499111652374268,
-1.0256056785583496,
0.3248511254787445,
-0.021946454420685768
] |
205998
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-light%20district
|
Red-light district
|
A red-light district or pleasure district is a part of an urban area where a concentration of prostitution and sex-oriented businesses, such as sex shops, strip clubs, and adult theaters, are found. In most cases, red-light districts are particularly associated with female street prostitution, though in some cities, these areas may coincide with spaces of male prostitution and gay venues. Areas in many big cities around the world have acquired an international reputation as red-light districts.
The term red-light district originates from the red lights that were used as signs for brothels.
Origins of term
Red-light districts are mentioned in the 1882 minutes of a Woman's Christian Temperance Union meeting in the United States. The Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest known appearance of the term "red light district" in print as an 1894 article from the Sandusky Register, a newspaper in Sandusky, Ohio.
Author Paul Wellman suggests that this and other terms associated with the American Old West originated in Dodge City, Kansas, home to a well-known prostitution district during the 19th century, which included the Red Light House saloon. This has not been proven, but the Dodge City use was likely responsible for the term's pervasiveness. A widespread folk etymology claims that early railroad workers took red lanterns with them when they visited brothels so their crew could find them in the event of an emergency. However, folklorist Barbara Mikkelson regards this as unfounded.
A more plausible explanation might originate from the time when sailors came back from sea to Amsterdam (ca. 1650): Women working as prostitutes, deprived from proper hygiene and running fresh water, carrying red lanterns — with their color camouflaging boils, zits, inequalities in the face and on the skin — made clear they were available as women of pleasure. Sailors, finally getting their relative royal pay, having been at sea for quite some time and looking for relief could so easily spot who would be available. In a later stage the red lanterns evolved into red lights at brothels. Since this was close to the main harbour, this district became known as the red-light district:
One of the many terms used for a red-light district in Japanese is , literally meaning "red-line". Japanese police drew a red line on maps to indicate the boundaries of legal red-light districts. In Japanese, the term , literally meaning "blue-line", also exists, indicating an illegal district.
In the United States during the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term "sporting district" became popular for legal red-light districts. Municipal governments typically defined such districts explicitly to contain and regulate prostitution.
Legal issues
Some red-light districts (such as De Wallen, Netherlands, or Reeperbahn, Germany) are places which are officially designated by authorities for legal and regulated prostitution. Often, these red-light districts were formed by authorities to help regulate prostitution and other related activities, such that they were confined to a single area.
Some red-light districts (such as those in The Hague) are under video surveillance. This can help counter illegal forms of prostitution (such as child prostitution), in these areas that do allow regular prostitution to occur.
Image gallery
See also
List of red-light districts
Prostitution by region
References
External links
English-language idioms
Red
|
[
0.5476745963096619,
-0.022633202373981476,
-0.25276699662208557,
0.3485482633113861,
-0.13313862681388855,
-0.040972258895635605,
0.23167739808559418,
0.6799485087394714,
-0.28290611505508423,
-0.28804558515548706,
-1.0652436017990112,
0.3329162299633026,
-0.9495475888252258,
0.37476053833961487,
-0.15456204116344452,
0.6621466875076294,
0.2325149029493332,
0.5785706639289856,
0.14850078523159027,
0.22818885743618011,
-0.31758183240890503,
-0.3650692105293274,
-0.2885867655277252,
-0.25088030099868774,
0.251458078622818,
-0.12377661466598511,
0.08943618834018707,
0.4513303339481354,
-0.9346793293952942,
0.4111470580101013,
0.3448760509490967,
0.6545577049255371,
-0.19629675149917603,
0.2804725766181946,
0.4291281998157501,
-0.013665525242686272,
0.16878065466880798,
-1.0263586044311523,
0.19148965179920197,
-0.5510902404785156,
-0.0998266264796257,
0.186001718044281,
0.22018247842788696,
-0.16205677390098572,
0.4367313086986542,
-0.07950306683778763,
-1.6521103382110596,
0.29567766189575195,
-0.7929151654243469,
-0.17694199085235596,
-0.3474982678890228,
0.1946297585964203,
0.06387823075056076,
0.6858371496200562,
-0.1213764101266861,
0.6682391166687012,
-0.30722641944885254,
0.25290846824645996,
0.5198171734809875,
-0.35415220260620117,
0.6738275289535522,
-0.14952360093593597,
-0.20457589626312256,
0.260672003030777,
0.41843149065971375,
0.20753075182437897,
-0.032164689153432846,
0.27578046917915344,
-0.3817165195941925,
-0.6790630221366882,
-0.11337295174598694,
0.10679221153259277,
0.2759520709514618,
-0.011930854991078377,
-1.2422246932983398,
-0.47494974732398987,
0.09022296965122223,
-0.26225021481513977,
-0.6764834523200989,
0.02347303368151188,
-0.327743262052536,
0.43353530764579773,
0.7212840914726257,
-0.005955568049103022,
0.35097363591194153,
-0.30424144864082336,
-0.5641909837722778,
-0.20873582363128662,
0.07326482981443405,
0.833584189414978,
-0.7029134631156921,
0.44134244322776794,
0.6986413598060608,
0.185705304145813,
-0.13457408547401428,
0.20911884307861328,
0.41418808698654175,
0.2848230004310608,
0.2004609853029251,
0.4912305772304535,
-0.11799190938472748,
0.21575500071048737,
0.3168560862541199,
-0.1879981905221939,
-0.7475887537002563,
-0.006723895203322172,
0.3375885486602783,
-0.007848828099668026,
0.5694183707237244,
0.39370134472846985,
-0.3408327102661133,
0.20667901635169983,
0.09040667116641998,
0.09337564557790756,
0.1377570629119873,
0.18363189697265625,
-0.20459388196468353,
0.5286577343940735,
-0.25774258375167847,
-0.03381441533565521,
0.11533746868371964,
-0.04348820820450783,
-0.11148931831121445,
0.2781235873699188,
-0.32766643166542053,
0.6321995854377747,
0.47213754057884216,
0.6463317275047302,
0.24255287647247314,
0.6171056628227234,
0.3787520229816437,
0.8083624839782715,
-0.31362834572792053,
-0.17748229205608368,
-0.06614679843187332,
-0.513599693775177,
0.17249470949172974,
0.16066545248031616,
0.799260675907135,
-0.13666024804115295,
-0.5037407875061035,
-0.37602153420448303,
-0.018506275489926338,
-0.5861721038818359,
0.37701278924942017,
-0.38259005546569824,
0.4796152710914612,
-0.6801425218582153,
-0.33274033665657043,
-0.4125085175037384,
0.014059404842555523,
-0.007861174643039703,
-0.2125757932662964,
-0.2663511633872986,
-0.06308985501527786,
-0.18421313166618347,
0.07960552722215652,
-0.584888219833374,
-0.022788316011428833,
0.3316626250743866,
-0.41248542070388794,
0.2632759213447571,
-0.23709532618522644,
0.2096598595380783,
-0.14373613893985748,
-0.038653649389743805,
-0.3857797682285309,
-0.360434889793396,
0.3314111828804016,
0.8960909843444824,
-0.2761308550834656,
0.01067761518061161,
-0.07974115014076233,
-0.16854269802570343,
0.2533993124961853,
0.526607871055603,
0.645881175994873,
0.21337446570396423,
0.3364241421222687,
-0.35939693450927734,
-0.91864413022995,
0.5898867845535278,
0.3880067765712738,
0.6002324223518372,
-0.1258421093225479,
-0.6979514360427856,
0.46563097834587097,
-0.09452768415212631,
-0.2936490774154663,
0.019711948931217194,
-0.2582288980484009,
-0.0927758514881134,
-0.32466211915016174,
-0.6174882650375366,
1.1652637720108032,
-0.03799058496952057,
-0.3066195845603943,
0.6235960125923157,
-0.2661808431148529,
0.4233986735343933,
-0.25948238372802734,
-0.2456018477678299,
0.8887323141098022,
-0.15876509249210358,
-0.789813220500946,
0.05222788080573082,
0.09876825660467148,
0.22372548282146454,
0.0825231596827507,
-0.003555897157639265,
0.569469153881073,
-0.5586102604866028,
-0.008003837428987026,
0.044890522956848145,
0.6319026350975037,
0.18096046149730682,
-0.046533938497304916,
0.30316025018692017,
-0.3093867003917694,
-0.031629353761672974,
0.3538699448108673,
-0.16284658014774323,
-0.4566347301006317,
0.2293175607919693,
-0.22514449059963226,
0.2964825928211212,
0.2871553599834442,
0.22333620488643646,
0.743560254573822,
-0.2604644298553467,
0.7553213834762573,
0.21712784469127655,
-0.009586645290255547,
-0.6002150177955627,
-0.837989866733551,
-0.1511939913034439,
0.6573295593261719,
-0.5639718174934387,
0.05735345557332039,
-0.4822179675102234,
-0.396749347448349,
-0.23199684917926788,
-0.0489974319934845,
0.1276257336139679,
0.20113950967788696,
-0.27642667293548584,
-0.2840561866760254,
0.4622202217578888,
-0.4455734193325043,
-0.1560743898153305,
-0.032728590071201324,
0.3773493468761444,
0.06222117319703102,
-0.6868956685066223,
0.49661096930503845,
0.029841119423508644,
-0.04660136625170708,
-0.143063023686409,
0.1830407828092575,
-0.6062713861465454,
-0.1695135086774826,
0.10475283116102219,
-0.3982023298740387,
0.2327401041984558,
-0.3824375569820404,
-0.20005837082862854,
-0.14172078669071198,
0.4035656154155731,
-0.18854835629463196,
0.5702621936798096,
-0.252638041973114,
0.5839163661003113,
-0.20697063207626343,
-0.13187794387340546,
-0.3103141188621521,
-0.48227208852767944,
0.01959923282265663,
0.6336362957954407,
0.49516212940216064,
0.07658285647630692,
0.3157937824726105,
0.37019801139831543,
0.16903316974639893,
-0.6993261575698853,
-0.5465446710586548,
-0.17365415394306183,
0.12050797790288925,
0.20358030498027802,
-0.9985679984092712,
-0.05392998829483986,
-0.8486291766166687,
0.021893708035349846,
-0.33104538917541504,
0.5028561353683472,
-0.1577533632516861,
-0.1437208652496338,
-0.7935566306114197,
0.17555202543735504,
0.02452530339360237,
-0.16219979524612427,
-0.10870067775249481,
0.27294081449508667,
-0.5596792697906494,
-0.3117349147796631,
-0.4021224081516266,
0.04124423488974571,
-0.29299479722976685,
-0.19520749151706696,
-5.476923942565918,
0.7725259065628052,
-0.25311344861984253,
-0.12697863578796387,
-0.4718734323978424,
-0.23591729998588562,
0.5272606015205383,
0.3211512565612793,
-0.08816816657781601,
0.013512678444385529,
-0.5602518916130066,
-0.5523583889007568,
0.24212664365768433,
0.3269474506378174,
0.8601505160331726,
-0.07674600929021835,
0.36652418971061707,
-0.12677505612373352,
-0.008525635115802288,
-0.2942343056201935,
-0.4618713855743408,
-0.16624592244625092,
0.22196415066719055,
0.7940009236335754,
0.03379139304161072,
0.319963276386261,
-0.26902392506599426,
-0.031149307265877724,
-1.0705970525741577,
-0.9204604625701904,
0.23905296623706818,
0.3111187517642975,
-0.30117687582969666,
-0.2272019237279892,
0.37877216935157776,
0.6831455230712891,
0.4260672926902771,
-0.569368302822113,
-0.15568807721138,
-0.2995060980319977,
0.05843333527445793,
0.5119550824165344,
-0.031929247081279755,
0.012328614480793476,
0.6227800846099854,
0.12691490352153778,
-0.5486003756523132,
-0.005362377502024174,
-0.8765396475791931,
0.3746955692768097,
-0.05347424000501633,
0.17144156992435455,
0.24221083521842957,
0.1852252036333084,
-0.02429122105240822,
0.0007315650582313538,
0.018452154472470284,
0.21891795098781586,
-0.039846356958150864,
-0.305889368057251,
0.5671826601028442,
-0.3175790011882782,
-0.4809602200984955,
-0.136812224984169,
0.28277483582496643,
-0.11842381954193115,
-0.39565593004226685,
-0.2790568470954895,
0.4501892328262329,
0.40390172600746155,
-0.44231534004211426,
0.15683908760547638,
-0.05952709540724754,
-0.8957061767578125,
0.10037581622600555,
-0.20188389718532562,
0.1302126944065094,
-0.13479779660701752,
0.6488919854164124,
-0.1051531434059143,
0.014646804891526699,
-0.1498052030801773,
-0.31008052825927734,
-0.14349600672721863,
-0.13203838467597961,
-0.4576387405395508,
0.11040275543928146,
0.5531185269355774,
0.15231865644454956,
-0.14433689415454865,
1.0664443969726562,
0.039438556879758835,
0.18400149047374725,
0.13381914794445038,
-0.24033010005950928,
0.08754359930753708,
0.2622022032737732,
0.014383269473910332,
0.1937437653541565,
-0.6764492392539978,
0.9752078652381897,
-0.18532755970954895,
-0.4091528654098511,
-0.45623812079429626,
0.01706821471452713,
-0.26733076572418213,
-0.15408368408679962,
0.23456619679927826,
0.1556759923696518,
-0.5694901943206787,
0.14950107038021088,
0.12495176494121552,
-0.49215617775917053,
-0.7595258355140686,
1.0005393028259277,
-0.04229886084794998,
0.001738599967211485,
0.628218412399292,
0.007078446447849274,
0.3678971529006958,
0.18903088569641113,
0.17176003754138947,
0.13792067766189575,
0.10869256407022476,
-0.11821210384368896,
0.1765282303094864,
-0.19563595950603485,
0.1400202363729477,
0.5975341796875,
-0.012876087799668312,
1.2595665454864502,
0.6508979201316833,
-0.10742750018835068,
-0.4604051411151886,
0.1211128905415535,
-0.5326325297355652,
-0.4501596689224243,
-0.130769282579422,
0.2162081003189087,
0.45648619532585144,
0.0838228091597557,
0.7041662931442261,
-0.24420283734798431,
0.4436658024787903,
0.5758861899375916,
0.463424414396286,
-0.4208597242832184,
-0.8476080894470215,
-0.24461503326892853,
-0.12442447990179062,
-0.5297431945800781,
-0.7089921832084656,
-0.373575359582901,
-0.3919946551322937,
0.21268866956233978,
-0.428975373506546,
0.19967520236968994,
0.2037527710199356,
-0.0631372481584549,
-0.5242259502410889,
-0.06319841742515564,
-0.3275054097175598,
-0.8169043064117432,
0.2825299799442291,
-0.261915922164917,
-0.4626620411872864,
-0.37576693296432495,
-0.24592745304107666,
-0.17226386070251465,
0.7739571928977966,
-0.33175450563430786,
-0.3360554277896881,
-0.521030068397522,
-0.23785017430782318,
0.226009801030159,
-0.19419629871845245,
-0.20093004405498505,
0.38020241260528564,
0.06097039580345154,
-0.9798767566680908,
-0.23484636843204498,
-0.09420786798000336,
-0.6853063106536865,
0.28030499815940857,
0.8549345135688782,
-0.6000267863273621,
-0.8694558143615723,
-0.0013672893401235342,
-0.059617772698402405,
-0.2534080147743225,
0.6557859778404236,
-0.24830865859985352,
0.04966709017753601,
0.24635648727416992,
-0.5219541788101196,
-1.3207381963729858,
-0.18884538114070892,
0.5760784149169922,
-0.11987961083650589,
0.02529805153608322,
0.10004327446222305,
0.3507746756076813,
-0.9388080835342407,
0.5577744245529175,
0.39983415603637695,
-0.5238562822341919,
0.7407220602035522,
0.6177592277526855,
-0.6362638473510742,
0.4241538941860199,
-0.6543107628822327,
-0.4991764426231384,
0.02902618981897831,
0.029589183628559113,
-0.31632673740386963,
-0.08191356807947159,
-0.41728025674819946,
-0.6620939373970032,
-0.3651682734489441,
-0.4737115502357483,
0.2771208584308624,
-0.28110161423683167,
-0.3629467189311981,
-0.08712027221918106,
0.08712799102067947,
0.10316802561283112,
0.6038559675216675,
-1.163956880569458,
0.4224017560482025,
0.042516905814409256,
-0.19796222448349,
0.21438197791576385,
0.4096614420413971,
0.06157299876213074,
-0.13168923556804657,
-0.005200656596571207,
-0.41489261388778687,
-0.08020497858524323,
0.12208493053913116,
0.5677374005317688,
-0.04775691777467728,
0.5370668172836304,
0.005123110953718424,
-0.43408477306365967,
0.5437256693840027,
0.27632057666778564,
0.18642471730709076,
-0.36015334725379944,
-0.7534105181694031,
0.37703341245651245,
0.13338284194469452,
-0.8336185216903687,
-0.14682678878307343,
-0.1488686203956604,
0.6301581859588623,
-0.07003584504127502,
-0.26031485199928284,
0.1776958703994751,
0.24875785410404205,
0.7003508806228638,
-0.30576270818710327,
-0.49803444743156433,
0.3828611969947815,
0.18463128805160522,
0.27037307620048523,
0.30379292368888855,
-0.016927598044276237,
-0.5090932846069336,
0.3074033856391907,
-1.1053811311721802,
0.5524612665176392,
-0.17930087447166443,
1.4179155826568604,
0.4372405409812927,
0.6348278522491455,
-0.1998525708913803,
0.11951932311058044,
-0.7152888774871826,
-0.42635220289230347,
-0.9940169453620911,
0.24998973309993744,
0.2721579670906067,
-0.14527158439159393,
-0.5129764080047607,
0.41881951689720154,
-0.8667001724243164,
0.10192275792360306,
0.1658809781074524,
-0.8875594735145569,
-0.06671729683876038,
-0.3873349130153656,
0.1954665333032608,
0.44083094596862793,
0.6830921769142151,
-0.4864673614501953,
0.4393513798713684,
0.6514480113983154,
0.12849709391593933,
-0.5572776198387146,
-0.2803882360458374,
-0.17947492003440857,
0.5718432068824768,
-0.5131334066390991,
-0.7200905680656433,
0.7484070658683777,
0.23258575797080994,
0.6117494702339172,
-0.679521918296814,
0.07101885974407196,
-0.26343920826911926,
0.11004950106143951,
0.21246851980686188,
0.4299152195453644,
1.2270803451538086,
-0.2919687330722809,
0.26671287417411804,
0.37625038623809814,
-0.01955658383667469,
0.7370375394821167,
0.5816398859024048,
0.25475719571113586,
0.36410990357398987,
0.5285314917564392,
0.05287376791238785,
-0.04759455472230911,
0.3859991431236267,
0.1113785058259964,
0.24801169335842133,
0.5977559089660645,
0.28410589694976807,
0.4309143126010895,
-0.12886565923690796,
-0.3314562141895294,
0.4364829659461975,
-0.5279194116592407,
-0.23211251199245453,
0.17892985045909882,
-0.791838526725769,
-0.7448509335517883,
-0.18424063920974731,
0.5221555233001709,
-0.1340927928686142,
-0.1069946214556694,
0.271233469247818,
0.4264768660068512,
0.4547322988510132,
0.5310356020927429,
-0.062046073377132416,
-0.24675016105175018,
0.20357421040534973,
0.37876641750335693,
0.01168463658541441,
-0.0684993788599968,
0.30686742067337036,
0.32064130902290344,
-0.7622612714767456,
0.21017801761627197,
-0.11292155832052231,
-0.20696799457073212,
-0.40767791867256165,
0.09176746010780334,
0.4412883222103119,
-0.01252936664968729,
-0.4611600339412689,
-0.38683024048805237,
0.14879992604255676,
0.4391212463378906,
-0.3972321152687073,
-0.14683924615383148,
0.16799241304397583,
0.090814970433712,
0.6987079381942749,
0.020759789273142815,
0.006691048387438059,
0.6463105082511902,
-0.0949842780828476,
0.5268599390983582,
0.2295091301202774,
0.07705643773078918,
0.4642978608608246,
-0.13708262145519257,
0.5714633464813232,
0.04335258528590202,
-0.6993421912193298,
0.6362287998199463,
0.03671208396553993,
-0.33062541484832764,
0.14388133585453033,
-0.19861900806427002,
0.10169674456119537,
0.22290024161338806,
0.26013970375061035,
0.12692901492118835,
-0.5032234191894531,
-0.2643604576587677,
0.3794214725494385,
-0.30527710914611816,
0.5618147850036621,
-0.04681505635380745,
-0.357411652803421,
-0.17128929495811462,
0.806610107421875,
0.3184831440448761,
0.16428835690021515,
-0.7389855980873108,
0.4952033460140228,
-0.6017997860908508,
-0.8447322249412537,
-0.1369607150554657,
0.7830346822738647,
-0.23808738589286804,
-0.17380964756011963,
0.3151695132255554,
0.07006131112575531,
-0.2764376699924469,
0.49305790662765503,
0.5960747599601746,
-0.2934491038322449,
0.1330167055130005,
-0.38883674144744873,
0.30462193489074707,
-0.2929743826389313,
0.43981873989105225,
0.05875725299119949,
-0.3895006477832794,
-0.6500619649887085,
0.07514526695013046,
0.33148208260536194,
0.12661731243133545,
0.5775913000106812,
-0.3109719157218933,
-0.25065097212791443,
-0.5854803323745728,
0.09376204013824463,
-0.5034795999526978,
-0.18995290994644165,
-0.13076624274253845,
0.11790069937705994,
0.8151177763938904,
-0.002568022347986698,
0.09226584434509277,
-0.47220155596733093,
-0.12399909645318985,
-0.24800316989421844,
0.30347222089767456,
0.2047502100467682,
-0.26162463426589966,
0.1809057891368866,
-0.445661336183548,
0.4312666654586792,
-0.04593655467033386,
-0.45252305269241333,
-0.23390379548072815,
0.48373666405677795,
-0.2575187385082245,
0.036263782531023026,
0.23868593573570251,
-0.674797773361206,
-0.24400514364242554,
0.10502323508262634
] |
205999
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Weekly%20Standard
|
The Weekly Standard
|
The Weekly Standard was an American political magazine of news, analysis and commentary, published 48 times per year. Originally edited by founders Bill Kristol and Fred Barnes, the Standard had been described as a "redoubt of neoconservatism" and as "the neocon bible." Its founding publisher, News Corporation, debuted the title on September 18, 1995. In 2009, News Corporation sold the magazine to a subsidiary of the Anschutz Corporation. On December 14, 2018, its owners announced that the magazine was ceasing publication, with the last issue published on December 17. Sources attribute its demise to an increasing divergence between Kristol and other editors' shift towards anti-Trump positions, and the magazine's audience's shift towards Trumpism.
Many of the magazine's articles were written by members of conservative think tanks located in Washington, including the American Enterprise Institute, the Ethics and Public Policy Center, the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, the Hudson Institute, and the Foreign Policy Initiative. Individuals who wrote for the magazine included Elliott Abrams, Peter Berkowitz, John Bolton, Ellen Bork, David Brooks, Gertrude Himmelfarb, Christopher Hitchens, Harvey Mansfield, Cynthia Ozick, Joe Queenan, and John Yoo. The magazine's website also produced regular online-only commentaries and news articles. The site's editorial stance was described as neoconservative.
History
The Standard was viewed as heavily influential during the administration of president George W. Bush (2001-2009), being called the in-flight magazine of Air Force One. In 2003, although the magazine's circulation was only 55,000, Kristol said that "We have a funny relationship with the top tier of the administration. They very much keep us at arm's length, but [Vice President] Dick Cheney does send over someone to pick up 30 copies of the magazine every Monday."
In 2006, though the publication had never been profitable and reputedly lost more than a million dollars a year, News Corporation head Rupert Murdoch initially dismissed the idea of selling it. Subsequently, in June 2009, a report circulated that a sale of the publication to Philip Anschutz was imminent, with Murdoch's position being that, having since purchased The Wall Street Journal in 2007, his interest in the smaller publication had diminished. The Washington Examiner reported that month that the Examiners parent company, the Anschutz-owned Clarity Media Group, had purchased the Standard; the price was about $1 million.
The Standard increased its paid circulation by 39 percent between its June 2009 and June 2010 BPA statements. Its print circulation of about 100,000 in 2013 had decreased to 72,000 by 2017, according to the BPA, with circulation dropping about 10 percent between 2016 and 2017.
In late 2016, Kristol ended his time as editor-in-chief. He was replaced by Stephen Hayes, the magazine's senior writer. Under Hayes' leadership, the Standard continued to be as critical of Donald Trump as it had been under Kristol; Trump's supporters in turn criticized the Standard, and the magazine's influence in Republican circles dwindled.
In December 2017, The Weekly Standard became an official fact-checking partner for Facebook.
On December 14, 2018, Clarity Media Group announced that it would cease publication of the magazine after 23 years. While some speculated that the closure of The Weekly Standard was so Clarity Media's other magazine, the Washington Examiner, could absorb the Standards subscribers, a statement from Clarity Media Group chairman Ryan McKibben said that such speculation was incorrect. Kristol attributed the magazine's demise to the hostility of supporters of the Donald Trump administration.
Support of the invasion of Iraq
The Standard promoted and supported the invasion of Iraq to remove Saddam Hussein. In November 1997 Bill Kristol and Robert Kagan wrote an editorial titled "Saddam Must Go", in which they stated "We know it seems unthinkable to propose another ground attack to take Baghdad. But it's time to start thinking the unthinkable."
In the first issue the magazine published after 9/11, according to Scott McConnell of The American Conservative, "Gary Schmitt and Tom Donnelly, two employees of Kristol’s PNAC, clarified what ought to be the country’s war aims. Their rhetoric was to link Saddam Hussein and Osama bin Laden in virtually every paragraph, to join them at the hip in the minds of readers, and then to lay out a strategy that actually gave attacking Saddam priority over eliminating al-Qaeda."
On December 16, 2018, co-founder and contributing editor John Podhoretz defended the coverage answering the question by Lulu Garcia-Navarro on NPR: "Do you regret the coverage of Iraq War?" saying "I think, basically, what—all a magazine—editors, writers—can promise is that they will be honest and say what they mean and think and argue the best way that they can. And with the facts available at the time, that is what The Standard did."
Libel case
In 1997, nearly a year after a cover story that included allegations of hiring a prostitute and plagiarism against best-selling author Deepak Chopra, the editors of The Weekly Standard accepted full responsibility for the errors in the story, and apologized." Chopra claimed that the magazine settled for $1.6 million.
Notable personnel
Editorial staff
Stephen F. Hayes, Editor-in-Chief
Bill Kristol, Editor at large
Fred Barnes, Executive Editor
Christopher Caldwell, Andrew Ferguson, Lee Smith, Philip Terzian, Senior Editors
Jonathan V. Last, Digital Editor
Matt Labash, Senior Writer
Contributing editors
Max Boot
Joseph Bottum
Tucker Carlson
Matthew Continetti
Joseph Epstein
David Frum
David Gelernter
Reuel Marc Gerecht
Michael Goldfarb
Mary Katharine Ham
Brit Hume
Frederick Kagan
Robert Kagan
Charles Krauthammer
Tod Lindberg
Rob Messenger
P. J. O'Rourke
John Podhoretz
Irwin Stelzer
References
External links
1995 establishments in Washington, D.C.
2018 disestablishments in the United States
Anschutz Corporation
Defunct political magazines published in the United States
Conservative magazines published in the United States
Magazines disestablished in 2018
Magazines established in 1995
Magazines published in Washington, D.C.
Neoconservatism
News magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
|
[
0.08516168594360352,
-0.09401288628578186,
-0.5869636535644531,
0.3620367646217346,
-0.690048098564148,
0.34716129302978516,
0.4714052379131317,
0.3952866792678833,
-0.1592642217874527,
0.2289438247680664,
0.007332649547606707,
0.39253363013267517,
-0.4321534335613251,
0.022313503548502922,
-0.08954896032810211,
-0.13646645843982697,
0.18978120386600494,
-0.10740931332111359,
0.146177738904953,
-0.5401167273521423,
-0.28995540738105774,
0.08181869238615036,
0.5736384987831116,
-0.5429264903068542,
-0.21295511722564697,
0.15020497143268585,
0.6604451537132263,
0.3065139949321747,
-0.8455095291137695,
0.41158202290534973,
-0.523865818977356,
0.751716673374176,
-0.04546266794204712,
0.21119269728660583,
-0.35673755407333374,
-0.19329744577407837,
0.13837353885173798,
-0.41401270031929016,
-0.36460381746292114,
-0.26288843154907227,
0.1630363017320633,
-0.09904970228672028,
0.450082004070282,
0.6401870846748352,
0.08818119764328003,
-0.6790271997451782,
-1.84535551071167,
0.1383558064699173,
-0.831571638584137,
-0.10177522152662277,
-0.31057074666023254,
1.5327035188674927,
0.6373917460441589,
0.8233823776245117,
-0.25908026099205017,
1.0640954971313477,
0.05859899893403053,
0.2727745473384857,
-0.10386892408132553,
-0.44341883063316345,
-0.03912298008799553,
-0.5370513200759888,
0.9125421643257141,
0.1436069756746292,
0.3225829601287842,
0.21739456057548523,
-0.47496846318244934,
0.10279086232185364,
0.41660594940185547,
-0.25064948201179504,
-0.7078463435173035,
-0.32713639736175537,
0.28436073660850525,
0.550889253616333,
0.17461732029914856,
0.16339077055454254,
-0.03655194863677025,
-0.07904914021492004,
-0.216257706284523,
0.11842135339975357,
-0.053760506212711334,
0.385680615901947,
0.6442137360572815,
0.29276230931282043,
0.046233661472797394,
-0.3221563696861267,
-0.29861271381378174,
-0.2034968137741089,
0.3991379141807556,
0.31644850969314575,
-0.21916867792606354,
0.2091090828180313,
0.3317059576511383,
0.3130331337451935,
-0.502293586730957,
-0.3835448920726776,
0.20855508744716644,
-0.05004778876900673,
-0.18991579115390778,
-0.26212337613105774,
0.034482840448617935,
0.5627182722091675,
1.0994350910186768,
0.33268728852272034,
-0.42794087529182434,
0.07260695844888687,
0.24581453204154968,
-0.7498722672462463,
0.6559447050094604,
0.5243500471115112,
-0.2900875210762024,
0.4043819308280945,
-0.02591005712747574,
-0.27301400899887085,
-0.04702066630125046,
0.9099618196487427,
-0.0866435095667839,
-0.6909998655319214,
-0.29135915637016296,
-0.13648781180381775,
-0.5618588924407959,
0.3368091285228729,
0.3021176755428314,
-0.004183798562735319,
-0.37177905440330505,
0.20038644969463348,
0.5686274766921997,
0.05717705935239792,
-0.17690955102443695,
0.866309642791748,
-0.06751222163438797,
0.5711958408355713,
0.031226547434926033,
-0.06918638944625854,
-0.1412663608789444,
-0.49246641993522644,
0.6032143831253052,
0.36629346013069153,
0.07773417234420776,
0.5540955066680908,
0.1477864682674408,
-0.1586739718914032,
-0.5196192860603333,
-1.097933053970337,
0.5574920177459717,
-0.530929684638977,
0.3007170855998993,
-0.4734881520271301,
-0.371898353099823,
-0.7648962736129761,
0.4017239511013031,
-0.5599894523620605,
0.1991284191608429,
-0.1038922443985939,
0.24825169146060944,
-0.41916078329086304,
0.2989439070224762,
0.229956716299057,
0.17053581774234772,
0.10597199201583862,
-0.27930188179016113,
0.45096534490585327,
0.3281947374343872,
-0.4155064821243286,
-0.2373207062482834,
-0.14224234223365784,
-0.1399184763431549,
0.052925799041986465,
0.2901478111743927,
0.12770970165729523,
0.1417846828699112,
0.07682866603136063,
0.17509517073631287,
0.28053009510040283,
-0.3541378080844879,
0.18768994510173798,
1.4482744932174683,
0.29034748673439026,
0.33102843165397644,
-0.9097732901573181,
-0.6390318274497986,
0.5319624543190002,
0.2681858539581299,
-0.22418902814388275,
0.11281371861696243,
-0.18547487258911133,
0.7769610285758972,
-0.0017725960351526737,
-0.3893061876296997,
0.21665506064891815,
-0.6946306824684143,
-0.16772377490997314,
-0.012414728291332722,
-0.23423439264297485,
0.8899123668670654,
-0.27024176716804504,
-0.35088881850242615,
0.5884522199630737,
0.29372328519821167,
0.14553454518318176,
0.12538041174411774,
-0.11048050969839096,
0.08280062675476074,
-0.055133428424596786,
-0.007683322299271822,
0.26346173882484436,
0.0907973125576973,
0.6192812323570251,
0.26367291808128357,
0.28970131278038025,
0.11724236607551575,
-0.7094406485557556,
0.2259184569120407,
0.7487449049949646,
-0.28676751255989075,
-0.6603484153747559,
-0.24596057832241058,
0.5387107133865356,
0.022234881296753883,
-0.20496614277362823,
1.4747215509414673,
-0.2198791205883026,
0.01946411095559597,
0.3665662705898285,
0.0354367159307003,
0.05632542073726654,
0.11646202206611633,
0.04511599242687225,
-0.17018628120422363,
-0.2793771028518677,
0.39971891045570374,
0.17213229835033417,
0.248643696308136,
-1.040204644203186,
0.15270963311195374,
-0.26654988527297974,
-0.39360862970352173,
-0.36287933588027954,
0.4805713891983032,
-0.20853622257709503,
0.3838762640953064,
-0.1482296586036682,
0.19773490726947784,
0.26818808913230896,
-0.319258451461792,
0.6045181155204773,
-0.2666780352592468,
0.43225207924842834,
-0.36497819423675537,
0.17768286168575287,
0.8359441757202148,
0.2908684015274048,
0.11615633219480515,
-0.24772773683071136,
-0.45492789149284363,
-0.05124082788825035,
-0.1613004356622696,
-0.12256638705730438,
0.44667088985443115,
0.4970354437828064,
-0.06918400526046753,
-0.04111289605498314,
0.09348433464765549,
-0.15292438864707947,
-0.015150745399296284,
-0.1341424137353897,
-0.5780020952224731,
-0.526831865310669,
-0.4941779375076294,
-0.11769495159387589,
0.7542327046394348,
0.6019341945648193,
-0.18929722905158997,
-0.1254512369632721,
0.4783782362937927,
-0.38307660818099976,
-0.09869681298732758,
0.06821788102388382,
-0.662792980670929,
-0.6282640099525452,
0.07032642513513565,
0.3997963070869446,
0.10522408038377762,
-0.07230853289365768,
-0.23717883229255676,
-0.30656713247299194,
0.5603339672088623,
-0.05579732730984688,
0.23472478985786438,
-0.19004254043102264,
-0.18407541513442993,
-0.26550161838531494,
-0.282931387424469,
0.12512077391147614,
0.0986076146364212,
0.2504984736442566,
0.1756962686777115,
0.014554282650351524,
-0.3660563826560974,
-0.23093515634536743,
0.1263228952884674,
0.0504118837416172,
-0.15343748033046722,
-0.03826436027884483,
0.23138990998268127,
-0.3110007345676422,
-0.4342113137245178,
-0.31570056080818176,
-5.635998249053955,
0.08139073103666306,
-0.4243577718734741,
-0.7520079016685486,
-0.07984508574008942,
0.08590243011713028,
0.3175961971282959,
-0.4920198321342468,
-0.13318094611167908,
0.04528972506523132,
-0.3831574618816376,
-0.3354083001613617,
0.014116380363702774,
0.21380195021629333,
0.41845664381980896,
0.07199446111917496,
0.3814148008823395,
0.07740267366170883,
0.5477181673049927,
0.2609577775001526,
0.36764195561408997,
-0.24409587681293488,
0.48054933547973633,
0.2623697817325592,
0.790102481842041,
0.8035901784896851,
-0.0856361836194992,
0.22239920496940613,
0.001081058639101684,
0.1376107931137085,
0.12813960015773773,
-0.01747305318713188,
-0.029173903167247772,
-0.05800403654575348,
0.8084934949874878,
-0.21097631752490997,
0.493694543838501,
0.3874988257884979,
0.3105371296405792,
0.05908849462866783,
-0.08529967069625854,
0.571457028388977,
0.4564882516860962,
-0.29603493213653564,
0.41137102246284485,
0.3264724612236023,
-0.4585053324699402,
-0.03765000402927399,
-0.7897484302520752,
0.5957361459732056,
0.23431754112243652,
-0.07205908000469208,
0.28490838408470154,
0.05462829768657684,
-0.6626870036125183,
-0.04385923221707344,
0.3116735517978668,
-0.6232994198799133,
-0.7715262770652771,
-0.31775718927383423,
0.07901390641927719,
-0.180977463722229,
-0.38664060831069946,
0.13597698509693146,
-0.5202652812004089,
-0.507896363735199,
-0.5206307768821716,
0.4250226318836212,
0.6900105476379395,
0.3067254424095154,
-0.24133944511413574,
0.4524539113044739,
-0.004002275876700878,
-0.9470071792602539,
0.16915087401866913,
-0.4300813674926758,
0.2985367178916931,
0.11276502162218094,
0.012670731171965599,
-0.06203707307577133,
-0.023336214944720268,
-0.2995039224624634,
0.15150971710681915,
0.30481910705566406,
0.3681735098361969,
-0.7000088691711426,
-0.22112667560577393,
0.6600765585899353,
-1.5345416069030762,
-0.8034729361534119,
0.2559826076030731,
-0.5961349010467529,
0.8666963577270508,
0.13457317650318146,
0.35941141843795776,
0.6997013688087463,
0.20571792125701904,
0.03633168712258339,
0.2876620888710022,
-0.1731320172548294,
-0.06261780112981796,
-0.06987474113702774,
0.0175542663782835,
-0.6996548175811768,
-0.6291077136993408,
-0.20052435994148254,
-0.959200918674469,
-0.16069680452346802,
0.012848922982811928,
-0.19925948977470398,
-0.6507310271263123,
-0.24383145570755005,
-0.39849981665611267,
-0.43916410207748413,
0.9229378700256348,
0.09863340109586716,
-0.45533517003059387,
0.09318286180496216,
-0.15673772990703583,
0.5468541979789734,
-0.05234444886445999,
0.2752799689769745,
-0.2606617510318756,
-0.12716934084892273,
-0.5819287300109863,
0.29213839769363403,
0.12306510657072067,
-0.3080357313156128,
0.08594118058681488,
0.2574702799320221,
-0.037571024149656296,
-0.4130975902080536,
-0.41415756940841675,
0.2612849771976471,
-0.03897186368703842,
0.08844549208879471,
-0.3958839774131775,
0.0710219070315361,
-0.32003751397132874,
0.2739260196685791,
-0.2536437213420868,
0.019636116921901703,
0.05339159816503525,
0.2475793957710266,
0.8710548281669617,
0.315673291683197,
0.00039565423503518105,
-0.05773598328232765,
-0.39088624715805054,
0.7292644381523132,
-0.19167152047157288,
-0.5760718584060669,
0.18665386736392975,
-0.5734967589378357,
-0.48683449625968933,
-0.4275117516517639,
0.21058115363121033,
0.7569595575332642,
-0.34331411123275757,
-0.10019955784082413,
-0.3827346861362457,
-0.6951974034309387,
-0.8161003589630127,
-0.10722235590219498,
0.1751674860715866,
0.14069794118404388,
-0.19646792113780975,
-0.17297859489917755,
-0.3788255453109741,
0.5876136422157288,
-0.16830842196941376,
-0.38111087679862976,
0.21366260945796967,
-0.183880016207695,
0.7721214294433594,
0.43197402358055115,
0.017702985554933548,
-0.6124119162559509,
-0.1550147384405136,
-0.2963096797466278,
0.20102770626544952,
-0.3727484941482544,
-0.5565308332443237,
0.46035459637641907,
0.6105306148529053,
-0.38796302676200867,
-0.13145725429058075,
-0.019085431471467018,
-0.12592993676662445,
0.21103298664093018,
1.0947858095169067,
0.12946878373622894,
0.26301804184913635,
-0.07236646115779877,
-0.8471692800521851,
-0.21202583611011505,
0.2361600697040558,
0.19617880880832672,
-0.1621217131614685,
-0.23567241430282593,
0.35623443126678467,
0.013248826377093792,
-0.5208362340927124,
-0.06094861030578613,
-0.1761673241853714,
-0.6770282983779907,
0.3743042051792145,
-0.30058935284614563,
-0.4834461510181427,
0.7044978737831116,
-0.16346922516822815,
-0.14465312659740448,
-0.16399416327476501,
-0.14394249022006989,
-0.39684998989105225,
-0.2150634080171585,
-0.028678283095359802,
-0.3033149838447571,
-0.5202014446258545,
-0.44677734375,
0.05218479782342911,
-0.048768144100904465,
-0.8400484919548035,
-0.38160189986228943,
-0.03214222937822342,
0.05218295007944107,
0.4620164930820465,
-0.18464551866054535,
-0.11395010352134705,
-0.5231112837791443,
-0.1798931062221527,
-0.3159649074077606,
-0.08802427351474762,
-0.05612040311098099,
-0.22531776130199432,
0.18055720627307892,
-0.48366227746009827,
-0.14851747453212738,
0.05870850384235382,
-0.02319122850894928,
-0.014359958469867706,
0.6864537596702576,
0.31132134795188904,
-0.34419214725494385,
-0.28603798151016235,
0.7137005925178528,
0.5982837080955505,
-0.19158123433589935,
-0.40795812010765076,
0.13057951629161835,
0.3508242964744568,
-0.4730258882045746,
-1.0276545286178589,
-0.2420520782470703,
0.7095484733581543,
-0.7838408946990967,
-0.006283020135015249,
0.6264041066169739,
-0.06255880743265152,
-0.044075608253479004,
-0.09869160503149033,
-0.3092529773712158,
-0.512679934501648,
0.5579335689544678,
0.13528265058994293,
0.46540385484695435,
0.4462178349494934,
0.044022783637046814,
0.2135416716337204,
-0.3261410593986511,
-0.2351335734128952,
-0.21240389347076416,
-0.07149096578359604,
0.0808865949511528,
-0.09720016270875931,
-0.15128092467784882,
-0.21908099949359894,
-0.3733185827732086,
0.0273040272295475,
0.25113222002983093,
-0.12476560473442078,
-0.302631676197052,
-0.2736288011074066,
-0.28536683320999146,
0.1972614973783493,
-0.3895551562309265,
0.055551014840602875,
0.18211957812309265,
-0.37199950218200684,
-0.27029067277908325,
0.03482811525464058,
-0.09001198410987854,
0.23145541548728943,
0.23418843746185303,
-0.3390589654445648,
-0.3356896936893463,
0.6452505588531494,
0.39448022842407227,
0.004119818564504385,
0.2617701292037964,
-0.29311954975128174,
0.37711101770401,
0.3365468382835388,
0.06726281344890594,
0.4378505051136017,
-0.46733254194259644,
-0.14907081425189972,
-0.12502503395080566,
-0.3009272515773773,
0.12874740362167358,
-0.0016734438249841332,
0.011291197501122952,
0.502835214138031,
0.5252084732055664,
-0.8734496831893921,
-0.2323697954416275,
0.48864731192588806,
-0.1248747855424881,
0.2070881575345993,
-0.062067363411188126,
0.08947547525167465,
0.2725519835948944,
-0.04267793148756027,
0.10743222385644913,
-0.6211361885070801,
0.3988710045814514,
-0.33439865708351135,
-0.05315012112259865,
0.007980450056493282,
-0.32475942373275757,
0.04390254244208336,
0.36947354674339294,
-0.28544288873672485,
-0.29724329710006714,
-0.4781211018562317,
-0.7767832279205322,
-0.2909446060657501,
-0.42785465717315674,
-0.734907865524292,
0.5828932523727417,
0.4236452281475067,
-0.4115172028541565,
0.592174232006073,
0.18140988051891327,
0.13390977680683136,
0.22313889861106873,
0.5686118006706238,
-0.11650058627128601,
0.3566073775291443,
0.22725822031497955,
0.4703141152858734,
0.35594791173934937,
0.47649797797203064,
-0.08051872998476028,
0.3597187399864197,
-0.7092605829238892,
0.21638967096805573,
0.08897057175636292,
0.1561487466096878,
-0.16065596044063568,
-0.5437995791435242,
0.8237006068229675,
0.2721152603626251,
-0.6024060249328613,
-0.017750214785337448,
0.2089063823223114,
0.7183605432510376,
-0.5947260856628418,
0.13759003579616547,
0.13838988542556763,
0.20844313502311707,
-0.25326481461524963,
-0.2597557008266449,
0.021338891237974167,
-0.06133274734020233,
0.08037769049406052,
1.0068689584732056,
0.007893739268183708,
0.5520061254501343,
0.5197758674621582,
0.007440303917974234,
0.4383561313152313,
-0.7226130962371826,
-0.2704894542694092,
0.17189733684062958,
0.26557302474975586,
-0.507117509841919,
-0.01715439185500145,
-0.03647856414318085,
-0.467305451631546,
0.3550458550453186,
-0.7601474523544312,
-0.47385725378990173,
0.5850773453712463,
-0.683104395866394,
0.207673579454422,
-0.17805439233779907,
0.9532672762870789,
0.07964254170656204,
0.35005828738212585,
0.07655546069145203,
-0.25337931513786316,
0.06691712886095047,
0.08758509159088135,
-0.5679760575294495,
0.19982486963272095,
-0.19358469545841217,
0.02110077254474163,
-0.9876734614372253,
0.39704281091690063,
0.38337668776512146,
0.3169425427913666,
0.14667893946170807,
1.3082619905471802,
-0.131353497505188,
0.011024451814591885,
0.6959627866744995,
-0.09516750276088715,
-0.4476965069770813,
0.14564114809036255,
0.378109872341156,
-0.013708841055631638,
-0.17245523631572723,
-0.49918556213378906,
-0.531316876411438,
-0.15718121826648712,
0.34764355421066284,
-0.2204401195049286,
0.13902214169502258,
0.013676811940968037,
-0.1701473742723465,
-0.32622018456459045,
-0.21668875217437744,
0.0219902191311121,
-0.21654145419597626,
0.7836667895317078,
0.22364751994609833,
0.6576699614524841,
0.450318306684494,
-0.6592419147491455,
0.39593586325645447,
-0.4279131293296814,
-0.17682932317256927,
-0.19080984592437744,
0.07823111116886139,
0.12654143571853638,
-0.09863915294408798,
-0.041645459830760956,
-0.266316294670105,
0.8399295210838318,
-0.2095550298690796,
0.19235561788082123,
-0.1727573275566101,
-0.4508958160877228,
0.20293016731739044,
-0.6166087985038757,
-0.4459207057952881,
-0.3038678467273712,
1.1440980434417725,
-0.2773037254810333
] |
206001
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy%20XII%20Auletes
|
Ptolemy XII Auletes
|
Ptolemy XII ( ; – 51 BC) was a Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, who ruled from 80 to 58 BC and then again from 55 BC until his death in 51 BC. He was commonly known as Auletes (, "the Flautist"), referring to his love of playing the flute in Dionysian festivals. As a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, he was a descendant of its founder, Ptolemy I.
Ptolemy XII was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX by an uncertain mother. In 116 BC Ptolemy IX's father Ptolemy VIII died, and he became co-regent with his mother Cleopatra III. However, he was forced into a civil war against his mother and his brother, Ptolemy X, leading to his exile in 107 BC. Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to Kos in 103 BC. They were captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus probably in 88 BC, around the time Ptolemy IX returned to the Egyptian throne. After their father died in 81 BC, Ptolemy XII's half-sister Berenice III took the throne. She was soon murdered by her cousin and co-regent, Ptolemy XI, who was then killed. At this point, Ptolemy XII was recalled from Pontus and proclaimed pharaoh. His brother, also named Ptolemy, became king of Cyprus.
By his wife Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII had at least one child, Berenice IV, and probably Cleopatra VII; his three youngest children Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII, and Ptolemy XIV were born to an unknown mother. Ptolemy XII's uncle Ptolemy X had left Egypt to Rome in the event there were no surviving heirs, making Roman annexation of Egypt a possibility. In an effort to prevent this, Ptolemy XII established an alliance with Rome late into his first reign. Rome annexed Cyprus in 58 BC, causing Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide.
Shortly afterwards, Ptolemy XII was deposed by the Egyptian people and fled to Rome, and his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, took the throne. With Roman funding and military assistance, Ptolemy XII recaptured Egypt and had Berenice IV killed in 55 BC. He named his daughter Cleopatra VII as his co-regent in 52 BC. He died the next year and was succeeded by Cleopatra and her brother, Ptolemy XIII, as joint rulers.
Background and early life
Ptolemy XII was the oldest son of Ptolemy IX Soter. The identity of his mother is uncertain. Ptolemy IX was married twice, to his sister Cleopatra IV from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to another sister Cleopatra Selene from 115 BC, until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. However, Cicero and other ancient sources refer to Ptolemy XII as an illegitimate son; Pompeius Trogus called him a "nothos" (bastard), while Pausanias wrote that Ptolemy IX had no legitimate sons at all. Some scholars have therefore proposed that his mother was a concubine – probably an Alexandrian Greek, but possibly a member of the Egyptian elite. However, Chris Bennett argues that Ptolemy XII's mother was Cleopatra IV and that he was considered illegitimate simply because she had never been co-regent. This theory is endorsed by the historian Adrian Goldsworthy.
The date of Ptolemy XII's birth is thus uncertain. If he was the son of Cleopatra IV, he was probably born around 117 BC and followed around a year later by a brother, known as Ptolemy of Cyprus. In 117 BC, Ptolemy IX was governor of Cyprus, but in 116 BC his father Ptolemy VIII died and he returned to Alexandria, becoming the junior co-regent of his grandmother Cleopatra II and his mother Cleopatra III. Cleopatra II died in 115 BC; shortly afterwards Cleopatra III forced Ptolemy IX to divorce Cleopatra IV, who fled into exile. The former Egyptian queen married the Seleucid king Antiochus IX, but she was murdered by his half-brother and rival Antiochus VIII in 112 BC. Ptolemy IX meanwhile had been remarried to Cleopatra Selene, with whom he had a daughter, Berenice III. By 109 BC, Ptolemy IX had begun the process of introducing Ptolemy XII to public life. In that year, Ptolemy XII served as the Priest of Alexander and Ptolemaic kings (an office which Ptolemy IX otherwise held himself throughout his reign) and had a festival established in his honour in Cyrene. Relations between Ptolemy IX and his mother deteriorated. In 107 BC she forced him to flee Alexandria for Cyprus and replaced him as co-regent with his younger brother Ptolemy X Alexander. Justin mentions that Ptolemy IX left two sons behind when he fled Alexandria. Chris Bennett argues that these sons should be identified as Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus.
Ptolemy IX made an attempt to reclaim the Ptolemaic throne in 103 BC, by invading Judaea. At the start of this war, Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to the island of Kos along with her treasure in order to protect them. There, Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus seem to have been captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus in 88 BC, at the outbreak of the First Mithridatic War. Ironically, their father had reclaimed the Egyptian throne around the same time. They were held by Mithridates as hostages until 80 BC. At some point during this period, probably in 81 or 80 BC, they were engaged to two of Mithridates' daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa. Meanwhile, Ptolemy IX died in December 81 BC and was succeeded by Berenice III. In April 80 BC, Ptolemy XI Alexander II, the son of Ptolemy X, was installed as her co-regent, promptly murdered her, and was himself killed by an angry Alexandrian mob. The Alexandrians then summoned Ptolemy XII to return to Egypt and assume the kingship; his brother became king of Cyprus, where he would reign until 58 BC.
First reign (80–58 BC)
On his arrival in Alexandria, in April 80 BC, Ptolemy XII was proclaimed king. His reign was officially dated as having begun on the death of his father in 81 BC, thereby eliding the reigns of Berenice III and Ptolemy X. Shortly after his accession, Ptolemy married one of his relatives, Cleopatra V. Her parentage is uncertain – modern scholarship often interprets her as a sister, but Christopher Bennett argues that she was a daughter of Ptolemy X. The couple became co-regents and they were incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult together as the Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi (Father-loving and Sibling-loving Gods). This title was probably meant to reinforce Ptolemy XII's claim to the throne in the face of claims that his parentage meant that he was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and therefore not entitled to rule.
In 76 BC, the High Priest of Ptah in Memphis died and Ptolemy XII travelled to Memphis to appoint his fourteen-year-old son, Pasherienptah III, as the new High Priest. In turn, Pasherienptah III crowned Ptolemy as Pharaoh and then went to Alexandria, where he was appointed as Ptolemy XII's 'prophet'. These encounters are described in detail on Pasherienptah's funerary stela, Stele BM 866, and they demonstrate the extremely close and mutually reinforcing relationship that had developed between the Ptolemaic kings and the Memphite priesthood by this date.
In August 69 BC, Cleopatra V ceases to be mentioned as co-regent. The images of her that had been carved on the main pylon of the Temple of Horus at Edfu were covered over at this time. The reason for this sudden shift is unknown, but presumably she was divorced at this time. Ptolemy adopted a new royal epithet Neos Dionysos (New Dionysus) at some time after this; Chris Bennett proposes that the epithet was linked to the break with Cleopatra.
Relations with Rome
When Ptolemy X had died in 88 BC, his will had left Egypt to Rome in the event that he had no surviving heirs. Although the Romans had not acted on this, the possibility that they might forced the following Ptolemies to adopt a careful and respectful policy towards Rome. Ptolemy XII continued this pro-Roman policy in order to protect himself and secure his dynasty's fate. Egypt came under increasing Roman pressure nevertheless. In 65 BC, the Roman censor, Marcus Licinius Crassus proposed that Rome annex Egypt. This proposal failed in the face of opposition from Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Cicero. In light of this crisis, however, Ptolemy XII began to expend significant resources on bribing Roman politicians to support his interests. In 63 BC, when Pompey was reorganising Syria and Anatolia following his victory in the Third Mithridatic War, Ptolemy sought to form a relationship with Pompey by sending him a golden crown. Ptolemy also provided pay and maintenance for 8,000 cavalry to Pompey for his war with Judaea. He also asked Pompey to come to Alexandria and help to put down a revolt which had apparently broken out in Egypt; Pompey refused.
The money required for these bribes was enormous. Initially, Ptolemy XII funded them by raising taxes. A strike by farmers of royal land in Herakleopolis which is attested in a papyrus document from 61/60 BC has been interpreted as a sign of widespread discontent with this taxation. Increasingly, Ptolemy XII also had recourse to loans from Roman bankers, such as Gaius Rabirius Postumus. This gave the Romans even more leverage over his regime and meant that the fate of Egypt became an increasingly immediate issue in Roman politics.
Finally, in 60 BC, Ptolemy XII travelled to Rome, where the First Triumvirate, composed of Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, had just taken power, in order to negotiate official recognition of his kingship. Ptolemy paid Pompey and Caesar six thousand talents – an enormous sum, equivalent to the total annual revenue of Egypt. In return, a formal alliance or foedus was formed. The Roman Senate recognised Ptolemy as king and Caesar passed a law that added Ptolemy to the list of friends and allies of the people of Rome (amici et socii populi Romani) in 59 BC.
In 58 BC, the Romans took control of Cyprus, causing its ruler, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide. Ptolemy XII took no action in response to his brother's death and Cyprus remained a Roman province until returned to Ptolemaic control by Julius Caesar in 48 BC.
Exile in Rome (58–55 BC)
The bribery policy had been unpopular in Egypt for a long time, both because of its obsequiousness and because of the heavy tax burden that it entailed, but the annexation of Cyprus demonstrated its failure and enraged the people of Alexandria. The courtiers in Alexandria forced Ptolemy to step down from the throne and leave Egypt. He was replaced by his daughter Berenice IV, who ruled jointly with Cleopatra Tryphaena (known to modern historians as Cleopatra VI), who was probably Ptolemy XII's former wife but may be an otherwise unattested daughter. Following Cleopatra Tryphaena's death a year later, Berenice ruled alone from 57 to 56 BC.
Probably taking his daughter Cleopatra VII with him, Ptolemy fled for the safety of Rome. On the way, he stopped in Rhodes where the exiled Cato the Younger offered him advice on how to approach the Roman aristocracy, but no tangible support. In Rome, Ptolemy XII prosecuted his restitution but met opposition from certain members of the Senate. His old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate. During this time, Roman creditors realized that they would not get the return on their loans to the king without his restoration. In 57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy. However, Rome did not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, since the Sibylline books stated that if an Egyptian king asked for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties would occur.
Egyptians heard rumours of Rome's possible intervention and disliked the idea of their exiled king's return. The Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration. Ptolemy seemingly had their leader Dio of Alexandria poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome.
Restoration and second reign (55–51 BC)
In 55 BC, Ptolemy paid Aulus Gabinius 10,000 talents to invade Egypt and so recovered his throne. Gabinius defeated the Egyptian frontier forces, marched to Alexandria, and attacked the palace, where the palace guards surrendered without fighting. The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration was 4 January 55 BC and the latest possible date was 24 June the same year. Upon regaining power, Ptolemy acted against Berenice, and along with her supporters, she was executed. Ptolemy XII maintained his grip on power in Alexandria with the assistance of around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, known as the Gabiniani. This arrangement enabled Rome to exert power over Ptolemy, who ruled until he fell ill in 51 BC. On 31 May 52 BC his daughter Cleopatra VII was named as his coregent.
At the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration, Roman creditors demanded the repayment of their loans, but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt. Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifted popular resentment of tax increases from himself to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus, whom he appointed dioiketes (minister of finance), and so in charge of debt repayment. Perhaps Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now had direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploited the land too much. The king had to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then allowed him to escape. Rabirius immediately left Egypt and went back to Rome at the end of 54 BC. There he was accused de repetundis, but defended by Cicero and probably acquitted. Ptolemy also permitted a debasing of the coinage as an attempt to repay the loans. Near the end of Ptolemy's reign, the value of Egyptian coinage dropped to about fifty per cent of its value at the beginning of his first reign.
Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC. His will stipulated that Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII should rule Egypt together. To safeguard his interests, he made the people of Rome executors of his will. Since the Senate was busy with its own affairs, his ally Pompey approved the will.
Assessments
Generally, descriptions of Ptolemy XII portray him as weak and self-indulgent, drunk, or a lover of music. According to Strabo, his practice of playing the flute earned him the ridiculing sobriquet Auletes ('flute player'):
According to the author Mary Siani-Davies:
Marriage and issue
Ptolemy married his sister Cleopatra V Tryphaena who was with certainty the mother of his eldest known child, Berenice IV. Cleopatra V disappears from court records a few months after the birth of Ptolemy's second known child, and probably hers, Cleopatra VII in 69 BC. The identity of the mother of the last three of Ptolemy's children, in birth order Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, and Ptolemy XIV Philopator, is also uncertain. One hypothesis contends that possibly they (and perhaps Cleopatra VII) were Ptolemy XII's children with a theoretical half Macedonian Greek, half Egyptian woman belonging to a priestly family from Memphis in northern Egypt, but this is only speculation.
The philosopher Porphyry (c. 234 – c. 305 AD) wrote of Ptolemy XII's daughter Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, who reigned alongside her sister Berenice. The Greek historian Strabo (c. 63 BC – c. AD 24) stated that the king had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to as Berenice IV. This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena mentioned by Porphyry may not have been Ptolemy's daughter, but his wife. Many experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V.
References
Notes
Primary sources
Cassius Dio 39.12 – 39.14, 39.55 – 39.58
Strabo 12.3.34 and 17.1.11
Secondary sources
(in German)
(in Greek and German)
External links
Ptolemy XII by Christopher Bennett (part of his Egyptian Royal Genealogy)
Ptolemy XII Auletes from the online Encyclopædia Britannica
Strabo The Geography in English translation, ed. H. L. Jones (1924), at LacusCurtius (Bill Thayer's Web Site)
Cassius Dio Roman History in English translation by Cary (1914–1927), at LacusCurtius (Bill Thayer's Web Site)
The House of Ptolemy, Chapter XII by E. R. Bevan (Bill Thayer's Web Site)
Ptolemy XII Auletes (ca. 112 - 51 BCE) entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
2nd-century BC births
51 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Egyptian people
1st-century BC Egyptian people
1st-century BC Pharaohs
1st-century BC rulers in Africa
Cleopatra
Flautists
Hellenistic Cyprus
Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty
|
[
-0.1240430399775505,
0.04927781969308853,
-0.17214030027389526,
0.29718640446662903,
-0.12955746054649353,
0.550887405872345,
0.23300236463546753,
0.41268041729927063,
-0.3984069228172302,
-0.4647792875766754,
-0.16053245961666107,
-0.25317880511283875,
-0.8190485239028931,
0.14130616188049316,
0.5224999189376831,
0.4567824900150299,
0.013710200786590576,
-0.009578654542565346,
-0.9139432311058044,
-0.40735045075416565,
0.20624735951423645,
-0.1521788090467453,
0.5202593207359314,
0.027697568759322166,
-0.22210173308849335,
-0.08701804280281067,
0.04064502939581871,
-0.25158190727233887,
0.12663784623146057,
-0.37201112508773804,
-0.007749582640826702,
0.01758369244635105,
0.06505004316568375,
-0.5354728102684021,
-0.603033185005188,
-0.17688670754432678,
-0.057313110679388046,
0.14140941202640533,
0.1590852439403534,
-0.09809260815382004,
-0.043619707226753235,
0.08071722835302353,
0.036348067224025726,
-0.035287365317344666,
-0.4921894669532776,
-0.5064823031425476,
-1.154478907585144,
0.4048120975494385,
-0.08591485023498535,
-0.40593597292900085,
-0.11858859658241272,
-0.0017326948000118136,
-0.4640960097312927,
0.905336856842041,
0.02398907020688057,
0.5123759508132935,
-0.5833829045295715,
-0.3354066014289856,
-0.10804036259651184,
0.6337969899177551,
0.8078643679618835,
0.17096266150474548,
-0.08585507422685623,
0.45059317350387573,
0.11490561068058014,
0.27532464265823364,
-0.025866622105240822,
0.7031940817832947,
-0.11283236742019653,
-0.09479977190494537,
-0.30525797605514526,
0.6835686564445496,
-0.3181802034378052,
0.4009571671485901,
0.06331164389848709,
-0.21101781725883484,
-0.10349752008914948,
-0.15811695158481598,
0.6571565866470337,
0.286838561296463,
-0.37786272168159485,
-0.39605259895324707,
0.7333794832229614,
0.31922242045402527,
-0.17300407588481903,
0.07788368314504623,
0.06448080390691757,
0.338638037443161,
-0.1649274379014969,
-0.6518681049346924,
0.07156629115343094,
-0.5603556036949158,
0.910991907119751,
-0.10300509631633759,
-0.31825652718544006,
0.26740190386772156,
-0.44309139251708984,
-0.032731227576732635,
0.127042755484581,
-0.7163926959037781,
0.023038053885102272,
0.49821752309799194,
-0.5082668662071228,
-0.5452151894569397,
-0.613125741481781,
0.12316931784152985,
0.5216132402420044,
-0.5477958917617798,
-0.4459247291088104,
0.18700483441352844,
-0.7620963454246521,
0.6311333179473877,
0.19841480255126953,
-0.262189656496048,
-0.04592318832874298,
0.33646082878112793,
0.34579628705978394,
-0.5303201675415039,
-0.19935370981693268,
-0.05762273445725441,
0.08138545602560043,
0.007642286363989115,
0.12643682956695557,
0.2920152544975281,
-0.28871604800224304,
-0.08395567536354065,
0.45400694012641907,
-0.07897200435400009,
-0.20405623316764832,
0.13509289920330048,
0.7390949726104736,
0.4298619329929352,
-0.6902103424072266,
0.3497862219810486,
0.1280861496925354,
-0.06327556073665619,
-0.29788172245025635,
0.4407665729522705,
-0.017926108092069626,
-0.263058066368103,
-0.5868369936943054,
0.04017389938235283,
-0.14054827392101288,
0.4996943175792694,
-0.2338271290063858,
0.11134173721075058,
0.7156895399093628,
-0.1500023603439331,
-0.08913638442754745,
-0.3298945724964142,
0.17990517616271973,
-0.20976512134075165,
0.5219942927360535,
-0.41658833622932434,
-0.23620536923408508,
0.057566870003938675,
0.5508829951286316,
0.5368490815162659,
0.1397755742073059,
0.01850046217441559,
0.2824650704860687,
0.4179936647415161,
-0.5283312201499939,
-0.43916231393814087,
0.4445342421531677,
0.08573848754167557,
0.5947557091712952,
-0.24654045701026917,
0.32220861315727234,
-0.06728407740592957,
-0.46809354424476624,
0.11481455713510513,
0.4118763208389282,
-0.057056959718465805,
-0.05175940319895744,
0.3277010917663574,
0.9582929015159607,
0.4110254943370819,
0.26217758655548096,
-0.8218411803245544,
-0.4733610153198242,
-0.39898133277893066,
-0.3519979417324066,
-0.31854572892189026,
1.072690486907959,
0.11914116144180298,
0.23717202246189117,
-0.506078839302063,
0.3526535630226135,
-0.16614185273647308,
-0.2554318606853485,
-0.18855077028274536,
-0.01094615738838911,
-0.2585618495941162,
0.97355055809021,
0.10732876509428024,
-0.7002248764038086,
0.20189300179481506,
0.020003102719783783,
0.48749399185180664,
-0.6814169883728027,
0.14147433638572693,
0.31974056363105774,
0.3301847577095032,
-0.07308125495910645,
0.24105103313922882,
-0.5045080184936523,
-0.14669746160507202,
0.011492918245494366,
0.9465397000312805,
0.11916355043649673,
-0.3811378479003906,
0.058359578251838684,
-0.06299487501382828,
-0.28561094403266907,
0.2627597749233246,
-0.44291558861732483,
0.29121124744415283,
-0.3349895775318146,
0.29926353693008423,
0.47560930252075195,
-0.2534884810447693,
-0.3354497253894806,
0.4438791573047638,
-0.5837262868881226,
0.404827356338501,
0.24105554819107056,
-0.689264714717865,
-0.46949875354766846,
-0.4670870304107666,
-0.8271107077598572,
-0.16498462855815887,
0.4998064339160919,
0.19775894284248352,
-0.07362394034862518,
-0.15704861283302307,
-0.04752284660935402,
-0.8950880169868469,
0.17375405132770538,
-0.3649942874908447,
0.314886212348938,
0.4026288688182831,
-0.20235657691955566,
0.15740345418453217,
0.12654522061347961,
0.8910405039787292,
-0.24556206166744232,
-0.11744392663240433,
0.04667837545275688,
0.3359740376472473,
-0.42400074005126953,
0.3186275362968445,
0.30895841121673584,
-0.14070741832256317,
0.19070860743522644,
-0.12724140286445618,
0.28466516733169556,
0.11539440602064133,
0.5298320055007935,
-0.3635574281215668,
-0.21131488680839539,
-0.11234600096940994,
0.1700594127178192,
0.06652092188596725,
0.5308753252029419,
-0.2852802276611328,
-0.24657146632671356,
-0.17746995389461517,
0.06942589581012726,
-0.29510998725891113,
0.7782407402992249,
-0.1780470460653305,
-0.39875251054763794,
-0.21496888995170593,
0.5769824981689453,
-0.3134218752384186,
-0.5750681161880493,
0.3606151342391968,
-0.01870878040790558,
-0.8425568342208862,
0.02998087927699089,
0.6619155406951904,
-0.31282296776771545,
0.40304410457611084,
-0.5423011183738708,
0.3744457960128784,
-0.13597145676612854,
-0.1215173527598381,
0.4996752440929413,
-0.49526047706604004,
0.3507043719291687,
0.26108065247535706,
-0.33731138706207275,
0.04861084744334221,
-0.055376309901475906,
0.5701673626899719,
-0.2793108820915222,
-0.2585385739803314,
0.6869329214096069,
-0.3457009494304657,
-0.5340897440910339,
0.23548488318920135,
-0.14523229002952576,
0.08063583076000214,
0.7630922794342041,
-0.22976385056972504,
0.2691885828971863,
0.19064085185527802,
-5.769778728485107,
-0.22759923338890076,
-0.024634497240185738,
0.31252363324165344,
0.23911114037036896,
0.4674113690853119,
0.4048202335834503,
0.0844334065914154,
0.39263632893562317,
-0.3015010356903076,
0.3636038899421692,
-0.2733614146709442,
-0.16614072024822235,
0.8449618816375732,
0.6879947185516357,
0.5965558290481567,
0.5867995023727417,
-0.25942671298980713,
0.15105262398719788,
0.17353583872318268,
0.29594776034355164,
0.26590922474861145,
-0.30808332562446594,
-0.038436997681856155,
0.1419687420129776,
-0.17149624228477478,
-0.08425299823284149,
0.08283626288175583,
-0.937747061252594,
-0.2979300916194916,
-0.4238344728946686,
-0.27523913979530334,
0.17252904176712036,
0.11844520270824432,
-0.06534066051244736,
-0.2848185896873474,
0.49360427260398865,
-0.05168692395091057,
0.2265940010547638,
0.4070779085159302,
-0.17115336656570435,
-0.2371961921453476,
-0.42441844940185547,
0.5727152824401855,
0.030268630012869835,
-0.405362606048584,
-0.4352682828903198,
0.3895813226699829,
0.07031127065420151,
0.06300467997789383,
0.13792695105075836,
0.3128674030303955,
-0.4911455512046814,
0.04343781992793083,
-0.2049700766801834,
0.4292917847633362,
-0.5278644561767578,
0.8995977640151978,
-0.6785000562667847,
0.3077869117259979,
0.8750817775726318,
-0.2085651308298111,
-0.09628981351852417,
-0.16337035596370697,
0.3307242691516876,
-0.11498220264911652,
-0.10840890556573868,
-0.5012333393096924,
-0.10707555711269379,
0.30565345287323,
-0.28804880380630493,
0.7397279143333435,
-0.06801959127187729,
-0.859162449836731,
0.4065000116825104,
-0.5190585851669312,
-0.2441185861825943,
-0.021378695964813232,
-0.28365015983581543,
-0.5271983742713928,
-0.3337171971797943,
-0.697145402431488,
0.3554116189479828,
0.7488779425621033,
-0.013069722801446915,
0.12068971991539001,
0.29741498827934265,
0.44712725281715393,
0.07393176108598709,
-0.015565947629511356,
0.4444446265697479,
-0.6413089632987976,
0.06349857151508331,
0.6400991678237915,
-0.1423051357269287,
0.4651174545288086,
-0.30598101019859314,
0.071260005235672,
0.6996076703071594,
0.7676135301589966,
-0.4045102000236511,
0.05307264253497124,
-0.35877352952957153,
-0.21227824687957764,
-0.5532137751579285,
-0.09956809878349304,
-0.1119731068611145,
-0.27667510509490967,
0.32849782705307007,
0.02582867071032524,
0.21866196393966675,
0.35629573464393616,
-0.4627642333507538,
0.04384465888142586,
0.41653507947921753,
-0.3343590795993805,
0.4188025891780853,
0.20049338042736053,
0.6765469312667847,
0.3446540832519531,
-0.44887575507164,
0.597675621509552,
-0.2470407336950302,
-0.7444129586219788,
-0.254996657371521,
-0.16463610529899597,
0.18559885025024414,
-0.022743210196495056,
0.02996118925511837,
-0.09098402410745621,
-0.044896047562360764,
-0.23781026899814606,
0.09567581862211227,
-0.35406580567359924,
0.33384546637535095,
-0.558344841003418,
0.05670884996652603,
-0.28208234906196594,
-0.2156243473291397,
0.0016856888541951776,
-0.7687502503395081,
-0.1845429539680481,
-0.27723535895347595,
0.6155230402946472,
-0.18065603077411652,
-0.2062738984823227,
0.24511711299419403,
0.016237901523709297,
-0.00784082617610693,
0.30581656098365784,
-0.42217814922332764,
-0.21419396996498108,
0.9990666508674622,
-0.05489521473646164,
-0.23518098890781403,
0.0009315019124187529,
0.06066529080271721,
-0.32053208351135254,
0.1301228553056717,
-0.2832809388637543,
-0.45867782831192017,
-0.7353955507278442,
-1.2288089990615845,
-0.16135990619659424,
0.15912045538425446,
0.6381505727767944,
-0.06286200135946274,
-1.0609065294265747,
0.04916008189320564,
0.6437006592750549,
0.47352051734924316,
-0.11142238974571228,
0.006048091687262058,
-0.2512904107570648,
-0.008372620679438114,
0.0776914581656456,
-0.31615149974823,
-0.24551814794540405,
-0.14289425313472748,
-0.36724281311035156,
-0.24680237472057343,
0.4355471730232239,
-0.21027527749538422,
-0.20164848864078522,
0.23261846601963043,
0.09977269172668457,
-0.597687304019928,
-0.8135122656822205,
-0.3755657374858856,
0.2132374495267868,
-0.4474022686481476,
0.06081776320934296,
-0.43024763464927673,
0.25726574659347534,
-0.2431718409061432,
0.11001811921596527,
0.1706046313047409,
0.047020357102155685,
-0.20582988858222961,
0.13245761394500732,
-0.3587191104888916,
0.07923630625009537,
0.31009888648986816,
0.07270701974630356,
-0.4218684136867523,
-0.7331998944282532,
-0.07761363685131073,
-0.24409927427768707,
0.058589592576026917,
0.47712114453315735,
-0.14255917072296143,
-0.09949538856744766,
-0.21847893297672272,
0.2975662350654602,
-0.198342964053154,
0.6104003190994263,
-0.49487051367759705,
0.3241384029388428,
0.06761974841356277,
-0.52586829662323,
-0.5812699794769287,
-0.30008071660995483,
-0.46795567870140076,
-0.16722899675369263,
-0.3056487441062927,
-0.16965734958648682,
0.6822161674499512,
-0.43062537908554077,
0.36837220191955566,
-0.23720668256282806,
0.53907710313797,
0.19084882736206055,
-0.13411100208759308,
-0.24185682833194733,
-0.41233956813812256,
-0.24716609716415405,
0.9360468983650208,
0.19953925907611847,
-0.26881226897239685,
0.02456081472337246,
-0.1269504725933075,
0.2538101375102997,
0.29088884592056274,
-0.10949264466762543,
0.48557424545288086,
-0.07504598051309586,
0.5280412435531616,
-0.5824667811393738,
0.07799743115901947,
-0.2693462073802948,
0.18444232642650604,
-0.4316193759441376,
-0.6203582286834717,
-0.612338662147522,
0.8144398331642151,
-0.042143601924180984,
-0.04144067317247391,
-0.3297261595726013,
0.21076512336730957,
0.3398876190185547,
-0.1163959875702858,
0.12299757450819016,
-0.2162163406610489,
-0.34927836060523987,
-0.11963716894388199,
-0.01613672450184822,
0.3194550573825836,
0.23654508590698242,
0.11002042144536972,
-0.24339669942855835,
-0.7453660368919373,
-0.8059266209602356,
-0.1899900585412979,
0.26734504103660583,
0.1807747781276703,
-0.12970459461212158,
-0.10314486920833588,
-0.23969975113868713,
0.849977970123291,
-0.30129286646842957,
-1.181186556816101,
0.0586230531334877,
0.37121492624282837,
0.4467528164386749,
0.27562466263771057,
-0.6400935053825378,
-0.5151726603507996,
0.33877402544021606,
0.10287546366453171,
0.4340223968029022,
-0.33827805519104004,
0.7268821001052856,
-0.5035092830657959,
-0.48491770029067993,
-0.15549197793006897,
0.013526766560971737,
-0.5513315200805664,
0.42397361993789673,
0.18498490750789642,
-0.1344323754310608,
-0.6142306923866272,
0.2625831067562103,
0.9519115090370178,
0.04177459701895714,
-0.7862693071365356,
0.3312723934650421,
0.04469569772481918,
0.15768006443977356,
-0.6143214106559753,
0.7652503252029419,
0.34691449999809265,
-0.3369235694408417,
0.5175889134407043,
-0.24516534805297852,
-0.7688450217247009,
-0.05503123626112938,
0.79659503698349,
-0.05727021396160126,
0.20645399391651154,
0.038632094860076904,
0.3901364505290985,
0.6162969470024109,
0.12455523759126663,
-0.05594530329108238,
-0.3300071358680725,
0.1363193243741989,
-0.3661133348941803,
0.5411688685417175,
0.023155977949500084,
0.35072970390319824,
-0.023757848888635635,
-0.35528984665870667,
-0.5473363995552063,
0.7195403575897217,
0.12208639830350876,
-0.0989672988653183,
-0.1316017508506775,
-0.6876254677772522,
0.5993598699569702,
0.6530736088752747,
0.7922703623771667,
1.0316901206970215,
-0.22300782799720764,
0.06609757989645004,
-0.12074674665927887,
0.7668406963348389,
-0.08457376062870026,
-0.8415444493293762,
0.06958325207233429,
-0.09208693355321884,
0.3230583667755127,
-0.08453422039747238,
-0.10464418679475784,
-0.5929100513458252,
-0.27141430974006653,
0.45091280341148376,
0.29567694664001465,
0.1978243589401245,
-0.23544326424598694,
0.09938616305589676,
0.32871147990226746,
-0.12050489336252213,
0.6321929693222046,
-0.22832167148590088,
-0.2003214806318283,
0.01271086372435093,
0.2853930592536926,
-0.6857461929321289,
0.2273666113615036,
-0.038990531116724014,
0.1427651345729828,
-0.12422820180654526,
-0.36122578382492065,
0.14858101308345795,
0.17638176679611206,
0.013200990855693817,
0.37849727272987366,
0.27080681920051575,
-0.5984496474266052,
0.18314100801944733,
-0.4167797267436981,
-0.30173417925834656,
-0.09414906054735184,
-0.14769089221954346,
0.0957619696855545,
0.2456636279821396,
0.30728402733802795,
-0.0652267336845398,
-0.3124300241470337,
0.029666174203157425,
0.6735048294067383,
-0.24247239530086517,
-0.21640419960021973,
0.19115589559078217,
-0.09521424025297165,
0.45056864619255066,
-0.12488989531993866,
0.5791938304901123,
-0.17471900582313538,
-0.21549685299396515,
0.39932796359062195,
-0.43112969398498535,
0.2764863073825836,
0.09975837171077728,
0.3915950059890747,
-0.06107642501592636,
0.30117812752723694,
-0.15121351182460785,
-0.4053894281387329,
0.2044190913438797,
0.0064438823610544205,
0.6582805514335632,
-0.22113820910453796,
0.23750901222229004,
0.3921511769294739,
-0.2806800901889801,
0.11482842266559601,
-0.706124484539032,
-0.28702566027641296,
0.21905454993247986,
-0.022189872339367867,
-0.09899859130382538,
-0.12135138362646103,
0.5722307562828064,
-0.2155960351228714,
0.23519490659236908,
0.42470845580101013,
-0.2818014621734619,
0.15293550491333008,
1.1135649681091309,
-0.11224242299795151,
-0.4977491497993469,
-0.6040908098220825,
-0.5132265686988831,
-0.1139826849102974,
-0.5029501914978027,
0.47206926345825195,
0.17216607928276062,
0.502436637878418,
-0.5899019241333008,
-0.07518415153026581,
-0.010938246734440327,
0.17229147255420685,
-0.23410098254680634,
0.07416148483753204,
0.21884319186210632,
-0.2876385748386383,
-0.33868610858917236,
-0.20507921278476715,
0.7162878513336182,
-0.031545575708150864,
0.570995569229126,
0.184724822640419,
-0.32486775517463684,
0.2968708872795105,
-0.13423098623752594,
0.5512111186981201,
-0.6289997100830078,
0.6928210854530334,
0.2887241244316101
] |
206004
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%20in%20World%20War%20II
|
Egypt in World War II
|
Egypt was a major battlefield in the North African campaign during the Second World War, being the location of the First and Second Battles of El Alamein. Legally an independent kingdom, and an equal sovereign power in the condominium of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in reality Egypt was heavily under the coercive influence of the United Kingdom, a state of affairs that had persisted since the United Kingdom intervened militarily in the Orabi Revolt in favour of Egypt's Khedive, Tewfik Pasha, in 1882, subsequently occupying the country. The continuing British dominance of Egyptian affairs, including British efforts to exclude Egypt from the governance of Sudan, provoked fierce Egyptian nationalist opposition to the United Kingdom. Consequently, despite playing host to thousands of British troops following the outbreak of the conflict, as it was treaty bound to do, Egypt remained formally neutral during the war, only declaring war on the Axis powers in the spring of 1945. Though escaping the fate of Iraq, and Iran, both of whose governments were toppled by the United Kingdom during the war (the latter in conjunction with the Soviet Union), Egypt experienced the Abdeen Palace Incident, a confrontation between Egypt's King Farouk and the British military in 1942, the results of which would contribute directly to the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 a decade later.
Background
History of British influence
For most of the 19th century, though nominally a self-governing vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty was a virtually independent state, with ever-increasing territorial possessions in East Africa, chiefly Sudan. Though Egypt embraced French cultural influence throughout the reign of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, with the French language becoming second only to Arabic as a lingua franca in Egypt, it was ultimately the United Kingdom that would become the dominant foreign power in Egypt and Sudan. In 1875, facing an economic emergency caused in large measure by his grand modernisation plans, Egypt's Khedive, Isma'il the Magnificent, sold to the British government Egypt's shares in the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez, the company established by Egypt to hold the 99 year lease to manage the Suez Canal. Seen by the United Kingdom as a vital connection to its maritime empire, particularly in India, British control of the Canal was the foundation for British control over Egypt as a whole. Four years later in 1879, the United Kingdom along with the other Great Powers deposed and exiled Isma'il, replacing him with his pliant son Tewfik.
Tewfik was seen by nationalist Egyptians as a puppet of the foreign powers who had installed him on the khedival throne, and his repressive policies, including reversing the progressive reforms of his father, immediately alienated him from Egyptians, especially in the Egyptian military. In 1881, a nationalist revolt led by Ahmed Orabi erupted against Tewfik. Orabi denounced the Khedive, and the perceived injustices of the economic conditions that had been imposed upon Egypt by the Great Powers following the removal of Isma'il. Viewing Orabi and the revolutionaries as a potential threat to British control of the Suez Canal, the United Kingdom acceded to Tewfik's call for aid, and a British expeditionary force was dispatched to Egypt in 1882, successfully crushing the revolt, and exiling Orabi. The United Kingdom declared its commitment to withdrawing its forces once the authority of the Khedive had been restored, however, in reality Egypt was now under de facto British control. From 1882 until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Egypt's legal status as a self-governing vassal state of the Ottoman Empire continued unchanged, yet in reality it was administered as what became known as a veiled protectorate of the United Kingdom. Upon the Ottoman Empire's entry into the First World War on the side of the Central Powers, the legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty over Egypt was terminated, and the Sultanate of Egypt that had been destroyed by the Ottomans in 1517 was re-established. This nominal change in status was, however, little more than symbolic, as the United Kingdom declared Egypt to be a protectorate rather than an independent state, with British control of the country continuing unchanged. Eight years later in 1922, following the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, and increasing nationalist Egyptian pressure, the United Kingdom formally recognised Egypt as an independent state. However, the legal instrument by which this recognition was made by the United Kingdom was purposefully issued unilaterally without the consent of the Egyptian government so as to enable the United Kingdom to reserve for itself specific powers in Egypt regarding foreign policy, the deployment of British military personnel, and the administration of Sudan. This provided the United Kingdom with the basis to continue to dominate Egypt and Sudan politically and economically, and fostered increased Egyptian nationalist opposition in the lead up to the Second World War.
King Farouk of Egypt
The teenage Farouk acceded to the throne of Egypt and Sudan upon the death of his father, King Fuad I, in 1936. Achieving his majority shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War, King Farouk was keen for Egypt to remain neutral in the conflict. Though having been partially educated in the United Kingdom, Farouk's sympathies lay with the Egyptian nationalists who opposed the United Kingdom's continued dominance of Egyptian and Sudanese affairs. Moreover, once the war began, the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, signed when Farouk had just become King and was still in his minority, compelled Egypt to permit the United Kingdom to station its troops on Egyptian territory. The return of British soldiers to Egyptian streets merely a handful of years after they had been removed or relocated to the Suez Canal Zone, increased the already powerful opposition in Egypt to the United Kingdom. Another focus of grievance between the King and the United Kingdom was the British insistence that Farouk expel or intern Italians in Egypt, including those Italians in the service of the King. An unconfirmed story assets that Farouk told the United Kingdom's Ambassador, Sir Miles Lampson: "I'll get rid of my Italians when you get rid of yours". This remark was a reference to the ambassador's Italian wife.
By February 1942, following successful German involvement in the North African campaign, there was increasing British fear about British ability to secure the Suez Canal from German attack. The United Kingdom was keen for King Farouk to appoint a Prime Minister sympathetic to the British position. Farouk, however, refused to concede to British pressure, and insisted that the issue of the appointment of Egypt's Prime Minister was a matter of national sovereignty. The stand off resulted in the Abdeen Palace Incident. On the night of 4 February 1942, British soldiers and tanks surrounded King Farouk's palace in Alexandria to compel the King to dismiss Prime Minister Hussein Sirri Pasha in favour of Mostafa El-Nahas, whom the United Kingdom government felt would be more sympathetetic to their war effort against the Axis. The British Ambassador, Miles Lampson, marched into the palace, and threatened the King with the bombardment of his palace, his removal as King, and his exile from Egypt unless he conceded to the British demands. Mohamed Naguib, a distinguished military officer and one of the future leaders of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, appealed to Farouk to resist the British, and pledged loyal officers to defend the palace. Ultimately, however, facing the certainty of defeat, the 22 year old King capitulated, and appointed Nahas.
The incident was seen a personal humiliation for Farouk, and a national humiliation for Egypt. Gamal Abdel Nasser, then a young military officer who would later lead the Revolution of 1952 with Mohamed Naguib, declared the incident as a blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty, and wrote: "I am ashamed that our army has not reacted against this attack", and wished for "calamity" to overtake the British.
Italian invasion
The Italian invasion of Egypt began as a limited tactical operation towards Mersa Matruh, rather than for the strategic objectives sketched in Rome, due to the chronic lack of transport, fuel and wireless equipment, even with transfers from the 5th Army. Musaid was subjected to a "spectacular" artillery bombardment at dawn and occupied. The British withdrew past Buq Buq on 14 September but continued to harass the Italian advance. The British continued to fall back, going to Alam Hamid on the 15th and Alam el Dab on the 16th. An Italian force of fifty tanks attempted a flanking move, which led the British rearguard to retire east of Sidi Barrani. Graziani halted the advance.
Despite prodding from Mussolini, the Italians dug in around Sidi Barrani and Sofafi, about west of the British defences at Mersa Matruh. The British anticipated that the Italian advance would stop at Sidi Barrani and Sofafi and began to observe the positions. British naval and air operations continued to harass the Italian army as the 7th Armoured Division prepared to confront an advance on Matruh.
Italian defeat
Selby Force guarded the eastern approaches to Sidi Barrani, as the rest of the WDF attacked the fortified camps further inland. On 10 December, the 4th Armoured Brigade, which had been screening the attackers from a possible Italian counter-attack from the west, advanced northwards, cut the coast road between Sidi Barrani and Buq Buq, and sent armoured car patrols westwards. The 7th Armoured Brigade remained in reserve, and the 7th Support Group blocked an approach from Rabia and Sofafi to the south.
The 16th Brigade, supported by a squadron of Matilda II tanks, RAF aircraft, Royal Navy ships, and artillery fire, started its advance at . The fighting continued for many hours, without substantial gains, until when the Blackshirts holding two strongholds on the western side suddenly surrendered. The brigade continued advancing with the last of the Infantry tanks, an extra infantry battalion, and support from the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment.
The second attack began just after . Italian artillery opened fire on the infantry as they were dismounting. The last ten Matildas drove into the western face of the Sidi Barrani defences, and although they were met by Italian artillery, it was ineffective. At 6 p.m., approximately surrendered. In two hours, the first objectives had been captured; only a sector east of the harbour, held by a Blackshirt legion and the remains of the 1st Libyan Division, was still resisting. The British continued advancing until they reached Mersa Brega by February, 1941.
German intervention
Adolf Hitler sent his army to North Africa starting in February 1941 (see Operation Sonnenblume). Nazi Germany's General Erwin Rommel's Deutsches Afrikakorps coming from victories at Tobruk in Libya, and in a classic blitzkrieg, comprehensively outfought British forces. Within weeks the British had been pushed back into Egypt.
German defeat
Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway halt of El Alamein, just 150 miles from Cairo. In July 1942, the First Battle of El Alamein was lost by Rommel because he was suffering from the eternal curse of the desert war: long supply lines. The British, with their backs against the wall, were very close to their supplies, and had fresh troops on hand. In early September 1942, Rommel tried again to break through the British lines during the Battle of Alam el Halfa. He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived British commander, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery.
With British forces from Malta interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert, Rommel could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle from late October to early November 1942, the Second Battle of El Alamein, to defeat the Germans forcing them to retreat westwards towards Libya and Tunisia.
Egyptian participation
Although Egypt was part of the British Military Operations zone and British forces were stationed there, many Egyptian Army units also fought alongside them. Some units like 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Infantry Regiments, 16th and 12th Cavalry Regiments, 17th Horse Artillery Regiment, and 22nd King's Own Artillery Regiment. Some other units also fought but its names are unknown. Beside these units, the Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiments all over Egypt played a vital role in destroying Luftwaffe attacks on Alexandria, Cairo, Suez, and Northern Delta.
Allied victory
The leadership of the United Kingdom's General Bernard Montgomery at the Second Battle of El Alamein, or the Battle of Alamein, marked a significant turning point of World War II and was the first major victory by British Commonwealth forces over the German Army. The battle lasted from 23 October to 3 November 1942. Following the First Battle of El Alamein, which had stalled the Axis advance, British general Bernard Montgomery took command of the Eighth Army from Claude Auchinleck in August 1942. Success in the battle turned the tide in the North African Campaign. Some historians believe that the battle, along with the Battle of Stalingrad, were the two major Allied victories that contributed to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.
By July 1942, the German Afrika Korps under General Rommel had struck deep into Egypt, threatening the vital Allied supply line across the Suez Canal. Faced with overextended supply lines and lack of reinforcements and yet well aware of massive Allied reinforcements arriving, Rommel decided to strike at the Allies while their build-up was still not complete. This attack on 30 August 1942 at Alam Halfa failed, and expecting a counterattack by Montgomery's Eighth Army, and the Afrika Korps dug in. After six more weeks of building up forces, the Eighth Army was ready to strike. 200,000 men and 1,000 tanks under Montgomery made their move against the 100,000 men and 500 tanks of the Afrika Korps.
The Allied plan
With Operation Lightfoot, Montgomery hoped to cut two corridors through the Axis minefields in the north. Armour would then pass through and defeat the German armour. Diversionary attacks in the south would keep the rest of the Axis forces from moving northwards. Montgomery expected a twelve-day battle in three stages — "The break-in, the dog-fight and the final break of the enemy."
The Commonwealth forces practised a number of deceptions in the months prior to the battle to wrong-foot the Axis command, not only as to the exact whereabouts of the forthcoming battle, but as to when the battle was likely to occur. This operation was codenamed, Operation Bertram. A dummy pipeline was built, stage by stage, the construction of which would lead the Axis to believe the attack would occur much later than it in fact did, and much further south. To further the illusion, dummy tanks made of plywood frames placed over jeeps were constructed and deployed in the south. In a reverse feint, the tanks for battle in the north were disguised as supply lorries by placing a removable plywood superstructure over them.
The Axis were dug-in along two lines, called by the Allies the Oxalic Line and the Pierson Line. They had laid around half a million mines, mainly anti-tank, in what was called the Devil's gardens.
The battle
The battle opened at 2140 hours on 23 October with a sustained artillery barrage. The initial objective was the Oxalic Line with the armour intending to advance over this and on to the Pierson Line. However, the minefields were not yet fully cleared when the assault began.
On the first night, the assault to create the northern corridor fell three miles short of the Pierson line. Further south, they had made better progress but were stalled at Miteirya Ridge.
On 24 October, the Axis commander, General Stumme (Rommel was on sick leave in Austria), died of a heart attack while under fire. After a period of confusion, while Stumme's body was missing, General Ritter von Thoma took command of the Axis forces. Hitler initially instructed Rommel to remain at home and continue his convalescence but then became alarmed at the deteriorating situation and asked Rommel to return to Africa if he felt able. Rommel left at once and arrived on 25 October.
For the Allies in the south, after another abortive assault on the Miteirya Ridge, the attack was abandoned. Montgomery switched the focus of the attack to the north. There was a successful night attack over the 25-26th. Rommel's immediate counter-attack was without success. The Allies had lost 6,200 men against Axis losses of 2,500, but while Rommel had only 370 tanks fit for action, Montgomery still had over 900.
Montgomery felt that the offensive was losing momentum and decided to regroup. There were a number of small actions but, by 29 October, the Axis line was still intact. Montgomery was still confident and prepared his forces for Operation Supercharge. The endless small operations and the attrition by the Allied airforce had by then reduced Rommel's effective tank strength to only 102.
The second major Allied offensive of the battle was along the coast, initially to capture the Rahman Track and then take the high ground at Tel el Aqqaqir. The attack began on 2 November 1942. By the 3rd, Rommel had only 35 tanks fit for action. Despite containing the Allied advance, the pressure on his forces made a retreat necessary. However, the same day Rommel received a "victory or death" message from Hitler, halting the withdrawal. But the Allied pressure was too great, and the German forces had to withdraw on the night of 3–4 November. By 6 November, the Axis forces were in full retreat and over 30,000 soldiers had surrendered.
Aftermath
Churchill's summation
Winston Churchill famously summed up the battle on 10 November 1942 with the words, "now this is not the end, it is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning."
The battle was Montgomery's greatest triumph. He took the title "Viscount Montgomery of Alamein" when he was raised to the peerage.
The Torch landings in Morocco later that month marked the effective end of the Axis threat in North Africa.
Egyptian fleet damages
In total, 14 Egyptian ships were sunk during the war by U-boats, those included: one ship sunk by German submarine U-83, three ships sunk, and one survived with damage by German submarine U-77, nine ships sunk by German submarine U-81.
See also
Military history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War
External links
Text of Cairo Declaration
References
Alamein by C E Lucas Phillips
World War II
World War II
Egypt
Politics of World War II
20th century in Egypt
Articles containing video clips
1930s in Egypt
1940s in Egypt
|
[
-0.031188735738396645,
0.3874070644378662,
-0.8392965197563171,
0.12310793250799179,
-0.7728161215782166,
0.24086597561836243,
0.6471978425979614,
0.3018692135810852,
-0.2795661687850952,
-0.606322705745697,
-0.3644312024116516,
-0.3135325610637665,
-0.27106553316116333,
0.9937840700149536,
0.34279510378837585,
0.7185672521591187,
0.19849590957164764,
0.32132279872894287,
-0.5293567776679993,
-0.6071335673332214,
-0.09907571971416473,
-0.2297598272562027,
0.34811481833457947,
0.401598185300827,
0.10933314263820648,
-0.19390983879566193,
0.7033795714378357,
-0.07373026758432388,
0.2615146040916443,
-0.5605617761611938,
0.00006349883915390819,
-0.5560845136642456,
-0.3849448561668396,
-0.4223465323448181,
-0.09357252717018127,
-0.3727149963378906,
-0.23098891973495483,
0.06032538414001465,
0.2146887183189392,
-0.6315358877182007,
-0.2723901867866516,
0.08274133503437042,
0.4374653398990631,
0.4380430281162262,
0.14618931710720062,
-0.1695857048034668,
-1.1784932613372803,
0.16674217581748962,
0.041027192026376724,
-0.4380250871181488,
0.05846414342522621,
0.23160354793071747,
-0.033823102712631226,
0.5207659006118774,
0.44430407881736755,
0.8383455872535706,
-0.8070049285888672,
-0.1508323848247528,
0.05488167703151703,
-0.1482195258140564,
1.1009820699691772,
0.5106781721115112,
0.11497177928686142,
-0.1400054693222046,
-0.08025362342596054,
-0.35956332087516785,
0.4017919898033142,
0.7047989964485168,
0.19148455560207367,
-0.8367050886154175,
-0.20689482986927032,
-0.23257173597812653,
-0.35335245728492737,
0.006793473847210407,
-0.11329101026058197,
-0.7624556422233582,
0.34638547897338867,
0.020205311477184296,
-0.25571927428245544,
0.29034537076950073,
0.03603200986981392,
0.06635414063930511,
0.7251474261283875,
-0.11329242587089539,
0.7469854354858398,
-0.15764029324054718,
-0.5950643420219421,
0.5145750045776367,
-0.14159764349460602,
-0.22019323706626892,
0.16921354830265045,
-0.45502251386642456,
0.46574103832244873,
-0.240432471036911,
-0.06594155728816986,
0.36734750866889954,
0.30062007904052734,
0.2971627414226532,
0.03296957165002823,
-0.012388735078275204,
0.47164344787597656,
0.11657809466123581,
-0.20032399892807007,
-0.08835812658071518,
-0.6460168957710266,
0.15211951732635498,
0.2646784484386444,
-0.2139575034379959,
-0.21356986463069916,
-0.4069735109806061,
-0.18189403414726257,
0.06803952902555466,
-0.20686973631381989,
-0.5069340467453003,
-0.5512528419494629,
-0.3158077001571655,
0.21705502271652222,
-0.7181436419487,
-0.040339741855859756,
0.3483702540397644,
-0.053270671516656876,
0.4866308271884918,
-0.5617741346359253,
0.2947010099887848,
-0.5240564942359924,
0.09840129315853119,
0.43143102526664734,
0.00823075883090496,
-0.7579138875007629,
0.5129021406173706,
0.8403856158256531,
0.8615849614143372,
-0.24830396473407745,
0.056338172405958176,
0.09423612058162689,
-0.39627230167388916,
0.12200378626585007,
0.9574539065361023,
-0.4032258093357086,
-0.061858195811510086,
-1.0477573871612549,
-0.3791683316230774,
-0.8009927868843079,
0.5042807459831238,
0.13739587366580963,
-0.13803048431873322,
0.1610761135816574,
-0.20436803996562958,
0.2920183539390564,
-0.7852940559387207,
0.4248475432395935,
-0.27982404828071594,
-0.4210623800754547,
-0.1746435910463333,
-0.3403564989566803,
0.31100428104400635,
0.7890812754631042,
-0.08333304524421692,
0.34176966547966003,
-0.04118531197309494,
0.3812327980995178,
-0.023525400087237358,
0.1673407405614853,
0.13761213421821594,
-0.17369122803211212,
0.646914005279541,
0.8507303595542908,
-0.25700342655181885,
0.40338701009750366,
0.5358885526657104,
-0.6001011729240417,
-0.2641780972480774,
0.36695146560668945,
-0.17573748528957367,
-0.49202513694763184,
0.124678835272789,
1.451427698135376,
0.5941351652145386,
0.18384717404842377,
-0.2945438027381897,
-0.43721526861190796,
-0.2894739508628845,
-0.17831914126873016,
-0.39349254965782166,
1.018647313117981,
0.4010234475135803,
0.22269552946090698,
-0.7244519591331482,
-0.2409220188856125,
0.15286950767040253,
-0.2895556390285492,
-0.46854254603385925,
0.07005568593740463,
-0.8639289140701294,
1.4608445167541504,
-0.2201489806175232,
-0.15668044984340668,
0.12923073768615723,
-0.14607465267181396,
0.29143598675727844,
-0.110133595764637,
0.18969470262527466,
0.5546800494194031,
0.09831628948450089,
-0.4843805730342865,
0.73337721824646,
0.0643097385764122,
0.159704327583313,
-0.08011311292648315,
0.8546411991119385,
0.4088878035545349,
0.11631511896848679,
-0.47433558106422424,
-0.16839894652366638,
0.30111053586006165,
0.1123693659901619,
-0.6324797868728638,
0.2837649881839752,
-0.08173788338899612,
-0.17775890231132507,
0.035560622811317444,
-0.38839566707611084,
-0.24002830684185028,
0.0880388543009758,
0.2988070249557495,
-0.10058750212192535,
-0.18195506930351257,
0.4998891055583954,
-0.3570291996002197,
-0.6740372180938721,
-0.001232096808962524,
0.5218972563743591,
0.2303459793329239,
-0.2154008150100708,
-0.08561534434556961,
0.11548952758312225,
0.19434018433094025,
-0.20228154957294464,
-0.0691491961479187,
0.3554472029209137,
0.27938222885131836,
0.3578171730041504,
-0.5485069155693054,
0.3971775770187378,
-0.3278247117996216,
0.18241839110851288,
0.09937062114477158,
0.21807590126991272,
0.2561050057411194,
-0.4371013939380646,
-0.12271857261657715,
0.26150840520858765,
0.274038165807724,
-0.5666647553443909,
-0.029375264421105385,
-0.708292543888092,
-0.25810152292251587,
-0.16555768251419067,
0.7839168906211853,
-0.22698743641376495,
-0.09747537225484848,
-0.07573997229337692,
0.16368500888347626,
0.25204089283943176,
0.8731483817100525,
-0.24555987119674683,
-0.9377991557121277,
-0.16078992187976837,
0.2588011920452118,
0.3414258360862732,
1.0369062423706055,
-0.0783323273062706,
0.1183035597205162,
-0.6960885524749756,
0.33431607484817505,
0.524692952632904,
-0.5039960741996765,
0.44539394974708557,
-0.4172944724559784,
-0.024551495909690857,
0.41868406534194946,
0.500137209892273,
-0.10621577501296997,
-0.561479926109314,
-0.14415208995342255,
0.45314908027648926,
-0.12470708787441254,
-0.7926142811775208,
0.5521196126937866,
-0.1944129765033722,
0.24344007670879364,
-0.018100809305906296,
-0.5501733422279358,
0.3507425785064697,
0.18275848031044006,
0.6075767874717712,
-0.7991009950637817,
-0.363281786441803,
0.3784044682979584,
-0.2401341199874878,
-0.8215047717094421,
0.38600146770477295,
-0.5904741883277893,
0.006092022638767958,
0.6193892359733582,
-0.07664890587329865,
-0.8123939037322998,
-0.07621940970420837,
-5.487725734710693,
-0.46840405464172363,
-0.1692049503326416,
0.11267181485891342,
-0.18746908009052277,
0.09141095727682114,
0.2876845896244049,
0.24744336307048798,
-0.20332400500774384,
-0.10311431437730789,
0.35440266132354736,
-0.099974624812603,
-0.5358307957649231,
0.1531151533126831,
0.06086408346891403,
0.8411884307861328,
0.41725143790245056,
-0.5845824480056763,
0.474964439868927,
-0.12398369610309601,
0.3443458676338196,
0.18068572878837585,
0.033888548612594604,
0.27942827343940735,
0.6364808678627014,
0.10241862386465073,
-0.4179554879665375,
0.5140838027000427,
-0.37361910939216614,
0.8173297047615051,
-0.2707003057003021,
-0.5298891067504883,
0.614950954914093,
-0.4766826033592224,
-0.2414824515581131,
-0.20325642824172974,
0.676982581615448,
0.2781063914299011,
0.1852497160434723,
-0.20042844116687775,
-0.37977927923202515,
-0.03584260120987892,
-0.7809934020042419,
-0.026535287499427795,
0.942162275314331,
-0.3359869122505188,
-0.22984114289283752,
-0.07984865456819534,
0.45148688554763794,
-0.027126606553792953,
-0.056356776505708694,
-0.018226251006126404,
-0.27194643020629883,
0.025686612352728844,
-0.05151259899139404,
-0.03668754920363426,
-0.504603922367096,
-0.3309232294559479,
0.016300667077302933,
0.3977721929550171,
-0.38776683807373047,
-0.33609455823898315,
0.15762072801589966,
-0.44489631056785583,
0.4405880868434906,
0.002493975916877389,
0.055436380207538605,
-0.18069952726364136,
-0.3737400472164154,
0.3715628683567047,
-0.11809670180082321,
0.7023137211799622,
-0.10250084102153778,
-0.9358612895011902,
0.1024823933839798,
-0.33898115158081055,
-0.019304288551211357,
0.024029674008488655,
0.09931077063083649,
-0.5087366104125977,
-0.5029080510139465,
-0.6692529916763306,
-0.005765766371041536,
0.06708167493343353,
0.21199923753738403,
-0.022227374836802483,
0.06814483553171158,
-0.4460253417491913,
-0.4354608654975891,
0.3277464807033539,
0.4269886612892151,
-0.9406366348266602,
0.6119616031646729,
0.5222881436347961,
0.48103922605514526,
1.0513317584991455,
-0.4403938353061676,
0.1640755981206894,
1.08543860912323,
-0.15262703597545624,
-0.5014621615409851,
-0.3836551010608673,
-0.05109696462750435,
-0.2923704981803894,
-0.47335514426231384,
0.05620536580681801,
-0.4350501298904419,
0.7160042524337769,
0.012356210500001907,
-0.30812498927116394,
-0.4223930537700653,
0.35552749037742615,
-0.9762926697731018,
0.39869335293769836,
0.40552935004234314,
-0.33757299184799194,
0.4233362674713135,
0.4754635691642761,
0.7628170251846313,
-0.014249562285840511,
-0.3140425980091095,
0.24595987796783447,
0.23220385611057281,
-0.1833294779062271,
0.536443829536438,
-0.03635380044579506,
0.18029600381851196,
0.03581105172634125,
-0.3208778500556946,
0.23145228624343872,
-0.2985823154449463,
0.4344230592250824,
0.05735354498028755,
0.38382488489151,
0.26861777901649475,
-0.8297415375709534,
-0.11645519733428955,
-0.5419549942016602,
-0.03955426067113876,
0.0690823346376419,
0.056543026119470596,
-0.10151895880699158,
0.02704177238047123,
0.3535691499710083,
-0.35879671573638916,
0.16596803069114685,
0.07876981049776077,
-0.429584264755249,
0.1396522969007492,
0.3718542754650116,
-0.35958242416381836,
0.31074920296669006,
0.7499023675918579,
0.35765090584754944,
0.058876991271972656,
0.2782047688961029,
0.8019575476646423,
0.4564496576786041,
-0.6507648229598999,
-0.389276385307312,
0.5894134044647217,
-0.2941149175167084,
-1.1760541200637817,
0.39944988489151,
-0.09761874377727509,
-0.10086768865585327,
0.3474353551864624,
-0.3417583107948303,
-0.05563104525208473,
0.4694836437702179,
0.8090006113052368,
-0.3357340097427368,
-0.2234339714050293,
0.09955579042434692,
0.19015054404735565,
-0.30636465549468994,
-0.8912472128868103,
-0.45740973949432373,
-0.07488563656806946,
-1.0105952024459839,
-0.528608500957489,
0.27982521057128906,
-0.19302713871002197,
0.14172829687595367,
-0.10639084875583649,
-0.35156747698783875,
-0.2900269329547882,
-0.3236689865589142,
-0.5593910813331604,
0.21487239003181458,
0.21790394186973572,
0.1567954272031784,
-0.24787282943725586,
0.13611069321632385,
-0.4593258500099182,
-0.045056045055389404,
0.18673604726791382,
0.30599913001060486,
-0.12258022278547287,
-0.4358983039855957,
-0.0756264328956604,
0.2187529057264328,
-0.38743335008621216,
-0.127167746424675,
-0.4816807806491852,
-0.5994661450386047,
0.31064942479133606,
0.12989801168441772,
-0.4776332676410675,
0.6489445567131042,
-0.3275846540927887,
-0.2950250208377838,
-0.05089184641838074,
0.526384711265564,
-0.5607922673225403,
0.5345045924186707,
0.003668098943307996,
0.6776270270347595,
0.04572105035185814,
0.1478995978832245,
0.020376579836010933,
-0.2592085003852844,
-0.22491154074668884,
-0.3088625371456146,
-0.9300607442855835,
0.6680952906608582,
0.2537783086299896,
-0.7406176328659058,
-0.25598135590553284,
-0.0024169902317225933,
-0.08567360043525696,
-0.1830059438943863,
0.3106459975242615,
0.41432636976242065,
0.20689871907234192,
0.02734879031777382,
0.8776587843894958,
-0.2220095843076706,
-0.49949049949645996,
0.19489872455596924,
0.5382620096206665,
-0.12521126866340637,
0.5021126866340637,
-0.03264930844306946,
0.3634106516838074,
0.48804235458374023,
0.17854192852973938,
-1.0371387004852295,
-0.20581193268299103,
-0.07829257845878601,
-0.5800274610519409,
-0.1669350266456604,
-0.9726407527923584,
-0.3324761688709259,
0.28638726472854614,
-0.08101596683263779,
-0.33330950140953064,
0.15209916234016418,
-0.32553061842918396,
0.06956280767917633,
-0.07368579506874084,
-0.032413601875305176,
-0.8249258995056152,
0.42043909430503845,
0.24669872224330902,
-0.23891238868236542,
0.07000860571861267,
-0.2140052765607834,
-0.4281810224056244,
-0.00811122078448534,
-0.2961519956588745,
-0.03142215311527252,
0.672683596611023,
0.23829184472560883,
0.39353710412979126,
0.03518122807145119,
-0.04337143898010254,
-0.49165502190589905,
0.5815507769584656,
0.14802226424217224,
-0.5191735029220581,
-0.6859355568885803,
0.5852360725402832,
-0.37772199511528015,
0.741362988948822,
-1.0424625873565674,
-0.38567906618118286,
-0.036767710000276566,
0.07131550461053848,
0.4045998752117157,
0.4165102541446686,
-0.1627846360206604,
-0.3505561947822571,
-0.5470754504203796,
0.26282885670661926,
0.49416688084602356,
-0.5040615797042847,
0.09951774775981903,
0.0033154175616800785,
-0.23846139013767242,
-0.6639289855957031,
0.7811894416809082,
-0.09409002959728241,
-0.45859673619270325,
-0.1528426557779312,
-0.1539173424243927,
-0.07941779494285583,
-0.26356181502342224,
-0.06753123551607132,
0.3408971428871155,
0.5649048686027527,
-0.527940571308136,
-0.40615394711494446,
0.14922963082790375,
-0.3612149655818939,
0.20021244883537292,
0.6967960596084595,
-0.6213945150375366,
-0.15221154689788818,
-0.08401723951101303,
-0.19059669971466064,
0.2150726616382599,
0.41071218252182007,
0.2641441822052002,
-0.10723547637462616,
0.46499598026275635,
0.1805710345506668,
-0.37237104773521423,
0.05615070462226868,
-0.07897985726594925,
0.26158538460731506,
-0.13223494589328766,
-0.6071491837501526,
0.5632414221763611,
-0.24590125679969788,
0.11511852592229843,
0.09371273964643478,
-0.6528064012527466,
0.5849106907844543,
0.9234368801116943,
0.4979851543903351,
-0.11901959776878357,
-0.05327104777097702,
-0.25458335876464844,
-0.039129842072725296,
0.5982648730278015,
-0.6524872779846191,
-0.19706055521965027,
0.6594143509864807,
0.6473208665847778,
0.8179377913475037,
0.04259868711233139,
-0.4080926775932312,
-0.1971006691455841,
0.08430458605289459,
-0.1264721155166626,
0.41804271936416626,
0.09908155351877213,
-0.16197709739208221,
-0.19354724884033203,
0.7261723279953003,
-0.057617709040641785,
0.5031735301017761,
-0.13305552303791046,
0.18325285613536835,
0.6548962593078613,
-0.1534842848777771,
-0.22730590403079987,
0.2334437519311905,
0.31774693727493286,
0.3324662446975708,
0.01370671484619379,
-0.4275917708873749,
-0.4854651987552643,
0.7752060890197754,
0.06386201828718185,
-0.38194769620895386,
-0.11607884615659714,
0.1862320601940155,
0.12905603647232056,
0.4999544620513916,
-0.1485193967819214,
-0.524300217628479,
-0.8529914021492004,
-0.11763225495815277,
-0.3553621470928192,
0.27921515703201294,
-0.06774954497814178,
-0.2448943853378296,
-0.2716251015663147,
0.0208937656134367,
-0.7336520552635193,
0.03683965280652046,
-0.21527209877967834,
-0.12683963775634766,
-0.3246680200099945,
-0.023937666788697243,
0.5369539856910706,
0.1906888484954834,
-0.6589171886444092,
0.9236775636672974,
0.14799243211746216,
0.0867079496383667,
0.0495605506002903,
-0.1251157969236374,
0.7430994510650635,
-0.48641616106033325,
0.01310686208307743,
-0.1552942544221878,
0.49556130170822144,
0.33310166001319885,
0.33447369933128357,
0.12740452587604523,
0.30081936717033386,
0.2251860499382019,
-0.3436127007007599,
0.432989239692688,
-0.6204071640968323,
-0.46216443181037903,
-0.14827877283096313,
0.22680087387561798,
-0.5758164525032043,
-0.05301083251833916,
0.49127838015556335,
0.09367411583662033,
-0.1630702167749405,
0.29730701446533203,
0.08809029310941696,
0.33285829424858093,
0.6235426068305969,
-0.17289267480373383,
-0.27994149923324585,
-0.6041721105575562,
-0.6885176301002502,
-0.02961507998406887,
0.13338065147399902,
0.47292423248291016,
0.13704316318035126,
0.5729909539222717,
-0.4093819856643677,
0.2149370014667511,
-0.5793046951293945,
0.44877323508262634,
-0.219171404838562,
-0.6475563049316406,
-0.47697025537490845,
-0.19596470892429352,
-0.908176064491272,
0.5379738211631775,
1.1705814599990845,
0.4186893105506897,
0.29959923028945923,
0.4494495987892151,
-0.011710320599377155,
-0.0594472698867321,
-0.12229651212692261,
0.47681495547294617,
-0.65952467918396,
0.5329059362411499,
-0.10828005522489548
] |
206006
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo%20da%20Vinci%20Art%20Institute
|
Leonardo da Vinci Art Institute
|
The Leonardo da Vinci Art Institute was an Italian art institute located in Cairo, Egypt during World War II.
History
The institute was founded in the 1930s to provide evening classes in painting, drawing and sculpture under the auspices of the Italian consulate in Cairo as well as the Italian cultural centre in Cairo are keeping quiet about the Institute's nature and history of existence.
Most students there did not know the value of its certification nationally or internationally. It was transformed from an Italian technical high school to a higher education institute offering graduate certification in each of its two sections, Architecture and Painting/Decoration.
The institute became a school for Egyptian society's elites primarily Cairo's elite. Upper and upper middle class students with unique and independent approaches to their education who did not find an answer to their educational needs in the Egyptian high school system entered a special, individual, and nurturing environment in the institute.
The institute had teachers and instructors, some of whom were from the old Italian traditional fascist era. Teachers escaping the turmoil in their homeland and others were purposely placed at this location by a hierarchy to protect and conserve their traditional treasures during turbulent times in Europe.
Relationship with Dante Alighieri Institute
It was also speculated not documented that it was created under the auspices of the Dante Alighieri Society, which was established in Rome in 1889 to "preserve and spread the Italian language and culture in the world". In Egypt, its first committees were born in Alexandria and in Cairo in 1896.
During the first postwar period, the head office in Cairo started to promote and to teach Italian arts and literature to hundreds of students in Cairo, Alexandria and Suez. In the aftermath of World War II, the Dante Alighieri Institute restarted its activities and opened the Claudio Monteverdi Conservatoire.
References
External links
Human Rights Watch: The Repression of Academic Freedom in Egyptian Universities including the American University in Cairo.
Art schools in Italy
Art schools in Egypt
Italian art institutions
|
[
0.575751781463623,
0.5149874687194824,
-0.4508853256702423,
0.3153862953186035,
-0.1078951358795166,
0.1339271366596222,
0.5003831386566162,
0.12846912443637848,
-0.46353238821029663,
-0.5568941235542297,
-0.39905139803886414,
-0.08211258053779602,
-0.2775427997112274,
0.5708199143409729,
-0.02865590527653694,
-0.6952570080757141,
0.2837657332420349,
0.15554873645305634,
-0.5590000748634338,
-0.09634000062942505,
-0.0252250786870718,
-0.2724619209766388,
-0.03516959398984909,
0.2211460918188095,
-0.39103934168815613,
-0.4707840383052826,
0.5865052938461304,
-0.07316026091575623,
0.5189074277877808,
-0.25226277112960815,
0.198557049036026,
-0.34020406007766724,
-0.4533877372741699,
-0.552401065826416,
-0.525675356388092,
0.168143168091774,
0.13018903136253357,
-0.500888466835022,
0.017086870968341827,
-0.30177682638168335,
0.20707644522190094,
0.41219428181648254,
0.46414798498153687,
0.2106524407863617,
0.33149972558021545,
-0.9307147264480591,
-1.6780433654785156,
0.30285361409187317,
-0.6524694561958313,
-0.0023455412592738867,
-0.053185541182756424,
0.2703038454055786,
0.473065584897995,
0.6714732646942139,
-0.27451422810554504,
1.1617629528045654,
-0.9764536023139954,
0.12658464908599854,
0.3630814254283905,
-0.5658214688301086,
0.9390168190002441,
0.6034903526306152,
0.04322163760662079,
0.10843522101640701,
-0.29758208990097046,
0.44448426365852356,
0.1571708619594574,
0.2227105349302292,
0.13254480063915253,
-0.1692536324262619,
-0.10166482627391815,
-0.05781635269522667,
0.10764359682798386,
0.26477399468421936,
-0.15806074440479279,
-0.44379109144210815,
0.35156676173210144,
-0.5351695418357849,
-0.5043740272521973,
0.3455222249031067,
0.2624644637107849,
0.1987588256597519,
0.7073969841003418,
-0.009484246373176575,
0.9255722761154175,
0.1306898295879364,
-1.0271868705749512,
-0.20475339889526367,
-0.41629505157470703,
-0.13054850697517395,
-0.39816343784332275,
-0.5730942487716675,
0.22667641937732697,
0.1378895342350006,
0.4645828604698181,
0.5369613170623779,
-0.06884486228227615,
0.5242310762405396,
-0.13933056592941284,
0.716079592704773,
-0.19761253893375397,
0.44789615273475647,
-0.13981829583644867,
0.2203737497329712,
-0.5200771689414978,
-0.20406468212604523,
-0.11778637021780014,
-0.21848013997077942,
-0.5660102367401123,
-0.3024141490459442,
-0.5605732202529907,
-0.007549930829554796,
-0.7795708179473877,
-0.6631572842597961,
-0.21335469186306,
0.03124377503991127,
0.7277262210845947,
-0.5216005444526672,
-1.0044721364974976,
0.04595174267888069,
0.00032351355184800923,
0.8553159832954407,
-0.4295417070388794,
0.08901669085025787,
-0.3255501389503479,
0.597932755947113,
0.5836426615715027,
0.49037429690361023,
-0.5248420238494873,
0.3111702501773834,
0.31887197494506836,
0.7305653691291809,
0.42840296030044556,
-0.5741682648658752,
0.11647482961416245,
-0.46503108739852905,
-0.01685265079140663,
0.2641790509223938,
-0.6869574785232544,
0.3386739492416382,
-0.6227477788925171,
-0.3630300760269165,
-0.897868275642395,
0.11813687533140182,
0.037630319595336914,
-0.49757540225982666,
0.09646540880203247,
0.1499953716993332,
0.27246567606925964,
-0.3937106430530548,
-0.10574818402528763,
-0.5805181860923767,
-0.7471197247505188,
-0.12824290990829468,
0.10733022540807724,
0.5450626015663147,
0.7540186047554016,
0.07733115553855896,
0.9447779059410095,
0.27226296067237854,
0.32611343264579773,
-0.33465710282325745,
-0.3689839243888855,
0.25383901596069336,
-0.2586379051208496,
-0.02535524219274521,
0.4579751193523407,
0.064454585313797,
-0.041815828531980515,
0.310452938079834,
-1.0094680786132812,
0.07999246567487717,
-0.14519476890563965,
-0.2612006664276123,
-0.2052372843027115,
0.06576960533857346,
1.2547600269317627,
0.32135969400405884,
-0.25497955083847046,
-0.6135216355323792,
-0.7394885420799255,
-0.0017242147587239742,
-0.1328801065683365,
-0.056882526725530624,
0.5511030554771423,
0.06204478070139885,
0.6885533928871155,
-0.029781928285956383,
-0.5049375891685486,
0.03635363280773163,
-0.335765540599823,
-0.5787605047225952,
0.29663556814193726,
-0.5270766615867615,
1.4500945806503296,
0.37246134877204895,
-0.6937728524208069,
0.9638939499855042,
-0.2156183272600174,
0.9071189761161804,
-0.2937830984592438,
-0.2102021425962448,
0.6207665205001831,
-0.00596911134198308,
-0.004722816403955221,
0.351645290851593,
0.13462182879447937,
0.20757238566875458,
0.2238691747188568,
0.8693068623542786,
0.7320813536643982,
-0.36090028285980225,
0.38432013988494873,
0.6169983148574829,
0.1137104406952858,
-0.8585458397865295,
-0.764339029788971,
-0.08120851963758469,
-0.14115746319293976,
-0.27111855149269104,
0.6898306608200073,
-0.15246739983558655,
-0.1805630773305893,
0.33706074953079224,
-0.16385681927204132,
0.30162513256073,
-0.2981683313846588,
0.3901631832122803,
0.02873075008392334,
-0.6915523409843445,
0.0009739027009345591,
0.12567615509033203,
0.34452366828918457,
-0.3231924772262573,
0.10630453377962112,
-0.03203227370977402,
0.3558216094970703,
-0.6000178456306458,
0.6561083793640137,
0.35917362570762634,
0.21726496517658234,
0.17436376214027405,
-0.8792634606361389,
-0.16211819648742676,
0.08076125383377075,
0.454226553440094,
0.10386543720960617,
0.44520682096481323,
0.15775012969970703,
0.06874312460422516,
0.24848346412181854,
0.37634554505348206,
0.03765005245804787,
-0.6920551061630249,
-0.23283234238624573,
-0.4813362956047058,
0.4331732392311096,
-0.7131214141845703,
-0.061834901571273804,
-0.29157277941703796,
0.2335270792245865,
0.10625647008419037,
0.3401898145675659,
0.8100407123565674,
0.1925235092639923,
-0.30547046661376953,
-0.21447086334228516,
-0.7102271914482117,
0.44263434410095215,
-0.002111301524564624,
1.0057580471038818,
0.08871202915906906,
0.0029526199214160442,
-0.029679888859391212,
-0.041144199669361115,
0.29741910099983215,
-0.5057753324508667,
0.39133065938949585,
-0.38683298230171204,
-0.10765863209962845,
-0.11603772640228271,
0.4935261607170105,
-0.5888318419456482,
-0.3358345627784729,
-0.5341842770576477,
0.5293835997581482,
-0.2869225740432739,
-0.7369495630264282,
0.03381587564945221,
0.013339832425117493,
0.5778818726539612,
0.1069716289639473,
-0.47730180621147156,
0.49897077679634094,
-0.36880046129226685,
0.43859225511550903,
-0.7847580313682556,
-0.9726902842521667,
-0.08725520968437195,
-0.1367228478193283,
-0.7883478999137878,
0.7840335369110107,
-0.7810459136962891,
0.09099985659122467,
0.19560980796813965,
0.44407546520233154,
-0.4342716932296753,
-0.301974892616272,
-5.316549777984619,
0.03112366609275341,
-0.10428372770547867,
0.32372021675109863,
-0.4246039092540741,
-0.049461156129837036,
0.4874612092971802,
-0.0019045999506488442,
0.03487414866685867,
-0.20854157209396362,
0.016769370064139366,
-0.17018799483776093,
-0.1280364990234375,
1.1263595819473267,
-0.13411954045295715,
0.8339412212371826,
0.15014328062534332,
0.06801559776067734,
0.04942906275391579,
0.15385667979717255,
0.05461804196238518,
-0.0459548681974411,
-0.08036791533231735,
0.9351168870925903,
0.5935209393501282,
0.0931859239935875,
-0.9367192983627319,
0.26389479637145996,
-0.9538188576698303,
0.04495011642575264,
-0.14590996503829956,
-0.18474487960338593,
0.4232138991355896,
0.3437403440475464,
-0.008010311052203178,
0.15665926039218903,
0.6553564667701721,
0.11852110922336578,
0.10746587067842484,
-0.02903015725314617,
-0.14777342975139618,
0.14063671231269836,
-0.4930979907512665,
0.44464677572250366,
0.18638505041599274,
-0.4569627642631531,
-0.5161470174789429,
-0.40253525972366333,
0.09245597571134567,
0.6932488679885864,
-0.15010422468185425,
-0.06381538510322571,
0.2214626967906952,
0.5867710113525391,
-0.6484673023223877,
-0.38702622056007385,
0.3418087363243103,
0.399170458316803,
-0.26512381434440613,
0.3156992495059967,
-0.1732163280248642,
-0.5424612760543823,
0.3411637544631958,
-0.5583134293556213,
0.0744413435459137,
-0.04912085086107254,
-0.07268095016479492,
-0.22078894078731537,
-0.47536614537239075,
0.5270729064941406,
-0.3079921305179596,
0.9144812822341919,
-0.846516489982605,
-1.2319574356079102,
0.06550867110490799,
-0.0936247929930687,
-0.014919155277311802,
-0.38363316655158997,
0.3213537037372589,
-0.14869989454746246,
0.13419322669506073,
-0.10627178847789764,
0.3350006341934204,
0.7735393047332764,
-0.2204079031944275,
0.023779619485139847,
0.45187005400657654,
-0.015140502713620663,
-0.4646843373775482,
0.4886753261089325,
0.5722366571426392,
-0.08042561262845993,
-0.23450052738189697,
0.4594067335128784,
-0.020525725558400154,
0.2007349729537964,
0.5703313946723938,
0.04841791093349457,
0.5088403820991516,
-0.374193400144577,
0.18678739666938782,
-0.8873064517974854,
-0.4936992824077606,
0.23860415816307068,
-0.2928560972213745,
-0.5696567296981812,
-0.16488763689994812,
0.09515215456485748,
0.519504189491272,
0.06936575472354889,
-0.5050186514854431,
-0.05048049986362457,
-0.5416812896728516,
0.24639226496219635,
0.6212701201438904,
-0.6897582411766052,
0.4655269384384155,
0.48607778549194336,
0.11345184594392776,
0.1907110959291458,
-0.009589512832462788,
-0.0820758119225502,
0.3985869586467743,
-0.19894132018089294,
0.037423960864543915,
0.33053693175315857,
-0.09111606329679489,
0.18866916000843048,
-0.22382186353206635,
0.05589772015810013,
-0.3090455234050751,
0.405734121799469,
-0.29865700006484985,
0.45087525248527527,
0.5781755447387695,
-0.5008974671363831,
-1.0016413927078247,
-0.6138697266578674,
0.3456200063228607,
-0.007691357750445604,
0.36737769842147827,
0.40297552943229675,
-0.16169507801532745,
0.445772647857666,
0.49233290553092957,
0.6932201385498047,
-0.14982765913009644,
-0.25194141268730164,
-0.7034045457839966,
0.1205708310008049,
-0.2050008773803711,
-0.612713634967804,
0.43710607290267944,
0.3413547873497009,
0.04635535925626755,
-0.057979125529527664,
-0.3998502492904663,
0.3090313673019409,
-0.3285471498966217,
0.11365101486444473,
0.48261559009552,
0.12968336045742035,
-1.0657165050506592,
0.41018998622894287,
0.2708122134208679,
-0.26869454979896545,
-0.16577540338039398,
-0.5692939162254333,
-0.5556855201721191,
0.43235066533088684,
0.7573615908622742,
-0.13624799251556396,
-0.2017900049686432,
-0.7619922161102295,
0.36019304394721985,
-0.24238979816436768,
0.03909570723772049,
0.19340866804122925,
0.2230851948261261,
-0.4063263237476349,
0.29386433959007263,
-0.11683568358421326,
-0.08202557265758514,
-0.4186133146286011,
-0.028746629133820534,
-0.11048432439565659,
-0.5366952419281006,
-0.6237209439277649,
-0.6486647725105286,
-0.1935037225484848,
0.20417466759681702,
0.16666798293590546,
0.32131874561309814,
0.6027472615242004,
-0.39895790815353394,
-0.7051201462745667,
0.006925478111952543,
0.17399892210960388,
0.26047298312187195,
-0.3032722771167755,
-0.3039814829826355,
0.0319918617606163,
-0.5038169622421265,
0.5673592686653137,
-0.5188947916030884,
-0.8741974830627441,
0.33684760332107544,
0.6000919938087463,
-0.07228567451238632,
1.0096497535705566,
-0.5646366477012634,
-0.7171745896339417,
0.018514422699809074,
0.2763558030128479,
-0.8762373328208923,
-0.022666435688734055,
0.2063037008047104,
-0.15583838522434235,
-0.44791361689567566,
0.04674895852804184,
-0.45870548486709595,
0.3638245165348053,
-1.0159474611282349,
-0.2566964626312256,
-0.6116896867752075,
0.4902636408805847,
0.7307990193367004,
-0.4156748354434967,
-0.14315329492092133,
-0.5283439755439758,
0.2981480062007904,
0.31823018193244934,
-0.009491534903645515,
0.29722946882247925,
0.1737423837184906,
-0.34330514073371887,
0.8118515610694885,
0.2653254568576813,
-0.22829174995422363,
0.08596263080835342,
0.1399937868118286,
0.4228629469871521,
0.35679706931114197,
-0.41528862714767456,
0.7718403339385986,
0.6988709568977356,
0.30392590165138245,
-0.39397913217544556,
-0.23992536962032318,
0.550639271736145,
-0.01509154587984085,
-0.2366672307252884,
-0.5093280076980591,
-0.9536752700805664,
0.4793718159198761,
-0.3264457583427429,
0.1617167741060257,
0.4096148908138275,
0.4786608815193176,
0.18149448931217194,
0.08344876766204834,
-0.017029019072651863,
-0.5129734873771667,
-0.034618787467479706,
-0.05851033329963684,
0.22821950912475586,
-0.11065545678138733,
-0.45702871680259705,
0.41185110807418823,
-0.7996895909309387,
0.24204526841640472,
-0.14636510610580444,
0.475151926279068,
0.42508864402770996,
-0.14824938774108887,
-0.7624105215072632,
-0.118458092212677,
-0.7603559494018555,
0.31012701988220215,
-0.24705485999584198,
-0.39802971482276917,
0.20096473395824432,
0.4671362638473511,
-0.5264319777488708,
0.11282644420862198,
-0.7680344581604004,
0.14002828299999237,
0.287781685590744,
-0.2535136938095093,
0.48127180337905884,
-0.28111037611961365,
-0.6206738352775574,
0.1843438297510147,
-0.028980450704693794,
0.0013460530899465084,
0.6293485164642334,
-0.602389931678772,
-0.036990780383348465,
0.3703228235244751,
-0.1843479424715042,
-0.5141595005989075,
0.7037972211837769,
0.0938321053981781,
0.241034597158432,
0.49418747425079346,
0.07736486941576004,
-0.02095457725226879,
0.3519262373447418,
0.16753602027893066,
0.3696979284286499,
-0.1926041543483734,
-0.3997112810611725,
-0.2640036940574646,
0.2527264952659607,
-0.7750875949859619,
0.023441465571522713,
0.3812137842178345,
-0.6457501649856567,
0.17387276887893677,
-0.2470177561044693,
-0.26872503757476807,
0.5003572702407837,
0.31861892342567444,
0.1341329663991928,
-0.44769349694252014,
0.6319305896759033,
0.17140693962574005,
0.3598026931285858,
0.08922111988067627,
0.19640587270259857,
0.04997539892792702,
-0.15583178400993347,
-0.6049385666847229,
0.7762888073921204,
0.4635952413082123,
-0.07839865982532501,
-0.20242957770824432,
-1.2164040803909302,
0.0882689580321312,
0.4176540970802307,
0.634838879108429,
0.6332706809043884,
-0.30109521746635437,
0.3820030689239502,
-0.6053727269172668,
0.40479519963264465,
-0.3100935220718384,
0.08527600020170212,
0.2868629992008209,
0.3399275839328766,
0.47595134377479553,
0.4394536018371582,
0.11122763156890869,
-0.19259853661060333,
0.22126992046833038,
0.049253154546022415,
0.1966315656900406,
0.44161781668663025,
0.003413837868720293,
-0.1792861521244049,
0.33154669404029846,
0.21036334335803986,
0.4756007492542267,
-0.15127220749855042,
-0.3223593831062317,
0.4370344579219818,
-0.23429445922374725,
-0.683250367641449,
-0.15349213778972626,
-0.013467254117131233,
0.47063660621643066,
0.06085778772830963,
0.42638495564460754,
0.17141051590442657,
0.6470354795455933,
0.47132524847984314,
0.5460870265960693,
0.23771007359027863,
-0.040694333612918854,
0.18343953788280487,
-0.0774843618273735,
0.2656249403953552,
-0.5813182592391968,
-0.19348326325416565,
-0.12481354176998138,
-0.32256603240966797,
0.30838096141815186,
0.32956984639167786,
0.28504037857055664,
-0.480901300907135,
-0.41633740067481995,
-0.1671181470155716,
0.08784343302249908,
0.6006115674972534,
-0.42034414410591125,
0.03982158750295639,
-0.48599353432655334,
0.5119074583053589,
-0.2909751832485199,
-0.5117578506469727,
-0.13410910964012146,
0.08950591087341309,
-0.2153451144695282,
-0.14038965106010437,
-0.28965499997138977,
-0.15544570982456207,
-0.2669796943664551,
0.1699487566947937,
-1.1092740297317505,
0.4030243456363678,
-0.04911166429519653,
-0.10108665376901627,
0.0228313896805048,
0.34433069825172424,
-0.07055922597646713,
0.3027119040489197,
0.200649693608284,
-0.23153629899024963,
-0.7253948450088501,
-0.06632913649082184,
0.1742468774318695,
-0.9602272510528564,
-0.15190531313419342,
0.5522655844688416,
-0.037391889840364456,
-0.33359384536743164,
0.33838367462158203,
-0.05433092266321182,
-0.04495691508054733,
0.4273224174976349,
-0.052486006170511246,
0.08291491866111755,
-0.8984878063201904,
0.06160691753029823,
-0.6226809024810791,
0.4220719337463379,
0.5112819075584412,
0.6907310485839844,
1.131311297416687,
-0.5947495698928833,
0.35733455419540405,
-0.5213878154754639,
0.19719228148460388,
0.20768165588378906,
-0.7963055372238159,
0.06994198262691498,
-0.43613559007644653,
-0.5866692066192627,
0.5941564440727234,
0.7269407510757446,
0.41192588210105896,
0.19875071942806244,
0.4430893659591675,
-0.29813897609710693,
-0.33444944024086,
-0.12082208693027496,
0.17024804651737213,
-1.1199636459350586,
0.12320267409086227,
0.028404895216226578
] |
206007
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20N.%20Scortia
|
Thomas N. Scortia
|
Thomas Nicholas Scortia (August 29, 1926 – April 29, 1986) was a science fiction author. He worked in the American aerospace industry until the late 1960s/early 1970s. He collaborated on several works with fellow author Frank M. Robinson. He sometimes used the pseudonyms "Scott Nichols", "Gerald MacDow", and "Arthur R. Kurtz."
Biography
Scortia was born in Alton, Illinois. He attended Washington University in St. Louis, where he earned a degree in chemistry in 1949. He worked for a number of aerospace companies during the 1950s and 1960s, and held a patent for the fuel used by one of the Jupiter fly-by missions.
Scortia had been writing in his spare time while still working in the aerospace field. When the industry began to see increased unemployment in the early 1970s, Scortia decided to try his hand at full-time writing. His first novel, The Glass Inferno (in collaboration with Frank M. Robinson) was, in combination with the novel The Tower by Richard Martin Stern, the basis for the 1974 film The Towering Inferno. Scortia also collaborated with Dalton Trumbo on the novel The Endangered Species.
Scortia died in La Verne, California on April 29, 1986 while being treated for leukemia.
Harlan Ellison credited Scortia with having "literally saved [Ellison] from being courtmartialed back in 1958".
Works
Novels
Blowout (1987) (with Frank M. Robinson)
The Gold Crew (1980) (with Frank M. Robinson)
The Nightmare Factor (1978) (with Frank M. Robinson)
The Prometheus Crisis (1975) (with Frank M. Robinson)
The Glass Inferno (1974) (with Frank M. Robinson)
Earthwreck! (1974)
Artery of Fire (1972)
What Mad Oracle?: A Novel of the World As It Is (1961)
Collections
The best of Thomas N. Scortia (1981) edited by George Zebrowski
Caution: Inflammable (1976) introduction by Theodore Sturgeon
Short stories
"The Shores of Night" (1956)
"Sea Change" (1956)
"The Bomb in the Bathtub" Galaxy, Feb 1957
"The Icebox Blonde" (1959)
References
External links
short Scortia bio
U.S. Patent 3575744 for Nitronium Perchlorate Propellant Composition, at Google Patents
1926 births
1986 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Washington University in St. Louis alumni
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
|
[
-0.25146010518074036,
0.3767576813697815,
-0.7243524789810181,
0.3315217196941376,
0.1821812093257904,
0.27472761273384094,
0.5022615194320679,
0.41985368728637695,
-0.23672685027122498,
-0.06755619496107101,
-0.17246171832084656,
0.7150889039039612,
-0.2562689781188965,
0.38432949781417847,
0.27049151062965393,
-0.09910190105438232,
-0.42405182123184204,
0.0832851380109787,
-0.39974257349967957,
-0.07276596128940582,
-0.5086647868156433,
-0.27507710456848145,
0.297528475522995,
0.1826043426990509,
-0.23940356075763702,
0.410200834274292,
-0.15750980377197266,
-0.505838930606842,
0.04147786274552345,
-0.054858673363924026,
-0.0715419352054596,
0.6992174386978149,
0.195608988404274,
-0.2691236138343811,
-0.605082094669342,
-0.019432906061410904,
-0.498235285282135,
-0.15013879537582397,
-0.24455511569976807,
0.5110025405883789,
-0.23876170814037323,
0.33758988976478577,
-0.01141834631562233,
-0.21537546813488007,
-0.07834577560424805,
-0.08909279108047485,
-2.1497020721435547,
-0.4434981644153595,
-1.1166889667510986,
-0.29601114988327026,
0.09127578139305115,
-0.03611410781741142,
0.7051695585250854,
0.35145774483680725,
-0.18718090653419495,
0.28700023889541626,
-0.5379652976989746,
-0.2278362214565277,
0.15839217603206635,
-0.1426176130771637,
0.40035587549209595,
-0.2215891033411026,
0.14614076912403107,
0.011772076599299908,
0.5302777886390686,
0.1461312621831894,
-0.01566343568265438,
0.4179600775241852,
-0.4364563524723053,
0.3166864812374115,
-0.2532011568546295,
0.36862912774086,
0.7742746472358704,
-0.37045493721961975,
0.27516648173332214,
-0.1714797019958496,
0.43943965435028076,
0.05471991002559662,
-0.2846224904060364,
-0.27715033292770386,
0.0070716910995543,
0.10026628524065018,
0.941685676574707,
0.26555296778678894,
0.2873108386993408,
-0.16135086119174957,
-0.7245241403579712,
0.2884948253631592,
-0.10815974324941635,
0.2915314733982086,
-0.5791441202163696,
-0.35893070697784424,
-0.10902703553438187,
0.34819161891937256,
0.38265296816825867,
0.052265677601099014,
0.005931294523179531,
0.45311781764030457,
-0.19114993512630463,
0.25750717520713806,
-0.018857955932617188,
0.10356646031141281,
0.4194529354572296,
-0.3073560893535614,
-0.22761684656143188,
0.4668642282485962,
0.0781073048710823,
-0.4361909031867981,
0.3067397177219391,
-0.7775450944900513,
-0.5026084184646606,
0.45474132895469666,
-0.37070783972740173,
0.20701059699058533,
-0.2182307243347168,
0.7841014862060547,
0.12403662502765656,
-0.2757933735847473,
-0.6397333741188049,
-0.09399992972612381,
0.04323528707027435,
0.2746509313583374,
-0.09519081562757492,
-0.33601510524749756,
-0.8221657276153564,
0.36167076230049133,
0.28199175000190735,
0.1255737990140915,
-0.24440480768680573,
0.5549036860466003,
0.6315343976020813,
0.821899950504303,
-0.3763774335384369,
-0.2804689407348633,
-0.6748485565185547,
-0.024291688576340675,
0.4235464930534363,
0.2732187509536743,
-0.12019257247447968,
0.21615535020828247,
-0.475091814994812,
-0.281863808631897,
-1.7092015743255615,
-0.019670747220516205,
0.1273973137140274,
-0.009734652005136013,
-0.031164424493908882,
-0.003003665478900075,
0.10982140898704529,
-0.09950990974903107,
-0.2191845178604126,
0.13955029845237732,
0.006930519826710224,
-0.25831976532936096,
-0.32661038637161255,
0.6654674410820007,
0.10615963488817215,
0.4392879903316498,
0.2972467243671417,
0.14416630566120148,
0.44123703241348267,
-0.08982743322849274,
-0.46491771936416626,
0.11133968830108643,
0.11652218550443649,
0.0627213716506958,
0.3954802453517914,
-0.5596579313278198,
0.2975703477859497,
0.2641487419605255,
-0.32482337951660156,
-0.23822301626205444,
0.0083128921687603,
-0.5221844911575317,
-0.033758584409952164,
0.42996451258659363,
0.8580693006515503,
0.551422119140625,
-0.14061763882637024,
-0.3768064081668854,
-0.47519466280937195,
-0.24480222165584564,
-0.24212883412837982,
-0.384525865316391,
0.22657166421413422,
0.2272203266620636,
0.682309091091156,
-0.2750275433063507,
0.6061420440673828,
-0.402688205242157,
-0.4062032997608185,
-0.30047962069511414,
0.41189077496528625,
-0.11285320669412613,
1.1504390239715576,
0.2138165831565857,
-0.3818408250808716,
0.8472902774810791,
-0.23311388492584229,
0.5728757977485657,
-0.24575242400169373,
-0.19803692400455475,
0.45279043912887573,
-0.2651703357696533,
0.0267072431743145,
1.6213080883026123,
0.39272668957710266,
0.16346757113933563,
0.29392245411872864,
0.8478605151176453,
0.517572283744812,
-0.2802809476852417,
0.025572089478373528,
0.4528515040874481,
-0.1288587898015976,
-0.6475939750671387,
-0.36987239122390747,
-0.17650148272514343,
0.48486533761024475,
-0.7720333337783813,
0.8064106702804565,
0.2157275676727295,
-0.06743937730789185,
0.6569238305091858,
0.15250208973884583,
0.915035605430603,
0.23400427401065826,
-0.17051731050014496,
0.2235921174287796,
-0.5858786702156067,
0.04999089613556862,
0.3327641189098358,
0.3392331004142761,
-0.44596001505851746,
0.2684864103794098,
0.3186890184879303,
0.35994935035705566,
-0.5969642400741577,
-0.38279610872268677,
-0.11490735411643982,
0.056924834847450256,
0.2891462445259094,
-0.885108470916748,
0.3695356845855713,
0.4078964293003082,
0.10547332465648651,
0.1688365936279297,
-0.19346967339515686,
-0.22514890134334564,
0.2745753526687622,
0.2525895833969116,
0.8046905398368835,
0.5613420009613037,
0.09867855161428452,
0.07468651980161667,
0.1030261367559433,
-0.048554565757513046,
0.14642789959907532,
0.6105484366416931,
-0.15932726860046387,
-0.020759034901857376,
0.2328478991985321,
0.25723540782928467,
0.12264170497655869,
0.02125587873160839,
-0.42764049768447876,
0.24499264359474182,
-0.37035420536994934,
-0.25679340958595276,
0.21201938390731812,
0.10206443071365356,
-0.759617030620575,
0.0806674063205719,
-1.0320016145706177,
0.08985135704278946,
0.027896801009774208,
-0.43320488929748535,
-0.11757566034793854,
-0.6357204914093018,
-0.45991161465644836,
0.26749756932258606,
0.7782747149467468,
-0.11082112789154053,
0.345232218503952,
0.056735824793577194,
-0.13074913620948792,
0.23060962557792664,
-0.27262377738952637,
0.12749865651130676,
-0.0017319764010608196,
-0.4516872763633728,
0.40219736099243164,
-0.4679512679576874,
0.26219484210014343,
-0.4391134977340698,
0.32618293166160583,
-0.6869218945503235,
-0.7675813436508179,
0.1347481608390808,
-0.2974343001842499,
-0.3319167196750641,
0.5755538940429688,
-0.2159796506166458,
0.4696618616580963,
0.5834769010543823,
0.2209208905696869,
0.01602734997868538,
-0.2071409523487091,
-5.421212196350098,
0.4299384653568268,
-0.42492544651031494,
-0.2643601596355438,
0.04056651145219803,
0.6929061412811279,
0.4921641945838928,
0.10799691081047058,
0.2151954174041748,
-0.34350016713142395,
0.09292125701904297,
0.03915688395500183,
-0.10569257289171219,
0.9158697724342346,
0.9620046615600586,
0.7106115221977234,
0.412044495344162,
-0.011307419277727604,
0.16799789667129517,
0.5098633170127869,
0.2754971385002136,
-0.020024821162223816,
-0.1741866022348404,
0.23828549683094025,
0.22197295725345612,
0.5858022570610046,
-0.5158931016921997,
0.4067550003528595,
-0.6790036559104919,
0.027144111692905426,
0.22392155230045319,
0.08273202925920486,
-0.9155061841011047,
-0.4299272894859314,
-0.3125842809677124,
-0.42484480142593384,
0.8481351137161255,
0.3254058361053467,
0.3136766850948334,
0.08014772832393646,
-0.09947992861270905,
0.1930534839630127,
-0.7726079821586609,
0.1478126049041748,
-0.05387450009584427,
0.16797073185443878,
-0.6437742710113525,
0.21998903155326843,
0.008839411661028862,
0.8133033514022827,
-0.24370326101779938,
-0.17400825023651123,
0.1574055403470993,
0.6045799255371094,
0.16650886833667755,
0.06971121579408646,
0.729313313961029,
0.048156462609767914,
-0.6774248480796814,
0.5100353956222534,
0.22989565134048462,
-0.24556195735931396,
0.021638603881001472,
-0.5500237941741943,
-0.4928758144378662,
-0.07804842293262482,
0.09826692938804626,
-0.20468905568122864,
0.21007011830806732,
-0.5112517476081848,
-0.10259320586919785,
1.061352014541626,
-0.007036007475107908,
-1.3392585515975952,
-0.07297995686531067,
-0.09501136094331741,
-0.2889461815357208,
0.04493885487318039,
-1.0039544105529785,
-0.06545145064592361,
0.3160549998283386,
-0.3015397787094116,
-0.587677001953125,
0.35720741748809814,
0.5000819563865662,
0.4223751723766327,
-0.1457148641347885,
0.2894695997238159,
-0.6014922261238098,
-0.09941484034061432,
0.077985480427742,
0.01745268702507019,
0.2833303213119507,
0.15694831311702728,
0.3779103457927704,
0.19240929186344147,
0.2429398149251938,
-0.1130325198173523,
0.8344883918762207,
-0.2861153483390808,
-0.799474835395813,
-0.03176267072558403,
0.4930512607097626,
-0.45370638370513916,
-0.33332228660583496,
-0.35637855529785156,
-0.08238022029399872,
0.23205535113811493,
0.15157043933868408,
-0.10057651996612549,
0.06785113364458084,
0.5608353018760681,
-0.5234379172325134,
-0.39351096749305725,
0.5978595018386841,
0.3463236391544342,
-0.1654393970966339,
0.17996715009212494,
0.1686343401670456,
0.26722344756126404,
-0.019923310726881027,
0.1705479472875595,
0.0239159744232893,
-0.5801912546157837,
0.26954591274261475,
-0.4186711013317108,
-0.05043982341885567,
-0.11360229551792145,
-0.026517506688833237,
-0.11822232604026794,
-0.6683657765388489,
0.6470537781715393,
0.17594315111637115,
0.13972735404968262,
-0.11584679037332535,
-0.8394614458084106,
-0.9347571730613708,
-0.34282952547073364,
0.22235341370105743,
0.2067851722240448,
0.34371256828308105,
-0.5232493877410889,
0.0643949955701828,
0.2981429696083069,
0.07412900775671005,
-0.16049055755138397,
-0.037364110350608826,
0.0773845687508583,
-0.19744367897510529,
0.30532604455947876,
-0.1256696879863739,
-0.3266930878162384,
0.5577375888824463,
-0.7165780663490295,
-0.5147420763969421,
0.09877696633338928,
-0.2012169063091278,
0.07554072141647339,
-0.3739849328994751,
-0.3556777536869049,
0.3881378471851349,
-0.3151610493659973,
-1.251806378364563,
0.17829948663711548,
0.15954674780368805,
0.1153692826628685,
-0.6704661846160889,
-0.42658722400665283,
-0.4943894147872925,
0.6583694815635681,
0.18098342418670654,
-0.3954191207885742,
-0.3653016686439514,
-0.0782424807548523,
0.30020958185195923,
-0.08967584371566772,
0.112296462059021,
-0.05617867037653923,
0.22250714898109436,
0.003269960405305028,
0.025937218219041824,
0.14866113662719727,
-0.9608505964279175,
-0.2052292674779892,
0.5046477317810059,
-0.42010319232940674,
-0.07672856748104095,
-0.3224382996559143,
-0.16907046735286713,
0.17403756082057953,
-0.08975262939929962,
0.09090512245893478,
0.4775923490524292,
0.1862877607345581,
-0.07213626056909561,
-0.1274433732032776,
-0.010881754569709301,
-0.21797563135623932,
0.020139513537287712,
-0.3940010070800781,
0.2548823356628418,
0.07348699867725372,
-0.09663448482751846,
-0.15186183154582977,
0.14963051676750183,
-1.1037800312042236,
-0.3782613277435303,
0.005925092846155167,
-0.1899036318063736,
1.172186017036438,
-0.25018230080604553,
-0.48175346851348877,
-0.014760191552340984,
0.3906179368495941,
-0.2201671451330185,
0.4070468246936798,
0.32722997665405273,
0.12566138803958893,
-0.7431702613830566,
-0.39333105087280273,
-0.7626792192459106,
0.13542868196964264,
-0.378810852766037,
-0.6063740849494934,
-0.15183110535144806,
0.28475600481033325,
0.19671927392482758,
-0.04354210942983627,
0.732470691204071,
-0.03186247497797012,
-0.5871699452400208,
-0.12320568412542343,
0.29189884662628174,
-0.3292555510997772,
-0.3502674400806427,
-0.17496930062770844,
0.505526065826416,
0.35713863372802734,
-0.0033473302610218525,
-0.03804900124669075,
0.22606006264686584,
0.7229731678962708,
0.5629742741584778,
-0.35291263461112976,
0.38859254121780396,
-0.20812168717384338,
0.42667466402053833,
-0.3665679693222046,
-0.5501729846000671,
-0.22030013799667358,
0.5043079257011414,
-0.1055753231048584,
-0.7409974932670593,
0.20800568163394928,
0.9073928594589233,
-0.3379204273223877,
-0.36786511540412903,
0.362943172454834,
0.2535144090652466,
-0.29732564091682434,
0.06025753170251846,
-0.1764925718307495,
0.05298463627696037,
0.5591395497322083,
-0.1155748963356018,
-0.005108268465846777,
-0.3493700623512268,
-0.20266181230545044,
0.6935997009277344,
-0.49605900049209595,
0.12260418385267258,
-0.26740777492523193,
-0.11648285388946533,
0.6768560409545898,
-0.470617413520813,
0.17201872169971466,
0.40113967657089233,
-0.3250703513622284,
-0.17862370610237122,
-0.2792377471923828,
-0.021489208564162254,
0.28907400369644165,
-0.04040494188666344,
-0.14260639250278473,
-0.3070698082447052,
0.04888198524713516,
-0.17782561480998993,
0.022984355688095093,
0.009111816063523293,
0.09423574805259705,
-0.8357599377632141,
0.07810255140066147,
-0.2507558763027191,
-0.1295994222164154,
-0.08175420761108398,
-0.6517853140830994,
-0.6694878935813904,
0.6821516156196594,
-0.4244725704193115,
-0.5967844724655151,
-0.2615107297897339,
0.5906786918640137,
0.823136568069458,
-0.3486431837081909,
0.5283545255661011,
-0.4201028645038605,
-0.2400451898574829,
-0.022690018638968468,
-0.200601264834404,
0.05104038864374161,
0.2147304266691208,
-0.1021718978881836,
0.1468452364206314,
0.31739145517349243,
-0.5019118785858154,
-0.006082052364945412,
0.21081754565238953,
-0.5308699607849121,
0.08204540610313416,
0.08307617157697678,
0.3068762719631195,
0.16307111084461212,
0.5342680215835571,
-0.9502942562103271,
-0.22740009427070618,
0.8764340877532959,
-0.2590322196483612,
-0.14526456594467163,
-0.046932294964790344,
-0.24593485891819,
0.2364189475774765,
-0.46752339601516724,
-0.6849501132965088,
0.5774085521697998,
0.013548331335186958,
-0.43621209263801575,
0.35426583886146545,
-0.4158473014831543,
-0.14529579877853394,
0.3396463990211487,
-0.08717294037342072,
1.0197410583496094,
0.2377866506576538,
0.27979299426078796,
-0.28005537390708923,
-0.11267473548650742,
-0.19191886484622955,
0.8938289284706116,
-0.38507911562919617,
-0.6440859436988831,
0.500248372554779,
0.32184675335884094,
-0.016068773344159126,
-0.27997279167175293,
0.5369561910629272,
-0.10281353443861008,
0.17181727290153503,
-0.3145330846309662,
-0.1528923213481903,
-0.9295754432678223,
-0.3155631721019745,
0.19655267894268036,
0.6503549814224243,
0.3113501965999603,
0.38699495792388916,
-0.043505411595106125,
-0.08910472691059113,
-0.220343679189682,
-0.2737148702144623,
0.5783406496047974,
0.07425780594348907,
-0.15250442922115326,
0.2476683259010315,
0.9319722652435303,
0.19609099626541138,
0.3772004544734955,
0.6722837090492249,
-0.006437706761062145,
-0.2469632774591446,
-0.2774662375450134,
-0.5307353734970093,
0.07125071436166763,
0.10511801391839981,
0.19206082820892334,
0.3587023615837097,
-0.12489566206932068,
0.02444401942193508,
0.20874597132205963,
0.5676144361495972,
-0.05157588794827461,
0.024329030886292458,
-0.28807035088539124,
-0.21142801642417908,
0.4306756854057312,
-0.6215267181396484,
0.6302037835121155,
-0.30993136763572693,
0.7221280336380005,
0.1900462657213211,
-0.03213554248213768,
-0.11719594150781631,
-0.13429231941699982,
0.08302041888237,
-0.11910314112901688,
-0.4507620930671692,
0.11261600255966187,
-0.04022222012281418,
0.2504943013191223,
-0.9239261746406555,
0.32990527153015137,
-0.05234847590327263,
0.3630284368991852,
-0.5622733235359192,
0.5317279100418091,
-0.26691579818725586,
-0.15710437297821045,
0.2183440923690796,
-0.022651849314570427,
-0.3393562138080597,
0.08770739287137985,
0.2684708535671234,
0.24581240117549896,
-0.014383574016392231,
-0.30020222067832947,
0.03847473859786987,
0.016486044973134995,
0.18098044395446777,
0.27084606885910034,
-0.06296510994434357,
-0.22330111265182495,
-0.06128596514463425,
-0.43997782468795776,
-0.33398640155792236,
0.22581152617931366,
0.15166959166526794,
-0.2768111526966095,
0.5810215473175049,
0.4012375771999359,
0.39058518409729004,
-0.5441293716430664,
0.5620390176773071,
0.19887027144432068,
-0.30120670795440674,
-0.15171091258525848,
-2.495624542236328,
-0.06708267331123352,
-0.16554692387580872,
-0.6020791530609131,
0.5887464880943298,
0.04665693640708923,
-0.341705858707428,
-0.30920758843421936,
-0.11586408317089081,
-0.363171249628067,
0.005493295378983021,
0.32693248987197876,
0.0427473708987236,
-0.030052484944462776,
0.7574149370193481,
0.12617574632167816
] |
206008
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie
|
Tie
|
Tie has two principal meanings:
Tie (draw), a finish to a competition with identical results, particularly sports
Necktie, a long piece of cloth worn around the neck or shoulders
Tie or TIE may also refer to:
Engineering and technology
Tie (engineering), a strong component designed to keep two objects closely linked together
Railroad tie, a rectangular support for the rail
Tensilica Instruction Extension, a verilog-like language that is used to describe the instruction extensions to the Xtensa processor core
Time Independent Escape Sequence, a modem protocol
Enterprises and organizations
TiE (The Indus Entrepreneurs), a Silicon Valley non-profit
Titanium Metals Corporation, with the stock symbol TIE on the New York Stock Exchange
Transport Initiatives Edinburgh Ltd., an Edinburgh-based public transport company
Science
Interpersonal ties, in sociology and psychology
TIE receptors, specific types of cell surface receptors
Acronym
Theatre in Education
Time for Inclusive Education, an LGBT campaign group in Scotland
Times Interest Earned, a financial ratio
People
Tiê (born 1980), Brazilian singer-songwriter
Tahir Tie Domi (born 1969), Canadian retired National Hockey League player
Lie Tie (director) (1913–1996), Chinese film director
Li Tie (born 1977), Chinese retired footballer and Chinese national head coach
Lin Tie (1904–1989), Chinese communist revolutionary leader and politician, first Communist Party Chief and second governor of Hebei province
Esko Tie (1928–2002), Finnish ice hockey player
Wang Tie (born 1957), Chinese former politician
Cathy Tie (born 1996?), Chinese-Canadian bioinformatician and entrepreneur
Tie Xuan (1366–1402), Chinese general
Tie Ying (1916–2009), Chinese politician and major general
Tie Yinghua (born 1993), Chinese kickboxer
Other uses
Tie (music), a musical notation symbol joining two notes without a break
Tie (typography), a punctuation and diacritical sign
Tie (cavity wall), in construction
Twist tie, a piece of wire embedded in paper or plastic
TIE Fighter, a fictional spacecraft in the Star Wars universe
See also
Beer tie, a requirement that a British public house buy at least some of its beer from a particular brewery or pub company
Thai (disambiguation)
Ti (disambiguation)
Tye (disambiguation)
Tying (disambiguation)
|
[
0.6251879930496216,
-0.2573661208152771,
-0.03632128983736038,
0.25108349323272705,
-0.06402456015348434,
-0.03170410171151161,
-0.15850713849067688,
0.011156889609992504,
-0.2254050076007843,
-0.2048591822385788,
-0.5387883186340332,
0.05885689705610275,
-0.27015751600265503,
0.3233370780944824,
-0.16212093830108643,
0.2573610842227936,
0.3666863739490509,
0.3971414566040039,
-0.6417264342308044,
0.16122090816497803,
-0.6662943959236145,
0.19910207390785217,
0.045876532793045044,
0.16337355971336365,
0.056858815252780914,
0.43378347158432007,
-0.05730900913476944,
-0.27536889910697937,
-0.143274188041687,
0.04954400286078453,
0.5648592114448547,
0.004732185509055853,
-0.1506597399711609,
0.17726273834705353,
-0.13444113731384277,
-0.43809789419174194,
-0.19532816112041473,
-0.06179312989115715,
0.04953727871179581,
-1.0637930631637573,
-0.1378147006034851,
-0.009345988743007183,
0.46730953454971313,
0.36512646079063416,
-0.46683573722839355,
-0.16881299018859863,
-1.4162919521331787,
0.5244598388671875,
-0.6556648015975952,
0.519274115562439,
-0.4712555706501007,
0.25280287861824036,
0.044122859835624695,
0.6883413195610046,
0.051049720495939255,
0.41395413875579834,
-0.09530796855688095,
-0.09888389706611633,
0.06016254797577858,
-0.9864835143089294,
0.619573712348938,
0.16371341049671173,
0.1608590930700302,
0.3905852138996124,
0.40203699469566345,
0.11265342682600021,
-0.3033590316772461,
-0.06779065728187561,
-0.5839959383010864,
-0.20792551338672638,
0.12696796655654907,
-0.10233506560325623,
-0.025378139689564705,
0.11824819445610046,
-0.3119598925113678,
-0.35253265500068665,
-0.18391111493110657,
0.057946592569351196,
0.07570343464612961,
0.3166596591472626,
-0.09896304458379745,
0.38852792978286743,
0.4048861563205719,
0.3166077435016632,
0.5337592959403992,
0.2689230740070343,
-0.7019269466400146,
0.06904091686010361,
-0.21716034412384033,
0.5514729022979736,
0.2669380009174347,
-0.1161985844373703,
0.649572491645813,
0.38535141944885254,
-0.06706312298774719,
-0.17627857625484467,
0.43511125445365906,
-0.4609284996986389,
0.48540064692497253,
-0.02025616355240345,
0.09382080286741257,
-0.8868653178215027,
0.24203155934810638,
-0.30439114570617676,
-0.441243976354599,
0.23137927055358887,
-0.5859654545783997,
-0.3561588227748871,
0.24931015074253082,
0.16063380241394043,
-0.3778934180736542,
-0.2986373007297516,
0.18031106889247894,
0.630336582660675,
-0.2579638361930847,
-0.26268240809440613,
-0.3913841247558594,
0.2398504763841629,
-0.1783658117055893,
0.12081637978553772,
-0.30522945523262024,
0.18836180865764618,
-0.12265847623348236,
0.06816982477903366,
0.20544637739658356,
0.541876494884491,
0.04225008562207222,
0.8962612748146057,
-0.6983546018600464,
-0.2020741105079651,
0.41396045684814453,
0.446755051612854,
-0.4246344268321991,
-0.040084291249513626,
-0.6933866143226624,
-0.35381072759628296,
0.3794156014919281,
-0.059737786650657654,
0.2256336361169815,
0.08331593126058578,
-1.1074720621109009,
-0.4258995056152344,
0.07770844548940659,
-0.33951666951179504,
0.10091588646173477,
-0.6090119481086731,
-0.12903320789337158,
-0.22916163504123688,
0.05302731692790985,
0.13322721421718597,
-0.14896273612976074,
-0.1728641539812088,
-0.19427184760570526,
-0.233112633228302,
-0.23099385201931,
0.25567442178726196,
0.4887474775314331,
-0.3574858605861664,
-0.15339525043964386,
-0.04099292680621147,
0.0813990905880928,
0.08112362772226334,
-0.4844819903373718,
0.4112222492694855,
0.4207121729850769,
0.21709968149662018,
0.03843904659152031,
0.41093701124191284,
-0.502024233341217,
0.3991020917892456,
0.37455445528030396,
0.2697223126888275,
-0.01033429242670536,
-0.02390752173960209,
-0.2196718156337738,
0.6550776362419128,
-0.49268069863319397,
-0.10062848031520844,
0.6630169153213501,
0.01098282914608717,
-0.6791510581970215,
0.4500236213207245,
0.45395544171333313,
-0.052963219583034515,
-0.2576252222061157,
-0.09695402532815933,
-0.12558481097221375,
-0.2179839015007019,
-0.45173606276512146,
-0.0777302086353302,
-0.7120242118835449,
-0.006207111291587353,
-0.12297238409519196,
-1.0386253595352173,
0.9516347050666809,
-0.5105740427970886,
-0.23437964916229248,
1.047743320465088,
-0.6084876656532288,
0.37533068656921387,
0.08996593952178955,
0.033002451062202454,
0.4187309145927429,
-0.6408934593200684,
-0.21668240427970886,
0.26590991020202637,
0.4170871376991272,
0.33659473061561584,
-0.3778194189071655,
-0.4747907519340515,
0.4566310942173004,
-0.31075528264045715,
0.46504560112953186,
-0.26175448298454285,
0.5619657635688782,
-0.1304321438074112,
-0.566527783870697,
0.17914293706417084,
-0.014480410143733025,
-0.24067257344722748,
1.1123136281967163,
-0.2503467798233032,
-0.40942054986953735,
0.45418721437454224,
-0.10369303077459335,
0.5444523096084595,
-0.06431227922439575,
-0.08857809007167816,
0.3908938765525818,
-0.1800536811351776,
0.14644502103328705,
-0.17200380563735962,
0.1596878170967102,
-0.256865918636322,
0.0433260053396225,
-0.4499160349369049,
0.1832309067249298,
-0.41261211037635803,
0.4230842590332031,
-0.4284653961658478,
0.15588991343975067,
0.4469614326953888,
-0.4667869806289673,
-0.1789715588092804,
0.3842571973800659,
-0.3863924443721771,
0.1856292486190796,
-0.04913386330008507,
0.09966360032558441,
0.011456094682216644,
0.31438136100769043,
0.22897368669509888,
0.21159125864505768,
-0.05420110747218132,
-0.059960413724184036,
-0.23385734856128693,
-0.031158698722720146,
0.159196138381958,
-0.3029038906097412,
0.25401026010513306,
-0.09162154048681259,
-0.10182520747184753,
-0.16187411546707153,
-0.3260485529899597,
-0.007684497162699699,
-0.190147265791893,
-0.4814296066761017,
-0.2939876317977905,
0.7560765743255615,
0.6294749975204468,
0.39218127727508545,
0.31418412923812866,
-0.37616804242134094,
-0.21139074862003326,
-0.6214070320129395,
-0.6883066296577454,
0.76873779296875,
-0.030323633924126625,
-0.4182336628437042,
-0.9377683997154236,
-0.5135470628738403,
-0.15722985565662384,
0.12374025583267212,
-0.6777024865150452,
0.2247665673494339,
-0.4126650393009186,
-0.003958811517804861,
-0.013173152692615986,
-0.4302566647529602,
-0.009431869722902775,
0.26359322667121887,
0.5238797068595886,
-0.1435030698776245,
-0.15251334011554718,
1.0240042209625244,
0.5700980424880981,
-0.13676410913467407,
0.4622790515422821,
0.3024316728115082,
-0.5308056473731995,
0.1576174646615982,
0.19396208226680756,
0.2251436412334442,
-0.34984755516052246,
0.5446322560310364,
-0.45393821597099304,
0.09403954446315765,
-0.04164983332157135,
-6.081469535827637,
0.12878665328025818,
-0.2150668054819107,
-0.08904115855693817,
0.04594837874174118,
0.04859103262424469,
0.7641353011131287,
0.6249651312828064,
-0.017224503681063652,
-0.4601215124130249,
-0.006615642923861742,
0.12500835955142975,
-0.08063364028930664,
-0.025790631771087646,
0.13393931090831757,
0.7613118290901184,
0.3935023844242096,
-0.19006571173667908,
-0.14563946425914764,
0.142708420753479,
-0.5609885454177856,
0.06998545676469803,
0.18268226087093353,
0.7170366048812866,
-0.1778145283460617,
-0.18853847682476044,
-0.9634310007095337,
-0.05880916118621826,
0.17089630663394928,
0.06120665371417999,
0.040729083120822906,
0.2959032654762268,
0.05589276924729347,
-0.4897838532924652,
0.12083647400140762,
-0.3853921890258789,
0.4224427342414856,
-0.08890951424837112,
-0.24341508746147156,
0.01203541923314333,
-0.10464189201593399,
1.0057734251022339,
0.19681063294410706,
-0.29223257303237915,
0.6204695701599121,
-0.5915358066558838,
0.12125919759273529,
-0.19396299123764038,
-0.38487598299980164,
0.23125602304935455,
-0.6630996465682983,
0.35838407278060913,
0.18915534019470215,
-0.19360479712486267,
0.20126651227474213,
0.08658634126186371,
0.35604503750801086,
-0.09117566794157028,
-0.5834535360336304,
0.5161466598510742,
-0.2400953322649002,
-0.3664736747741699,
0.2803462743759155,
-0.44635728001594543,
-0.30708158016204834,
-0.14092634618282318,
-0.48251140117645264,
-0.5085075497627258,
0.1990620642900467,
0.31687116622924805,
-0.3200835585594177,
0.2547929286956787,
0.13672806322574615,
-0.6378081440925598,
0.15067312121391296,
-0.3872297406196594,
0.37696632742881775,
0.10906808078289032,
0.40232229232788086,
0.16856783628463745,
-0.052313391119241714,
-0.25337710976600647,
-0.28011566400527954,
0.0022739211563020945,
-0.07564437389373779,
-0.09917294234037399,
-0.011625421233475208,
-0.026055743917822838,
0.05876108631491661,
0.32594916224479675,
0.8262182474136353,
0.3406268358230591,
-0.07398682832717896,
0.37960729002952576,
0.3259804844856262,
0.07002973556518555,
-0.08907594531774521,
-0.16879808902740479,
-0.09171604365110397,
-0.27608755230903625,
0.40111279487609863,
-0.40748900175094604,
-0.2678208351135254,
-0.341259628534317,
0.07791583985090256,
-0.37990492582321167,
-0.19191503524780273,
0.43779054284095764,
0.8806677460670471,
-0.11047244817018509,
-0.012747019529342651,
0.17891061305999756,
-0.3544650077819824,
-0.16505882143974304,
0.21787786483764648,
-0.27475520968437195,
-0.1881687343120575,
0.4082176983356476,
0.035078614950180054,
-0.26100459694862366,
-0.07285166531801224,
0.5457004904747009,
-0.13357140123844147,
-0.2121901959180832,
-0.24153092503547668,
-0.2525348365306854,
-0.1688201129436493,
-0.2785545587539673,
0.45892906188964844,
-0.06401638686656952,
0.01830424927175045,
0.4144103527069092,
-0.18898534774780273,
-0.0852699875831604,
-0.22490324079990387,
0.020903244614601135,
-0.10911808162927628,
-0.011144786141812801,
-0.38143205642700195,
-0.8854002356529236,
0.3001193404197693,
-0.27298176288604736,
-0.1578453779220581,
-0.13420577347278595,
0.8780278563499451,
0.2449929267168045,
-0.5847145915031433,
0.3384104073047638,
0.010671003721654415,
0.6440768837928772,
0.01493501104414463,
-0.4838864505290985,
0.03638940677046776,
-0.4636588990688324,
-0.339367538690567,
-0.1517847180366516,
0.24165299534797668,
0.2128206193447113,
0.09053260833024979,
-0.2481447160243988,
0.17528057098388672,
0.27637505531311035,
-0.8648359775543213,
0.2239120602607727,
0.10908511281013489,
-0.19974853098392487,
-1.0152779817581177,
-0.3261483311653137,
-0.33874091506004333,
-0.19671601057052612,
0.27488818764686584,
-0.3180270195007324,
-0.01345689408481121,
-0.6179831624031067,
-0.19227005541324615,
0.3442854881286621,
-0.018553391098976135,
0.3186957538127899,
-0.13844634592533112,
0.25017157196998596,
0.37612804770469666,
-0.08624991029500961,
-0.050269320607185364,
0.3875490427017212,
0.3833601772785187,
-0.20870256423950195,
0.3161737620830536,
0.6827028393745422,
0.014444355852901936,
0.015442674048244953,
0.27298277616500854,
0.044175922870635986,
0.4945220351219177,
-0.05202915519475937,
-0.2740008234977722,
-0.28498145937919617,
0.20022347569465637,
0.21319176256656647,
-0.19324055314064026,
-0.5815231800079346,
0.1365053504705429,
0.6858872771263123,
-0.5006675124168396,
-0.41091713309288025,
0.009036875329911709,
-0.15585161745548248,
0.4610028564929962,
-0.1213415339589119,
0.0020528242457658052,
-0.17941397428512573,
-0.24365536868572235,
-0.57558673620224,
0.2546517252922058,
0.11107835918664932,
-0.6119999885559082,
-0.08901751786470413,
0.22947685420513153,
-0.36544689536094666,
-0.19907830655574799,
0.013987977057695389,
0.4395480155944824,
0.1433599442243576,
-0.1276601254940033,
-0.002355945762246847,
0.2881106734275818,
0.40982311964035034,
0.18367613852024078,
-0.04904041439294815,
0.39126089215278625,
-0.0776403471827507,
-0.46402508020401,
-0.2343818098306656,
-0.3908800184726715,
-0.06566229462623596,
0.07192204147577286,
0.2659565210342407,
-0.45307809114456177,
-0.12225814163684845,
0.6280034184455872,
-0.3046219050884247,
0.347151517868042,
0.5479924082756042,
0.16036194562911987,
-0.5041043162345886,
0.12691953778266907,
0.5825116038322449,
0.07112425565719604,
-0.40390604734420776,
-0.5404377579689026,
0.2772226929664612,
0.5472121238708496,
0.02264060452580452,
-0.4183483421802521,
-0.12000642716884613,
-0.10873377323150635,
-0.07512902468442917,
0.45926976203918457,
0.03736770525574684,
0.03866151347756386,
0.43756720423698425,
-0.3250645101070404,
-0.05260145291686058,
-0.3049119710922241,
-0.3625364899635315,
0.07032383978366852,
0.3991742432117462,
-0.35251885652542114,
-0.3061669170856476,
-0.2418009489774704,
-0.17825670540332794,
0.7106462121009827,
0.2792084813117981,
0.8126163482666016,
0.2812962234020233,
0.34309449791908264,
0.13161173462867737,
-0.32536637783050537,
0.0829315185546875,
-0.26757878065109253,
0.1258007287979126,
-0.43762627243995667,
-0.5614545345306396,
0.09227520227432251,
-0.1991814225912094,
0.3130045235157013,
-0.3691454827785492,
0.7433163523674011,
0.3001542389392853,
-0.38374263048171997,
-0.6358089447021484,
-0.48965340852737427,
-0.0515226274728775,
0.17734156548976898,
0.06643114984035492,
-0.39188575744628906,
-0.26598837971687317,
-0.012920933775603771,
0.27558159828186035,
0.3711397051811218,
0.6569541692733765,
-0.4382617771625519,
0.6328926086425781,
0.23478153347969055,
-0.5763840675354004,
0.2949292063713074,
0.5402787327766418,
0.19809071719646454,
-0.6701247692108154,
0.40353330969810486,
-0.22682592272758484,
0.26391422748565674,
-0.25767260789871216,
-0.020548926666378975,
0.5804997682571411,
0.07227479666471481,
-0.042300011962652206,
0.3068053424358368,
-0.24958327412605286,
0.5428979992866516,
0.2519426941871643,
0.24784693121910095,
-0.13489055633544922,
0.5661406517028809,
-0.05947207286953926,
0.023535259068012238,
0.21567191183567047,
-0.1130327507853508,
0.07614093273878098,
-0.09264791756868362,
0.7081766128540039,
0.47148826718330383,
0.07857846468687057,
0.18284392356872559,
0.07730820775032043,
-0.3188660442829132,
-0.27807706594467163,
-0.03723234310746193,
-0.4952904284000397,
-0.268130898475647,
0.9067241549491882,
0.46458661556243896,
0.5066418051719666,
-0.09959226101636887,
-0.2891043722629547,
-0.33095136284828186,
0.19926387071609497,
-0.12485230714082718,
0.24531610310077667,
-0.3033120036125183,
0.3439086377620697,
0.286477655172348,
-0.36620834469795227,
-0.023395085707306862,
-0.08010215312242508,
0.022400930523872375,
-0.4529765844345093,
0.42985624074935913,
0.03979739919304848,
0.3341161906719208,
0.11670084297657013,
0.06616504490375519,
0.4465496242046356,
0.45660990476608276,
-0.198729008436203,
-0.5699030160903931,
-0.13350999355316162,
0.20235897600650787,
-0.3859165608882904,
-0.16977517306804657,
-0.08660092949867249,
-0.0426814891397953,
0.491497665643692,
-0.22373098134994507,
0.33465564250946045,
-0.10578650236129761,
-0.017740774899721146,
0.5266392827033997,
0.6841413378715515,
0.31196850538253784,
0.37250977754592896,
-0.5724387764930725,
-0.24731937050819397,
-0.1404617428779602,
-0.4605877101421356,
0.02841910533607006,
-0.6601564288139343,
-0.2540893852710724,
0.07198412716388702,
-0.2468244880437851,
0.5460406541824341,
0.12039551138877869,
-0.2399846464395523,
0.03845789656043053,
0.14047038555145264,
0.10745350271463394,
-0.2677818536758423,
-0.3735155761241913,
0.8313817977905273,
-0.09997109323740005,
0.4404992163181305,
-0.22543996572494507,
0.08165460079908371,
0.5348442792892456,
-0.41520875692367554,
-0.3957897424697876,
0.27043670415878296,
-0.28273266553878784,
0.5748384594917297,
-0.42174074053764343,
0.2189664989709854,
0.5194129943847656,
-0.7972024083137512,
0.0279750507324934,
0.3241281509399414,
0.25923383235931396,
0.002147373277693987,
0.1430189311504364,
-0.2090441733598709,
-0.393454372882843,
-0.5435526371002197,
0.010652603581547737,
0.032525043934583664,
0.38932231068611145,
0.2319590002298355,
-0.1521097868680954,
-0.2150542438030243,
0.13981719315052032,
0.5457568168640137,
-0.5500969290733337,
0.7477294206619263,
-0.49357661604881287,
-0.10629924386739731,
-0.2322256714105606,
0.15348216891288757,
-0.24813435971736908,
-0.08821972459554672,
-0.22787223756313324,
0.20160262286663055,
-0.18454094231128693,
-0.168246328830719,
0.4949418604373932,
0.30310460925102234,
-0.4078976511955261,
-0.26785290241241455,
0.0864042118191719,
0.45980164408683777,
-0.24217744171619415,
0.2371373027563095,
-0.5918024182319641,
0.15809118747711182,
0.5014722347259521,
-0.6003062129020691,
0.6784034371376038,
0.1317692995071411,
0.1241801381111145,
0.042829085141420364,
-0.18893246352672577,
-0.6607761979103088,
-0.14931732416152954,
0.22486679255962372
] |
206009
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20Institute%20for%20National%20Security%20of%20America
|
Jewish Institute for National Security of America
|
The Jewish Institute for National Security of America (JINSA), formerly named the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs, is a Washington, D.C.-based, non-profit and pro-Israeli lobby and think-tank. It was founded in 1976 focusing on issues of national security, advocating that Israel can play an important role in bolstering democracy. It claims it has a membership of 20,000.
JINSA's stated aim is to:
Provide leadership and affect policy on crucial issues of national security and foreign policy; to promote American security cooperation with like-minded allies including, but not limited to, Israel; to engage the American defense community about the role Israel can and does play in securing Western, democratic interests in the Middle East and Mediterranean regions; and to improve awareness in the general public, as well as in the Jewish community of the importance of a strong American defense capability.
JINSA's advisory board includes former United States Senators Joe Lieberman (I-CT) and Rudy Boschwitz (R-MN), General James T. Conway, and Chief William J. McSweeney of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, while Vice President Dick Cheney, former National Security Advisor and former U.S. Representative to the United Nations John Bolton, and former Undersecretary of Defense for Policy Douglas Feith were all on JINSA's Board of Advisors before they entered the Bush administration. JINSA is a non-partisan organization welcoming advisors from both major political parties. It includes Democrats such as former Congressman Dave McCurdy and former Congresswoman Shelley Berkley.
Foreign policy positions
The Gemunder Center for Defense and Strategy
JINSA's Gemunder Center for Defense and Strategy is JINSA's policy center. Opened in 2013, the Gemunder Center performs research and advocacy on U.S. defense, strategic and general national security issues. The center's policy projects include:
The U.S.-Israel Security Policy Project- The U.S.-Israel Security Policy Project examines the various ways to strengthen the U.S.-Israel security relationship amid dramatic regional changes to meet growing dangers and capitalize on new opportunities. Admiral James Stavridis is the chairman of this project.
The Jordan Valley Policy Project - JINSA’s Jordan Valley Policy Project examines the strategic importance of Israeli sovereignty in the Jordan Valley for Israel’s self-defense, U.S. national security interests and stability in the Middle East.
The Iran Policy Project - Examining the strategic, economic and military options available to the United States to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons capability and counteract its destabilizing aggression against the United States and its allies. The Co-Chairs of this project are Ambassador Eric Edelman and General Charles F. Wald, USAF (Ret.).
The Eastern Mediterranean Policy Project - The Eastern Mediterranean Policy Project was established by JINSA to examine evolving threats and opportunities, and to provide recommendations, for U.S. policy toward the region, including Turkey’s increasingly aggressive posture, the return of great power competition and significant energy discoveries. The Co-Chairs of this project are Ambassador Eric Edelman and General Charles F. Wald, USAF (Ret.).
The Hybrid Warfare Policy Project - The Hybrid Warfare Policy Project defines the requirements of the law of armed conflict (LOAC) and to evaluate the performance of the U.S., Israeli, and other allied militaries in compliance with – and sometimes, beyond – the dictates of that law. At the same time, the Policy Project seeks to focus attention on the conduct of hybrid adversaries such as Hezbollah, Hamas, and Islamic State, which often intentionally exploit that same body of law to stymie U.S., Israeli, and allied forces in battle and to discredit their self-defense operations in the forum of public opinion.
The Gaza Assessment Policy Project - The strategy that Hamas employed in the 2014 Gaza War represents the new face of war that threatens to undermine the effectiveness of conventional militaries, endangers civilians in irregular conflicts, and distorts the international legal structure. The Gaza Assessment Policy Project closely studies the evolution of this strategy and Israel’s response, based on primary source research and discussions with senior Israeli, Palestinian, and United Nations (U.N.) officials.
The EMP Policy Project - Convenes former high-ranking government and military officials, directors of national laboratories, nuclear engineers and other experts to raise awareness and develop actionable recommendations to enhance U.S. strategic deterrence, critical infrastructure and societal resiliency against the spectrum of electromagnetic threats. Co-Chairs of this Task Force include Ambassador Robert Joseph, former Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security and Dr. Bryan Gabbard, Executive Vice President, Defense Group Inc.
Other policy recommendations
JINSA's policy recommendations for the U.S. government have included:
National ballistic missile defense systems.
Curbing of regional ballistic missile development and production worldwide.
Increased counterterrorism training and funding, prior to September 11, 2001 attacks.
Increased defense cooperation with Israel.
Substantially improved quality-of-life for U.S. service personnel and their families.
Support for joint U.S.-Israeli training and weapons development programs.
Bilateral mutual defense treaty with Israel is more narrowly defined than other such security pacts with fifty other U.S. partners.
JINSA supported President George W. Bush's policies in two regards, advocating the need for regime change in Iraq, cultivating close ties with Ahmed Chalabi. and supporting American funding for opposition groups in Iran.
JINSA has supported Azerbaijan in its war against Armenia as a means to weaken Iran. JINSA president Michael Makovsky has stated in a conversation with the Azerbaijani ambassador to the United States: "Whatever it’s worth, at JINSA, we believe that America has stronger strategic ties with Azerbaijan."
Programs
Generals and Admirals Program to Israel
One of JINSA's most important programs is to invite, with the assistance of the Pentagon and the U.S. Department of State, retired U.S. senior military officers to Israel. The Generals and Admirals Program includes meetings with Israeli political and military leaders.
More than 200 retired admirals and generals, including Shock and Awe theorist Adm. Leon "Bud" Edney, USN, Lt. Gen. Jay Garner, USA, Maj. Gen. David L. Grange, USA, Maj. Gen. Jarvis Lynch, USMC, Maj. Gen. Sidney Shachnow, USA, Adm. Leighton "Snuffy" Smith, USN, Adm. Carlisle Trost, USN and Brig. Gen. Thomas E. White, USA, have participated in the trips over the last 21 years. Participation in the program makes no requirements of the invitees to make statements, form opinions or maintain any further relationship with JINSA, yet many trip alums have participated more than once, and 50 past participants co-authored a statement on violence in the Palestinian-controlled territories that appeared in the New York Times in October 2000.
Jason Vest, writing in left-leaning The Nation, describes the program this way:
The bulk of JINSA's modest annual budget is spent on taking a bevy of retired US generals and admirals to Israel, where JINSA facilitates meetings between Israeli officials and the still-influential US flag officers, who, upon their return to the States, happily write op-eds and sign letters and advertisements championing the Likudnik line.
Other retired flag grade U.S. military officers recruited by JINSA include: Lt. Gen. Anthony Burshnick (USAF), Gen. Crosbie Saint (USA), Maj. Gen. Lee Downer (USAF), Gen. John Foss (USA), Adm. David Jeremiah (USN), Adm. Jerome Johnson (USN), and Rear Adm. Sumner Shapiro (USN).
Military Academies Program
In Israel, the JINSA Military Academies Program is a two-week program for cadets and midshipmen attending the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force, and the U.S. Coast Guard Academy. The program builds bridges for future associations between the U.S. Armed Forces and the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). At each academy, participants are selected in a competitive process by supervising faculty and receive academic credit for the program.
During the course of the program, the cadets and midshipmen engage in activities and discussions with young Israeli military officers, highlighting the role of the military in democratic countries, and similarities and differences in officer development. In the process, they visit six IDF bases. The cadets and midshipmen also meet with experts from academia, think tanks, and the private sector to receive briefings covering a broad spectrum of subjects related to security, society, and contemporary life in Israel. They also learn about the Israel's history and current events in the Middle East.
The program also includes activities designed to introduce the cadets and midshipmen to the many cultures that make up Israeli society, and organize visits to historic and religious sites.
Homeland Security Program
In 2002 JINSA initiated a program called LEEP (Law Enforcement Exchange Program) aimed at exchanging counter-terrorism experience and tactics between U.S. law enforcement agencies and their counterparts in the Israeli National Police. The primary focus of the program is to bring U.S. law enforcement executives (police chiefs, sheriffs, etc.) to Israel for an intensive program aimed at educating U.S. officials on techniques for countering domestic terrorism in the United States. From 2002 to 2020 over 200 U.S. federal, state, county and municipal law enforcement executives have been enrolled in the program, involving visits to Israel, together with thousands of US security personnel attending conferences where visiting Israeli experts have spoken. According to Max Blumenthal, JINSA has claimed that it has overseen the training of over 9,000 US police officials by Israeli-led experts. According to one US enforcement superintendent in 2004 these exchanges changed the way Homeland Security was being organized in New Jersey. The US-Israeli anthropologist,Jeff Halper co-founder of ICAHD and supporter of the BDS movement, has criticized these programmes, as based on military techniques developed to control the Palestinians in the Israeli occupied territories, as threatening to lead to an 'Israelization' of American police forces and a concomitant 'Palestinization' of the American people.
Publications
JINSA publishes U.S. policy-related publications including the semi-annual political magazine Journal of International Security Affairs. From 2016 the magazine became a free publication. For 22 years, JINSA published Security Affairs - a monthly newsletter. Apart from magazines and newsletters, the institute also publishes conference proceedings and monographs. In 2004, JINSA published a reference book: Profiles in Terror: A Guide to Middle East Terrorist Organizations by Aaron Mannes.
Awards
Each fall, JINSA presents an annual Henry M. "Scoop" Jackson Distinguished Service Award, named in honor of the late-Senator Henry M. "Scoop" Jackson to U.S. government leaders (generally a senior U.S. Government or Armed Forces official, a Senator or two Members of the United States House of Representatives) for their career dedication to U.S. national security. Past honorees have included:
1982 : Senator Henry M. "Scoop" Jackson
1984 : Ambassador Jeane J. Kirkpatrick
1985 : Congressman Jack Kemp
1986 : Senator Rudy Boschwitz
1987 : Ambassador Max Kampelman
1988 : Admiral William J. Crowe Jr., USN, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff
1989 : Professor Eugene V. Rostow
1990 : Senator Connie Mack
1991 : Dick Cheney, Secretary of Defense
1992 : Congressman Les Aspin
1993 : Congressman John P. Murtha
1994 : Senator Daniel K. Inouye
1995 : Senator Ted Stevens
1996 : Congressman Duncan Hunter and Congressman Norm Dicks
1997 : Senator Joe Lieberman
1998 : Senator John Warner
1999 : Congressman Ike Skelton and Congressman Curt Weldon
2000 : Senator Max Cleland
2001 : Gordon England, Secretary of the Navy, Dr. James Roche, Secretary of the Air Force, Thomas E. White, Secretary of the Army
2002 : Paul Wolfowitz, Deputy Secretary of Defense
2003 : Congresswoman Jane Harman and Congressman Jim Saxton
2004 : Senator Evan Bayh
2005 : General Peter Pace, USMC, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff
2006 : Senator John McCain
2007 : Robert Gates, Secretary of Defense
2008 : Admiral Michael Mullen, USN, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff
2009 : Army Gen. George W. Casey Jr., Army chief of staff; Marine Corps Gen. James T. Conway, Marine Corps commandant; Navy Adm. Gary Roughead, chief of naval operations; Coast Guard Adm. Thad W. Allen, Coast Guard commandant; Air Force Gen. Norton A. Schwartz, Air Force chief of staff; and Navy Adm. Eric T. Olson, commander of U.S. Special Operations Command.
2010 : Senator Jon Kyl
2011 : NATO Supreme Allied Commander Admiral James G. Stavridis
2012 : Senator Lindsey Graham
2013 : Senator Mark Kirk
2014 : Congressman Mac Thornberry
2015 : Congressman Ed Royce
In addition, beginning in 2003, JINSA has honored six enlisted representatives of the U.S. Armed Services and U.S. Special Operations Command, each selected by their respective services, with the "Grateful Nation Award" for duty that, while exemplary, might otherwise go unrecognized.
History
Founded in 1976 as a result of the lessons learned from the 1973 Yom Kippur War, JINSA communicates with the national security establishment and the general public to explain the role Israel can and does play in bolstering American interests, and the link between American defense policy and the security of Israel. JINSA's founding, according to Jason Vest, was prompted by "neoconservatives concerned that the United States might not be able to provide Israel with adequate military supplies in the event of another Arab-Israeli war."
In the late 1980s, JINSA underwent a profound repurposing of mission which, although retaining the interest in maintaining and strengthening the U.S.–Israeli defense relationship, widened its focus to general U.S. defense and foreign policy, with missions and meetings with national leaders and officials Ethiopia, Belgium, South Korea, India, Bulgaria, Italy, the Republic of China, Uzbekistan, Costa Rica, Spain, Eritrea, Jordan, the People's Republic of China, Hungary, United Kingdom and Germany.
JINSA, a charitable 501(c)(3) organization, maintains a staunchly non-partisan stance in its official policies and statements.
See also
American Israel Public Affairs Committee
American Jewish Committee
Foreign policy interest group
Jewish Council for Public Affairs
Military history of Jewish Americans
Saban Center for Middle East Policy
The Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations.
Washington Institute for Near East Policy
References
External links
Official website
Jews and Judaism in Washington, D.C.
Think tanks based in Washington, D.C.
Foreign policy and strategy think tanks in the United States
Political and economic think tanks in the United States
Foreign policy political advocacy groups in the United States
New Right organizations (United States)
Think tanks established in 1976
Israel–United States relations
United States–Middle Eastern relations
Middle Eastern studies in the United States
Jewish-American political organizations
501(c)(3) organizations
1976 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Jewish organizations based in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Jewish organizations
|
[
0.2855796217918396,
0.30264613032341003,
-0.20716118812561035,
0.08137056231498718,
-0.04927363246679306,
-0.19439366459846497,
0.41200515627861023,
-0.040381643921136856,
-0.04867864400148392,
-0.6216259598731995,
-0.2254563421010971,
-0.009634238667786121,
-0.014096708036959171,
0.3852410316467285,
-0.36780866980552673,
-0.08934590965509415,
0.2050144225358963,
0.5585651993751526,
0.10848439484834671,
-0.3175460994243622,
-0.5431363582611084,
-0.2499755620956421,
0.5910429358482361,
-0.01459470670670271,
-0.0249942634254694,
0.08151049166917801,
0.5460813641548157,
-0.2814059853553772,
-0.16510923206806183,
0.040848203003406525,
0.041452594101428986,
0.10772774368524551,
-0.12232694029808044,
-0.6230672001838684,
0.008193420246243477,
0.11564884334802628,
0.03511521965265274,
0.18007807433605194,
0.08272146433591843,
-0.16026999056339264,
-0.02257831022143364,
-0.3249644637107849,
-0.028974125161767006,
0.3731003403663635,
-0.15098150074481964,
-0.74571293592453,
-1.330980896949768,
0.5271454453468323,
-0.29554980993270874,
-0.3315121829509735,
-0.19404952228069305,
0.10726185888051987,
0.19058866798877716,
0.1793697625398636,
0.033772651106119156,
0.470791757106781,
-0.6793392300605774,
-0.27461525797843933,
0.1912350207567215,
-0.6119852662086487,
0.44528087973594666,
0.07582823932170868,
0.6951348185539246,
-0.18389922380447388,
0.4818292558193207,
-0.0656178742647171,
0.23082570731639862,
0.25034162402153015,
-0.02596256323158741,
-0.1332373470067978,
-0.33108294010162354,
-0.4490818381309509,
-0.5476596355438232,
0.040803294628858566,
-0.07090413570404053,
-0.22204755246639252,
0.38649502396583557,
0.05974044278264046,
0.1445361226797104,
0.1576446145772934,
-0.28141772747039795,
-0.06371856480836868,
0.32684117555618286,
-0.14295729994773865,
0.34323471784591675,
0.04993245005607605,
-0.570282518863678,
-0.2190639227628708,
-0.5185853242874146,
0.16665829718112946,
0.10186106711626053,
0.2326977699995041,
0.6291043758392334,
-0.020004579797387123,
0.017909711226820946,
-0.007045176811516285,
0.7684916853904724,
-0.13222463428974152,
0.1380687803030014,
0.2742854952812195,
-0.1556917279958725,
0.5352093577384949,
0.17493025958538055,
-0.2908077538013458,
-0.39058834314346313,
-0.049434516578912735,
-0.009037788026034832,
-0.5590884685516357,
0.40255194902420044,
-0.3940148651599884,
-0.023975329473614693,
0.427886962890625,
-0.05923670902848244,
-0.3589259684085846,
-0.3881928324699402,
0.9453645944595337,
0.23982666432857513,
-0.6792942881584167,
-0.1625620424747467,
-0.11338194459676743,
0.47892603278160095,
1.5720245838165283,
-0.4425220191478729,
0.09848829358816147,
0.005550445523113012,
0.31505444645881653,
0.7423211336135864,
0.24154508113861084,
0.017907798290252686,
-0.1674184948205948,
-0.08227209001779556,
0.13960662484169006,
-0.006906884256750345,
0.16923077404499054,
-0.44861432909965515,
-0.3319266140460968,
0.32124996185302734,
-0.2701052129268646,
0.608590841293335,
0.530572772026062,
-0.5727830529212952,
-0.8826838731765747,
-0.2262832671403885,
-0.6837964057922363,
0.32303065061569214,
-0.24543482065200806,
-0.32576388120651245,
-0.3907530903816223,
0.14071622490882874,
0.17447520792484283,
0.6663369536399841,
-0.10450255125761032,
-0.35114696621894836,
0.32097873091697693,
-0.08452600985765457,
-0.25717052817344666,
0.4435793161392212,
-0.0743541345000267,
0.7156090140342712,
0.5748034715652466,
-0.23057793080806732,
0.00776303093880415,
-0.24234649538993835,
0.07294947654008865,
-0.19976556301116943,
0.2702799439430237,
0.43985697627067566,
-0.2123277485370636,
-0.0789291113615036,
-0.09185583144426346,
-0.41514381766319275,
-0.12497946619987488,
0.6467053294181824,
-0.04954484850168228,
0.42749378085136414,
-0.14321814477443695,
0.5898807644844055,
0.14404456317424774,
-0.0900101438164711,
-0.258457750082016,
-0.5925865173339844,
-0.11450637131929398,
-0.22138196229934692,
-0.3140949606895447,
0.29240384697914124,
-0.09792713075876236,
-0.07391568273305893,
-0.2513180673122406,
-0.3565009534358978,
0.21646802127361298,
-0.2356356382369995,
-0.42131108045578003,
0.28702080249786377,
-0.33644720911979675,
0.9431065917015076,
-0.1258581131696701,
-0.5405521392822266,
1.2827887535095215,
-0.41546496748924255,
-0.049110326915979385,
-0.2590114176273346,
-0.1605757623910904,
0.4907822608947754,
0.22240050137043,
-0.30941447615623474,
0.5135982632637024,
0.0810043141245842,
0.49369627237319946,
0.3535371720790863,
0.11770349740982056,
0.517134964466095,
-0.61070716381073,
-0.17780427634716034,
0.09858404844999313,
0.305629163980484,
-0.3031526505947113,
-0.30370664596557617,
0.7322187423706055,
-0.05733124166727066,
0.027631327509880066,
1.653480887413025,
-0.3360688388347626,
0.2503347098827362,
0.06012624874711037,
-0.011221135035157204,
-0.0036250369157642126,
-0.10906776785850525,
0.396099716424942,
-0.016462132334709167,
-0.06432247161865234,
0.5688492655754089,
-0.2728094756603241,
0.3339601755142212,
-0.8380559682846069,
0.06091026961803436,
0.03442835807800293,
-0.5139926075935364,
-0.4465824067592621,
0.8586675524711609,
-0.056953418999910355,
-0.1463308483362198,
-0.0115463612601161,
-0.31937551498413086,
0.08800472319126129,
0.27732303738594055,
0.11910659074783325,
0.19603128731250763,
-0.15688353776931763,
0.22551394999027252,
-0.1039988249540329,
-0.03330252692103386,
0.2980579733848572,
0.5729893445968628,
-0.78288334608078,
0.20808713138103485,
0.49698859453201294,
0.19410927593708038,
0.023797709494829178,
0.648288905620575,
-0.05211818218231201,
0.10452769696712494,
0.19537878036499023,
-0.04221717268228531,
0.32520416378974915,
0.46427199244499207,
-0.4570290744304657,
0.09446226805448532,
-0.6055740118026733,
0.258856862783432,
0.11825314164161682,
1.01321542263031,
-0.04628356173634529,
-0.017913874238729477,
0.020633477717638016,
-0.03153378143906593,
-0.6387518048286438,
-0.038125209510326385,
0.5686143040657043,
-0.5178453326225281,
-0.19262100756168365,
0.464616060256958,
0.19678431749343872,
-0.060226716101169586,
0.13282153010368347,
0.09876699000597,
0.025308119133114815,
0.13399027287960052,
-0.40076744556427,
-0.021146543323993683,
-0.02356361225247383,
0.11063122004270554,
0.01712256856262684,
0.2536831498146057,
0.016501350328326225,
0.3024351894855499,
0.3831752836704254,
-0.03357700631022453,
-0.16567568480968475,
-0.2629085183143616,
0.08066882193088531,
-0.715594470500946,
0.5549176335334778,
-0.5689442157745361,
0.05693536624312401,
0.27336910367012024,
-0.1257263869047165,
-0.24771153926849365,
-0.20020326972007751,
-5.891472816467285,
-0.002261866582557559,
-0.9489948749542236,
-0.1046648621559143,
0.1870623230934143,
-0.33616361021995544,
0.4357657730579376,
-0.6661670207977295,
-0.15464401245117188,
-0.08880193531513214,
0.07463992387056351,
-0.23878830671310425,
0.34101828932762146,
0.4258255064487457,
0.12961719930171967,
0.24356365203857422,
0.19470660388469696,
-0.337098091840744,
0.34540995955467224,
0.08604628592729568,
0.0871243104338646,
-0.11041063070297241,
0.18667523562908173,
0.4153812825679779,
0.6047247648239136,
0.37214335799217224,
-0.4135776162147522,
0.03718949481844902,
-0.6410135626792908,
-0.3118232786655426,
0.3998246490955353,
-0.2836898863315582,
0.12948188185691833,
0.02781258337199688,
-0.04982995614409447,
-0.259685754776001,
0.3839954733848572,
0.013626853935420513,
0.6134530305862427,
-0.16121472418308258,
-0.08851319551467896,
0.3707352578639984,
0.016419656574726105,
-0.04202289134263992,
0.4273630976676941,
0.015078423544764519,
-0.3982144594192505,
-0.013648447580635548,
-0.3482693135738373,
0.513043999671936,
0.06888037919998169,
0.1472351998090744,
0.06813944876194,
-0.037779275327920914,
-0.7838218808174133,
-0.5558102130889893,
0.09240380674600601,
-0.010219460353255272,
-0.12369988858699799,
-0.12326285243034363,
0.7860057950019836,
-0.4418890178203583,
0.6049846410751343,
-0.3197441101074219,
-0.30686962604522705,
-0.7029827833175659,
-0.2935340404510498,
-0.36851489543914795,
0.3855814039707184,
0.35083091259002686,
-0.007940815761685371,
0.40828558802604675,
-0.030359914526343346,
-0.66823410987854,
0.270138144493103,
-0.31975555419921875,
0.2302468866109848,
-0.3393043577671051,
-0.2230049967765808,
0.2585052251815796,
0.09947529435157776,
0.09315229207277298,
0.016060464084148407,
0.5432021617889404,
0.23427382111549377,
-0.29928144812583923,
0.16440021991729736,
0.36152568459510803,
-0.6676053404808044,
-0.30512452125549316,
0.7548438906669617,
-0.26770663261413574,
0.7810674905776978,
0.22449658811092377,
0.06420362740755081,
0.6028151512145996,
0.05141490697860718,
0.48823657631874084,
0.33343052864074707,
-0.12911370396614075,
0.34677091240882874,
-0.12007360905408859,
-0.3165696859359741,
-1.0325050354003906,
-0.13642442226409912,
-0.004820965696126223,
-0.05614645034074783,
0.4144308269023895,
0.6653453707695007,
-0.2903781235218048,
-0.7166576385498047,
-0.36511504650115967,
-0.21005702018737793,
-0.35296329855918884,
0.33113211393356323,
-0.1176290288567543,
-0.33995261788368225,
0.2680965065956116,
0.22086504101753235,
0.7065313458442688,
-0.08271002769470215,
-0.07127922028303146,
0.36681893467903137,
0.5435866713523865,
-0.3322746753692627,
-0.6323724389076233,
-0.38777679204940796,
0.35571208596229553,
-0.051089417189359665,
0.08382651209831238,
0.44099709391593933,
0.47905486822128296,
0.017905741930007935,
0.2854047119617462,
0.3992404341697693,
-0.21025359630584717,
-0.370633602142334,
-0.49011993408203125,
-0.037667762488126755,
0.665374755859375,
0.34146949648857117,
0.13835115730762482,
-0.08561580628156662,
0.4953797161579132,
-0.05046706646680832,
0.5189444422721863,
-0.2055152803659439,
-0.01132881734520197,
-0.6652840971946716,
0.2838478982448578,
-0.244053915143013,
0.15537036955356598,
0.5386706590652466,
-0.02407446876168251,
-0.044660430401563644,
0.07616661489009857,
0.919384777545929,
0.18265624344348907,
-0.6454113721847534,
0.013806033879518509,
0.00502013461664319,
-0.3710498511791229,
-0.9576514363288879,
0.08091399073600769,
0.529114305973053,
-0.14711599051952362,
-0.4833562672138214,
-0.7151336669921875,
-0.37944063544273376,
0.9373635053634644,
0.1512632519006729,
0.06085353344678879,
-0.3763980269432068,
-0.42939019203186035,
0.24854040145874023,
0.43431639671325684,
0.189442977309227,
0.17520494759082794,
-0.21203000843524933,
-0.14875410497188568,
0.25399184226989746,
-0.32162100076675415,
-0.43161705136299133,
0.3495969772338867,
0.369089275598526,
-0.09703382104635239,
0.03222742676734924,
0.015466076321899891,
-0.3792838156223297,
-0.11312970519065857,
0.5866287350654602,
-0.5009384751319885,
0.09609465301036835,
0.06193571910262108,
-0.2761557698249817,
-0.402948796749115,
0.1546850949525833,
0.5673666000366211,
-0.553223192691803,
-0.3842215836048126,
0.5120561718940735,
0.3657887279987335,
-0.686120331287384,
0.6582650542259216,
-0.3635144531726837,
-0.28322988748550415,
0.3049376308917999,
0.2230854630470276,
0.07311975955963135,
0.6182248592376709,
-0.13091008365154266,
-0.3422822654247284,
0.04644952714443207,
-0.1253703534603119,
-0.2801376283168793,
-0.014165774919092655,
-0.12276536971330643,
-0.2693321704864502,
-0.046618517488241196,
-0.11791429668664932,
0.19201557338237762,
0.09621582180261612,
0.0775868147611618,
0.2532152235507965,
-0.5049380660057068,
0.36641132831573486,
0.3089470863342285,
-0.46423763036727905,
-0.1608942598104477,
-0.5576300024986267,
-0.19026735424995422,
0.1462336629629135,
0.27627426385879517,
0.01106663141399622,
-0.31793078780174255,
-0.2124280035495758,
-0.1397271454334259,
0.05618568882346153,
0.09379303455352783,
0.47230756282806396,
-0.5548020005226135,
-0.04675712436437607,
-0.16489332914352417,
-0.6845574378967285,
-0.06413643062114716,
0.28046372532844543,
0.2427440881729126,
-0.020956672728061676,
-0.13077732920646667,
0.25668036937713623,
0.3362371325492859,
-0.7094135284423828,
-0.20192937552928925,
-0.5832324028015137,
0.6613112688064575,
0.23428061604499817,
-0.4028172194957733,
0.22434021532535553,
-0.5019963979721069,
-0.6596391201019287,
-0.032974809408187866,
-0.5296972990036011,
-1.0106818675994873,
0.007760964799672365,
-0.23473192751407623,
-0.23490497469902039,
0.3062112629413605,
-0.8802106380462646,
-0.09135298430919647,
-0.7212729454040527,
-0.45091256499290466,
-0.16071981191635132,
0.7212007641792297,
0.7544937133789062,
-0.3657187521457672,
-0.020102955400943756,
-0.02211712673306465,
-0.266821950674057,
-0.13624845445156097,
0.10678034275770187,
-0.2197621464729309,
-0.11008871346712112,
-0.030845344066619873,
0.0024488510098308325,
0.39489126205444336,
-1.0164636373519897,
-0.20213443040847778,
0.24892880022525787,
-0.05030461400747299,
0.09341888129711151,
-0.5345878005027771,
-0.4168873727321625,
-0.17821072041988373,
0.1386946141719818,
-0.8364242911338806,
-0.43809494376182556,
0.5555994510650635,
0.005017520394176245,
0.5454279184341431,
-0.32099485397338867,
-0.7462798953056335,
-0.020777983590960503,
0.19967158138751984,
0.2066703885793686,
0.32680803537368774,
0.29479771852493286,
-0.09184715151786804,
0.2048654407262802,
-0.15168191492557526,
-0.1605139523744583,
-0.18682274222373962,
-0.6385669708251953,
0.9279473423957825,
0.41831308603286743,
-0.6750482320785522,
0.2422018051147461,
0.1940145045518875,
-0.8640586137771606,
0.18298014998435974,
-0.26071643829345703,
-0.49831342697143555,
0.5749295949935913,
0.27887460589408875,
0.11305318027734756,
0.0023917488288134336,
0.591892421245575,
0.39889904856681824,
0.05692322179675102,
0.08258000761270523,
-0.15023279190063477,
0.41981393098831177,
0.6103766560554504,
-0.4849991798400879,
0.2291126400232315,
0.18715731799602509,
-0.10697280615568161,
-0.016442904248833656,
-0.8426211476325989,
-0.7007244825363159,
0.7351177930831909,
0.3558470904827118,
0.8296374082565308,
0.11359476298093796,
0.2792772650718689,
-0.5794183015823364,
0.3586670756340027,
0.44878169894218445,
0.4199424088001251,
0.16250097751617432,
0.015263205394148827,
0.26055991649627686,
0.00837348960340023,
-0.3396226763725281,
-0.31108638644218445,
0.24060221016407013,
-0.10447361320257187,
0.24127349257469177,
-0.3444804549217224,
0.13017314672470093,
-0.07353056967258453,
-0.06092501059174538,
0.2641555964946747,
0.4831397235393524,
-0.36579573154449463,
-0.09645748138427734,
-0.18983948230743408,
0.4426382780075073,
-1.2279592752456665,
0.10472360253334045,
-0.12307442724704742,
-0.1818026304244995,
-0.07488241791725159,
-0.4340008795261383,
-0.059244852513074875,
0.3576105237007141,
0.17518305778503418,
0.04161525145173073,
0.10750729590654373,
0.056412626057863235,
0.3684229254722595,
-0.3177240490913391,
0.1903156042098999,
-0.6505165100097656,
-0.5409287810325623,
0.12920300662517548,
0.3928302228450775,
-0.4406372010707855,
-0.17657607793807983,
-0.5509904026985168,
-0.24541863799095154,
0.016249019652605057,
-0.7030119895935059,
0.27050694823265076,
0.023805389180779457,
0.25566184520721436,
0.25643086433410645,
-0.024695364758372307,
0.5721015930175781,
0.18504928052425385,
0.444830060005188,
-0.10983574390411377,
0.278606653213501,
0.31415748596191406,
0.1583579033613205,
-0.586963951587677,
-0.07948609441518784,
-0.08241017162799835,
-0.4114907383918762,
-0.13174006342887878,
0.240197092294693,
0.1380467563867569,
0.14856110513210297,
-0.29435962438583374,
0.6330370903015137,
-0.2362261265516281,
0.5086998343467712,
1.1294541358947754,
-0.24404512345790863,
-0.23834754526615143,
-0.13849781453609467,
-0.14548154175281525,
-0.49258577823638916,
-0.08489330112934113,
0.1735534518957138,
-0.2584279477596283,
-0.5842645764350891,
0.6437827348709106,
0.2883313000202179,
-0.29911160469055176,
0.05871182680130005,
-0.19752800464630127,
-0.6608388423919678,
-0.2525021731853485,
0.19157612323760986,
-0.5278909802436829,
-0.18033689260482788,
0.3285447657108307,
0.730317234992981,
1.0370428562164307,
-0.44990256428718567,
-0.0620027594268322,
-0.0543656125664711,
0.25091788172721863,
-0.10825680941343307,
0.23262955248355865,
0.3075456917285919,
-0.5341572165489197,
-0.8517946600914001,
-0.17747318744659424,
0.575426459312439,
-0.4417678713798523,
-0.8677757978439331,
-0.02279852144420147,
-0.09432834386825562,
-0.004245906602591276,
-0.2419665902853012,
0.2235063761472702,
-0.30318981409072876,
0.5438438057899475,
-0.007781410589814186
] |
206011
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20management%20software
|
Project management software
|
Project management software (PMS) has the capacity to help plan, organize, and manage resource tools and develop resource estimates. Depending on the sophistication of the software, it can manage estimation and planning, scheduling, cost control and budget management, resource allocation, collaboration software, communication, decision-making, quality management, time management and documentation or administration systems. Numerous PC and browser-based project management software and contract management software products and services are available.
History
Predecessors
The first historically relevant year for the development of project management software is 1896, marked by the introduction of the Harmonogram. Polish economist Karol Adamiecki attempted to display task development in a floating chart, and laid the foundation for project management software as it is today. 1912 was the year when Henry Gantt replaced the Harmonogram with the more advanced Gantt chart, a scheduling diagram which broke ship design tasks down for the purposes of Hoover Dam in early 1931. Today's Gantt charts are almost the same as their original counterparts, and are a part of many project management systems.
Emergence of the term "project management" and modernized techniques
The term project management was not used prior to 1954, when US Air Force General Bernard Adolph Schriever introduced it for military purposes. In the years to follow, project management gained relevance in the business world, a trend which had a lot to do with the formation of the American Association of Engineers AACE (1956), and Rang and DuPont's Critical Path Method calculating project duration ever since 1957.
The trend is also related to the appearance of the Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) in 1958. PERT went further with monitoring projects, and enabled users to monitor tasks, being at the same time able to evaluate their quality, and to estimate the time needed to accomplish each of them. As with Gantt charts and CPM, PERT was invented for military purposes, this time for the US Navy Polaris missile submarine program.
In 1965, there was a new improvement in project management technology. The US department of defense presented the work breakdown structure (WBS) to dissolve projects to even smaller visual units, organizing them in hierarchical tree structure. WBS was an inspiration for Winston Royce’s Waterfall Method (1970) where management phases are organized in a way which doesn’t allow a new task to begin before the previous ones are completed.
The first project management products and associations
In the period between 1965 and 1969 were formed two of the leading project management associations: the International Project Management Association (IPMA) in Europe, and the Project Management Institute (PMI) which trains project management professionals and issues certificates. With business shifting towards technology-based and paperless methods, the first project management systems started to emerge. Oracle and Artemis launched their project managers in 1977, while Scitor Corporation did the same in 1979. Many improvements followed in the upcoming decades: in 1986, Carnegie Mellon University’s Software Engineering Institute introduced capability maturity software, a five-level project management method for rapidly maturing processes, while in 1988 users met earned value management which added processes’ scope and cost to the schedule. The trend continued with PRINCE2 (1996) which increased the number of processes to seven, because of which developers considered designing products for managing complex projects. In 2001, they adopted the Agile project management concept, and focused on adaptive planning and flexible response to changes. In 2006, users were already able to trigger total cost management, a framework that helps controlling and reducing costs in project management.
SaaS and cloud-based project management software
The SaaS (software-as-a-service) trend began in 2008, qualified by users as the most flexible type of project management software for their teams. In 2009, US News classified project management as one of the most demanded skills for obtaining a well-paid job.
From 2010 on, popular project management products and services were cloud-based, designed for the needs of virtual teams looking to access information from any location or device. As a result, 2012 brought mobile project management apps.
Trends
With the advent of the Internet-of-Things, project management software was developed to incorporate testing technologies, development tools, and improved cyber security methods.
Tasks and Activities
Scheduling
One of the most common project management software tool types is scheduling tools. Scheduling tools are used to sequence project activities and assign dates and resources to them. The detail and sophistication of a schedule produced by a scheduling tool can vary considerably with the project management methodology used, the features provided and the scheduling methods supported. Scheduling tools may include support for:
Multiple dependency relationship types between activities.
Resource assignment and leveling
Critical path
Activity duration estimation and probability-based simulation
Activity cost accounting.
Providing Information
Project planning software can be expected to provide information to various people or stakeholders, and can be used to measure and justify the level of effort required to complete the project(s). Typical requirements might include:
Overview information on how long tasks will take to complete.
Early warning of any risks to the project.
Information on workload, for planning holidays.
Evidence.
Historical information on how projects have progressed, and in particular, how actual and planned performance are related.
Optimum utilization of available resource.
Cost maintenance.
Collaboration with each teammates and customers.
Instant communication to collaborators and customers.
Types
Desktop
Project management software has been implemented as a program that runs on the desktop of each user. Project management tools that are implemented as desktop software are typically single-user applications used by the project manager or another subject matter expert, such as a scheduler or risk manager.
Web-based
Project management software has been implemented as a web application to be accessed using a web browser. This may also include the ability to use a smartphone or tablet to gain access to the application. Software as a service (SaaS) is also web-based and has become a common delivery model for many business applications, including project management, project management information system (PMIS) and project portfolio management (PPM). SaaS is typically accessed by users using a thin client via a web browser.
Mobile
In recent years project management software has moved to Mobile devices. In 2015 there are more cell phones than computers in the world, therefore the move of SaaS applications to the mobile devices makes perfect sense. This migration has had the additional benefit of enabling the users to view and update project details on the go.
Open Source
Project management software is often published as open source, comprising approximately half of the applications listed in the article Comparison of project management software.
Personal
A personal project management application is one used at home, typically to manage lifestyle or home projects. There is considerable overlap with single user systems, although personal project management software typically involves simpler interfaces. See also non-specialized tools below.
Single user
A single-user system is programmed with the assumption that only one person will ever need to edit the project plan at once. This may be used in small companies, or ones where only a few people are involved in top-down project planning. Desktop applications generally fall into this category.
Collaborative
A collaborative system is designed to support multiple users modifying different sections of the plan at once; for example, updating the areas they personally are responsible for such that those estimates get integrated into the overall plan. Web-based tools, including extranets, generally fall into this category, but have the limitation that they can only be used when the user has live Internet access. To address this limitation, some software tools using client–server architecture provide a rich client that runs on users' desktop computer and replicates project and task information to other project team members through a central server when users connect periodically to the network. Some tools allow team members to check out their schedules (and others' as read only) to work on them while not on the network. When reconnecting to the database, all changes are synchronized with the other schedules.
Visual
A common problem in project management is a difficulty with both viewing and understanding large amounts of fluctuating project data. To tackle this, some project management software utilize information visualization, so that users can more easily find, analyze and make changes to their data. To avoid information overload, the visualization mantra of “overview first, zoom and filter, then details on demand” is often followed.
References
Further reading
Project Time Management. (2008). In A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide) (4th ed., p. 145). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute.
|
[
0.012212522327899933,
0.1724512130022049,
-0.03401784598827362,
0.402627557516098,
0.46632352471351624,
0.08756201714277267,
-0.15647296607494354,
-0.10998646914958954,
-0.35668906569480896,
-0.5610197186470032,
-0.6080008745193481,
0.5374025106430054,
0.29322755336761475,
-0.06938295066356659,
0.08436547964811325,
0.10669897496700287,
0.27666419744491577,
0.1325444132089615,
0.1514950841665268,
-0.09794586151838303,
-0.7378416657447815,
-0.3475395143032074,
0.4493737518787384,
-0.43431222438812256,
-0.44864732027053833,
0.3199332058429718,
0.2094717025756836,
0.5772053599357605,
-0.11309778690338135,
-0.3065354526042938,
0.028320029377937317,
0.07579252868890762,
0.16395406424999237,
-0.39023420214653015,
-0.08688254654407501,
0.10476276278495789,
-0.38188162446022034,
0.1679408699274063,
-0.5832991600036621,
-0.8031704425811768,
-0.045605894178152084,
-0.14735716581344604,
-0.06219888851046562,
0.14597077667713165,
-0.11301083862781525,
-0.69366455078125,
-1.5560849905014038,
-0.3368036448955536,
-0.6584002375602722,
0.12006554007530212,
-0.7359956502914429,
0.78525710105896,
-0.034579187631607056,
-0.4429474472999573,
-0.015344001352787018,
0.7065730094909668,
0.16616807878017426,
-0.4535658061504364,
-0.12062501907348633,
0.060611557215452194,
0.08187618106603622,
-0.2731419503688812,
-0.31403616070747375,
0.35692790150642395,
0.48974230885505676,
0.0963783860206604,
-0.10029620677232742,
0.03781813383102417,
-0.6151976585388184,
-0.18941377103328705,
-0.477430522441864,
-0.28889140486717224,
-0.23314960300922394,
0.5019285082817078,
-0.793235719203949,
-0.2091885805130005,
0.22781291604042053,
-0.12501783668994904,
-0.26262813806533813,
0.35334354639053345,
0.014168928377330303,
1.0670478343963623,
0.8105946779251099,
-0.06206217035651207,
0.7513022422790527,
0.3254917562007904,
0.3364957273006439,
0.5143096446990967,
-0.35937780141830444,
0.6778889298439026,
0.549901008605957,
-0.37106212973594666,
0.6579090356826782,
0.2737014889717102,
0.443318635225296,
0.09133605659008026,
-0.12124790251255035,
0.5274416208267212,
-0.028123166412115097,
0.6335458159446716,
-0.24429969489574432,
0.19079677760601044,
-0.05867120623588562,
0.1389600932598114,
0.302254855632782,
-0.05945232883095741,
-0.09170170873403549,
-0.7710661292076111,
-0.9969887137413025,
-0.03939027339220047,
-0.21067214012145996,
0.21584084630012512,
-0.2601480484008789,
-0.09342995285987854,
-0.4005357623100281,
0.6512711048126221,
0.419534295797348,
0.06089002266526222,
-0.35973238945007324,
0.3264196217060089,
0.553105354309082,
0.9491121172904968,
0.009355254471302032,
-0.1565428078174591,
-0.09465014189481735,
0.1424957811832428,
1.121259331703186,
0.4719689190387726,
-0.01638348028063774,
-0.06292137503623962,
0.02653713896870613,
0.8693112134933472,
0.05256229639053345,
0.008475063368678093,
-0.38246914744377136,
-0.20376859605312347,
0.5978968143463135,
0.07368391007184982,
0.2511097192764282,
-0.1718178391456604,
-0.8009276390075684,
-0.5240718126296997,
-0.3379259705543518,
-0.394536554813385,
0.40077781677246094,
0.2730560898780823,
0.5083080530166626,
-0.5685759782791138,
-0.3655191957950592,
0.309695839881897,
0.1722937673330307,
0.1520940661430359,
-0.5228767991065979,
0.1715208888053894,
-0.3797312080860138,
0.408160537481308,
0.5719130039215088,
-0.5959063768386841,
-0.3446217179298401,
0.13218773901462555,
0.1545388251543045,
0.28162243962287903,
-0.6065504550933838,
-0.08142662048339844,
-0.040028832852840424,
-0.2453552484512329,
0.4509974718093872,
0.15987332165241241,
0.8923853039741516,
-0.0893021896481514,
-0.11224103718996048,
-0.22381886839866638,
-0.048619117587804794,
-0.0827496349811554,
0.6301292777061462,
-0.006386417895555496,
0.5726024508476257,
0.3221205770969391,
0.7464323043823242,
0.0358082577586174,
-0.35817015171051025,
0.2760748565196991,
0.13590046763420105,
-0.3015306890010834,
0.40313464403152466,
-0.26955530047416687,
0.8173907399177551,
-0.35153964161872864,
-0.15089455246925354,
-0.06696560233831406,
-1.0717451572418213,
-0.5489426851272583,
0.42648962140083313,
-0.4218907654285431,
0.8706679940223694,
-0.23399455845355988,
-0.5926347374916077,
0.8142839074134827,
0.013764371164143085,
0.3896348476409912,
0.31398633122444153,
-0.10539737343788147,
-0.35082298517227173,
-0.4450065791606903,
-0.8653027415275574,
-0.11226217448711395,
0.5704625248908997,
-0.004216535948216915,
-0.6459741592407227,
0.06939580291509628,
-0.2153141349554062,
-0.3240959048271179,
0.23788002133369446,
-0.600008487701416,
0.26143360137939453,
-0.08848074078559875,
-0.5675076842308044,
0.4331786036491394,
-0.22994306683540344,
-0.0485646091401577,
1.2960197925567627,
-0.24569575488567352,
0.03914082795381546,
1.0802416801452637,
-0.5763189792633057,
0.18014341592788696,
0.3395964205265045,
-0.35939130187034607,
0.8126584887504578,
-0.6893979907035828,
0.28261926770210266,
0.12904632091522217,
0.1199272871017456,
-0.8175506591796875,
-0.307975709438324,
0.02815483883023262,
-0.19207918643951416,
-0.5581631660461426,
0.14828082919120789,
0.09473735839128494,
-0.220812126994133,
0.12716931104660034,
-0.32895317673683167,
-0.025428874418139458,
0.5125339031219482,
-0.09565349668264389,
-0.15675656497478485,
0.0038195911329239607,
-0.7314595580101013,
0.037506766617298126,
-0.26483145356178284,
0.6659761071205139,
0.3838491141796112,
-0.5983661413192749,
-0.5213876366615295,
0.05325273051857948,
-0.17558491230010986,
-0.1622985601425171,
-0.5132156610488892,
0.15994738042354584,
-0.19941763579845428,
0.2980213165283203,
0.19267620146274567,
0.44427382946014404,
0.3463325798511505,
-0.4262253940105438,
-0.1299980878829956,
-0.39069536328315735,
-0.08069413900375366,
0.6735042929649353,
-0.028358174487948418,
-0.49227580428123474,
-0.36933761835098267,
-0.27145424485206604,
-0.12769199907779694,
-0.9584512114524841,
0.20060905814170837,
-0.00541236437857151,
-0.6439242362976074,
-0.5691606998443604,
0.5845243334770203,
0.4947572350502014,
0.484090119600296,
-0.4208650290966034,
0.01083099003881216,
0.01593102514743805,
-0.0574234202504158,
0.05621928349137306,
-0.1749344915151596,
0.00009342331031803042,
-0.47544771432876587,
-0.04992878809571266,
-0.37633219361305237,
0.1828523427248001,
0.5126577019691467,
0.23434817790985107,
0.17838187515735626,
0.22067557275295258,
0.38341188430786133,
-0.1035078763961792,
-0.295074462890625,
-0.0343041718006134,
-0.04387722909450531,
-0.5970664024353027,
0.02369488589465618,
-0.18567830324172974,
0.13958385586738586,
-0.18135163187980652,
-5.626992702484131,
-0.8023426532745361,
-0.35557931661605835,
-0.270010381937027,
0.08797461539506912,
0.20139819383621216,
0.8204909563064575,
-0.2935343384742737,
0.19203642010688782,
-0.2536100447177887,
0.029135780408978462,
0.1246359720826149,
0.18686379492282867,
0.3463728725910187,
0.34035271406173706,
0.4610513746738434,
0.8252821564674377,
0.0874863862991333,
0.6038862466812134,
0.09316060692071915,
0.23015496134757996,
-0.4751649498939514,
-0.4625263214111328,
0.3235955238342285,
-0.02620893530547619,
0.12487132847309113,
-0.5852683186531067,
0.46041223406791687,
-0.5666837692260742,
-0.04643203690648079,
0.1695411205291748,
-0.4535622000694275,
-0.28441935777664185,
-0.11105465143918991,
-0.21036384999752045,
0.10598286986351013,
0.45734837651252747,
0.2067853957414627,
0.31750792264938354,
-0.5268666744232178,
0.07778840512037277,
0.11346060037612915,
-0.06548945605754852,
0.004616559483110905,
0.20697207748889923,
-0.23221954703330994,
-0.1285797506570816,
-0.1604740172624588,
0.29834675788879395,
0.5585700869560242,
-0.06298915296792984,
0.19935017824172974,
0.6376211643218994,
-0.04137890413403511,
-0.11990943551063538,
-0.3041321635246277,
0.9485450387001038,
-0.012582702562212944,
-0.5847689509391785,
0.6264012455940247,
0.669680118560791,
-0.6518871784210205,
-0.07233045250177383,
-0.81857830286026,
-0.5792674422264099,
0.001213734969496727,
-0.49596062302589417,
-0.8331654667854309,
-0.2776475250720978,
0.15178823471069336,
-0.23920193314552307,
0.6236432790756226,
-0.03644575551152229,
-0.5918887257575989,
0.20505672693252563,
-0.555752694606781,
0.38083845376968384,
0.04833303391933441,
0.15492276847362518,
-0.17764002084732056,
-0.10183846205472946,
-0.64313143491745,
-0.04833066090941429,
-0.3687035143375397,
-0.12136606127023697,
0.16599546372890472,
-0.002114508766680956,
0.3558266758918762,
-0.4315302073955536,
-0.12884630262851715,
0.48595675826072693,
-0.006939585320651531,
0.6209849119186401,
0.44312813878059387,
0.49239593744277954,
0.5279390811920166,
0.7035049796104431,
0.2016170471906662,
0.1657969206571579,
-0.46855536103248596,
-0.07776391506195068,
-0.1439041793346405,
-0.4056994616985321,
-0.510465145111084,
-0.3223256468772888,
-0.07856578379869461,
-0.7595340013504028,
-0.320217102766037,
0.6624335646629333,
0.09498380869626999,
0.22271636128425598,
0.13080301880836487,
-0.2508181929588318,
-0.0074047003872692585,
-0.009709848091006279,
0.3077529966831207,
-0.8417545557022095,
0.69972163438797,
0.007548846770077944,
0.008732592687010765,
-0.24762140214443207,
0.07886217534542084,
0.05153486132621765,
-0.0479135662317276,
-0.2301619052886963,
-0.6850335597991943,
0.008064406923949718,
0.33829060196876526,
0.08904273062944412,
0.02019149251282215,
0.5621442794799805,
0.5283348560333252,
-0.02546030841767788,
-0.12250591814517975,
-0.009957187809050083,
-0.6355002522468567,
-0.14617820084095,
0.2334098517894745,
0.23438887298107147,
-0.4859367311000824,
0.20493444800376892,
0.3529350757598877,
0.6461790204048157,
-0.26002737879753113,
1.026341438293457,
0.00785390567034483,
-0.2754601240158081,
0.15628695487976074,
-0.033748067915439606,
0.18897219002246857,
-0.5404284000396729,
-0.3240163326263428,
0.23389187455177307,
-0.19121219217777252,
0.09477555751800537,
-0.27358198165893555,
-0.05296260863542557,
-0.1424301266670227,
0.39823347330093384,
-0.6336334943771362,
0.24062080681324005,
-0.05389673262834549,
-1.2037363052368164,
-0.0592154860496521,
-0.046976763755083084,
0.22737117111682892,
-0.4774623513221741,
-0.13548173010349274,
-0.1802380234003067,
0.6115227341651917,
0.19167329370975494,
-0.3684910535812378,
-0.5094544291496277,
-0.8687393069267273,
0.18050110340118408,
-0.06250990927219391,
0.509617269039154,
0.1830294132232666,
-0.4103281497955322,
-0.0011804113164544106,
-0.39612436294555664,
-0.6676698923110962,
-0.2082740217447281,
0.3223201334476471,
0.3053753674030304,
-0.06643303483724594,
-0.18214814364910126,
0.17818915843963623,
-0.5909486413002014,
-0.36491328477859497,
-0.20928272604942322,
0.0013583237305283546,
0.5632578730583191,
0.10810625553131104,
0.1228262186050415,
-0.3976818919181824,
0.562881350517273,
0.27276772260665894,
-0.42812782526016235,
-1.0526119470596313,
0.11977851390838623,
0.48403504490852356,
-0.5079174637794495,
0.40422242879867554,
0.39208629727363586,
-0.628857433795929,
0.08510347455739975,
-0.18561817705631256,
-0.456445574760437,
-0.08545371890068054,
-0.3991507589817047,
-0.05186949297785759,
-0.4156724214553833,
-0.08111559599637985,
-0.6497923135757446,
-0.47057250142097473,
0.6884306073188782,
-0.2084556668996811,
-0.5669922828674316,
-0.03020808845758438,
0.25631287693977356,
0.10940099507570267,
-0.569848358631134,
-0.034298375248909,
-0.767875611782074,
0.2280159443616867,
0.18763431906700134,
-0.6048799753189087,
0.1728496104478836,
-0.49922803044319153,
-0.27517035603523254,
-0.3857635259628296,
0.09561218321323395,
-0.24932236969470978,
0.25602659583091736,
-0.37883004546165466,
-0.6741335988044739,
0.46712055802345276,
0.2276943475008011,
-0.0064127747900784016,
-0.4945099651813507,
0.8779819011688232,
-0.02230445109307766,
-0.3998467028141022,
-0.04136619344353676,
-0.0045119705609977245,
0.13650603592395782,
-0.45536941289901733,
-0.7670907378196716,
0.3550114035606384,
0.5256094336509705,
-0.2190113663673401,
-0.4132435917854309,
0.1663215160369873,
0.8289211392402649,
0.24225817620754242,
-0.7529356479644775,
-0.8797612190246582,
0.0032499784138053656,
0.21286943554878235,
0.06292455643415451,
-0.2359498143196106,
-0.4359590411186218,
-0.1022506132721901,
0.5003167986869812,
0.6526927351951599,
-0.06041397899389267,
-0.35843417048454285,
0.3132311999797821,
-0.6113720536231995,
-0.240796759724617,
-0.08010575920343399,
0.20048114657402039,
0.6522073745727539,
0.48446041345596313,
-0.23584064841270447,
0.3700110614299774,
-0.24402807652950287,
0.5761485695838928,
0.06845910102128983,
0.06494120508432388,
0.1551041454076767,
0.3645239770412445,
-0.1043311059474945,
0.8835182189941406,
-0.538234293460846,
0.3947312533855438,
0.01963699236512184,
-0.5604216456413269,
-0.05442056804895401,
-0.3728383779525757,
0.2391560971736908,
-0.4566698968410492,
0.6826615333557129,
-0.5987272262573242,
0.22314245998859406,
0.2112458050251007,
-0.24965137243270874,
-0.4322662651538849,
0.4436863660812378,
-0.0338895246386528,
0.839900016784668,
0.2881013751029968,
-0.5526342391967773,
0.3402790427207947,
0.5254626274108887,
-0.23328635096549988,
-0.3380785286426544,
-0.1652144342660904,
-0.4629096984863281,
-0.18545083701610565,
-0.03509141504764557,
0.5117266774177551,
0.44773218035697937,
-0.691278338432312,
-0.10682197660207748,
0.05483192950487137,
-0.25699472427368164,
0.8227841258049011,
0.2958180904388428,
-0.16289769113063812,
-0.012649144977331161,
0.9343679547309875,
-0.3836234509944916,
-0.09843122214078903,
0.34297171235084534,
-0.23931363224983215,
0.11286931484937668,
0.5674983859062195,
0.16748212277889252,
0.4424372613430023,
0.0194675512611866,
0.167531818151474,
0.5772889852523804,
-0.3998526632785797,
-0.09000205993652344,
-0.139959454536438,
-0.24259012937545776,
-0.19016875326633453,
0.27940237522125244,
0.7309026122093201,
0.453584223985672,
0.393646776676178,
0.5705729126930237,
-0.0864788070321083,
0.2714037001132965,
0.7287219166755676,
0.26439186930656433,
-0.2536037564277649,
0.29257628321647644,
-0.33555975556373596,
-0.09901990741491318,
0.48140355944633484,
-0.006486146245151758,
0.29806017875671387,
-0.6060730814933777,
0.1122656762599945,
0.25842148065567017,
0.3993116617202759,
-0.04814060032367706,
0.03151516988873482,
0.7192816734313965,
-0.045072805136442184,
0.11729671061038971,
-0.3617548942565918,
-0.3358830511569977,
0.5208181738853455,
-0.3682117462158203,
0.43033283948898315,
0.4804648160934448,
0.07924073934555054,
1.0675067901611328,
-0.4086460471153259,
0.5698864459991455,
0.2562442123889923,
-0.4832112193107605,
0.4480295181274414,
-0.18092703819274902,
0.5338253378868103,
0.17451469600200653,
0.433860719203949,
0.050724975764751434,
0.07906481623649597,
0.042325764894485474,
0.06999366730451584,
0.1907663196325302,
-0.1581387221813202,
0.45320332050323486,
0.4207405745983124,
-0.39362579584121704,
-0.11320225894451141,
-0.16629748046398163,
0.027076246216893196,
0.009786744602024555,
-0.03657752647995949,
0.49170902371406555,
-0.4250779151916504,
0.6631321310997009,
0.2929339110851288,
0.2789876461029053,
-0.03464340418577194,
-0.11618572473526001,
-0.09687700867652893,
0.4613850712776184,
-0.21768702566623688,
0.00671278964728117,
-0.2700640857219696,
0.34015753865242004,
-0.8323530554771423,
0.23230546712875366,
0.508273184299469,
0.2924703061580658,
0.04344721883535385,
0.45578932762145996,
-0.01188666932284832,
0.36677712202072144,
0.27743181586265564,
-0.2424619197845459,
0.2664928436279297,
-0.3547140955924988,
0.14123766124248505,
-0.16506099700927734,
0.6739007234573364,
-0.143363818526268,
-0.1622932255268097,
-0.09337923675775528,
0.261694997549057,
0.2258753776550293,
-0.05638412758708,
-0.1559859663248062,
-0.05300039425492287,
-0.016409926116466522,
0.02613094635307789,
0.824924111366272,
-0.5666056275367737,
0.6336860060691833,
-0.033630289137363434,
0.4709818959236145,
0.535590648651123,
-0.7142266035079956,
0.06643332540988922,
-0.353976309299469,
-0.2730613648891449,
0.16633784770965576,
-1.4015923738479614,
0.2233722060918808,
-0.3782100975513458,
-0.7610169053077698,
-0.786444365978241,
0.24511374533176422,
0.5451636910438538,
-0.6665964722633362,
-0.005216440185904503,
-0.3206241726875305,
-0.27308595180511475,
0.4816969335079193,
0.16171367466449738,
-0.7941347360610962,
-0.584426999092102,
0.018521614372730255
] |
206013
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothel
|
Brothel
|
A brothel, bordello, ranch, or whorehouse is a place where people engage in sexual activity with prostitutes. However, for legal or cultural reasons, establishments often describe themselves as massage parlors, bars, strip clubs, body rub parlours, studios, or by some other description. Sex work in a brothel is considered safer than street prostitution.
Legal status
Around the world, attitudes towards prostitution and how and if it should be regulated vary considerably, and have varied over time. Part of the discussion impacts on whether the operation of brothels should be legal, and if so, to what sort of regulations they should be subjected.
On 2 December 1949, the United Nations General Assembly approved the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others. The Convention came into effect on 25 July 1951 and by December 2013 had been ratified by 82 states. The Convention seeks to combat prostitution, which it regards as "incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person." Parties to the Convention agreed to abolish regulation of individual prostitutes, and to ban brothels and procuring. Some countries not parties to the Convention also ban prostitution or the operation of brothels. Various United Nations commissions, however, have differing positions on the issue. For example, in 2012, a Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) convened by Ban Ki-moon and backed by United Nations Development Programme and UNAIDS, recommended decriminalization of brothels and procuring.
In the European Union, there is no uniform policy and no consensus on the issue; and laws vary widely from country to country. Netherlands and Germany have the most liberal policies; in Sweden (and in Norway and Iceland outside the EU) the buying, but not selling, of sex, is illegal; in most former Communist countries the laws target the prostitutes; while in countries such as the UK (except Northern Ireland), Italy, and Spain the act of prostitution is not itself illegal, but soliciting, pimping and brothels are, making it difficult to engage in prostitution without breaking any law. The European Women's Lobby condemns prostitution as "an intolerable form of male violence" and supports the "Swedish model".
In February 2014, the members of the European Parliament voted in a non-binding resolution, (adopted by 343 votes to 139; with 105 abstentions), in favor of the "Swedish Model" of criminalizing the buying, but not the selling, of sex.
Prostitution and the operation of brothels is illegal in many countries, though known illegal brothels may be tolerated or laws not strictly enforced. Such situations exist in many parts of the world, but the region most often associated with these policies is Asia. When brothels are illegal they may nevertheless operate in the guise of a legitimate business, such as massage parlors, saunas or spas.
In a few countries, prostitution and operating a brothel is legal and regulated. The degree of regulation varies widely by country. Most of these countries allow brothels, at least in theory, as they are considered to be less problematic than street prostitution. In parts of Australia, for example, brothels are legal and regulated. Regulation includes planning controls and licensing and registration requirements, and there may be other restrictions. However, the existence of licensed brothels does not stop illegal brothels from operating. According to a report in the Australian Daily Telegraph, illegal brothels in Sydney in 2009 outnumbered licensed operations by four to one; while in Queensland only 10% of prostitution happens in licensed brothels, with the rest being either independent sex workers (which is legal) or illegal operations.
The introduction of legal brothels in Queensland was to help improve the safety of sex workers, punters (customers of prostitution), and the community at large and reduce crime. This may have been successful in many ways in Queensland, with The Viper Room being one of the most well known, clean, safe and most highly regarded brothels in Brisbane and Queensland.
The Netherlands has one of the most liberal prostitution policies in the world, and attracts sex tourists from many other countries. Amsterdam is well known for its red-light district and is a destination for sex tourism. Germany also has very liberal prostitution laws. The largest brothel in Europe is the Pascha in Cologne. Although the Dumas Hotel in Butte, Montana operated legally from 1890 until 1982, brothels are currently illegal throughout the United States, except in rural Nevada; prostitution outside these licensed brothels is illegal throughout the state. All forms of prostitution are illegal in Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area.
History
The earliest recorded mention of prostitution as an occupation appears in Sumerian records from ca. 2400 BCE and describes a temple-bordello operated by Sumerian priests in the city of Uruk. The 'kakum' or temple was dedicated to the goddess Ishtar and housed three grades of women. The first group performed only in the temple sex-rites; the second group had the run of the grounds and catered to its visitors as well, and the third and lowest class lived on the temple grounds but were free to seek out customers in the streets. In later years, sacred prostitution and similar classifications of females were known to have existed in Greece, Rome, India, China, and Japan.
Europe
State brothels/bordellos with regulated prices existed in ancient Athens, created by the legendary lawmaker Solon. These brothels catered for a predominantly male clientele, with women of all ages and young men providing sexual services (see Prostitution in ancient Greece). In ancient Rome female slaves provided sexual services for soldiers, with brothels being located close to barracks and city walls. Brothels existed everywhere. The custom was to display lit candles to signal that they were open.
Before the appearance of effective contraception, infanticide was common in brothels. Unlike usual infanticide—where historically girls were more likely to be killed at birth— a brothel site at Ashkelon in Israel revealed that nearly all of the babies were boys.
Cities first began setting up municipal brothels between 1350 and 1450 CE. Municipalities often owned, operated, and regulated the legal brothels. Governments would set aside certain streets where a keeper could open a brothel. These separate sections of town were the precursors to the so-called "red light districts". Not only did the towns restrict where a keeper could open a brothel, but they also put constraints on when the brothel could be open. For example, most brothels were forbidden to be open for business on Sundays and religious holidays. The reason for this is not completely clear. Some scholars believe these restrictions were enforced to make the prostitutes go to church but others argue that it was to keep parishioners in church and out of the brothels. Either way, it was a day of no revenue for the keeper.
Although brothels were set up as a sexual outlet for men, not all men were allowed to enter them. Clerics, married men, and Jews were prohibited. Often, foreigners such as sailors and traders were the main source of revenue. Local men who frequented the brothels mainly consisted of single men; laws restricting the patrons were not always enforced. Government officials or police would periodically do searches of the brothels to cut down on the number of unpermitted customers. However, since the government was so closely related to the church, common punishments were minor. These restrictions were put in place to protect the wives of married men from any sort of infection.
Multiple restrictions were placed on the residents of brothels. One limitation prohibited prostitutes from borrowing money from their brothel keeper. Prostitutes paid high prices to the brothel keeper for the basic necessities of life: room and board, food, clothes, and toiletries. Room and board was often a price set by the local government but the price for everything else could add up to a common woman's entire earnings. Prostitutes were sometimes prohibited from having a special lover. Some regulations put on prostitutes were made to protect their clients. A woman was kicked out if she was found to have a sexually transmitted disease. Also, the prostitutes were not allowed to pull men into the brothel by their clothing, harass them in the street, or detain them over unpaid debts. Clothing worn by prostitutes was regulated as well and had to be distinguishable from that of respectable women. In some places, a prostitute had to have a yellow stripe on her clothing while in others red was the differentiating color. Other towns required harlots to don special headdresses or restricted the wardrobe of proper women. All restrictions placed on prostitutes were put in place not only to protect them but nearby citizens as well.
Because of a syphilis epidemic throughout Europe, many brothels were shut down during the end of the Middle Ages. This epidemic had been brought on by Spanish and French military pillages after the return of Christopher Columbus from the newly discovered Americas. The church and citizens alike feared that men who frequented brothels would bring the disease home and infect morally upright people.
From the 12th century, brothels in London were located in a district known as the Liberty of the Clink. This area was traditionally under the authority of the Bishop of Winchester, not the civil authorities. From 1161, the bishop was granted the power to license prostitutes and brothels in the district. This gave rise to the slang term Winchester Goose for a prostitute. Women who worked in these brothels were denied Christian burial and buried in the unconsecrated graveyard known as Cross Bones.
By the 16th century, the area was also home to many theatres, (including the Globe Theatre, associated with William Shakespeare), but brothels continued to thrive. A famous London brothel of the time was Holland's Leaguer. Patrons supposedly included James I of England and his favourite, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. It was located in a street that still bears its name and also inspired the 1631 play, Holland's Leaguer. Charles I of England licensed a number of brothels including the Silver Cross Tavern in London, which retains its license to the modern day because it was never revoked.
The authorities of Medieval Paris followed the same path as those in London and attempted to confine prostitution to a particular district. Louis IX (1226–1270) designated nine streets in the Beaubourg Quartier where it would be permitted. In the early part of the 19th century, state-controlled legal brothels (then known as "maisons de tolérance" or "maisons closes") started to appear in several French cities. By law, they had to be run by a woman (typically a former prostitute) and their external appearance had to be discreet. The maisons were required to light a red lantern when they were open (from which is derived the term red-light district) and the prostitutes were only permitted to leave the maisons on certain days and only if accompanied by its head. By 1810, Paris alone had 180 officially approved brothels.
During the first half of the 20th century, some Paris brothels, such as le Chabanais and le Sphinx, were internationally known for the luxury they provided. The French government sometimes included a visit to the Chabanais as part of the program for foreign guests of state, disguising it as a visit with the President of the Senate in the official program. The Hotel Marigny, established in 1917 in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris, was one of several that were well known for catering to gay male clients. Premises suspected of being gay brothels, including the Hotel Marigny were, however, subject to frequent police raids, perhaps indicating less tolerance for them from the authorities.
In most European countries, brothels were made illegal after World War II. France outlawed brothels in 1946, after a campaign by Marthe Richard. The backlash against them was in part due to their wartime collaboration with the Germans during the occupation of France. Twenty-two Paris brothels had been commandeered by the Germans for their exclusive use; some had made a great deal of money by catering for German officers and soldiers. One brothel in the Monmartre District of the French capital was part of an escape network for POWs and downed airmen.
Italy made brothels illegal in 1959. The 2010s decade has seen the introduction of sex dolls and sexbots on the premises of some brothels.
East Asia
Brothels have been used formally in China for prostitution and entertainment since Ancient China in its feudal period. For much of China's ancient and imperial history, brothels were owned by wealthy merchants, typically stereotyped as "madams", and engaged in business in urban areas such as the Capital city. Prostitutes, or "courtesans" as they were known, were well-dressed and groomed to the proper table and drinking manners(禮). A Chinese prostitute may have been artistic and skilled at practices such as dancing, playing musical instruments, singing, and conversing in verse. Prostitution was not outlawed in ancient and imperial China (although prostitutes were not considered fit for marriage to men of respectable social ranking) and instead, prostitutes hosted in street brothels were popularly placed in the same social class as females artisans and regarded as elegant, albeit tainted, beings, most notably courtesans who used similar means to entertain members of nobility. Both young women and men worked as prostitutes in these elaborate brothel settings, though historical records and works of literature have widely romanticized the free-flowing, artistic nature of female prostitutes.
The practice of hosting prostitutes in these elaborate brothels spread to surrounding regions of Chinese cultural influence, notably in Japan after the sixth century AD, where prostitutes and courtesans evolved to develop the Oiran and Geisha entertainment professions. Again, the geisha of Japan emphasized good table manners, artistic skills, elegant styling, and sophisticated, tactical conversational skills. The practice also spread to Korea, where prostitutes evolved into the Korean kisaeng.
India
The governments of many Indian princely states had regulated prostitution in India prior to the 1860s. The British Raj enacted the Cantonment Act of 1864 to regulate prostitution in colonial India as a matter of accepting a necessary evil so that the British soldiers could seek sexual gratification when away from their homes. The Cantonment Acts regulated and structured prostitution in the British military bases which provided for about twelve to fifteen Indian women kept in brothels called chaklas for each regiment of thousand British soldiers. They were licensed by military officials and were allowed to consort with soldiers only.
Brothels in India came into life in the early 1920s, when certain dance styles in states like Maharashtra, such as Lavani, and dance-drama performance artists, called Tamasha artists, starting working as prostitutes. Notably, such professions were strongly connected to caste and income levels.
United States
From 1911 to 1913 the United States Department of Justice undertook the task of collecting information on the numbers of prostitutes in brothels in order to use this information against the much-feared "White Slave Traffic". This effort collected information from 318 cities of 26 Eastern states. It estimated about 100,000 women to be working in brothels at the time, yet some estimated the total number of prostitutes to be as high as 500,000.
During the late nineteenth century, brothels in the United States were no secret. George Kneeland articulated his growing concern about the organized sex business in America well, saying that prostitution had grown into a "highly commercialized and profitable business that penetrated the deepest recesses of the political, cultural and economic life of the city." Brothels were commonly referred to as "disorderly houses", and their residents were called by many names, some euphemistic—e.g., abandoned woman, bawd good-time daisy, fallen angel, fille de joie, jeweled bird, lady of the evening, shady lady, soiled dove, wanton woman, and woman of the town—and some less kind—e.g., hooker, slut, and whore. As the 19th century went on, prostitution as a profession became more common, rather than just occasionally necessitated soliciting. As a result of these changes, the way prostitution was practiced changed. Many prostitutes still practiced their trade independently, but the new class of professional prostitutes created a demand for a location to do their regular business, and the brothel served this purpose.
Visitors could easily find disorderly houses by merely opening up the local or statewide directories, such as the 1895 Travelers' Guide of Colorado. This 66-page manual helped the interested client decide which brothel was right for him. These manuals did not attract by using euphemistic language, and though bold by standards of the time, were not crude. Some examples read: "Twenty young ladies engaged nightly to entertain guest", and "Strangers cordially welcome". In some areas, brothels simply could not be ignored. A nineteenth-century authority describes the city of New Orleans as such: "The extent of licentiousness and prostitution here is truly appalling and doubtless without a parallel in the whole civilized world. The indulgence and practice are so general and common that men seldom seek to cover up their acts or go in disguise."
The average house held five to twenty working girls; some higher-end brothels also employed staff servants, musicians, and a bouncer. The typical brothel contained several bedrooms, all furnished. Some upscale brothels were much larger; such is the case with that owned by Mary Ann Hall of Arlington, Virginia. It is described as "a rather grand house with twenty-five rooms and was enclosed by a brick wall. The interior was elegantly furnished. The principal rooms on the first floor contained large oil paintings, Brussels carpets, red plush 'parlor furniture', étagères (a shelf for small ornaments), and numerous items of silver plate." An archeological dig of the area outside of Mary Ann Hall's estate revealed refuse of a quality superior to that in surrounding working-class areas. This included many champagne bottles and corks, wire cages from such bottles, perfume bottles, high-quality porcelain with gilt edging, along with remnants of exotic foods—coconut shells and berry seeds, bones from beef, fish, and pork indicating that elegant meals were being eaten at this high-class brothel. These "five and ten-dollar parlor houses" attracted wealthy men, who used the facilities much as a gentlemen's social club, where they made business and political connections, met with associates and had exquisite dinners with wine, champagne, and women. Brothels were not only for the wealthy. "One-dollar houses" were visited by those of the working class. A 1910 Kansas vice report compares the two: "A few brothels were equipped with expensive furniture and furnishings including the finest of upholstered chairs, well-done paintings, and costly rugs, while others were hovels of repulsive squalor."
Women joined brothels from all walks of life. The average prostitute was approximately 21, but many were as young as 13 or as old as 50. Typically thought of as an escape for young, poor, troubled women, brothels sometimes attracted those less expected. Trained musicians and singers sometimes were lured into it by their interest in easy money and fun times. Some others turned to brothels to get out of their boring, abusive, or otherwise unfulfilling marriages. Although they might be of various classes, ethnicities, and ages, most women who began or joined brothels had a shared goal: quick money. Many found themselves always indebted to their mistresses. Her lack of credit made a prostitute unable to buy items necessary for her trade (powder, cosmetics, perfumes, and evening wear), and she was forced to buy them through her madam.
Some madams, often former prostitutes themselves, rose to become independently wealthy. One was Mary Ann Hall of Arlington, Virginia. Clearly attractive and a good businesswoman, Mary Ann purchased a lot and built a brick house. That would be the location of an upscale brothel for another 40 years, sitting right at the foot of Capitol Hill. Her brothel was very lucrative, and Mary Ann was able to buy multiple slaves and even a summer home. She was responsible for the behavior of her prostitutes, which could prove challenging since drug abuse was common. A large focus for madams was keeping their business transactions discreet and staying on the good side of the law, which they did by contributing money to charitable organizations, schools, and churches.
Despite those efforts, much of the profit still went to legal fines and fees, since prostitution was largely illegal. Timely payment of these fines could guarantee a madam that her business could continue without fear of being shut down, usually. Brothels were expected to pay significantly higher rent than other tenants. Another upscale bordello was the Big Brick in Charleston, South Carolina, built and operated by Grace Peixotto, the daughter of the Rev. Solomon Cohen Peixotto, and the madam of the most infamous brothel in the history of the city.
A madam stayed involved in her business. Running a house with so many in it required skill. A brothel required the purchase of regular food and food preparation. A madam had to monitor the cleanliness of the brothel, including the sheets, which had to be changed several times in an evening, and a stock of wines and liquors for clientele. She was the boss of the brothel and so a madam fired and hired servants, maids, and prostitutes. New faces in the brothel were desired by patrons and so madams had to find new women to recruit. Sometimes, that meant taking in a less-than-desired woman but one with youth and good looks. The "new" prostitute received training, cosmetics, and clothes from the madam. A prostitute from Kansas City is recorded as saying that she is no match for the "proper" behavior and dress required for the famous Ice Palace in Chicago.
Disorderly houses or any other dwelling used for purposes of selling sex or other lewd acts in the early 20th century were illegal with a few exceptions: the states of Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, New Mexico, and South Carolina. Penalties could range from $1,000 and time in jail to much smaller fines.
Military brothels
Until recently, in several armies around the world, mobile brothels were attached to the army as auxiliary units, especially attached to combat units on long-term deployments abroad. Because it is a controversial subject, military brothels and the women who provided sex services in them were often designated with creative euphemisms. Examples of such jargon are ("the sweet box"), replacing the term "". France used mobile brothels during the First World War, the Second World War and the First Indochina War to supply sex services to French soldiers who were facing combat in areas where brothels were unusual, such as at the front line or in isolated garrisons. Brothels were outlawed in France in 1946; but the French Foreign Legion continued to use mobile brothels until the late 1990s.
During the Second World War, women drawn from throughout the Far East were forced into sexual slavery by the occupation armies of Imperial Japan in brothels known as Ianjo. These women were referred to as "comfort women" (kanji=慰安婦; hiragana=いあんふ). During the Second World War in Europe, Nazi Germany created military brothels where an estimated 34,140 enslaved women from Nazi-occupied Europe, particularly Poland, were forced to work as prostitutes in brothels.
After the Japanese surrender following the Second World War, the Japanese government formed the Recreation and Amusement Association and recruited 55,000 of its "patriotic women" to "sacrifice themselves" to the G.I. occupation, to protect the chastity of pure Japanese womenfolk.
In South Korea, women who worked as prostitutes for UN forces were called Western princesses. Between the 1950s and 1960s, 60% of South Korean prostitutes worked near the US military bases. Korean leader Park Chung-hee encouraged the sex trade, particularly with the U.S. military, in order to generate revenue. Since the mid-1990s, Filipina women have worked as prostitutes for U.S. servicemen in South Korea. In 2010, the Philippine government stopped approving contracts that promoters use to bring Filipinas to South Korea to work near U.S. military bases.
Sex doll brothel
A number of brothels offering only sex dolls exist in Japan. There is also one in Barcelona, and one named Bordoll opened in Germany. Another was set to open on 8 September 2018 in Toronto, Canada though it was deemed to be contrary to a by-law in the city, forcing its shutdown. Australia has recently seen its first sex doll available for use in a brothel as well. In February 2018, another opened in Aarhus, Denmark.
See also
Artemis
Barbary Coast, San Francisco
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others
Gay bathhouse
Lupanar (Pompeii)
Maxim Wien
Pimp
Prostitution
Sex on Premises Venue
Sex worker
Soapland
Spintria
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Burford, E. J. The Bishop's Brothels. London: Robert Hale, 1993. .
Ka-tzetnik 135633 (Karol Cetinsky). House of Dolls. Moshe M. Kohn (trans.). New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955. A novel about the Holocaust, including a description of a brothel staffed by concentration camp inmates.
External links
"Inside a brothel"—interview by Richard Fidler with three brothel owners, June 2006 on ABC Local Radio (audio download available)
France's military brothels: Hidden history of the First World War
Sex industry
|
[
0.6937816739082336,
0.1552867293357849,
-0.7502890229225159,
0.30220136046409607,
0.24499450623989105,
0.3351246118545532,
0.7399475574493408,
0.23895758390426636,
-0.5094070434570312,
0.09553467482328415,
-0.12061124294996262,
0.4509880542755127,
-0.389740526676178,
0.1721350997686386,
-0.5878870487213135,
0.2315097451210022,
0.7619091272354126,
0.5026860237121582,
0.6411310434341431,
-0.25897735357284546,
-0.34385356307029724,
-0.24392855167388916,
-0.39479249715805054,
-0.24622510373592377,
-0.2813037037849426,
-0.1721820831298828,
-0.04255010187625885,
0.32624104619026184,
-0.7423784732818604,
-0.17457033693790436,
0.1466686874628067,
0.4255061745643616,
0.22119981050491333,
0.0021379415411502123,
0.23790986835956573,
0.09767386317253113,
0.11647745966911316,
-0.8651005625724792,
-0.1928822249174118,
-0.7848620414733887,
-0.0696433037519455,
0.20448778569698334,
0.49320438504219055,
0.5559755563735962,
-0.05832279473543167,
-0.26078343391418457,
-0.9759301543235779,
0.5882273316383362,
-0.6392122507095337,
0.06997357308864594,
-0.4525722563266754,
0.27148428559303284,
0.6727980971336365,
0.13609376549720764,
0.20811256766319275,
0.9101136326789856,
-0.5388397574424744,
0.32884836196899414,
0.01566673256456852,
-0.5729205012321472,
0.6295866370201111,
0.4388965368270874,
0.5785600543022156,
-0.09103472530841827,
0.1973498910665512,
0.19621597230434418,
0.16522523760795593,
0.3060423731803894,
-0.024911021813750267,
-0.6965914368629456,
-0.13345088064670563,
-0.002506246557459235,
-0.3454262614250183,
0.10818318277597427,
-0.5242300629615784,
-0.41115954518318176,
0.03615398332476616,
-0.4629526138305664,
-0.26312053203582764,
0.2958681881427765,
-0.3920691907405853,
0.44286200404167175,
0.2242279201745987,
0.023528726771473885,
0.5992985367774963,
0.06502312421798706,
-0.45542556047439575,
0.3176341652870178,
-0.011525469832122326,
0.07913655042648315,
0.11370536684989929,
0.6497864723205566,
0.44356203079223633,
0.0380544550716877,
-0.4613600969314575,
0.3315694332122803,
0.43332692980766296,
0.3185774087905884,
0.3487120568752289,
0.18566201627254486,
0.10148736089468002,
-0.11802681535482407,
0.14734140038490295,
-0.06004069000482559,
-0.08620775490999222,
0.0462152436375618,
0.3976644277572632,
-0.1345803290605545,
0.050727613270282745,
-0.10858847200870514,
-0.32431578636169434,
0.10632477700710297,
-0.2727724313735962,
0.15244799852371216,
-0.05930702015757561,
0.10454823821783066,
-0.05569913238286972,
0.25502413511276245,
-0.5102896690368652,
-0.4816474914550781,
0.10710432380437851,
-0.08028831332921982,
0.16785648465156555,
0.5606970191001892,
0.044769287109375,
0.4046877324581146,
0.4670482873916626,
0.7953670024871826,
-0.2616507411003113,
0.04411698877811432,
0.40589386224746704,
0.7127147316932678,
-0.44686028361320496,
-0.076253741979599,
-0.18042975664138794,
-0.3082912266254425,
0.09582290798425674,
0.32390835881233215,
0.8445996642112732,
0.0354435108602047,
-0.9487868547439575,
-0.33721986413002014,
-0.5568385720252991,
-0.051386475563049316,
0.08210428059101105,
-0.5782753825187683,
0.5499388575553894,
-0.6537814736366272,
-0.5185326933860779,
-0.4279083013534546,
-0.044448379427194595,
0.3083518445491791,
-0.1968189924955368,
-0.3448758125305176,
0.11600026488304138,
-0.3114238977432251,
-0.03374095633625984,
-0.4013649523258209,
0.01787322200834751,
-0.039231784641742706,
-0.1297968178987503,
0.2630705237388611,
-0.7107598781585693,
0.04171481728553772,
-0.17483922839164734,
-0.09903894364833832,
-0.07409261912107468,
0.3842228651046753,
0.021074630320072174,
0.5383968353271484,
-0.42538976669311523,
0.3334231972694397,
-0.2806190550327301,
-0.2837340235710144,
-0.5749163031578064,
0.6231480240821838,
0.40355339646339417,
0.21460548043251038,
0.5221062302589417,
0.12862332165241241,
-0.6640143990516663,
0.30368155241012573,
0.23895467817783356,
-0.33734744787216187,
0.15075242519378662,
-0.3450027406215668,
0.0644364282488823,
0.17108578979969025,
-0.29307088255882263,
-0.3038621246814728,
-0.7056030631065369,
0.05209479480981827,
-0.19301386177539825,
-0.2892361879348755,
0.8480791449546814,
-0.23437157273292542,
-0.6551529765129089,
0.7663857936859131,
-0.25742751359939575,
-0.26386940479278564,
-0.12604790925979614,
0.4308694303035736,
-0.05185685679316521,
-0.3752003610134125,
-1.2871354818344116,
-0.003026427235454321,
0.2832455039024353,
0.21315419673919678,
0.08760969340801239,
-0.03117542900145054,
0.2918015122413635,
-0.5229834914207458,
0.29522591829299927,
-0.5488570332527161,
0.10028011351823807,
0.3900056779384613,
-0.38459357619285583,
0.23827914893627167,
0.23289574682712555,
-0.34080812335014343,
0.604385495185852,
-0.6503249406814575,
-0.39332354068756104,
0.5590642690658569,
-0.10349766910076141,
0.7760902643203735,
0.01460726372897625,
0.19664891064167023,
0.5060272812843323,
-0.8356696367263794,
0.5215716361999512,
0.21545164287090302,
0.4701657295227051,
-0.6398614048957825,
-0.5730080008506775,
0.966458797454834,
0.3222077786922455,
-0.3217354416847229,
-0.10327883064746857,
-0.08563107997179031,
0.11554960161447525,
-0.09861501306295395,
-0.1359143853187561,
0.2366163432598114,
0.45192500948905945,
-0.21384581923484802,
-0.44083932042121887,
0.03901581093668938,
-0.6511558890342712,
-0.01797533966600895,
0.14231570065021515,
0.36811336874961853,
0.19094668328762054,
-0.41414016485214233,
0.3700844347476959,
-0.7027518153190613,
-0.39725691080093384,
-0.16640140116214752,
0.04179832711815834,
-0.12752702832221985,
-0.3834339678287506,
0.35089603066444397,
-0.4294153153896332,
0.3778185546398163,
0.14822950959205627,
0.03523461893200874,
-0.10278481990098953,
-0.2984524071216583,
0.2066883146762848,
0.4589848220348358,
0.6490728259086609,
0.22309525310993195,
-0.8434314131736755,
-0.33783626556396484,
-0.024164266884326935,
-0.19878274202346802,
0.1548352688550949,
0.3606346547603607,
0.29321444034576416,
-0.6508718729019165,
0.2867562174797058,
-0.21362446248531342,
0.48189449310302734,
-0.5048221945762634,
-0.3182927966117859,
-0.7690104246139526,
-0.01571757160127163,
-0.18960152566432953,
-0.4953412711620331,
-0.31917011737823486,
-0.5186610817909241,
0.7030410766601562,
-0.16546973586082458,
0.26881685853004456,
0.07930083572864532,
-0.23649069666862488,
-0.8345215916633606,
0.5915905833244324,
0.5860251188278198,
-0.6089178919792175,
0.10669758170843124,
-0.06933844089508057,
-0.7649673819541931,
-0.16469132900238037,
-0.0802309587597847,
-0.20895497500896454,
0.053871363401412964,
-0.3930550515651703,
-5.804222583770752,
0.052521154284477234,
-0.6109951734542847,
-0.572676420211792,
-0.1764054000377655,
-0.37245461344718933,
0.513481616973877,
-0.20238566398620605,
-0.38105660676956177,
0.10760600119829178,
-0.24785912036895752,
-0.03421427682042122,
0.3108128011226654,
-0.22961699962615967,
0.360246479511261,
0.31036147475242615,
0.3834823668003082,
-0.30002304911613464,
-0.004954628646373749,
0.023862075060606003,
-0.3354838192462921,
0.6232143044471741,
-0.10640744864940643,
0.5454569458961487,
-0.06254301965236664,
0.17644819617271423,
-0.36825546622276306,
-0.12218622863292694,
-0.41836658120155334,
-0.18526959419250488,
-0.29582729935646057,
0.20573332905769348,
0.10292785614728928,
-0.03919314593076706,
0.20379434525966644,
0.22641786932945251,
0.3341885507106781,
-0.3788382112979889,
-0.36741071939468384,
-0.23833505809307098,
-0.4876173138618469,
0.6120211482048035,
0.3569066822528839,
0.3292850852012634,
0.8176278471946716,
-0.31248965859413147,
-0.1391708105802536,
-0.6727690100669861,
-0.6571134328842163,
0.556459903717041,
0.03289669379591942,
-0.3132193684577942,
0.2149852216243744,
0.10729267448186874,
-0.06428749114274979,
-0.20075412094593048,
0.051673464477062225,
-0.07982955127954483,
-0.3738750219345093,
0.07835638523101807,
-0.12502901256084442,
-0.5068867206573486,
-0.02186492457985878,
-0.30645862221717834,
-0.21249467134475708,
0.44155943393707275,
-0.22163301706314087,
-0.3696206212043762,
0.58059161901474,
0.46610233187675476,
-0.3024664521217346,
0.36257946491241455,
0.2553739845752716,
-0.9480499029159546,
0.4952038526535034,
-0.2067529857158661,
-0.5018630027770996,
-0.22833403944969177,
0.3483031392097473,
-0.35093429684638977,
0.2814784646034241,
0.13759936392307281,
-0.019122561439871788,
-0.2618695795536041,
0.2643163800239563,
-0.6413333415985107,
0.2542095482349396,
0.13885699212551117,
-0.7226443290710449,
0.06017249450087547,
0.9237179160118103,
0.4716777503490448,
0.43882161378860474,
0.46638211607933044,
0.0030392715707421303,
0.99873948097229,
0.23899489641189575,
-0.2844049632549286,
0.3794901371002197,
-0.6788345575332642,
0.90068119764328,
-0.5068262815475464,
0.045219093561172485,
-0.14978493750095367,
0.3277474641799927,
-0.31221804022789,
0.12417414039373398,
0.3659878969192505,
0.8578580617904663,
-0.06314554810523987,
0.25762730836868286,
0.4501649737358093,
-0.3379266858100891,
-0.45644357800483704,
0.4731736481189728,
-0.4270154535770416,
-0.040866732597351074,
0.7220166325569153,
0.43116655945777893,
0.05004235729575157,
0.36618244647979736,
0.42120125889778137,
0.18000414967536926,
-0.009265332482755184,
-0.41334083676338196,
-0.2398020178079605,
0.7276005744934082,
0.22530141472816467,
0.3660556972026825,
0.3821181058883667,
0.6992829442024231,
0.25881776213645935,
-0.04093146324157715,
-0.6662470698356628,
-0.04145374894142151,
0.1511385291814804,
-0.5633472204208374,
-0.4222148358821869,
0.032100748270750046,
0.19990256428718567,
0.009513810276985168,
-0.14033296704292297,
-0.5859166979789734,
0.293998658657074,
0.27841782569885254,
0.3484170734882355,
-0.3378653824329376,
-0.0966363400220871,
0.05837751552462578,
0.6014831066131592,
-0.4914894998073578,
-0.2343006134033203,
0.3293212354183197,
0.22958122193813324,
0.35970550775527954,
-0.6726552248001099,
0.1512932926416397,
0.24295128881931305,
-0.41684794425964355,
-0.14532329142093658,
0.06730406731367111,
-0.33490511775016785,
-0.8813926577568054,
0.40129247307777405,
-0.7129528522491455,
-0.13915185630321503,
-0.6566904187202454,
-0.34283944964408875,
-0.8578130602836609,
0.9351176619529724,
-0.21165040135383606,
-0.2400675266981125,
0.04525364935398102,
0.045145533978939056,
0.27478742599487305,
0.023367436602711678,
-0.08843351155519485,
0.6408566236495972,
-0.4508123993873596,
-0.42726799845695496,
0.1985570192337036,
-0.27220821380615234,
0.005758652929216623,
0.12854619324207306,
0.32815179228782654,
0.01620328798890114,
-0.10109811276197433,
-0.16821716725826263,
0.04451822116971016,
0.2409922033548355,
0.13155525922775269,
0.010409531183540821,
0.26380884647369385,
0.1969912052154541,
-0.4737977981567383,
-0.38577812910079956,
-0.44382140040397644,
0.66923987865448,
0.16843529045581818,
0.2147878259420395,
-0.060050591826438904,
0.4471181631088257,
-0.9462101459503174,
0.10914870351552963,
0.05680491402745247,
-0.5860382318496704,
0.5195102691650391,
-0.14611326158046722,
-0.18964825570583344,
0.46081021428108215,
-0.4941999316215515,
-0.03391607850790024,
-0.12339324504137039,
0.7037192583084106,
-0.4518685042858124,
-0.10370057076215744,
0.022478444501757622,
-0.04442162066698074,
-0.45695042610168457,
-0.22278496623039246,
0.8290511965751648,
-0.5024164319038391,
-0.3726966679096222,
0.2532239854335785,
-0.4582732021808624,
0.4882015883922577,
0.2238263040781021,
-0.7415990829467773,
0.6776862740516663,
0.16177965700626373,
-0.0932038202881813,
0.18592651188373566,
0.04296893998980522,
-0.3519710600376129,
0.09170815348625183,
-0.3215344548225403,
0.6253908276557922,
0.05008890479803085,
0.6147149801254272,
0.20129181444644928,
-0.050952401012182236,
0.914932370185852,
-0.16839376091957092,
-0.17762109637260437,
0.20798850059509277,
0.02680979296565056,
0.016738569363951683,
-0.8309900760650635,
-0.5881128311157227,
-0.13092495501041412,
0.12136022746562958,
-0.43296295404434204,
0.05256875976920128,
-0.18546850979328156,
0.31647393107414246,
0.19054961204528809,
0.01703674905002117,
0.5349571704864502,
0.14118656516075134,
0.3292253911495209,
0.0657564029097557,
-0.36475852131843567,
-0.02459510788321495,
-0.13608381152153015,
0.444825142621994,
0.2309291511774063,
-0.05787286162376404,
0.37942764163017273,
-0.17078076303005219,
-0.8065754175186157,
0.2633693814277649,
0.1534218192100525,
0.8912356495857239,
0.6657313108444214,
0.38718533515930176,
0.12865868210792542,
-0.08993504196405411,
-0.574545681476593,
0.11009353399276733,
0.07551588118076324,
0.19181689620018005,
-0.1987583190202713,
-0.041953396052122116,
-0.605636715888977,
0.4758106768131256,
-0.19443297386169434,
-0.02384672872722149,
-0.22535455226898193,
-0.7788469791412354,
-0.23878903687000275,
0.12184767425060272,
-0.28933945298194885,
0.7956593036651611,
0.9662188291549683,
0.0060953861102461815,
0.4266645908355713,
0.29288536310195923,
-0.015993300825357437,
-0.021538162603974342,
0.115287184715271,
-0.6831371784210205,
-0.014095548540353775,
-0.1347942054271698,
-0.6302116513252258,
0.7487022280693054,
-0.49471530318260193,
0.15200498700141907,
-0.4951184391975403,
-0.44251981377601624,
-0.11276155710220337,
0.23959662020206451,
-0.25720134377479553,
0.21130970120429993,
0.06591163575649261,
-0.5437796115875244,
-0.4053375720977783,
0.2943882644176483,
-0.3029281497001648,
0.04795106500387192,
0.12523935735225677,
0.19360016286373138,
0.04139087349176407,
0.6559590697288513,
0.13012145459651947,
0.7034997940063477,
0.016948513686656952,
-0.3179786503314972,
0.1540505737066269,
0.38114479184150696,
-0.37883758544921875,
0.2988872826099396,
-0.018164440989494324,
0.31298011541366577,
0.26868298649787903,
-0.03195931762456894,
-0.2715189456939697,
-0.03582030162215233,
-0.6025232672691345,
-0.6245571970939636,
0.42419710755348206,
0.7458828687667847,
-0.2487131506204605,
-0.35492488741874695,
0.2414245456457138,
0.13552223145961761,
0.7797707319259644,
0.46400728821754456,
-0.11144617944955826,
-0.2904198169708252,
0.4014902412891388,
0.570244312286377,
0.008358893916010857,
0.4738563001155853,
-0.007597411051392555,
0.45513853430747986,
-0.22640471160411835,
-0.010601933114230633,
0.025303788483142853,
-0.4408020079135895,
-0.3976733088493347,
0.32969117164611816,
0.2451002299785614,
0.18969209492206573,
0.028763113543391228,
-0.035867419093847275,
0.22708837687969208,
-0.06362627446651459,
-0.17584967613220215,
-0.1296505481004715,
-0.05059847980737686,
0.40538260340690613,
0.17546460032463074,
-0.5940014123916626,
0.1920383721590042,
0.24390991032123566,
-0.07932017743587494,
0.7231241464614868,
0.5743957757949829,
0.26933151483535767,
-0.3632325232028961,
-0.5651606321334839,
0.3070636987686157,
-0.15730029344558716,
-0.8555083870887756,
-0.030153363943099976,
0.0757671371102333,
-0.23021669685840607,
-0.033376820385456085,
-0.1527390331029892,
-0.10296551883220673,
0.5068962574005127,
0.34489551186561584,
0.3607212007045746,
-0.2808246910572052,
-0.3619118332862854,
0.06304151564836502,
-0.21209251880645752,
0.7898272275924683,
-0.04523235931992531,
-0.09470026940107346,
-0.17222845554351807,
0.6140005588531494,
-0.14578722417354584,
0.07352690398693085,
-0.7687965631484985,
0.031419362872838974,
-0.7434461116790771,
-0.20119279623031616,
-0.4318302273750305,
0.488872766494751,
0.11975259333848953,
-0.6785248517990112,
0.37166374921798706,
-0.20814986526966095,
0.23544467985630035,
0.39432114362716675,
0.4390208125114441,
-0.3720835745334625,
-0.31881144642829895,
-0.03945968300104141,
-0.27515479922294617,
-0.06467102468013763,
0.15941475331783295,
-0.2153840959072113,
-0.4274871349334717,
-0.15424108505249023,
0.33658427000045776,
-0.603975772857666,
0.06445643305778503,
0.5075664520263672,
-0.35624733567237854,
0.25781330466270447,
-0.6203403472900391,
0.11488977074623108,
0.01898757368326187,
-0.3644932210445404,
0.5065664649009705,
0.5002169013023376,
1.0479799509048462,
-0.15796087682247162,
0.3863939642906189,
-0.31157490611076355,
-0.2997330129146576,
-0.3642447292804718,
-0.158287912607193,
-0.25666746497154236,
-0.08894111216068268,
-0.2633845806121826,
-0.49158740043640137,
0.07925587147474289,
0.018948398530483246,
-0.2786700129508972,
0.003920257557183504,
-0.10890587419271469,
-0.44406911730766296,
0.43116793036460876,
0.6647818684577942,
-1.0147573947906494,
-0.4996054470539093,
0.27178651094436646
] |
206016
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Sumner
|
USS Sumner
|
Sumner has been the name of four ships in the United States Navy. The destroyers, DD-333 and DD-692, were named after World War I Marine Corps Captain Allen Melancthon Sumner. The survey ships, AGS-5 and T-AGS-61, were named after the 19th century Navy captain Thomas Hubbard Sumner.
The first was a commissioned in 1921 and decommissioned in 1930.
The second was originally the submarine tender Bushnell; commissioned in 1915, converted to a survey ship in World War II, and a participant in the nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll; decommissioned in 1946.
The third , the lead ship of her class, was an commissioned in 1944 and decommissioned in 1973.
The fourth is a that became operational in 1997.
United States Navy ship names
|
[
-0.20983053743839264,
0.19855523109436035,
-1.0031285285949707,
-0.038917507976293564,
-0.33479055762290955,
0.8295243382453918,
0.7860713601112366,
-0.32656070590019226,
-0.6487997174263,
-0.058384861797094345,
-0.017908290028572083,
0.3456040918827057,
-0.3407115936279297,
0.9217244982719421,
-0.16561636328697205,
0.12156851589679718,
-0.053274646401405334,
0.5984030961990356,
0.41015195846557617,
-0.3782886266708374,
-0.2935456335544586,
-0.15560607612133026,
0.5229082703590393,
-0.11020345240831375,
0.08604876697063446,
0.03770538792014122,
-0.09932303428649902,
-0.0967305600643158,
0.3967181444168091,
0.37499919533729553,
0.29291287064552307,
0.7037990689277649,
0.038361556828022,
0.16297098994255066,
0.06339076906442642,
-0.1660025268793106,
0.03826501965522766,
-0.10306970775127411,
-0.23000362515449524,
-0.4803641438484192,
-0.3326401114463806,
-0.129958838224411,
0.2384687215089798,
0.18343685567378998,
-0.44711920619010925,
0.1659799963235855,
-1.6352416276931763,
0.14350757002830505,
-0.10935071110725403,
-0.07869242131710052,
-0.6449483036994934,
-0.17630890011787415,
0.45004820823669434,
0.42761069536209106,
0.19980977475643158,
0.8469263315200806,
-0.6801796555519104,
0.38924574851989746,
-0.21972618997097015,
-0.4581741988658905,
0.16331864893436432,
0.35263362526893616,
0.8400834798812866,
0.2290310561656952,
0.012771639041602612,
0.09045938402414322,
-0.3486172556877136,
0.24033337831497192,
-0.09686175733804703,
-0.5376983284950256,
0.42184263467788696,
-0.030109325423836708,
0.41307902336120605,
0.7804015874862671,
-0.35269173979759216,
-0.1437307596206665,
-0.3618623912334442,
-0.18663290143013,
-0.17960748076438904,
0.38525915145874023,
0.08250460773706436,
0.14736032485961914,
0.7344580888748169,
0.19197101891040802,
-0.06239210069179535,
-0.04397757351398468,
-0.45009472966194153,
0.15553687512874603,
-0.02675485610961914,
0.7634943723678589,
-0.5374559760093689,
-0.16108787059783936,
-0.09736163169145584,
0.4358268976211548,
-0.30435431003570557,
-0.5562833547592163,
-0.24057535827159882,
0.10018211603164673,
0.406075119972229,
0.31409355998039246,
-0.2529952824115753,
0.4028365910053253,
1.0455598831176758,
0.19066262245178223,
-0.5754705667495728,
-0.19181421399116516,
-0.3477752208709717,
-0.3212531507015228,
-0.558744490146637,
-1.0774931907653809,
-0.13146021962165833,
0.10358500480651855,
-0.24549530446529388,
-0.14037513732910156,
-0.4955229163169861,
0.21170766651630402,
0.044825151562690735,
-0.539495587348938,
-0.01746992953121662,
-0.4390662908554077,
0.43269288539886475,
0.7095097303390503,
-0.056205395609140396,
-0.11830978840589523,
-0.20926117897033691,
0.20605508983135223,
0.4426586627960205,
0.27156293392181396,
-0.5979088544845581,
0.2471352070569992,
0.36779025197029114,
0.8379366993904114,
-0.36183372139930725,
0.4029402732849121,
-0.6305530071258545,
-0.5056089162826538,
-0.15135936439037323,
0.45340219140052795,
0.05582592636346817,
0.5019370317459106,
-0.9289843440055847,
-0.07684481889009476,
-1.4247455596923828,
-0.4027155041694641,
0.7217057943344116,
-0.2612234055995941,
0.11949530988931656,
0.08009110391139984,
-0.6533761620521545,
-0.3067835867404938,
0.06456243246793747,
-0.38464537262916565,
0.36049243807792664,
0.3576902449131012,
-0.35202744603157043,
-0.6723060607910156,
0.4185943007469177,
-0.21907980740070343,
0.6168134212493896,
0.3986143171787262,
-0.5676785707473755,
0.29286038875579834,
-0.06993459910154343,
0.1681623011827469,
0.41971901059150696,
0.12663020193576813,
0.43578189611434937,
0.07240583747625351,
-0.5149239301681519,
-0.3583087623119354,
-0.18110010027885437,
-0.027893226593732834,
0.6162800192832947,
0.0038155231159180403,
0.12091795355081558,
0.07787717878818512,
0.6681290864944458,
0.14660322666168213,
0.5720863938331604,
-0.7784664034843445,
-0.3263508677482605,
0.48942896723747253,
0.3551090359687805,
0.2813793420791626,
0.11281593888998032,
-0.16533122956752777,
0.1181025579571724,
0.06337962299585342,
0.21264860033988953,
-0.39182883501052856,
-0.3771304488182068,
-0.6468225717544556,
-0.4120732843875885,
0.4233334958553314,
0.9114289879798889,
0.11906228959560394,
-0.30716657638549805,
0.28648287057876587,
0.6051840782165527,
0.3127407133579254,
0.7087039351463318,
-0.4337095618247986,
0.013208739459514618,
-0.15149550139904022,
-0.3951209485530853,
0.9701513051986694,
0.14712350070476532,
0.40279102325439453,
0.13848060369491577,
0.7749596834182739,
0.019610457122325897,
-0.5857617855072021,
0.001163405366241932,
0.2675866484642029,
-0.20810122787952423,
-0.15220242738723755,
-0.08677703887224197,
0.029484931379556656,
0.41307494044303894,
-0.6540528535842896,
0.6919963359832764,
0.2580603063106537,
-0.24803873896598816,
0.21516892313957214,
0.09608186036348343,
0.32901525497436523,
-0.46433553099632263,
0.4670615792274475,
-0.5121073722839355,
-0.24882395565509796,
0.41956058144569397,
-0.04389305040240288,
-0.5932624340057373,
-0.34148019552230835,
0.12450870126485825,
-0.02505769021809101,
0.16249355673789978,
-0.22640810906887054,
0.6930527091026306,
-0.4649285674095154,
0.13617675006389618,
0.18572014570236206,
-0.44995200634002686,
0.589947521686554,
0.2748163342475891,
-0.3203345835208893,
0.42127102613449097,
-0.362453818321228,
0.10738732665777206,
-0.5280798673629761,
0.35626065731048584,
0.21008220314979553,
0.3073119819164276,
-0.3039984405040741,
-0.36639225482940674,
-0.19957226514816284,
-0.13040496408939362,
0.0998055636882782,
0.23489521443843842,
0.08080481737852097,
-0.12863893806934357,
0.6150292754173279,
0.10976187884807587,
0.2989972233772278,
0.601259708404541,
-0.3305146396160126,
-0.16134653985500336,
-0.3969108760356903,
0.4394436478614807,
0.023462025448679924,
0.3219210207462311,
0.14286823570728302,
0.12209226191043854,
-1.6805815696716309,
0.24749469757080078,
0.17604246735572815,
0.0694885402917862,
0.4534152150154114,
-0.635269045829773,
-0.6385810971260071,
0.5583162903785706,
0.7456151843070984,
-0.1842615306377411,
-0.5885597467422485,
0.11774048954248428,
-0.7254359722137451,
0.02958248183131218,
-0.4191057085990906,
-0.11972721666097641,
0.24831946194171906,
-0.3231930732727051,
-0.34346526861190796,
-0.5138986706733704,
0.8699988126754761,
-0.3714674711227417,
0.2547505497932434,
0.16010084748268127,
-0.13413578271865845,
0.015833113342523575,
-0.13901230692863464,
-0.37414759397506714,
0.2831841707229614,
-0.3294905722141266,
0.04446995630860329,
0.22503437101840973,
-0.18334247171878815,
-0.33880117535591125,
0.13894064724445343,
-5.285154819488525,
0.16842882335186005,
-0.04349032789468765,
0.06380341947078705,
0.3367668688297272,
0.26290157437324524,
0.18441012501716614,
-0.283302366733551,
-0.381988525390625,
-0.6273998618125916,
0.46276578307151794,
0.3201770484447479,
-0.08460946381092072,
0.08116146922111511,
0.2951491177082062,
0.2675255537033081,
1.2639204263687134,
-0.22854524850845337,
0.5650501847267151,
-0.18348468840122223,
-0.010490713641047478,
0.015033893287181854,
0.12447316944599152,
0.6408673524856567,
0.11278895288705826,
0.2979670464992523,
-0.759699821472168,
0.022491199895739555,
-0.586689829826355,
-0.21494470536708832,
-0.2127012312412262,
-0.15392816066741943,
-0.23704789578914642,
0.058886297047138214,
-0.22180385887622833,
-0.24518059194087982,
0.06602732837200165,
0.06444880366325378,
0.566478967666626,
-0.5269471406936646,
-0.5870646238327026,
0.25531306862831116,
0.09567490965127945,
-0.4240454137325287,
0.09059779345989227,
-0.2857823967933655,
-0.2610750198364258,
0.5438965559005737,
0.5614272952079773,
0.9298592209815979,
0.6308571696281433,
0.36357784271240234,
0.6608318090438843,
0.5301517844200134,
0.6366580724716187,
-0.37319299578666687,
0.13665185868740082,
-0.06047387048602104,
-0.4773404896259308,
0.30286940932273865,
-0.04133203253149986,
-0.3359924256801605,
-0.14567774534225464,
-0.11537592858076096,
-0.12517572939395905,
-0.9778071045875549,
-0.042606111615896225,
0.0315418541431427,
0.17001791298389435,
-0.01912073791027069,
-0.06280683726072311,
1.29282808303833,
0.06817826628684998,
-1.2292873859405518,
0.31942880153656006,
-0.36618417501449585,
-0.5718056559562683,
-0.23949038982391357,
-0.08372950553894043,
-0.2621817886829376,
-0.3764878511428833,
-0.2856985926628113,
-0.10855893790721893,
0.40268218517303467,
0.24350866675376892,
-0.8332699537277222,
-0.497197687625885,
0.23349615931510925,
-0.5106897354125977,
-0.9284362196922302,
-0.15442532300949097,
-0.557799756526947,
0.34805265069007874,
-0.1866990476846695,
0.3881465792655945,
-0.16429072618484497,
0.09742683172225952,
0.5478687286376953,
0.5391513705253601,
-0.2696707546710968,
0.32853326201438904,
-0.8035919666290283,
0.18890556693077087,
-0.3688969612121582,
-0.06186142936348915,
-0.1898880898952484,
-0.43492498993873596,
0.08268914371728897,
0.48058247566223145,
0.22183212637901306,
-0.271106094121933,
-0.32688388228416443,
0.20525546371936798,
-0.8140951991081238,
0.7333427667617798,
0.2837617099285126,
0.0620107538998127,
0.5099552869796753,
0.6219122409820557,
0.3311169445514679,
0.22800768911838531,
0.801903486251831,
-0.4877336025238037,
0.13317975401878357,
0.2556692063808441,
-0.6302170157432556,
0.3076372444629669,
-0.4580342471599579,
-0.7798966765403748,
0.2778458893299103,
0.30529630184173584,
-0.07180652022361755,
-0.2422836571931839,
-0.051686372607946396,
-0.2940335273742676,
-0.26703590154647827,
-0.06680849194526672,
-0.36866021156311035,
-0.29378756880760193,
0.21349722146987915,
-0.4213620126247406,
0.4000665843486786,
-0.6075241565704346,
0.008107788860797882,
0.7986032366752625,
0.4871476888656616,
0.7911201119422913,
-0.32425934076309204,
-0.23342208564281464,
0.5654035806655884,
-0.4931088387966156,
-0.8428112864494324,
0.020229218527674675,
-0.7737398147583008,
0.027108514681458473,
0.31286320090293884,
0.5457261204719543,
0.3784410357475281,
-0.256117045879364,
0.37647998332977295,
-0.5293090343475342,
-0.2784610390663147,
-1.0290395021438599,
-0.6493043303489685,
0.07938811928033829,
-0.23228271305561066,
-0.17973768711090088,
-0.311697393655777,
-0.055589452385902405,
0.12756438553333282,
0.03671953082084656,
-0.36264511942863464,
-0.6948422789573669,
0.35829004645347595,
0.25276321172714233,
0.5193318724632263,
-0.4379447400569916,
-0.34667229652404785,
0.11586695164442062,
0.40895578265190125,
-0.03634660318493843,
-0.0013493953738361597,
-0.40149450302124023,
0.44009944796562195,
0.0017300854669883847,
-0.06680580973625183,
-0.5125006437301636,
-0.05203917995095253,
-0.28012654185295105,
0.21967828273773193,
-0.28789710998535156,
-0.43726831674575806,
0.3827759921550751,
0.035419002175331116,
-1.0025578737258911,
0.5245282649993896,
-0.013074253685772419,
0.15023410320281982,
0.4062400460243225,
-0.5736141800880432,
0.38837286829948425,
0.7822307348251343,
-1.0066206455230713,
0.1285647749900818,
-0.11863023042678833,
-0.8371511101722717,
0.20813797414302826,
-0.13049696385860443,
0.35758236050605774,
0.30373287200927734,
0.040313106030225754,
-0.4078531563282013,
0.3198205232620239,
0.5895360708236694,
-0.07550322264432907,
-0.09036947786808014,
-0.04838063567876816,
0.1519782543182373,
-0.20755259692668915,
-1.0567033290863037,
-0.5115712285041809,
-0.4547276198863983,
0.08238769322633743,
-0.7922199964523315,
-0.8347738981246948,
0.4246893525123596,
-0.3854725956916809,
-0.7456979751586914,
0.3938368558883667,
-0.11340735852718353,
-0.2657746374607086,
0.0060863858088850975,
-0.23130838572978973,
0.5002593398094177,
0.4693033993244171,
-0.35542333126068115,
-0.29443591833114624,
0.04431983083486557,
0.12019392102956772,
0.18227891623973846,
0.913310170173645,
1.1266095638275146,
0.13162216544151306,
0.07791698724031448,
-0.6535251140594482,
0.5841172933578491,
0.09492247551679611,
-0.38795289397239685,
-0.20318174362182617,
0.43083667755126953,
0.21843378245830536,
-0.5317384600639343,
-0.677308201789856,
-0.5461677312850952,
0.8812764883041382,
-0.18397784233093262,
0.4283108413219452,
0.15264439582824707,
0.21128220856189728,
-0.10837028920650482,
-0.10448406636714935,
0.5515792369842529,
-1.0300146341323853,
0.39665281772613525,
0.44314324855804443,
-0.06217130646109581,
-0.5302484035491943,
0.09660229086875916,
0.2597339451313019,
-0.23899585008621216,
-0.43847212195396423,
0.3011341392993927,
0.048281509429216385,
0.4547235369682312,
0.10918911546468735,
0.6978097558021545,
0.030412942171096802,
-0.6133928298950195,
0.40606892108917236,
-0.1370847225189209,
0.2367786467075348,
0.32017627358436584,
-0.6162945032119751,
-0.37990349531173706,
-0.4209015369415283,
-0.7136805653572083,
-0.3351026177406311,
-0.8194611668586731,
-0.30845877528190613,
-0.18699783086776733,
0.275791734457016,
-0.42735111713409424,
0.19608694314956665,
0.12097331136465073,
-0.1421990990638733,
0.5703561902046204,
-0.24332170188426971,
0.6567432880401611,
-0.08581328392028809,
0.6926230788230896,
-0.6520566940307617,
0.4625486433506012,
-0.3162707984447479,
0.008643384091556072,
0.22268664836883545,
0.2983163893222809,
0.12313803285360336,
-0.06730292737483978,
-0.01823565363883972,
-0.11369525641202927,
0.07546620070934296,
-0.4492298364639282,
0.4133743643760681,
0.5307901501655579,
-0.285703182220459,
0.10146300494670868,
0.589974045753479,
-0.7546709179878235,
-0.428945392370224,
-0.37785404920578003,
0.09795616567134857,
-0.5937190055847168,
0.33643218874931335,
0.647494912147522,
-0.22879795730113983,
0.5721487998962402,
-0.7226026654243469,
-0.4702463746070862,
-0.042373787611722946,
0.8028321862220764,
0.10211382806301117,
-0.704245388507843,
-0.4414033591747284,
0.37399595975875854,
-0.28303012251853943,
0.0709010660648346,
0.41496238112449646,
-0.39388540387153625,
-0.8036519885063171,
0.5800060033798218,
-0.27054518461227417,
0.1946738213300705,
0.11657366156578064,
-0.1792227178812027,
0.11722046136856079,
0.0877847820520401,
0.018208017572760582,
0.23833028972148895,
0.48693686723709106,
0.061741795390844345,
0.2565235495567322,
0.27748456597328186,
0.425190806388855,
0.14679759740829468,
0.39916443824768066,
0.2871105968952179,
0.7500613331794739,
-0.3835083246231079,
-0.31268197298049927,
-1.5515539646148682,
-0.3877459466457367,
-0.42717278003692627,
0.3521032929420471,
-0.0656639039516449,
0.013845939189195633,
0.04382985457777977,
0.057027511298656464,
0.450480192899704,
0.13641540706157684,
0.2890453636646271,
0.5749449133872986,
0.3644810616970062,
-0.14221806824207306,
-0.2420036643743515,
0.4254465699195862,
0.6779513955116272,
0.2803080976009369,
-0.1797945350408554,
0.2791953384876251,
-0.3305886387825012,
-0.09853776544332504,
0.30478882789611816,
0.0646534189581871,
-0.41914239525794983,
0.04431500658392906,
0.46799349784851074,
-0.29340410232543945,
0.5942346453666687,
0.028230447322130203,
-0.25437232851982117,
0.9189264178276062,
-0.0038485703989863396,
-0.49603164196014404,
0.03424061834812164,
-0.03380477800965309,
0.5776236653327942,
-0.07773668318986893,
0.5697963833808899,
0.49821972846984863,
-0.15824653208255768,
-0.20052792131900787,
0.4198656380176544,
0.26258713006973267,
0.42832133173942566,
-0.2008562982082367,
-0.008456307463347912,
-0.4763895273208618,
0.1944507360458374,
-0.07345674932003021,
-0.23930847644805908,
0.10603444278240204,
-0.14087651669979095,
-0.33716005086898804,
0.13427387177944183,
-0.281933456659317,
-0.4344096779823303,
0.46358463168144226,
-0.49655771255493164,
-0.24544531106948853,
0.30547696352005005,
0.3471313416957855,
0.31969958543777466,
-0.47737517952919006,
0.5703681111335754,
-0.29186394810676575,
-0.32330429553985596,
0.009470626711845398,
-0.5169815421104431,
-0.3408372104167938,
0.34539175033569336,
0.1158820316195488,
-0.07101894170045853,
-0.22967250645160675,
0.327674001455307,
-0.11779237538576126,
-0.5136248469352722,
-0.04410437494516373,
0.9454391598701477,
0.6700277924537659,
0.026124196127057076,
0.3126855790615082,
-0.3949946165084839,
0.39566218852996826,
-0.2521141469478607,
-1.7217437028884888,
0.09679225087165833,
0.03621409833431244,
-0.7070630788803101,
0.21596792340278625,
0.8428360223770142,
0.32045403122901917,
-0.493257611989975,
0.5509103536605835,
-0.027866577729582787,
0.2480248063802719,
0.009669416584074497,
0.5226089954376221,
0.055897168815135956,
0.02011270262300968,
0.3410782516002655
] |
206017
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini%20Atoll
|
Bikini Atoll
|
Bikini Atoll ( or ; Marshallese: '', , meaning "coconut place"), sometimes known as Eschscholtz Atoll between the 1800s and 1946 (see Etymology section below for history and orthography of the endonym), is a coral reef in the Marshall Islands consisting of 23 islands surrounding a central lagoon. Post Second World War, the atoll's inhabitants were forcibly relocated in 1946, after which the islands and lagoon were the site of 23 nuclear tests by the United States until 1958.
The atoll is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain, approximately northwest of the capital Majuro. Three families were resettled on Bikini island in 1970, totaling about 100 residents. But scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in well water in May 1977, and the residents were carrying abnormally high concentrations of caesium-137 in their bodies. They were evacuated in 1980. The atoll is occasionally visited today by divers and a few scientists, and is occupied by a handful of caretakers.
Etymology
The island's English name is derived from the German colonial name Bikini given to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name is transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, , () "Pik" meaning "surface" and "Ni" meaning "coconut", or surface of coconuts.
Culture
Bikini islanders' traditional lifestyle was based on cultivating plants and eating shellfish and fish. They were skilled boat-builders and navigators, sailing the two-hulled proa to and from islets around Bikini and other atolls in the Marshall Islands. They were relatively isolated and had developed a society bound by extended family association and tradition. Every lagoon was led by a king and queen, with a following of chieftains and chief women who constituted a ruling caste.
Japan occupied the islands starting in 1914. The islanders worked the copra plantations under the watchful eye of the Japanese, who took a portion of the sales. Chiefs could retain as much as $20,000 per year, and the remainder was distributed to the workers. The Marshall islanders took pride in extending hospitality to one another, even distant relatives.
Clothing and dress
Men traditionally wore a fringed skirt about long. Women wore two mats about a yard square each, made by weaving pandanus and hibiscus leaves together and belted around the waist. Children were usually naked. Christian missionaries from Oahu arrived in the late 19th century and influenced the islanders' notions of modesty. They introduced a dress for women which was a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck, intended to cover as much skin as possible. The dress is called (), from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu.
It is customary to remove one's shoes or sandals when taking a seat at someone's home. Marshallese women traditionally cover their shoulders and thighs as well. Women generally wear cotton muumuus or similar clothing that covers most of the body. Personal health is not often discussed except within the family, and women are especially private about female-related health issues, although they are willing to talk about their breasts.
Marshall island women swim in muumuus which are made of a fine polyester that quickly dries. In the capital of Majuro, revealing cocktail dresses are not considered appropriate for both islanders and guests. With the increasing influence of Western media, the younger generation wears shorts, though the older generation equates shorts with loose morals. T-shirts, jeans, skirts, and makeup are making their way to the islands via the media.
Land-based wealth
The Bikini islanders continue to maintain land rights as the primary measure of wealth.
Each family is part of a clan (Bwij), which owns all land. The clan owes allegiance to a chief (Iroij). The chiefs oversee the clan heads (Alap), who are supported by laborers (Dri-jerbal). The Iroij control land tenure, resource use and distribution, and settle disputes. The Alap supervise land maintenance and daily activities. The Dri-jerbal work the land including farming, cleaning, and construction.
The Marshallese society is matrilineal and land is passed down from generation to generation through the mother. Land ownership ties families together into clans. Grandparents, parents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, and cousins form extended, close-knit family groups. Gatherings tend to become big events. One of the most significant family events is the first birthday of a child (kemem), which relatives and friends celebrate with feasts and song.
Payments made in the 20th century as reparations for damage to the Bikini Atoll and the islanders' way of life have elevated their income relative to other Marshall Island residents. It has caused some Bikini islanders to become economically dependent on the payments from the trust fund. This dependency has eroded individuals' interest in traditional economic pursuits like taro and copra production. The move also altered traditional patterns of social alliance and political organization. On Bikini, rights to land and land ownership were the major factor in social and political organization and leadership. After relocation and settlement on Kili, a dual system of land tenure evolved. Disbursements from the trust fund were based in part to land ownership on Bikini and based on current land tenure on Kili.
Before the residents were relocated, they were led by a local chief and under the nominal control of the Paramount Chief of the Marshall Islands. Afterward, they had greater interaction with representatives of the trust fund and the U.S. government and began to look to them for support.
Language
Most Marshallese speak both the Marshallese language and at least some Spanish. Government agencies use Marshallese. One important word in Marshallese is "yokwe" which is similar to the Hawaiian "aloha" and means "hello", "goodbye" and "love".
Environment
Bikini Atoll is part of the Ralik Chain (for "sunset chain") within the Marshall Islands.
Nuclear test site
The United States detonated 23 nuclear devices between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites on the reef, inside the atoll, in the air, and underwater. They had a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The residents initially accepted resettlement voluntarily to Rongerik Atoll, believing that they would be able to return home within a short time. However, Rongerik could not produce enough food, and the islanders starved. They could not return home, so they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll for six months before choosing to live on Kili Island, a small island one-sixth the size of their home island. Some were able to return to Bikini Island in 1970; however, further testing revealed dangerous levels of strontium-90. The United States government established several trust funds which covered medical treatment and other costs and paid about $550 annually to each individual.
Geography
Some 74 kilometers northwest of the atoll is Wōdejebato, a probable shield volcano that is connected to it through a submarine ridge.
There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll; the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Namu were vaporized during the nuclear tests. The islands are composed of low coral limestone and sand. The average elevation is only about above low tide level. The total lagoon area is . The primary home of the islanders was the most northeast and largest islet, Bikini Island, totaling and long.
Flora and fauna
The islanders cultivated native foods including coconut, pandanus, papaya, banana, arrowroot, taro, limes, breadfruit, and pumpkin. A wide variety of other trees and plants are also present on the islands.
The islanders were skilled fishermen. They used fishing line made from coconut husk and hooks from sharpened sea shells. They used more than 25 methods of fishing. The islanders raised ducks, pigs, and chickens for food and kept dogs and cats as pets. Animal life in the atoll was severely affected by the atomic bomb testing. Existing land species include small lizards, hermit crabs, and coconut crabs. The islands are frequented by a wide variety of birds.
To allow vessels with a larger draft to enter the lagoon and to prepare for the atomic bomb testing, the United States used explosives to cut a channel through the reef and to blow up large coral heads in the lagoon. The underwater nuclear explosions carved large holes in the bottom of the lagoon that were partially refilled by blast debris. The explosions distributed vast amounts of irradiated, pulverized coral and mud across wide expanses of the lagoon and surrounding islands. , the atoll had recovered nearly 65% of the biodiversity that existed prior to radioactive contamination, but 28 species of coral appear to be locally extinct.
Climate
The islands are hot and humid. The temperature on Bikini Atoll is year-round. The water temperature is also all year. The islands border the Pacific typhoon belt. The wet season is from May to December while the trade winds from January through May produce higher wave action.
Resident and non-resident population
When the United States asked the islanders to relocate in 1946, 19 islanders lived elsewhere. The 167 residents, comprising about 40 families who lived on the atoll, voluntarily moved to Rongerik Atoll, and then to Kwajalein Atoll, and once again in November 1948 to Kili Island, when the population numbered 184. They were later given public lands on Ejit and a few families initially moved there to grow copra. In 1970, about 160 Bikini islanders returned to live on the atoll after they were reassured that it was safe. They remained for about 10 years until scientists found an 11-fold increase in the cesium-137 body burdens and determined that the island was not safe after all. The 178 residents were evacuated in September 1978 once again.
Since then a number of descendants have moved to Majuro (the Marshall Islands' capital), other Marshall Islands, and the United States. In 1999, there were 2,600 total individuals; 1,000 islanders living on Kiji, 700 in Majuro, 275 on Ejit, 175 on other Marshall Islands or atolls, and 450 in the United States. Of those, 81 were among those who left the atoll in 1946. In 2001, the population of the dispersed islanders was 2,800.
As of March 2016, there were 5,400 living Bikini islanders: 800 islanders living on Kili, 2,550 on Majuro, 300 on Ejit, 350 on other Marshall Islands, and 1,400 in the United States and other countries. Of that number, 25 lived on Bikini in 1946. The resident population of the atoll is currently 4–6 caretakers, including Edward Maddison. Maddison has lived on Bikini Island since 1985. His grandfather was one of the original residents relocated in 1947. He also helps the U.S. Department of Energy with soil monitoring, testing cleanup methods, mapping the wrecks in the lagoon, and accompanying visitors on dives. He is also the divemaster of Bikini Atoll Divers.
Government
The Bikini islanders were historically loyal to a king, or Irojj. After the Marshall Islands separated from the United States in the Compact of Free Association in 1986, its constitution established a bicameral parliament. The upper house is only a consultative body. It consists of traditional leaders (Iroijlaplap), known as the Council of Irooj, who advise the lower house on traditional, cultural issues. , there are four members of the council.
The lower house or Nitijela consists of 33 senators elected by 24 electoral districts. Universal suffrage is available to all citizens 18 years of age and older. The 24 electoral districts correspond roughly to each Marshall Islands atoll. The lower house elects the president who, with the approval of the Nitijela, selects a cabinet from among members of the Nitijela.
Local government
Four district centers in Majuro, Ebeye, Jaluit, and Wotje provide local government. Each district elects a council and mayor and may appoint local officials. The district centers are funded by the national government and by local revenues. There are two political parties. Elections are held every four years. In 2011 Nishma Jamore was elected mayor of the district representing the Bikini people. Council members are elected from two wards on Ejit Island (three seats) and Kili Island (12 seats).
U.S. liaison
The local government works with a U.S. paid Liaison Officer for Bikini Atoll Local Government, Jack Niedenthal, who is acting Bikini/Kili/Majuro Projects Manager. He is also the Tourism Operations Manager and oversees Bikini Atoll Divers.
History
Human beings have inhabited the Bikini Atoll for about 3,600 years. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers archaeologist Charles F. Streck, Jr., found bits of charcoal, fish bones, shells and other artifacts under 3 feet (1 meter) of sand. Carbon-dating placed the age of the artifacts at between 1960 and 1650 BC. Other discoveries on Bikini and Eneu island were carbon-dated to between 1000 BC and 1 BC, and others between AD 400 and 1400
The first recorded sighting by Europeans was in September 1529 by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board his ship La Florida when trying to return to New Spain, and was charted as Buenos Jardines (Good Gardens in Spanish). The Marshalls lacked the wealth to encourage exploration or mapping. The British captain Samuel Wallis chanced upon Rongerik and Rongelap atolls while sailing from Tahiti to Tinian. The British naval captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert partially explored the Marshalls in 1788.
The first Westerner to see the atoll in the mid-1820s was the Baltic German captain and explorer Otto von Kotzebue, sailing in service of the Russian Empire. He visited three times during 1816 and 1817. He named the atoll Eschscholtz Atoll after Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the naturalist of von Kotzebue's ship. The Baltic Germans used the atoll to produce copra oil from coconuts, although contact with the native population was infrequent. The atoll's climate is drier than the more fertile southern Marshall Islands which produced more copra. Bikini islanders were recruited into developing the copra trade during the German colonial period.
Christian missionaries arrive
Protestant missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions arrived on Ebon, in the southern Ralik Chain, in 1857. They first introduced the islanders to Christianity in 1857, which gradually displaced their native religion.
Spanish–German Treaty of 1899
The explosion in Havana Harbor of the battleship served as an excuse for the initiation of the Spanish–American War in 1898. It resulted in Spain losing many of its remaining colonies; Cuba became nominally independent while the United States took possession of Puerto Rico and Spain's Pacific colonies of the Philippines and Guam. This left Spain with the remainder of the Spanish East Indies in the Pacific, about 6000 islands that were tiny and sparsely populated. After the loss of the administrative center of Manila, the minor islands became ungovernable and, after the entire loss of two Spanish fleets in 1898, indefensible.
The Spanish government sold the islands to Germany. The treaty was signed on 12 February 1899, by Spanish Prime Minister Francisco Silvela, and transferred the Caroline Islands, the Mariana Islands, Palau and other possessions to Germany. The islands were then placed under the control of German New Guinea.
Japanese occupation
Bikini was captured along with the rest of the Marshall Islands by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Seas Mandate, but mostly left local affairs in the hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. At the outset of the war, the Marshall Islands suddenly became a strategic outpost for the Japanese. They built and manned a watchtower on the island, an outpost for the Japanese headquarters on Kwajalein Atoll, to guard against an American invasion of the islands.
World War II
The islands remained relatively unscathed by the war until February 1944, when in a bloody battle, the American forces captured Kwajalein Atoll. At the battle's conclusion, there were only five surviving Japanese soldiers left on Bikini, and they chose to die by suicide rather than allow themselves to be captured.
For the U.S., the battle represented both the next step in its island-hopping march to Japan and a significant moral victory, as it was the first time the Americans had penetrated the "outer ring" of the Japanese Pacific sphere. For the Japanese, the battle represented the failure of the beach-line defense. Japanese defenses became prepared in depth, and the battles of Peleliu, Guam, and the Marianas proved far more costly to the U.S.
Residents relocated
After World War II, the United States was engaged in a Cold War Nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build bigger and more destructive bombs.
The nuclear weapons testing at Bikini Atoll program was a series of 23 nuclear devices detonated by the United States between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites. The test weapons were detonated on the reef itself, on the sea, in the air and underwater with a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. Shortly after World War II ended, President Harry S. Truman directed Army and Navy officials to secure a site for testing nuclear weapons on American warships. While the Army had seen the results of a land-based explosion, the Navy wanted to know the effect of a nuclear weapon on ships. They wanted to determine whether ships could be spaced at sea and in ports in a way that would make nuclear weapons ineffective against vessels.
Bikini was distant from both regular sea and air traffic, making it an ideal location. In February 1946, Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, the military governor of the Marshall Islands, asked the 167 Micronesian inhabitants of the atoll to voluntarily and temporarily relocate so the United States government could begin testing atomic bombs for "the good of mankind and to end all world wars." After "confused and sorrowful deliberation" among the Bikinians, their leader, King Juda, agreed to the U.S. relocation request, announcing "We will go believing that everything is in the hands of God." Nine of the eleven family heads, or alaps, chose Rongerik as their new home.
In February, Navy Seabees helped them to disassemble their church and community house and prepare to relocate them to their new home. On 7 March 1946, the residents gathered their personal belongings and saved building supplies. They were transported eastward on U.S. Navy landing ship 1108 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. No one lived on Rongerik because it had an inadequate water and food supply and due to deep-rooted traditional beliefs that the island was haunted by the Demon Girls of Ujae. The Navy left them with a few weeks of food and water which soon proved to be inadequate.
Nuclear testing program
The weapons testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The Baker test's radioactive contamination of all the target ships was the first case of immediate, concentrated radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called Baker "the world's first nuclear disaster." This was followed by a series of later tests that left the islands of the atoll contaminated with enough radioactivity, particularly caesium-137, to contaminate food grown in the soil.
Strategic Trust Territory
In 1947, the United States convinced the United Nations to designate the islands of Micronesia a United Nations Strategic Trust Territory. This was the only trust ever granted by the U.N. The United States Navy controlled the Trust from a headquarters in Guam until 1951, when the United States Department of the Interior took over control, administering the territory from a base in Saipan. The directive stated that the United States should "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall... protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources..."
Despite the promise to "protect the inhabitants", from July 1946 through July 1947, the residents of Bikini Atoll were left alone on Rongerik Atoll and were starving for lack of food. A team of U.S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately. Press from around the world harshly criticized the U.S. Navy for ignoring the people. Harold Ickes, a syndicated columnist, wrote "The natives are actually and literally starving to death."
Move to Kili Island
In January 1948, Dr. Leonard Mason, an anthropologist from the University of Hawaii, visited Rongerik Atoll and was horrified at what he found. One resident of Rongerik commented,
Mason requested that food be brought to the islanders on Rongerik immediately along with a medical officer. The Navy then selected Ujelang Atoll for their temporary home and some young men from the Bikini Atoll population went ahead to begin constructing living accommodations. But U.S. Trust Authorities changed their mind. They decided to use Enewetak Atoll as a second nuclear weapons test site and relocated that atoll's residents to Ujelang Atoll instead and to the homes built for the Bikini Islanders.
In March 1948, 184 malnourished Bikini islanders were relocated again to Kwajalein Atoll. They were given tents on a strip of grass alongside the airport runway to live in. In June 1948, the Bikini residents chose Kili Island as a long-term home. The extremely small, () island was uninhabited and wasn't ruled by a paramount iroij, or king due to its size. It also lacks a coral reef. In June, the Bikini community chose two dozen men to accompany eight Seabees to Kili to begin construction of a village. In November 1948, the residents, now totaling 184 individuals, moved to Kili Island, at , one of the smallest islands in the Marshall Island chain. They soon learned they could no longer fish the way they had on Bikini Atoll. Kili lacked the calm, protected, lagoon. Living on Kili Island effectively destroyed their culture that had been based on fishing and island-hopping canoe voyages to various islets around the Bikini Atoll. Kili did not provide enough food for the transplanted residents.
Failed resettlement
After their relocation to Kili, the Bikini residents continued to suffer from inadequate food supplies. Kili is a small island without a lagoon, and most of the year it is exposed to waves that make fishing and putting canoes out difficult. Starvation ensued. In 1949, the Trust Territory administration donated a ship for transporting copra between Kili and Jaluit Atoll, but the ship was wrecked in heavy surf while delivering copra and other fruit.
The U.S. Trust Authorities airdropped food onto Kili. The residents were forced to rely on imported USDA rice and canned goods and had to buy food with their supplemental income.
During 1955 and 1956, ships dispatched by the U.S. Trust Territory continually experienced problems unloading food because of the rough seas around the island, leading to additional food shortages. The people once again suffered from starvation and the shortages increased in 1956. The U.S. suggested that some of the Bikini Islanders move to Jaluit where food was more readily available. A few people moved.
The United States opened a satellite community for the families on public land on Jaluit Atoll, north. Three families moved there to produce copra for sale and other families rotated living there later on. Their homes on both Kili and Jaluit were struck by typhoons during 1957 and 1958, sinking their supply ship and damaging crops.
Return to Bikini Atoll
In June 1968, based on scientific advice that the radiation levels were sufficiently reduced, President Lyndon B. Johnson promised the 540 Bikini Atoll family members living on Kili and other islands that they would be able to return to their home. The Atomic Energy Commission cleared radioactive debris from the island, and the U.S. Trust Territory was in charge of rebuilding structures and replanting crops on the atoll. But shortly afterward the Trust Territory ended regular air flights between Kwajalein Atoll and Bikini Atoll which seriously impeded progress. Coconut trees were finally replanted in 1972, but the AEC learned that the coconut crabs retained high levels of radioactivity and could not be eaten. The Bikini Council voted to delay a return to the island as a result.
Three extended families, eventually totaling about 100 people, moved back to their home island in 1972 despite the risk. But 10 years later, a team of French scientists performed additional tests on the island and its inhabitants. They found some wells were too radioactive for use and determined that the pandanus and breadfruit were also dangerous for human consumption. Urine samples from the islanders on Bikini Atoll showed low levels of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240. As a result, the Bikini community filed a federal lawsuit seeking a complete scientific survey of Bikini and the northern Marshall Islands. Inter-departmental squabbling over responsibility for the costs delayed the work for three years. Then in May 1977 scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in the well water exceeding the U.S. maximum allowed limits. In June, the Department of Energy stated that "All living patterns involving Bikini Island exceed Federal [radiation] guidelines for thirty-year population doses." Later that year scientists discovered an 11-fold increase in the caesium-137 body burdens in all of the people living on the atoll. In May 1978 officials from the U.S. Department of the Interior described the 75% increase in radioactive caesium-137 found as "incredible".
Women were experiencing miscarriages, stillbirths, and genetic abnormalities in their children. Researchers learned that the coral soil behaved differently from mainland soil because it contains very little potassium. Plants and trees readily absorb potassium as part of the normal biological process, but since caesium is part of the same group on the periodic table, it is absorbed by plants in a very similar chemical process. The islanders who unknowingly consumed contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies. The Trust Territory decided that the islanders had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time.
The islanders received US$75 million in damages in 1986 as part of a new Compact of Free Association with the U.S. and in 1988, another $90 million to be used specifically for radiological cleanup. In 1987, a few Bikini elders traveled to Eneu Island to reestablish old property lines. Construction crews began building a hotel, docks, and roads on Bikini, and installed generators, desalinators, and power lines. A packed coral and sand runway still exists on Eneu Island. The Bikini Atoll Divers was established to provide income. But in 1995, the council learned that the US Environmental Protection Agency standard required reducing radiation levels to 15 millirems, substantially less than the US Department of Energy standard of 100 millirems. This discovery significantly increased the potential cost of cleanup and stalled the effort.
Relocation to Kili Island
As a result of the military use of the island and the failed resettlement, the islands are littered with abandoned concrete bunkers and tons of heavy equipment, vehicles, supplies, machines, and buildings. In September 1978, Trust Territory officials finally arrived to relocate the residents. The radiological survey of the northern Marshalls, compelled by the 1975 lawsuit, began only after the residents were removed and returned to Kili Island.
, the tiny Kili Island supported about 600 residents who live in cinderblock houses. They must rely on contributions from a settlement trust fund to supplement what they produce locally. Each family receives 1–2 boxes of frozen chicken, 2–4 bags of flour, and 2–4 bags of rice 2–3 times per year. The islanders operate several small stores out of their homes to supply nonperishable food items like salt, Tabasco, candy, and canned items. A generator provides electricity.
Children attend elementary school on Kili through eighth grade. Toward the end of the eighth grade, students must pass a standardized test to gain admission to attend public high school in Jaluit or Majuro.
Beginning in 2011 the resettled residents of Kili Island began to experience periods of ocean flooding during king tide. The highest point of Kili Island is only above sea level. Ocean waves have covered portions of the island at least five times from 2011 to 2015, contaminating the wells on the island. The runway servicing the island is unusable during and after rains and ocean flooding because it becomes extremely muddy. In August 2015, the Bikini Council passed a resolution requesting assistance from US government to modify terms of the Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini to be used to relocate the population once again, this time outside of the Marshall Islands.
Trust funds and failed claims
In 1975, when the islanders who had returned to Bikini Atoll learned that it wasn't safe, they sued the United States for the first time, demanding a radiological study of the northern islands.
In 1975, the United States set up The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini, totaling $3 million. When the islanders were removed from the island in 1978, the U.S. added $3 million to the fund. The U.S. created a second trust fund, The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini, containing $20 million in 1982. The U.S. added another $90 million to that fund to pay to clean up, reconstruct homes and facilities, and resettle the islanders on Bikini and Eneu islands.
In 1983, the U.S. and the Marshall islanders signed the Compact of Free Association, which gave the Marshall Islands independence. The Compact became effective in 1986 and was subsequently modified by the Amended Compact that became effective in 2004. It also established the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was given the task of adjudicating compensation for victims and families affected by the nuclear testing program. Section 177 of the compact provided for reparations to the Bikini islanders and other northern atolls for damages. It included $75 million to be paid over 15 years. On 5 March 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands and its people.
The payments began in 1987 with $2.4 million paid annually to the entire Bikini population, while the remaining $2.6 million is paid into The Bikini Claims Trust Fund. This trust is intended to exist in perpetuity and to provide the islanders a 5% payment from the trust annually.
The United States provided $150 million in compensation for damage caused by the nuclear testing program and their displacement from their home island.
In 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal awarded the islanders a total of $563,315,500 after deducting past awards. However, the U.S. Congress has failed to fund the settlement. The only recourse is for the Bikini people to petition the U.S. Congress to fund the payment and fulfill this award. The United States Supreme Court turned down the islanders' appeal of the United States Court of Appeals decision that refused to compel the government to fund their claim. By 2001, of the original 167 residents who were relocated, 70 were still alive, and the entire population has grown to 2,800. Most of the islanders and their descendants lived on Kili, in Majuro, and in the United States.
The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini was liquidated as required by law in December 2006. The value of The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini as of 31 March 2013 was approximately $82 million and The Bikini Claims Trust Fund was worth approximately $60 million. In 2006, each member of the trust received about $500 a year. In 2012, the trusts produced about US$6 to $8 million annually in investment income, and the trusts paid out less than US$15,000 per family each year in benefits, with little money left available for cleanup.
Representatives for the Bikini people expect this process to take many years and do not know whether the United States will honor the terms of the Compact of Free Association.
World Heritage Site
Because the site bears direct tangible evidence of the nuclear tests conducted there amid the paradoxical tropical location, UNESCO determined that the atoll symbolizes the dawn of the nuclear age and named it a World Heritage Site on 3 August 2010.
Visitor access
Bikini Atoll is open to visitors aboard vessels that are completely self-sufficient if they obtain prior approval. They must also pay for a diver and two local government council representatives to accompany them. The local representation is required to verify that visitors don't remove artifacts from the wrecks in the lagoon. Extensive research has been conducted to ensure the safety of visitors to the area, and to demonstrate the now low levels of radiation in and around Bikini Atoll.
Bikini Lagoon diving
In June 1996, the Bikini Council authorized diving operations as a means to generate income for Bikini islanders currently and upon their eventual return. The Bikini Council hired dive guide Edward Maddison who had lived on Bikini Island since 1985 and Fabio Amaral, a Brazilian citizen at the time, as head divemaster and resort manager. The tours are limited to fewer than a dozen experienced divers a week, cost more than US$5,000, and include detailed histories of the nuclear tests. The operation brought in more than $500,000 during the season from May to October 2001.
On-shore facilities
To accommodate the dive program and anglers, the Bikini Council built new air-conditioned rooms with private bathrooms and showers. They included verandas overlooking the lagoon. There was a dining facility that served American-style meals. The head chef Mios Maddison also prepared Marshallese dishes featuring fresh seafood. Only 12 visitors were hosted at one time. Because of the lingering contamination, all fruits and vegetables used for the Bikini Atoll dive and sport fishing operation were imported. In September 2007, the last of Air Marshall Islands' commuter aircraft ceased operations when spare parts could not be located and the aircraft were no longer airworthy. A half dozen divers and a journalist were stranded for a week on Bikini Island. The Bikini islanders suspended land-based dive operations beginning in August 2008. , Air Marshall Islands operates one Bombardier DHC-8-100 aircraft and two 19-seat Dornier 228.
Live aboard diving program
In October 2010, a live-aboard, self-contained vessel successfully conducted dive operations. In 2011, the local government licensed the live-aboard operator as a provider of dive expeditions on the nuclear ghost fleet at Bikini Atoll. The dive season runs from May through October. Visitors are still able to land on the island for brief stays.
In early 2017, Master Liveaboards announced they would add Bikini Atoll to their list of destinations for technical divers using their vessel Truk Master with trips to the site commencing in May 2018 having been granted a license by the Bikini Council. In May 2021, as a result of ongoing business evaluation and pent up demand created by the COVID-19 pandemic, Master Liveaboards announced they would be adding an additional vessel alongside Truk Master to operate at Bikini Atoll from 2022 onwards.
Because the lagoon has remained undisturbed for so long, it contains a larger amount of sea life than usual, including sharks, which increases divers' interest in the area. Visibility depth is over . The lagoon is immensely popular with divers and is regarded as among the top 10 diving locations in the world.
Dive visitors receive a history lesson along with the dive experience, including movies and complete briefings about each of the ships, their respective histories, and a tour of the island and the atoll. Divers are able to visit the USS Saratoga (CV-3), the second largest of only three aircraft carriers in the world that are accessible to scuba or closed circuit rebreather divers.
Sportfishing
Bikini Island authorities opened sport fishing to visitors along with diving. Although the atomic blasts obliterated three islands and contaminated much of the atoll, after 50 years the coral reefs have largely recovered. The reefs attract reef fish and their predators: dogtooth tuna, barracuda, and giant trevally as big as . Given the long-term absence of humans, the Bikini lagoon offers sportsmen one of the most pristine fishing environments in the world.
Shipwrecks
Shipwrecks in the lagoon include the following:
– aircraft carrier
– battleship
– attack transport
– attack transport
– destroyer
– destroyer
– submarine
– submarine
– battleship
– light cruiser
Current habitable state
In 1998 an IAEA advisory group, formed in response to a request by the Government of the Marshall Islands for an independent international review of the radiological conditions at Bikini Atoll, recommended that Bikini Island should not be permanently resettled under the present radiological conditions.
The potential to make the island habitable has substantially improved since then. A 2012 assessment from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory found that caesium-137 levels are dropping considerably faster than anyone expected. Terry Hamilton, scientific director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Marshall Islands Dose Assessment and Radioecology Program, reported that "Conditions have really changed on Bikini. They are improving at an accelerated rate. By using the combined option of removing soil and adding potassium, we can get very close to the 15 millirem standard. That has been true for roughly the past 10 years. So now is the time when the Bikinians, if they desired, could go back."
, about 4,880 Bikini people live on Kili and other Marshall Islands, and some have emigrated to the United States. Bikini Island is currently visited by a few scientists and inhabited by 4–6 caretakers.
The islanders want the topsoil removed, but lack the necessary funding. The opportunity for some Bikini islanders to potentially relocate back to their home island creates a dilemma. While the island may be habitable in the near term, virtually all of the islanders alive today have never lived there. Most of the younger generation have never visited. , unemployment in the Marshall Islands was at about 40 percent. The population is growing at a four-percent growth rate, so increasing numbers are taking advantage of terms in the Marshall Islands' Compact of Free Association that allow them to obtain jobs in the United States.
After the islanders were relocated in 1946, while the Bikini islanders were experiencing starvation on Rongerik Atoll, Lore Kessibuki wrote an anthem for the island:
No longer can I stay, it’s true
No longer can I live in peace and harmony
No longer can I rest on my sleeping mat and pillow
Because of my island and the life I once knew there
The thought is overwhelming
Rendering me helpless and in great despair.
In popular culture
Cinema
The documentary Bikini – mon amour by Oliver Herbrich shows the effects of long-term low-level radiation on the population.
Television shows
The Nickelodeon animated series SpongeBob SquarePants primarily takes place in Bikini Bottom, which is supposedly situated underneath the atoll named after Bikini Atoll.
During an interview with Tom Kenny, the voice actor for SpongeBob, he was asked about the popular theory that SpongeBob is the result of nuclear testing. To this he said,
Swimsuit design
On 5 July 1946, four days after the first nuclear device (nicknamed Able) was detonated over the Bikini Atoll during Operation Crossroads, Louis Réard introduced a new swimsuit design named the bikini after the atoll. Réard was a French mechanical engineer by training and manager of his mother's lingerie shop in Paris. He introduced the new garment to the media and public on 5 July 1946 at Piscine Molitor, a public pool in Paris.
He hired Micheline Bernardini, an 18-year-old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris, to demonstrate his design. It featured a g-string back of of cloth with newspaper-type print and was an immediate sensation. Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men. Réard hoped that his swimsuit's revealing style would create an "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar in intensity to the social reaction to 1946 nuclear explosion at Bikini Atoll. Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion".
Ironically, the bikini's design violates the Marshall Islanders' modern customs of modesty because it exposes a woman's thighs and shoulders. However, before contact with Western missionaries, Marshallese women were traditionally topless and still do not sexually objectify female breasts (which the bikini does cover) as is common in much of Western society. Marshall Island women swim in their muumuus, which are made of a fine polyester that dries quickly. Wearing a bikini in the Marshall Islands is mainly limited to restricted-access beaches and pools like those at private resorts or on United States government facilities on Kwajalein Atoll within the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site.
Gallery
See also
Operation Castle
Operation Ivy
Radio Bikini
Wōdejebato
References
Notes
Bibliography
Niedenthal, Jack, For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and their Islands, Bravo Publishers, (November 2002),
Wiesgall, Jonathan M, Operation Crossroads: Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll, Naval Institute Press (21 April 1994),
External links
A Short History of the People of Bikini Atoll
What About Radiation on Bikini Atoll?
Department of Energy Marshall Islands Program: Chronology of nuclear testing, relocation of islanders and results of radiation tests
Annotated bibliography for Bikini Atoll from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Islanders Want The Truth About Bikini Nuclear Test
Marshall Islands site
Everything Marshall Islands
Lauren R. Donaldson Collection, served as a radiation monitor for Operation Crossroads; the codename for the first atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll. – University of Washington Digital Collection
The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb A Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Lagoons U.S. National Park Service
Atolls of the Marshall Islands
Ralik Chain
World Heritage Sites in the Marshall Islands
American nuclear test sites
Nuclear test sites
|
[
0.613896369934082,
-0.6586743593215942,
-0.6657447218894958,
0.15233059227466583,
0.06532394140958786,
0.3411090075969696,
-0.04860720783472061,
0.28173595666885376,
-0.550269365310669,
-0.07078364491462708,
-0.36143478751182556,
0.0756954625248909,
-0.150216206908226,
0.4703153073787689,
-0.3740333020687103,
0.42107701301574707,
0.6430179476737976,
0.16681306064128876,
-0.2348519116640091,
0.062047041952610016,
-0.6999353766441345,
0.04308784008026123,
-0.2327800840139389,
0.33465850353240967,
0.1737298220396042,
0.06851741671562195,
-0.04541068524122238,
0.0256824791431427,
0.7598670721054077,
0.4222266674041748,
0.23100432753562927,
0.3006671071052551,
-0.14325834810733795,
0.038913968950510025,
-0.1595020443201065,
-0.24703091382980347,
-0.5672146677970886,
-0.4525653123855591,
0.26482105255126953,
-0.40475955605506897,
0.1895015686750412,
0.39568737149238586,
0.6806806325912476,
0.30547937750816345,
0.05779733508825302,
0.10545212030410767,
-1.2153531312942505,
0.24933966994285583,
-0.3610636293888092,
0.38202983140945435,
-0.6025988459587097,
-0.2965627908706665,
-0.01636316440999508,
0.24955227971076965,
0.07607639580965042,
0.3448655605316162,
-0.23909690976142883,
0.07429541647434235,
0.3790895640850067,
-0.3046565353870392,
0.2282634824514389,
-0.07560677081346512,
0.4540734589099884,
0.28819578886032104,
-0.10801869630813599,
0.3143118619918823,
0.23762090504169464,
0.2845227122306824,
0.03184036538004875,
-0.38009336590766907,
0.030266743153333664,
0.5850597023963928,
-0.26438263058662415,
-0.053872399032115936,
-0.20254480838775635,
-0.006142228376120329,
-0.40902474522590637,
0.08203667402267456,
-0.009961026720702648,
0.8130678534507751,
-0.45324158668518066,
0.49106937646865845,
0.49379509687423706,
-0.36073601245880127,
0.44277438521385193,
-0.2170937955379486,
-0.7677039504051208,
0.6992599368095398,
-0.57924884557724,
0.5247789621353149,
-0.1969175636768341,
0.31191226840019226,
0.0962105393409729,
-0.05084412544965744,
-0.3527281582355499,
-0.0401141382753849,
-0.06357548385858536,
0.2606402039527893,
0.4571489691734314,
0.2743321657180786,
-0.04157551750540733,
0.41293448209762573,
0.2617949843406677,
0.14392179250717163,
-0.8444113731384277,
-0.380256712436676,
0.24165168404579163,
-0.2247244119644165,
-0.09129898995161057,
0.09271273016929626,
-0.5120822191238403,
0.20019082725048065,
0.7051851153373718,
0.05749644339084625,
-0.24153174459934235,
0.12753337621688843,
0.055488910526037216,
-0.11624700576066971,
-0.5711938738822937,
-0.6707008481025696,
0.10239837318658829,
-0.11627375334501266,
0.048326291143894196,
0.09964899718761444,
0.15005534887313843,
0.12424685060977936,
0.2193261981010437,
0.35833558440208435,
-0.670944333076477,
0.12853319942951202,
0.045185916125774384,
0.36354681849479675,
0.13832993805408478,
0.11451411992311478,
0.37740710377693176,
-0.30257338285446167,
-0.22525064647197723,
-0.14466598629951477,
0.8869304060935974,
0.1434224545955658,
-0.6500839591026306,
0.09943651407957077,
-0.9327664971351624,
-0.0724882036447525,
0.1204005554318428,
-0.1972784698009491,
-0.12931378185749054,
0.02919783443212509,
-0.002375476062297821,
-0.16719070076942444,
0.06317809969186783,
-0.07282400131225586,
-0.003215882694348693,
-0.19066815078258514,
-0.517901599407196,
-0.3955928683280945,
0.09673593938350677,
-0.20237228274345398,
0.48386669158935547,
0.026259204372763634,
-0.346879780292511,
0.024263255298137665,
0.005439596250653267,
0.05586015805602074,
-0.08133602887392044,
-0.2756951153278351,
0.3077510595321655,
0.037075772881507874,
0.5002046823501587,
0.9365866184234619,
0.17396821081638336,
-0.0028206801507622004,
0.008834161795675755,
0.21214625239372253,
-0.6512182950973511,
-0.43610242009162903,
0.26686376333236694,
0.03420809283852577,
0.1476268321275711,
-0.5201088190078735,
-0.7327096462249756,
-0.28273284435272217,
0.33034247159957886,
0.028293799608945847,
-0.20352484285831451,
-0.0703614130616188,
0.06992494314908981,
-0.02367555722594261,
-0.21249699592590332,
0.3693762421607971,
-0.20930705964565277,
-0.7832744121551514,
-0.09951754659414291,
0.25291526317596436,
1.0776710510253906,
0.5024353265762329,
-0.2264726758003235,
0.7287290096282959,
0.07813151180744171,
0.01650719903409481,
-0.13797461986541748,
0.20055516064167023,
0.2791023850440979,
0.1136065125465393,
-1.197306513786316,
0.1795406937599182,
0.2530321478843689,
0.15454530715942383,
0.0366470031440258,
-0.08539116382598877,
-0.22264213860034943,
-0.21731875836849213,
0.4527682065963745,
-0.03271928429603577,
-0.047090403735637665,
-0.327159583568573,
-0.2500811517238617,
0.22698190808296204,
0.19875015318393707,
-0.5338183641433716,
0.7027497887611389,
0.16772767901420593,
-0.08191179484128952,
-0.0012636916944757104,
0.4805470407009125,
0.7358582615852356,
0.11648759990930557,
0.19865825772285461,
0.2378002107143402,
0.31397753953933716,
-0.1021728590130806,
-0.38496270775794983,
0.625598669052124,
-0.4974810481071472,
0.5538701415061951,
0.23668895661830902,
0.03632776811718941,
-0.6422688961029053,
0.04502788931131363,
-0.08103128522634506,
-0.0038437959738075733,
-0.31321775913238525,
-0.9420336484909058,
-0.11048316210508347,
0.6695547103881836,
0.36465179920196533,
0.07868184894323349,
-0.4533083736896515,
-0.24101348221302032,
0.07350876182317734,
-0.27030494809150696,
0.10734228789806366,
0.07732909172773361,
-0.14070111513137817,
0.08157982677221298,
-0.14116963744163513,
-0.03301200643181801,
0.13539078831672668,
0.6103206276893616,
-0.32811710238456726,
-0.4113280177116394,
0.12831762433052063,
-0.29705381393432617,
0.00017571321222931147,
-0.08574531227350235,
-0.40178990364074707,
0.48560214042663574,
-0.16491299867630005,
0.2798321843147278,
-0.07354455441236496,
0.568990170955658,
0.28378719091415405,
-0.23342692852020264,
-0.35274171829223633,
-0.8256632089614868,
-0.5722351670265198,
-0.24926604330539703,
0.02787654474377632,
-0.4437970519065857,
-0.43789178133010864,
0.5715581774711609,
-0.05277901887893677,
-0.18898339569568634,
-1.1908358335494995,
0.22691579163074493,
-0.16150352358818054,
-0.0606514997780323,
-0.4397658705711365,
-0.526157796382904,
-0.13836205005645752,
-0.17085619270801544,
0.1338452249765396,
-0.5269525051116943,
0.46375739574432373,
-0.06415347754955292,
0.22813624143600464,
-0.5404115319252014,
0.09941361099481583,
0.16211159527301788,
-0.8808902502059937,
-0.4019067883491516,
0.2545280158519745,
-0.6545665860176086,
-0.32473304867744446,
0.06716398894786835,
-0.1137365996837616,
0.13760364055633545,
0.0021273503080010414,
-5.894733905792236,
0.1878517121076584,
-0.17630915343761444,
0.4222510755062103,
0.04026505723595619,
0.3749421238899231,
0.36018770933151245,
-0.06133453920483589,
0.556286096572876,
-0.18530094623565674,
-0.15829959511756897,
-0.09973707050085068,
-0.14796873927116394,
0.3607090413570404,
0.29761138558387756,
0.29812097549438477,
0.8411803841590881,
0.3923121988773346,
-0.13954414427280426,
-0.3047744929790497,
-0.5984131693840027,
0.0995829850435257,
0.37818849086761475,
0.6830479502677917,
-0.10032153129577637,
0.3716077506542206,
-0.2864346504211426,
-0.4654121398925781,
-0.6184415817260742,
-0.5405401587486267,
-0.7729572653770447,
-0.19874480366706848,
0.3623020648956299,
0.17593900859355927,
-0.18092043697834015,
0.33619794249534607,
0.3244362473487854,
-0.12301494181156158,
-0.19636677205562592,
-0.3836047947406769,
-0.7479239106178284,
0.5304082036018372,
-0.058587491512298584,
-0.5233135223388672,
0.25586172938346863,
-0.37942981719970703,
-0.05979257449507713,
-0.36117294430732727,
-0.07715213298797607,
0.6564635634422302,
-0.08383546024560928,
-0.004703772719949484,
0.16320085525512695,
-0.14610649645328522,
0.21384450793266296,
-0.2733837068080902,
0.04948603734374046,
0.24275587499141693,
-0.7821688055992126,
0.4886169731616974,
0.5360012054443359,
-0.13420449197292328,
-0.13182251155376434,
-0.6533770561218262,
-0.15973922610282898,
-0.005160892847925425,
-0.5170800685882568,
-0.04540926590561867,
0.29902246594429016,
-0.036141954362392426,
-0.33222606778144836,
0.30390042066574097,
-0.49041733145713806,
-0.9828722476959229,
-0.00187418214045465,
-0.18154601752758026,
-0.9483258724212646,
-0.4221961498260498,
-0.30693790316581726,
0.37545046210289,
-0.3501077890396118,
0.0791020318865776,
-0.2166076898574829,
1.3133195638656616,
0.3799611032009125,
-0.7987263202667236,
-0.5386967658996582,
0.06094997003674507,
0.3354093134403229,
-0.30972084403038025,
0.36058780550956726,
-0.15605106949806213,
0.6475544571876526,
0.27358219027519226,
-0.052280787378549576,
0.6420097351074219,
-0.2649833559989929,
0.19481498003005981,
0.5617075562477112,
-0.011035801842808723,
0.8247687220573425,
-0.1203143298625946,
0.11900655180215836,
0.22276745736598969,
0.36265766620635986,
-0.18194642663002014,
0.18483121693134308,
0.21566279232501984,
0.312529057264328,
-0.009782538749277592,
-0.28377765417099,
0.10689584165811539,
-0.41238975524902344,
-0.3127639889717102,
0.42170313000679016,
-0.11606402695178986,
-0.1872195154428482,
0.42638516426086426,
0.5725842118263245,
0.13691918551921844,
0.44616448879241943,
0.4402555525302887,
0.1743202954530716,
0.14876268804073334,
-0.23461462557315826,
-0.5951406359672546,
-0.07843944430351257,
-0.20641431212425232,
0.19206538796424866,
0.31910109519958496,
0.51502925157547,
0.5064345598220825,
0.5611768960952759,
-0.30803096294403076,
0.040321893990039825,
-0.1379624605178833,
-0.23265796899795532,
-0.904714047908783,
-0.44226664304733276,
0.23331519961357117,
0.08088397979736328,
-0.04236176609992981,
-0.1801465004682541,
0.39521491527557373,
0.619293749332428,
0.4690888822078705,
0.09788240492343903,
-0.972383439540863,
-0.17769281566143036,
0.343895822763443,
-0.1751003861427307,
-0.8013013005256653,
0.04391765221953392,
-0.12451010197401047,
-0.4961148202419281,
0.2678281366825104,
0.4984096884727478,
0.32160964608192444,
-0.35336506366729736,
0.1834038347005844,
0.01072187814861536,
-0.2545679807662964,
-0.5089864730834961,
0.11097932606935501,
0.05201954394578934,
-0.26863864064216614,
-0.43522244691848755,
0.2837139070034027,
-0.2549937069416046,
0.19661276042461395,
0.4574563503265381,
-0.5952903628349304,
-0.23065127432346344,
0.4063291847705841,
0.062108468264341354,
0.21265485882759094,
-0.3110758066177368,
0.35260093212127686,
-0.2652604579925537,
-0.3913666009902954,
-0.06921356916427612,
-0.2907216250896454,
-0.4862944185733795,
0.384619802236557,
0.528459906578064,
-0.6539076566696167,
-0.6276680827140808,
0.2539272606372833,
-0.34913554787635803,
0.142136812210083,
0.5249857902526855,
-0.4237399697303772,
0.2247394323348999,
0.7056936025619507,
-0.33696484565734863,
-0.25996318459510803,
0.06617039442062378,
0.5468806028366089,
0.3487185835838318,
-0.057258907705545425,
-0.6364578008651733,
0.07863804697990417,
-0.9246870875358582,
0.37914466857910156,
0.026576589792966843,
-0.2533932328224182,
0.15791399776935577,
0.3566601574420929,
0.03194548934698105,
0.21237267553806305,
-0.48054519295692444,
-0.3949397802352905,
0.1597578227519989,
0.14997601509094238,
-0.2594752907752991,
0.033814895898103714,
0.2175724357366562,
-0.8551955223083496,
-0.03992988169193268,
-0.6053316593170166,
-0.19115206599235535,
-0.09111503511667252,
0.41808605194091797,
-0.4438423216342926,
-0.2234387993812561,
0.5839274525642395,
-0.19539761543273926,
-0.21302078664302826,
0.11335214972496033,
-0.27647387981414795,
-0.005188444163650274,
-0.333299458026886,
0.37293845415115356,
0.2718513309955597,
-0.2172761857509613,
-0.5495535731315613,
0.26139527559280396,
-0.007711229380220175,
0.30210238695144653,
0.47544023394584656,
0.14769524335861206,
0.4108324348926544,
0.05001490190625191,
-0.26621413230895996,
-0.4300823211669922,
0.011814714409410954,
0.2012651562690735,
-0.34365370869636536,
-0.3858805000782013,
0.26949265599250793,
-0.05986853688955307,
-0.3016829788684845,
-0.7133352160453796,
-0.7908102869987488,
0.40784192085266113,
0.06544864922761917,
0.08812442421913147,
0.4397001564502716,
-0.06519362330436707,
-0.14031943678855896,
-0.0046915290877223015,
0.03693461790680885,
-0.4392429292201996,
0.3134623169898987,
0.349593847990036,
-0.39524734020233154,
-0.48762184381484985,
0.07495933771133423,
0.39504480361938477,
-0.718485414981842,
-0.08769141882658005,
0.0687997117638588,
0.45422762632369995,
0.15307077765464783,
0.2733713388442993,
0.047892361879348755,
0.1964375525712967,
-0.3810974955558777,
0.11609147489070892,
-0.05653269961476326,
-0.5983980298042297,
0.27151545882225037,
0.1178324893116951,
-0.5150720477104187,
-0.15479598939418793,
-0.4897071123123169,
-0.48763132095336914,
-0.34187278151512146,
-0.3322685658931732,
0.2153371125459671,
0.3390827775001526,
-0.4725240170955658,
0.43125978112220764,
-0.28172433376312256,
-0.21856757998466492,
0.1153322085738182,
0.12507428228855133,
0.5573417544364929,
-0.08612626045942307,
-0.12265519052743912,
-0.7960497140884399,
0.22068482637405396,
-0.3391474187374115,
-0.5154603719711304,
0.2156011313199997,
-0.21327394247055054,
0.007218123879283667,
-0.005628946702927351,
-0.044305212795734406,
0.345612108707428,
0.3299647867679596,
0.35106316208839417,
0.23963026702404022,
0.9001913070678711,
-0.7853088974952698,
0.5399875640869141,
0.7790902256965637,
-0.2739531099796295,
0.3141174912452698,
0.07647856324911118,
-0.16531014442443848,
-0.2583303153514862,
0.19522325694561005,
0.7814796566963196,
-0.18961496651172638,
0.21253518760204315,
0.09395527094602585,
-0.24501927196979523,
0.2354966253042221,
1.0496879816055298,
0.2554015815258026,
-0.5261478424072266,
0.29931652545928955,
-0.20169630646705627,
-0.0475945919752121,
-0.45507654547691345,
-0.04232169687747955,
-0.1874220222234726,
-0.6117427945137024,
0.8743365406990051,
0.3070838153362274,
0.6186403632164001,
-0.061218950897455215,
-0.14205089211463928,
0.33434927463531494,
0.2092665731906891,
0.348052442073822,
0.5622665882110596,
0.7746136784553528,
-0.1621677130460739,
0.47455480694770813,
-0.23414121568202972,
0.38228195905685425,
-0.5435863733291626,
0.3531840443611145,
0.3142193555831909,
0.19814661145210266,
-0.6993873715400696,
0.008850296027958393,
-0.026323184370994568,
-0.315621554851532,
0.4316256046295166,
0.48798710107803345,
0.5126972794532776,
-0.08301735669374466,
-0.19208583235740662,
-0.11951634287834167,
-0.3684432804584503,
0.3509331941604614,
-0.10671421140432358,
0.5349429249763489,
-0.04812813922762871,
-0.19485464692115784,
-0.34288641810417175,
0.05897221714258194,
0.2398652285337448,
-0.19134072959423065,
0.31764116883277893,
-0.20107808709144592,
0.17801716923713684,
0.2452498823404312,
-0.17078472673892975,
-0.0815957561135292,
-0.680216908454895,
0.5989019274711609,
0.26752281188964844,
0.1622369885444641,
0.2172183394432068,
0.062355879694223404,
0.9114145636558533,
0.32341456413269043,
-0.4966362416744232,
-0.32104891538619995,
0.27301883697509766,
-0.33114102482795715,
0.5251315236091614,
-0.09707088768482208,
0.7898756861686707,
0.45795708894729614,
-0.08740288019180298,
-0.08767988532781601,
0.47339269518852234,
0.14910069108009338,
0.25738078355789185,
-0.45355555415153503,
0.43163055181503296,
-0.21500922739505768,
-0.18102174997329712,
0.05050316080451012,
0.22228172421455383,
0.4438636302947998,
0.5286275744438171,
0.32730451226234436,
0.41897231340408325,
0.08113112300634384,
0.8013862371444702,
0.5510977506637573,
0.030995750799775124,
-0.4067288041114807,
0.2295849621295929,
-0.002276032930240035,
-0.6106297969818115,
-1.0183380842208862,
0.36170634627342224,
-0.11682572960853577,
0.03332524001598358,
0.3851485252380371,
-0.3046337366104126,
-0.7894062995910645,
0.06964679807424545,
0.01165239792317152,
0.022087562829256058,
-0.49983203411102295,
-0.08800163865089417,
-0.46607300639152527,
-0.35363855957984924,
-0.29115715622901917,
0.5175286531448364,
0.31542909145355225,
-0.33978310227394104,
-0.01582138054072857,
0.07800842821598053,
-0.2902315855026245,
-0.2322927564382553,
0.5827963948249817,
-0.29503247141838074,
-0.013083663769066334,
-0.34809017181396484,
-0.44358283281326294,
0.4129393398761749,
0.08147545903921127,
-0.3622339367866516,
0.012240881100296974,
-0.04642260819673538,
0.056534379720687866,
-0.23711873590946198,
0.6185746788978577,
-0.25060054659843445,
0.1784808337688446,
0.30401813983917236
] |
206018
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather%20station
|
Weather station
|
A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or insolation. Manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period. Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount.
Weather instruments
Typical weather stations have the following instruments:
Thermometer for measuring air and sea surface temperature
Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure
Hygrometer for measuring humidity
Anemometer for measuring wind speed
Pyranometer for measuring solar radiation
Rain gauge for measuring liquid precipitation over a set period of time.
Wind sock for measuring general wind speed and wind direction
Wind vane, also called a weather vane or a weathercock: it shows which way the wind is blowing.
In addition, at certain automated airport weather stations, additional instruments may be employed, including:
Present weather sensor Present Weather/Precipitation Identification Sensor for identifying falling precipitation
Disdrometer for measuring drop size distribution
Transmissometer for measuring visibility
Ceilometer for measuring cloud ceiling
More sophisticated stations may also measure the ultraviolet index, leaf wetness, soil moisture, soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data.
Exposure
Except for those instruments requiring direct exposure to the elements (anemometer, rain gauge), the instruments should be sheltered in a vented box, usually a Stevenson screen, to keep direct sunlight off the thermometer and wind off the hygrometer. The instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a format such as METAR, is also desirable as many weather station's data is required for weather forecasting.
Personal weather station
A personal weather station is a set of weather measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association, or business (where obtaining and distributing weather data is not a part of the entity's business operation). Personal weather stations have become more advanced and can include many different sensors to measure weather conditions. These sensors can vary between models but most measure wind speed, wind direction, outdoor and indoor temperatures, outdoor and indoor humidity, barometric pressure, rainfall, and UV or solar radiation. Other available sensors can measure soil moisture, soil temperature, and leaf wetness. The quality, number of instruments, and placement of personal weather stations can vary widely, making the determination of which stations collect accurate, meaningful, and comparable data difficult. There are a comprehensive number of retail weather stations available.
Personal weather stations typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a personal computer where data can be displayed, stored, and uploaded to websites or data ingestion/distribution systems. Open-source weather stations are available that are designed to be fully customizable by users.
Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, while some owners share their results with others. They do this by manually compiling data and distributing it, distributing data over the Internet, or sharing data via amateur radio. The Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) is a service which facilitates the sharing of information from personal weather stations. This data is submitted through use of software, a personal computer, and internet connection (or amateur radio) and are utilized by groups such as the National Weather Service (NWS) when generating forecast models. Each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The Weather Underground Internet site is another popular destination for the submittal and sharing of data with others around the world. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data. The UK Met Office's Weather Observations Website (WOW) also allows such data to be shared and displayed.
Home weather station
Home weather stations include hygrometers, pyranometers, thermometers, barographs, and barometers. Commonly wall mounted and made by manufacturers such as Airguide, Taylor, Springfield, Sputnik and Stormoguide.
Dedicated ships
A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological measurements for use in weather forecasting. It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights. The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of 13 weather ships in 1948. Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern Atlantic Ocean while three were located in the northern Pacific Ocean. The agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource. The last weather ship was , known as weather station M ("jilindras") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. MS Polarfront was removed from service January 1, 2010. Since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by satellites, long range aircraft and weather buoys. Weather observations from ships continue from thousands of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation; the Old Weather crowdsourcing project transcribes naval logs from before the era of dedicated ships.
Dedicated buoys
Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and oceanography data within the world's oceans and lakes. Moored buoys have been in use since 1951, while drifting buoys have been used since the late 1970s. Moored buoys are connected with the seabed using either chains, nylon, or buoyant polypropylene. With the decline of the weather ship, they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s. During the 1980s and 1990s, a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean helped study the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Moored weather buoys range from in diameter, while drifting buoys are smaller, with diameters of . Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number, with 1250 located worldwide. Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships. There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well, relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity.
Synoptic weather station
Synoptic weather stations are instruments which collect meteorological information at synoptic time 00h00, 06h00, 12h00, 18h00 (UTC) and at intermediate synoptic hours 03h00, 09h00, 15h00, 21h00 (UTC).
The common instruments of measure are anemometer, wind vane, pressure sensor, thermometer, hygrometer, and rain gauge.
The weather measures are formatted in special format and transmit to WMO to help the weather forecast model.
Networks
A variety of land-based weather station networks have been set up globally. Some of these are basic to analyzing weather fronts and pressure systems, such as the synoptic observation network, while others are more regional in nature, known as mesonets.
Global
Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP)
Weather Underground Personal Weather Stations
United States of America
Arizona Meteorological Network (AZMET)
Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network
Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN)
Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network (GAEMN)
Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS)
Iowa Environmental Mesonet (IEM)
MesoWest
Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN)
Missouri Weather Stations
National Weather Service Cooperative Observer (COOP) program
New York State Mesonet
Oklahoma Mesonet
The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network
Southern Hemisphere
Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project
Australia: Bureau of Meteorology AWS network.
Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia
Australia: Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network
See also
Global Telecommunications System
Lightning detection
Surface weather observation and surface weather analysis
Weather radar
Weather satellite
Wind profiler
References
External links
Citizen Weather Observer Program
Initial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations at Urban Sites, by Tim R. Oke
International Weather Watchers Observer Handbook
NWS Cooperative Observer Program
NWS Observing Handbook No. 2: Cooperative Station Observations
Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
|
[
0.5115140080451965,
0.44717875123023987,
0.2143194079399109,
0.2614877223968506,
0.250246524810791,
-0.057284221053123474,
0.3478822112083435,
0.29572105407714844,
-0.3360024690628052,
-0.7774035334587097,
-0.8776271939277649,
0.06535754352807999,
-0.12432059645652771,
0.5153417587280273,
-0.24739141762256622,
0.3581197261810303,
0.25428661704063416,
0.2782661020755768,
0.4342639148235321,
-0.1571139097213745,
-0.26447752118110657,
-0.4375385046005249,
-0.33431732654571533,
-0.3826981782913208,
0.1501794159412384,
-0.4726046323776245,
-0.035812970250844955,
0.32769444584846497,
0.19197557866573334,
0.443087100982666,
0.5015119314193726,
0.6853848695755005,
-0.18458998203277588,
-0.1127278059720993,
-0.32060152292251587,
0.08357471972703934,
0.33301982283592224,
0.3464428186416626,
-0.5268822908401489,
-0.5383407473564148,
-0.1521647572517395,
-0.4749802052974701,
0.3379164934158325,
0.030795495957136154,
-0.7464783787727356,
-0.2051939070224762,
-1.0337013006210327,
0.49295860528945923,
-0.4837827682495117,
0.28337064385414124,
-0.468529611825943,
0.3829725682735443,
0.33909642696380615,
0.27937448024749756,
-0.21199549734592438,
0.7049179077148438,
-0.23662438988685608,
0.31562042236328125,
0.06486152857542038,
-0.08179427683353424,
0.2719270586967468,
-0.12370695918798447,
-0.07148286700248718,
0.03047456592321396,
0.6419872045516968,
-0.43864622712135315,
0.06665492057800293,
-0.4096411466598511,
0.44962435960769653,
0.036987584084272385,
-0.27681952714920044,
-0.08488482981920242,
-0.3675582706928253,
0.03400290012359619,
-0.6899963617324829,
-0.17214253544807434,
0.32146066427230835,
-0.5095620155334473,
-0.36119139194488525,
0.41244208812713623,
-0.18086111545562744,
0.18124662339687347,
0.07737064361572266,
-0.39749622344970703,
0.10026077181100845,
0.09480632096529007,
-0.5467037558555603,
0.3321923017501831,
-0.6421420574188232,
0.36559852957725525,
0.7774618268013,
-0.2878229320049286,
0.4038257598876953,
-0.12019135802984238,
0.19601964950561523,
0.2404911071062088,
0.1439225822687149,
0.28129661083221436,
0.29098960757255554,
0.07651428133249283,
-0.33291885256767273,
-0.1535414159297943,
0.9235349893569946,
0.2079780399799347,
0.15838523209095,
-0.5408170819282532,
0.03995571285486221,
-0.7117056250572205,
-0.26966968178749084,
-0.1604902297258377,
-0.11098892241716385,
0.18566784262657166,
0.06362511962652206,
0.35024532675743103,
-0.6620364785194397,
-0.03826889023184776,
0.22506028413772583,
-0.09884391725063324,
0.2663317918777466,
-0.19323179125785828,
0.48016852140426636,
0.24110473692417145,
0.1621955782175064,
-0.2989836037158966,
-0.4219992160797119,
0.3081287443637848,
0.7914233207702637,
0.6218814849853516,
-0.5689332485198975,
-0.13878777623176575,
-0.38575834035873413,
0.7557282447814941,
-0.2505798935890198,
0.37094613909721375,
0.0002776212349999696,
0.01842339150607586,
0.2984342575073242,
-0.21519845724105835,
0.470723420381546,
0.6354374289512634,
-0.929171621799469,
-0.44685783982276917,
-0.42338430881500244,
-0.27126550674438477,
-0.2698814868927002,
0.45898762345314026,
0.06354885548353195,
-0.8767375946044922,
-0.6243644952774048,
0.019742969423532486,
0.1483917236328125,
0.3818104565143585,
-0.4369061589241028,
0.05437871068716049,
-0.4140189588069916,
-0.03681568056344986,
-0.008133341558277607,
-0.10978363454341888,
0.028490278869867325,
0.006102290935814381,
0.3703952133655548,
0.31546270847320557,
-0.2889116406440735,
0.12376868724822998,
0.1999760866165161,
-0.3643267750740051,
0.21436774730682373,
0.42465493083000183,
-0.03869660571217537,
0.26244911551475525,
0.017118850722908974,
-0.07957487553358078,
0.24476467072963715,
0.1743157058954239,
0.09658874571323395,
-0.06174203008413315,
0.626956582069397,
-0.016698887571692467,
0.65360027551651,
0.6473919749259949,
-0.49078914523124695,
-0.03604859113693237,
0.5511481165885925,
-0.26760339736938477,
0.2824021875858307,
0.20593424141407013,
0.1440659910440445,
0.087624192237854,
-0.02211885154247284,
-0.041927121579647064,
-0.46401554346084595,
-0.7955445051193237,
-0.30498918890953064,
-0.6266798377037048,
0.4942619502544403,
-0.47638416290283203,
-0.06497909128665924,
0.9236299395561218,
-0.12065640091896057,
0.4186305105686188,
-0.2235044240951538,
-0.3981645405292511,
0.33318278193473816,
-0.47908562421798706,
-0.7164924740791321,
0.5188392996788025,
0.6086889505386353,
-0.313387006521225,
0.19640351831912994,
-0.12665776908397675,
-0.20397637784481049,
-0.7183951735496521,
0.5436170101165771,
-0.0011362190125510097,
-0.005845431704074144,
0.26704564690589905,
-0.9723495841026306,
0.2358926385641098,
-0.2946931719779968,
-0.47846391797065735,
0.47452017664909363,
0.3206256926059723,
-0.18065454065799713,
0.5019568800926208,
-0.2400047332048416,
-0.4667624533176422,
0.24422591924667358,
0.10080954432487488,
0.48949846625328064,
-1.0562705993652344,
0.3734911382198334,
-0.30295678973197937,
0.30410218238830566,
-0.55509352684021,
-0.256502628326416,
0.29735347628593445,
0.5488758087158203,
0.006222822237759829,
0.47284039855003357,
0.09348849207162857,
-0.2143019586801529,
0.0008287777891382575,
-0.19100412726402283,
0.6470770835876465,
0.11061657220125198,
-0.06352300941944122,
0.10214351117610931,
0.2766161262989044,
-0.1519843339920044,
-0.3022391200065613,
0.1820560097694397,
0.04863783344626427,
0.29177454113960266,
-0.5817680954933167,
-0.17387616634368896,
-0.5468902587890625,
-0.09185046702623367,
-0.015237455256283283,
0.26944974064826965,
-0.16687680780887604,
-0.0783788338303566,
-0.23931913077831268,
0.23311571776866913,
-0.16343653202056885,
0.1412106454372406,
-1.0121325254440308,
-0.3620752990245819,
-0.728879451751709,
0.12858034670352936,
0.6995851397514343,
1.004900574684143,
0.2721278667449951,
-0.03679671511054039,
-0.03136393427848816,
-0.08284356445074081,
-0.6743820905685425,
0.32773998379707336,
0.3490625023841858,
-0.25396886467933655,
0.07521384209394455,
0.7046094536781311,
0.03435960039496422,
0.2718425393104553,
-0.39529934525489807,
-0.20677565038204193,
-0.7043349742889404,
0.40593260526657104,
-0.13562621176242828,
-0.4211110472679138,
-0.1943770796060562,
-0.31836310029029846,
-0.024159256368875504,
0.12047088146209717,
0.36894452571868896,
0.19234219193458557,
0.6820756196975708,
0.185342937707901,
-0.23372158408164978,
0.3460856080055237,
-0.4279819130897522,
-0.21011975407600403,
0.07606156915426254,
-0.40747398138046265,
-0.21511417627334595,
-0.2951531708240509,
0.08018694072961807,
-0.3175961971282959,
-0.547507107257843,
-5.8679118156433105,
0.07672924548387527,
-0.15584658086299896,
-0.9105734825134277,
0.019658038392663002,
-0.17035214602947235,
1.1452432870864868,
0.030513668432831764,
0.1415393352508545,
0.16501429677009583,
-0.03539872542023659,
0.02026798017323017,
0.2755267918109894,
0.277633935213089,
1.010575771331787,
-0.0018730381270870566,
0.32885274291038513,
-0.2603892683982849,
0.17859411239624023,
0.3589974045753479,
0.0578061118721962,
0.21878565847873688,
0.33887097239494324,
0.058985382318496704,
0.32709240913391113,
-0.04362929239869118,
-0.3408583402633667,
0.12227126955986023,
0.04956715926527977,
-0.06870350241661072,
0.7110262513160706,
-0.07634381204843521,
-0.5266989469528198,
-0.019145017489790916,
0.1725219339132309,
0.12697607278823853,
0.10009470582008362,
0.48506787419319153,
0.10051871091127396,
-0.02067078836262226,
0.12945596873760223,
0.505405843257904,
-0.1928301900625229,
0.34949249029159546,
0.06480496376752853,
-0.5584609508514404,
-0.043343257158994675,
-0.12957684695720673,
-0.07135866582393646,
0.5867900252342224,
-0.2003721445798874,
0.700609564781189,
0.42353036999702454,
-0.3587442636489868,
-0.4642835259437561,
0.01297235768288374,
0.7336437702178955,
0.23066698014736176,
-0.6123223900794983,
-0.16525302827358246,
-0.09933680295944214,
-0.6777878403663635,
-0.24967586994171143,
-0.7489721775054932,
0.16287367045879364,
0.23457485437393188,
-0.5659069418907166,
-0.4999021589756012,
0.5041975975036621,
0.14065513014793396,
-0.16165997087955475,
0.021698886528611183,
0.6945205926895142,
-0.8392740488052368,
0.1252676248550415,
-0.9361045956611633,
0.2292577028274536,
-0.38022416830062866,
0.3479374051094055,
0.07264571636915207,
-0.5124350786209106,
-0.022830253466963768,
-0.281694620847702,
0.05351636931300163,
0.2378162443637848,
-0.1108388602733612,
-0.18114632368087769,
-0.3377498388290405,
0.07170238345861435,
-0.4123966693878174,
1.1296974420547485,
-0.3252260386943817,
0.6478393077850342,
-0.03223808482289314,
0.33523261547088623,
0.561907947063446,
0.3165569603443146,
-0.33781445026397705,
0.970200777053833,
-0.7029820680618286,
0.3118407130241394,
0.13791246712207794,
0.23498137295246124,
0.02739003486931324,
0.08110171556472778,
-0.46679046750068665,
-0.3481577932834625,
0.4541192948818207,
0.7927144765853882,
0.35751330852508545,
0.16385632753372192,
0.36740171909332275,
-0.5611653327941895,
-0.3547338545322418,
-0.062472134828567505,
0.4112538993358612,
-0.2714543044567108,
0.6023747324943542,
0.41861099004745483,
-0.1860155314207077,
0.49831005930900574,
-0.31207454204559326,
-0.16401253640651703,
-0.13825282454490662,
-0.6039547920227051,
-0.40307188034057617,
0.012339513748884201,
-0.12378150969743729,
0.12563566863536835,
-0.11641237139701843,
0.570759117603302,
0.48165443539619446,
0.4866649806499481,
-0.057870056480169296,
0.2551036775112152,
0.0014361534267663956,
-0.18232296407222748,
0.0038635919336229563,
0.6985489130020142,
-0.3711245656013489,
0.09077705442905426,
-0.013182167895138264,
-0.18502120673656464,
0.16623540222644806,
0.14422418177127838,
0.40163323283195496,
-0.5142335891723633,
-0.08543556183576584,
0.6162942051887512,
0.1773868054151535,
-0.5364010334014893,
-0.08794375509023666,
-0.6139646768569946,
-0.1624361276626587,
0.07927866280078888,
-0.1550234854221344,
0.4584774672985077,
-0.3564528822898865,
0.16580963134765625,
-0.4594576954841614,
0.04740007966756821,
-0.28485411405563354,
-0.8998669385910034,
-0.21631084382534027,
-0.41887640953063965,
0.26251301169395447,
-0.3835955858230591,
0.2550448775291443,
-0.09564240276813507,
0.3003520965576172,
-0.24708308279514313,
-0.8747543692588806,
-0.3701643645763397,
-0.2732537090778351,
0.12261549383401871,
0.5969417095184326,
0.14336031675338745,
0.5942035913467407,
-0.021195437759160995,
-0.36628973484039307,
-0.280542254447937,
0.03374355658888817,
-0.49317774176597595,
0.6808901429176331,
-0.010321266949176788,
0.16150972247123718,
-0.27992960810661316,
-0.001074044848792255,
0.5669957995414734,
0.11519216001033783,
0.031089218333363533,
0.06170107051730156,
-0.10977835208177567,
0.4393015503883362,
0.14448027312755585,
-0.44644245505332947,
-0.247269406914711,
-0.0135328508913517,
-0.4651492238044739,
-0.22975674271583557,
-0.39851176738739014,
-0.03112749569118023,
-0.40917059779167175,
0.1683029681444168,
-0.061486825346946716,
-0.6038513779640198,
0.36815476417541504,
0.15138711035251617,
-0.22462619841098785,
-0.1540030837059021,
-0.8256109952926636,
0.02179458737373352,
-0.04100360348820686,
0.8227756023406982,
-0.643927276134491,
-0.10175567120313644,
0.32033151388168335,
0.11826515942811966,
0.09752364456653595,
-0.19402754306793213,
-0.01917310431599617,
0.28503185510635376,
-0.18887566030025482,
-0.14333780109882355,
-0.1835557073354721,
0.06732159107923508,
0.43538129329681396,
-0.5216297507286072,
0.21587124466896057,
0.15907146036624908,
0.0704859122633934,
0.3943355679512024,
-0.047290269285440445,
0.06701386719942093,
-0.2302950620651245,
-0.16759105026721954,
-0.15971879661083221,
-0.4806063175201416,
0.08759176731109619,
0.4755425751209259,
0.5418640971183777,
0.7579361796379089,
0.2211463302373886,
-0.4338222146034241,
-0.17712189257144928,
0.26740482449531555,
0.5859479308128357,
-0.8332056999206543,
-0.39871636033058167,
-0.07781857997179031,
0.20053082704544067,
-0.29466190934181213,
-0.4940863847732544,
-0.04180696979165077,
0.2359165996313095,
0.29677680134773254,
-0.2096925526857376,
0.2062271386384964,
0.15169726312160492,
0.034900959581136703,
0.38174334168434143,
-0.18203815817832947,
-0.46468332409858704,
0.322028785943985,
0.26500675082206726,
-0.5657400488853455,
-0.5358132719993591,
0.10458286106586456,
0.05191498622298241,
-0.5329696536064148,
0.4545668065547943,
-0.20298947393894196,
0.528015673160553,
0.5935938954353333,
0.9521846175193787,
-0.04040674492716789,
0.2912032902240753,
0.07269500941038132,
-0.03678072243928909,
-0.02906273677945137,
-0.21282929182052612,
-0.1082225888967514,
0.5338472127914429,
-0.5871193408966064,
0.14523860812187195,
-0.4149186611175537,
0.29156073927879333,
0.18207843601703644,
-0.47031092643737793,
-0.45672154426574707,
-0.012893695384263992,
-0.5033348798751831,
-0.23609887063503265,
0.6170066595077515,
-0.10120345652103424,
0.30660203099250793,
-0.10723517090082169,
0.4069848358631134,
0.1709890365600586,
0.22378572821617126,
-1.035138487815857,
0.5144243836402893,
-0.13380953669548035,
-0.7342272996902466,
0.7266755104064941,
-0.17182889580726624,
0.4352022409439087,
-0.32887861132621765,
0.15442775189876556,
-0.24692560732364655,
0.1092844009399414,
-0.1197081059217453,
0.12467236816883087,
0.7424554228782654,
-0.18746912479400635,
0.19797828793525696,
0.3408406972885132,
-0.5417171120643616,
0.7012248635292053,
0.27611592411994934,
0.07505889981985092,
-0.37401318550109863,
0.1729779988527298,
0.09617403894662857,
-0.45615991950035095,
0.3174838125705719,
-0.005586294457316399,
0.14297042787075043,
-0.03478856384754181,
0.079169861972332,
0.6510778665542603,
0.6169499158859253,
-0.04076533019542694,
0.20821963250637054,
-0.6003152132034302,
-0.08311966061592102,
-0.3956746459007263,
-0.43328115344047546,
-0.8369743227958679,
0.07461383193731308,
-0.1836511343717575,
0.45076537132263184,
0.617129921913147,
0.4777699410915375,
-0.5985409021377563,
0.2759380340576172,
0.09672505408525467,
0.8723165392875671,
-0.40881648659706116,
-0.049686629325151443,
0.03156517073512077,
-0.09096835553646088,
0.4335438311100006,
0.04986118525266647,
-0.07819764316082001,
-0.38667088747024536,
0.404030978679657,
-0.45544931292533875,
-0.07169236987829208,
-0.19648496806621552,
-0.6166829466819763,
0.43719300627708435,
-0.2713454067707062,
0.09802265465259552,
0.13520319759845734,
-0.28160250186920166,
0.3767559826374054,
-0.8848215937614441,
0.3736129701137543,
0.0064926291815936565,
0.06671823561191559,
0.6640849709510803,
-0.6842045783996582,
0.45913004875183105,
0.06097622588276863,
-0.0301333237439394,
0.06559407711029053,
0.22614264488220215,
0.05070391297340393,
-0.5749452114105225,
-0.2151937335729599,
-0.09506070613861084,
-0.25259464979171753,
-0.7203240394592285,
-0.18263451755046844,
0.18891209363937378,
-0.19586849212646484,
0.15704147517681122,
0.024242136627435684,
0.3015172481536865,
0.6042113304138184,
-0.7841582894325256,
0.1932774782180786,
-0.6203159093856812,
-0.2101646512746811,
0.2622525990009308,
0.3950512707233429,
0.3247029781341553,
0.33964788913726807,
-0.5667974352836609,
-0.164613276720047,
0.22954608500003815,
-0.232920303940773,
-0.3082277774810791,
-0.4909031391143799,
0.190298929810524,
0.2838829755783081,
0.2967584431171417,
-0.24085253477096558,
0.5229471325874329,
0.26170533895492554,
-0.3377015292644501,
0.07866711169481277,
0.1594219207763672,
0.09389371424913406,
-0.3221348524093628,
0.20577272772789001,
-0.23905275762081146,
0.39701104164123535,
-0.13138346374034882,
0.20177428424358368,
-0.21324676275253296,
0.05628834292292595,
-0.13912753760814667,
-0.018694918602705002,
-0.6970828175544739,
-0.04195820167660713,
-0.030509669333696365,
0.035942673683166504,
0.7075053453445435,
0.0641707181930542,
0.14767740666866302,
-1.0813002586364746,
0.2587226927280426,
-0.22334803640842438,
-0.5212946534156799,
-0.18622079491615295,
0.5104009509086609,
1.0660250186920166,
-0.48102304339408875,
0.22960594296455383,
-0.15095257759094238,
0.11929935961961746,
0.14440017938613892,
-0.7196090221405029,
-0.09849074482917786,
-0.2401604950428009,
-0.5768401622772217,
-0.9002086520195007,
0.9323024153709412,
0.09662527590990067,
0.015494178049266338,
0.08599419891834259,
-0.1982027143239975,
-0.6339735388755798,
-0.20599481463432312,
0.4787825644016266,
-0.395547479391098,
-0.2722482979297638,
0.31099581718444824
] |
206019
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Sheckley
|
Robert Sheckley
|
Robert Sheckley (July 16, 1928 – December 9, 2005) was an American writer. First published in the science-fiction magazines of the 1950s, his numerous quick-witted stories and novels were famously unpredictable, absurdist, and broadly comical.
Nominated for Hugo and Nebula Awards, Sheckley was named Author Emeritus by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 2001.
Biography
Sheckley was born to an assimilated Jewish family in Brooklyn, New York City. In 1931 the family moved to Maplewood, New Jersey. Sheckley attended Columbia High School, where he discovered science fiction. He graduated in 1946 and hitchhiked to California the same year, where he tried numerous jobs: landscape gardener, pretzel salesman, barman, milkman, warehouseman, and general laborer "board man" in a hand-painted necktie studio. Finally, still in 1946, he joined the U.S. Army and was sent to Korea. During his time in the army he served as a guard, an army newspaper editor, a payroll clerk, and guitarist in an army band. He left the service in 1948.
Sheckley graduated from New York University in 1951. The same year he married, for the first time, to Barbara Scadron. The couple had one son, Jason. Sheckley worked in an aircraft factory and as an assistant metallurgist for a short time, but his breakthrough came quickly: in late 1951 he sold his first story, Final Examination, to Imagination magazine. He quickly gained prominence as a writer, publishing stories in Imagination, Galaxy, and other science fiction magazines. The 1950s saw the publication of Sheckley's first four books: short story collections Untouched by Human Hands (Ballantine, 1954), Citizen in Space (1955), and Pilgrimage to Earth (Bantam, 1957), and a novel, Immortality, Inc. (first published as a serial in Galaxy, 1958).
Sheckley and Scadron divorced in 1956. The writer married journalist Ziva Kwitney in 1957. The newly married couple lived in Greenwich Village. Their daughter, Alisa Kwitney, born in 1964, would herself become a successful writer. Applauded by critic Kingsley Amis, Sheckley was now selling many of his deft, satiric stories to mainstream magazines such as Playboy. In addition to his science fiction stories, in the 1960s Sheckley started writing suspense fiction. More short story collections and novels appeared in the 1960s, and a film adaptation of an early story by Sheckley, The 10th Victim, was released in 1965.
Sheckley spent much of 1970s living on Ibiza. He and Kwitney divorced in 1972 and the same year Sheckley married Abby Schulman, whom he had met in Ibiza. The couple had two children, Anya and Jed. The couple separated while living in London. In 1980, the writer returned to the United States and became fiction editor of the newly established OMNI magazine. Sheckley left OMNI in 1981 with his fourth wife, writer Jay Rothbell: they subsequently traveled widely in Europe, finally ending up in Portland, Oregon, where they separated. He married Gail Dana of Portland in 1990. Sheckley continued publishing further science fiction and espionage or mystery stories, and collaborated with other writers such as Roger Zelazny and Harry Harrison.
During an April 2005 visit to Ukraine for the Ukrainian Sci-Fi Computer Week, an international event for science fiction writers, Sheckley fell ill and had to be hospitalized in Kyiv. His condition was very serious for a week, but he appeared to be slowly recovering. Sheckley's official website ran a fundraising campaign to help cover his treatment and his return to the United States. He settled in Red Hook, in northern Dutchess County, New York, to be near his daughters Anya and Alisa. On November 20 he had surgery for a brain aneurysm; he died in a Poughkeepsie hospital on December 9, 2005.
Works
Sheckley was a prolific and versatile writer. His works include not only original short stories and novels, but also TV series episodes (Captain Video and His Video Rangers), novelizations of works by others (Babylon 5: A Call to Arms, after the film), stories in shared universes such as Heroes in Hell, and collaborations with other writers. He was best known for his several hundred short stories, which he published in book form as well as individually. Typical Sheckley stories include "Bad Medicine" (in which a man is mistakenly treated by a psychotherapy machine intended for Martians), "Protection" (whose protagonist is warned of deadly danger unless he avoids the common activity of "lesnerizing", a word whose meaning is not explained), and "The Accountant" (in which a family of wizards learns that their son has been taken from them by a more sinister trade—accountancy). In many stories Sheckley speculates about alternative (and usually sinister) social orders, of which a good example is the story "A Ticket to Tranai" (which tells of a sort of Utopia designed for human nature as it actually is, which turns out to have terrible drawbacks).
Sheckley's early stories include the far future AAA Ace detective agency series. In these tales, the two partners face unusual problems often related to human incompetence or laziness.
In the 1990s, Sheckley wrote a series of three mystery novels featuring detective Hob Draconian, as well as novels set in the worlds of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Alien. Before his death Sheckley had been commissioned to write an original novel based on the TV series The Prisoner for Powys Media, but died before completing the manuscript.
His novel Dimension of Miracles is often cited as an influence on Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, although in an interview for Neil Gaiman's book Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion, Adams said he had not read it until after writing the Guide.
Film, TV and radio adaptations
One of Sheckley's early works, the 1953 Galaxy short story "Seventh Victim", was the basis for the film The 10th Victim, also known by the original Italian title La decima vittima. The film starred Marcello Mastroianni and Ursula Andress. A novelization of the film, also written by Sheckley, was published in 1966. The satirical premise is that in the future killings are legal and televised, and that potential victims or hunters can get corporate sponsors and extra perks to assist them in succeeding as a professional, corporate-sponsored, celebrity killer.
Sheckley's novel Immortality, Inc.—about a world in which the afterlife could be obtained via a scientific process—was very loosely adapted into a film, the 1992 Freejack, starring Mick Jagger, Emilio Estevez, Rene Russo, and Anthony Hopkins. It was also adapted into the first episode of the third season of the British BBC series Out of the Unknown. This episode is lost due to the then common practice of wiping the shows after broadcast.
The 1954 story "Ghost V" and the 1955 story "The Lifeboat Mutiny" were adapted into two episodes of the USSR science fiction TV series This Fantastic World. "Ghost V" was staged also by Estonian TV channel ETV in 1997.
The 1958 short story "The Prize of Peril" was adapted in 1970 as the German TV movie Das Millionenspiel, and again in 1983 as the French movie Le Prix du Danger. Written about a man who goes on a TV show in which he must evade people out to kill him for a week in order to win a large cash prize, it is perhaps the first-ever published work predicting the advent of reality television. There are many similarities between Sheckley's story and Stephen King's novel The Running Man, published later in 1982, of which a film adaptation was later made.
"The Game of X" (1965) was loosely adapted as the 1981 Disney film, Condorman.
The short story "Watchbird" was adapted for the short-lived TV series Masters of Science Fiction. It did not initially air in the US, but on February 12, 2012, the Science Channel began airing the episodes, under the title Stephen Hawking's Sci-Fi Masters, beginning with the first domestic airing of the episode "Watchbird". It was included on the DVD set for the series.
The 1958 short story "The Store of the Worlds" from the collection Store of Infinity was adapted to a short film titled The Escape by the filmmaker Paul Franklin, starring Julian Sands, Art Malik, Olivia Williams and Ben Miller. The film had its premiere at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival in New York.
A number of Sheckley's works, both as Sheckley and as Finn O'Donnevan, were also adapted for the radio show X Minus One in the late 1950s, including the above-mentioned "Seventh Victim", "Bad Medicine", and "Protection". The radio show Tales of Tomorrow also in the late 1950s did a version of "Watchbird" and South Africa radio did their version of "Watchbird" on the series SF68.
In 2007, Chris Larner and David Gilbert created the radio show "The Laxian Key" based on Sheckley's short stories. It was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra.
Bibliography
Science fiction and fantasy
Novels
Immortality, Inc. as Immortality Delivered Avalon (1958), Bantam A1991 (1959), Gollancz (1963), Penguin (1978), Ace (1978), Tor (1991)
The Man in the Water Regency (1961)
Dimension of Miracles Dell (1968), Gollancz (1969), Mayflower (1971), Panther (1977), Ace (1979) Open Road Media (2014)
The Status Civilization, serialized as Omega. Signet S1840 (1960), Gollancz (1976), Ace (1979), Penguin (1979), Wildside (2007)
Journey Beyond Tomorrow, serialized as Journey of Joenes (1963). Signet D2223 (1963), Corgi (1966), Dell 4268 (1969). as Journey of Joenes Sphere (1978), Ace (1979)
The 10th Victim Ballantine U5050 (1965), Mayflower-Dell 8604 (1966), Ace (1979), Signet (1987), Methuen (1987)
Mindswap (featured as complete short novel in Galaxy magazine June 1965) Delacorte (1966), Dell 5643 (1967), Mayflower-Dell (1968), Pan (1973), Ace (1978), Grafton (1986)
Options Pyramid (1975), Pan (1977), Grafton (1986)
The Alchemical Marriage of Alistair Crompton, Michael Joseph (1978), Sphere (1979), also known as Crompton Divided Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1978), Bantam (1979)
Dramocles Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1983), New English Library (1984)
Pop Death (1986)
Victim Prime Signet (1987)
Hunter / Victim Signet (1988)
Bill, the Galactic Hero on the Planet of Bottled Brains (with Harry Harrison, 1990)
Minotaur Maze (short novel, 1990)
Xolotl (short, 1991)
Alien Starswarm (short, 1991)
Millennial Contest series (with Roger Zelazny):
Bring Me the Head of Prince Charming (1991)
If at Faust You Don't Succeed (1993)
A Farce to Be Reckoned With (1995)
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine: The Laertian Gamble (1995)
Aliens: Alien Harvest (1995)
Godshome Tor (1999)
Babylon 5: A Call to Arms (1999)
The Grand-Guignol of the Surrealists (2000)
Dimension of Miracles Revisited (2000; self-published in English; published in France by Rivière Blanche, translated by Jean-Marc Lofficier)
Short story collections
Untouched by Human Hands Ballantine H-73 (1954)
Citizen in Space Ballantine H-126 (1955)
Pilgrimage to Earth Bantam A1672 (1957)
Notions: Unlimited Bantam A2003 (1960)
Store of Infinity Bantam A2170 (1960)
Shards of Space Bantam J2443 (1962)
The People Trap and other Pitfalls, Snares, Devices and Delusions, as Well as Two Sniggles and a Contrivance Dell 6881 (1968)
Can You Feel Anything When I Do This? Doubleday (1971), DAW 99 (1973), also known as The Same to You Doubled Pan (1974)
The Robot Who Looked Like Me Sphere (1978), Bantam (1982)
Uncanny Tales Five Star (2003)
Short story compilations
The Wonderful World of Robert Sheckley Bantam (1979), Sphere (1980)
The Sheckley Omnibus (1979)
Is THAT What People Do? Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1984; 23 previously published stories and 16 new)
The Collected Short Fiction of Robert Sheckley Pulphouse (1991; 5 volumes, vol. 5 includes new material)
The Masque of Mañana NESFA (2005)
Store of the Worlds NYRB (2012)
Mystery and espionage
The Game of X Delacorte (1965) Dell 288 (1966). It was loosely adapted as the 1981 Disney film, Condorman: Sheckley also wrote the novelization of this film.
Stephen Dain series:
Calibre .50 Bantam A2216 (1961)
Dead Run Bantam A2240 (1961)
Live Gold Bantam J2401 (1962)
White Death Bantam J2685 (1963)
Time Limit Bantam F3381 (1967)
Hob Draconian series:
The Alternative Detective Tor (1993)
Draconian New York Tor (1996)
Soma Blues Tor (1997)
Other works
The Man in the Water Regency 112 (1962)
Books as editor
After the Fall (1980)
Non-fiction
?Futuropolis: Impossible Cities of Science Fiction and Fantasy? (1978, A&W Visual Library)
"On Working Method" (1978, Vector 1978/9. Revised version published later as "How Pro Writers Really Write — Or Try To")
"How Pro Writers Really Write — Or Try To" (1982, Is THAT What People Do?)
"Immortality and Car Chases" (1992, Dark Side 1992/7)
"Memories of the Fifties" (1992, New York Review of SF 1992/8)
"Journal of Robert Sheckley" (1998, Galaxy eZine (Internet))
"Philosophy & Science Fiction" (1999, Greenwich Village Gazette (Internet))
"My Life in Oregon" (2000, Greenwich Village Gazette (Internet))
"The World Out There: Muslim" (2001, BIGNews (also on Internet) 2001/12)
"The World Out There: An Afghanistan Frame of Mind" (2002, BIGNews (also on Internet) 2001/1)
"The World Out There: Rain, Melancholy, Travel" (2002, BIGNews (also on Internet) 2001/2)
"On Lying" (2003, BIGNews (also on Internet) 2003/4)
"The New Interactive Diary" (2003, BIGNews (also on Internet) 2003/10)
References
External links
(copyright Sheckley 2000–2005)
Obituary at Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America
Obituary by Edward Summer
Sheckley Reads His Work at www.Martin-Olson.com
Sheckley in Europe from 1999 to 2005 – pictures and video from the private collection of Roberto Quaglia
(partly on previous page of browse report)
1928 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
American expatriates in Spain
American fantasy writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American mystery writers
American science fiction writers
Jewish American writers
People from Ibiza
People from Maplewood, New Jersey
Postmodern writers
The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction people
Writers from Brooklyn
Novelists from New York (state)
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
|
[
-0.032514363527297974,
0.4533478021621704,
-0.8973518013954163,
-0.23757322132587433,
0.22642751038074493,
0.5696284174919128,
0.45291364192962646,
0.16402526199817657,
-0.006498565897345543,
-0.1956997662782669,
0.0499383844435215,
0.35636216402053833,
0.17988942563533783,
0.2821345329284668,
-0.2862636148929596,
0.1534082442522049,
-0.2613905370235443,
-0.3032386600971222,
-0.3220381736755371,
-0.37739384174346924,
-0.4335519075393677,
-0.28859320282936096,
0.2511117160320282,
0.04750271886587143,
-0.24994167685508728,
0.17496871948242188,
-0.025629162788391113,
-0.47310057282447815,
0.25300332903862,
0.07229139655828476,
-0.09555058926343918,
0.49455544352531433,
0.414367139339447,
-0.4710351228713989,
-0.575114905834198,
-0.0854024663567543,
-0.6833841800689697,
-0.014958668500185013,
0.23230960965156555,
-0.01268827449530363,
-0.469818651676178,
0.24011726677417755,
0.13476017117500305,
-0.3320443332195282,
0.24113695323467255,
-0.1397906243801117,
-2.0522706508636475,
-0.056626852601766586,
-0.5562542080879211,
-0.3555324375629425,
-0.14914996922016144,
0.5635003447532654,
1.1438342332839966,
0.03741653263568878,
-0.053426943719387054,
0.10598142445087433,
-0.17261762917041779,
0.0009919034782797098,
0.06420446932315826,
-0.2007962167263031,
0.20720164477825165,
-0.3992261290550232,
0.22342778742313385,
0.11070726066827774,
0.40793243050575256,
0.3687818944454193,
-0.055142927914857864,
0.2683940827846527,
0.22203074395656586,
0.20216931402683258,
0.01726618967950344,
0.20682919025421143,
0.7569655179977417,
-0.3269757926464081,
0.5000318288803101,
0.1953745037317276,
0.4079570770263672,
-0.6050195693969727,
-0.04371681436896324,
-0.14865578711032867,
-0.17752504348754883,
0.16733357310295105,
0.6054810285568237,
0.03130950406193733,
0.34657806158065796,
-0.14206691086292267,
-0.4712362289428711,
0.35325706005096436,
-0.4716888666152954,
0.03827835991978645,
-0.6795076727867126,
-0.33865711092948914,
-0.2629190981388092,
0.12665189802646637,
-0.03462190553545952,
-0.22118957340717316,
0.12004141509532928,
0.6026694774627686,
-0.013091697357594967,
0.03921046853065491,
0.042398322373628616,
0.11663766205310822,
0.6052014231681824,
-0.0027743184473365545,
-0.6264380812644958,
0.1585026979446411,
0.17838360369205475,
-0.5622119903564453,
0.5531046390533447,
-0.9239475131034851,
-0.12491458654403687,
0.29483720660209656,
-0.13692207634449005,
-0.13954338431358337,
0.10551676899194717,
0.9803608655929565,
0.10980791598558426,
-0.25376856327056885,
-0.6494485139846802,
0.004604394547641277,
-0.4765416085720062,
0.32386118173599243,
-0.0419747494161129,
-0.1995239108800888,
-0.6247135400772095,
-0.13014532625675201,
-0.11860373616218567,
0.11872988194227219,
-0.2665368318557739,
0.33660340309143066,
0.3282340466976166,
1.0887807607650757,
-0.27511629462242126,
-0.3803873062133789,
-0.3770322799682617,
0.19478212296962738,
0.09484143555164337,
0.2654850482940674,
-0.42168161273002625,
0.2717640995979309,
-0.07360164821147919,
0.3979507386684418,
-1.6441075801849365,
-0.3120451271533966,
0.05431308224797249,
-0.04699964448809624,
0.15771768987178802,
-0.0197965856641531,
0.013415505178272724,
0.10423312336206436,
-0.1437806934118271,
0.10783015191555023,
-0.03920581564307213,
-0.05175714194774628,
-0.2875731885433197,
0.2094104290008545,
0.2258874624967575,
0.519038200378418,
0.3675459921360016,
0.19367267191410065,
0.11132045090198517,
0.19555695354938507,
-0.11810226738452911,
0.014219597913324833,
-0.04815516993403435,
-0.007130966521799564,
0.4952816665172577,
-0.40374982357025146,
-0.3045565187931061,
0.10433471947908401,
-0.21572640538215637,
0.06643479317426682,
0.2416704148054123,
-0.06465907394886017,
0.010451965034008026,
0.11443404853343964,
0.6556958556175232,
0.6062326431274414,
-0.09893058985471725,
0.02747214585542679,
-0.4558689296245575,
-0.21999742090702057,
-0.19128118455410004,
-0.012651244178414345,
0.22752854228019714,
0.23104065656661987,
0.4175068736076355,
-0.3439311981201172,
0.5529102087020874,
0.04319491982460022,
-0.08066911995410919,
-0.31363213062286377,
0.34955644607543945,
0.11067035049200058,
1.1152241230010986,
0.06805326789617538,
-0.34068989753723145,
0.696863055229187,
0.03279856592416763,
0.5241854190826416,
0.08847422152757645,
-0.4874327778816223,
0.007065118756145239,
-0.238421231508255,
0.288047730922699,
1.31558358669281,
0.5156012773513794,
0.23484624922275543,
0.1962224394083023,
0.7351935505867004,
0.43419453501701355,
-0.28118783235549927,
0.18267829716205597,
0.7392415404319763,
-0.09519586712121964,
-0.8292548656463623,
-0.14354060590267181,
-0.24797765910625458,
0.5140034556388855,
-0.6976609230041504,
0.5159049034118652,
0.31405967473983765,
0.23776887357234955,
0.49574369192123413,
0.024911634624004364,
0.7245517373085022,
0.07791867107152939,
0.05004085227847099,
0.18877531588077545,
-0.7069543600082397,
-0.3393000066280365,
0.5576217770576477,
0.003954968880861998,
-0.7048752903938293,
0.4080561399459839,
0.5591608285903931,
0.04764904826879501,
-0.2449261099100113,
-0.036618467420339584,
-0.27446305751800537,
0.24250367283821106,
0.22310933470726013,
-0.4697418510913849,
0.16585718095302582,
0.03642385080456734,
0.10677218437194824,
0.40655186772346497,
-0.01765030436217785,
-0.12662740051746368,
0.041455697268247604,
0.3259581923484802,
1.0019733905792236,
0.39571380615234375,
0.12625178694725037,
-0.23747560381889343,
0.07653801888227463,
-0.3313089609146118,
0.02509438991546631,
0.7956084609031677,
0.1360064148902893,
0.12965041399002075,
0.16041627526283264,
0.05607501044869423,
0.11139485239982605,
-0.18502578139305115,
-0.33688879013061523,
-0.0666683167219162,
-0.9399345517158508,
-0.265239953994751,
0.067894347012043,
0.14019180834293365,
-0.3098078668117523,
0.12294630706310272,
-1.318276047706604,
0.14271140098571777,
0.18230576813220978,
-0.17504481971263885,
-0.241102933883667,
-0.595323920249939,
-0.5297638773918152,
0.4944532811641693,
0.7998133301734924,
0.4059426784515381,
0.027468770742416382,
0.3812221586704254,
-0.38922742009162903,
-0.14542005956172943,
0.026596292853355408,
0.3714516758918762,
-0.1509946882724762,
-0.42234712839126587,
0.452118456363678,
-0.1353289932012558,
0.3213222920894623,
-0.4840133786201477,
0.7272497415542603,
-0.5131154656410217,
-0.5791873931884766,
-0.3257627487182617,
0.15832096338272095,
-0.20471954345703125,
0.5553107261657715,
-0.4753033518791199,
0.31364092230796814,
0.21345052123069763,
0.35216543078422546,
-0.1210603266954422,
-0.22441023588180542,
-5.647961139678955,
-0.06144392117857933,
-0.16084037721157074,
-0.501484751701355,
0.16941186785697937,
0.49961116909980774,
0.25063544511795044,
0.11730740964412689,
-0.039369259029626846,
-0.36678946018218994,
-0.020115671679377556,
0.00020920828683301806,
-0.021212538704276085,
0.6825395822525024,
0.8141515254974365,
0.16380533576011658,
0.42744067311286926,
-0.20744086802005768,
-0.11542308330535889,
0.4510655105113983,
-0.13937248289585114,
-0.09078479558229446,
-0.2703859210014343,
-0.138181671500206,
0.1989506185054779,
0.20452377200126648,
-0.590453028678894,
0.3454930782318115,
-0.6236360669136047,
0.05318291857838631,
0.1131579726934433,
-0.02332123927772045,
-0.4065646827220917,
0.31280845403671265,
-0.21583640575408936,
-0.23902805149555206,
0.4455925226211548,
0.4858649969100952,
0.021502891555428505,
0.17383985221385956,
-0.3058089017868042,
0.46070316433906555,
-0.9496828317642212,
0.05122978985309601,
0.07340247184038162,
0.03961104154586792,
-0.3712606728076935,
-0.19466283917427063,
-0.21446508169174194,
0.35012421011924744,
0.19445239007472992,
-0.1390109807252884,
0.738140881061554,
0.2732769548892975,
0.19623306393623352,
-0.16080164909362793,
0.10880210250616074,
-0.4354778528213501,
-0.5792105197906494,
0.053985655307769775,
0.1355614811182022,
-0.38486048579216003,
0.33240798115730286,
-0.47754204273223877,
-0.5203635692596436,
-0.4134766757488251,
-0.09389472007751465,
0.21551404893398285,
0.021434534341096878,
-0.5106814503669739,
-0.08263976126909256,
0.5717619061470032,
0.30805158615112305,
-1.2094368934631348,
0.11245357245206833,
-0.4971664547920227,
0.04159432649612427,
-0.1327875703573227,
-0.6664509773254395,
-0.44419509172439575,
0.3479015827178955,
-0.27678337693214417,
-0.26604434847831726,
0.7187758684158325,
0.42146238684654236,
0.029852082952857018,
-0.19924487173557281,
0.5971755385398865,
-0.7774656414985657,
-0.11170949041843414,
-0.12741053104400635,
0.23386362195014954,
-0.11698511242866516,
0.17385314404964447,
0.2749057114124298,
0.37500903010368347,
0.4122953414916992,
-0.07401522994041443,
0.27233684062957764,
-0.07775984704494476,
-0.3089095652103424,
-0.3707923889160156,
-0.0421123206615448,
-0.876059889793396,
-0.12148982286453247,
-0.21353460848331451,
0.0004897820763289928,
0.21565236151218414,
0.7264265418052673,
-0.0645148977637291,
-0.35703906416893005,
0.3937768042087555,
-0.40747392177581787,
-0.35358861088752747,
0.38620486855506897,
-0.20482608675956726,
0.11773057281970978,
0.043791964650154114,
0.11989136785268784,
0.24359098076820374,
0.1523180454969406,
0.6732107400894165,
0.11572007834911346,
-0.4242824614048004,
0.35041534900665283,
-0.23845160007476807,
0.0320819690823555,
-0.4507400095462799,
-0.47277170419692993,
0.23911641538143158,
-0.45534437894821167,
0.5707036852836609,
0.1760776937007904,
0.10346923023462296,
-0.23836882412433624,
-0.22800791263580322,
-0.9033560156822205,
-0.07470381259918213,
-0.2795872688293457,
0.3407115936279297,
0.12290936708450317,
-0.32977062463760376,
-0.21441242098808289,
0.060595180839300156,
-0.08313069492578506,
-0.15277868509292603,
-0.012351466342806816,
0.2508017420768738,
-0.562078595161438,
0.22529861330986023,
-0.19225336611270905,
0.06415865570306778,
0.3120156228542328,
-0.20257852971553802,
-0.1212908923625946,
0.14259073138237,
-0.2612370550632477,
0.2757734954357147,
-0.10517257452011108,
-0.0531405545771122,
-0.32205188274383545,
0.006434968672692776,
-1.072456955909729,
0.31968212127685547,
-0.028981653973460197,
-0.2744470238685608,
-0.3078421652317047,
-0.11846328526735306,
-0.38520440459251404,
0.6185105443000793,
0.09416143596172333,
-0.2649078965187073,
-0.07180259376764297,
0.09604299813508987,
0.4744665324687958,
0.09187166392803192,
-0.3084927797317505,
-0.4898027777671814,
0.1467215120792389,
0.006575215607881546,
0.02495620585978031,
-0.04973257705569267,
-0.9148716330528259,
0.04303755238652229,
0.39198240637779236,
-0.05184019356966019,
-0.21187348663806915,
-0.43784523010253906,
-0.4110395908355713,
0.3273783326148987,
0.2942905128002167,
-0.5718912482261658,
0.3282131254673004,
0.8285314440727234,
-0.4555959701538086,
0.1844031810760498,
0.28691366314888,
-0.6478540897369385,
-0.1189943477511406,
-0.31925472617149353,
0.3305458724498749,
0.09188190847635269,
-0.15992046892642975,
-0.15538786351680756,
0.11256085336208344,
-1.2991201877593994,
-0.09966757148504257,
-0.3726625442504883,
-0.0611487440764904,
1.0014475584030151,
-0.1006423756480217,
-0.23761126399040222,
0.09474114328622818,
0.19010722637176514,
-0.10949543118476868,
0.11173771321773529,
0.5264571309089661,
0.1484338790178299,
-0.609162449836731,
-0.41717174649238586,
-0.1706170290708542,
-0.2479533702135086,
-0.24184484779834747,
-0.07822176069021225,
-0.4924285411834717,
0.19070076942443848,
-0.38720768690109253,
-0.3763069212436676,
0.49262645840644836,
0.06413169205188751,
0.02903447113931179,
-0.2134830355644226,
-0.06818758696317673,
-0.010172327049076557,
-0.08079580962657928,
-0.31210657954216003,
0.16534903645515442,
0.12085527926683426,
-0.24978940188884735,
-0.04857533425092697,
0.48280125856399536,
0.7905045747756958,
0.40883806347846985,
0.206836998462677,
0.20623895525932312,
-0.3498278558254242,
0.1355089396238327,
-0.3101741075515747,
-0.10571707040071487,
0.25554344058036804,
0.6575769782066345,
0.018695931881666183,
-0.44827699661254883,
-0.02947690710425377,
0.9802610874176025,
-0.1644475758075714,
-0.18668563663959503,
0.06689195334911346,
0.22400975227355957,
-0.20500311255455017,
-0.07327961176633835,
0.0025378481950610876,
-0.09548529237508774,
0.2855288088321686,
-0.14038115739822388,
-0.0034605227410793304,
0.056599706411361694,
0.1966710090637207,
0.387681782245636,
-0.45084893703460693,
-0.22323760390281677,
-0.1928875595331192,
-0.30707886815071106,
0.44256311655044556,
-0.12789286673069,
0.08923377841711044,
0.5364184379577637,
-0.39833346009254456,
0.08628380298614502,
-0.10241466760635376,
0.3423292934894562,
0.19929100573062897,
-0.1378728747367859,
-0.4809238016605377,
-0.2378212958574295,
0.017961882054805756,
0.12198089808225632,
-0.2977215349674225,
-0.14849762618541718,
-0.0973476767539978,
-0.4693305194377899,
-0.03130035847425461,
-0.3754504919052124,
0.10504145920276642,
0.33714917302131653,
-0.378506064414978,
-0.19500280916690826,
0.8259203433990479,
-0.07215212285518646,
-0.26496174931526184,
-0.43084263801574707,
0.22904488444328308,
0.3996759057044983,
0.0048380265943706036,
0.4551158845424652,
-0.32744911313056946,
-0.5735676884651184,
0.06180308759212494,
-0.42814746499061584,
0.6142449378967285,
0.08861441165208817,
-0.1787407249212265,
0.2308153659105301,
0.43144625425338745,
-0.27892476320266724,
-0.09492583572864532,
0.4050399661064148,
-0.29571637511253357,
-0.11060036718845367,
-0.27160486578941345,
0.12983344495296478,
0.08674052357673645,
0.4161870777606964,
-0.467991441488266,
-0.0266710352152586,
0.8693574070930481,
0.24933764338493347,
-0.12514948844909668,
-0.5403135418891907,
-0.11327660828828812,
0.39734774827957153,
-0.45982158184051514,
-0.2397051900625229,
0.09759332239627838,
0.14818944036960602,
-0.34699180722236633,
0.3165997862815857,
-0.03369845449924469,
0.12571647763252258,
0.21285368502140045,
-0.326284795999527,
0.44230177998542786,
0.11884890496730804,
0.3503863215446472,
0.0514373779296875,
-0.42496994137763977,
-0.13703858852386475,
0.5953205227851868,
-0.21428382396697998,
-0.33650416135787964,
0.558393120765686,
0.4585050642490387,
0.15801960229873657,
-0.4177590012550354,
0.6476045250892639,
-0.35555776953697205,
0.4210997521877289,
-0.26595157384872437,
-0.29126447439193726,
-0.9847334623336792,
-0.24187301099300385,
-0.0012156956363469362,
0.6389094591140747,
0.20217429101467133,
0.4218015968799591,
0.12366775423288345,
0.05053049698472023,
-0.6123279333114624,
-0.15592393279075623,
0.7105928659439087,
0.3703046143054962,
-0.02712312527000904,
0.07236501574516296,
0.7090417146682739,
0.15930715203285217,
0.3417137563228607,
0.6483252048492432,
-0.2577853798866272,
-0.05874376744031906,
-0.09532967209815979,
-0.17532765865325928,
0.026218533515930176,
-0.1459985375404358,
-0.03818933293223381,
0.13011841475963593,
-0.2118067741394043,
0.1675713211297989,
0.27292680740356445,
0.19569610059261322,
-0.3143429756164551,
0.24015718698501587,
-0.6080566048622131,
-0.617101788520813,
0.33805736899375916,
-0.645460307598114,
0.513645350933075,
-0.2987210154533386,
1.0805485248565674,
0.11933181434869766,
0.29412245750427246,
-0.05700388923287392,
-0.0530959814786911,
-0.01384615246206522,
-0.11390270292758942,
-0.35288164019584656,
0.23657383024692535,
-0.1543532758951187,
0.31998106837272644,
-0.8050185441970825,
0.056080546230077744,
0.0276433527469635,
0.7332493662834167,
-0.5624290108680725,
0.5782628655433655,
-0.317020058631897,
-0.38807058334350586,
0.2861725091934204,
0.2040407806634903,
0.04604274034500122,
-0.1150289997458458,
0.08752384036779404,
0.33554771542549133,
0.06372909992933273,
-0.19913999736309052,
0.09163206070661545,
0.4388330280780792,
0.1409289389848709,
-0.15719622373580933,
0.10145372897386551,
-0.0327192023396492,
-0.117177814245224,
-0.19687557220458984,
-0.11251933872699738,
-0.1896248161792755,
0.12690071761608124,
0.2064632773399353,
0.5078455209732056,
0.7045159339904785,
0.5050403475761414,
-0.5005557537078857,
0.71392822265625,
-0.014748329296708107,
-0.3161894679069519,
0.055597878992557526,
-3.088641405105591,
0.11737625300884247,
0.08420529961585999,
-0.6080045700073242,
0.5583671927452087,
0.41337859630584717,
-0.4928564727306366,
-0.5609505772590637,
-0.22358542680740356,
-0.474744975566864,
0.08529344946146011,
0.39388564229011536,
-0.30372154712677,
-0.246541365981102,
0.7978490591049194,
-0.04058248549699783
] |
206020
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20St%20John%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Bolingbroke
|
Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke
|
Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke (; 16 September 1678 – 12 December 1751) was an English politician, government official and political philosopher. He was a leader of the Tories, and supported the Church of England politically despite his antireligious views and opposition to theology. He supported the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 which sought to overthrow the new king George I. Escaping to France he became foreign minister for the Pretender. He was attainted for treason, but reversed course and was allowed to return to England in 1723. According to Ruth Mack, "Bolingbroke is best known for his party politics, including the ideological history he disseminated in The Craftsman (1726–1735) by adopting the formerly Whig theory of the Ancient Constitution and giving it new life as an anti-Walpole Tory principle."
Early life
Henry St John was most probably born at Lydiard Tregoze, the family seat in Wiltshire, and christened in Battersea. St John was the son of Sir Henry St John, 4th Baronet later 1st Viscount St John, and Lady Mary Rich, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Warwick. Although it has been asserted that St John was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford, his name does not appear on registers for either institution and there is no evidence to support either claim. It is possible he was educated at a Dissenting academy.
He travelled to France, Switzerland and Italy during 1698 and 1699 and acquired an exceptional knowledge of French. St John made friends with the Whigs James Stanhope and Edward Hopkins and corresponded with the Tory Sir William Trumball, who advised him: "There appears indeed amongst us [in England] a strong disposition to liberty, but neither honesty nor virtue enough to support it".
Oliver Goldsmith reported that he had been seen to "run naked through the park in a state of intoxication". Jonathan Swift, his intimate friend, said that he wanted to be thought the Alcibiades or Petronius of his age, and to mix licentious orgies with the highest political responsibilities. In 1700, he married Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winchcombe of Bucklebury, Berkshire, but this made little difference to his lifestyle.
Early career
He became a Member of Parliament in 1701, representing the family borough of Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire, as a Tory. His seat was Lydiard Park at Lydiard Tregoze, now in the Borough of Swindon. He attached himself to Robert Harley (afterwards Lord Oxford), then Speaker of the House of Commons, and distinguished himself by his eloquence in debate, eclipsing his schoolfellow, Robert Walpole, and gaining an extraordinary ascendancy over the House of Commons. In May, he had charge of the bill for securing the Protestant succession; he took part in the impeachment of the Whig lords for their conduct concerning the Partition treaties, and opposed the oath of loyalty against the "Old Pretender". In March 1702, he was chosen commissioner for taking the public accounts.
After Queen Anne's accession, St John supported the bills in 1702 and 1704 against occasional conformity, and took a leading part in the disputes which arose between the two Houses. In 1704, St John took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being brought into intimate relations with John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, by whom he was treated with favour. In 1708, he left office with Harley on the failure of the latter's intrigue, and retired to the country till 1710, when he became a privy counsellor and secretary of state in Harley's new ministry, representing Berkshire in parliament. He supported the bill for requiring a real property qualification for a seat in parliament. In 1711 he founded the Brothers' Club, a society of Tory politicians and men of letters, and the same year witnessed the failure of the two expeditions to the West Indies and to Canada promoted by him. In 1712, he was the author of the bill taxing newspapers.
The refusal of the Whigs to make peace with France in 1706, and again in 1709 when Louis XIV offered to yield every point for which the allies professed to be fighting, showed that the war was not being continued in the national interest, and the queen, Parliament and the people supported the ministry in its wish to terminate hostilities. Because of the diversity of aims among the allies, St John was induced to enter into separate and secret negotiations with France for the security of English interests. In May 1712, he ordered the Duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded Marlborough in command, to refrain from any further engagement. These instructions were communicated to the French, though not to the allies, Louis putting Dunkirk as security into possession of England, and the English troops deserted their allies almost on the battlefield. Subsequently, St John received the congratulations of the French foreign minister, de Torcy, on the French victory over Prince Eugene at Denain (24 July 1712).
In June 1712, St John's commercial treaty with France, establishing free trade with that country, was rejected by the House of Commons. The treaty was presented in the Commons by Arthur Moore as St John had been created Viscount Bolingbroke earlier that year. A major campaign was waged against its approval under the slogan "No Peace Without Spain". At least 40 from the Tories voted to reject the treaty. In August 1712, Bolingbroke went to France and signed an armistice between England and France for four months. Finally, the Treaty of Utrecht was signed in March 1713 by all the allies except the emperor. The first production of Addison's Cato was made by the Whigs the occasion of a great demonstration of indignation against the peace, and by Bolingbroke for presenting the actor Barton Booth with a purse of fifty guineas for "defending the cause of liberty against a perpetual dictator".
Meanwhile, the friendship between Bolingbroke and Harley, the basis of the whole Tory administration, had been gradually dissolved. In March 1711, when the Marquis de Guiscard made an attempt on Harley's life, Bolingbroke assumed temporary leadership of the ministry's affairs. His difficulty in controlling the Tory back-benchers, however, only made Harley's absence the more noticeable. In May, Harley obtained the earldom of Oxford and became lord treasurer, while in July, St John was greatly disappointed at receiving only his viscountcy instead of the earldom lately extinct in his family, and at being passed over for the Order of the Garter.
In September 1713 Jonathan Swift came to London and made a final vain attempt to reconcile his two friends. But now a further cause of difference had arisen. The queen's health was visibly breaking, and the Tory ministers anticipated their downfall on the accession of the Elector of Hanover. During Bolingbroke's diplomatic mission to France he had incurred blame for remaining at the opera while the Pretender was present, and according to the Mackintosh transcripts he had several secret interviews with him. Regular communications were kept up subsequently.
In March 1714, Herville, the French envoy in London, sent to de Torcy, the French foreign minister, the substance of two long conversations with Bolingbroke in which the latter advised patience till after the accession of George I, when a great reaction was to be expected in favour of the Pretender. At the same time, he spoke of the treachery of Marlborough and Berwick, and of one Other (presumably Oxford) whom he refused to name, all of whom were in communication with Hanover. Both Oxford and Bolingbroke warned James Stuart that he could have little chance of success unless he changed his religion, but the latter's refusal does not appear to have stopped the communications.
Bolingbroke gradually superseded Oxford in the leadership. Lady Masham, the queen's favourite, quarrelled with Oxford and identified herself with Bolingbroke's interests. The harsh treatment of the Hanoverian demands was inspired by him, and won favour with the queen, while Oxford's influence declined; and by his support of the Schism Bill in May 1714, an aggressive Tory measure forbidding all education by dissenters by making an episcopal licence obligatory for schoolmasters, he probably intended to compel Oxford to give up the game. Finally, a charge of corruption brought by Oxford in July against Bolingbroke and Lady Masham, in connexion with the commercial treaty with Spain, failed, and the lord treasurer was dismissed or retired on 27 July 1714. The Queen died four days later, after appointing Shrewsbury to the lord treasurership.
Exile
On the accession of George I the illuminations and bonfire at Lord Bolingbroke's house in Golden Square were "particularly fine and remarkable", but he was immediately dismissed from office. The new king had been close to the Whigs but he was willing to bring in Tories. The Tories however refused to serve and gambled everything on an election, which they lost. The triumphant Whigs systematically removed the Tories from most of the posts nationally and regionally.
Bolingbroke followed an erratic course that baffled his contemporaries and historians. He retired to Bucklebury and is said to have now written the answer to the Secret History of the White Staff accusing him of being a Jacobite. In March 1715, he in vain attempted to defend the late ministry in the new parliament; and on the announcement of Walpole's intended attack upon the authors of the Treaty of Utrecht he gave up.
Bolingbroke fled in disguise to Paris—a major blunder. In an even greater blunder he joined the Pretender, was made Earl of Bolingbroke in the Jacobite Peerage, and took charge of foreign affairs in the Stuart court. The uprising of 1715 was badly botched and the death of Louis XIV meant the Pretender had lost his major sponsor; King Louis XV wanted peace with Britain and refused to endorse any further schemes. In March 1716, Bolingbroke switched sides again. He had lost his titles and property when Parliament voted a bill of attainder for treason. He hoped to recover the good graces of King George, and indeed managed to do so in a few years.
He wrote his Reflexions upon Exile, and in 1717, his letter to Sir William Wyndham in explanation of his position, generally considered one of his finest compositions, but not published till 1753 after his death. The same year, he formed a liaison with a widow Marie Claire Deschamps de Marcilly, whom he married in 1720, two years after his first wife's death. He bought and resided at the estate of La Source near Orléans, studied philosophy, criticized the chronology of the Bible, and was visited amongst others by Voltaire, who expressed unbounded admiration for his learning and politeness.
Pardon and return
In 1723, through the medium of the king's mistress, Ehrengard Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal and Munster, he received a pardon and returned to London. Walpole reluctantly accepted his return. In 1725, Parliament enabled him to hold real estate but without power of alienating it. But this had been effected in consequence of a peremptory order of the king, against Walpole's wishes, who succeeded in maintaining his exclusion from the House of Lords. He now bought an estate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he renewed his intimacy with Pope, Swift and Voltaire, took part in Pope's literary squabbles, and wrote the philosophy for Pope's An Essay on Man (1734), which, at Epistle I, begins: "To Henry St. John, Lord Bolingbroke:
On the first occasion which offered itself, that of Pulteney's rupture with Walpole in 1726, he endeavoured to organize an opposition in conjunction with the former and Wyndham; and in 1727, began his celebrated series of letters to The Craftsman, attacking the Walpoles, signed "an Occasional Writer". He won over the Duchess of Kendal with a bribe of £11,000 from his wife's estates, and with Walpole's approval obtained an audience with the king. His success was imminent, and it was thought his appointment as chief minister was assured. In Walpole's own words, "as St John had the duchess entirely on his side I need not add what must or might in time have been the consequence", and he prepared for his dismissal. But once more Bolingbroke's "fortune turned rotten at the very moment it grew ripe", and his projects and hopes were ruined by the king's death in June.
He wrote additional essays signed "John Trot" that appeared in the Craftsman in 1728, and in 1730 followed Remarks on the History of England by Humphrey Oldcastle, attacking Walpole's policy. Comment prompted by Bolingbroke was continued in the House of Commons by Wyndham, and great efforts were made to establish the alliance between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs. The Excise Bill in 1733 and the Septennial Bill in the following year offered opportunities for further attacks on the government, which Bolingbroke supported by a new series of papers in the Craftsman styled "A Dissertation on Parties"; but the whole movement collapsed after the new elections, which returned Walpole to power in 1735 with a large majority.
Bolingbroke retired baffled and disappointed from the fray to France in June, residing principally at the château of Argeville near Fontainebleau. He now wrote his Letters on the Study of History (printed privately before his death and published in 1752), and the True Use of Retirement. In 1738, he visited England, became one of the leading friends and advisers of Frederick, Prince of Wales, who now headed the opposition, and wrote for the occasion The Patriot King, which together with a previous essay, The Spirit of Patriotism, and The State of Parties at the Accession of George I, were entrusted to Pope and not published. Having failed, however, to obtain any share in politics, he returned to France in 1739, and subsequently sold Dawley. In 1742 and 1743, he again visited England and quarrelled with Warburton. In 1744, he settled finally at Battersea with his friend Hugh Hume, 3rd Earl of Marchmont, and was present at Pope's death in May. The discovery that the poet had printed secretly 1,500 copies of The Patriot King, caused him to publish a correct version in 1749, and stirred up a further altercation with Warburton, who defended his friend against Bolingbroke's bitter aspersions, the latter, whose conduct was generally reprehended, publishing a Familiar Epistle to the most Impudent Man Living.
Death
In 1744, he had been very busy assisting in the negotiations for the establishment of the new "broad bottom" administration, and showed no sympathy for the Jacobite expedition in 1745. He recommended the tutor for Prince George, afterwards George III. About 1749, he wrote the Present State of the Nation, an unfinished pamphlet. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield records the last words heard from him: "God who placed me here will do what He pleases with me hereafter and He knows best what to do". He died on 12 December 1751, aged 73, his second wife having predeceased him by one year. They were both buried in St Mary's, the parish church at Battersea, where a monument with medallions and inscriptions composed by Bolingbroke was erected to their memory.
He was succeeded in the title as 2nd Viscount Bolingbroke, according to the special remainder, by his half-nephew Frederick St John, 2nd Viscount Bolingbroke (a title granted to Bolingbroke's father in 1716), from whom the title has descended. Frederick was the son of the 1st Viscount's half-brother John St John, by his father's second wife Angelica Magdalena Pelissary.
Impact
Bolingbroke, Georgia, was named after him.
Republicanism in America
In the late 20th century, Bolingbroke was rediscovered by historians as a major influence on Voltaire, and on the American patriots John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Adams said that he had read all of Bolingbroke's works at least five times; indeed, Bolingbroke's works were widely read in the American colonies, where they helped provide the foundation for the emerging nation's devotion to republicanism. His vision of history as cycles of birth, growth, decline and death of a republic was influential in the colonies, as was his contention on liberty: that one is "free not from the law, but by the law".
Influence in Britain
Bute and George III derived their political ideas from The Patriot King. Edmund Burke wrote his Vindication of Natural Society in imitation of Bolingbroke's style, but in refutation of his principles; and in the Reflections on the French Revolution he exclaims, "Who now reads Bolingbroke, who ever read him through?" Burke denied that Bolingbroke's words left "any permanent impression on his mind". Benjamin Disraeli lionized Bolingbroke as the "Founder of Modern Toryism", eradicating its "absurd and odious doctrines", and establishing its mission to subvert "Whig attempts to transform the English Constitution into an oligarchy".
The loss of Bolingbroke's great speeches was regretted by William Pitt more than that of the missing books of Livy and Tacitus. By the early 20th century, the writings and career of Bolingbroke would make a weaker impression than they made on contemporaries. He was thought by the author in his biography in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English (1910) to be a man of brilliant and versatile talents, but selfish, insincere and intriguing, defects of character which arguably led to his political ruin; and his writings were described as glittering, artificial and lacking philosophical merit. Philip Chesney Yorke, his biographer in the Encyclopædia Britannica 11th Edition, commented that his abilities were exercised upon ephemeral objects, and not inspired by lasting or universal ideas.
Enlightenment philosophy
Bolingbroke held certain views of opposition to church and theological teachings that may have had influence during the Age of Enlightenment. The atheist antireligious French-German philosopher Baron d'Holbach quotes Bolingbroke in his political work Good Sense, in reference to Bolingbroke's statements against religion.
Country Party
Bolingbroke was especially influential in stating the need and outlining the machinery of a systematic parliamentary opposition. Such an opposition he called a "country party" which he opposed to the court party. Country parties had been formed before, for instance after the king's speech to Parliament in November 1685, but Bolingbroke was the first to state the need for a continual opposition to the government. To his mind the spirit of liberty was threatened by the court party's lust for power.
Liberty could only be safeguarded by an opposition party that used "constitutional methods and a legal course of opposition to the excesses of legal and ministerial power" (On the Idea of a Patriot King p. 117). He instructed the opposition party to "Wrest the power of government, if you can, out of the hands that employed it weakly and wickedly" (On the Spirit of Patriotism p. 42). This work could be done only by a homogeneous party "because such a party alone will submit to a drudgery of this kind" (On the idea of a Patriot King p. 170). It was not enough to be eager to speak, keen to act. "They who affect to head an opposition ... must be equal, at least, to those whom they oppose" (On the Spirit of Patriotism p. 58). The opposition had to be of a permanent nature to make sure that it would be looked at as a part of daily politics. It had on every occasion to confront the government (On the Spirit of Patriotism p. 61). He considered a party that systematically opposed the government to be more appealing than a party that did so occasionally (On the Spirit of Patriotism pp. 62, 63). This opposition had to prepare itself to control government (On the Spirit of Patriotism p. 61).
Works
Lashmore-Davies, Adrian C., ed. "The Correspondence of Henry St. John and Sir William Trumbull, 1698–1710", Eighteenth-Century Life 32, no. 3 (2008), pp. 23–179.
Parke, G., ed. The Letters and Correspondence of Henry St John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke. 4 vols. 1798.
Dickinson, H. T., ed. "The Letters of Henry St. John to the Earl of Orrery, 1709–1711" Camden Miscellany, vol. XXVI. Camden Fourth Series. Volume 14 (London: The Royal Historical Society, 1975), pp. 137–199.
H. T. Dickinson (ed.). "Letters of Bolingbroke to the Earl of Orrery, 1712–13", Camden Miscellany, Vol. XXXI. Camden Fourth Series. Volume 44 (London: The Royal Historical Society, 1992), pp. 349–371.
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 1 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 2 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 3 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 4 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 5 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 6 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 7 (London, 1809).
The works of the late Right Honourable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, new ed., Vol. 8 (London, 1809).
The Works of Lord Bolingbroke, Vol 1. University Press of the Pacific, 2001.
Armitage, David, ed. Bolingbroke: Political Writings (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). Cambridge University Press, 1997.
The Philosophical Works of the Late Right Honourable Henry St John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke, 3 vol. 1776, reprint 2005.
Jackman, S. W., ed. The Idea of a Patriot King. Indianapolis, 1965.
The Works of the Late Right Honorable Henry St. John, Lord Viscount Bolingbroke was first published in March 1754 in five quarto volumes, and it was made popular by its controversial outlooks on religion. A decade later, the highly successful London bookseller Andrew Millar was still selling the Works for a considerable fortune, setting the price at three guineas (three pounds and three shillings), a clear indication of the importance and value of the text. In a letter to Dr. Cadell in July 1765, Millar wrote "I never sold a Bolingbroke in quarto under 3 guineas ... Wren paid so and I can't now alter the price".
Notes
Further reading
Biddle, Sheila. Bolingbroke and Harley (Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1974).
Dickinson, H. T. "St John, Henry, styled first Viscount Bolingbroke (1678–1751)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, September 2013, accessed 18 October 2017, short scholarly biography
Dickinson, Harry Thomas. Bolingbroke (1970), scholarly biography.
Kramnick, Isaac. Bolingbroke and his circle: the politics of nostalgia in the age of Walpole (Cornell University Press, 1992).
Mansfield, Harvey C. Statesmanship and party government: A study of Burke and Bolingbroke (University of Chicago Press, 2012).
West, Chris. "Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, 1st Viscount (1678–1751)" in The Encyclopedia of Political Thought (2015).
References
Primary sources
The works of Lord Bolingbroke, 4 vols. (1969)
H. St John, Viscount Bolingbroke, The idea of a patriot king, ed. S. W. Jackman (Indianapolis, 1965)
Lord Bolingbroke: historical writings, ed. I. Kramnick (Chicago, 1972)
Lord Bolingbroke: contributions to The Craftsman, ed. S. Varey (1982)
Bolingbroke: political writings, ed. D. Armitage (1997)
Bolingbroke's political writings: the conservative Enlightenment, ed. B. Cottret (1997)
External links
Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
Royal Berkshire History: Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke
1678 births
1751 deaths
People from Bucklebury
People from Battersea
British Secretaries of State
Lord-Lieutenants of Essex
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Berkshire
British MPs 1707–1708
British MPs 1708–1710
British MPs 1710–1713
Viscounts in the Peerage of Great Britain
Peers of Great Britain created by Queen Anne
Recipients of British royal pardons
Fellows of the Royal Society
English Jacobites
Henry
English MPs 1701
English MPs 1701–1702
English MPs 1702–1705
English MPs 1705–1707
Earls in the Jacobite peerage
British political philosophers
Toryism
|
[
-0.20121344923973083,
0.4345366954803467,
-0.23246726393699646,
-0.3868729770183563,
-0.335479199886322,
0.6483179926872253,
0.4493316411972046,
-0.09330340474843979,
-0.4572620391845703,
0.07109075039625168,
-0.28803354501724243,
0.1503947526216507,
-0.6109392642974854,
0.09943849593400955,
0.20064043998718262,
-0.2664220929145813,
0.24543926119804382,
-0.4663231670856476,
-0.16581976413726807,
-0.5540684461593628,
-0.05969502404332161,
0.04318840429186821,
0.21719737350940704,
0.37563103437423706,
-0.15691262483596802,
-0.26296287775039673,
0.1424686461687088,
-0.48305442929267883,
-0.03977878391742706,
-0.205757737159729,
0.4391159117221832,
0.8406045436859131,
-0.14307303726673126,
-0.16890917718410492,
-0.663767397403717,
0.07038090378046036,
-0.4957374036312103,
-0.6158127188682556,
-0.03813212737441063,
0.2444683164358139,
-0.42945390939712524,
0.2822744846343994,
0.14944174885749817,
0.15875621140003204,
-0.36221078038215637,
-0.4569125771522522,
-1.8381603956222534,
0.049542851746082306,
-0.25921669602394104,
-0.8211662173271179,
0.3038596212863922,
0.3098548352718353,
0.2991293966770172,
0.3156117796897888,
-0.25348275899887085,
0.11325281113386154,
-0.8311627507209778,
-0.3975807726383209,
0.506713330745697,
0.16805854439735413,
0.541466474533081,
-0.27970969676971436,
0.43238651752471924,
0.13404327630996704,
0.24545402824878693,
0.10520195960998535,
-0.35043811798095703,
0.5315902829170227,
-0.6911535263061523,
0.6148762702941895,
0.006348508410155773,
0.14014878869056702,
-0.0763569325208664,
0.538313090801239,
0.3014484941959381,
-0.012011765502393246,
0.2853145897388458,
0.2969225347042084,
0.21357287466526031,
0.10827022790908813,
0.4933403730392456,
-0.13071896135807037,
0.8669667840003967,
0.1978723108768463,
0.41588571667671204,
0.5401045083999634,
-0.37357228994369507,
0.7257575392723083,
-0.5919591188430786,
-0.17300960421562195,
0.06591556966304779,
-0.023245787248015404,
0.22794154286384583,
-0.272366464138031,
-0.3283078074455261,
0.2763311266899109,
0.05044164881110191,
-0.32079851627349854,
-0.6011160612106323,
-0.3885328471660614,
-0.2158505767583847,
0.6158702373504639,
0.32828661799430847,
-0.08262026309967041,
-0.5920892357826233,
-0.12360518425703049,
-0.47244590520858765,
-0.26700127124786377,
0.19661293923854828,
0.44159001111984253,
-0.5539615750312805,
0.030654100701212883,
-0.4526004493236542,
0.25986993312835693,
0.2588639557361603,
0.44327017664909363,
-0.22356915473937988,
-0.6963188052177429,
-0.4164283275604248,
-0.39546018838882446,
0.23573969304561615,
0.4385509490966797,
-0.2278081327676773,
0.08258108049631119,
-0.7513725161552429,
0.040552642196416855,
0.2849605679512024,
-0.029362652450799942,
0.036793336272239685,
0.6222812533378601,
-0.09251126646995544,
1.3940619230270386,
-0.5240085124969482,
-0.4629732668399811,
-0.2089879959821701,
0.19313016533851624,
0.17962878942489624,
0.17669248580932617,
-0.2789531350135803,
0.34022507071495056,
-0.5223240256309509,
-0.1824788600206375,
-0.4429863393306732,
0.25529953837394714,
0.28532516956329346,
0.18302546441555023,
-0.10032181441783905,
-0.16120560467243195,
-0.3169265687465668,
0.2575860023498535,
-0.26373618841171265,
0.09786950051784515,
-0.18255139887332916,
-0.4143054783344269,
0.0931890681385994,
0.4160754084587097,
0.6297743320465088,
0.2919057607650757,
0.18416880071163177,
0.1471662074327469,
-0.24980556964874268,
-0.2604120075702667,
0.17973387241363525,
-0.3150341510772705,
0.36415234208106995,
-0.35595688223838806,
0.22143244743347168,
-0.08815702050924301,
-0.5672714710235596,
-0.0015204563969746232,
-0.517227053642273,
-0.23647142946720123,
0.7290398478507996,
-0.23457778990268707,
0.12467551976442337,
0.6488081216812134,
1.0185694694519043,
-0.27878305315971375,
0.4515281021595001,
-0.22745458781719208,
-0.7084823250770569,
-0.1466406136751175,
0.37913084030151367,
-0.12610267102718353,
0.7157243490219116,
0.28538230061531067,
0.15453141927719116,
-0.006035761907696724,
0.35334092378616333,
-0.19567176699638367,
-0.03370297700166702,
-0.7452123761177063,
0.11642197519540787,
-0.06395968049764633,
0.5172290205955505,
0.6367453336715698,
-0.0728963240981102,
0.4113575518131256,
0.41511115431785583,
0.8636477589607239,
0.09936203062534332,
0.1598445326089859,
0.044345319271087646,
0.08182137459516525,
0.624539852142334,
0.15232639014720917,
-0.15409180521965027,
0.07460939884185791,
0.8737058639526367,
0.6115211844444275,
0.2413169890642166,
-0.2600423991680145,
0.18263719975948334,
0.5963436365127563,
0.05516299232840538,
-0.8489744663238525,
-0.03693455457687378,
-0.142044335603714,
0.027585014700889587,
-0.8459805846214294,
0.23881612718105316,
0.2709161639213562,
-0.22054576873779297,
0.5322659611701965,
-0.3428782522678375,
0.7885112762451172,
-0.4544426202774048,
0.11228904873132706,
-0.4740196466445923,
-0.7526469826698303,
0.34254804253578186,
0.11098958551883698,
0.4110257625579834,
-0.37461259961128235,
0.1834951490163803,
0.018764499574899673,
-0.4702067971229553,
-0.4027690291404724,
-0.05640305206179619,
-0.44166797399520874,
-0.15702004730701447,
0.3235012888908386,
-0.5352060198783875,
0.7653201818466187,
-0.361989825963974,
0.7291700839996338,
0.09990990906953812,
-0.058840926736593246,
-0.42307767271995544,
0.0876397117972374,
0.29918771982192993,
0.3260454535484314,
0.09722577035427094,
0.45044049620628357,
-0.01901707984507084,
-0.2392769306898117,
0.07440778613090515,
0.6788371205329895,
0.17772381007671356,
0.4450909197330475,
0.20820868015289307,
0.05745700001716614,
-0.0977444276213646,
0.7642098069190979,
-0.33250176906585693,
-0.5810779333114624,
0.4343514144420624,
-0.47466516494750977,
0.38345611095428467,
-0.2208501100540161,
0.21444904804229736,
-0.9294227361679077,
0.02658253163099289,
0.5520071387290955,
0.19417764246463776,
-0.33377233147621155,
0.18594276905059814,
0.41328611969947815,
-0.39842647314071655,
-0.49848365783691406,
-0.02917393483221531,
0.7426403164863586,
-0.7114996910095215,
0.0669819712638855,
0.061181340366601944,
-0.21410948038101196,
0.08059973269701004,
0.16488049924373627,
0.6308425068855286,
-0.04837470129132271,
-0.1609785258769989,
0.6986393928527832,
0.043798960745334625,
0.06740488857030869,
-0.24888554215431213,
0.7198891639709473,
-0.5952915549278259,
-0.357453316450119,
-0.5889031887054443,
-0.28604403138160706,
-0.6084274649620056,
0.25948867201805115,
0.03994591534137726,
0.3396497368812561,
0.12385853379964828,
0.46193981170654297,
-0.34867528080940247,
0.16443955898284912,
-5.407537460327148,
0.2625201642513275,
0.1617577075958252,
-0.44350293278694153,
0.6225633025169373,
0.10574080795049667,
0.22110576927661896,
-0.24707329273223877,
-0.13393576443195343,
0.2111063450574875,
0.8193944692611694,
-0.3322868049144745,
-0.06214417889714241,
0.6438308954238892,
0.8830150961875916,
0.42299121618270874,
0.25217944383621216,
0.025589270517230034,
0.13542966544628143,
0.37214621901512146,
-0.3950217068195343,
0.215936541557312,
0.14517441391944885,
0.13771793246269226,
0.11272034049034119,
0.6019095778465271,
-0.10207045078277588,
0.026820030063390732,
-0.6723377704620361,
-0.3977365791797638,
0.3170824944972992,
0.3991759419441223,
-0.12243931740522385,
-0.008149577304720879,
0.11321777105331421,
-0.12432026118040085,
0.3521771728992462,
0.6959328651428223,
-0.32442688941955566,
0.3154439926147461,
0.4032987952232361,
0.0026067933067679405,
-0.7992284297943115,
0.4749825894832611,
0.1717076599597931,
-0.2867308557033539,
-1.063225269317627,
0.5851544141769409,
-0.036249760538339615,
0.31600433588027954,
0.01658795215189457,
0.5181810259819031,
-0.1390201896429062,
-0.1693272441625595,
-0.278667688369751,
0.3514562249183655,
0.2687687277793884,
-0.13149207830429077,
-0.498395711183548,
-0.02023647353053093,
0.3704220950603485,
-0.5633973479270935,
0.15554110705852509,
0.4826735556125641,
0.24875758588314056,
-0.258154958486557,
0.07078837603330612,
-0.024109261110424995,
0.37469038367271423,
0.08950868248939514,
0.3595197796821594,
0.7888537049293518,
0.3239399790763855,
-1.0210973024368286,
-0.305309534072876,
-0.338168740272522,
-0.2207658290863037,
0.07440775632858276,
0.030918151140213013,
-0.10714066028594971,
0.39159584045410156,
-0.3924553096294403,
-0.11268126219511032,
1.067867398262024,
0.36280977725982666,
-0.18756960332393646,
-0.415050208568573,
-0.006437153555452824,
-0.6218059659004211,
-0.27602753043174744,
0.09583304077386856,
-0.6507673263549805,
-0.7108914852142334,
0.6409165263175964,
0.185466468334198,
-0.2769051790237427,
-0.5960453748703003,
0.28857532143592834,
0.2557660937309265,
0.46047183871269226,
-0.20718659460544586,
-0.388555109500885,
-0.4897308945655823,
-0.2241389900445938,
0.36684271693229675,
-0.19736529886722565,
-0.3042072355747223,
0.6076329350471497,
0.005392124410718679,
-0.06692399829626083,
0.5538696050643921,
0.22768256068229675,
-0.1709701120853424,
-0.27556154131889343,
-0.2643124759197235,
-0.38661789894104004,
0.05609884485602379,
0.28729379177093506,
0.4020504951477051,
0.39399173855781555,
-0.4932699203491211,
0.26400771737098694,
-0.554893434047699,
-0.11889660358428955,
-0.9659062623977661,
0.5189016461372375,
0.10562203079462051,
-0.6142545342445374,
-0.9208953380584717,
-0.4414135813713074,
0.047853175550699234,
0.3325888216495514,
-0.05315634235739708,
0.3199924826622009,
0.08588681370019913,
-0.3293021023273468,
-0.9583331942558289,
-0.1585049033164978,
0.3125734031200409,
-0.11626562476158142,
0.03819778561592102,
-0.09826597571372986,
-0.02414470911026001,
0.047468189150094986,
0.22523342072963715,
-0.21587195992469788,
0.5526745915412903,
0.08528652787208557,
-0.23434573411941528,
0.5975242257118225,
0.004498772323131561,
-0.33640623092651367,
0.0015939089935272932,
-0.43909144401550293,
-0.45168042182922363,
-0.15632447600364685,
-0.3597230017185211,
0.0017611744115129113,
0.062491971999406815,
-0.7929397821426392,
-0.44129642844200134,
0.3760809302330017,
-0.5892608761787415,
-0.4524618685245514,
0.3625873625278473,
-0.13762801885604858,
-0.3801853358745575,
-0.1951509416103363,
-0.9028202891349792,
0.43365663290023804,
0.0531587228178978,
-1.0231250524520874,
-0.24211759865283966,
-0.3188666105270386,
0.37249690294265747,
-0.423628568649292,
-0.06918853521347046,
-0.02524452842772007,
-0.028167670592665672,
-0.19746074080467224,
-0.034235868602991104,
-0.08158476650714874,
-0.8760980367660522,
-0.2810441255569458,
0.7353063225746155,
0.04295846074819565,
-0.382392555475235,
-0.6689424514770508,
0.24914251267910004,
-0.4915367662906647,
-0.14229288697242737,
-0.23774375021457672,
0.4985511898994446,
0.783416211605072,
-0.12704576551914215,
-0.43271392583847046,
0.603249728679657,
-0.32909464836120605,
-0.09268350154161453,
-0.5135250687599182,
0.006218453869223595,
0.4939008057117462,
-0.23634162545204163,
-0.25141167640686035,
0.2759127914905548,
-1.0779180526733398,
-0.27065178751945496,
0.06358642876148224,
0.07414032518863678,
1.06569504737854,
-0.3638746440410614,
-0.7009813785552979,
0.3856930434703827,
0.38680943846702576,
-0.29394492506980896,
-0.11720149964094162,
0.23284265398979187,
0.25418078899383545,
-0.15984433889389038,
-0.4364539682865143,
-0.9281895756721497,
0.028374571353197098,
-0.582804799079895,
-0.5661973357200623,
-0.5420128703117371,
-0.08832798898220062,
0.24395878612995148,
0.1790252923965454,
0.6879632472991943,
-0.3684801161289215,
-0.4883688688278198,
-0.11765552312135696,
0.12521308660507202,
0.6989626288414001,
-0.656109631061554,
-0.1901695281267166,
0.4480081796646118,
-0.3283044397830963,
0.012462141923606396,
0.2872385084629059,
0.9203770756721497,
1.0507268905639648,
0.21804119646549225,
-0.2590816915035248,
-0.49888354539871216,
-0.046861808747053146,
0.20890338718891144,
-0.07522524893283844,
0.15885759890079498,
0.20424200594425201,
0.27440088987350464,
-0.1929941475391388,
-1.0705162286758423,
-0.03360213711857796,
0.25502899289131165,
-0.3609711825847626,
0.08986221998929977,
0.5444730520248413,
0.1988283395767212,
0.1192147359251976,
-0.18265704810619354,
0.6486769318580627,
0.4104979932308197,
-0.07122958451509476,
0.19238467514514923,
0.21851961314678192,
-0.062324732542037964,
0.014477688819169998,
0.3351821303367615,
-0.1565130054950714,
-0.35397520661354065,
-0.5443004369735718,
-0.6198353171348572,
0.12873706221580505,
0.21073287725448608,
0.07681530714035034,
0.2934477925300598,
-0.7455013990402222,
0.8684864640235901,
-0.16498823463916779,
-1.1527729034423828,
-0.1335570514202118,
0.3068278431892395,
-1.0072864294052124,
-0.6061943173408508,
-0.9716352224349976,
0.2176751345396042,
-0.17659640312194824,
-0.026965176686644554,
0.14710871875286102,
-0.6702660322189331,
0.12758368253707886,
-0.0770803689956665,
0.1184101477265358,
-0.06514328718185425,
0.018801512196660042,
-0.487204909324646,
0.3906330466270447,
0.06468407064676285,
-0.33103635907173157,
-0.9961082935333252,
0.8056650161743164,
0.5094963312149048,
-0.0085978414863348,
0.8140053749084473,
0.21398772299289703,
-0.17200250923633575,
-0.08941708505153656,
-0.5903114676475525,
-0.03750006482005119,
0.2241254448890686,
-0.38857758045196533,
0.07029502838850021,
0.8127509355545044,
-0.7873541712760925,
-0.5802931189537048,
0.2941893935203552,
-0.5670732855796814,
0.2281832993030548,
-0.03703312575817108,
0.1301947832107544,
-0.049357593059539795,
0.3433719277381897,
-0.29524537920951843,
0.2916584312915802,
0.4177986681461334,
-0.14564676582813263,
0.35374829173088074,
-0.24650640785694122,
0.28634631633758545,
0.17474113404750824,
-0.40784019231796265,
-0.3473386764526367,
0.843619704246521,
-0.1223515123128891,
0.12028818577528,
0.2781413793563843,
-1.1716772317886353,
-0.41940104961395264,
-0.14739741384983063,
-0.12410547584295273,
1.1636121273040771,
-0.6747827529907227,
-0.19533748924732208,
-0.8338162899017334,
0.5173964500427246,
-0.03016757220029831,
0.4737544357776642,
-0.3788241744041443,
0.02463618479669094,
0.5253430008888245,
0.26345810294151306,
0.43618205189704895,
-0.6176202297210693,
0.18812726438045502,
0.6313401460647583,
1.0085567235946655,
0.11857150495052338,
-0.8254231214523315,
0.045793771743774414,
-0.027353739365935326,
0.26536059379577637,
1.019277811050415,
0.14470893144607544,
0.14869718253612518,
0.04164145514369011,
0.33927997946739197,
0.019182639196515083,
0.1671667993068695,
0.3105899393558502,
0.14023053646087646,
-0.5279187560081482,
0.32961252331733704,
0.07377216964960098,
0.15718917548656464,
0.5772393345832825,
0.3959701657295227,
-0.053541943430900574,
0.3827074468135834,
0.038968879729509354,
-0.48916319012641907,
-0.10394018888473511,
0.1586395502090454,
-0.35226067900657654,
0.3820153772830963,
-0.5149078965187073,
-0.4476417005062103,
0.04123071953654289,
-0.5852517485618591,
-0.6859331130981445,
-0.06133022531867027,
-0.3552570641040802,
-0.4037838876247406,
0.4910929799079895,
-1.111070990562439,
0.06287647783756256,
-0.01861509308218956,
0.8603796362876892,
0.20482516288757324,
-0.5974228978157043,
-0.2249438315629959,
0.4617339074611664,
-0.5846191048622131,
0.28195348381996155,
0.20824967324733734,
0.49406948685646057,
-0.20060297846794128,
0.342855304479599,
-1.2165427207946777,
0.3283133804798126,
-0.3962336480617523,
0.2412799447774887,
-0.3566645085811615,
0.35156866908073425,
0.10308292508125305,
0.40196484327316284,
0.24159711599349976,
-0.22919407486915588,
-0.3907924294471741,
0.27789461612701416,
0.2897697985172272,
0.23693391680717468,
-0.02862350456416607,
-0.5774298906326294,
-0.08130232989788055,
0.09786283224821091,
0.624781608581543,
-0.48151895403862,
-0.7843291163444519,
0.2839275300502777,
-0.08338315784931183,
0.02372695691883564,
-0.7849411964416504,
-0.6501567959785461,
0.12247307598590851,
-0.2208414524793625,
0.7440703511238098,
1.0850447416305542,
0.06748449057340622,
-0.293183833360672,
0.489452600479126,
0.44143009185791016,
0.6447625756263733,
0.32009148597717285,
0.523857057094574,
-0.3503689765930176,
-0.15789158642292023,
-0.1022774800658226,
-0.09360214322805405,
0.4981067478656769,
0.40944740176200867,
0.4058758318424225,
0.3588792085647583,
-0.7334594130516052,
0.27865293622016907,
-0.3449696898460388,
-0.239576056599617,
-0.22556187212467194,
0.521410346031189,
0.19712525606155396
] |
206026
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pele%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Pele (disambiguation)
|
Pelé is a Brazilian footballer, born Edison "Edson" Arantes do Nascimento in 1940.
Pele or Pelé may also refer to:
Film
Pele Eterno, 2004 documentary film about the Brazilian football player Pelé
Pelé: Birth of a Legend, 2016 film about the Brazilian football player Pelé
Music
Pele (American band)
Pele (English band)
Pelé (album), a 1977 soundtrack album by Sérgio Mendes for a documentary about the footballer's life
"Pelé", a song by Pólo Norte from the album Deixa o Mundo Girar
People
Pele (name), given name, surname and nickname
Pelé (footballer, born 1973), Macanese football midfielder of São Toméan descent
Pelé (footballer, born 1978), Cape Verdean-Portuguese football defender
Pelé (footballer, born 1987), Portuguese football midfielder
Pelé (footballer, born 1991), Portuguese football midfielder of Guinea-Bissau descent
Science and geography
Pele, the Hungarian name for Becheni village, Săuca Commune, Satu Mare County, Romania
2202 Pele, an asteroid
Pele Island, located in the Shefa Province in Vanuatu
Pele (Aegean island), an island in the Aegean Sea off modern Turkey
Pele (Cos), a town of ancient Cos, Greece
Pele (Thessaly), a town of ancient Thessaly, Greece
Pele (volcano), an active volcano on Jupiter's moon Io
Other uses
Pele (deity), the Fire Goddess, is the goddess of fire, lightning, wind and volcanoes and the creator of the Hawaiian Islands
See also
Pelee (disambiguation)
Pelle (disambiguation)
Boys for Pele, third album by American musician Tori Amos
Pele's hair, a form of lava
Peléan eruption, a type of volcanic eruption
Pele FC, an association football club from Guyana
Pelé's Soccer, a 1981 video game
Pele tower, small fortified keep along the English and Scottish Borders
Pelé dos Santos, character in the film The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou
|
[
0.02513543702661991,
0.17744939029216766,
-0.6870776414871216,
0.025704476982355118,
0.07207509130239487,
0.4906817376613617,
-0.11012854427099228,
-0.19023863971233368,
-0.14232470095157623,
-0.364887535572052,
0.7059472799301147,
-0.09866853058338165,
-0.6512941718101501,
0.016416313126683235,
0.06141350045800209,
-0.16139338910579681,
-0.17909766733646393,
0.30729469656944275,
0.09213820099830627,
-0.2969921827316284,
-0.755273699760437,
-0.2032550424337387,
0.30230391025543213,
-0.2727999985218048,
-0.42577239871025085,
-0.0688399001955986,
0.23175401985645294,
-0.0560433492064476,
-0.14337678253650665,
0.07305973768234253,
0.1936524659395218,
0.7204529047012329,
0.3170253038406372,
-0.4818774163722992,
-0.37504881620407104,
-0.23608341813087463,
0.23949475586414337,
-0.5348591804504395,
0.4980267286300659,
-0.3299720883369446,
-0.07107117027044296,
-0.18016882240772247,
-0.061940621584653854,
0.16389650106430054,
0.20579802989959717,
-0.22650067508220673,
-1.767421007156372,
-0.016271086409687996,
-0.6121492385864258,
0.16596674919128418,
-0.01568707637488842,
0.17744678258895874,
-0.10676918923854828,
0.6444485783576965,
0.1678430140018463,
-0.19520163536071777,
-0.767750084400177,
-0.22145147621631622,
0.18811997771263123,
-0.3575132489204407,
0.31138288974761963,
0.4832412302494049,
0.4680839478969574,
-0.19602660834789276,
0.41470783948898315,
0.36051145195961,
0.1508910059928894,
-0.1674768179655075,
0.10639362782239914,
-0.0073735471814870834,
-0.5752502679824829,
-0.1672818511724472,
-0.12356260418891907,
-0.23600545525550842,
0.3602208197116852,
-0.495082288980484,
0.06675056368112564,
0.5306556820869446,
0.3990122675895691,
0.6870567798614502,
0.07955006510019302,
0.005457580555230379,
0.32534611225128174,
-0.10398387163877487,
0.1340605616569519,
0.4369041621685028,
-0.5969197750091553,
-0.17393380403518677,
0.041453707963228226,
0.42217177152633667,
-0.30309009552001953,
-0.9480680823326111,
0.11594768613576889,
-0.1371592879295349,
-0.2786117196083069,
0.7035430669784546,
0.1801874339580536,
0.4313376545906067,
0.07922116667032242,
0.08022148162126541,
0.41748782992362976,
0.18200285732746124,
-0.13981260359287262,
0.10027746111154556,
-0.2330467402935028,
-0.33039140701293945,
-0.3103582262992859,
0.008119430392980576,
0.43087121844291687,
-0.31599870324134827,
-0.2726438045501709,
0.5096717476844788,
0.16626480221748352,
0.3663572669029236,
-0.16464093327522278,
0.19382131099700928,
0.662212610244751,
-0.2579112946987152,
-0.010365822352468967,
0.219288170337677,
-0.28209158778190613,
0.7166178226470947,
0.03833959996700287,
0.1646990329027176,
0.06555508077144623,
0.3133547306060791,
-0.016295254230499268,
0.09957998991012573,
-0.4724569618701935,
0.48133814334869385,
0.2804866135120392,
0.788535475730896,
0.10205249488353729,
-0.5860142111778259,
0.05265127867460251,
-0.5331164598464966,
0.21153473854064941,
0.40310704708099365,
-0.18589387834072113,
0.013939178548753262,
-0.8443717956542969,
0.35493436455726624,
-0.812146782875061,
0.3627893030643463,
0.15546920895576477,
-0.011791265569627285,
0.17519511282444,
-0.12108193337917328,
0.6024473905563354,
0.4257563352584839,
-0.2155711054801941,
-0.31360918283462524,
0.3657839000225067,
0.27492162585258484,
-0.9818446040153503,
-0.06728126108646393,
0.6606289744377136,
-0.6013500094413757,
0.2549560070037842,
-0.07820574194192886,
0.4179272949695587,
-0.005384583957493305,
-0.3384835720062256,
0.10071501135826111,
-0.07967860996723175,
-0.06085442751646042,
-0.03973369672894478,
-0.09992503374814987,
0.1803959757089615,
0.5251182317733765,
0.15195071697235107,
-0.4665576219558716,
0.16171787679195404,
-0.564012348651886,
-0.26354238390922546,
0.23260705173015594,
0.16373200714588165,
-0.12476395070552826,
0.043554965406656265,
-0.11338210105895996,
-0.5999098420143127,
-0.0718618705868721,
-0.10315029323101044,
-0.07519741356372833,
0.2232881486415863,
0.22509974241256714,
0.7554088234901428,
0.07932112365961075,
0.15386424958705902,
0.07100490480661392,
-0.15260396897792816,
-1.0262467861175537,
-0.014272828586399555,
-0.6559552550315857,
0.9790319800376892,
0.02429666928946972,
-0.40200021862983704,
-0.03221602365374565,
0.052261680364608765,
0.08258064836263657,
-0.21652191877365112,
-0.10678064823150635,
0.21688584983348846,
0.1739775836467743,
-0.9514977931976318,
0.9911378622055054,
0.5767803192138672,
0.48527875542640686,
0.2951119840145111,
0.40603598952293396,
0.6610276699066162,
0.03649527207016945,
0.1490076631307602,
-0.4543783664703369,
-0.06021208316087723,
-0.556147575378418,
0.061778366565704346,
-0.17156925797462463,
-0.06012911722064018,
-0.05435429885983467,
0.24408097565174103,
-0.2593926787376404,
0.06999175250530243,
0.6348831653594971,
0.3974127471446991,
0.9723636507987976,
0.3530501425266266,
-0.27571025490760803,
-0.030997514724731445,
-0.8662931323051453,
-0.008654906414449215,
0.4147871136665344,
0.460737407207489,
-0.21244919300079346,
0.17774613201618195,
-0.3070839047431946,
0.31818655133247375,
-0.9093571305274963,
-0.1365395337343216,
0.09500668197870255,
0.28005990386009216,
0.7002357840538025,
-0.2365928441286087,
0.11631674319505692,
0.12473705410957336,
0.20357024669647217,
-0.14576131105422974,
0.23260869085788727,
0.08352252840995789,
-0.390915185213089,
0.47477197647094727,
0.2215053290128708,
0.02554178796708584,
-0.1455242782831192,
0.1852060705423355,
-0.2569579482078552,
-0.06130605190992355,
-0.0319061242043972,
0.09190588444471359,
-0.43486079573631287,
-0.29451385140419006,
-0.4088118374347687,
0.4029659628868103,
0.7357802391052246,
0.24487937986850739,
-0.6676965951919556,
-0.15952350199222565,
-0.499517023563385,
-0.007449382450431585,
0.021762670949101448,
0.4255799353122711,
-0.061809152364730835,
-0.7009567022323608,
-0.521235466003418,
0.1668386459350586,
0.4662943184375763,
-0.800055742263794,
0.3104431629180908,
-0.974186897277832,
-0.5226879715919495,
0.41081008315086365,
0.4342087209224701,
-0.018069058656692505,
-0.7968457341194153,
0.26386287808418274,
0.07471711933612823,
0.2004130780696869,
-0.3164464235305786,
0.08286596089601517,
-0.41859033703804016,
0.0735892653465271,
0.31391915678977966,
-0.3913601040840149,
0.730563759803772,
0.515762448310852,
-0.29579442739486694,
-0.2606581747531891,
-0.2137385904788971,
0.3205248713493347,
-0.8295583724975586,
-0.13943396508693695,
0.17288196086883545,
-0.24240714311599731,
-0.3139299154281616,
0.580669105052948,
-0.19635255634784698,
0.2587589621543884,
-0.24718524515628815,
-5.896549701690674,
0.47242826223373413,
-0.28377944231033325,
0.5826324224472046,
-0.24569547176361084,
-0.18413665890693665,
0.560780942440033,
0.035016801208257675,
0.12419443577528,
-0.5923460721969604,
-0.04432119429111481,
0.2050817906856537,
0.27183377742767334,
0.7333737015724182,
0.31912338733673096,
1.0105952024459839,
0.28163018822669983,
-0.11096089333295822,
-0.07058128714561462,
-0.2276303619146347,
-0.14209643006324768,
0.5861859917640686,
-0.2760773301124573,
0.4521942138671875,
0.12996792793273926,
0.04398108646273613,
-0.675916850566864,
0.18112388253211975,
-1.0500692129135132,
-0.18970996141433716,
0.10285355150699615,
0.0074339066632092,
-0.10412171483039856,
-0.023959260433912277,
-0.3412127196788788,
-0.08552379161119461,
0.5104944705963135,
-0.13319306075572968,
-0.16880591213703156,
0.1558467596769333,
-0.6774105429649353,
0.1490253210067749,
-0.3413541615009308,
0.14988373219966888,
-0.3113934099674225,
-0.24233998358249664,
-0.5416216254234314,
-0.25776207447052,
-0.0521245002746582,
0.15802212059497833,
-0.14889951050281525,
-0.44163504242897034,
0.16639141738414764,
0.03480834886431694,
0.4615817964076996,
-0.04285036027431488,
0.35311391949653625,
-0.24467812478542328,
-0.7869260311126709,
0.5826438069343567,
0.23332954943180084,
0.048227760940790176,
0.3040054142475128,
-0.6504485011100769,
-0.09225229173898697,
-0.7252752184867859,
0.2953048348426819,
-0.5184082388877869,
0.5353764891624451,
0.004685635678470135,
-0.25887155532836914,
0.872525691986084,
-0.17627839744091034,
-0.8752602934837341,
0.3075406849384308,
0.14428897202014923,
-0.40040597319602966,
0.09806167334318161,
-0.1723746508359909,
-0.37200066447257996,
-0.13099639117717743,
-0.3510356545448303,
-0.055395714938640594,
0.6413130164146423,
0.40302422642707825,
0.6242986917495728,
-0.4039745032787323,
-0.06033620983362198,
0.043835800141096115,
0.3904292583465576,
0.7358375787734985,
-0.36151090264320374,
0.16221177577972412,
0.2206643968820572,
0.005762830376625061,
0.34680473804473877,
-0.18238982558250427,
0.15193773806095123,
0.46110570430755615,
0.11838101595640182,
-0.044067054986953735,
-0.00824503879994154,
-0.42553743720054626,
-0.20326076447963715,
0.05749979987740517,
-0.09034409373998642,
-0.12279659509658813,
0.15826347470283508,
0.21982669830322266,
-0.03725317865610123,
0.7145557999610901,
0.015673814341425896,
-0.832275927066803,
-0.247853621840477,
0.32142752408981323,
0.10856306552886963,
0.21873876452445984,
0.03994916379451752,
0.3338533341884613,
-0.2089606523513794,
0.32947877049446106,
-0.01430006604641676,
0.2251197099685669,
-1.4006587266921997,
-0.6015574932098389,
0.00785341951996088,
-0.17833809554576874,
0.532802402973175,
-0.09074635058641434,
0.15380360186100006,
-0.5750852823257446,
0.6452775001525879,
-0.12690673768520355,
-0.41238462924957275,
0.1562691181898117,
-0.4814496636390686,
-0.17136232554912567,
-0.5310256481170654,
0.36657771468162537,
-0.6783826947212219,
-0.32458165287971497,
-0.28163301944732666,
0.029307331889867783,
-0.2056768834590912,
0.5442463159561157,
0.09934953600168228,
-0.3416741192340851,
-0.20208121836185455,
-0.9612888097763062,
0.6841261386871338,
0.46918705105781555,
-0.7778777480125427,
0.3332831859588623,
-0.5945395231246948,
-0.7456973791122437,
0.0014910546597093344,
0.010065597482025623,
0.07757607847452164,
-0.28084757924079895,
-0.1250104010105133,
0.3819180727005005,
-0.013931048102676868,
-0.8811051249504089,
0.3947460949420929,
0.4038671553134918,
-0.0036831169854849577,
-0.4291278123855591,
-0.366580069065094,
-0.49957695603370667,
0.4115660786628723,
0.1359677016735077,
-0.9710573554039001,
-0.4494301974773407,
-0.1458941549062729,
0.3589721918106079,
-0.1047932356595993,
-0.33786866068840027,
0.7016900777816772,
0.3630344867706299,
-0.32350021600723267,
-0.1659088432788849,
0.264475017786026,
-0.4097782373428345,
0.16816510260105133,
0.6377421617507935,
-0.23647378385066986,
0.04236917570233345,
-0.48627200722694397,
-0.553931713104248,
-0.13788415491580963,
-0.132613405585289,
0.8472478985786438,
0.4750523269176483,
0.4442640542984009,
-0.1906261146068573,
-0.5670269131660461,
-0.06493256986141205,
-0.12951965630054474,
-0.3395635783672333,
-0.18914221227169037,
-0.3086494505405426,
-0.06938298046588898,
-0.30075669288635254,
0.034061696380376816,
0.32944291830062866,
-0.8109365701675415,
0.19968077540397644,
0.262333482503891,
-0.6160638928413391,
0.3139770030975342,
-0.37392592430114746,
-1.1005398035049438,
0.18558351695537567,
0.5515830516815186,
-0.29206907749176025,
-0.19690370559692383,
0.4685996472835541,
0.45564812421798706,
-0.9444420337677002,
-0.27903109788894653,
0.14927442371845245,
-0.05908574163913727,
-0.763373851776123,
-0.18191833794116974,
-0.2617361843585968,
0.29454025626182556,
0.6419292092323303,
-0.1195782944560051,
0.3416587710380554,
-0.016655728220939636,
-0.034586627036333084,
0.22444649040699005,
0.504760205745697,
-0.0031835054978728294,
-0.45271164178848267,
0.17779158055782318,
0.15187408030033112,
0.2811468541622162,
0.13025222718715668,
-0.07087970525026321,
0.5597929358482361,
0.3534873127937317,
0.2928050756454468,
-0.2926344871520996,
0.17609119415283203,
0.4949425756931305,
0.24247942864894867,
-0.37122270464897156,
-0.49112215638160706,
0.3760052025318146,
-0.073325015604496,
-0.16515471041202545,
-0.5748199820518494,
-0.05227957293391228,
0.7369616627693176,
0.14648838341236115,
-0.3585267961025238,
0.13190896809101105,
0.4081977903842926,
0.274924099445343,
0.0870048999786377,
0.11366933584213257,
-0.4109433591365814,
0.0959966853260994,
-0.02101016417145729,
0.38843783736228943,
0.41477400064468384,
0.14067628979682922,
0.49350646138191223,
-0.5087286233901978,
-0.43043988943099976,
0.00868589524179697,
0.14356397092342377,
0.7881813049316406,
-0.1643584817647934,
-0.5345252156257629,
0.6217983961105347,
0.24617347121238708,
0.1826106309890747,
-0.3730952739715576,
-0.49405670166015625,
0.14886611700057983,
0.24316193163394928,
-0.04456578195095062,
0.08080966025590897,
0.20124267041683197,
-0.37570419907569885,
-0.06473098695278168,
0.12204313278198242,
0.0868605300784111,
0.003946382086724043,
-0.15053053200244904,
-0.3814038932323456,
-0.2075994312763214,
0.14537730813026428,
-0.24634334444999695,
-0.4082328975200653,
0.04874498397111893,
-0.09627779573202133,
-0.36592432856559753,
-0.2480452060699463,
0.9198992252349854,
0.38945865631103516,
0.1183982640504837,
-0.10186503827571869,
-0.021335747092962265,
0.2658729553222656,
-0.193672776222229,
-0.33642053604125977,
0.3717382550239563,
0.26081204414367676,
-0.05864250659942627,
0.16097939014434814,
0.5051184296607971,
-0.4299357235431671,
-0.3155136704444885,
-0.006419277749955654,
0.24460086226463318,
-0.1956646591424942,
0.4921456277370453,
-0.28983497619628906,
-0.9273747205734253,
0.6526666879653931,
0.06214817613363266,
0.06774747371673584,
0.17428328096866608,
-0.08686413615942001,
-0.17338907718658447,
-0.10541422665119171,
0.21745622158050537,
0.49082857370376587,
0.024428142234683037,
-0.1167130246758461,
0.18888075649738312,
0.11616130918264389,
-0.23298312723636627,
0.22802118957042694,
-0.3753659129142761,
-0.2844267785549164,
0.5804997682571411,
0.5060447454452515,
0.4313836991786957,
0.05824920907616615,
0.1829734444618225,
0.13693027198314667,
0.02660733088850975,
-0.0529852956533432,
0.4685765206813812,
0.3099842667579651,
0.09611620008945465,
0.07054363936185837,
0.06381742656230927,
0.1587429791688919,
-0.4514364004135132,
-0.5218076705932617,
-0.27616772055625916,
0.45473843812942505,
-0.17459169030189514,
-0.2810133695602417,
0.24829506874084473,
-0.09550386667251587,
0.06391371786594391,
-0.22250410914421082,
0.3795478940010071,
-0.09831379354000092,
0.11233872920274734,
0.1286107301712036,
-0.416561484336853,
0.09373635798692703,
0.10140500962734222,
0.2564980089664459,
-0.2977687120437622,
-0.56471848487854,
0.9411320686340332,
0.20564612746238708,
-0.19811716675758362,
0.1436489075422287,
0.33792611956596375,
0.06228777393698692,
0.3007586598396301,
-0.03831842914223671,
0.5501173138618469,
-0.37220755219459534,
0.5184869170188904,
-0.09470143914222717,
-0.6229811906814575,
0.16439011693000793,
0.4132995903491974,
-0.027211857959628105,
-0.0044288537465035915,
-0.32364028692245483,
-0.7619105577468872,
-0.2689903676509857,
0.07948896288871765,
-0.46490082144737244,
-0.12401271611452103,
-0.6964482665061951,
0.9476064443588257,
0.565943717956543,
-0.07388165593147278,
-0.09908290207386017,
0.035512253642082214,
-0.31875479221343994,
-0.11318716406822205,
0.18447570502758026,
-0.05741935595870018,
-0.4062862694263458,
0.36239394545555115,
-0.5147837996482849,
0.7964102625846863,
0.349874347448349,
0.28633224964141846,
-0.2743978500366211,
0.34866270422935486,
0.19649246335029602,
0.002083815401419997,
-0.45425406098365784,
-0.5565832257270813,
-0.47029414772987366,
-0.034501802176237106,
0.4974060654640198,
-0.38946080207824707,
-0.25311875343322754,
0.21955133974552155,
-0.059783920645713806,
0.048638492822647095,
0.14488255977630615,
0.10678170621395111,
-0.3160671889781952,
0.22438916563987732,
-0.28608572483062744,
0.48554202914237976,
-0.5088609457015991,
-0.42865046858787537,
-0.5237647294998169,
-0.6196334362030029,
0.435340940952301,
0.42408812046051025,
-0.06797344237565994,
-0.16973818838596344,
0.40254470705986023,
0.3478035628795624,
0.25638970732688904,
0.439914345741272,
-0.33577561378479004,
-0.2944904863834381,
-0.3911494016647339,
0.07599970698356628,
-0.0055100517347455025,
0.4151359796524048,
0.66743004322052,
0.4681370258331299,
0.43038061261177063,
-0.048926446586847305,
0.3363378942012787,
-0.2298409640789032,
-0.10314217209815979,
-0.37159237265586853,
0.5297210812568665,
0.14537960290908813
] |
206027
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpocrates
|
Carpocrates
|
Carpocrates of Alexandria was the founder of an early Gnostic sect from the first half of the 2nd century. As with many Gnostic sects, one knows of the Carpocratians only through the writings of the Church Fathers, principally Irenaeus of Lyons and Clement of Alexandria. As these writers strongly opposed Gnostic doctrine, there is a question of negative bias when using this source. While the various references to the Carpocratians differ in some details, they agree as to the libertinism of the sect, a charge commonly levied by pagans against Christians and conversely by Christians against pagans and heretics.
Irenaeus
The earliest and most vivid account of Carpocrates and his followers comes from Irenaeus (died 202) in his Against Heresies including an account of the theology and practice of the sect.
They believe, he writes, that Jesus was not divine; but because his soul was "steadfast and pure", he "remembered those things which he had witnessed within the sphere of the unbegotten God" (similar to Plato's concept of Anamnesis). Because of this, Jesus was able to free himself from the material powers (what other Gnostics call Archons, the Demiurge, etc.). Carpocratians believed they themselves could transcend the material realm, and therefore were no longer bound by Mosaic law, which was based on the material powers, or by any other morality, which, they held, was mere human opinion. Irenaeus offers this belief as an explanation of their licentious behaviour.
Irenaeus then goes on to provide his further, slightly different, explanation. The followers of Carpocrates, he says, believed that in order to leave this world, one's imprisoned eternal soul must pass through every possible condition of earthly life. Moreover, it is possible to do this within one lifetime. As a result, the Carpocratians did "all those things which we dare not either speak or hear of" so that when they died, they would not be compelled to incarnate again but would return to God. (Borges depicts a fictional sect with this belief in his short story "The Theologians".)
Irenaeus says that they practised various magical arts as well as leading a licentious life. He also says that they possessed a portrait of Christ, a painting they claimed had been made by Pontius Pilate during his lifetime, which they honoured along with images of Plato, Pythagoras and Aristotle "in the manner of the Gentiles".
Some early Christian authors opposed representational art, and statues and portraits and sculptures are crude and stylised. According to Robin Lane Fox: "Only one group of early Christians, the heretical Carpocratians, are known to have owned portraits of Christ". However, early Christian art from the early third century depicting Jesus is widespread and cannot be limited only to the Carpocratians. Furthermore, the fact that depictions of Jesus are mentioned by multiple early Christian authors, whether in a positive or negative manner, is an indication that these depictions were popular enough to be noticed and must have received the acceptance of some Christian authorities. Moreover, Christianity is rooted in Judaism, which generally forbids religious depictions, and the reluctance of some authors to accept depictions of Jesus could be ascribed to the Jewish roots of Christianity rather than to any non-Jewish Christian doctrine.
Clement
Carpocrates is also mentioned by Clement of Alexandria in his Stromateis. Clement quotes extensively from On Righteousness which he says was written by Epiphanes, Carpocrates' son. No copy outside of Clement's citation exists, but the writing is of a strongly antinomian bent. It claims that differences in class and the ownership of property are unnatural, and argues for property and women to be held in common. Clement insists on the alleged licentiousness of the Carpocratians, claiming that at their Agape (meaning an early Christian gathering) they "have intercourse where they will and with whom they will".
According to Clement, Carpocrates was from Alexandria although his sect was primarily located in Cephallenia.
Carpocrates is again mentioned in the controversial Mar Saba letter (also called To Theodore), purportedly also by Clement of Alexandria, which was discovered by Morton Smith while cataloging books at the Monastery of Mar Saba in 1958. This document was examined by several other scholars in the preceding decades, including Quentin Quesnell. The letter details how Carpocrates obtained the copy of Secret Gospel of Mark:But since the foul demons are always devising destruction for the race of men, Carpocrates, instructed by them and using deceitful arts, so enslaved a certain presbyter of the church in Alexandria that he got from him a copy of the secret Gospel, which he both interpreted according to his blasphemous and carnal doctrine and, moreover, polluted, mixing with the spotless and holy words utterly shameless lies. From this mixture is drawn off the teaching of the Carpocratians. The letter mentions and quotes from the previously unknown Secret Mark, focusing on the episode where Jesus brings a youth back from the dead. The letter's writer (perhaps Clement) tells Theodore that the secret version of Mark does not contain references to "the many other [things about] which you wrote" including the specific phrase "naked with naked."
Miscellaneous references
Other references to Carpocrates exist but are likely to be based on the two already cited.
Epiphanius of Salamis writes that
Carpocrates is also mentioned by Tertullian and Hippolytus, both of whom seem to rely on Irenaeus; and also perhaps by Origen and Hegesippus.
Søren Kierkegaard mentioned them in his 1844 book, The Concept of Anxiety:
See also
Borborites
Cainites
Ebionites
Epiphanes (gnostic)
Fathers of Christian Gnosticism
Gnosticism
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
Salome (disciple)
References
External links
Irenaeus, Against Heresies Book i.xxv
Clement, Stromateis Book iii.ii
Carpocrates and the Carpocratians (New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia)
2nd-century Christian theologians
Gnostics
|
[
0.04774957150220871,
0.890863835811615,
-1.222781777381897,
0.2984592616558075,
-0.548880934715271,
1.3078984022140503,
0.5252199769020081,
0.7171379327774048,
-0.566441535949707,
-0.07724650949239731,
0.1093514934182167,
0.061799488961696625,
-0.6736372709274292,
0.3805338144302368,
0.1775072067975998,
-0.30272820591926575,
-0.21429292857646942,
0.2713218629360199,
-0.506746768951416,
-0.031723752617836,
0.18473681807518005,
-0.15503539144992828,
0.44646593928337097,
-0.11791588366031647,
0.07636547833681107,
0.17647987604141235,
-0.4091412127017975,
-0.4187483787536621,
-0.3727850914001465,
-0.3516944348812103,
0.09227675199508667,
0.6548087000846863,
-0.2115659862756729,
-0.8432172536849976,
-0.48566874861717224,
-0.19731655716896057,
0.19182106852531433,
0.5552266836166382,
0.30892354249954224,
-0.4149361848831177,
0.3276061415672302,
0.11914698779582977,
0.6280683875083923,
-0.14694525301456451,
-0.3193821310997009,
-0.02193126641213894,
-1.3593765497207642,
0.009573027491569519,
-0.6513050198554993,
-0.8755012154579163,
-0.01824791170656681,
0.10182008892297745,
-0.226936936378479,
0.7533005475997925,
-0.3065290153026581,
1.3005555868148804,
-1.372962236404419,
-0.6560793519020081,
0.3224784731864929,
0.24724319577217102,
0.5267254114151001,
0.11638841032981873,
-0.06178668886423111,
0.4062960743904114,
0.5488568544387817,
0.23040856420993805,
-0.38654616475105286,
1.0515451431274414,
0.011380748823285103,
-0.19290219247341156,
-0.5172021389007568,
-0.07628149539232254,
-0.6448621153831482,
0.8984149098396301,
-0.20174607634544373,
-0.9031455516815186,
0.23774553835391998,
0.10059389472007751,
0.44158777594566345,
-0.16659052670001984,
0.19543315470218658,
0.5707825422286987,
0.9028326272964478,
0.24490515887737274,
-0.3091462254524231,
0.07962765544652939,
0.1458550989627838,
0.0486498698592186,
-0.22637373208999634,
-0.1946008801460266,
-0.07104260474443436,
-0.0805586650967598,
0.7949560880661011,
-0.01126263290643692,
-0.26459836959838867,
0.08349820971488953,
-0.2492908537387848,
-0.03369200602173805,
-0.3789900243282318,
-0.31679096817970276,
-0.4771435558795929,
0.04912183806300163,
-0.31904634833335876,
-0.19027745723724365,
0.2873990833759308,
0.1494133025407791,
0.2659969627857208,
-0.004501579329371452,
-0.38595426082611084,
0.37051504850387573,
0.22113047540187836,
0.6213050484657288,
-0.533466637134552,
0.13747058808803558,
-0.09542185813188553,
0.23949742317199707,
0.18770049512386322,
-1.256603479385376,
-0.8409915566444397,
-0.5386757254600525,
0.15580937266349792,
0.7851657271385193,
0.1844213306903839,
0.08475058525800705,
-0.6828107833862305,
-0.3461668789386749,
0.49548423290252686,
0.5922566056251526,
-0.5966419577598572,
0.2009287029504776,
0.08598470687866211,
0.8823623657226562,
-0.39201655983924866,
-0.4528500735759735,
-0.0954626128077507,
0.04796987771987915,
-0.13511717319488525,
0.3265543580055237,
-0.23107406497001648,
0.40955808758735657,
-0.11984705924987793,
-0.49935173988342285,
-0.6091092228889465,
0.3068622350692749,
-0.07075965404510498,
-0.5706923604011536,
0.5156318545341492,
-0.08312522619962692,
-0.01145162247121334,
-0.16237202286720276,
-0.30267199873924255,
0.0027734420727938414,
0.6535342931747437,
0.012841371819376945,
0.2846097946166992,
0.025586865842342377,
0.8445186614990234,
0.4349219501018524,
0.1971689760684967,
0.204438254237175,
0.3754851520061493,
-0.2914375066757202,
-0.4401610195636749,
-0.16813139617443085,
0.1957489550113678,
-0.07743406295776367,
0.5008007884025574,
-0.7300924062728882,
0.4929596483707428,
-0.1578788012266159,
-0.5555374622344971,
-0.12184622138738632,
0.17687708139419556,
-0.10919981449842453,
0.22966700792312622,
-0.42324239015579224,
0.6858952045440674,
0.8816235065460205,
0.11380574852228165,
-0.5494545698165894,
-0.5952795743942261,
0.007984928786754608,
-0.6174513697624207,
-0.4445634186267853,
1.0016553401947021,
-0.17720986902713776,
0.7568222284317017,
0.19865210354328156,
-0.33489954471588135,
-0.5563370585441589,
-0.7927694320678711,
-0.435952365398407,
-0.6439927220344543,
-0.30736881494522095,
1.5045969486236572,
0.04994766786694527,
-0.8905928134918213,
0.23319761455059052,
0.3137669265270233,
0.7545925974845886,
-0.30619654059410095,
-0.35318538546562195,
-0.2721814513206482,
-0.24979209899902344,
-0.48434215784072876,
0.5758768320083618,
0.03320394828915596,
0.09093356132507324,
0.9317691922187805,
0.6739903688430786,
0.3670470714569092,
0.03429523855447769,
0.0026984948199242353,
-0.32308146357536316,
-0.6411169171333313,
0.5854620933532715,
-0.09154351055622101,
0.48022663593292236,
-0.4177096486091614,
-0.4672228991985321,
0.5743891596794128,
-0.40172696113586426,
-0.11142519116401672,
0.10407523810863495,
-0.7218736410140991,
0.44568562507629395,
0.051213059574365616,
-0.21620650589466095,
-0.3198128044605255,
-0.8750855326652527,
0.3523705005645752,
0.2598016858100891,
0.009462970308959484,
0.14225028455257416,
-0.39505884051322937,
-0.47008275985717773,
-0.16952520608901978,
-1.074902892112732,
0.5957373976707458,
-0.39228400588035583,
0.412567675113678,
-0.16154028475284576,
-0.5132619738578796,
0.05240603908896446,
0.40212711691856384,
0.31339412927627563,
0.0859014168381691,
-0.37028709053993225,
-0.2749798893928528,
0.20357131958007812,
-0.4325372874736786,
0.2791714072227478,
0.04778169095516205,
-0.2861520051956177,
0.3299221396446228,
-0.11130865663290024,
0.5273053646087646,
0.43689706921577454,
0.5792422294616699,
-0.4787079989910126,
-0.003922676667571068,
-0.049800463020801544,
0.33817481994628906,
0.25105732679367065,
0.4756968915462494,
-0.329836905002594,
0.25561559200286865,
-0.31513604521751404,
-0.2024773210287094,
-0.4054716229438782,
0.5663307905197144,
-0.2603776454925537,
-0.467821329832077,
0.4553670287132263,
0.6251980662345886,
-0.20301374793052673,
-0.3662576377391815,
0.0902252048254013,
0.15919709205627441,
-0.7028486132621765,
-0.5692317485809326,
0.6878973841667175,
-0.39452269673347473,
0.013174151070415974,
-0.3556067943572998,
-0.03973257541656494,
-0.3370940089225769,
-0.6518396735191345,
0.12732097506523132,
-0.20043107867240906,
0.2990841567516327,
-0.23591312766075134,
0.035996921360492706,
0.18730665743350983,
0.13637195527553558,
1.0272290706634521,
-0.1451585441827774,
-0.1680166870355606,
0.3333747982978821,
-0.3907039165496826,
-0.6748372912406921,
0.5145758390426636,
-0.012907911092042923,
0.48987480998039246,
0.5695568919181824,
-0.28000420331954956,
-0.25882959365844727,
-0.0306785237044096,
-5.153733253479004,
0.0030562016181647778,
-0.41292691230773926,
-0.44035372138023376,
0.3439609706401825,
0.5148491263389587,
0.5074072480201721,
-0.1281023621559143,
0.021820737048983574,
0.10733433067798615,
0.25325247645378113,
0.048721231520175934,
-0.24949322640895844,
0.461112380027771,
0.8581472635269165,
0.9291865825653076,
0.3779158294200897,
-0.39901745319366455,
-0.33447232842445374,
0.07445675134658813,
0.10592326521873474,
-0.13434991240501404,
-0.5451220870018005,
0.739090085029602,
0.23200373351573944,
-0.11709744483232498,
-0.35626059770584106,
0.5081656575202942,
-0.6911706328392029,
0.6524832844734192,
0.30753082036972046,
-0.03919262811541557,
0.002016637707129121,
-0.043134741485118866,
-0.4067752957344055,
0.08126403391361237,
0.7972707152366638,
0.19407498836517334,
0.47896015644073486,
0.0056282831355929375,
-0.8000591993331909,
-0.5415215492248535,
-0.030916301533579826,
0.11121895164251328,
0.2475663274526596,
0.04771651327610016,
-0.13222475349903107,
-0.029051780700683594,
-0.5054615139961243,
0.5424321889877319,
0.3263002038002014,
-0.12738794088363647,
0.10279283672571182,
0.5892083644866943,
0.29827556014060974,
-0.15375152230262756,
0.3653852641582489,
0.5216382741928101,
-0.24290472269058228,
0.22973240911960602,
0.6443368196487427,
-0.3608742952346802,
-0.20296774804592133,
-0.2459774911403656,
0.39947929978370667,
-0.43888622522354126,
-0.22744962573051453,
-0.17980845272541046,
-0.7830853462219238,
0.16051025688648224,
-0.8960725665092468,
0.738977313041687,
-0.3025844693183899,
-1.0516964197158813,
-0.08822968602180481,
-0.2991635501384735,
-0.6355525851249695,
0.3137112259864807,
0.031082652509212494,
0.12240584194660187,
-0.2312191277742386,
-0.9703823328018188,
0.03464293107390404,
0.6153519749641418,
0.6588549017906189,
0.6847693920135498,
0.1672050803899765,
-0.23409149050712585,
-0.7637272477149963,
-0.6094426512718201,
0.657485842704773,
-0.2803477942943573,
0.09220337867736816,
0.6663513779640198,
-0.5142306089401245,
0.5917637944221497,
-0.8509188294410706,
0.24945810437202454,
1.086850881576538,
0.502403736114502,
0.0818418562412262,
0.3823796212673187,
-0.4088095724582672,
0.22869130969047546,
-0.2671125829219818,
-0.7066642045974731,
-0.5036661028862,
0.4191288650035858,
0.020901883020997047,
-0.07882876694202423,
0.06939192861318588,
0.0016720264684408903,
-0.505445659160614,
0.2244916707277298,
0.08195248246192932,
0.3484424650669098,
0.4023144245147705,
0.7930728197097778,
0.4823223650455475,
0.336668998003006,
-0.15562675893306732,
0.606530487537384,
-0.298520565032959,
-0.5933764576911926,
-0.21915292739868164,
-0.21493539214134216,
0.38643646240234375,
-0.07367298007011414,
-0.5379288792610168,
0.06599743664264679,
0.39349183440208435,
-0.3415532112121582,
0.2524963915348053,
0.47588109970092773,
-0.20748579502105713,
-0.3985576331615448,
0.06724616885185242,
-0.6611649990081787,
-0.07753900438547134,
0.17251931130886078,
-0.5891234874725342,
0.02810235694050789,
-0.36320438981056213,
0.4706724286079407,
0.01747838594019413,
0.3694884479045868,
-0.04277724400162697,
-0.22248345613479614,
-0.1459125280380249,
0.4949847161769867,
-0.2256830483675003,
-0.2826788127422333,
1.1284326314926147,
-0.1549973487854004,
0.2476578950881958,
0.18307706713676453,
0.0580245777964592,
0.36410394310951233,
-0.3529134690761566,
-0.21410495042800903,
-0.25989335775375366,
-0.3501007556915283,
-0.7465935349464417,
-0.32351750135421753,
0.011445385403931141,
-0.051464248448610306,
-0.09881943464279175,
-0.989706814289093,
0.235792875289917,
0.350446492433548,
0.3957479000091553,
0.3060426115989685,
-0.14839565753936768,
0.021479226648807526,
0.7081652283668518,
-0.011138055473566055,
-0.12385214120149612,
0.048513200134038925,
-0.19785073399543762,
-0.14508792757987976,
-0.05266144126653671,
-0.03033461607992649,
-0.08500923216342926,
-0.42344585061073303,
0.44765543937683105,
-0.06853925436735153,
-0.7610816359519958,
-1.2156459093093872,
-0.7860330939292908,
0.22536301612854004,
-0.4329669177532196,
0.3311854600906372,
-0.6314399838447571,
0.5677022933959961,
0.12754660844802856,
-0.41635385155677795,
0.031554147601127625,
-0.32024136185646057,
-0.14447909593582153,
-0.3319430947303772,
-0.6815779209136963,
0.3544747233390808,
-0.33042383193969727,
0.06421516835689545,
-0.1985192745923996,
-0.5246244072914124,
0.37985166907310486,
-0.19721347093582153,
-0.25333476066589355,
0.24580764770507812,
-0.5852423310279846,
0.034677229821681976,
-0.3210374116897583,
0.39580419659614563,
-0.30841687321662903,
0.5086552500724792,
0.08245829492807388,
-0.07144004106521606,
-0.18397419154644012,
-0.30751925706863403,
-0.0067962040193378925,
-0.3478447198867798,
-0.10398270189762115,
-0.7266475558280945,
0.02113393135368824,
0.7593222856521606,
0.5507121682167053,
-0.5641858577728271,
0.3484145998954773,
-0.20301787555217743,
-0.36733579635620117,
-0.06510936468839645,
0.06493967026472092,
-0.4343012273311615,
-0.28190064430236816,
-0.011125999502837658,
0.6031131148338318,
0.1104331836104393,
-0.6318773627281189,
-0.3229404389858246,
0.15534576773643494,
0.4904133081436157,
0.0240018330514431,
-0.26162922382354736,
0.1271858513355255,
0.13777577877044678,
0.1344265192747116,
-0.22802016139030457,
0.06988203525543213,
-0.4999658465385437,
0.3726440370082855,
-0.2782708406448364,
-0.5015878081321716,
-0.935667097568512,
0.31176531314849854,
-0.5471837520599365,
-0.3039405941963196,
0.14516232907772064,
0.1572428047657013,
-0.4416618347167969,
0.5904818177223206,
0.08537213504314423,
-0.1587233990430832,
-0.3480067551136017,
-0.3440820276737213,
0.2444479763507843,
0.2608419358730316,
-0.021599678322672844,
0.2714163064956665,
-0.3110373616218567,
-0.38202816247940063,
-0.7944830060005188,
-0.0720631405711174,
0.5329307317733765,
0.04465612769126892,
0.18521805107593536,
-0.17281194031238556,
-0.3527207374572754,
0.5610778331756592,
-0.0374787300825119,
-1.2190099954605103,
0.27841588854789734,
-0.2116115391254425,
0.3821929395198822,
0.3652063012123108,
-0.8957257270812988,
-0.3242146074771881,
-0.03219727799296379,
0.24570538103580475,
0.029424581676721573,
-0.4865466058254242,
0.09461502730846405,
0.2794855535030365,
0.14245052635669708,
-0.07675587385892868,
0.4594228267669678,
-0.7431732416152954,
0.2680281102657318,
-0.3498499393463135,
-0.3634270131587982,
-0.9128280878067017,
0.3782998025417328,
0.8509344458580017,
-0.417788028717041,
-0.010415328666567802,
0.7644250988960266,
0.07300679385662079,
0.6776820421218872,
0.025641731917858124,
0.22077806293964386,
0.03904204070568085,
-0.5654051899909973,
0.1838100105524063,
-0.24128474295139313,
-0.4950880706310272,
-0.7727966904640198,
1.3126850128173828,
-0.37933585047721863,
0.08796767890453339,
0.4588104486465454,
-0.13331572711467743,
-0.001055308384820819,
0.4899745583534241,
-0.19659532606601715,
-0.08737099915742874,
0.11143776029348373,
-0.5741742253303528,
0.27109697461128235,
-0.2972034811973572,
0.3452460765838623,
0.4963828921318054,
-0.2187054306268692,
-0.46626320481300354,
0.7978282570838928,
-0.07875967770814896,
-0.4216746687889099,
0.1857847273349762,
-0.5114427804946899,
0.0323956161737442,
0.37262922525405884,
0.5219746232032776,
0.7253149747848511,
-0.34815266728401184,
0.3363117575645447,
-0.5314328670501709,
1.078534483909607,
-0.3490910530090332,
-0.4256613552570343,
0.007820062339305878,
0.06318394839763641,
0.7412430644035339,
0.4062444269657135,
0.11777975410223007,
0.17834977805614471,
0.11786255985498428,
-0.2261766642332077,
0.46975260972976685,
0.7018424868583679,
-0.29175469279289246,
-0.06531432271003723,
0.2754237949848175,
-0.0064776199869811535,
1.1642578840255737,
-0.6406586170196533,
-0.46308088302612305,
0.6651674509048462,
-0.21935990452766418,
-0.8198840618133545,
-0.12413869798183441,
0.34374070167541504,
-0.2046913355588913,
0.056728214025497437,
-0.36934715509414673,
0.45877063274383545,
0.6402252316474915,
0.042535364627838135,
0.7640518546104431,
0.12011424452066422,
0.1488591879606247,
0.38220611214637756,
-0.2802577018737793,
-0.40592190623283386,
-0.45413267612457275,
-0.5518537759780884,
0.3302806615829468,
0.6002324223518372,
0.3784642517566681,
0.14906837046146393,
-0.6035683751106262,
-0.1772378385066986,
0.208632230758667,
-0.17240199446678162,
0.5946720242500305,
-0.3178474009037018,
-0.6530115604400635,
-0.029850685968995094,
-0.00629801070317626,
0.8329142332077026,
-0.49101391434669495,
-0.5120306015014648,
0.3729156255722046,
-0.46751368045806885,
0.25246262550354004,
0.4520394802093506,
-0.0010690201306715608,
0.2665068507194519,
-0.20024031400680542,
0.0032635051757097244,
-0.934349000453949,
0.574452817440033,
0.07875674962997437,
0.3955738842487335,
0.014914593659341335,
-0.09805572777986526,
-0.22472675144672394,
-0.20290468633174896,
0.45999494194984436,
-0.4753704369068146,
0.1580306589603424,
-0.02967112325131893,
0.08950841426849365,
0.3210766315460205,
-0.21554549038410187,
0.7769620418548584,
-0.49789947271347046,
0.11303305625915527,
0.04591894894838333,
0.49237388372421265,
-0.44248974323272705,
0.20375469326972961,
0.15423403680324554,
0.07913096249103546,
-0.857753336429596,
-0.19560478627681732,
0.20910856127738953,
-0.9666003584861755,
0.6823697686195374,
0.25963518023490906,
0.10415640473365784,
-0.6795532703399658,
0.6556921601295471,
-0.06881482154130936,
0.18546561896800995,
-0.12825599312782288,
0.5115211606025696,
-0.022947149351239204,
-0.7325596213340759,
-0.4175434410572052,
0.058615732938051224,
1.2962217330932617,
0.7617567777633667,
0.042864035815000534,
0.23947881162166595,
-0.203401580452919,
0.07075931131839752,
-0.14398251473903656,
0.6860814094543457,
-0.5084855556488037,
0.9865685105323792,
0.3193129599094391
] |
206029
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Rand
|
Paul Rand
|
Paul Rand (born Peretz Rosenbaum; August 15, 1914 – November 26, 1996) was an American art director and graphic designer, best known for his corporate logo designs, including the logos for IBM, UPS, Enron, Morningstar, Inc., Westinghouse, ABC, and NeXT. He was one of the first American commercial artists to embrace and practice the Swiss Style of graphic design.
Rand was a professor emeritus of graphic design at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut where he taught from 1956 to 1969, and from 1974 to 1985. He was inducted into the New York Art Directors Club Hall of Fame in 1972.
Early life and education
Paul Rand was born Peretz Rosenbaum on August 15, 1914 in Brooklyn, New York. He embraced design at a very young age, painting signs for his father's grocery store as well as for school events at P.S. 109. Rand's father did not believe art could provide his son with a sufficient livelihood, and so he required Paul to attend Manhattan's Haaren High School while taking night classes at the Pratt Institute. Rand was largely "self-taught" as a designer, learning about the works of Cassandre and Moholy-Nagy from European magazines such as Gebrauchsgraphik." Rand also attended Parsons The New School for Design and the Art Students League of New York.
Early career
His career began with humble assignments, starting with a part-time position creating stock images for a syndicate that supplied graphics to various newspapers and magazines. Between his class assignments and his work, Rand was able to amass a fairly large portfolio, largely influenced by the German advertising style Sachplakat (object poster) as well as the works of Gustav Jensen. It was around this time that he decided to camouflage the overtly Jewish identity conveyed by his name, Peretz Rosenbaum, shortening his forename to 'Paul' and taking 'Rand' from an uncle to form a Madison Avenue-friendly surname. Morris Wyszogrod, a friend and associate of Rand, noted that "he figured that 'Paul Rand,' four letters here, four letters there, would create a nice symbol. So he became Paul Rand." Roy R. Behrens notes the importance of this new title: "Rand's new persona, which served as the brand name for his many accomplishments, was the first corporate identity he created, and it may also eventually prove to be the most enduring." Indeed, Rand was rapidly moving into the forefront of his profession.
In his early twenties, he was producing work that began to garner international acclaim, notably his designs on the covers of Direction magazine, which Rand produced for no fee in exchange for full artistic freedom. Among the accolades Rand received were those of László Moholy-Nagy:
The reputation Rand so rapidly amassed in his prodigious twenties never dissipated; rather, it only managed to increase through the years as his influential works and writings firmly established him as the éminence grise of his profession.
Although Rand was most famous for the corporate logos he created in the 1950s and 1960s, his early work in page design was the initial source of his reputation. In 1936, Rand was given the job of setting the page layout for an Apparel Arts (now GQ) magazine anniversary issue. "His remarkable talent for transforming mundane photographs into dynamic compositions, which ... gave editorial weight to the page" earned Rand a full-time job, as well as an offer to take over as art director for the Esquire-Coronet magazines. Initially, Rand refused this offer, claiming that he was not yet at the level the job required, but a year later he decided to go ahead with it, taking over responsibility for Esquire's fashion pages at the young age of twenty-three.
The cover art for Direction magazine proved to be an important step in the development of the "Paul Rand look" that was not as yet fully developed. The December 1940 cover, which uses barbed wire to present the magazine as both a war-torn gift and a crucifix, is indicative of the artistic freedom Rand enjoyed at Direction; in Thoughts on Design Rand notes that it "is significant that the crucifix, aside from its religious implications, is a demonstration of pure plastic form as well ... a perfect union of the aggressive vertical (male) and the passive horizontal (female)."
Corporate identities
Rand's most widely known contributions to design are his corporate identities, many of which are still in use. IBM, ABC, Cummins Engine, UPS, and Enron, among many others, owe Rand their graphical heritage. One of his strengths, as Moholy-Nagy pointed out, was his ability as a salesman to explain the needs his identities would address for the corporation. According to graphic designer Louis Danziger:
Rand's defining corporate identity was his IBM logo in 1956, which as Mark Favermann notes "was not just an identity but a basic design philosophy which permeated corporate consciousness and public awareness." The logo was modified by Rand in 1960. The striped logo was created in 1972. The stripes were introduced as a half-toning technique to make the IBM mark slightly less heavy and more dynamic. Two variations of the "striped" logo were designed; one with eight stripes, one with thirteen stripes. The bolder mark with eight stripes was intended as the company's default logo, while the more delicate thirteen stripe version was used for situations where a more refined look was required, such as IBM executive stationery and business cards. Rand also designed packaging, marketing materials and assorted communications for IBM from the late 1950s until the late 1990s, including the well known Eye-Bee-M poster. Although Ford appointed Rand in the 1960s to redesign their corporate logo, it refused to use his modernized design anyway.
Although the logos may be interpreted as simplistic, Rand was quick to point out in A Designer's Art that "ideas do not need to be esoteric to be original or exciting." His Westinghouse trademark, created in 1960, epitomizes that ideal of minimalism while proving Rand's point that a logo "cannot survive unless it is designed with the utmost simplicity and restraint." Rand remained vital as he aged, continuing to produce important corporate identities into the eighties and nineties with a rumored $100,000 price per single design. The most notable of his later works was his collaboration with Steve Jobs for the NeXT Computer corporate identity; Rand's simple black box breaks the company name into two lines, producing a visual harmony that endeared the logogram to Jobs. Jobs was pleased; just prior to Rand's death in 1996, his former client labeled him "the greatest living graphic designer."
Later years
Rand devoted his final years to design work and the writing of his memoirs. In 1996, he died of cancer at age 82 in Norwalk, Connecticut. He is buried in Beth El Cemetery.
Influences and other works
Development of theory
Though Rand was a recluse in his creative process, doing the vast majority of the design load despite having a large staff at varying points in his career, he was very interested in producing books of theory to illuminate his philosophies. László Moholy-Nagy may have incited Rand's zeal for knowledge when he asked his colleague, at their first meeting, if he read art criticism. Rand said no, prompting Moholy-Nagy to reply "Pity." Steven Heller elaborates on this meeting's impact, noting; "from that moment on, Rand devoured books by the leading philosophers on art, including Roger Fry, Alfred North Whitehead, and John Dewey." These theoreticians would have a lasting impression on Rand's work; in a 1995 interview with Michael Kroeger discussing, among other topics, the importance of Dewey's Art as Experience, Rand elaborates on Dewey's appeal:
Dewey is an important source for Rand's underlying sentiment in graphic design; on page one of Rand's groundbreaking Thoughts on Design, the author begins drawing lines from Dewey's philosophy to the need for "functional-aesthetic perfection" in modern art. Among the ideas Rand pushed in Thoughts on Design was the practice of creating graphic works capable of retaining recognizable quality even after being blurred or mutilated, a test Rand routinely performed on his corporate identities.
Criticism
During Rand's later career, he became increasingly agitated about the rise of postmodernist theory and aesthetic in design. In 1992, Rand resigned his position at Yale in protest of the appointment of postmodern and feminist designer Sheila Levrant de Bretteville, and convinced his colleague Armin Hofmann to do the same. In justification of his resignation, Rand penned the article "Confusion and Chaos: The Seduction of Contemporary Graphic Design," in which he denounced the postmodern movement as "faddish and frivolous" and "harbor[ing] its own built-in boredom".
Despite the importance graphic designers place on his book Thoughts on Design, subsequent works such as From Lascaux to Brooklyn (1996), compounded accusations of Rand being "reactionary and hostile to new ideas about design." Steven Heller defends Rand's later ideas, calling the designer "an enemy of mediocrity, a radical modernist" while Favermann considers the period one of "a reactionary, angry old man." Regardless of this dispute, Rand's contribution to modern graphic design theory in total is widely considered intrinsic to the profession's development.
Modernist influences
The core ideology that drove Rand's career, and hence his lasting influence, was the modernist philosophy he so revered. He celebrated the works of artists from Paul Cézanne to Jan Tschichold, and constantly attempted to draw the connections between their creative output and significant applications in graphic design. In A Designer's Art Rand clearly demonstrates his appreciation for the underlying connections:
Bibliography
References
Further reading
External links
Misawa Lecture by Paul Rand from MIT Media Laboratory
Guide to the Paul Rand Papers at Yale University Library
Rand collection at Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum
American graphic designers
1914 births
1996 deaths
Jewish American artists
AIGA medalists
People from Brooklyn
Design writers
Logo designers
Deaths from cancer in Connecticut
Haaren High School alumni
20th-century American Jews
|
[
0.340629518032074,
0.38665804266929626,
-0.5178069472312927,
0.28997230529785156,
0.39639002084732056,
0.43777328729629517,
-0.3400923013687134,
0.36434462666511536,
-0.2308303266763687,
-0.38746577501296997,
-0.3724340498447418,
0.2544581890106201,
-0.09450116753578186,
0.354184091091156,
-0.21565839648246765,
-0.4295538067817688,
-0.3581642806529999,
0.35932284593582153,
-0.5082473158836365,
-0.11338652670383453,
-0.8783188462257385,
-0.16851066052913666,
0.4374995231628418,
-0.09579068422317505,
-0.2577002942562103,
0.4551057815551758,
-0.4052870273590088,
-0.5757936239242554,
0.08201546967029572,
1.0170410871505737,
0.457438588142395,
0.40101659297943115,
0.23812800645828247,
0.03839550539851189,
-0.7211378812789917,
-0.3462876081466675,
-0.43689799308776855,
-0.006356335710734129,
-0.09793730825185776,
-0.24010728299617767,
-0.2824316918849945,
-0.19109098613262177,
0.2818767726421356,
-0.40393519401550293,
-0.22890865802764893,
-0.4696333706378937,
-1.6884511709213257,
0.06423917412757874,
-1.0523995161056519,
0.12337987124919891,
-0.615552544593811,
0.2336607128381729,
-0.32695895433425903,
-0.07619905471801758,
-0.1146911233663559,
0.569983720779419,
0.05509381368756294,
0.29191136360168457,
-0.17932911217212677,
-0.46055230498313904,
0.6129584312438965,
-0.5829493403434753,
0.2640683948993683,
0.19313819706439972,
0.47539713978767395,
0.06853900104761124,
0.45143774151802063,
0.10594528913497925,
-0.1143932119011879,
-0.19038747251033783,
-0.49569228291511536,
-0.032014429569244385,
0.03555789962410927,
-0.3519832193851471,
0.267590194940567,
-0.050837863236665726,
-0.030338993296027184,
0.057364411652088165,
-0.2624635696411133,
0.30790263414382935,
0.018131166696548462,
0.10565584897994995,
0.673102617263794,
0.5056912899017334,
-0.22193577885627747,
-0.2234356850385666,
-0.4977898597717285,
0.3004879355430603,
0.11500388383865356,
0.5710276365280151,
-0.4628449082374573,
-0.6706207990646362,
0.8199831247329712,
-0.21784263849258423,
-0.5144141316413879,
-0.4878953993320465,
-0.32649627327919006,
0.3543339967727661,
0.21087446808815002,
-0.7952349185943604,
-0.13936355710029602,
-0.3242528736591339,
0.3148760199546814,
-0.17288193106651306,
-0.27352601289749146,
0.2925785779953003,
0.1583700329065323,
-0.4399887025356293,
0.10239105671644211,
-0.01174810342490673,
-0.4910520613193512,
-0.2981356382369995,
0.18093355000019073,
0.15832044184207916,
-0.004305583890527487,
0.7289807796478271,
0.07925325632095337,
-0.708234965801239,
-0.5497874021530151,
-0.18161974847316742,
0.2783222794532776,
0.426211416721344,
-0.004846782423555851,
-0.22704404592514038,
-0.164093017578125,
-0.02774490788578987,
-0.18670427799224854,
-0.013922522775828838,
-0.5540813207626343,
-0.1811475306749344,
-0.1241198256611824,
0.7447889447212219,
-0.3673558533191681,
-0.20585766434669495,
-0.5175736546516418,
0.04126007482409477,
0.12818321585655212,
-0.3305087983608246,
-0.29083558917045593,
0.5222491025924683,
-0.23583093285560608,
0.20741206407546997,
-0.20397789776325226,
-0.186928391456604,
0.32873037457466125,
-0.36325597763061523,
0.8747894763946533,
-0.3332922160625458,
-0.19976790249347687,
-0.3230311870574951,
0.055191174149513245,
-0.8700835704803467,
-0.13389526307582855,
0.003201043466106057,
0.34653276205062866,
0.2506720721721649,
0.8039559125900269,
0.15430906414985657,
0.176266148686409,
-0.3178098499774933,
0.1136019378900528,
0.33690720796585083,
-0.2992570996284485,
0.5153740048408508,
0.3628504276275635,
-0.2315179854631424,
-0.19837450981140137,
-0.6515906453132629,
-0.401989221572876,
0.221602201461792,
0.3488306701183319,
-0.29340001940727234,
0.5292786359786987,
0.28386086225509644,
0.09791195392608643,
0.700886070728302,
1.0150476694107056,
0.43943795561790466,
0.5434746742248535,
-0.13435831665992737,
-0.4025408625602722,
0.10157822072505951,
0.35887232422828674,
0.09027131646871567,
0.4906092882156372,
-0.3187136650085449,
0.019763905555009842,
-0.5711039304733276,
0.5176984667778015,
0.04468065872788429,
-1.121060848236084,
-0.637399435043335,
-0.2112286239862442,
-0.4541390836238861,
0.3407343327999115,
0.026359498500823975,
-0.3881289064884186,
0.345590740442276,
-0.08953411132097244,
0.35263505578041077,
-0.2644222676753998,
-0.23270592093467712,
0.36896389722824097,
-0.3119443655014038,
-0.10588140040636063,
0.43509915471076965,
0.6022839546203613,
-0.2565714120864868,
-0.5110082626342773,
0.7279180288314819,
0.2621725797653198,
-0.4775291681289673,
0.5301799774169922,
0.3595468997955322,
-0.11038962006568909,
-0.5626246333122253,
-0.388590544462204,
-0.36796748638153076,
-0.45745041966438293,
-0.4364161789417267,
0.798294186592102,
0.2620677649974823,
-0.1619962900876999,
0.45697158575057983,
0.3883287310600281,
0.30869153141975403,
0.11225913465023041,
-0.6249673366546631,
0.030955031514167786,
0.07730468362569809,
0.2089184671640396,
-0.05897926166653633,
0.7560197114944458,
-0.5566332340240479,
0.18350286781787872,
-0.0177043117582798,
0.01618081144988537,
-0.17675624787807465,
0.5205951929092407,
-0.6376241445541382,
0.3254750967025757,
-0.08787201344966888,
-0.6594099998474121,
0.3093661963939667,
0.3952869474887848,
-0.11471579223871231,
-0.324561208486557,
0.03978101164102554,
0.11836488544940948,
0.05675116553902626,
0.023034274578094482,
0.4966569244861603,
-0.015825366601347923,
-0.09700063616037369,
-0.4312577545642853,
0.19079574942588806,
0.1251394897699356,
-0.024066757410764694,
0.6830421090126038,
0.1548357903957367,
0.0004503070958890021,
-0.2364831268787384,
-0.23847828805446625,
0.23439869284629822,
0.026410385966300964,
-0.3486842215061188,
0.12674172222614288,
-0.2437867969274521,
0.1873313933610916,
0.1512172967195511,
0.3091036081314087,
-0.18729858100414276,
-0.5202031135559082,
0.21411900222301483,
0.6060205101966858,
-0.6696299910545349,
-0.06517099589109421,
-0.1362803429365158,
-0.19433565437793732,
-0.4268745481967926,
0.8954163789749146,
0.7410381436347961,
-0.30928340554237366,
-0.5201379656791687,
0.5237320065498352,
-0.38211262226104736,
-0.16047246754169464,
0.05807482823729515,
-0.09809466451406479,
-0.26065725088119507,
-0.2985703647136688,
0.7789158225059509,
-0.7385852932929993,
0.17099405825138092,
-0.1886514276266098,
0.8359740376472473,
0.32651904225349426,
-0.13391567766666412,
-0.025286784395575523,
-0.24993351101875305,
0.3323386013507843,
0.0711989775300026,
0.23256441950798035,
-0.20486630499362946,
0.7241881489753723,
0.08025810867547989,
0.42993053793907166,
-0.6157101988792419,
-5.57565975189209,
0.2684442400932312,
-0.00010820719762705266,
-0.3328302502632141,
-0.5167078971862793,
-0.1502833068370819,
0.06725800782442093,
0.3048008382320404,
0.6724548935890198,
-1.0845115184783936,
-0.24674580991268158,
-0.38238829374313354,
-0.292427659034729,
0.5628184676170349,
-0.23387528955936432,
0.7633615732192993,
0.6516013145446777,
0.053363144397735596,
0.20607030391693115,
0.4452587068080902,
0.3687731623649597,
-0.8398522734642029,
-0.08511220663785934,
0.2742518186569214,
-0.08970583975315094,
0.07807493209838867,
-0.6479238867759705,
0.2744525074958801,
-0.6146107316017151,
-0.3105887472629547,
-0.012235376983880997,
-0.4836125075817108,
-0.43977090716362,
0.3125040829181671,
0.22474128007888794,
-0.5039559602737427,
0.3480609953403473,
-0.2727581560611725,
0.40919527411460876,
0.05000621825456619,
0.5558241605758667,
0.589654266834259,
-0.4652625620365143,
-0.019515985623002052,
0.44852572679519653,
0.15553061664104462,
-0.37244829535484314,
-0.431331068277359,
-0.07271066308021545,
0.048970211297273636,
0.2842133641242981,
0.6705313324928284,
0.23107902705669403,
-0.4361708462238312,
-0.015067795291543007,
0.29028478264808655,
-0.15321914851665497,
0.31258657574653625,
-0.9365306496620178,
0.345450758934021,
0.08633681386709213,
-0.1106368750333786,
0.0734279528260231,
-0.24434544146060944,
0.07393485307693481,
-0.7742212414741516,
-0.10721942782402039,
-0.04276863485574722,
0.10671550035476685,
-0.41216060519218445,
0.18878957629203796,
1.1305712461471558,
0.24998120963573456,
-1.1067548990249634,
-0.17257234454154968,
-0.44834691286087036,
0.40608593821525574,
0.1268252432346344,
-0.3664351999759674,
-0.029074519872665405,
-0.42520102858543396,
-0.38538309931755066,
-0.39042502641677856,
0.5970591306686401,
0.22679239511489868,
-0.1819334179162979,
-0.6006551384925842,
1.1261159181594849,
-0.2699480354785919,
0.6673736572265625,
1.0972795486450195,
0.2316044718027115,
0.37749844789505005,
-0.01765465922653675,
0.4719768762588501,
-0.18592052161693573,
0.15591289103031158,
0.5120276212692261,
0.2646610736846924,
0.23868845403194427,
-0.8690033555030823,
0.09428418427705765,
-0.014915557578206062,
-0.7375780344009399,
0.010498671792447567,
0.25261422991752625,
0.11046086996793747,
-0.5014689564704895,
0.80962073802948,
0.5063562393188477,
-0.07118569314479828,
-0.0702669620513916,
-0.63602614402771,
-0.16692198812961578,
0.5347771048545837,
-0.2512488067150116,
-0.21114914119243622,
0.4465740919113159,
0.25822004675865173,
0.07542281597852707,
0.041248541325330734,
0.20099447667598724,
-0.36791306734085083,
-0.08420473337173462,
-0.10478264093399048,
-0.47264906764030457,
-0.24512724578380585,
-0.09475237876176834,
0.5847859382629395,
0.18375931680202484,
-0.1647452563047409,
0.959101676940918,
0.07142616808414459,
0.20709264278411865,
0.38754892349243164,
0.39668893814086914,
-0.33388465642929077,
-0.8243404626846313,
-0.6811433434486389,
0.11585412174463272,
0.06252771615982056,
0.43484094738960266,
0.8884707689285278,
0.1110510304570198,
0.09088601917028427,
0.03228778764605522,
0.14302140474319458,
-0.1380326896905899,
0.4827769696712494,
0.6212928891181946,
-0.058972712606191635,
0.12278082221746445,
-0.1334177702665329,
-0.29972225427627563,
-0.584601640701294,
0.051528532058000565,
-0.4799506962299347,
-0.523149847984314,
-0.4476650655269623,
0.43849751353263855,
0.490949422121048,
-0.13617835938930511,
-1.1205418109893799,
-0.3180457055568695,
0.014592481777071953,
0.6670388579368591,
-0.037751417607069016,
-0.7142854928970337,
-0.12404947727918625,
0.6357677578926086,
0.2120305746793747,
-0.10509387403726578,
-0.20747822523117065,
-0.44703561067581177,
-0.023400507867336273,
0.3894250988960266,
-0.05200517177581787,
-0.5631099343299866,
0.2483402043581009,
0.4685070812702179,
0.13507835566997528,
-0.28784632682800293,
-0.8971886038780212,
0.30463093519210815,
0.09144070744514465,
-0.6257079243659973,
-0.6334807872772217,
0.2823598086833954,
-0.5907366871833801,
-0.29953116178512573,
-0.24321810901165009,
-0.8979151844978333,
0.41033339500427246,
0.6798329949378967,
-0.4977998435497284,
0.024948151782155037,
-0.3199441432952881,
-0.027312899008393288,
0.03969922289252281,
-0.41775622963905334,
-0.801628589630127,
0.14531010389328003,
-0.6840251684188843,
-0.2877149283885956,
-0.47617313265800476,
-0.7819206118583679,
0.14012347161769867,
0.1821211278438568,
0.2718428671360016,
0.7360292077064514,
-0.6094920039176941,
-0.1205768808722496,
-0.23261697590351105,
0.10017649084329605,
-0.04499724134802818,
0.19442719221115112,
0.08699454367160797,
-0.0628945380449295,
-0.20572592318058014,
-0.4573003053665161,
0.21070517599582672,
0.1461002677679062,
-0.8110184669494629,
0.06989843398332596,
-0.22987957298755646,
0.059059832245111465,
0.19196009635925293,
0.43078556656837463,
0.2611684799194336,
-0.30144378542900085,
-0.0905304029583931,
0.08386124670505524,
-0.19595324993133545,
0.5287306308746338,
0.2516389787197113,
-0.08079126477241516,
0.43981045484542847,
0.3500891625881195,
0.37842312455177307,
-0.11910038441419601,
-0.15340812504291534,
0.3053049147129059,
0.08333484083414078,
0.1343289315700531,
0.2761453092098236,
0.39955416321754456,
0.8049871325492859,
0.012585537508130074,
-0.2931573688983917,
0.6595131158828735,
0.4341048002243042,
-0.583786129951477,
-0.43356361985206604,
-0.0011438397923484445,
0.6352542042732239,
-0.343713641166687,
-0.08609136939048767,
-0.04644637182354927,
-0.22044242918491364,
-0.6003100872039795,
-0.11759700626134872,
0.8320195078849792,
-0.33607184886932373,
0.2156304121017456,
-0.36891064047813416,
1.1884673833847046,
-0.44650033116340637,
-0.021484944969415665,
0.18834924697875977,
-0.5272473692893982,
0.5011130571365356,
0.41245439648628235,
-0.34813153743743896,
0.6358806490898132,
-0.09143465012311935,
0.25937411189079285,
0.19576190412044525,
-0.08273366093635559,
-0.18937954306602478,
-0.8190762400627136,
-0.732168436050415,
0.5520904660224915,
0.30407294631004333,
-0.11865147203207016,
0.26347729563713074,
-1.0548679828643799,
-0.17923018336296082,
-0.14791691303253174,
-0.29555395245552063,
0.10783462226390839,
-0.32089731097221375,
0.3261754512786865,
-0.30925318598747253,
-0.3175748288631439,
-1.2266991138458252,
-0.4143933951854706,
0.537217378616333,
0.6939271092414856,
-0.262130469083786,
0.20511586964130402,
-0.08312829583883286,
0.19644713401794434,
0.46669286489486694,
0.19094878435134888,
0.1664801836013794,
0.4639030694961548,
-0.5720248222351074,
-0.5983024835586548,
-0.4183506667613983,
0.05011983960866928,
-0.11714325100183487,
-0.6465041637420654,
0.16495279967784882,
0.3814534544944763,
-1.1094368696212769,
0.1918269395828247,
0.5879864692687988,
-0.21550390124320984,
-0.16265493631362915,
0.07689075171947479,
0.21039922535419464,
0.24123235046863556,
0.18234995007514954,
-0.6112556457519531,
-0.13381901383399963,
0.6281461119651794,
0.23407134413719177,
0.21410082280635834,
0.02324848622083664,
0.5521581768989563,
-0.013608205132186413,
-0.04326651245355606,
-0.44050225615501404,
-0.07043886929750443,
-0.1849367320537567,
-0.2759978771209717,
-0.13718627393245697,
-0.5146547555923462,
0.296315997838974,
0.3867030441761017,
0.1660773605108261,
0.8418630361557007,
0.2570852041244507,
0.10193899273872375,
-0.30765748023986816,
-0.3037966787815094,
0.08732539415359497,
0.46424219012260437,
-0.22782279551029205,
-0.12363405525684357,
-0.06524406373500824,
-0.23438984155654907,
-0.3937353491783142,
0.15411704778671265,
0.42575132846832275,
-0.6146641373634338,
0.15965048968791962,
0.36138463020324707,
0.135587677359581,
0.23221006989479065,
-0.35249942541122437,
-0.22887066006660461,
0.7624462842941284,
-0.3159387707710266,
-0.4430318772792816,
0.26983240246772766,
0.2706158459186554,
-0.7274563908576965,
0.162515327334404,
0.08963368833065033,
-0.012636479921638966,
0.026465456932783127,
-0.14541704952716827,
0.3682052791118622,
-0.02276412397623062,
0.46914148330688477,
0.8470394611358643,
0.16169583797454834,
0.07244538515806198,
0.24367588758468628,
-0.7851632237434387,
0.05106024071574211,
-0.1796790212392807,
-0.06936503946781158,
-0.10555952042341232,
0.19897551834583282,
-0.09502331167459488,
0.29926061630249023,
-0.061994727700948715,
-0.22857153415679932,
0.28246957063674927,
-0.6222100257873535,
-0.05732865259051323,
0.2331005185842514,
0.586459755897522,
0.4773910939693451,
-0.4096967875957489,
1.0351227521896362,
0.22487607598304749,
0.4818117916584015,
0.12180808931589127,
-0.11769537627696991,
0.25138917565345764,
0.23377291858196259,
0.05223046615719795,
-0.14548836648464203,
0.0729966014623642,
-0.1677878051996231,
-0.2799864709377289,
0.28663504123687744,
-0.3191642165184021,
-0.21483421325683594,
-0.2987819015979767,
0.7065964341163635,
-0.4228801131248474,
0.05206187814474106,
0.826475977897644,
0.2634953558444977,
-0.1885281503200531,
-0.2318289428949356,
0.28341951966285706,
-0.19500230252742767,
0.08604881912469864,
0.44968780875205994,
-0.3191170394420624,
0.41621920466423035,
0.2957233488559723,
0.2425117790699005,
-0.09395631402730942,
0.5208210349082947,
-0.2966482639312744,
-0.08555896580219269,
-0.6123851537704468,
0.03261220455169678,
-0.8677569627761841,
-0.4631841480731964,
0.639161229133606,
0.5759884715080261,
0.45214858651161194,
-0.8035785555839539,
0.5411120653152466,
0.2487155944108963,
0.03593038022518158,
-0.25983452796936035,
-0.04924100264906883,
0.40730470418930054,
-0.1539134830236435,
-0.17538559436798096,
0.19091229140758514,
0.5103725790977478,
-0.35446199774742126,
-0.5420291423797607,
0.5009478330612183,
0.13978922367095947,
0.833441436290741,
0.04167863354086876,
0.1491008698940277,
0.2437000572681427,
0.5712070465087891,
-0.4440215528011322
] |
206030
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaxxon
|
Zaxxon
|
is an isometric shooter arcade game, developed and released by Sega in 1981, in which the player pilots a ship through heavily defended space fortresses. Japanese electronics company Ikegami Tsushinki is also credited for having worked on the development of the game.
Zaxxon was the first game to employ axonometric projection, which lent its name to the game (AXXON from AXONometric projection). The type of axonometric projection is isometric projection: this effect simulates three dimensions from a third-person viewpoint. It was also the first arcade game to be advertised on television, with a commercial produced by Paramount Pictures for $150,000. The game was a critical and commercial success upon release, becoming one of the top five highest-grossing arcade games of 1982 in the United States. Sega followed it with the arcade sequel Super Zaxxon (1982) and the isometric platformer Congo Bongo (1983).
Gameplay
The objective of the game is to hit as many targets as possible without being shot down or running out of fuel—which can be replenished, paradoxically, by blowing up fuel drums (300 points). There are two fortresses to fly through, with an outer space segment between them. At the end of the second fortress is a boss in the form of the Zaxxon robot.
The player's ship casts a shadow to indicate its height. An altimeter is also displayed; in space there is nothing for the ship to cast a shadow on. The walls at the entrance and exit of each fortress have openings that the ship must be at the right altitude to pass through. Within each fortress are additional walls that the ship's shadow and altimeter aid in flying over successfully.
The game is controlled by a four-directional joystick. On arcade cabinets this is an aircraft-type stick with a molded hand grip. Pushing forward makes the player's aircraft lower in altitude and pulling back makes it rise. The aircraft cannot move forward or backward; it flies at constant speed. As this sort of control and movement was not common in video games, the arcade cabinets have illustrations around the joystick to indicate the effect of each position on the aircraft.
Ports
Between 1982 and 1985, Zaxxon was ported to the Apple II, Atari 8-bit family, Atari 2600, Atari 5200, MSX, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Dragon 32, ColecoVision, Intellivision, IBM PC compatibles, Sega SG-1000, TRS-80 Color Computer, and TRS-80. The Atari 2600 and Intellivision ports use a third-person, behind-the-ship perspective instead of the isometric graphics of the other versions.
Reception
Commercial
The arcade game was a major commercial success in North America. Zaxxon reached the top of the monthly US RePlay arcade charts in June 1982. The Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA) later listed it among the top six highest-grossing arcade games of 1982 in the United States.
It was not as successful in Japan, where it did not appear on the annual Game Machine lists of top twenty highest-grossing arcade games in 1981 or 1982. Game Machine later listed Zaxxon in their June 1, 1983 issue as the eighth top-grossing table arcade cabinet of the month.
The ColecoVision version was also commercially successful. Zaxxon was Coleco's best-selling non-bundled cartridge for the ColecoVision up until 1983.
The home computer ports were commercially successful in North America and Europe. II Computing listed Zaxxon fourth on its list of top Apple II games as of late 1985, based on sales and market-share data. U.S. Gold's home computer version of Zaxxon was ranked number-two on the UK software sales chart in early 1985.
Reviews
The arcade game was well received upon release. David Cohen in his book Video Games praised the "incredible three-dimensional realism" in the graphics, which he considered the best in a video game to date, while describing the gameplay as "a mixture of driving and zap game." Computer and Video Games praised the game for being "at the frontier of a third dimension in arcade games" and for its "realistic" altitude-based gameplay for the time.
Video Games in 1983 called the ColecoVision version of Zaxxon a "coup for this new system". Video magazine also praised the ColecoVision version in its "Arcade Alley" column, describing it as "one of the most thrilling games available", and noting in passing that the only "serious criticism" of the arcade original was that "many players felt they needed flying lessons to have even a ghost of a chance of performing well". K-Power rated the Color Computer version with 8 points out of 10. The magazine praised its "excellent three-dimensional graphics", and concluded that "Zaxxon is a game that can't be praised enough".
Softline in 1983 called the Atari 8-bit version "a superb three-dimensional computer game ... Not since Choplifter has a game looked so impressive". The magazine also liked the graphics of the Apple II and TRS-80 versions despite those computers' hardware limitations, and predicted that Zaxxon would be a "long-lived bestseller". In 1984 the magazine's readers named the game the fifth most-popular Apple program, the worst Apple program, and third-worst Atari program of 1983.
Accolades
At the 1982 Arcade Awards, the arcade game received a Certificate of Merit as runner-up for Best Science Fiction/Fantasy Coin-Op Game. At the 1983 Arcade Awards, the console cartridge conversion received a Certificate of Merit as runner-up for Videogame of the Year. At the 1984 Arkie Awards, the dedicated console version was awarded Stand-Alone Game of the Year, while the home computer conversion received a Certificate of Merit as runner-up for Computer Game of the Year. In January 1985, Electronic Games magazine included Zaxxon in its Hall of Fame.
Legacy
Re-releases
Zaxxon is a bonus game in the Sega Genesis Collection for the PlayStation 2. It is also an unlockable arcade game in Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. The arcade version was released on the Wii Virtual Console in Japan on December 15, 2009, the PAL region on March 5, 2010, and North America on April 12, 2010. In 2022, the original arcade version will be included as part of the Sega Astro City Mini V, a vertically-oriented variant of the Sega Astro City mini console.
Sequels
Zaxxon was followed by an arcade sequel: Super Zaxxon. It was released in November 1982. The color scheme is different, the player's ship flies faster (making the game more difficult), and the robot at the end of the second fortress is replaced by a dragon. It did not do as well as the original. Super Zaxxon topped the US RePlay arcade chart for software conversion kits in July 1983.
In 1987 Zaxxon 3-D was released for the Master System. This console variation makes use of the 3-D glasses add-on. As with the Atari 2600 and Intellivision ports, it is forward-scrolling rather than isometric.
Zaxxon's Motherbase 2000 was released for the Sega 32X in 1995. It is the first Zaxxon game to incorporate polygon graphics. The game bore the Zaxxon brand only in the United States, as the Japanese version was named Parasquad and the European version was named Motherbase. U.S. gaming critics generally remarked that the game was not similar enough to Zaxxon to justify the use of the brand.
Zaxxon Escape was released on October 4, 2012, for iOS and Android devices. The game was criticized for having little resemblance to the original.
Popular culture
In 1982 Milton Bradley released a Zaxxon board game.
In Paramount's 1984 film Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter, the character Tommy Jarvis, played by Corey Feldman, plays Zaxxon during his introduction.
In 2012, Zaxxon was shown at "The Art of Video Games" exhibition at the Smithsonian.
Notes
References
External links
1981 video games
1982 video games
Apple II games
Arcade video games
Intellivision games
Atari 2600 games
ZX Spectrum games
Atari 5200 games
Atari 8-bit family games
Cancelled Atari Jaguar games
ColecoVision games
Commodore 64 games
MSX games
Scrolling shooters
Sega arcade games
Sega Games franchises
Master System games
SG-1000 games
U.S. Gold games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games with isometric graphics
Video games with stereoscopic 3D graphics
Virtual Console games
|
[
-0.5859097838401794,
-0.31297123432159424,
0.1825866848230362,
0.268282026052475,
0.2898457944393158,
0.4248296022415161,
-0.1316979080438614,
-0.010642234236001968,
-0.08722154051065445,
-0.09902011603116989,
-0.5760802030563354,
0.5745424032211304,
-0.3780509829521179,
0.1851029396057129,
0.20024214684963226,
0.025988077744841576,
0.33299368619918823,
-0.12863221764564514,
-0.8034381866455078,
-0.34659460186958313,
0.41144347190856934,
-0.24670173227787018,
0.4588060975074768,
-0.008250407874584198,
0.2717253267765045,
0.1843801587820053,
0.19707554578781128,
0.4330962896347046,
0.11995387077331543,
0.7341629266738892,
0.12569381296634674,
-0.5275704264640808,
0.32421696186065674,
-0.6419248580932617,
-0.3476604223251343,
0.03239530324935913,
-0.6386938095092773,
0.6051112413406372,
-0.1588009148836136,
-0.22513340413570404,
0.17707841098308563,
-0.009818065911531448,
0.20328664779663086,
0.3227880001068115,
0.21097412705421448,
-0.21553495526313782,
-1.3221131563186646,
-0.2910483479499817,
-0.1600809544324875,
-0.43988049030303955,
-0.39586710929870605,
0.4906037747859955,
0.04041847959160805,
0.12238485366106033,
0.2655867040157318,
0.3779452443122864,
0.03913852199912071,
-0.6662870049476624,
-0.09674696624279022,
-0.3298955261707306,
0.9139125943183899,
-0.28481805324554443,
0.6788355708122253,
-0.07724779844284058,
-0.3635222911834717,
0.2102188616991043,
0.04059029370546341,
0.014529497362673283,
-0.2396683394908905,
-0.4149688184261322,
0.3163670003414154,
0.21229244768619537,
-0.3111051321029663,
-0.4941466152667999,
-0.32462912797927856,
0.12363289296627045,
0.39307427406311035,
0.052094534039497375,
0.2606503367424011,
0.4084150791168213,
-0.15162380039691925,
0.025646165013313293,
0.6197774410247803,
0.4616508185863495,
-0.3278227746486664,
-0.4547995626926422,
-0.1721663922071457,
0.25934454798698425,
-0.33789485692977905,
0.3296433389186859,
-0.3258804678916931,
-0.5471104383468628,
0.6793487668037415,
-0.01956000179052353,
-0.24788352847099304,
0.007722894661128521,
-0.1173095777630806,
0.6574036478996277,
0.5504390597343445,
-0.08422964066267014,
-0.17062519490718842,
0.05257092043757439,
-0.4601306617259979,
-0.36892592906951904,
-0.35166335105895996,
-0.2116226851940155,
0.30198436975479126,
-0.1804295778274536,
-0.10936551541090012,
0.4364122152328491,
-0.4380078911781311,
-0.22686699032783508,
0.1880928874015808,
-0.042625077068805695,
-0.11032252013683319,
0.06337672472000122,
-0.17505650222301483,
0.13292279839515686,
0.11554078012704849,
0.09354641288518906,
-0.015330856665968895,
0.21652406454086304,
0.2078712284564972,
0.5788958072662354,
0.33546745777130127,
-0.009748847223818302,
0.11415164172649384,
0.3106863498687744,
-0.9195677638053894,
-0.26628658175468445,
0.09171764552593231,
0.5286862850189209,
-0.3388303220272064,
0.7444702386856079,
0.05509743094444275,
0.07537604123353958,
0.3004245460033417,
-0.06306192278862,
-0.20474591851234436,
-0.06431573629379272,
-0.4005964398384094,
0.24241279065608978,
-0.43042001128196716,
0.13607728481292725,
-0.245327889919281,
-0.35684117674827576,
0.31808334589004517,
-0.8408764600753784,
-0.507579505443573,
-0.3285611867904663,
-0.05669441446661949,
0.3020647168159485,
-0.3197563886642456,
-0.527636706829071,
0.01784634031355381,
0.20862583816051483,
-0.47587037086486816,
0.1392451971769333,
-0.5711918473243713,
-0.3690957725048065,
-0.27707570791244507,
0.20175127685070038,
-0.35690581798553467,
-0.42460373044013977,
0.30211400985717773,
-0.5464314222335815,
0.3756018877029419,
-0.3063626289367676,
0.5298880338668823,
-0.3770584166049957,
-0.2082338184118271,
0.09484196454286575,
0.4362523555755615,
0.06219342723488808,
0.046744175255298615,
-0.11262259632349014,
0.7521102428436279,
0.5422917604446411,
0.020210744813084602,
-0.38881537318229675,
-0.5066219568252563,
-0.3795987069606781,
-0.22910504043102264,
-0.027317173779010773,
0.16477708518505096,
0.26454731822013855,
-0.18493878841400146,
-0.21999812126159668,
-0.15151125192642212,
0.29548490047454834,
-0.15156055986881256,
0.21966663002967834,
0.2687503695487976,
0.2734161913394928,
1.0135524272918701,
-0.044305820018053055,
-0.7183328866958618,
0.22422118484973907,
0.10938993096351624,
0.3120417594909668,
0.11299849301576614,
0.14590497314929962,
0.5423322916030884,
-0.13188210129737854,
-0.011904013343155384,
0.12008484452962875,
-0.5600140690803528,
0.24632123112678528,
-0.18046513199806213,
0.27027836441993713,
-0.6883033514022827,
-0.16219499707221985,
0.006462730932980776,
0.21961914002895355,
0.6888973116874695,
0.6051826477050781,
-1.067258596420288,
0.19796700775623322,
0.23941609263420105,
-0.2111366093158722,
0.2949415147304535,
-0.2105158120393753,
-0.3384251296520233,
-0.039425890892744064,
-0.38023149967193604,
0.7587121725082397,
0.5319284200668335,
0.17175276577472687,
0.5530449151992798,
-0.6818099021911621,
-0.6230424046516418,
-0.09697406738996506,
-0.33085834980010986,
-0.36039409041404724,
0.6156958341598511,
0.4336901605129242,
0.7195528745651245,
0.1896447390317917,
0.151633620262146,
-0.07559169083833694,
0.45251184701919556,
-0.09529079496860504,
-0.19693505764007568,
0.26220303773880005,
0.6407020092010498,
0.06599903106689453,
0.5601702332496643,
-0.10198646038770676,
-0.48667728900909424,
0.22617903351783752,
-0.5273005962371826,
0.40829163789749146,
0.2454814910888672,
0.4928393065929413,
0.06600559502840042,
-0.33183932304382324,
-0.21870170533657074,
-0.268779456615448,
0.08412249386310577,
-0.4423072338104248,
0.185943141579628,
-0.17120836675167084,
-0.5636140704154968,
-0.16077843308448792,
0.5064334273338318,
-1.0770171880722046,
-0.523605465888977,
0.08811584860086441,
0.7147282361984253,
0.06513860076665878,
0.008922379463911057,
-0.12583546340465546,
0.22910001873970032,
-0.09202966094017029,
-0.7061652541160583,
-0.22355693578720093,
0.15369001030921936,
-0.03754691407084465,
0.774947464466095,
-0.5722877383232117,
0.0928753912448883,
0.1459772288799286,
0.5146250128746033,
0.00675075501203537,
-0.026196785271167755,
0.4105553925037384,
0.09063154458999634,
-0.86419677734375,
0.030360184609889984,
-0.49029409885406494,
-0.13246892392635345,
-0.09574078023433685,
-0.09853363782167435,
0.4630044102668762,
-0.056267254054546356,
0.6102631688117981,
-0.7903027534484863,
0.4459224343299866,
0.06895716488361359,
-0.07809233665466309,
0.008508759550750256,
0.1233411505818367,
-0.5231340527534485,
-0.10547681152820587,
0.2763529419898987,
-0.19455571472644806,
-0.49327003955841064,
-0.0068345461040735245,
-5.904897689819336,
0.541991114616394,
-0.11103063076734543,
0.2987462282180786,
-0.2405768632888794,
0.48869362473487854,
0.2552367150783539,
0.06759811192750931,
-0.28507423400878906,
-0.5110959410667419,
-0.4024495780467987,
0.14271166920661926,
-0.24229121208190918,
-0.16374318301677704,
-0.17856323719024658,
-0.1360308974981308,
0.16063500940799713,
-0.3641890287399292,
-0.4351295828819275,
-0.569160521030426,
0.04249948263168335,
-0.724951982498169,
0.11688855290412903,
0.08826924860477448,
-0.16690924763679504,
0.17973603308200836,
-0.10398644208908081,
-0.21472226083278656,
-0.03327080234885216,
0.25419121980667114,
-0.5888699889183044,
-0.5041041374206543,
-0.4236695170402527,
0.5127456188201904,
-0.18631857633590698,
-0.1670379787683487,
0.33707186579704285,
-0.004686201922595501,
0.8139569163322449,
-0.2130066305398941,
-0.3414629101753235,
0.5651780366897583,
-0.13893821835517883,
-0.3042459785938263,
0.5643536448478699,
-0.46920135617256165,
0.06919672340154648,
0.04840327799320221,
-0.2255697399377823,
0.31279709935188293,
0.3642692565917969,
-0.5728808641433716,
-0.38930684328079224,
-0.06930308789014816,
0.09053874760866165,
-0.32532986998558044,
-0.5212412476539612,
0.1955050677061081,
0.3838841915130615,
0.4368930459022522,
0.0858994573354721,
-0.4041230380535126,
0.26640358567237854,
-0.5443546772003174,
-0.3201948404312134,
0.022805530577898026,
-0.034446749836206436,
0.04454794153571129,
0.3647606372833252,
0.4455968737602234,
0.004308378789573908,
0.49876517057418823,
0.23451818525791168,
-0.9062272310256958,
-0.08663881570100784,
0.21141092479228973,
-0.25062626600265503,
-0.5758633613586426,
-0.8562396168708801,
0.4697414040565491,
0.2691204845905304,
-0.3994162678718567,
0.41215166449546814,
-0.07043950259685516,
-0.9276753067970276,
-0.7617883682250977,
0.09869904816150665,
0.0605199933052063,
0.23226147890090942,
0.18727149069309235,
0.43879520893096924,
-0.6861274242401123,
0.20228491723537445,
-0.24870991706848145,
0.6399376392364502,
-0.11081940680742264,
0.17992790043354034,
-0.11360326409339905,
0.5462955236434937,
0.34037286043167114,
0.5107165575027466,
-0.35688573122024536,
0.009433061815798283,
-0.5251694917678833,
-0.31935980916023254,
0.1884017288684845,
0.276813268661499,
0.40761053562164307,
0.7089073061943054,
0.006475337315350771,
-0.2292112559080124,
0.23739516735076904,
-0.676928699016571,
0.18171530961990356,
0.7336812615394592,
-0.37347301840782166,
-0.14789415895938873,
0.4927229583263397,
0.5576897263526917,
0.11779750883579254,
-0.5939309000968933,
0.30966779589653015,
-0.28486719727516174,
-0.46089303493499756,
0.4877646565437317,
0.06315276771783829,
-0.19350236654281616,
0.43527668714523315,
0.795086681842804,
0.05689600855112076,
0.05088216811418533,
0.8854066133499146,
0.3633224666118622,
0.1292477697134018,
0.08260630071163177,
-0.7755938172340393,
-0.44684475660324097,
-0.352585107088089,
-0.2520832121372223,
0.4169560372829437,
-0.10207083076238632,
-0.06927397102117538,
0.4640631377696991,
-0.16093452274799347,
-0.11283377557992935,
-0.2969304025173187,
0.15108069777488708,
-0.05712221562862396,
0.362457811832428,
0.24095676839351654,
0.05351937189698219,
-0.5214654803276062,
0.8937456607818604,
0.03608584776520729,
-0.13242125511169434,
0.08089075982570648,
0.3725889027118683,
-0.3662242293357849,
-0.2867441475391388,
-0.42863959074020386,
0.5975214242935181,
-0.9026436805725098,
-1.0029752254486084,
-0.07398928701877594,
-0.2983954846858978,
1.033826231956482,
-0.17559929192066193,
-1.0045591592788696,
-0.24917660653591156,
-0.1974262297153473,
0.011639237403869629,
-0.3925395905971527,
0.04143809527158737,
0.05530055984854698,
0.23287253081798553,
0.07680677622556686,
-0.3020887076854706,
-0.5571433305740356,
-0.01148525346070528,
-0.27486202120780945,
0.16026674211025238,
0.06934433430433273,
0.015291512943804264,
0.31609052419662476,
0.4498811364173889,
-0.4305323362350464,
-0.469010591506958,
0.3082920014858246,
-0.1543969064950943,
0.4715958535671234,
-0.06863569468259811,
0.060496870428323746,
-0.15980947017669678,
0.5536580681800842,
0.11998571455478668,
0.2998519241809845,
0.11932080239057541,
0.9543448686599731,
-0.4162651598453522,
0.11558827012777328,
-0.019658992066979408,
0.07154162228107452,
-0.32497236132621765,
-0.2223564237356186,
0.7276756763458252,
0.24773018062114716,
0.8414183259010315,
-0.1461072415113449,
0.22793787717819214,
-0.06026158481836319,
-0.7282662391662598,
-0.19553522765636444,
-0.46396756172180176,
0.12578074634075165,
-0.12162782996892929,
0.5780694484710693,
-0.37221306562423706,
-0.1549655944108963,
-0.08137983083724976,
0.09459578990936279,
0.06805829703807831,
-0.23667806386947632,
-0.09724767506122589,
-0.07143565267324448,
-0.2785171866416931,
0.4142075479030609,
0.26247769594192505,
-0.1719769686460495,
-0.408873975276947,
0.860183596611023,
-0.25600236654281616,
-0.33452746272087097,
-0.41992878913879395,
-0.2678539752960205,
0.4051792025566101,
-0.33757057785987854,
-0.11062519252300262,
0.04521430283784866,
-0.5291662812232971,
-0.23554234206676483,
0.21273474395275116,
0.41487154364585876,
-0.047175727784633636,
0.24575622379779816,
0.1400129646062851,
0.37652885913848877,
-0.054519686847925186,
0.05003318563103676,
-0.2938256561756134,
-0.502884566783905,
0.007866625674068928,
-0.10778559744358063,
-0.3541692793369293,
0.16009913384914398,
0.7830051183700562,
-0.20663608610630035,
-0.096070796251297,
-0.084941066801548,
-0.20003624260425568,
-0.1997489482164383,
-0.2106565237045288,
0.29593750834465027,
-0.6633399724960327,
-0.06077872961759567,
0.3257891535758972,
0.34478744864463806,
-0.5240398645401001,
-0.7157944440841675,
-0.055570974946022034,
-0.042335499078035355,
0.08162452280521393,
0.03874005749821663,
0.8104066252708435,
0.7834061980247498,
0.0852973684668541,
0.2879090905189514,
0.17563462257385254,
-0.04410168528556824,
-0.3205096423625946,
0.4942389130592346,
-0.647933840751648,
0.12372931838035583,
-0.3354702889919281,
-0.25170692801475525,
0.2960653603076935,
-0.46388357877731323,
0.26479053497314453,
-0.0824241116642952,
0.3970015048980713,
0.05826403573155403,
0.1290150284767151,
0.16930034756660461,
-0.10325363278388977,
0.2808903753757477,
0.08083643019199371,
-0.2241852581501007,
0.2521815001964569,
-0.1309860497713089,
-0.27451735734939575,
0.37407156825065613,
0.12972328066825867,
0.35384148359298706,
0.17056839168071747,
-0.29675889015197754,
0.7774726748466492,
-0.07294782251119614,
0.10450844466686249,
0.5263882875442505,
-0.3129641115665436,
0.2680375874042511,
0.005315478425472975,
-0.559399425983429,
-0.33011767268180847,
0.24020078778266907,
-0.9084935188293457,
-0.15370959043502808,
0.7846747040748596,
-0.11582744121551514,
0.15508835017681122,
-0.5536990165710449,
0.577071487903595,
0.9151020646095276,
-0.1537535935640335,
0.26198965311050415,
-0.09637328237295151,
-0.5530455708503723,
0.18607662618160248,
0.28562936186790466,
0.4358890652656555,
0.821302592754364,
0.1302691251039505,
0.062130577862262726,
-0.013460326939821243,
0.4776408076286316,
-0.25731584429740906,
0.011261140927672386,
0.1828034222126007,
-0.3066118061542511,
0.09718605875968933,
0.5284219980239868,
0.325652539730072,
0.3122325539588928,
0.1903596967458725,
0.03680677339434624,
-0.22065843641757965,
0.3110863268375397,
0.5776050090789795,
-0.27942028641700745,
0.20002369582653046,
0.5474071502685547,
0.02007499895989895,
0.28674840927124023,
-0.41098329424858093,
0.37034282088279724,
-0.06376741826534271,
-0.07125377655029297,
0.055806200951337814,
-0.18367904424667358,
-0.3398510217666626,
-0.17961359024047852,
0.22701077163219452,
0.33586135506629944,
0.7090478539466858,
-0.428102046251297,
-0.09652312844991684,
1.062483310699463,
-0.2465325891971588,
-0.43328434228897095,
0.4953903257846832,
-0.1977381408214569,
-0.29505980014801025,
0.03160710260272026,
0.16365113854408264,
-0.4045175313949585,
-0.10375355184078217,
0.26515915989875793,
0.45472452044487,
0.5892931818962097,
-0.44107159972190857,
0.1119425967335701,
-0.34025847911834717,
0.11819472163915634,
-0.44804850220680237,
-0.5083469748497009,
0.4887385964393616,
0.16914735734462738,
0.4084239602088928,
-0.44052213430404663,
0.3013300597667694,
0.021150222048163414,
0.07761336117982864,
-0.9899369478225708,
-0.5161438584327698,
-0.04135602340102196,
0.5115033984184265,
-0.16172461211681366,
0.3122260570526123,
0.12694965302944183,
0.20535877346992493,
0.6469589471817017,
0.10034380853176117,
-0.587767481803894,
0.2173837423324585,
-0.03458447754383087,
-0.2618342638015747,
0.2944112718105316,
-0.727035403251648,
-0.5370415449142456,
-0.3584851622581482,
0.4580852687358856,
1.2243986129760742,
0.3359842598438263,
-0.19022443890571594,
0.1704190969467163,
0.1314489245414734,
-0.5960872769355774,
0.9021614193916321,
0.19693557918071747,
0.02102641761302948,
-0.42046213150024414,
-0.09999562799930573,
-0.13042472302913666,
-0.13745653629302979,
-0.3939000070095062,
-0.08391617983579636,
0.37141019105911255,
0.17071127891540527,
-0.8457280993461609,
-0.5550773739814758,
0.8658888936042786,
0.08302031457424164,
-0.35689806938171387,
-0.28817498683929443,
0.2366923987865448,
-0.38468092679977417,
-0.16799035668373108,
0.951391339302063,
-0.09714960306882858,
0.09526459872722626,
-0.03387818485498428,
0.2687698006629944,
-0.189755380153656,
-0.617905855178833,
-0.3949378430843353,
-0.25915834307670593,
0.09271647781133652,
-0.25140151381492615,
-0.21261198818683624,
0.02567065693438053,
0.1713092029094696,
-0.4367273449897766,
0.21163107454776764,
-0.009073520079255104,
-0.5250018239021301,
0.043309275060892105,
0.3950180113315582,
0.26090165972709656,
-0.16850599646568298,
0.02199382521212101,
0.10673868656158447
] |
206041
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse
|
Westinghouse
|
Westinghouse may refer to:
Businesses
Current companies
Westinghouse Licensing Corporation, the brand management division of ViacomCBS, and licensees:
Westinghouse Electric Company, providing nuclear power related services
Westinghouse Electronics, which sells LED and LCD televisions
Russell Hobbs, Inc., licensed to make small appliances such as vacuum cleaners under the Westinghouse name, from 2002 to 2008
Siemens Energy Sector, the acquired non-nuclear energy divisions of Westinghouse Electric
Former companies and divisions
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, renamed CBS Corporation in 1997
Westinghouse Broadcasting (Group W), now integrated into CBS Broadcasting, Inc.
White-Westinghouse, acquired by Electrolux in 1986
Westinghouse Electronic Systems Group, sold to Northrop Grumman in 1996
British Westinghouse, later subsumed into the General Electric Company
Westinghouse Air Brake Company, founding name of WABCO
Westinghouse Brake & Signal Company (1928 – c. 2000)
Westinghouse Signals, earlier name of Westinghouse Rail Systems
Westinghouse Brakes (UK), now part of Knorr-Bremse
Westinghouse Combustion Turbine Systems Division, a facility near the Philadelphia Airport later home to an industrial park, “Westinghouse Park”
Westinghouse Aviation Gas Turbine Division, maker of early turbojet engines (1945–1955)
Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory, late 1950s; Large, Pennsylvania; nuclear space propulsion technologies
Westinghouse Advanced Energy Systems Division, a renamed 1977 successor to Westinghouse Astronuclear Lab
Westinghouse Rail Systems, formerly Westinghouse Signals, part of Invensys
Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse, a company in Aulnay-sous-Bois, France near Paris
Buildings and structures
George Westinghouse Bridge, East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
George Westinghouse, Jr., Birthplace and Boyhood Home, Central Bridge, New York, USA
Westinghouse Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Westinghouse Air Brake Company General Office Building, Wilmerding, Pennsylvania, USA
George Westinghouse Jones House, Niskayuna, New York, USA, home of a cousin and associate of George Westinghouse
Media
Westinghouse Studio One, an American radio–television anthology series, created in 1947
List of Westinghouse Studio One episodes
Twelve Angry Men (Westinghouse Studio One), a teleplay by the studio
Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse, American television series which aired from 1958 to 1960
The Westinghouse Sign, a large, animated, electric sign located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Westinghouse Works, 1904, a collection of short films of various Westinghouse manufacturing plants
People
George Westinghouse (1846–1914), the founder of Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Products
List of Westinghouse locomotives
Westinghouse Electric Company's AP1000, the first Generation III+ reactor to receive final design approval from the U.S.
Westinghouse Farm Engine, a small, vertical boilered farm engine made by George Westinghouse from 1886 to 1917
NZR RM class Westinghouse railcar, an experimental and inaugural railcar built in New Zealand in 1914
Science
Westinghouse effect, a variant of the social-scientific observer's paradox
Westinghouse Science Talent Search, now called Intel Science Talent Search, an American science competition for high school students
Westinghouse transistron, an early bipolar transistor invented in France at "Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse" by the German scientists Mataré and Welker
Other uses
Westinghouse High School (disambiguation)
George Westinghouse Award (disambiguation)
|
[
0.5144197940826416,
0.2843690514564514,
-0.27178725600242615,
0.11591946333646774,
0.08854906260967255,
-0.4271346926689148,
-0.5197787880897522,
-0.08079806715250015,
-0.1920819729566574,
0.12195813655853271,
-0.5564616918563843,
-0.1920640915632248,
0.3122318685054779,
0.9782785773277283,
-0.663750946521759,
0.3559936583042145,
0.24790281057357788,
0.263203889131546,
-0.27181556820869446,
-0.38037022948265076,
-0.5729643702507019,
0.13578516244888306,
0.7403417825698853,
-0.45217448472976685,
0.04769441857933998,
-0.20053090155124664,
0.12331663072109222,
-0.349643349647522,
-0.211435005068779,
0.4551260471343994,
0.18428951501846313,
0.5764474868774414,
-0.060352396219968796,
0.24599549174308777,
0.2781824767589569,
0.1927308440208435,
-0.24666427075862885,
-0.6554523706436157,
-0.4863884747028351,
-0.7554448246955872,
-0.26681745052337646,
0.03077189065515995,
-0.02161390334367752,
0.3909716010093689,
0.44185250997543335,
0.19328784942626953,
-1.320509910583496,
-0.3325388431549072,
-0.4993934631347656,
-0.08078984916210175,
-0.2430398017168045,
-0.5036571621894836,
0.008961562998592854,
0.4842871129512787,
0.02532641775906086,
0.11863336712121964,
-0.4723629653453827,
-0.053633954375982285,
0.24036072194576263,
-0.465705007314682,
0.4126381278038025,
-0.4994250535964966,
0.0010007385862991214,
0.6471499800682068,
0.5013318657875061,
-0.2968124449253082,
-0.17721065878868103,
0.05644974112510681,
-0.4701457917690277,
0.1547774076461792,
0.0024714265018701553,
-0.36111947894096375,
-0.029008038341999054,
0.04748149216175079,
0.19737395644187927,
-0.2765672206878662,
-0.1893702745437622,
-0.09543266147375107,
0.08492253720760345,
-0.07862948626279831,
-0.6898220181465149,
0.445595383644104,
0.4759618937969208,
-0.08932569622993469,
0.25464943051338196,
0.08120283484458923,
-0.18902969360351562,
-0.1534479409456253,
-0.25719955563545227,
0.7315722703933716,
0.08219972997903824,
-0.17624127864837646,
0.5514769554138184,
0.16454173624515533,
-0.5366648435592651,
-0.2751501202583313,
0.09043974429368973,
-0.15424147248268127,
0.24351273477077484,
0.046845439821481705,
-0.3717712163925171,
0.3848516047000885,
0.38173267245292664,
-0.02623302862048149,
-0.07323776930570602,
-0.6401700377464294,
-0.1152598112821579,
-0.11897619813680649,
0.34453484416007996,
-0.3637291491031647,
-0.08679306507110596,
0.1985251009464264,
0.6728258728981018,
0.5524633526802063,
-0.3463251292705536,
0.5768325328826904,
0.23824931681156158,
-0.24696147441864014,
0.07246509939432144,
0.25754624605178833,
0.8509520292282104,
1.0597589015960693,
-0.5185990929603577,
-0.3413534164428711,
0.13854439556598663,
0.38702064752578735,
0.5384906530380249,
-0.043908338993787766,
-0.384416401386261,
-0.5499137043952942,
0.13232727348804474,
0.6431834101676941,
-0.2337491661310196,
-0.10199524462223053,
-0.1688021570444107,
0.5891151428222656,
0.026073742657899857,
-0.35682669281959534,
0.17373859882354736,
0.13608098030090332,
-0.31995469331741333,
-0.1207045242190361,
-0.4702922999858856,
-0.47694918513298035,
-0.15924783051013947,
-0.12209711968898773,
-0.04736451804637909,
-0.12611916661262512,
-0.5755788683891296,
0.6414945721626282,
-0.04759741947054863,
-0.11844875663518906,
-0.2673567235469818,
0.1213255524635315,
-0.33770236372947693,
-0.3943862020969391,
0.6581553220748901,
0.057476624846458435,
0.22212520241737366,
0.2367115020751953,
-0.266497939825058,
-0.5896967053413391,
0.0510251447558403,
-0.049165427684783936,
-0.17295244336128235,
-0.4540523290634155,
0.4694371521472931,
0.08245450258255005,
-0.49077093601226807,
-0.1341067999601364,
-0.021649472415447235,
-0.5191722512245178,
0.14462724328041077,
-0.3263666331768036,
0.5836048126220703,
-0.1907416135072708,
0.47702598571777344,
0.4110628068447113,
0.4727661609649658,
0.1237960010766983,
-0.5647204518318176,
0.034180648624897,
0.04163990542292595,
-0.11138177663087845,
0.04766547679901123,
-0.1742834448814392,
0.04304374009370804,
-0.0928676500916481,
-0.1842411607503891,
-0.10111653804779053,
-0.33901652693748474,
-0.8356438279151917,
0.21515119075775146,
-0.49325990676879883,
0.102923184633255,
-0.025789909064769745,
-0.2313118577003479,
0.5112331509590149,
-0.21007266640663147,
-0.14406338334083557,
-0.11658230423927307,
-0.10523512214422226,
0.008227627724409103,
-0.2683922052383423,
-0.517734706401825,
0.4448038935661316,
0.631256639957428,
0.12187322229146957,
0.5015507340431213,
-0.15274792909622192,
0.11025824397802353,
-0.614663302898407,
0.6232153177261353,
-0.04614245891571045,
0.5350961089134216,
-0.49770137667655945,
-0.5991109013557434,
0.18013180792331696,
0.15026313066482544,
-0.027607085183262825,
0.33748242259025574,
0.18525466322898865,
-0.09154759347438812,
0.13532209396362305,
-0.3481258153915405,
0.5980537533760071,
0.07703723758459091,
0.09750694781541824,
0.39840996265411377,
0.2483578324317932,
0.6489459276199341,
0.11232897639274597,
-0.18517249822616577,
-0.47907108068466187,
0.10682275146245956,
0.26780277490615845,
-0.548828661441803,
-0.4223679304122925,
0.3028182089328766,
-0.4407011866569519,
0.3018321394920349,
0.24268953502178192,
-0.48045289516448975,
0.4270842969417572,
0.6673909425735474,
-0.3281860649585724,
-0.2308862954378128,
0.2090814858675003,
-0.33991703391075134,
-0.4904296398162842,
0.477994441986084,
0.3930332362651825,
0.4319893717765808,
-0.6869269013404846,
0.10643497109413147,
-0.3029707074165344,
-0.1817712038755417,
0.3478904664516449,
0.15208713710308075,
-0.2197052538394928,
0.21270713210105896,
0.12343692779541016,
-0.15588919818401337,
-0.12793798744678497,
-0.22394222021102905,
-0.7681924104690552,
-0.22401933372020721,
-0.3898950219154358,
0.34248825907707214,
-0.09947677701711655,
0.1867540180683136,
-0.09531080722808838,
-0.317356139421463,
-0.1423267424106598,
-0.4806758463382721,
-0.546550989151001,
0.24829339981079102,
0.2357955276966095,
-0.4700137674808502,
-0.19798214733600616,
0.251188188791275,
0.1579582691192627,
0.11184113472700119,
-0.2976682186126709,
-0.11329831928014755,
-0.027380986139178276,
0.08349110931158066,
0.029621850699186325,
-0.022717837244272232,
0.6521841883659363,
0.13670817017555237,
-0.004095261916518211,
-0.364584743976593,
0.5356089472770691,
-0.07469265908002853,
0.5785317420959473,
-0.3751286566257477,
-0.12043927609920502,
-0.17324970662593842,
-0.3511870503425598,
-0.7746183276176453,
-0.1756393164396286,
-0.41292837262153625,
-0.07328908145427704,
0.19790107011795044,
-0.39398157596588135,
0.2207174152135849,
-0.37075477838516235,
-5.980928897857666,
-0.12670697271823883,
-0.1411035656929016,
-0.30564236640930176,
0.8079233169555664,
-0.0780719667673111,
-0.21371084451675415,
-0.03721766173839569,
0.21897462010383606,
0.3311682641506195,
0.2278347909450531,
-0.07810936123132706,
0.3226821720600128,
-0.11691164970397949,
-0.027913663536310196,
0.10830210149288177,
0.7601068019866943,
0.054648373275995255,
0.09997709840536118,
-0.3943062722682953,
0.16258588433265686,
-0.2091495245695114,
0.44148004055023193,
0.432989239692688,
-0.050368864089250565,
0.06042589992284775,
0.06902410089969635,
0.1738191395998001,
-0.429631769657135,
-0.548822283744812,
-0.08585379272699356,
-0.24077045917510986,
-0.0794253721833229,
0.6470783352851868,
0.008070848882198334,
0.022162944078445435,
0.18541787564754486,
0.41172319650650024,
0.2190370261669159,
0.26838961243629456,
0.9169653654098511,
0.7414219975471497,
-0.11045066267251968,
0.20424368977546692,
0.4760006368160248,
0.18947644531726837,
-0.41225194931030273,
0.4184214472770691,
-0.11737771332263947,
0.7526469230651855,
0.31587475538253784,
0.4327206611633301,
0.6553953289985657,
-0.0746929720044136,
-0.011592354625463486,
-0.6508069038391113,
0.4368871748447418,
-0.11144280433654785,
-0.3342117965221405,
0.360929399728775,
-0.09871763736009598,
-0.02421221323311329,
-0.014984041452407837,
-0.5075660347938538,
-0.49740472435951233,
-0.648482084274292,
-0.6394535899162292,
0.004199051298201084,
0.3680362403392792,
-0.15607571601867676,
-0.48221707344055176,
0.3176843523979187,
0.2095266431570053,
-1.0343600511550903,
0.20824575424194336,
-0.1790430098772049,
0.14993806183338165,
0.08644424378871918,
-0.0644136592745781,
0.23432417213916779,
-0.007927526719868183,
0.04828595370054245,
0.28367024660110474,
0.12529142200946808,
0.3863183557987213,
-0.4546967148780823,
-0.5987898111343384,
0.2544485330581665,
0.08255700021982193,
0.09289757907390594,
0.6298152208328247,
-0.10422825068235397,
0.38428017497062683,
-0.07948310673236847,
-0.011808643117547035,
0.07874597609043121,
0.22166137397289276,
0.7606269717216492,
0.49733254313468933,
-0.5839032530784607,
-0.031756944954395294,
-0.2187073528766632,
0.16750892996788025,
-0.4348597228527069,
-0.6531360149383545,
-0.24323683977127075,
0.348297655582428,
-0.06124857813119888,
0.5156576633453369,
-0.11578496545553207,
0.30168047547340393,
0.05907706171274185,
-0.5075622200965881,
-0.8224327564239502,
0.1221761703491211,
-0.012594485655426979,
-0.9663418531417847,
0.5082463622093201,
0.08936256915330887,
-0.11481444537639618,
0.4083930552005768,
0.06741227209568024,
-0.43869295716285706,
-0.1036730706691742,
-0.576233983039856,
-0.48018279671669006,
-0.08853784948587418,
0.5196720957756042,
0.2410302609205246,
0.23356318473815918,
0.11566763371229172,
0.44920071959495544,
0.10758960992097855,
0.044487208127975464,
-0.11635091155767441,
-0.3034529983997345,
-0.6207554340362549,
0.13546349108219147,
-0.5961083769798279,
-0.541692316532135,
0.14091844856739044,
0.2868918776512146,
0.12720340490341187,
0.2718827426433563,
-0.1360929310321808,
0.32801908254623413,
0.11799302697181702,
0.06429937481880188,
-0.2635549306869507,
0.22550387680530548,
0.08812489360570908,
-0.6368747353553772,
0.3411421775817871,
-0.011521534062922001,
0.02316700853407383,
0.007301196455955505,
0.04478425905108452,
-0.17424480617046356,
0.03292536363005638,
-0.35181155800819397,
-0.12700241804122925,
0.19949758052825928,
-0.6624701023101807,
-0.0950789749622345,
0.3525004982948303,
0.5941579341888428,
-0.264132022857666,
-0.27768126130104065,
0.1851194202899933,
0.6102522015571594,
0.21204696595668793,
-0.23412691056728363,
-0.6847686171531677,
-0.5316833257675171,
0.8075795769691467,
0.9801966547966003,
0.4675520956516266,
0.01447972096502781,
0.04212406277656555,
-0.41000157594680786,
0.4049363136291504,
0.03529221564531326,
-0.6875834465026855,
0.511925220489502,
-0.07294897735118866,
-0.8382290601730347,
0.022394869476556778,
-0.17572784423828125,
-0.6424824595451355,
-0.2960605025291443,
0.42839381098747253,
0.08016131073236465,
0.48620885610580444,
0.5926061272621155,
-0.08964420855045319,
-0.25722599029541016,
0.18990905582904816,
0.42921727895736694,
-0.3140397369861603,
-0.6041924357414246,
0.1468205600976944,
-0.11067764461040497,
-0.0694718062877655,
0.08457650244235992,
0.5517019629478455,
-0.7094934582710266,
0.3692137897014618,
0.21140234172344208,
-0.04182212054729462,
0.2483878880739212,
-0.5100714564323425,
-0.269235223531723,
0.14721350371837616,
-0.06002822890877724,
-0.1540297418832779,
-0.22578033804893494,
0.6585042476654053,
-0.5028759837150574,
-0.33663150668144226,
-0.40180787444114685,
0.11680727452039719,
0.5260019898414612,
-0.07293546944856644,
-0.180637925863266,
-0.1885473132133484,
0.41105902194976807,
0.1214028000831604,
-0.3521502912044525,
-0.14407768845558167,
-0.38310950994491577,
-0.49243679642677307,
-0.2400008738040924,
-0.15063422918319702,
0.31906038522720337,
0.14704503118991852,
-0.11243672668933868,
-0.08176755160093307,
0.23140676319599152,
0.5488737225532532,
0.2013450413942337,
0.4604857265949249,
0.21813377737998962,
0.07600034773349762,
0.0052266367711126804,
-0.35835039615631104,
0.0073594627901911736,
0.6457176804542542,
-0.01141600776463747,
-0.5688284635543823,
0.7828469276428223,
0.26051247119903564,
-0.21393649280071259,
-0.5105061531066895,
0.07253822684288025,
1.2889913320541382,
-0.734290361404419,
-0.23888681828975677,
-0.2155117690563202,
-0.12374409288167953,
0.0009714289335533977,
-0.7405720353126526,
0.2586073577404022,
-0.10127230733633041,
0.44414135813713074,
0.1329803168773651,
0.7477534413337708,
-0.39512866735458374,
-0.11060017347335815,
0.2466118335723877,
-0.3769465982913971,
-0.02878066524863243,
0.23216338455677032,
0.40323224663734436,
0.6297426223754883,
0.4410771131515503,
-0.0871664360165596,
-0.08881492912769318,
-0.3944423496723175,
-0.5877552032470703,
-0.5743351578712463,
-0.6985845565795898,
0.1456270068883896,
-0.19599154591560364,
-0.5111575126647949,
0.20298045873641968,
-0.3092302680015564,
0.23461970686912537,
-0.5349954962730408,
-0.5195233225822449,
-0.48349234461784363,
-0.2533743977546692,
-0.19750766456127167,
0.044547710567712784,
-0.07780806720256805,
-0.8998143076896667,
-0.14665213227272034,
0.5237255692481995,
0.028668813407421112,
0.0031860084272921085,
0.3252626657485962,
-0.6096416115760803,
0.09476218372583389,
0.0816396176815033,
-0.6688253879547119,
0.11340104788541794,
0.22173713147640228,
-0.0540812648832798,
-0.25393596291542053,
-0.44515302777290344,
-0.055329833179712296,
0.5623477101325989,
-0.3494071960449219,
-0.02793288044631481,
0.7923848628997803,
-0.05918579921126366,
0.10095629841089249,
0.4410628378391266,
-0.17558503150939941,
0.19611409306526184,
0.08760654926300049,
0.4506433308124542,
0.014173989184200764,
0.7091307044029236,
-0.19035695493221283,
-0.07257670909166336,
0.6165986061096191,
-0.05075405538082123,
-0.2438414841890335,
0.3240474760532379,
-0.08901091665029526,
0.4464682638645172,
-0.46949663758277893,
-0.3335179388523102,
0.8671141862869263,
-0.6412492394447327,
0.34081852436065674,
-0.05710899084806442,
-0.1449710726737976,
-0.5766618847846985,
0.5589475035667419,
0.5385791063308716,
0.6908943057060242,
-0.025603728368878365,
-0.15631136298179626,
-0.13659165799617767,
0.1370718777179718,
0.39918291568756104,
-0.031381841748952866,
-0.10641483217477798,
-0.06365467607975006,
0.28791525959968567,
-0.20703737437725067,
0.3294717073440552,
-0.4248753786087036,
0.22715365886688232,
-0.28136512637138367,
-0.022419437766075134,
-0.03782641515135765,
0.09602303057909012,
-0.47896984219551086,
-0.1264667809009552,
0.16040877997875214,
0.4235385060310364,
-0.1667422652244568,
0.5930060148239136,
-0.8685092926025391,
-0.1474381685256958,
-0.5173436999320984,
-0.21456964313983917,
0.35074570775032043,
0.22022941708564758,
0.36892473697662354,
0.09722152352333069,
-0.2562485635280609,
-0.0660514235496521,
0.23792356252670288,
0.5249576568603516,
0.18573792278766632,
0.3204750716686249,
0.18822753429412842,
-0.20778313279151917,
0.2781558632850647,
-0.3339528441429138,
-0.3096148669719696,
-0.2757486402988434,
-0.3699187934398651,
-0.01774296723306179,
0.3987768590450287,
-0.24938541650772095,
-0.3847110867500305,
-0.08367812633514404,
-0.6426005959510803,
-0.41397884488105774,
0.06755814701318741,
-0.16425569355487823,
0.1870550960302353,
-0.005067781545221806,
0.19716428220272064,
0.08837367594242096,
0.3795118033885956,
0.2745317220687866,
0.35220640897750854,
0.13500863313674927,
0.11369055509567261,
-0.47384655475616455,
0.09166698902845383,
-0.1961706131696701,
0.6233132481575012,
-0.538622260093689,
0.47760340571403503,
0.06828970462083817,
0.07878132164478302,
0.15835529565811157,
0.2759990692138672,
-0.013106154277920723,
-0.10750362277030945,
0.8241622447967529,
0.031192824244499207,
0.4369165301322937,
0.006310672033578157,
0.042413949966430664,
-0.17582985758781433,
0.308127224445343,
0.5377692580223083,
-0.5101956725120544,
-0.1044638380408287,
0.8426960110664368,
0.3908182382583618,
-0.555802047252655,
0.5625426173210144,
-0.04914672672748566,
-0.041589558124542236,
-0.7154292464256287,
0.3282691240310669,
-0.8066791296005249,
-0.7410419583320618,
-0.34095463156700134,
0.17053651809692383,
0.667709469795227,
-0.2500923275947571,
0.049007516354322433,
0.579831600189209,
-0.12161289155483246,
0.1606854945421219,
-0.6728309988975525,
0.5256940722465515,
0.22246195375919342,
-0.06000186502933502,
-0.17211702466011047,
0.6997665166854858,
0.17930585145950317,
-0.3351009488105774,
0.06116143986582756,
0.23503224551677704,
0.6972397565841675,
-0.35499662160873413,
0.6991162300109863,
-0.21595607697963715,
0.5410776734352112,
-0.6347312927246094
] |
206045
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Tilley
|
Patrick Tilley
|
Patrick Tilley (4 July 1928 – 25 May 2020) was a British science fiction author best known for The Amtrak Wars series of books – a futureworld epic set on the eve of the fourth millennium in a world emerging from the ravages of a dimly understood global holocaust. The name "Amtrak" – appropriated by a specific group of survivors – is a name remembered from what is called "The Old Time".
Tilley died on 25 May 2020 after a short illness.
Bibliography
The Amtrak Wars
Cloud Warrior (1983)
First Family (1985)
Iron Master (1987)
Blood River (1988)
Death-Bringer (1989)
Earth-Thunder (1990)
Other novels
Fade-Out (1975)
Mission (1981)
Xan (1986)
Star Wartz: Tales of Adventure from the Rimworld (1995)
References
External links
1928 births
2020 deaths
British science fiction writers
British fantasy writers
British male novelists
|
[
-0.20387069880962372,
0.5958049893379211,
-0.3484324514865875,
-0.140997052192688,
0.26370248198509216,
0.5109066963195801,
0.1796926110982895,
0.2959550619125366,
0.13309575617313385,
0.21885061264038086,
-0.7826434373855591,
0.3017186224460602,
0.07611730694770813,
0.659588098526001,
0.5502169132232666,
-0.16265632212162018,
-0.10300786048173904,
-0.36857864260673523,
-0.6490419507026672,
-0.20711560547351837,
-0.180320143699646,
0.13876865804195404,
0.18956242501735687,
0.40986138582229614,
-0.22332918643951416,
-0.1756049245595932,
-0.15000325441360474,
-0.5155250430107117,
0.17281357944011688,
0.2701941728591919,
0.01371284481137991,
0.35791707038879395,
-0.22158220410346985,
-0.11454819142818451,
-0.3541850447654724,
0.02702013961970806,
-0.7115257978439331,
0.19766370952129364,
-0.5863893032073975,
0.01861315779387951,
-0.2609682083129883,
0.2258726954460144,
0.35463517904281616,
0.13858579099178314,
-0.33808431029319763,
0.022194506600499153,
-1.5022146701812744,
0.09222666919231415,
-0.9612845778465271,
-0.2572764456272125,
-0.04315447434782982,
0.18022198975086212,
0.40409281849861145,
-0.3917211890220642,
0.2528424561023712,
0.1863936185836792,
-0.4991239905357361,
-0.33622071146965027,
-0.020189857110381126,
-0.465678334236145,
0.7012757062911987,
-0.10678409785032272,
0.4164135456085205,
-0.03739168122410774,
-0.13155797123908997,
-0.4516966640949249,
0.18561162054538727,
0.20885510742664337,
0.24016213417053223,
0.07739174365997314,
0.015620523132383823,
0.440706729888916,
0.053834572434425354,
0.4644624590873718,
0.15640541911125183,
-0.1811639368534088,
0.5317941904067993,
-0.022212209179997444,
0.004691522568464279,
0.13311173021793365,
0.33529600501060486,
-0.06127052381634712,
0.6706466674804688,
0.3576713502407074,
0.2586715817451477,
-0.291034460067749,
-0.03858038783073425,
0.1489170789718628,
-0.07413633167743683,
0.47452160716056824,
-0.13561341166496277,
-0.5566378235816956,
0.06623587757349014,
-0.11933943629264832,
0.15789027512073517,
-0.03124692663550377,
0.13497233390808105,
0.03925849869847298,
-0.3020273447036743,
-0.3271436393260956,
-0.02987319603562355,
0.2801038324832916,
0.13308684527873993,
-0.7495428919792175,
-0.34155383706092834,
-0.22982390224933624,
0.4554520845413208,
-0.2570137679576874,
0.08828885853290558,
0.0875522643327713,
-0.7363266348838806,
0.049276918172836304,
0.10736013948917389,
0.6476640105247498,
0.023073039948940277,
0.2088942974805832,
-0.46405890583992004,
-0.2735483646392822,
-0.2696114480495453,
-0.2872043251991272,
-0.09689141809940338,
0.373586505651474,
-0.16541028022766113,
0.21750855445861816,
-0.16215424239635468,
0.002225486095994711,
0.0470464713871479,
-0.2893155813217163,
-0.788394570350647,
0.1466570496559143,
0.3124045133590698,
0.4641192853450775,
-1.0827960968017578,
-0.44336357712745667,
-0.21567551791667938,
0.43236833810806274,
0.33799996972084045,
0.014963376335799694,
-0.0188940167427063,
0.600196123123169,
-0.29667428135871887,
-0.4602537155151367,
-0.4908432364463806,
0.4006000757217407,
0.6924782991409302,
0.06372882425785065,
0.07515210658311844,
-0.05855552479624748,
-0.06012333929538727,
-0.4576190710067749,
-0.4810633063316345,
0.0018107745563611388,
-0.3601713180541992,
-0.7284495234489441,
0.12125728279352188,
0.23751617968082428,
0.5159296989440918,
0.4718833267688751,
0.27625271677970886,
-0.46367380023002625,
0.6721723079681396,
0.2930792570114136,
-0.27572038769721985,
-0.16297613084316254,
0.468205988407135,
-0.19267892837524414,
0.7688141465187073,
-0.29107651114463806,
-0.3648023009300232,
0.0950210765004158,
-0.0579218864440918,
0.2214667797088623,
0.28658732771873474,
-0.020060116425156593,
0.20998984575271606,
0.136895090341568,
0.9865462183952332,
0.9038072824478149,
0.09514867514371872,
0.015546945855021477,
-0.6069766283035278,
-0.5245644450187683,
-0.09412526339292526,
0.09404360502958298,
-0.2140045166015625,
-0.2330453246831894,
0.11884618550539017,
-0.5029398798942566,
0.3201477527618408,
0.3496897220611572,
-0.9028356671333313,
-0.39314499497413635,
0.22437667846679688,
-0.46827468276023865,
1.0674753189086914,
-0.16654670238494873,
-0.0384015217423439,
1.0326937437057495,
-0.016316264867782593,
0.4875911474227905,
0.13046154379844666,
-0.012559971772134304,
0.0833977460861206,
-0.03039790689945221,
-0.35169774293899536,
0.4365231692790985,
0.12173416465520859,
0.41523507237434387,
0.22677168250083923,
0.5624126195907593,
0.2755316495895386,
0.07297038286924362,
-0.020484937354922295,
0.8033987283706665,
-0.053272079676389694,
-0.40723150968551636,
-0.33794933557510376,
-0.09425822645425797,
0.04994480311870575,
-0.4045961797237396,
0.6008589267730713,
0.2691204845905304,
0.5940820574760437,
0.2773297131061554,
0.11206426471471786,
0.36684703826904297,
0.36384978890419006,
-0.45727571845054626,
0.29966434836387634,
-1.1810293197631836,
-0.4732648432254791,
0.5926254987716675,
-0.06303907185792923,
-0.08479206264019012,
0.7563365697860718,
-0.04070986807346344,
0.05426420271396637,
-0.06587827205657959,
-0.33731809258461,
-0.26149705052375793,
0.1834551990032196,
-0.5145018100738525,
-0.21332566440105438,
0.5478062629699707,
0.29921239614486694,
0.2020769864320755,
0.19991199672222137,
0.28284257650375366,
-0.41794613003730774,
0.07357564568519592,
-0.08022575825452805,
0.9155902862548828,
0.2802804112434387,
0.3745404779911041,
-0.007254613097757101,
-0.10704489052295685,
0.06089014932513237,
0.03036672994494438,
0.4940985143184662,
0.2515164315700531,
0.14801645278930664,
-0.31363245844841003,
0.030185548588633537,
0.11791089922189713,
0.119868203997612,
-0.9534532427787781,
-0.1985054314136505,
-1.0806045532226562,
-0.04413403943181038,
0.2723477780818939,
0.15621371567249298,
-0.4397633671760559,
0.08788618445396423,
0.2842404842376709,
0.16893382370471954,
-0.5118349194526672,
0.052121054381132126,
-0.13066576421260834,
-0.10984472930431366,
-0.22697356343269348,
0.1999768763780594,
0.6958566308021545,
0.09139115363359451,
-0.203911691904068,
-0.3161766827106476,
-0.37321898341178894,
0.02714877389371395,
-0.35917967557907104,
0.37450695037841797,
-0.01001814752817154,
-0.20121358335018158,
0.434766948223114,
-0.011486822739243507,
-0.04137331619858742,
-0.2033764272928238,
0.5923811793327332,
-0.5707527995109558,
-0.07022105902433395,
-0.12634065747261047,
0.15791945159435272,
0.03619973361492157,
0.692310631275177,
0.16558824479579926,
0.38922354578971863,
0.6806322932243347,
0.12857285141944885,
-0.0786019116640091,
-0.1544933170080185,
-5.99860143661499,
0.15034471452236176,
0.09583597630262375,
-0.6605424880981445,
0.04586319625377655,
0.633585512638092,
0.6412037014961243,
0.1947868913412094,
0.2044007033109665,
-0.5746656656265259,
0.29033222794532776,
0.10318146646022797,
-0.2991882562637329,
0.3421793282032013,
0.5920580625534058,
-0.04611117020249367,
-0.053157221525907516,
0.05151381343603134,
-0.3029273450374603,
0.38685062527656555,
-0.029868951067328453,
-0.1514894962310791,
-0.2722611129283905,
0.4523753523826599,
-0.1654607653617859,
0.3506612777709961,
-0.2205798178911209,
0.09048771113157272,
0.06420700997114182,
0.48097550868988037,
-0.13786473870277405,
-0.23132865130901337,
-0.1576276272535324,
0.09605956822633743,
-0.1995977759361267,
-0.22064918279647827,
0.5667476654052734,
0.27187204360961914,
0.30302509665489197,
-0.07473215460777283,
-0.15266846120357513,
0.10070785880088806,
-0.4176505208015442,
-0.19454360008239746,
0.4087710678577423,
-0.2502715289592743,
-0.0421430766582489,
0.6467210054397583,
-0.09282520413398743,
0.287858784198761,
0.04987043887376785,
-0.125311940908432,
-0.05840499326586723,
-0.15444493293762207,
0.29311296343803406,
0.285266250371933,
-0.1669524908065796,
-0.16007967293262482,
-0.6272760033607483,
0.03158623352646828,
-0.21588970720767975,
-0.39444205164909363,
0.18599769473075867,
-0.10234041512012482,
-0.21552075445652008,
-0.010813696309924126,
-0.36687272787094116,
-0.1292942613363266,
-0.03009428270161152,
-0.47887474298477173,
-0.4135347008705139,
0.278823584318161,
0.0885065570473671,
-1.1588581800460815,
-0.3945694863796234,
-0.6343675851821899,
0.12007173895835876,
0.12667641043663025,
-0.395650714635849,
-0.10245727747678757,
-0.04038480296730995,
-0.5037989616394043,
-0.14436712861061096,
0.0119788758456707,
0.5024636387825012,
-0.058067686855793,
-0.5870546102523804,
0.07252199947834015,
0.04416382312774658,
0.06319451332092285,
0.016214044764637947,
-0.2758210003376007,
0.008712335489690304,
0.27941957116127014,
0.521479070186615,
0.09923337399959564,
-0.17208604514598846,
0.6391929388046265,
0.5498773455619812,
0.364170104265213,
-0.2611267864704132,
-0.10891645401716232,
0.13832944631576538,
-0.7465245127677917,
-0.4668959677219391,
0.2210424244403839,
0.25563788414001465,
0.3892132043838501,
0.35976266860961914,
-0.3468802273273468,
-0.0187035221606493,
0.4799176752567291,
-0.42569491267204285,
-0.08112762868404388,
0.06177670136094093,
-0.6744256615638733,
0.08816282451152802,
0.42596814036369324,
0.47362571954727173,
0.09361441433429718,
-0.5731250643730164,
0.2370670586824417,
-0.26431167125701904,
-0.27597329020500183,
0.37576720118522644,
-0.38353443145751953,
0.05538710579276085,
-0.34754469990730286,
0.6359366178512573,
0.22302435338497162,
-0.4815986454486847,
0.5020486116409302,
0.5456518530845642,
0.09329298883676529,
0.07074586302042007,
-0.5951887965202332,
-0.4486297070980072,
-0.17451514303684235,
-0.1667289137840271,
0.5927939414978027,
-0.0838436633348465,
-0.1538091003894806,
0.32945844531059265,
0.03716191649436951,
-0.22990837693214417,
-0.38558685779571533,
0.19093242287635803,
0.24940037727355957,
0.7114259004592896,
0.5459145903587341,
-0.0476447194814682,
0.7231212854385376,
0.8518628478050232,
-0.3637735843658447,
-0.5369951128959656,
0.13180716335773468,
-0.13679267466068268,
0.07219461351633072,
-0.6554263830184937,
-0.27629056572914124,
0.4485573172569275,
-0.669490396976471,
-0.9876308441162109,
-0.25727397203445435,
0.2524981200695038,
0.27266281843185425,
-0.3481845557689667,
-0.5353677868843079,
-0.33035901188850403,
-0.01717582531273365,
0.2216012179851532,
-0.46287545561790466,
-0.13040277361869812,
0.4373299181461334,
-0.027798814699053764,
0.2589065134525299,
-0.5075072050094604,
-0.38059598207473755,
0.22922363877296448,
-0.18925495445728302,
0.014258305542171001,
0.21927376091480255,
-0.5396590828895569,
-0.24899181723594666,
0.3757537305355072,
-0.30254819989204407,
-0.16324704885482788,
-0.2701042592525482,
-0.4412709176540375,
-0.07173716276884079,
-0.043471887707710266,
0.1280960589647293,
0.5531221628189087,
0.543456494808197,
0.08452393114566803,
0.04189273715019226,
-0.22970326244831085,
-0.22428877651691437,
0.39736178517341614,
-0.24924342334270477,
-0.00583447702229023,
-0.08296896517276764,
-0.2555933892726898,
-0.4759478271007538,
0.6867015957832336,
-0.9010598659515381,
-0.19149437546730042,
-0.7042341232299805,
0.1870316118001938,
0.7449248433113098,
-0.7465039491653442,
0.04152815788984299,
-0.11472675204277039,
0.406954824924469,
-0.28665629029273987,
-0.07729774713516235,
-0.2602536380290985,
0.12280938029289246,
-0.27597126364707947,
-0.06939578801393509,
0.04230944812297821,
0.10709328949451447,
-0.17313888669013977,
-0.0896231085062027,
-0.558475911617279,
0.04483088478446007,
0.5087525248527527,
-0.3505958020687103,
0.2253182828426361,
-0.15352211892604828,
-0.5801094770431519,
-0.25084730982780457,
0.0019331583753228188,
0.13351655006408691,
0.17800872027873993,
0.09508994966745377,
0.7782434821128845,
0.046246930956840515,
-0.6148203611373901,
0.34913355112075806,
0.6213792562484741,
0.1260213553905487,
0.3973149061203003,
-0.1352211833000183,
-0.01600310206413269,
0.0939376950263977,
0.21501214802265167,
-0.5286174416542053,
-0.4414929151535034,
-0.27494218945503235,
0.17585235834121704,
-0.2536759376525879,
-0.07022970914840698,
-0.27731385827064514,
0.4838868975639343,
-0.7452414035797119,
-0.07042690366506577,
-0.17329058051109314,
0.10737878084182739,
-0.67552250623703,
0.040713198482990265,
-0.31064572930336,
-0.04815879464149475,
-0.035604238510131836,
0.46344688534736633,
0.34692707657814026,
-0.2030719369649887,
-0.27835413813591003,
0.05070372670888901,
-0.37049147486686707,
0.27010807394981384,
-0.21690724790096283,
-0.08665824681520462,
0.5071924924850464,
0.2843967080116272,
0.1420159488916397,
0.08864946663379669,
-0.32016539573669434,
-0.026165533810853958,
-0.30776530504226685,
-0.47950348258018494,
0.24987871944904327,
0.03455843776464462,
-0.4260151982307434,
0.022970957681536674,
-0.6752017736434937,
0.379721999168396,
-0.748176634311676,
0.25014394521713257,
0.11383111774921417,
-0.2366146296262741,
0.26627039909362793,
-0.29973968863487244,
-0.18441055715084076,
0.22847451269626617,
-0.08021628111600876,
-0.38525083661079407,
0.07793138176202774,
-0.13288944959640503,
-0.1380385309457779,
0.005693654529750347,
0.1606013923883438,
0.09516937285661697,
-0.24971474707126617,
0.6551842093467712,
0.0034585471730679274,
-0.3578794598579407,
0.20608969032764435,
-0.35282477736473083,
0.10199388861656189,
0.47817087173461914,
-0.2832518517971039,
-0.11838101595640182,
0.150468647480011,
-0.11549600213766098,
-0.2056368887424469,
0.42963138222694397,
-0.7630098462104797,
0.04519608989357948,
-0.03634057193994522,
0.4072627127170563,
0.5894738435745239,
0.6358359456062317,
-0.8461446166038513,
0.06462031602859497,
0.43099579215049744,
0.006158882286399603,
0.15424951910972595,
-0.30059996247291565,
0.278852254152298,
0.2111990749835968,
0.08931072801351547,
-0.15756790339946747,
0.589571475982666,
-0.15557746589183807,
-0.20527714490890503,
0.09235561639070511,
-0.08722422271966934,
0.45972636342048645,
0.4348088800907135,
0.019992752000689507,
0.3293880820274353,
-0.1498110443353653,
0.37456804513931274,
-0.37882375717163086,
0.1427021324634552,
0.33204442262649536,
0.7376775145530701,
-0.16467875242233276,
0.3101261258125305,
0.4146277606487274,
-0.1124453991651535,
0.0973682552576065,
-0.7144290208816528,
0.18251585960388184,
-0.2998068928718567,
0.368021696805954,
-0.13788200914859772,
-0.07470497488975525,
-0.16954170167446136,
-0.024603087455034256,
-0.3573664724826813,
0.6680582761764526,
-0.08967337757349014,
0.5767460465431213,
0.29414981603622437,
-0.21026261150836945,
-0.5875959396362305,
0.13586175441741943,
-0.23549239337444305,
0.29396817088127136,
-0.3477155268192291,
-0.08589547127485275,
0.2583373188972473,
0.21794219315052032,
0.39147260785102844,
0.5813168883323669,
0.15504798293113708,
0.3307414948940277,
-0.28564944863319397,
-0.9384821653366089,
-0.8251286745071411,
0.18352900445461273,
0.06331664323806763,
0.9324217438697815,
-0.09463131427764893,
0.13902069628238678,
0.06571324914693832,
-0.148148775100708,
-0.037078823894262314,
0.10785231739282608,
-0.623792290687561,
-0.5477294921875,
-0.0580306351184845,
-0.49745333194732666,
-0.22231808304786682,
0.256852924823761,
0.45215603709220886,
0.32589536905288696,
0.4578436315059662,
-0.05606503039598465,
-0.42330819368362427,
0.13020741939544678,
0.11618227511644363,
-0.14282791316509247,
0.272073894739151,
-0.15994849801063538,
0.05675223842263222,
-0.7954868674278259,
0.503696620464325,
0.2599024176597595,
0.013033842667937279,
-0.36902663111686707,
0.20578086376190186,
-0.9333250522613525,
-0.5777455568313599,
0.07645780593156815,
0.2606097459793091,
0.8255549073219299,
-0.7806909680366516,
0.170027494430542,
0.22562383115291595,
0.03739197179675102,
-0.26639318466186523,
-0.48179927468299866,
0.321950763463974,
0.13529902696609497,
0.025488870218396187,
-0.05802244320511818,
0.6639691591262817,
-0.013035450130701065,
0.07177180051803589,
-0.17633314430713654,
0.4437102675437927,
-0.19984756410121918,
-0.277879923582077,
0.7894806265830994,
0.11909998953342438,
-0.3807605504989624,
-0.5764583945274353,
0.13284900784492493,
0.17824840545654297,
0.13108253479003906,
-0.2641943693161011,
0.08184585720300674,
-0.132980078458786,
0.05294400453567505,
-0.1508631557226181,
-0.11180468648672104,
0.2711770534515381,
-0.14302809536457062,
0.42368587851524353,
0.14977014064788818,
-1.1564717292785645,
0.21295268833637238,
0.20988725125789642,
-0.19022299349308014,
-0.00893718283623457,
0.5863723754882812,
0.03154953196644783
] |
206050
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20Lowe
|
Nick Lowe
|
Nicholas Drain Lowe (born 24 March 1949) is a British singer-songwriter, musician and producer. A noted figure in power pop and new wave, Lowe has recorded a string of well-reviewed solo albums. Along with vocals, Lowe plays guitar, bass guitar, piano and harmonica.
He is best known for the songs "Cruel to Be Kind" (a US Top 40 single) and "I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass" (a top 10 UK hit), as well as his production work with Elvis Costello, Graham Parker, and others. Lowe also wrote "(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding", a hit for Costello.
He lives in Brentford, London, England.
Biography
Lowe attended the independent Woodbridge School in Suffolk. He began his musical career in 1967, when he joined the band Kippington Lodge, along with his school friend Brinsley Schwarz. They released a few singles on the Parlophone record label as Kippington Lodge before they renamed the band Brinsley Schwarz in late 1969 and began performing country and blues-rock. The band were launched by their management company Famepushers Ltd with an appearance at New York's Fillmore East; a planeload of British journalists were flown over by Famepushers to witness the event, but the stunt backfired and Brinsley Schwarz became a laughing stock until they established credibility on the London pub rock circuit. Lowe wrote some of his best-known compositions while a member of the band, including "(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding", a hit for Elvis Costello in 1979; and "Cruel to Be Kind", also in 1979, Lowe's single and biggest worldwide hit, co-written with bandmate Ian Gomm.
After leaving Brinsley Schwarz in 1975 Lowe began playing bass in Rockpile with Dave Edmunds. In August 1976, Lowe released "So It Goes" b/w "Heart of the City", the first single on the Stiff Records label, where he was an in-house producer. The single and the label were funded by a loan of £400 from Dr. Feelgood's Lee Brilleaux. The label's first EP was Lowe's 1977 four-track release Bowi, apparently named in response to David Bowie's contemporaneous LP Low. The joke was repeated when Lowe produced the Rumour's album Max as an 'answer' to Fleetwood Mac's Rumours. Lowe continued producing albums on Stiff and other labels. In 1977 he produced Dr. Feelgood's album, Be Seeing You, which included "That's It, I Quit", written by Lowe. Private Practice, issued the next year, included "Milk and Alcohol", written by Lowe and Gypie Mayo. This song and "I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass" are the only Lowe compositions to reach the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart.
Because the two main singers in Rockpile had recording contracts with different record labels and managers, albums were always credited to either Lowe or Edmunds, so there is only one official Rockpile album, 1980's Seconds of Pleasure, which was not released until the waning days of the collaboration. Seconds of Pleasure featured the Lowe songs "When I Write the Book" and "Heart". However, two of the pair's most significant solo albums from the period, Lowe's Labour of Lust and Edmunds' Repeat When Necessary, were effectively Rockpile albums, as was Carlene Carter's Lowe-produced Musical Shapes album. Lowe's album Labour of Lust received a gold certification in Canada in November 1979.
Lowe was quoted as saying that he had "escaped from the tyranny of the snare drum" in No Depression, (September–October 2001) when explaining his move away from regular pop music that would get played on mainstream radio.
Other well-known Lowe songs include "All Men Are Liars" and "Cruel to Be Kind", co-written with Ian Gomm and originally recorded with Brinsley Schwarz for their unreleased final album It's All Over Now. A re-recording of "Cruel to Be Kind" was his only US Top 40 hit, reaching No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1979.
In 1979, Lowe married country singer Carlene Carter, daughter of fellow country singers Carl Smith and June Carter Cash and stepdaughter of Johnny Cash. He adopted her daughter, Tiffany Anastasia Lowe. The marriage ended in 1990, but they remained friends, and Lowe remained close to the Carter/Cash family. He played and recorded with Johnny Cash, and Cash recorded several of Lowe's songs. Lowe and Carter's 1979 wedding was filmed and the footage became the basis for the promotional video clip for "Cruel to Be Kind".
After the demise of Rockpile, Lowe toured for a period with his band Noise to Go and later with the Cowboy Outfit, which also included the noted keyboard player Paul Carrack. Lowe was also a member of the short-lived mainly studio project Little Village with John Hiatt, Ry Cooder and Jim Keltner, who originally got together to record Hiatt's 1987 album Bring the Family.
In 1990 he wrote a song, "Who Was That Man?" about a man who died in the King's Cross fire. In 1992 "(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding" was covered by Curtis Stigers on the soundtrack album to The Bodyguard, an album that sold about 44 million copies worldwide.
A New York Daily News article quoted Lowe as saying his greatest fear in recent years was "sticking with what you did when you were famous." "I didn't want to become one of those thinning-haired, jowly old geezers who still does the same shtick they did when they were young, slim and beautiful," he said. "That's revolting and rather tragic." Rock critic Jim Farber observed, "Lowe's recent albums, epitomised by the new At My Age, moved him out of the realms of ironic pop and animated rock and into the role of a worldly balladeer, specialising in grave vocals and graceful tunes. Lowe's four most recent solo albums mine the wealth of American roots music, drawing on vintage country, soul and R&B to create an elegant mix of his own."
In 2008, Yep Roc and Proper Records released a thirtieth anniversary edition of Lowe's first solo album, Jesus of Cool (entitled Pure Pop for Now People in the US, with a slightly different track listing). The re-issue includes tracks from the British and American releases in addition to several bonus tracks. In March 2009, he released a 49-track CD/DVD compilation of songs spanning his entire career. Proper Records released it in the UK and Europe, entitled Quiet Please... The New Best of Nick Lowe.
In September 2010 Yep Roc issued The Impossible Bird, Dig My Mood and The Convincer on vinyl for the first time, and after a one-night reunion concert with Elvis Costello in October in San Francisco, Lowe embarked on his first non-solo United States tour "this millennium." His backing band consisted of Geraint Watkins (keyboards), Robert Treherne (drums), Johnny Scott (guitar) and Matt Radford (bass). In March 2011, Yep Roc reissued Lowe's 1979 solo album Labour of Lust.
Lowe played Glastonbury 2011, performing a short solo set of Brinsley Schwarz tracks on The Spirit of 71 stage, where they played back in 1971, before heading to the Acoustic Stage for a full band show. On 29 October 2013, he released his first Christmas album, Quality Street, on Yep Roc Records. He performed two songs from this album on 7 December taping of NPR's Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!
In spring 2019 he embarked on tours, in both the US and UK, with American instrumental rock band Los Straitjackets. In June 2019 Lowe played at the Glastonbury Festival.
Personal life
Lowe has been married twice. His first marriage to country singer Carlene Carter lasted from 1979 to 1990. He married designer Peta Waddington in 2010. The couple have a son, Roy, born in 2005 who is an aspiring musician who plays drums amongst other instruments.
Career history
Songwriter
Lowe's best-known songs include his own hits:
"So It Goes" – first song on the Stiff Records label
"I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass" – his biggest UK hit
"Cruel to Be Kind" – his biggest US hit
He also wrote songs most famous for their cover versions:
"(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding" – famously covered by Elvis Costello
"I Knew the Bride (When She Used to Rock ’n’ Roll)" – a hit for Rockpile bandmate Dave Edmunds
"The Beast in Me" – covered by stepfather-in-law Johnny Cash
Some songs were written or co-written for albums he produced:
"Milk and Alcohol" and "That’s It, I Quit" – Dr. Feelgood
"(I Live on a) Battlefield" and "I Need You" – Paul Carrack
Lowe also wrote a number of songs with clever wordplay that qualify as "novelties", among them:
"Bay City Rollers We Love You" – recorded as "Terry Modern" of "The Tartan Horde"
"I Love My Label" – paean to the United Artists label, released on Stiff Records
"All Men Are Liars"
"Half a Boy and Half a Man"
Producer
Lowe's work as a producer is at least as notable as his work as a performer and songwriter. His early 'rough and ready' production style earned him the nickname "Basher", inspired by his supposed instructions to bands to 'bash it out—we'll tart it up later'. Beginning with his tenure at Stiff Records as an in-house producer in 1976, Lowe was responsible for producing some of the benchmark releases of punk and new wave, including the Damned's first single, "New Rose", considered the first English punk single, as well as the group's debut album, Damned Damned Damned. He also produced Elvis Costello's first five albums, from 1977 to 1981, including My Aim Is True, This Year's Model, and Armed Forces, which spun off numerous UK hit singles. Other Stiff acts produced by Lowe included punk parody group Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias, new wave icon Wreckless Eric and roots rocker Mickey Jupp.
Other clients (both before and after Lowe left Stiff in 1978) included the Pretenders (the 1978 debut single "Stop Your Sobbing", which was a modest UK and U.S. hit); Graham Parker (his well-received first and third albums); Dr. Feelgood (several LPs, and their biggest hit single, 1979's "Milk and Alcohol"); Johnny Cash (his 1980 single "Without Love", a minor hit on the U.S. and Canadian country charts); and his then-wife Carlene Carter (2 albums in 1980 and 1981).
From 1982 to 1985, he produced material for Paul Carrack, John Hiatt, the Fabulous Thunderbirds and the Men They Couldn't Hang. Beginning in the mid-80s, Lowe became more selective in his choice of outside production tasks, helming the 1986 LP Blood & Chocolate for Elvis Costello, a 1988 single ("Windows of the World" b/w "1969") for the Pretenders, and the Katydids' self-titled debut album of 1990. After that, Lowe essentially retired from producing recordings for other acts, although the country-rock band the Mavericks persuaded him to produce one track for the Apollo 13 soundtrack in 1995.
Bands
Influence
In 2011 the New York Times claimed, "The 40-year career of the English singer-songwriter Nick Lowe constitutes a paradox: the songs he has written are better known than he is." Alex Turner, of the Arctic Monkeys, described Lowe as one of his favourite lyricists. In another interview, he said that he was "blown away" and sent "back to square one" by Lowe's songwriting.
Wilco covered the Nick Lowe song "I Love My Label" as the B-side to "I Might" (2011) on their own dBpm label. Nick Lowe toured with Wilco for their album The Whole Love and would make guest appearances on his "Cruel to Be Kind" and (along with Mavis Staples) appeared onstage for a cover of the Band's song "The Weight."
Discography
Jesus of Cool (1978)
Labour of Lust (1979)
Nick the Knife (1982)
The Abominable Showman (1983)
Nick Lowe and His Cowboy Outfit (1984)
The Rose of England (1985)
Pinker and Prouder Than Previous (1988)
Party of One (1990)
The Impossible Bird (1994)
Dig My Mood (1998)
The Convincer (2001)
At My Age (2007)
The Old Magic (2011)
Quality Street: A Seasonal Selection for All the Family (2013)
See also
List of 1970s one-hit wonders in the United States
References
External links
1949 births
Living people
English record producers
English rock guitarists
English male singer-songwriters
English rock bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
People from Walton-on-Thames
English rock singers
English male singers
Power pop musicians
Protopunk musicians
English new wave musicians
People educated at Woodbridge School
Rockpile members
Stiff Records artists
Radar Records artists
Columbia Records artists
Reprise Records artists
Elvis Costello
Male new wave singers
Brinsley Schwarz members
Yep Roc Records artists
Proper Records artists
|
[
0.1584087461233139,
0.7602630257606506,
-0.24871428310871124,
-0.7118000388145447,
-0.08264554291963577,
0.9406517148017883,
0.4166775941848755,
-0.25986000895500183,
-0.014598076231777668,
0.025551073253154755,
-0.41315922141075134,
0.5921787023544312,
0.011508855037391186,
0.07562848925590515,
0.04429760202765465,
-0.01829109899699688,
-0.7073168754577637,
-0.07491806149482727,
-0.24787238240242004,
0.05679890885949135,
-0.29466187953948975,
-0.16539078950881958,
-0.3239924907684326,
0.2161749303340912,
-0.46053993701934814,
0.7631031274795532,
0.09499918669462204,
-0.41266193985939026,
0.1331690400838852,
-0.3958887755870819,
0.439552366733551,
0.6310631036758423,
0.5929090976715088,
-0.6103358864784241,
-0.16314707696437836,
0.6568170189857483,
-0.35754451155662537,
-0.7195706963539124,
-0.5336301922798157,
0.1627565175294876,
-0.2888081669807434,
-0.09922540932893753,
0.021602803841233253,
0.27746590971946716,
-0.5348910689353943,
-0.02120574563741684,
-1.237723469734192,
0.27479106187820435,
-0.9680234789848328,
-0.2471095323562622,
-0.44765734672546387,
0.32238611578941345,
-0.2798204720020294,
-0.13335765898227692,
0.10743303596973419,
-0.17388476431369781,
0.16407525539398193,
0.1679481565952301,
-0.2076270580291748,
-0.2055739164352417,
0.27726680040359497,
-0.24470503628253937,
-0.08442916721105576,
-0.6068472266197205,
-0.005736143793910742,
-0.09173160046339035,
0.18514177203178406,
0.9661069512367249,
-0.009556736797094345,
0.00009120363392867148,
0.13813307881355286,
0.2762451767921448,
-0.13030089437961578,
-0.19519801437854767,
0.3454267382621765,
0.016005370765924454,
0.4847528636455536,
-0.6444482207298279,
0.045655302703380585,
0.7620923519134521,
0.255894273519516,
0.03521643579006195,
1.097130537033081,
0.3477640151977539,
0.4122594892978668,
-0.40888625383377075,
-0.19503381848335266,
0.7569910287857056,
-1.1469910144805908,
0.49996957182884216,
-0.33193671703338623,
-0.9170109033584595,
0.40862640738487244,
-0.061143673956394196,
0.14921319484710693,
-0.294638067483902,
0.1337926834821701,
0.5791753530502319,
0.7827006578445435,
0.125966414809227,
0.052581775933504105,
0.07575123012065887,
-0.6574657559394836,
-0.266169935464859,
-0.3747168779373169,
0.0059115043841302395,
-0.2691579759120941,
-0.8338391780853271,
-0.025039352476596832,
0.04329034686088562,
-0.01947241649031639,
0.3104453682899475,
-0.2562050521373749,
0.38691627979278564,
0.2963672876358032,
0.1687125265598297,
-0.3652155101299286,
-0.5351400971412659,
-0.732937753200531,
0.37946489453315735,
0.5095281004905701,
0.03549529239535332,
-0.0641409382224083,
0.28039008378982544,
-0.9412950873374939,
-0.41844913363456726,
0.16022811830043793,
0.11797952651977539,
-0.4976615905761719,
0.2065950632095337,
0.21528968214988708,
0.5156195759773254,
-0.18465501070022583,
-0.1622462421655655,
-0.5052365064620972,
0.009349540807306767,
0.470233678817749,
0.2638198137283325,
-0.20524665713310242,
-0.10567519068717957,
-0.3810575008392334,
0.34514451026916504,
-0.914402425289154,
-0.5601548552513123,
0.16722632944583893,
-0.073717400431633,
-0.8500936627388,
-0.12071678042411804,
-0.010578035376966,
-0.2945787310600281,
0.15556415915489197,
0.5026912689208984,
0.06506698578596115,
-0.4405902624130249,
-0.5307541489601135,
0.7227489948272705,
0.1886567920446396,
0.29304391145706177,
0.26317286491394043,
-0.41347476840019226,
0.5676711797714233,
0.01018689014017582,
-0.26520657539367676,
0.40505459904670715,
0.6006039381027222,
0.23933681845664978,
-0.10277928411960602,
0.08600922673940659,
-0.05624786764383316,
-0.242775097489357,
-0.35878151655197144,
-0.1596301943063736,
0.24313685297966003,
-0.24289646744728088,
-0.2768428325653076,
-0.3272203505039215,
0.7577492594718933,
0.6845346093177795,
0.35283008217811584,
0.21310468018054962,
-0.38929152488708496,
-0.7771440148353577,
0.000024558548830100335,
0.33628273010253906,
0.15048013627529144,
0.25836074352264404,
0.4138229489326477,
-0.1949394941329956,
0.7508701086044312,
-0.13412022590637207,
-0.8925623893737793,
-0.6938507556915283,
0.0013727393234148622,
-0.1453171819448471,
0.25974899530410767,
0.5640556216239929,
-0.31179380416870117,
-0.06973925232887268,
0.5875917673110962,
0.5665656924247742,
-0.5653087496757507,
-0.3697282373905182,
0.02483753301203251,
-0.2794169783592224,
0.08563250303268433,
0.031783077865839005,
0.8559428453445435,
-0.31084153056144714,
-0.025110239163041115,
0.11639901250600815,
0.10802671313285828,
-0.8696621060371399,
0.34493255615234375,
0.2615959346294403,
-0.8755315542221069,
-0.5151922106742859,
-0.6969282627105713,
-0.29882553219795227,
-0.02175963670015335,
-0.5561034083366394,
0.4053749144077301,
0.931122362613678,
-0.0828501284122467,
0.3071368634700775,
-0.1124645248055458,
1.2412298917770386,
0.1860874891281128,
-0.3758692145347595,
0.2590824067592621,
-0.6548390984535217,
-0.08580713719129562,
0.5296515822410583,
0.12686139345169067,
-0.4408993422985077,
0.07047685980796814,
0.2246907353401184,
0.5054553151130676,
-0.007191168610006571,
-0.2182966023683548,
-0.5583118796348572,
0.27173641324043274,
-0.09092696011066437,
-0.4431084394454956,
0.2616207003593445,
0.24418891966342926,
0.40586885809898376,
0.18795274198055267,
0.17551405727863312,
-0.05397595465183258,
0.3189406096935272,
0.43209734559059143,
0.7182992696762085,
0.6877079010009766,
0.5148531198501587,
0.2646755874156952,
0.17128683626651764,
0.26730823516845703,
-0.13549675047397614,
0.43375492095947266,
0.8373972773551941,
0.08798739314079285,
-0.0934014543890953,
0.39050233364105225,
0.03360870108008385,
0.04690934345126152,
-0.6253871321678162,
0.13866513967514038,
-0.6409730315208435,
0.47822490334510803,
-0.45778438448905945,
0.11494490504264832,
0.26081904768943787,
-0.3024706244468689,
0.6379983425140381,
0.1441342830657959,
0.5198303461074829,
0.10505830496549606,
-0.704613447189331,
0.13093002140522003,
-0.9395748376846313,
0.6210353970527649,
0.6643617749214172,
-0.3567356467247009,
-0.5083373188972473,
-0.344714492559433,
0.4871838092803955,
-0.24494002759456635,
-0.22536322474479675,
0.09662897139787674,
0.06184336915612221,
-0.42183560132980347,
1.175176978111267,
-0.09511323273181915,
0.6328351497650146,
0.13110260665416718,
0.2003793567419052,
-0.03458574041724205,
-1.0031468868255615,
0.13618573546409607,
-0.4827374219894409,
-0.14823254942893982,
-0.03834223747253418,
-0.5123329162597656,
0.021031053736805916,
0.26727932691574097,
-0.012794334441423416,
-0.3055996596813202,
-0.8279484510421753,
-5.499711990356445,
-0.47912362217903137,
0.0552525520324707,
-0.41322702169418335,
0.8450093865394592,
0.07096949219703674,
0.2775726616382599,
-0.8094109892845154,
-0.11768747866153717,
-0.4730577766895294,
-0.6509113311767578,
0.25543737411499023,
-0.25704753398895264,
0.8033571839332581,
0.7828275561332703,
0.3559284806251526,
0.07942665368318558,
0.04420091211795807,
0.3409087061882019,
0.1617845743894577,
-0.4833132326602936,
-0.42561957240104675,
-0.10713116824626923,
-0.11826018244028091,
-0.8751090168952942,
-0.08968345820903778,
-0.36831042170524597,
-0.13876354694366455,
-0.7707803249359131,
0.06960448622703552,
-0.016077261418104172,
-0.31382790207862854,
-0.4878154695034027,
-0.19963042438030243,
-0.20974361896514893,
-0.20694351196289062,
0.21860775351524353,
-0.22193221747875214,
0.3182372748851776,
-0.38366419076919556,
0.2078671008348465,
0.12280091643333435,
-0.11494948714971542,
0.056744515895843506,
0.03494040668010712,
-0.21257297694683075,
-0.6410749554634094,
-0.47709792852401733,
-0.09292083233594894,
0.9586873054504395,
0.4632972776889801,
-0.04951814189553261,
0.11494635045528412,
-0.5226043462753296,
-0.056522756814956665,
0.09490790963172913,
0.825807511806488,
0.07865572720766068,
-0.5693144202232361,
0.29508382081985474,
0.7275347709655762,
-0.09152577817440033,
-0.04093853011727333,
-0.024334877729415894,
0.09519102424383163,
-0.19207432866096497,
-0.1932985931634903,
-0.1728769838809967,
0.167231485247612,
-0.7243165373802185,
0.3310578763484955,
0.28523868322372437,
0.24835598468780518,
-1.605497121810913,
-0.5383326411247253,
-0.2948110103607178,
0.37885037064552307,
0.08157907426357269,
-0.5468664765357971,
-0.021764233708381653,
-0.022480390965938568,
-0.11128571629524231,
-0.24807390570640564,
0.6093107461929321,
-0.28849098086357117,
-0.34318771958351135,
-0.5296437740325928,
0.25434547662734985,
0.09375473111867905,
-0.6336912512779236,
-0.0012119876919314265,
-0.513748049736023,
-0.25440341234207153,
-0.15800847113132477,
0.26767048239707947,
0.43435904383659363,
0.41613733768463135,
0.9443247318267822,
0.40289995074272156,
0.19918091595172882,
-0.4548807740211487,
-0.16146615147590637,
-0.30926644802093506,
-0.47511783242225647,
0.04752537980675697,
-0.33724528551101685,
0.08739364892244339,
-0.6063792109489441,
0.7264248132705688,
-0.21161453425884247,
0.4449623227119446,
0.5940268039703369,
-0.5713898539543152,
-0.12298845499753952,
0.14371098577976227,
-0.3597841262817383,
0.08124852925539017,
0.2804346978664398,
-0.11117629706859589,
0.310676634311676,
0.35250958800315857,
0.3835986256599426,
0.3501558005809784,
-0.061251457780599594,
-0.2580384910106659,
0.06413298845291138,
0.3382429778575897,
-0.5159263014793396,
0.42051565647125244,
0.24211446940898895,
-0.08723261207342148,
0.5674371123313904,
-0.026306290179491043,
0.06696779280900955,
0.09613905847072601,
-0.11376877874135971,
-0.5127588510513306,
0.05998542159795761,
0.06746051460504532,
-0.020338287577033043,
0.5897389054298401,
-0.39505845308303833,
0.5527553558349609,
0.4599214196205139,
0.4606524705886841,
0.09746956825256348,
-0.19124828279018402,
0.34975025057792664,
-0.0345541276037693,
0.04516633227467537,
-0.1253785341978073,
-0.15975551307201385,
0.5499118566513062,
-1.0038907527923584,
-0.35460004210472107,
-0.13627400994300842,
-1.0092536211013794,
-0.3969055414199829,
-0.013365641236305237,
-0.20510712265968323,
0.3341507017612457,
-0.5204631686210632,
-1.0763756036758423,
-0.05126596614718437,
0.09214451909065247,
0.5494788289070129,
-0.07429308444261551,
0.02041039802134037,
-0.22775797545909882,
0.3736618161201477,
-0.13280223309993744,
-0.24155332148075104,
-0.4091097116470337,
-0.2028443068265915,
0.0214302446693182,
0.21473529934883118,
-0.1295151263475418,
-0.10568054765462875,
0.03112737089395523,
0.09622779488563538,
-0.30625173449516296,
0.5276477336883545,
-0.5959800481796265,
-0.3042297661304474,
0.2003476321697235,
-0.4579954445362091,
-1.0790642499923706,
-0.53488689661026,
0.30938607454299927,
-0.1479986160993576,
-0.47154226899147034,
-0.15556901693344116,
0.7039206027984619,
0.6270991563796997,
-0.07535865157842636,
-0.4898187518119812,
0.22482991218566895,
-0.15833154320716858,
-0.21745708584785461,
-0.4783696234226227,
0.30936741828918457,
-0.10491480678319931,
0.20421458780765533,
-0.28668317198753357,
0.3291579782962799,
-0.9816452264785767,
-0.37879687547683716,
0.2890090346336365,
-0.7274343371391296,
0.8331502676010132,
-0.20292192697525024,
-0.39972782135009766,
-0.28276365995407104,
0.4783022999763489,
-0.39954230189323425,
0.11732401698827744,
0.24321779608726501,
0.22880882024765015,
-0.16125063598155975,
-0.405608206987381,
-0.70000821352005,
0.12102212011814117,
-0.26570671796798706,
0.4045950472354889,
-0.4761201739311218,
-0.10756812989711761,
0.352264940738678,
-0.062401045113801956,
0.27052798867225647,
-0.37927332520484924,
0.07612963765859604,
0.2473512589931488,
0.41472771763801575,
0.3116993010044098,
0.0651266798377037,
0.2725655734539032,
-0.0427105575799942,
0.7466171979904175,
0.015927264466881752,
0.43043774366378784,
0.550183117389679,
0.7792515158653259,
0.40513110160827637,
-0.2740398645401001,
0.18576611578464508,
0.11542580276727676,
0.8067207336425781,
-0.420561820268631,
-0.6625986695289612,
0.33733150362968445,
0.30917778611183167,
0.33142662048339844,
-0.36122360825538635,
0.16852806508541107,
0.7774722576141357,
-0.53281569480896,
-0.1356375366449356,
-0.4223945736885071,
0.17081494629383087,
-0.25728222727775574,
0.38839954137802124,
0.3932311534881592,
0.22369711101055145,
-0.09643381834030151,
0.0019773163367062807,
0.43990468978881836,
0.01085344236344099,
-0.41305869817733765,
0.01527877151966095,
-0.4226047992706299,
-0.17119501531124115,
0.04849091172218323,
-0.20380796492099762,
0.6298778057098389,
-0.022573785856366158,
0.09032939374446869,
0.1317613422870636,
-0.5350056886672974,
0.23439526557922363,
-0.38836801052093506,
-0.11232457309961319,
0.057713016867637634,
0.28162676095962524,
-0.5186997652053833,
0.22111424803733826,
-0.23277497291564941,
-0.4375626742839813,
-0.27039164304733276,
0.36151084303855896,
-0.34660351276397705,
0.07336428761482239,
0.4655640423297882,
-0.4494137465953827,
0.3989677131175995,
-0.4142342507839203,
0.020634647458791733,
-0.3969292640686035,
0.5902008414268494,
-0.6280339956283569,
-0.4741501808166504,
0.5851288437843323,
0.27555495500564575,
0.5893294811248779,
-0.07093288749456406,
0.11340256780385971,
0.06331176310777664,
-0.3470664322376251,
-0.5380513668060303,
-0.10535832494497299,
0.1757766455411911,
0.6189610362052917,
0.08879482001066208,
0.013130045495927334,
0.430808424949646,
-0.24986882507801056,
0.07009446620941162,
0.8299685716629028,
-0.7213960886001587,
0.45557692646980286,
0.5928671360015869,
-0.47795963287353516,
-0.13040964305400848,
0.3907219469547272,
-0.0724339708685875,
0.12941303849220276,
0.4258594810962677,
-0.1259610950946808,
-0.13153113424777985,
0.06774479150772095,
0.4299025535583496,
0.12044788897037506,
-0.1641499549150467,
0.5350738763809204,
0.43968063592910767,
0.03081829659640789,
-0.7693291902542114,
-0.1679750680923462,
0.22451037168502808,
0.14972089231014252,
0.1505504697561264,
-0.7484856843948364,
0.4488164186477661,
0.3331739604473114,
0.2613498866558075,
0.4000425636768341,
0.3115686774253845,
-0.25819018483161926,
0.43157508969306946,
-0.42761728167533875,
-0.2054157555103302,
0.4826714098453522,
-0.07834454625844955,
0.17059212923049927,
-0.08117160201072693,
-0.018381208181381226,
0.016408944502472878,
0.6844517588615417,
-0.3360734283924103,
0.21460436284542084,
0.49258679151535034,
0.2376232147216797,
0.1430235654115677,
0.5587102770805359,
0.5954745411872864,
-0.18549780547618866,
-0.29990801215171814,
-0.13102683424949646,
-0.6834605932235718,
0.16441233456134796,
0.8151242733001709,
0.35393840074539185,
0.05897202715277672,
-0.20795173943042755,
0.7694262266159058,
0.12255736440420151,
-0.4682672619819641,
0.439755380153656,
0.0837685763835907,
-0.4414631426334381,
-0.2559082508087158,
-0.5575982332229614,
0.30205121636390686,
-0.17511393129825592,
-0.2023901790380478,
0.16189232468605042,
-0.5737307667732239,
-0.4571719765663147,
-0.05182623118162155,
-0.2009207308292389,
-0.21612586081027985,
0.3545621931552887,
-0.7805998921394348,
-0.3149760067462921,
-0.10927242785692215,
-1.0084142684936523,
-0.39665061235427856,
0.30705803632736206,
0.4426639676094055,
0.6552313566207886,
-0.14190338551998138,
0.23548032343387604,
0.5177270770072937,
-0.08137350529432297,
0.24613948166370392,
-0.1820744425058365,
0.6203460693359375,
-0.29167768359184265,
-0.008038771338760853,
-0.005794208031147718,
1.0116866827011108,
0.1283172070980072,
0.03497549891471863,
-0.20235809683799744,
0.23528975248336792,
-0.4110070765018463,
-0.15078210830688477,
0.30926650762557983,
0.11976461857557297,
0.24927663803100586,
-0.30712538957595825,
0.3964894711971283,
0.8119675517082214,
0.11026693880558014,
-0.3837396204471588,
0.16820800304412842,
0.5638031363487244,
-0.2843685448169708,
-0.016367070376873016,
-0.04620136320590973,
0.8048389554023743,
-0.32482805848121643,
0.07413686811923981,
-0.5022969245910645,
-0.3088061809539795,
-0.32347744703292847,
-0.9169944524765015,
0.36278364062309265,
0.6677430868148804,
0.33188337087631226,
-0.26818519830703735,
0.6552037000656128,
0.041700031608343124,
-0.0718870684504509,
-0.1759699136018753,
-0.31004607677459717,
-0.11830948293209076,
0.2536678910255432,
-0.728561520576477,
-0.7015206813812256,
0.25833895802497864,
0.5999197959899902,
-0.31963375210762024,
-0.03603874519467354,
-0.2905474007129669,
-0.2117202877998352,
-0.34515076875686646,
0.11461134254932404,
0.29875800013542175,
0.3470645546913147,
-0.26716503500938416
] |
206051
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vico%20C
|
Vico C
|
Luis Armando Lozada Cruz (born September 8, 1971), known by his stage name Vico C, is an American rapper and record producer. Regarded as the founding father of reggaeton, Vico C has played an influential role in the development of Latin American hip hop and urban music.
Biography
Early life and influence
He was born in New York and raised in Puerto Rico. Nicknamed El Filósofo del Rap, ("The Philosopher of Rap"), Luis Armando Lozada Cruz adopted the professional name Vico C. Vico C describes reggaeton as "essentially hip-hop but with a flavor more compatible to the Caribbean." Though he maintains they are of the same essence, Vico C believes the difference lies in the quintessential music style; the beat or rhythm of the music.
As one of the founders of hip hop in Spanish, Vico C was able to show that it was possible for one to be able to rap entirely and compellingly in Spanish using just occasional English phrases or slang terms. He can be seen in the rap movement as far back as its "underground" days ghostwriting and producing music for other young performers in the Puerto Rican rap scene.
Vico C grew up in the Puerta de Tierra barrio in San Juan. He got enrolled in acting classes by the age of nine and began his professional rapping career in 1985. At first, he used to go to bodegas (grocery stores) or pharmacies, buy home recording tapes, record himself singing his songs and then sell the tapes to friends or family. Vico C was discovered by DJ Negro in 1985 whom immediately saw the great potential of hip hop in Spanish and chose to record Vico's earliest demos. Upon the positive reaction from the barrio, DJ Negro brought Vico to the most successful hip hop promoter in Puerto Rico, Jorge Oquendo (also known as 'El Sexy Boy'). Jorge Oquendo formed the record label 'Prime Records' with Vico C as the lead artist of the label. Prime Records eventually received a distribution deal via Sony BMG Latin. Prime Records is one of the most successful and influential record labels in the history of Spanish rap and reggaeton known for being the home to legendary acts such as DJ Negro, Vico- C, El General, Lisa M, Falo, Brewley MC and more.
In May 2019 he suffered seizures resulting from an allergic reaction to medication and was hospitalized but recovered.
Career
In 1988, Spanish rap in Puerto Rico was not at a popular high, and Vico-C was the first one to rap in Spanish in Puerto Rico, considered the Godfather of Spanish Hip Hop and the pioneer of this genre, there were others who followed in his footsteps, rapping in the ghettos. Brewley MC, Piro JM, Jimmy MC, Bimbo, (Lisa M, Jelly Dee Franceska, came afterward) Ruben DJ was the first rapper to sound on the radio by releasing "La Escuela" after Vico C fame was already known on the whole island for his underground lyrics. Brewley MC also recorded "El Sida Rap with Green Records". Vico C entered the charts with his song "La Recta Final" which he personally designed the album cover for, with his artistic talents. Vico C was signed to Prime Records and started touring to venues in New York, Chicago, Miami, Mexico, Venezuela, El Salvador, Panama, the Dominican Republic.
Vico C, in 1992 released his singles "Saborealo" and "María" which became gold and platinum albums, respectively. In 1994, he established his own record company VC Records, promoting such singers as Lissy Estrella, Francheska, and Lisa M who were originally his back up dancers. In 1990, Vico C was involved in a near-fatal motorcycle accident. His injuries led to his abuse of heroin, cocaine, and alcohol.
Soon after, he became an evangelical Christian and went into a voluntary semi-retirement. In 1998, he resurfaced, with the "rambunctious", Christian rap CD Aquel Que Había Muerto. The new CD went gold and in 1999, he returned to the touring scene with his concert Antes y después. Soon after, he released a sequel to Aquel Que Había Muerto. With that, he earned the Latino Rap of the year award by Billboard.
In 2003, Vico C released an album titled En Honor A La Verdad. While it was not a major hit it still sold well and one of the album's singles "El Bueno, El Malo y El Feo", referring to Eddie Dee, himself and Tego Calderón respectively. The single was widely heard. The single was a great combination of the best "Conscience" subgenre of rap artists.
Vico C's recent albums include Desahogo, in early 2005. The album was a success and born June 3, 2006, he came back with another concert, El Encuentro.
Many consider Vico C to be a pioneer of rap. Music industry figures called him the "father and creator of rap". He has worked alongside artists including Big Boy, Eddie Dee, Héctor & Tito, Tego Calderón. He has also worked with producers Baby Ranks, Tony Touch and Luny Tunes.
He has sung alongside salsa singer Gilberto Santa Rosa and cumbia group Kumbia Kings.
Vico C tries to maintain a Christian theme throughout his music. His brother Jay Lozada is a salsa musician.
In 2020 music by Vico C was part of the annual Banco Popular Christmas songs compilation album.
Legacy
Vico C is renowned as the most influential artist in the history of Spanish Hip Hop and Reggaeton throughout Latin America and Spain. Vico is recognized for having lyrics that were thoughtful, insightful, socially conscious as well as catchy and danceable songs for all kind of audiences. The musical blueprint implemented by DJ Negro and Vico C is the precursor of the genre now known as reggaeton. Many Spanish hip hop/reggaeton journalists and experts consider Vico C as the greatest or one of the greatest artists in the history of the genre.
Albums
Studio albums
Hispanic Soul (1991)
Xplosión (1993)
Con poder (1996)
Aquel Que Había Muerto (1998)
Emboscada (2002)
En Honor A La Verdad (2003)
Desahogo (2005)
Babilla (2009)
Accolades
American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Awards
!
|-
!scope="row"|2017
|Vico C
|Vanguard Award
|
|
|}
Billboard Latin Music Awards
Grammy Awards
!
|-
!scope="row"|2006
|Desahogo
|Best Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative Album
|
|
|}
Latin Grammy Awards
!
|-
!scope="row"|2002
|Vivo
|rowspan=5|Best Urban Music Album
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|2003
|Emboscada
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|2004
|En Honor A La Verdad
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|2005
|Desahogo
|
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan="2"|2010
|Babilla
|
|rowspan="2"|
|-
|"Sentimiento"
|rowspan="2"|Best Urban Song
|
|-
!scope="row"|2017
|"Papá"
|
|
|}
Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame
!
|-
!scope="row"|2016
|rowspan="2"|Vico C
|rowspan="2"|Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame – Performer
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|2018
|
|
|}
Lo Nuestro Awards
!
|-
!scope="row"|2003
|Emboscada
|Urban Album of the Year
|
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan="2"|2006
|Desahogo
|Urban Album of the Year
|
|rowspan="2"|
|-
|"Desahogo"
|Video of the Year
|
|}
See also
List of Puerto Rican songwriters
List of Puerto Ricans
Music of Puerto Rico
References
External links
Vico C interview
Vico C Biographic film directed by Eduardo Ortíz
1971 births
Living people
Hip hop singers
Puerto Rican rappers
Capitol Latin artists
Latin music songwriters
Rappers from Brooklyn
Spanish-language singers of the United States
American people of Puerto Rican descent
Puerto Rican reggaeton musicians
21st-century American rappers
|
[
0.13889291882514954,
0.1314798891544342,
0.19114737212657928,
0.34225165843963623,
-0.02502395398914814,
0.19232775270938873,
0.42490339279174805,
0.4142581820487976,
-0.4564289450645447,
0.3725314736366272,
0.11359042674303055,
0.37572017312049866,
-0.24159139394760132,
0.5278497934341431,
0.024059247225522995,
-0.023224985226988792,
-0.2060834914445877,
0.2846156656742096,
-0.1709815412759781,
0.03609022870659828,
-0.33102017641067505,
0.1819962114095688,
0.11372411251068115,
-0.12588976323604584,
-0.4745643436908722,
0.7294954657554626,
-0.9884538054466248,
0.4282648265361786,
-0.08716320991516113,
-0.2824501097202301,
0.6000193357467651,
0.12281456589698792,
0.9483543038368225,
-0.4125220477581024,
-0.5572476983070374,
0.06017676368355751,
-0.6584705710411072,
-0.3266691565513611,
-0.5501004457473755,
-0.8213393688201904,
-0.38639870285987854,
-0.2548467218875885,
-0.4116264283657074,
-0.6205666661262512,
-0.4701126515865326,
-0.49105069041252136,
-0.8878853917121887,
0.4761166274547577,
-1.0689560174942017,
-0.6659676432609558,
-0.4713413417339325,
0.4122106730937958,
-0.9579088687896729,
-0.20026911795139313,
0.09408677369356155,
-0.19316738843917847,
-0.9369550347328186,
-0.6364248991012573,
0.11380022019147873,
-0.49689364433288574,
0.0661488026380539,
-0.0018057181732729077,
0.6050249934196472,
-0.4703597128391266,
0.21268001198768616,
-0.05933849886059761,
0.10747820138931274,
0.4718490540981293,
-0.3583495020866394,
-0.2536596357822418,
-0.08204124867916107,
0.5237846374511719,
0.09608501195907593,
-0.5006921291351318,
-0.251129150390625,
-0.32448771595954895,
0.3007839322090149,
0.0479881577193737,
-0.13475970923900604,
1.1338703632354736,
0.2859855890274048,
-0.25438737869262695,
1.1961089372634888,
0.5786133408546448,
0.0023702913895249367,
0.29045814275741577,
-0.7162080407142639,
0.21827811002731323,
-1.0325642824172974,
0.2547565996646881,
-0.9306394457817078,
-0.12004728615283966,
0.5959387421607971,
0.10762540251016617,
-0.1099817305803299,
-0.40472930669784546,
-0.12452830374240875,
0.24139119684696198,
-0.3623955547809601,
0.3161851763725281,
-0.28416746854782104,
-0.08026964217424393,
-0.1551699936389923,
0.12469089776277542,
-0.7241744995117188,
0.4094947576522827,
0.12128425389528275,
0.2906707525253296,
-0.32489925622940063,
-0.6707159876823425,
-0.09642745554447174,
-0.3784835934638977,
-0.19582316279411316,
0.5715117454528809,
0.5753863453865051,
0.49637290835380554,
0.5443634390830994,
0.2126232385635376,
-0.2487950623035431,
-0.3040013313293457,
-0.460640013217926,
0.5358741283416748,
0.04280266538262367,
0.4312833547592163,
-0.44894230365753174,
0.17469342052936554,
0.21934553980827332,
-0.28447961807250977,
0.041424710303545,
0.3020724356174469,
0.3283316493034363,
0.4313693344593048,
0.36733177304267883,
-0.35259249806404114,
-0.6608149409294128,
-0.5828332304954529,
-0.44685888290405273,
0.2545863687992096,
-0.37182125449180603,
-0.35077905654907227,
-0.4429227411746979,
-0.16666245460510254,
-0.37714090943336487,
-0.10410813242197037,
-0.11534781008958817,
0.09977754950523376,
-0.7372628450393677,
0.047017574310302734,
-0.020873723551630974,
0.354439914226532,
0.21877005696296692,
0.0607202909886837,
-0.2699494957923889,
-0.7152853608131409,
-0.1258780062198639,
0.4888841509819031,
0.1154666393995285,
-0.24706515669822693,
0.11181468516588211,
-0.4284803569316864,
0.10847094655036926,
-0.011310156434774399,
-0.05340695381164551,
0.7243872880935669,
0.4307560622692108,
-0.4968191981315613,
-0.23874147236347198,
0.22455991804599762,
-0.44506967067718506,
0.0671827495098114,
-0.4351659119129181,
0.17623615264892578,
0.06716778129339218,
-0.6700680255889893,
-0.0796569287776947,
0.15480831265449524,
0.7365944981575012,
0.012590739876031876,
0.18226675689220428,
0.22230690717697144,
-0.4470469653606415,
0.33196309208869934,
0.20962244272232056,
-0.2027413696050644,
-0.11041875928640366,
-0.44706204533576965,
0.21398717164993286,
-0.4992181360721588,
0.6834966540336609,
-0.18246300518512726,
-0.48534685373306274,
-0.02361324243247509,
0.5962236523628235,
0.003067545359954238,
-0.2985372543334961,
0.6998471021652222,
-0.49778351187705994,
0.6889328956604004,
-0.0743877962231636,
0.42689040303230286,
-0.5941228866577148,
-0.022940361872315407,
0.6939175128936768,
-0.7320979833602905,
-0.6765478253364563,
0.3559208810329437,
0.8680389523506165,
0.38838592171669006,
-0.08514101803302765,
0.7657299637794495,
-0.3148113191127777,
-0.5470104217529297,
0.18620121479034424,
-0.7366989254951477,
0.13625934720039368,
-0.5431538224220276,
-0.3226166069507599,
-0.07385522127151489,
0.187170147895813,
0.04184820130467415,
0.7400780320167542,
0.23973269760608673,
-0.42116934061050415,
0.5476251244544983,
-0.3377794921398163,
1.0432552099227905,
-0.16244198381900787,
-0.6524752378463745,
0.4020656943321228,
-0.6187558174133301,
0.3654078245162964,
0.20546984672546387,
0.12006035447120667,
-0.6892540454864502,
-0.09588764607906342,
0.8791968822479248,
0.1364799439907074,
-0.2487931102514267,
-0.14522674679756165,
-0.6799123287200928,
0.7309101223945618,
0.27110594511032104,
-0.6102749109268188,
-0.0717838779091835,
0.592191219329834,
0.6482082009315491,
-0.5195234417915344,
0.0767325833439827,
-0.3898443579673767,
0.5140833258628845,
0.23741348087787628,
0.5751790404319763,
0.25066372752189636,
-0.40685784816741943,
0.6049967408180237,
0.10520357638597488,
0.23306474089622498,
-0.4716790020465851,
-0.10464677959680557,
-0.18886014819145203,
-0.4872805178165436,
0.1284303516149521,
0.14704231917858124,
0.7044637799263,
0.7324264049530029,
-0.38713717460632324,
0.3714370131492615,
-0.21490958333015442,
-0.06854051351547241,
-0.24672897160053253,
0.2923148572444916,
-0.2877017557621002,
0.017552345991134644,
-0.0300517026335001,
0.20307572185993195,
0.05009374022483826,
0.3437381982803345,
-0.3645267188549042,
-0.3647364377975464,
-1.4908785820007324,
0.46539413928985596,
0.07934185862541199,
-0.2750200629234314,
-0.628868043422699,
0.07663344591856003,
-0.029655305668711662,
-0.49715375900268555,
-0.013108243234455585,
-0.27884939312934875,
-0.5933284163475037,
-0.6322624087333679,
-0.11898162961006165,
-0.713970422744751,
1.018072247505188,
-0.31534525752067566,
-0.8187705278396606,
-0.1349920630455017,
-0.10639708489179611,
-0.053323931992053986,
-0.2258874624967575,
-0.34894970059394836,
0.5816497206687927,
-0.15142686665058136,
0.019056083634495735,
0.5112497210502625,
0.04251154512166977,
0.5552634000778198,
0.0686916634440422,
-5.408982276916504,
0.5287882685661316,
-0.400890052318573,
-0.17805399000644684,
0.17623648047447205,
-0.2026565968990326,
0.17914320528507233,
-0.17054075002670288,
0.4175677001476288,
-0.4387470483779907,
-0.5692754983901978,
-0.04104921221733093,
0.09723524749279022,
0.4318493902683258,
0.6198614239692688,
0.7292672395706177,
-0.3288896977901459,
-0.36585935950279236,
0.16172772645950317,
0.7988913655281067,
-0.13746009767055511,
0.2946525812149048,
-0.2631297707557678,
0.17272105813026428,
-0.08553537726402283,
0.016206596046686172,
-1.0009254217147827,
0.4301883280277252,
-1.5134061574935913,
0.4082813560962677,
-0.48648473620414734,
0.3029707670211792,
-0.8537232279777527,
-0.4979631006717682,
-0.14865848422050476,
-0.14818984270095825,
0.7029073238372803,
-0.1918269395828247,
-0.25058409571647644,
0.00035283988108858466,
0.15838053822517395,
-0.18909350037574768,
-0.24025705456733704,
-0.1047310084104538,
0.331296443939209,
0.3210839629173279,
-0.6218703389167786,
-0.7238591313362122,
-0.4615703225135803,
0.4309384226799011,
0.521944522857666,
-0.7766690254211426,
0.03057337924838066,
-0.07945761829614639,
0.37817224860191345,
-0.2584444284439087,
0.42193007469177246,
0.03357875719666481,
-0.7286548614501953,
0.7060676217079163,
1.192038893699646,
-0.2524881660938263,
0.03366772457957268,
-0.3339415490627289,
0.463796466588974,
0.2986835539340973,
0.884028434753418,
0.01051375363022089,
0.22586394846439362,
-0.2157895714044571,
0.4084280729293823,
0.5089355111122131,
-0.26313257217407227,
-1.1802626848220825,
-0.3606317341327667,
-0.2676578760147095,
-0.2366417646408081,
0.9319944977760315,
-0.4143020212650299,
-0.2864137589931488,
0.13324332237243652,
-0.22051118314266205,
0.07657793164253235,
0.1656709462404251,
-0.30936288833618164,
0.01349838450551033,
-0.07189647853374481,
0.5676553845405579,
-0.10711430758237839,
0.8249618411064148,
0.23246616125106812,
-0.22639338672161102,
0.49885767698287964,
0.1885228157043457,
-0.25697073340415955,
-0.34902137517929077,
0.3552679717540741,
0.4874555766582489,
-0.16061608493328094,
0.21262407302856445,
0.2973829507827759,
-0.2657982110977173,
-0.23544731736183167,
-0.40762627124786377,
0.2984267771244049,
-0.4674811065196991,
0.12517116963863373,
-0.3406410217285156,
-0.03142569214105606,
-0.39888298511505127,
0.5258583426475525,
0.2383231371641159,
-0.3532586097717285,
-0.22006094455718994,
0.790052592754364,
-0.19457101821899414,
-0.37539634108543396,
0.4041624069213867,
0.23657557368278503,
-0.021439775824546814,
0.4490219056606293,
0.7134890556335449,
0.32997098565101624,
0.20411737263202667,
-0.7562397718429565,
-0.034392379224300385,
-0.017621168866753578,
0.5472015142440796,
0.15054617822170258,
-0.002585336333140731,
-0.6062793731689453,
0.4492337703704834,
0.3472135365009308,
-0.19049429893493652,
0.08355351537466049,
0.12421758472919464,
-0.02622382529079914,
-0.9685627818107605,
0.38923031091690063,
-0.4955611526966095,
0.07526747137308121,
0.13717377185821533,
0.2812686562538147,
0.2644725441932678,
0.48942893743515015,
-0.21025212109088898,
-0.02125680260360241,
-0.34427520632743835,
-0.584563672542572,
0.684498131275177,
0.9671140909194946,
-0.5224370360374451,
0.3803311288356781,
0.025044534355401993,
-0.6574112176895142,
-0.14755341410636902,
-0.24594473838806152,
-0.21139109134674072,
0.331153929233551,
-0.19118709862232208,
1.2473281621932983,
-0.3696591556072235,
-1.1716601848602295,
-0.21449677646160126,
0.03516974300146103,
0.17765340209007263,
-0.46278995275497437,
-0.23572184145450592,
-0.5097779631614685,
0.5245173573493958,
-0.1324337273836136,
-0.4809185862541199,
-0.3345077633857727,
-0.4442842900753021,
-0.08576227724552155,
-0.0574677437543869,
-0.0975634753704071,
-0.4477927088737488,
-0.12734170258045197,
0.7321628332138062,
0.08124665915966034,
0.0009472895180806518,
-0.29759055376052856,
-0.3663184940814972,
0.2123417854309082,
-0.02979418821632862,
-0.5971368551254272,
0.08000854402780533,
-0.026935521513223648,
0.3891008794307709,
-0.20615573227405548,
0.14326931536197662,
0.4393928050994873,
0.3345506489276886,
0.0490068681538105,
-0.7597042918205261,
-0.31367677450180054,
0.8494142293930054,
-0.15549792349338531,
-0.20738975703716278,
0.11682558804750443,
-0.08912041038274765,
0.09373939782381058,
0.35738155245780945,
0.6485260128974915,
-0.15556803345680237,
0.025586973875761032,
0.3056751787662506,
-0.4048018753528595,
0.26534318923950195,
-0.28863126039505005,
-0.5405020713806152,
0.0634993240237236,
0.34109243750572205,
0.08106038719415665,
-0.23184238374233246,
0.3398951292037964,
0.06305891275405884,
-0.26408061385154724,
-0.39433571696281433,
0.1452958732843399,
-0.173643559217453,
-0.3165087103843689,
-0.17898903787136078,
-0.4582168459892273,
0.5775712728500366,
0.04381020739674568,
-0.12215971201658249,
0.6961327791213989,
-0.09126706421375275,
0.26067298650741577,
-0.2825779914855957,
0.3001236021518707,
0.5425968170166016,
-0.649294376373291,
0.27515918016433716,
-0.3070109486579895,
1.0493712425231934,
-0.025230824947357178,
-0.12686781585216522,
0.3167162835597992,
0.4848543703556061,
0.06052543967962265,
-0.2977055311203003,
0.8461058139801025,
0.2282143533229828,
0.5389418005943298,
-0.27982884645462036,
-0.22444546222686768,
0.3762689530849457,
0.34994813799858093,
-0.18727022409439087,
-0.5373823642730713,
0.44269508123397827,
0.8484501242637634,
-0.6172312498092651,
-0.15692101418972015,
-0.5575442910194397,
0.14499935507774353,
0.2884375751018524,
0.3867378532886505,
0.28364503383636475,
-0.5437729358673096,
0.31834354996681213,
-0.3757956922054291,
0.4404810965061188,
-0.19470536708831787,
0.17612481117248535,
0.4489209055900574,
-0.6836093068122864,
0.2279500812292099,
-0.21515707671642303,
0.38890740275382996,
0.9953554272651672,
-0.1338525414466858,
0.5309626460075378,
0.5098649859428406,
-0.09195353090763092,
0.09478052705526352,
-0.15003977715969086,
-0.5837267637252808,
0.5417832136154175,
0.11096566915512085,
-0.02540620043873787,
0.19260263442993164,
0.182437464594841,
-0.3747859597206116,
0.33638325333595276,
0.20837408304214478,
0.8092589378356934,
-0.4040992856025696,
1.1490815877914429,
-0.2036246657371521,
0.3033110201358795,
-0.05552302300930023,
0.13928735256195068,
-0.10017658770084381,
0.7189151048660278,
0.13129206001758575,
0.12565287947654724,
0.16400210559368134,
0.3070323169231415,
0.8373069167137146,
-0.28009456396102905,
-0.06842485070228577,
-0.1883734166622162,
0.20936712622642517,
-0.5488923788070679,
-0.11726260930299759,
-0.3212965428829193,
-0.3819533586502075,
0.05588746815919876,
0.2469329535961151,
-0.2955889105796814,
-0.8966292142868042,
0.7161372900009155,
1.1086808443069458,
0.09259877353906631,
-0.03806892782449722,
-0.023174859583377838,
0.1984996348619461,
-0.1864515244960785,
0.663729727268219,
0.3135382831096649,
0.9562554359436035,
0.34021061658859253,
-0.6084502339363098,
-0.31656575202941895,
-0.059993162751197815,
0.20887820422649384,
0.03645290061831474,
-0.07863563299179077,
-0.17950385808944702,
0.8563976883888245,
0.10782910138368607,
0.11932041496038437,
-0.297212153673172,
0.10182618349790573,
-0.058587390929460526,
0.07421013712882996,
-0.05776335671544075,
0.3616364300251007,
0.14164908230304718,
0.35816752910614014,
0.25315022468566895,
0.2624812424182892,
0.06723760813474655,
-0.018725495785474777,
-0.003515182761475444,
-0.022681228816509247,
-0.12841874361038208,
-0.1989600509405136,
0.09784111380577087,
-0.6211603879928589,
0.351449579000473,
-0.008952096104621887,
0.035182755440473557,
0.6481088995933533,
-0.5391502976417542,
-0.3427395820617676,
-0.3008498251438141,
0.017701465636491776,
1.0545494556427002,
0.011992390267550945,
-0.708422839641571,
-0.2046307921409607,
0.380332350730896,
-0.3114936351776123,
-0.34974098205566406,
0.47857820987701416,
-0.02721315808594227,
0.27006831765174866,
-0.5267131924629211,
0.8282654285430908,
-0.015053285285830498,
0.25301820039749146,
0.24835902452468872,
0.4768451154232025,
-0.6190325617790222,
-0.06155116483569145,
-0.32159093022346497,
-0.3357366919517517,
-0.40258029103279114,
0.3077920079231262,
0.010455556213855743,
-0.03730424866080284,
-0.5910935401916504,
-0.038791801780462265,
-0.31310901045799255,
0.2736065089702606,
0.24465690553188324,
-0.5050740242004395,
-0.043151866644620895,
0.3560413718223572,
0.044987015426158905,
-0.08618221431970596,
-0.46204501390457153,
0.604997456073761,
0.4586694538593292,
-0.2749217748641968,
0.16160035133361816,
-0.0433255136013031,
-0.005337737500667572,
-0.5916862487792969,
-0.19141153991222382,
0.050723426043987274,
-0.4414849579334259,
-0.027627870440483093,
-0.5002952814102173,
1.0822455883026123,
0.036741774529218674,
-0.16198232769966125,
-0.6881335973739624,
0.5029019117355347,
-0.3364587724208832,
0.42674174904823303,
0.7028210759162903,
-0.052787117660045624,
-0.18753349781036377,
-0.7674176692962646,
-0.0017088708700612187,
0.415473997592926,
0.07628098875284195,
0.3230712413787842,
0.1688917875289917,
0.4185192584991455,
-0.21812352538108826,
0.21752476692199707,
-0.8733116984367371,
0.3031907081604004,
-0.08962012827396393,
-0.31255409121513367,
-0.6036780476570129,
-0.42490866780281067,
-0.19956156611442566,
-0.6449767351150513,
0.5637500882148743,
0.7363360524177551,
0.14322905242443085,
0.028636401519179344,
0.7101371884346008,
0.21897292137145996,
0.07142840325832367,
-1.005881428718567,
0.24041008949279785,
0.0421624556183815,
-0.22244372963905334,
0.24399521946907043,
-0.6122092604637146,
-0.11579705774784088,
-0.11802184581756592,
-0.10598607361316681,
0.5170857906341553,
-0.412151038646698,
0.11643387377262115,
-0.03134120628237724,
0.13921287655830383,
-0.26907017827033997,
-0.29433727264404297,
-0.4415135979652405
] |
206053
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashley%20Cycles
|
Pashley Cycles
|
Pashley Cycles is a British bicycle, tricycle and workbike manufacturer based in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England. The company was started in 1926 and still manufactures bikes in the UK.
Formation and early years
In 1926, William Rathbone 'Rath' Pashley founded Pashley and Barber in New John Street West, Birmingham. Pashley and Barber declared that they were 'Manufacturers of every type of cycle' and that 'Birmingham produces the finest cycles, these are Birmingham's best'. The model range included everyday roadsters, clubman racing machines, tradesmen's carrier cycles and tandems. Rath had been apprenticed to the Austin Motor Company before the First World War and saw military service as a despatch rider. These occupations in his early years gave him engineering knowledge and skill and also a lifelong interest in two wheel transport.
Competition in the cycle trade was very fierce and after a short while 'Rath' Pashley realised that success would come through identifying a market niche. A new company, Pashley Carrier Cycles, was formed to concentrate on building carrier cycles designed to withstand the abuse thrown at them by errand boys.
In 1936, the company was incorporated as W.R. Pashley Ltd and moved to a larger new factory (over 30,000 square feet) in Chester Street, Aston. As prosperity returned after the depression, the company increasingly focused on delivery and vending tricycles - for dairy products, ice cream and general deliveries.
In the 1930s, Pashley made almost every component of their cycles in their own factory - for the frames, only the tubing and lugs were bought in. Frame building, brakes, wheels, sheet metal work, polishing and enamelling were all carried out in the works.
War years
During the Second World War, Pashley, like many other engineering firms, turned some of its production capacity over to the war effort. Pashley's manufacturing capability proved to be of considerable value and the company produced Browning machine gun mounts among other equipment.
Post war
In the years following the war, carrier cycles were still in high demand but it was the continuation of the supply of larger tricycles, and the infant development of the motor car for the mass market, that received most of Pashley's attention. Having made motor rickshaws in the late 1940s, Pashley started the manufacture of Brockhouse Indian Motor Tricycles in 1950 - J. Brockhouse and Co. of Birmingham having acquired the Indian Motorcycle Company of Massachusetts and sub-contracted the manufacture to Pashley. These had a conventional 'two wheels at the back' tricycle layout, similar to the Pashley Pelican motorised rickshaw - with seats for up to four passengers - and the driver. Pashley were the first company to fit hydraulic brakes to what was, technically, a motorcycle. This innovation may have been influenced by Rath's younger son, John Pashley, who worked at Girling. The prototype Pelican Rickshaw has been returned to the company and awaits restoration.
Pashley also moved briefly into car manufacture in 1953, again with a conventional tricycle layout. Perhaps the most successful of the motorised Pashley tricycles was the '3cwt Light Delivery Truck' with a Kendrick wheel layout. This meant two wheels at the front, giving the driver a view of both the loadspace and the overall vehicle width, useful for manoeuvering in tight spaces.
As more conventional motorised transport became available to most businesses in the early 1960s, Pashley's focus moved away from motorised vehicles and, together with the carrier cycles, trolleys, carts and street barrows, a large number of road trailers were manufactured, both as simple chassis and fully bodied.
The 1960s and a production move
The 1960s was a pivotal era for Pashley. Rath's son, Dick, took control of the company on his father's retirement. Dick had recently moved to Stratford-upon-Avon, and took the bold decision to move the company from Aston to brand new premises on Masons Road, Stratford. Production Manager John Kerby began working for the company in 1968 and remains with Pashley to this day.
With the advent of small wheel bicycles, pioneered by Alex Moulton in 1962, Dick Pashley developed a simple 'shopping' tricycle, now known as the Pashley Picador. Many thousands of these have been sold since, users benefiting from the stability and low step-through frame. Its all welded construction was very unusual for the cycle industry at the time, and many years passed before other manufacturers adopted it. A similar two-wheeled shopping bicycle, the Piccolo, was also manufactured.
As traditional roadster bicycles began being removed from the ranges of other British manufacturers, Pashley decided to focus on classic roadsters. Some companies sold rebadged Pashley Roadsters in the 1980s and 1990s. These were built to the original 1920s design. For many years, versions of these saw service in large numbers under the patronage of UNICEF. Pashley still make a traditional roadster bicycle and it is still in demand in UK and export markets.
Pashley carrier cycles and the Royal Mail
Since inception Pashley has provided carrier cycles to industry and commerce. One of the early, equal-wheel carrier cycles Pashley sold in the 1930s (the 'Model L' for £7.10.0) had a front metal tubular carrier and nameplate in a similar manner to the 'Courier' that the company sells currently. This led on to motorised delivery tricycles and the manufacture of ice-cream carts, railway station platform refreshment trolleys and specialist units for the dairy and catering trades. The company continues to make ice cream vending tricycles (Classic No. 33) alongside its other workbike products.
In 1974, Pashley acquired Gundle, the only other surviving manufacturer of carrier cycles. This cemented their position in the market for this type of bike. For many years Gundle models were built alongside the Pashley range, before being absorbed into the Pashley RH range. The RH range was named after Rath's local public house - 'The Robin Hood' in Hall Green. Pashley also made 'SW' (Small Wheel) bikes and does so today under the name 'Delibike' (see above image).
By the late 1970s, Pashley was supplying bikes to the Royal Mail. The original Royal Mail designed mail delivery cycle was single speed and equipped with rod operated brakes. Pashley was one of a small number of UK manufacturers (including Townsends Cycles) to produce this bike and in the 1990s became the sole supplier. During the mid-1990s. Pashley proposed interim upgrades to the 1992 Royal Mail design which resulted in the 'Millenium' model. This had wider tyres, reliable drum brakes and for the first time provided postal delivery staff with 3 gears.
Entering the 21st century, Pashley was faced with international competition for the supply of Royal Mail bicycles. For the first time, Royal Mail required the supplier to design the bicycle as well as manufacture it. Pashley had been developing a new load carrying bicycle called the 'Pronto' which by employing a step-through frame design would allow mail and goods to be safely carried both at the front and the rear of the cycle. This was put forward to the Royal Mail. Three suppliers from the original eight European tendering companies were shortlisted and a year-long test programme started. This involved 180 bicycles from the three manufacturers. Eventually the Pronto was chosen. The Royal Mail named it the 'Mailstar' and deliveries began in 2001. Pashley continues to supply the Royal Mail although vans and trolleys are replacing much of the bike fleet. Under its original name of Pronto, the bikes are still used for all types of deliveries by other companies in the UK and abroad.
Product development, acquisitions and mergers
Pashley launched the 'Pickle' children's tricycle in 1981. It was closely modelled on children's tricycles of the 1950s and featured proper Ball bearing hubs, headset, bottom bracket and pedals. This made it better to ride and more resilient than cheaper competitors. Pashley tandems made a re-appearance in the late 1970s with the introduction of the 'Tourmaster'. These were constructed along simpler lines than conventional tandems, and, like the Picador, used a lugless construction. As a result, they were inexpensive and popular.
In 1984, Pashley launched what was to be its last 'all British' bike - the 'Patriot'. This was a conventional sports light roadster design with all the components sourced from the UK. Some components became unavailable and the Patriot name was later used on a 24-inch wheel hire bike.
For much of the 1990s, Pashley were producing one, two and three-wheeled cycles. Unicycles were an interesting side-line for the company and as well as standard and tall ('Giraffe') models Pashley created the UMX (BMX type) and the 'Muni' (Mountain Unicycle). This particular model was successful at off-road cycling events and the term Muni became a generic term for off-road unicycles thereafter.
In late 1994, the Pashley family relinquished control to the employees in a management buyout led by Adrian Williams, an aeronautical engineer.
Pashley Special Products was set up to develop and market new models. The first of these was the 'Tube Rider'. It was modelled on the war-time Paratrooper's bicycle with twin curved tubed frame. It was acclaimed by leading cycling and style magazines. The 'Paramount' followed, using the same frame but fitted out with racks, mudguard and chainguard for city and commuting use. Pashley also worked with Land Rover to make an off-road model called 'XCB' with hydraulic disk brakes and suspension forks.
At the end of 1997, Pashley absorbed Cresswell Cycles, a manufacturer of folding bikes and specialist trailer trikes. Production of these was transferred to Stratford-upon Avon.
During 1998, the 'TV Series' range of bikes was introduced. Pashley had a number of talented Trial and Trails riders in its employ: Matt and Eddie Tongue, Tim Stedman, Kye and Toby Forte and Dylan Clayton. A range of frames were made from Reynolds tubing to tackle this specialist form of extreme riding.
In the late 1990s and 2000s (decade), the popularity of mountain biking saw a boom in the British bicycle industry. During this time, bicycle and component manufacturers in the UK began to close production facilities and specify and order their products from producers in the Far East. Sturmey-Archer and its subsidiary Brooks Saddles were sold and briefly fell into the hands of receivers. Sturmey-Archer was acquired by Sun-Race of Taiwan. Pashley shareholders acquired Brooks at this difficult time and working with Brooks employees, updated the branding and set a new course in the production of "fine leather saddles and accessories".
Pashley and Moulton
In 1991, Pashley agreed to manufacture the new small-wheeled, full suspension Moulton 'All Purpose Bicycle' or 'APB' as it was more commonly known. This brought all the features of the 'AM' series to the mass market. The 'APB 12' and 'APB '5' were launched in the spring of 1992. In 1995, a licensing deal with Land Rover resulted in the launch of a versatile, durable variant of the Moulton APB called the 'Land Rover APB', which sold in large numbers to both Land Rover owners and Moulton enthusiasts. See Moulton Bicycle for further information on the collaboration and business connection between Pashley and Moulton, which continued through the TSR range until 2008, when a new Moulton company was established.
Pashley to the present day
In recent years, Pashley has seen strong demand for its 'Classic' models, in particular the women's 'Princess' traditional loop framed bicycle with front wicker basket and Brooks leather saddle. The men's 'Roadster' is also prominent in the range. The bike is notable for its large 28-inch wheels with its 635mm Westwood rims and 'sit up and beg' riding position. Pashley has continued to evolve and improve these designs where appropriate. In 2007, the company launched the 'Guv'nor' (See above image) which was inspired by an original Pashley catalogue from the 1930s. They persuaded Reynolds to re-introduce 531 tubing. More recently Pashley has launched its 'Clubman' range, and again the frames are made with 531 and inspired by archives of the company's old brochures.
Pashley still manufacture a range of carrier cycles and tricycles that are used commercially by many companies in the UK and abroad.
See also
List of bicycle manufacturing companies
References
External links
Cycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1926
Mountain bike manufacturers
British brands
History of Birmingham, West Midlands
1926 establishments in England
Companies based in Stratford-upon-Avon
|
[
-0.07240849733352661,
0.2575078010559082,
0.19356203079223633,
-0.3749706447124481,
-0.008545727469027042,
0.5454752445220947,
0.5190430283546448,
0.022692568600177765,
-0.26312845945358276,
0.08694136142730713,
-0.04581771790981293,
-0.3057364523410797,
-0.13098746538162231,
0.5717602372169495,
0.23981234431266785,
0.12922890484333038,
-0.43454509973526,
0.34686675667762756,
0.4359068274497986,
-0.40976065397262573,
0.19259986281394958,
-0.23865345120429993,
0.4621601700782776,
-0.10337772220373154,
0.21680444478988647,
0.2914435565471649,
0.28925424814224243,
0.6284803152084351,
-0.4616602957248688,
0.09553710371255875,
0.4137571454048157,
0.8428822755813599,
0.06038831174373627,
-0.25811776518821716,
0.32721832394599915,
-0.15515340864658356,
0.2545827627182007,
-0.3269398510456085,
-0.4072493016719818,
-0.38165047764778137,
-0.16385385394096375,
-0.15453584492206573,
-0.07886763662099838,
-0.202778160572052,
0.267464280128479,
-0.5853604078292847,
-0.958499014377594,
0.26853182911872864,
-1.0902150869369507,
-0.26692286133766174,
-1.0553255081176758,
0.3216400146484375,
0.9654543399810791,
0.057605843991041183,
0.2580668330192566,
0.3183518350124359,
-0.6407716870307922,
0.3110637068748474,
0.09886834770441055,
-0.46672433614730835,
0.37824857234954834,
0.5160539746284485,
-0.08971451222896576,
0.13740958273410797,
0.06342429667711258,
0.0040763383731245995,
0.16573509573936462,
0.06905009597539902,
-0.01806194894015789,
0.32032638788223267,
-0.052609898149967194,
-0.3281781077384949,
0.15867257118225098,
0.6212613582611084,
-0.07599881291389465,
0.05209032818675041,
0.22057819366455078,
-0.1787153035402298,
0.5682267546653748,
0.23071546852588654,
0.6756159663200378,
0.32309845089912415,
0.787852942943573,
0.5100365877151489,
0.5463012456893921,
0.7163197994232178,
-0.8386491537094116,
-0.10659093409776688,
0.046965375542640686,
0.2716807723045349,
-0.4533582329750061,
-0.19552408158779144,
0.2607441842556,
0.02362011931836605,
-0.2260439395904541,
-0.25916412472724915,
-0.3970056474208832,
0.2983468174934387,
0.3599548637866974,
0.14143605530261993,
-0.1143697202205658,
0.44238588213920593,
-0.0019153604516759515,
-0.20693978667259216,
-0.12301433831453323,
-0.0010886135278269649,
-0.42376041412353516,
-0.500507652759552,
0.3140508532524109,
0.09740778803825378,
-0.3746846616268158,
-0.1992052048444748,
-0.1206563264131546,
-0.28159260749816895,
0.46280625462532043,
0.8691918253898621,
0.10921363532543182,
-0.15436434745788574,
-0.04979357495903969,
0.2779703140258789,
0.20200751721858978,
0.4826929271221161,
-0.3159002661705017,
0.45704230666160583,
-0.23936022818088531,
0.46946588158607483,
0.07225781679153442,
0.32515883445739746,
-0.23673351109027863,
0.7326229214668274,
0.35658910870552063,
0.5199933052062988,
-0.5200469493865967,
-0.4010348618030548,
0.06441957503557205,
-0.12486794590950012,
0.6267383694648743,
0.25531890988349915,
0.46788865327835083,
0.4554075300693512,
-0.706897497177124,
0.10544196516275406,
-0.3658619821071625,
-0.6388234496116638,
0.47558704018592834,
-0.278860867023468,
0.1343270242214203,
-0.45944684743881226,
-0.44139599800109863,
-0.6343028545379639,
-0.007068322505801916,
0.1023588702082634,
-0.3045509159564972,
-0.003919288050383329,
0.0937691330909729,
0.08893837034702301,
0.6251846551895142,
-0.0020823152735829353,
-0.06623642146587372,
0.11219765245914459,
-0.16150660812854767,
0.34525829553604126,
-0.03018021769821644,
0.30986669659614563,
0.21728366613388062,
-0.4079764485359192,
0.05379607155919075,
-0.4042474925518036,
0.3389294445514679,
0.09648554772138596,
-0.238929882645607,
-0.30990269780158997,
0.5532125234603882,
-0.4129820168018341,
0.49698925018310547,
0.12862318754196167,
0.48809465765953064,
0.5268372893333435,
0.047638900578022,
-0.3054916262626648,
-0.5639192461967468,
0.5643525719642639,
0.5802110433578491,
0.36981257796287537,
0.6471658945083618,
-0.05129534378647804,
0.48890289664268494,
-0.5006687045097351,
-0.052910592406988144,
-0.16738510131835938,
-0.499356746673584,
-0.3696880340576172,
1.1491166353225708,
-0.6609188318252563,
0.741916298866272,
0.2000453770160675,
-0.6978899836540222,
0.667711615562439,
-0.26643022894859314,
0.7523349523544312,
0.1105237826704979,
0.2072022706270218,
-0.2074054330587387,
-0.38185298442840576,
-0.5551436543464661,
0.2603158950805664,
0.19319072365760803,
-0.12604209780693054,
0.21406124532222748,
0.3292085528373718,
0.37278950214385986,
-0.7898085117340088,
0.14167876541614532,
-0.07806754112243652,
-0.1657891422510147,
-0.7296559810638428,
0.12224061042070389,
-0.028755871579051018,
0.09406185895204544,
-0.14061520993709564,
0.9561752676963806,
0.040625352412462234,
0.23311445116996765,
0.04610389098525047,
-0.2891254127025604,
0.4036623239517212,
-0.24438036978244781,
-0.060318078845739365,
0.1454123854637146,
-0.6024256348609924,
-0.07654428482055664,
0.5696287751197815,
-0.006229925900697708,
-0.6158480644226074,
0.08012229949235916,
-0.17984940111637115,
-0.3062885105609894,
-0.5831050276756287,
0.960931658744812,
0.02846825309097767,
0.35225412249565125,
0.3415934443473816,
-0.8426035046577454,
-0.0961434543132782,
0.41095027327537537,
-0.10159500688314438,
0.0674293264746666,
0.6232562065124512,
0.12251441925764084,
-0.45326948165893555,
0.29642727971076965,
0.3531164526939392,
0.32843732833862305,
0.029064737260341644,
0.2718447744846344,
-0.050736602395772934,
-0.18856731057167053,
0.0503525510430336,
0.18380509316921234,
0.10380478948354721,
-0.5732074975967407,
-0.11455310136079788,
0.09848718345165253,
0.23401601612567902,
-0.008944145403802395,
-0.4686422348022461,
-0.4652627110481262,
-0.6129586100578308,
-0.04141256958246231,
-0.06521125137805939,
0.7564323544502258,
-0.4962369501590729,
-0.12293391674757004,
0.019066058099269867,
0.11361464112997055,
0.22410206496715546,
0.018506240099668503,
-0.10426688939332962,
-0.38989290595054626,
-0.3816533088684082,
0.6570795178413391,
0.7371388077735901,
0.33216696977615356,
-0.5004363656044006,
-0.19217170774936676,
0.07360069453716278,
0.3254956007003784,
0.5904459357261658,
-0.5002050399780273,
-0.03958258032798767,
0.09777677804231644,
0.040562160313129425,
-0.696624219417572,
0.7519323229789734,
0.024055801331996918,
0.43857884407043457,
-0.5720400810241699,
0.07681051641702652,
0.4561021029949188,
-0.5506004095077515,
0.005315477028489113,
1.1096453666687012,
-0.6180519461631775,
-0.09163869917392731,
-0.18895572423934937,
0.025753237307071686,
-0.6277894973754883,
-1.0607595443725586,
-5.643978118896484,
0.10556789487600327,
-0.576923668384552,
-0.5705367922782898,
0.6091724038124084,
-0.3332623243331909,
0.43111521005630493,
-0.4192681908607483,
-0.22608163952827454,
0.028067870065569878,
0.40022003650665283,
-0.4181275963783264,
-0.1407691240310669,
-0.1840187907218933,
0.5619947910308838,
0.8358967304229736,
1.0805182456970215,
0.12171132862567902,
0.689407229423523,
0.15238429605960846,
-0.11091570556163788,
-0.6218146681785583,
-0.5645727515220642,
-0.44895699620246887,
-0.2100667506456375,
0.2732910215854645,
-0.5586579442024231,
0.10970574617385864,
-1.180464267730713,
-0.006221068557351828,
-0.25209280848503113,
-0.3432290852069855,
-0.20095209777355194,
-0.2271336168050766,
0.2353200912475586,
-0.4201371669769287,
0.3043540418148041,
-0.017394008114933968,
0.19053028523921967,
-0.7171716690063477,
-0.34086325764656067,
0.04080972075462341,
0.2673667371273041,
-0.22354178130626678,
0.5959406495094299,
0.18014836311340332,
-0.6810656189918518,
-0.17993412911891937,
-0.07730255275964737,
1.1632860898971558,
0.18230365216732025,
0.03858908638358116,
0.2800257205963135,
-0.015552257187664509,
-0.12469665706157684,
-0.15736806392669678,
0.22512489557266235,
-0.4278591573238373,
0.0909709632396698,
0.5438461899757385,
0.22711767256259918,
-0.37835806608200073,
0.10198192298412323,
-0.47978174686431885,
-0.16603678464889526,
-0.005227670073509216,
-0.09907982498407364,
-0.07311414182186127,
-0.11793892085552216,
-0.264598548412323,
-0.23606474697589874,
0.31950390338897705,
-0.3941415548324585,
-0.5082166194915771,
0.02069261111319065,
-0.45467105507850647,
0.571862518787384,
0.07124121487140656,
0.15038292109966278,
-0.2326083779335022,
-0.4961065948009491,
-0.4801819622516632,
-0.5128917098045349,
0.15693092346191406,
0.14167283475399017,
-0.18147778511047363,
-0.5754799842834473,
0.08562999218702316,
-0.3700227439403534,
-0.34902071952819824,
1.1789922714233398,
-0.23571766912937164,
-0.17409288883209229,
0.4396694004535675,
0.6156224608421326,
-0.09942710399627686,
0.716594934463501,
0.47426357865333557,
0.013509536162018776,
-0.9944947957992554,
-0.3299975097179413,
-0.3123384714126587,
-0.03494219109416008,
-0.7123988270759583,
-0.20767110586166382,
-0.17471517622470856,
-0.693234384059906,
-0.07299686968326569,
0.8061060309410095,
-0.5319478511810303,
-0.04419829323887825,
-0.42636722326278687,
-0.8557120561599731,
-0.2105897217988968,
0.06340793520212173,
-0.1254071295261383,
-0.30059415102005005,
0.5015568733215332,
0.07416648417711258,
0.10668231546878815,
-0.06699733436107635,
0.33051902055740356,
0.20588253438472748,
-0.6000500917434692,
-1.0024908781051636,
-0.16839909553527832,
0.14861208200454712,
0.42060238122940063,
-0.23516862094402313,
-0.2873378396034241,
-0.20380334556102753,
0.2964267134666443,
-0.21929270029067993,
0.28081777691841125,
-0.6951532959938049,
-0.36579617857933044,
-0.8802163600921631,
-0.11192318797111511,
0.14124347269535065,
0.0765974223613739,
0.21126484870910645,
0.2429995983839035,
-0.02176833152770996,
0.18941983580589294,
0.5808852314949036,
0.6667543649673462,
0.20045174658298492,
0.11690173298120499,
-0.7107361555099487,
0.6484304666519165,
0.3905928432941437,
-0.9752441644668579,
-0.06452588737010956,
-0.706402599811554,
-0.007195017300546169,
0.06421325355768204,
-0.42765361070632935,
0.18118816614151,
0.4270590841770172,
-0.6280305981636047,
0.3340698778629303,
0.3055586516857147,
-0.5876649022102356,
0.1037568598985672,
-0.15713131427764893,
-0.13888098299503326,
0.5230333805084229,
-0.6925582885742188,
-0.5496369004249573,
0.19121594727039337,
0.46419888734817505,
-0.3001237213611603,
-0.538374662399292,
-0.040387436747550964,
0.43261295557022095,
0.15970022976398468,
-0.44278404116630554,
-0.05688517540693283,
-0.4969349801540375,
0.04607275128364563,
-0.06310009211301804,
0.5383434295654297,
-0.5798454880714417,
0.4922633171081543,
0.47729185223579407,
-0.4192383885383606,
-0.24938297271728516,
-0.3258971869945526,
0.014831318520009518,
-0.632106602191925,
0.17773935198783875,
0.10044236481189728,
0.47419676184654236,
0.15582548081874847,
-0.3585222065448761,
-0.5622408986091614,
0.3177555501461029,
0.21700701117515564,
-0.9487248063087463,
-0.9347988367080688,
0.1734519749879837,
0.5457134246826172,
-0.1853276789188385,
0.12903916835784912,
0.1821342557668686,
-0.46664589643478394,
0.13554026186466217,
-0.0332690067589283,
-0.5370794534683228,
0.5045467615127563,
-0.26735377311706543,
-1.0238959789276123,
0.4935981333255768,
0.39278170466423035,
-0.9042508006095886,
0.17593176662921906,
0.30025210976600647,
-0.3487568199634552,
-0.13309654593467712,
-0.015986330807209015,
-0.7379906177520752,
-0.5509930849075317,
-0.2484259456396103,
-0.2847628593444824,
-0.6959701776504517,
0.7213744521141052,
0.733696699142456,
-0.10421252995729446,
0.36830440163612366,
-0.6870718002319336,
-0.5316835641860962,
0.14446592330932617,
-0.06007380411028862,
-0.16811981797218323,
0.19761833548545837,
0.6367427110671997,
-0.4169888496398926,
0.3458068370819092,
0.5683438181877136,
0.2900170087814331,
0.349510133266449,
0.7569118142127991,
-0.03368813544511795,
-0.5246920585632324,
0.08479542285203934,
0.09397119283676147,
0.1776581108570099,
-0.10302745550870895,
-0.37658560276031494,
0.015512782149016857,
0.6159449815750122,
0.29189175367355347,
-0.47624510526657104,
0.30679962038993835,
0.9423208236694336,
-0.178297758102417,
0.02095084823668003,
-0.28444498777389526,
-0.08399268984794617,
-0.15397337079048157,
0.23253363370895386,
0.6668628454208374,
0.07090774923563004,
-0.10569808632135391,
-0.10030494630336761,
0.3971306383609772,
-0.3164808750152588,
-0.8206731081008911,
0.4912383258342743,
-0.470363587141037,
-0.3906245231628418,
0.07945507019758224,
0.32062381505966187,
0.46749138832092285,
-0.2862703204154968,
-0.14865274727344513,
0.4707348644733429,
-0.8413580656051636,
0.48543500900268555,
0.09556025266647339,
-0.4684339463710785,
0.5821989178657532,
0.8725107908248901,
-0.13463781774044037,
0.4008837044239044,
-0.4930990934371948,
0.22823019325733185,
0.07757072895765305,
-0.5220304727554321,
0.414121150970459,
0.0697677880525589,
-0.4713278114795685,
-0.6614081859588623,
0.099594347178936,
-0.609036922454834,
-0.06580465286970139,
0.09919200837612152,
-0.0021549833472818136,
-0.22332796454429626,
0.1864520162343979,
-0.4338033199310303,
0.4637899398803711,
0.29394352436065674,
-0.5789889097213745,
-0.27416104078292847,
0.05819900706410408,
-0.35205042362213135,
-0.5891126990318298,
0.5155227184295654,
-0.5275357961654663,
-0.06526380777359009,
-0.3569170832633972,
0.4178687632083893,
0.8372484445571899,
-0.4116508364677429,
-0.12315430492162704,
0.48132771253585815,
-0.19517619907855988,
-0.09599588811397552,
0.5691890716552734,
0.012542089447379112,
0.5160278081893921,
0.4090939164161682,
-0.15801532566547394,
-0.08344516158103943,
1.0582690238952637,
-0.43877360224723816,
-0.3497454822063446,
0.3950904607772827,
0.6634365320205688,
-0.1163838729262352,
-0.5989226698875427,
-0.6207289695739746,
0.6316431760787964,
0.11634817719459534,
0.1283009946346283,
-0.13327939808368683,
0.04255836829543114,
-0.3220853805541992,
0.1652943193912506,
0.11585176736116409,
-0.08927831053733826,
0.032677289098501205,
-0.1553553193807602,
-0.3211384117603302,
0.5078732967376709,
0.38415589928627014,
0.16930995881557465,
0.3536602258682251,
0.2742220163345337,
0.2258051633834839,
0.18062147498130798,
0.3533947467803955,
0.2489980012178421,
-0.32686689496040344,
-0.09357950836420059,
-0.11084513366222382,
-0.18402452766895294,
-0.11477387696504593,
0.39418479800224304,
0.4978136420249939,
-0.015620543621480465,
-0.1777634620666504,
-0.09627743810415268,
-0.5293837785720825,
-0.37288719415664673,
0.6602996587753296,
-0.6866697072982788,
-0.0097902687266469,
0.8564940690994263,
0.016590984538197517,
0.5472179055213928,
-0.2766304612159729,
0.3557118773460388,
-0.4754410684108734,
0.0797138586640358,
0.3552224338054657,
0.22043229639530182,
-0.13152532279491425,
-0.00580119201913476,
-0.024738552048802376,
0.4206371605396271,
0.06541559100151062,
-0.5238927006721497,
0.294588565826416,
-0.3967099189758301,
-0.5962308049201965,
-0.1311769038438797,
-0.38354524970054626,
0.08058524876832962,
-0.28076261281967163,
-0.5279104709625244,
-0.8861035704612732,
0.011866060085594654,
-0.5048331022262573,
-0.49758481979370117,
-0.284885436296463,
0.7978958487510681,
-0.08476116508245468,
0.17503996193408966,
0.23270919919013977,
-0.04019958898425102,
0.352518767118454,
0.4149722456932068,
0.26820239424705505,
0.48313969373703003,
-0.26377514004707336,
0.008944185450673103,
-0.06881333142518997,
0.27856165170669556,
0.12329524010419846,
0.5131920576095581,
0.3318687975406647,
0.10274883359670639,
-0.33152928948402405,
-0.09765481948852539,
0.2589462101459503,
-0.33724445104599,
-0.47519731521606445,
-0.3196486234664917,
-0.06480326503515244,
0.3385680913925171,
0.0510074608027935,
0.20505870878696442,
-0.032861314713954926,
0.028052009642124176,
0.5403643250465393,
0.009477265179157257,
-0.33284416794776917,
0.7125422954559326,
0.14770060777664185,
0.30187201499938965,
-0.33775201439857483,
-0.042293183505535126,
-0.4481356143951416,
-0.2841855585575104,
0.22481784224510193,
0.3536990284919739,
0.38764819502830505,
0.18916799128055573,
0.698310375213623,
-0.3530672788619995,
0.4635520577430725,
0.12593691051006317,
0.5068446397781372,
-0.03212164342403412,
-0.32213112711906433,
-0.1410619467496872,
-1.0375977754592896,
0.3308090567588806,
0.06319724768400192,
-0.3089692294597626,
0.12410368025302887,
-0.7012190818786621,
0.44800180196762085,
0.14393514394760132,
0.14808861911296844,
-0.5857990980148315,
-0.6321627497673035,
-0.28044790029525757
] |
206060
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Nunavut
|
Coat of arms of Nunavut
|
The coat of arms of the territory of Nunavut was granted by a warrant of Roméo LeBlanc, Governor General of Canada, dated 31 March 1999, one day before the territory of Nunavut, Canada, was created. The same document specified the flag of Nunavut.
Overview
The symbol was designed in collaboration with Inuit elders, leaders, artists, groups, and the general population of the territory. Each symbol was chosen individually from the 800 submissions for the flag and coat of arms that were received. Five draft designs were created in collaboration between the heraldic artist at the Canadian Heraldic Authority and Andrew Qappik, an Inuit artist from Pangnirtung.
The shield, which according to the blazon should be presented on a roundel shaped shield rather than the escutcheon shape traditional in European heraldry, is blue and gold, symbolizing the riches of the land. In chief is a representation of the midnight sun and of the North Star, or Niqirtsuituk. Below are a qulliq, a stone lamp representing the warmth of home and community, and an inukshuk (inukhuk, inuksuk), a stone monument serving as a guidepost and a symbol of the territory.
The crest, an igloo (iglu), represents traditional life, survival, and the Nunavut government assembled in the legislature. It is ensigned with a crown representing royal sovereignty.
The supporters, a caribou and narwhal, represent sustenance and natural resources of the land and sea. They stand on a compartment with Arctic poppies, dwarf fireweed, and Arctic heather, alongside an iceberg at sea.
The motto, written in Inuktitut syllabary, is Nunavut Sannginivut (ᓄᓇᕗᑦ ᓴᙱᓂᕗᑦ, or, Our Land, Our Strength).
The letters patent, too, are quite unique, having been presented in English, French, Inuktitut, and Inuinnaqtun.
Blazon
Heraldic blazon describes the coat of arms of Nunavut as:
On a circular shield: Or Dexter a qulliq Sable inflamed Gules sinister an inuksuk Azure on a chief also Azure above five bezants in arc reversed issuant from the lower chief a mullet Niqirtsuituq Or;
And for a Crest: On a wreath Argent and Azure an iglu affronty Argent windowed Or and ensigned by the Royal Crown proper;
and for a Motto: ᓄᓇᕗᑦ ᓴᙱᓂᕗᑦ, meaning "Nunavut Our Strength";
and for Supporters: On a compartment dexter of Land set with Arctic poppies, dwarf fireweed and Arctic heather proper sinister ice floes Argent set on barry wavy Azure and Argent dexter a caribou sinister a narwhal both proper.
See also
Coat of arms of the Northern Territory, for an Australian example of territorial arms reposing heavily on indigenous imagery
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
Symbols of Nunavut
External links
About the Flag and Coat of Arms (Government of Nunavut)
Creation of the Coat of Arms and Flag of Nunavut (Governor General of Canada)
Arms and flag of Nunavut in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges
Territorial symbols of Nunavut
Nunavut
Nunavut
Nunavut
Nunavut
Nunavut
Nunavut
|
[
0.1382293850183487,
0.9663805961608887,
-0.00743677606806159,
0.13131509721279144,
-0.4935501515865326,
0.37832874059677124,
0.6743372082710266,
0.4125889837741852,
-0.22362010180950165,
-0.47956961393356323,
0.04793662950396538,
-0.02225220762193203,
0.2780647873878479,
0.21826769411563873,
-0.3298957943916321,
0.6585260629653931,
-0.01134074293076992,
1.1388006210327148,
-0.23496213555335999,
-0.2199907898902893,
-0.14858873188495636,
-0.5723729133605957,
0.564445972442627,
0.11941654980182648,
0.2977610230445862,
0.6473827362060547,
0.8577299118041992,
-0.006503354758024216,
-0.6817649006843567,
0.038851987570524216,
-0.008554651401937008,
0.2817666828632355,
-0.14724688231945038,
-0.05916555970907211,
0.4916220009326935,
-0.4540345072746277,
-0.21742050349712372,
-0.4703137278556824,
-0.694149374961853,
-0.8054945468902588,
0.2793324589729309,
-0.4265524446964264,
-0.0711423009634018,
-0.008215743117034435,
0.4737406075000763,
-0.42189741134643555,
-1.4704058170318604,
0.27335861325263977,
-0.5145449638366699,
0.3474040925502777,
-0.7748748064041138,
-0.5662054419517517,
-0.18009942770004272,
0.15533222258090973,
0.2645995318889618,
0.5403066277503967,
-0.7331402897834778,
0.08548024296760559,
-0.19870585203170776,
-0.28161269426345825,
0.4464372992515564,
0.11495931446552277,
0.13625790178775787,
0.08747563511133194,
0.29128167033195496,
0.19816915690898895,
0.5039292573928833,
0.5192474722862244,
-0.3241909444332123,
-0.5057956576347351,
0.0077964370138943195,
0.2034381777048111,
0.07800876349210739,
0.31726765632629395,
0.4225512742996216,
0.07643257826566696,
0.3818705379962921,
-0.01559469848871231,
0.5991836786270142,
0.32456904649734497,
0.031055452302098274,
-0.07125813513994217,
0.2573557496070862,
0.4110719561576843,
0.033716291189193726,
0.8137080669403076,
-0.4500501751899719,
-0.10548636317253113,
-0.2707339823246002,
0.5589677095413208,
-0.7035014033317566,
-0.5015965104103088,
0.42074084281921387,
0.33285096287727356,
0.17379723489284515,
-0.10316178947687149,
-0.21081824600696564,
-0.02491559274494648,
0.2608017921447754,
0.4491053521633148,
-0.1829768568277359,
-0.05462351813912392,
0.5332571864128113,
0.07775154709815979,
-0.688588559627533,
-0.8034341931343079,
-0.7341553568840027,
0.22848105430603027,
-0.41220390796661377,
-0.6306103467941284,
0.12474686652421951,
-0.3587883710861206,
0.3043055236339569,
0.6927598714828491,
0.7202833294868469,
0.4445037841796875,
0.6047162413597107,
-0.8317553997039795,
-0.05574007332324982,
0.1321943700313568,
0.43151405453681946,
0.2938491702079773,
-0.3703843057155609,
-0.7420421242713928,
0.21053482592105865,
0.061409976333379745,
0.19973982870578766,
-0.25279101729393005,
-0.6324483752250671,
-0.2915796637535095,
-0.4993254840373993,
0.6908988356590271,
-0.07038797438144684,
-0.32580021023750305,
-0.06549408286809921,
-0.2191019207239151,
-0.16562806069850922,
-0.2563568949699402,
0.3520735502243042,
0.3047601282596588,
-0.9650443196296692,
-0.48321041464805603,
-0.37199127674102783,
-0.3221091032028198,
0.6983773708343506,
-0.17892543971538544,
-0.01844828389585018,
0.0025821782182902098,
-0.4569455087184906,
0.31108012795448303,
-0.2628723084926605,
-0.41280022263526917,
0.41008666157722473,
0.19474360346794128,
0.079075388610363,
0.5843777060508728,
0.2222679853439331,
0.5327244400978088,
0.6863619685173035,
0.7378873825073242,
0.6549316644668579,
0.42542240023612976,
0.4520435929298401,
0.5206798315048218,
1.027848243713379,
0.137264221906662,
-0.23227408528327942,
0.043860115110874176,
0.38829395174980164,
-0.28006139397621155,
0.24285036325454712,
-0.07001177966594696,
-0.04502187296748161,
-0.43448132276535034,
-0.507105827331543,
-0.013512889854609966,
0.45423009991645813,
0.3816870450973511,
-0.012041236273944378,
0.02032560110092163,
-0.831560492515564,
0.38627946376800537,
0.48333123326301575,
-0.10492334514856339,
-0.29369989037513733,
0.24466586112976074,
0.043371301144361496,
0.13723643124103546,
-0.09294993430376053,
0.4358302354812622,
-0.23211392760276794,
-0.8994028568267822,
0.8193364143371582,
-1.205236792564392,
0.8325371146202087,
0.3557848632335663,
-0.9322600364685059,
1.50954270362854,
-0.5112957954406738,
0.836607813835144,
-0.35549792647361755,
0.03063526190817356,
1.0262302160263062,
-0.07983816415071487,
-0.7157453298568726,
0.26730865240097046,
-0.06009196490049362,
0.24090927839279175,
0.6030468940734863,
0.07990603148937225,
0.1402321755886078,
-0.06645960360765457,
0.3590502440929413,
0.8384655117988586,
-0.5629408955574036,
-0.18842214345932007,
0.1540452092885971,
-0.15843355655670166,
-0.1087125912308693,
-0.5679486393928528,
0.8665335774421692,
0.43145987391471863,
-0.3160976469516754,
0.07887871563434601,
-0.21873509883880615,
0.2996128797531128,
0.27061811089515686,
0.3022127151489258,
0.23029637336730957,
-0.35651150345802307,
0.09957814961671829,
0.10289201885461807,
0.6389239430427551,
-0.4741908311843872,
-0.3303428292274475,
-0.5490943789482117,
0.257205605506897,
0.08849452435970306,
0.6544750928878784,
0.3407299220561981,
0.37402430176734924,
0.4961268901824951,
-0.8083003163337708,
0.15620775520801544,
0.5231223106384277,
-0.10202789306640625,
0.29262059926986694,
0.37777280807495117,
-0.1948542594909668,
-0.6397883892059326,
0.7176182270050049,
-0.1546904742717743,
-0.0073636979795992374,
-0.20101390779018402,
0.49312007427215576,
0.4794197678565979,
0.08818498998880386,
-0.41519638895988464,
-0.6239671111106873,
0.4556291401386261,
0.10949395596981049,
0.1683030128479004,
-0.5514558553695679,
0.4024825394153595,
-0.16350629925727844,
-0.7539423704147339,
-0.15268215537071228,
0.24570704996585846,
-0.4816987216472626,
0.34051716327667236,
0.2189038246870041,
-0.3377436399459839,
-0.3152521252632141,
-0.09615080803632736,
0.5882236361503601,
0.6201034188270569,
-0.31993404030799866,
0.29665982723236084,
-0.6298643946647644,
-0.421098530292511,
-0.2889883816242218,
1.0799826383590698,
0.10521657764911652,
-0.3062858283519745,
0.10854662954807281,
-0.5837755799293518,
0.2329576462507248,
-0.4299435019493103,
-0.17593976855278015,
-0.08996428549289703,
0.37377041578292847,
-0.2677755355834961,
-0.1301785558462143,
-0.4915403425693512,
-0.3300129175186157,
0.11482714861631393,
0.17860673367977142,
-0.021707328036427498,
0.38523802161216736,
-0.0032307077199220657,
-0.3481580317020416,
-0.5076602101325989,
0.09583491832017899,
-0.12213655561208725,
0.05612505227327347,
-0.15986767411231995,
-0.004877780098468065,
-0.3946992754936218,
-5.292878150939941,
-0.2602957785129547,
-0.15130972862243652,
-0.3454972803592682,
-0.08175665140151978,
-0.12416467815637589,
0.49847686290740967,
-0.09184195846319199,
0.34506651759147644,
-0.02269614487886429,
0.010042188689112663,
-0.057843755930662155,
-0.055139198899269104,
0.43886587023735046,
0.7826709747314453,
0.572598934173584,
0.4480873942375183,
-0.5729454755783081,
-0.010956116020679474,
-0.18779319524765015,
0.49784401059150696,
-0.2232329398393631,
-0.3475761413574219,
-0.47517693042755127,
0.8227718472480774,
0.5305976867675781,
-0.04689258337020874,
-0.04572894424200058,
-0.26462969183921814,
-0.0755932554602623,
0.29375138878822327,
0.014735967852175236,
0.7889948487281799,
-0.5598630905151367,
-0.735022783279419,
-0.45291227102279663,
0.4306406080722809,
0.5128332376480103,
0.8886309266090393,
-0.8035811185836792,
0.1722032129764557,
-0.004304748494178057,
0.05157049000263214,
-0.22528795897960663,
0.33988675475120544,
-0.3963225781917572,
-0.6087431907653809,
0.07187478244304657,
-0.1400502771139145,
0.7956953644752502,
-0.032610826194286346,
0.21061474084854126,
0.17977213859558105,
-0.033337004482746124,
-0.1475674957036972,
-0.4932984411716461,
0.1764143705368042,
-0.45709148049354553,
-0.4473285377025604,
0.5676177144050598,
0.11866696178913116,
-0.7840628027915955,
0.16793310642242432,
-0.6128845810890198,
0.053765978664159775,
-0.4446812868118286,
-0.7899912595748901,
-0.028866393491625786,
0.03231304883956909,
0.2159191519021988,
-0.3537268042564392,
-0.08141448348760605,
-0.7847765684127808,
-0.8314809203147888,
0.11755576729774475,
-1.1844483613967896,
-0.09296217560768127,
0.37317660450935364,
-0.1419113427400589,
-0.16189874708652496,
-0.01763240434229374,
-0.20304283499717712,
-0.974606990814209,
0.887990415096283,
-0.4199572205543518,
-0.15697753429412842,
-0.43837970495224,
0.3603692948818207,
-0.2106776386499405,
-0.10420188307762146,
0.7592142820358276,
0.03692848980426788,
0.07414039969444275,
0.44794631004333496,
-0.5044954419136047,
-0.7695532441139221,
0.7785149812698364,
-0.7420480251312256,
-0.03802289068698883,
-0.63852858543396,
0.4185023307800293,
-0.025479545816779137,
0.2777884602546692,
-0.8481530547142029,
-0.4758814573287964,
-0.735515296459198,
-0.8778530359268188,
-0.24412058293819427,
0.23483826220035553,
0.3067798614501953,
-0.5600447058677673,
-0.6430023908615112,
-0.21116238832473755,
-0.09770608693361282,
-0.3075123429298401,
-0.05033596605062485,
0.16427955031394958,
0.013844996690750122,
1.4723246097564697,
0.19135993719100952,
0.0971946120262146,
-0.08987276256084442,
-0.40418460965156555,
0.43188485503196716,
0.21380655467510223,
-0.1366553008556366,
0.259084552526474,
0.46919605135917664,
-0.5855600833892822,
0.03465787321329117,
0.15174724161624908,
-0.3110582232475281,
0.14579688012599945,
0.03621932491660118,
-0.25920695066452026,
0.5769843459129333,
-0.4261976480484009,
-0.6134297251701355,
0.22138948738574982,
-0.6797600388526917,
0.17932555079460144,
-0.27726462483406067,
-0.1162225604057312,
0.620785653591156,
-0.3903651237487793,
0.4664970934391022,
0.28239724040031433,
-0.12597957253456116,
-0.18539898097515106,
1.1574113368988037,
-0.3794177174568176,
-0.1783209592103958,
0.3563501834869385,
-0.31352707743644714,
0.5470812320709229,
-0.41884857416152954,
0.5194291472434998,
0.20175904035568237,
-0.3304990231990814,
-0.2927820682525635,
0.6174679398536682,
0.26668864488601685,
-0.42533189058303833,
0.24005569517612457,
-0.11784761399030685,
-0.6054800152778625,
-0.7346674799919128,
-0.32173770666122437,
-0.20872826874256134,
0.8755301237106323,
0.14988604187965393,
-0.8242908716201782,
-1.1865848302841187,
0.23626835644245148,
0.6365211606025696,
-0.5363836884498596,
0.044671643525362015,
0.28056204319000244,
0.10074826329946518,
-0.027126429602503777,
0.28139305114746094,
-0.23129957914352417,
0.15303879976272583,
0.4468812346458435,
0.6434608697891235,
-0.2685149013996124,
-0.493160605430603,
-0.01438448391854763,
0.008738549426198006,
0.3284853398799896,
0.19479675590991974,
0.42801910638809204,
0.001266292529180646,
-0.19307900965213776,
-0.71845543384552,
0.09434841573238373,
0.20266366004943848,
-0.29790425300598145,
0.18354253470897675,
-0.3352713882923126,
0.2977754771709442,
0.9453672766685486,
0.199418306350708,
0.11954839527606964,
-0.13339334726333618,
-0.3076879382133484,
0.566319465637207,
0.18056781589984894,
-0.6374343037605286,
0.19703128933906555,
-0.0140141686424613,
-0.6194242835044861,
0.27045610547065735,
0.6221452951431274,
-0.7449923157691956,
0.060394395142793655,
0.3064735233783722,
-0.08532826602458954,
-0.3063516914844513,
-0.10012522339820862,
-0.04868913069367409,
0.09814278781414032,
-0.1659393608570099,
0.05054687336087227,
-0.30303260684013367,
0.633167564868927,
0.6251480579376221,
0.35960015654563904,
0.26152461767196655,
-0.5904821753501892,
0.34738466143608093,
-0.596871554851532,
0.009546046145260334,
-0.24799424409866333,
-0.02390894666314125,
0.5035921931266785,
0.20907610654830933,
-0.16560900211334229,
0.13564002513885498,
0.40245822072029114,
0.4737640917301178,
1.6022684574127197,
0.5092553496360779,
-1.3072038888931274,
-0.3429432809352875,
-0.029096173122525215,
-0.10083100944757462,
-0.30524855852127075,
-0.7031704187393188,
0.6962178945541382,
-0.6380617022514343,
-0.7176992297172546,
-0.14135129749774933,
-0.768470823764801,
0.839161217212677,
-0.18009330332279205,
0.49986958503723145,
0.6333786249160767,
-0.10039693862199783,
-0.07479801774024963,
0.08377239853143692,
0.3822997510433197,
-0.63471519947052,
0.4564998745918274,
0.13131622970104218,
0.27328261733055115,
-0.33614927530288696,
-0.004995805211365223,
0.10414670407772064,
0.18641282618045807,
-0.39624840021133423,
-0.7049003839492798,
0.16556322574615479,
-0.053222157061100006,
-0.502973198890686,
-0.38259294629096985,
-0.272312730550766,
0.213056281208992,
0.25208958983421326,
-0.3153260052204132,
-0.48155829310417175,
0.2939074635505676,
0.5608180165290833,
0.10897737741470337,
0.3312775194644928,
-0.6441232562065125,
-0.005953885614871979,
0.415601521730423,
0.22203436493873596,
-0.1592491716146469,
-0.01727798394858837,
-0.12954936921596527,
-0.16197483241558075,
-0.044283799827098846,
0.020756691694259644,
0.2885761559009552,
0.16728557646274567,
0.6728196740150452,
0.4293326139450073,
0.3363535702228546,
-0.6959866285324097,
1.0150177478790283,
0.1381431668996811,
-0.5560338497161865,
-0.43756744265556335,
0.6087843775749207,
0.2559947371482849,
-0.10586794465780258,
0.023256009444594383,
0.18528346717357635,
0.5449514389038086,
-0.054596103727817535,
-0.17354023456573486,
0.03362765535712242,
-0.3482469618320465,
-0.28683868050575256,
0.5827837586402893,
-1.0001622438430786,
-0.20490513741970062,
0.3707209825515747,
-0.26510438323020935,
-0.08565912395715714,
0.35213416814804077,
0.42499449849128723,
-0.39317619800567627,
0.5144760012626648,
-0.42188364267349243,
-0.2279839813709259,
-0.20949137210845947,
-0.04088117927312851,
0.08006078004837036,
0.41943883895874023,
-0.9510632157325745,
-0.25594043731689453,
-0.9025803208351135,
0.2519876956939697,
-0.11055690050125122,
-0.21659593284130096,
-0.5191539525985718,
1.0737725496292114,
0.2621476352214813,
0.6301998496055603,
-0.8291938304901123,
-1.0068533420562744,
0.12195791304111481,
0.25910940766334534,
-0.1963326632976532,
-0.0761265829205513,
0.788969099521637,
0.025514258071780205,
0.7885512113571167,
-0.3562092185020447,
-0.3233027756214142,
-0.1558636724948883,
-0.4041222929954529,
0.06293036043643951,
0.04140833765268326,
-0.2609899640083313,
-0.15588244795799255,
0.04806466028094292,
-0.3471449911594391,
-0.43448561429977417,
0.31355151534080505,
0.3538553714752197,
-0.39360320568084717,
-0.27281150221824646,
0.579854428768158,
-0.06261532008647919,
0.09790849685668945,
-0.22269198298454285,
0.013342807069420815,
0.18752186000347137,
-0.15087845921516418,
-0.1676536202430725,
-0.10851621627807617,
0.5370538234710693,
-0.02377072535455227,
0.34789884090423584,
-0.14418795704841614,
-0.186184361577034,
-0.27062705159187317,
-0.06890100985765457,
-0.6189882159233093,
-0.9150643944740295,
-0.029680881649255753,
-0.5054721236228943,
-0.12991929054260254,
0.7543590664863586,
0.1312616467475891,
0.05228295549750328,
0.5332121253013611,
-0.745866060256958,
0.3970250189304352,
-0.28300583362579346,
-0.2699969410896301,
-0.3031509518623352,
-0.6425756812095642,
0.1176932156085968,
0.43319499492645264,
-0.05432963743805885,
0.45314469933509827,
0.5306585431098938,
0.13093413412570953,
-0.06319135427474976,
0.08696299046278,
0.4969831705093384,
-0.061038706451654434,
0.11008255928754807,
-0.2191992700099945,
-0.33160823583602905,
-0.33097386360168457,
0.2085728794336319,
-0.7681286334991455,
-0.08726456016302109,
-0.34875181317329407,
-0.3691488802433014,
0.8950589299201965,
-0.34253865480422974,
-0.3954363167285919,
-0.5319103598594666,
-0.417391300201416,
-0.6915436387062073,
0.2993219792842865,
0.7065194845199585,
-0.07413803786039352,
-0.34077656269073486,
-0.14927434921264648,
0.38158008456230164,
-0.6370512843132019,
0.4509311020374298,
0.31341007351875305,
0.1946621537208557,
-0.34939512610435486,
0.8959472179412842,
0.034665994346141815,
-0.1785723865032196,
0.19278492033481598,
0.6374273896217346,
0.020859245210886,
-0.43740758299827576,
-0.24724893271923065,
-0.23910552263259888,
0.41431257128715515,
0.16310769319534302,
0.13789409399032593,
0.17579308152198792,
-0.1008923128247261,
-0.2793106734752655,
-0.8699883818626404,
-0.13748526573181152,
0.5763512253761292,
0.09272731840610504,
0.5051908493041992,
-0.2971716523170471,
-0.019558971747756004,
-0.39865049719810486,
0.4553661346435547,
-0.660914421081543,
-0.23077264428138733,
0.42977139353752136
] |
206064
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%20der%20Waals%20equation
|
Van der Waals equation
|
In chemistry and thermodynamics, the Van der Waals equation (or Van der Waals equation of state) is an equation of state which extends the ideal gas law to include the effects of interaction between molecules of a gas, as well as accounting for the finite size of the molecules.
The ideal gas law treats gas molecules as point particles that interact with their containers but not each other, meaning they neither take up space nor change kinetic energy during collisions (i.e. all collisions are perfectly elastic). The ideal gas law states that the volume V occupied by n moles of any gas has a pressure P at temperature T given by the following relationship, where R is the gas constant:
To account for the volume occupied by real gas molecules, the Van der Waals equation replaces in the ideal gas law with , where Vm is the molar volume of the gas and b is the volume occupied by the molecules of one mole:
The second modification made to the ideal gas law accounts for interaction between molecules of the gas. The Van der Waals equation includes intermolecular interaction by adding to the observed pressure P in the equation of state a term of the form , where a is a constant whose value depends on the gas.
The complete Van der Waals equation is therefore:
For n moles of gas, it can also be written as:
When the molar volume Vm is large, b becomes negligible in comparison with Vm, a/Vm2 becomes negligible with respect to P, and the Van der Waals equation reduces to the ideal gas law, PVm=RT.
This equation approximates the behavior of real fluids above their critical temperatures and is qualitatively reasonable for their liquid and low-pressure gaseous states at low temperatures. However, near the phase transitions between gas and liquid, in the range of p, V, and T where the liquid phase and the gas phase are in equilibrium, the Van der Waals equation fails to accurately model observed experimental behavior. In particular, p is a constant function of V at given temperatures in these regions. As such, the Van der Waals model is not useful for calculations intended to predict real behavior in regions near critical points. Corrections to address these predictive deficiencies include the equal area rule and the principle of corresponding states.
The equation was named for its developer, the Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals.
Overview and history
The Van der Waals equation is a thermodynamic equation of state based on the theory that fluids are composed of particles with non-zero volumes, and subject to a (not necessarily pairwise) inter-particle attractive force. It was based on work in theoretical physical chemistry performed in the late 19th century by Johannes Diderik van der Waals, who did related work on the attractive force that also bears his name. The equation is known to be based on a traditional set of derivations deriving from Van der Waals' and related efforts, as well as a set of derivation based in statistical thermodynamics, see below.
Van der Waals' early interests were primarily in the field of thermodynamics, where a first influence was Rudolf Clausius's published work on heat in 1857; other significant influences were the writings by James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Willard Gibbs. After initial pursuit of teaching credentials, Van der Waals' undergraduate coursework in mathematics and physics at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands led (with significant hurdles) to his acceptance for doctoral studies at Leiden under Pieter Rijke. While his dissertation helps to explain the experimental observation in 1869 by Irish professor of chemistry Thomas Andrews (Queen's University Belfast) of the existence of a critical point in fluids, science historian Martin J. Klein states that it is not clear whether Van der Waals was aware of Andrews' results when he began his doctorate work. Van der Waals' doctoral research culminated in an 1873 dissertation that provided a semi-quantitative theory describing the gas-liquid change of state and the origin of a critical temperature, Over de Continuïteit van den Gas-en Vloeistof[-]toestand (Dutch; in English, On the Continuity of the Gas- and Liquid-State); it was in this dissertation that the first derivations of what we now refer to as the Van der Waals equation appeared. James Clerk Maxwell reviewed and lauded its published content in the British science journal Nature, and Van der Waals began independent work that would result in his receipt of the Nobel Prize in 1910, which emphasized the contribution of his formulation of this "equation of state for gases and liquids."
Equation
The equation relates four state variables: the pressure of the fluid p, the total volume of the fluid's container V, the number of particles N, and the absolute temperature of the system T.
The intensive, microscopic form of the equation is:
where
is the volume of the container occupied by each particle (not the velocity of a particle), and kB is the Boltzmann constant. It introduces two new parameters: a′, a measure of the average attraction between particles, and b′, the volume excluded from v by one particle.
The equation can be also written in extensive, molar form:
or also:
where
is a measure of the average attraction between particles,
is the volume excluded by a mole of particles,
is the number of moles,
is the universal gas constant, kB is the Boltzmann constant, and NA is the Avogadro constant,
is the specific molar volume.
Also the constant a, b can be expressed in terms of the critical constants:
And the critical constants can be expressed in terms of a, b:
A careful distinction must be drawn between the volume available to a particle and the volume of a particle. In the intensive equation, v equals the total space available to each particle, while the parameter b′ is proportional to the proper volume of a single particle – the volume bounded by the atomic radius. This is subtracted from v because of the space taken up by one particle. In Van der Waals' original derivation, given below, b is four times the proper volume of the particle. Observe further that the pressure p goes to infinity when the container is completely filled with particles so that there is no void space left for the particles to move; this occurs when V = nb.
Gas mixture
If a mixture of gases is being considered, and each gas has its own (attraction between molecules) and (volume occupied by molecules) values, then and for the mixture can be calculated as
= total number of moles of gas present,
for each , = number of moles of gas present, and
and the rule of adding partial pressures becomes invalid if the numerical result of the equation is significantly different from the ideal gas equation .
Reduced form
The Van der Waals equation can also be expressed in terms of reduced properties:
The equation in reduced form is exactly the same for every gas, this is consistent with the Theorem of corresponding states.
This yields a critical compressibility factor of 3/8. Reasons for modification of ideal gas equation: The equation state for ideal gas is PV=RT. In the derivation of ideal gas laws on the basis of kinetic theory of gases some assumption have been made.
Compressibility factor
The compressibility factor for the Van der Waals equation is:
Or in reduced form by substitution of :
At the critical point:
Validity
The Van der Waals equation is mathematically simple, but it nevertheless predicts the experimentally observed transition between vapor and liquid, and predicts critical behaviour. It also adequately predicts and explains the Joule–Thomson effect (temperature change during adiabatic expansion), which is not possible in ideal gas.
Above the critical temperature, TC, the Van der Waals equation is an improvement over the ideal gas law, and for lower temperatures, i.e., T < TC, the equation is also qualitatively reasonable for the liquid and low-pressure gaseous states; however, with respect to the first-order phase transition, i.e., the range of (p, V, T) where a liquid phase and a gas phase would be in equilibrium, the equation appears to fail to predict observed experimental behaviour, in the sense that p is typically observed to be constant as a function of V for a given temperature in the two-phase region. This apparent discrepancy is resolved in the context of vapour–liquid equilibrium: at a particular temperature, there exist two points on the Van der Waals isotherm that have the same chemical potential, and thus a system in thermodynamic equilibrium will appear to traverse a straight line on the p–V diagram as the ratio of vapour to liquid changes. However, in such a system, there are really only two points present (the liquid and the vapour) rather than a series of states connected by a line, so connecting the locus of points is incorrect: it is not an equation of multiple states, but an equation of (a single) state. It is indeed possible to compress a gas beyond the point at which it would typically condense, given the right conditions, and it is also possible to expand a liquid beyond the point at which it would usually boil. Such states are called "metastable" states. Such behaviour is qualitatively (though perhaps not quantitatively) predicted by the Van der Waals equation of state.
However, the values of physical quantities as predicted with the Van der Waals equation of state "are in very poor agreement with experiment", so the model's utility is limited to qualitative rather than quantitative purposes. Empirically-based corrections can easily be inserted into the Van der Waals model (see Maxwell's correction, below), but in so doing, the modified expression is no longer as simple an analytical model; in this regard, other models, such as those based on the principle of corresponding states, achieve a better fit with roughly the same work.
Even with its acknowledged shortcomings, the pervasive use of the Van der Waals equation in standard university physical chemistry textbooks makes clear its importance as a pedagogic tool to aid understanding fundamental physical chemistry ideas involved in developing theories of vapour–liquid behavior and equations of state. In addition, other (more accurate) equations of state such as the Redlich–Kwong and Peng–Robinson equation of state are essentially modifications of the Van der Waals equation of state.
Derivation
Textbooks in physical chemistry generally give two derivations of the title equation. One is the conventional derivation that goes back to Van der Waals, a mechanical equation of state that cannot be used to specify all thermodynamic functions; the other is a statistical mechanics derivation that makes explicit the intermolecular potential neglected in the first derivation. A particular advantage of the statistical mechanical derivation is that it yields the partition function for the system, and allows all thermodynamic functions to be specified (including the mechanical equation of state).
Conventional derivation
Consider one mole of gas composed of non-interacting point particles that satisfy the ideal gas law:(see any standard Physical Chemistry text, op. cit.)
Next, assume that all particles are hard spheres of the same finite radius r (the Van der Waals radius). The effect of the finite volume of the particles is to decrease the available void space in which the particles are free to move. We must replace V by V − b, where b is called the excluded volume (per mole) or "co-volume". The corrected equation becomes
The excluded volume is not just equal to the volume occupied by the solid, finite-sized particles, but actually four times the total molecular volume for one mole of a Van der waals' gas. To see this, we must realize that a particle is surrounded by a sphere of radius 2r (two times the original radius) that is forbidden for the centers of the other particles. If the distance between two particle centers were to be smaller than 2r, it would mean that the two particles penetrate each other, which, by definition, hard spheres are unable to do.
The excluded volume for the two particles (of average diameter d or radius r) is
,
which, divided by two (the number of colliding particles), gives the excluded volume per particle:
,
So b′ is four times the proper volume of the particle. It was a point of concern to Van der Waals that the factor four yields an upper bound; empirical values for b′ are usually lower. Of course, molecules are not infinitely hard, as Van der Waals thought, and are often fairly soft. To obtain the excluded volume per mole we just need to multiply by the number of molecules in a mole, i.e. by the avogadro number:
.
Next, we introduce a (not necessarily pairwise) attractive force between the particles. Van der Waals assumed that, notwithstanding the existence of this force, the density of the fluid is homogeneous; furthermore, he assumed that the range of the attractive force is so small that the great majority of the particles do not feel that the container is of finite size. Given the homogeneity of the fluid, the bulk of the particles do not experience a net force pulling them to the right or to the left. This is different for the particles in surface layers directly adjacent to the walls. They feel a net force from the bulk particles pulling them into the container, because this force is not compensated by particles on the side where the wall is (another assumption here is that there is no interaction between walls and particles, which is not true, as can be seen from the phenomenon of droplet formation; most types of liquid show adhesion). This net force decreases the force exerted onto the wall by the particles in the surface layer. The net force on a surface particle, pulling it into the container, is proportional to the number density. On considering one mole of gas, the number of particles will be NA
.
The number of particles in the surface layers is, again by assuming homogeneity, also proportional to the density. In total, the force on the walls is decreased by a factor proportional to the square of the density, and the pressure (force per unit surface) is decreased by
,
so that
Upon writing n for the number of moles and nVm = V, the equation obtains the second form given above,
It is of some historical interest to point out that Van der Waals, in his Nobel prize lecture, gave credit to Laplace for the argument that pressure is reduced proportional to the square of the density.
Statistical thermodynamics derivation
The canonical partition function Z of an ideal gas consisting of N = nNA identical (non-interacting''') particles, is:
where is the thermal de Broglie wavelength,
with the usual definitions: h is Planck's constant, m the mass of a particle, k Boltzmann's constant and T the absolute temperature. In an ideal gas z is the partition function of a single particle in a container of volume V. In order to derive the Van der Waals equation we assume now that each particle moves independently in an average potential field offered by the other particles. The averaging over the particles is easy because we will assume that the particle density of the Van der Waals fluid is homogeneous.
The interaction between a pair of particles, which are hard spheres, is taken to ber is the distance between the centers of the spheres and d is the distance where the hard spheres touch each other (twice the Van der Waals radius). The depth of the Van der Waals well is .
Because the particles are not coupled under the mean field Hamiltonian, the mean field approximation of the total partition function still factorizes,
,
but the intermolecular potential necessitates two modifications to z. First, because of the finite size of the particles, not all of V is available, but only V − Nb', where (just as in the conventional derivation above)
.
Second, we insert a Boltzmann factor
exp[ - ϕ/2kT] to take care of the average intermolecular potential. We divide here the potential by two because this interaction energy is shared between two particles. Thus
The total attraction felt by a single particle is
where we assumed that in a shell of thickness dr there are N/V 4π r2dr particles. This is a mean field approximation; the position of the particles is averaged. In reality the density close to the particle is different than far away as can be described by a pair correlation function. Furthermore, it is neglected that the fluid is enclosed
between walls. Performing the integral we get
Hence, we obtain,
From statistical thermodynamics we know that
,
so that we only have to differentiate the terms containing V. We get
Maxwell equal area rule
Below the critical temperature, the Van der Waals equation seems to predict qualitatively incorrect relationships. Unlike for ideal gases, the p-V isotherms oscillate with a relative minimum (d) and a relative maximum (e). Any pressure between pd and pe appears to have 3 values for the volume, contradicting the experimental observation that two state variables completely determine a one-component system's state. Moreover, the isothermal compressibility is negative between d and e (equivalently ), which cannot describe a system at equilibrium.
To address these problems, James Clerk Maxwell replaced the isotherm between points a and c with a horizontal line positioned so that the areas of the two shaded regions would be equal (replacing the a-d-b-e-c curve with a straight line from a to c); this portion of the isotherm corresponds to the liquid-vapor equilibrium. The regions of the isotherm from a–d and from c–e are interpreted as metastable states of super-heated liquid and super-cooled vapor, respectively.Maxwell (1890), "LXXI. On the Dynamical Evidence of the Molecular Constitution of Bodies", pp. 418–438. The equal area rule can be expressed as:
where pV is the vapor pressure (flat portion of the curve), VL is the volume of the pure liquid phase at point a on the diagram, and VG is the volume of the pure gas phase at point c on the diagram. A two-phase mixture at pV will occupy a total volume between VL and VG, as determined by Maxwell's lever rule.
Maxwell justified the rule based on the fact that the area on a pV diagram corresponds to mechanical work, saying that work done on the system in going from c to b should equal work released on going from a to b. This is because the change in free energy A(T,V) equals the work done during a reversible process, and, as a state variable, the free energy must be path-independent. In particular, the value of A at point b should be the same regardless of whether the path taken is from left or right across the horizontal isobar, or follows the original Van der Waals isotherm.
This derivation is not entirely rigorous, since it requires a reversible path through a region of thermodynamic instability, while b is unstable. Nevertheless, modern derivations from chemical potential reach the same conclusion, and it remains a necessary modification to the Van der Waals and to any other analytic equation of state.
From chemical potential
The Maxwell equal area rule can also be derived from an assumption of equal chemical potential μ of coexisting liquid and vapour phases. On the isotherm shown in the above plot, points a and c are the only pair of points which fulfill the equilibrium condition of having equal pressure, temperature and chemical potential. It follows that systems with volumes intermediate between these two points will consist of a mixture of the pure liquid and gas with specific volumes equal to the pure liquid and gas phases at points a and c.
The Van der Waals equation may be solved for VG and VL as functions of the temperature and the vapor pressure pV. Since:
where A is the Helmholtz free energy, it follows that the equal area rule can be expressed as:
is
Since the gas and liquid volumes are functions of pV and T only, this equation is then solved numerically to obtain pV as a function of temperature (and number of particles N), which may then be used to determine the gas and liquid volumes.
A pseudo-3D plot of the locus of liquid and vapor volumes versus temperature and pressure is shown
in the accompanying figure. One sees that the two locii meet at the critical point (1,1,1) smoothly. An isotherm of the Van der Waals fluid taken at T r = 0.90 is also shown where the intersections of the isotherm with the loci illustrate the construct's requirement that the two areas (red and blue, shown) are equal.
Other parameters, forms and applications
Other thermodynamic parameters
We reiterate that the extensive volume V is related to the volume per particle v=V/N where N = nNA is the number of particles in the system.
The equation of state does not give us all the thermodynamic parameters of the system. We can take the equation for the Helmholtz energy A
From the equation derived above for lnQ, we find
Where Φ is an undetermined constant, which may be taken from the Sackur–Tetrode equation for an ideal gas to be:
This equation expresses A in terms of its natural variables V and T , and therefore gives us all thermodynamic information about the system. The mechanical equation of state was already derived above
The entropy equation of state yields the entropy (S )
from which we can calculate the internal energy
Similar equations can be written for the other thermodynamic potential and the chemical potential, but expressing any potential as a function of pressure p will require the solution of a third-order polynomial, which yields a complicated expression. Therefore, expressing the enthalpy and the Gibbs energy as functions of their natural variables will be complicated.
Reduced form
Although the material constant a and b in the usual form of the Van der Waals equation differs for every single fluid considered, the equation can be recast into an invariant form applicable to all fluids.
Defining the following reduced variables (fR, fC are the reduced and critical variable versions of f, respectively),
,
where
as shown by Salzman.
The first form of the Van der Waals equation of state given above can be recast in the following reduced form:
)
This equation is invariant for all fluids; that is, the same reduced form equation of state applies, no matter what a and b may be for the particular fluid.
This invariance may also be understood in terms of the principle of corresponding states. If two fluids have the same reduced pressure, reduced volume, and reduced temperature, we say that their states are corresponding. The states of two fluids may be corresponding even if their measured pressure, volume, and temperature are very different. If the two fluids' states are corresponding, they exist in the same regime of the reduced form equation of state. Therefore, they will respond to changes in roughly the same way, even though their measurable physical characteristics may differ significantly.
Cubic equation
The Van der Waals equation is a cubic equation of state; in the reduced formulation the cubic equation is:
At the critical temperature, where we get as expected
For TR < 1, there are 3 values for vR.
For TR > 1, there is 1 real value for vR.
The solution of this equation for the case where there are three separate roots may be found at Maxwell construction
Application to compressible fluids
The equation is also usable as a PVT equation for compressible fluids (e.g. polymers). In this case specific volume changes are small and it can be written in a simplified form:
where p is the pressure, V is specific volume, T is the temperature and A, B, C'' are parameters.
See also
Gas laws
Ideal gas
Inversion temperature
Iteration
Maxwell construction
Real gas
Theorem of corresponding states
Van der Waals constants (data page)
Redlich–Kwong equation of state
References
Further reading
.
Equations of state
Gas laws
Engineering thermodynamics
Equation
|
[
-0.3835763931274414,
0.2207496017217636,
-0.0811149999499321,
-0.5783928632736206,
-0.22095319628715515,
0.4057771861553192,
0.18020053207874298,
-0.8929325342178345,
-0.007826955057680607,
-0.9158532619476318,
-0.17016510665416718,
0.25211790204048157,
-0.4382328689098358,
0.9438890814781189,
0.5293043851852417,
0.3478994071483612,
0.4627104103565216,
0.39678719639778137,
0.16312991082668304,
-0.20369641482830048,
-0.06752583384513855,
0.4343777000904083,
0.3312796950340271,
-0.5262835025787354,
0.1353863775730133,
-0.8896664381027222,
0.1911533623933792,
0.061029646545648575,
0.477187842130661,
0.3378468453884125,
-0.13517645001411438,
0.9058777689933777,
-0.37029197812080383,
0.1533491164445877,
-0.013422981835901737,
-0.2789607644081116,
-0.0423414520919323,
-0.2679353654384613,
-0.1715853363275528,
-0.19755937159061432,
-0.3165290653705597,
-0.28539061546325684,
0.2676638662815094,
0.2656039893627167,
-0.23226507008075714,
-1.0090157985687256,
-1.1667722463607788,
-0.34445610642433167,
-0.6365965008735657,
-0.8539538383483887,
-0.19214412569999695,
0.2691595256328583,
0.35171958804130554,
0.9531561732292175,
-0.4733821451663971,
-0.08395881950855255,
-0.8728646636009216,
-0.0004664638836402446,
0.2764118015766144,
-0.49849945306777954,
0.2771499454975128,
0.08872085064649582,
-0.12272056192159653,
0.3390085697174072,
0.22427263855934143,
0.3477317690849304,
0.005418797954916954,
0.26569563150405884,
-0.179682657122612,
-0.14226384460926056,
-0.6500577926635742,
-0.1016748696565628,
-0.4236629605293274,
0.02825457602739334,
-0.5311787128448486,
0.3138010799884796,
0.21159331500530243,
0.06926127523183823,
-0.39583227038383484,
0.5381521582603455,
-0.29379919171333313,
0.19500039517879486,
0.23970744013786316,
-0.4371355175971985,
0.5736585855484009,
0.10387421399354935,
-0.5755860805511475,
-0.14819684624671936,
-0.6832212209701538,
0.6689249277114868,
-0.18471811711788177,
-0.07518181949853897,
0.20403748750686646,
-0.5974258184432983,
-0.14831310510635376,
0.1310863196849823,
0.5627766847610474,
-0.0732286125421524,
0.19415438175201416,
0.049224480986595154,
-0.29841431975364685,
-0.24016116559505463,
0.23350930213928223,
-0.3158552050590515,
-0.09515227377414703,
-0.8070671558380127,
-0.3211457431316376,
-0.5736221075057983,
0.09449437260627747,
-0.1508205682039261,
-0.55941241979599,
0.20994938910007477,
0.2204917073249817,
-0.34265565872192383,
-0.24520383775234222,
0.05737168714404106,
-0.24543017148971558,
0.10909853875637054,
0.5897734761238098,
0.5103126168251038,
-0.08809439092874527,
0.7914183139801025,
0.43695640563964844,
0.06212818622589111,
-0.09602690488100052,
0.026399919763207436,
0.6565341353416443,
0.25515225529670715,
-0.6206800937652588,
0.2886544167995453,
0.48870840668678284,
0.9892824292182922,
0.6903956532478333,
-0.14114736020565033,
-0.3917621970176697,
0.2886143624782562,
0.054521460086107254,
0.517183780670166,
-0.20831382274627686,
0.340697318315506,
-0.2845400273799896,
-0.28784194588661194,
-0.35073187947273254,
0.413789302110672,
0.3388408124446869,
-0.057537876069545746,
-0.12585271894931793,
-0.30544883012771606,
-0.35877519845962524,
-0.12393265962600708,
0.036175746470689774,
0.349274218082428,
-0.116407111287117,
0.2656494081020355,
-0.2530553638935089,
0.6466837525367737,
-0.010318398475646973,
0.2685045301914215,
-0.24411185085773468,
0.25748029351234436,
0.18052904307842255,
0.2000686228275299,
0.18944554030895233,
0.20330612361431122,
0.6372140645980835,
-0.5560400485992432,
0.26474446058273315,
0.6975405812263489,
0.04899759963154793,
0.1712074726819992,
-0.14408892393112183,
-0.5398653149604797,
0.2714640498161316,
-0.4914402961730957,
0.2543034851551056,
-0.193134605884552,
0.5276005864143372,
-0.3804633617401123,
0.8114034533500671,
-0.04186969995498657,
-0.564219057559967,
-0.2698711156845093,
-0.05807613208889961,
0.09218546003103256,
0.6580313444137573,
-0.04026668146252632,
0.31320059299468994,
-0.13551533222198486,
-0.05602911114692688,
-0.3778350055217743,
-0.3701149523258209,
-0.15702040493488312,
0.40996795892715454,
-0.8011870384216309,
1.101973533630371,
0.5371383428573608,
-0.3409448266029358,
0.7459059953689575,
-0.10740315169095993,
-0.006247164215892553,
-0.019063077867031097,
-0.1744217872619629,
0.3143891990184784,
0.08196188509464264,
-0.06359945237636566,
0.1933528035879135,
0.5894336700439453,
-0.36797210574150085,
-0.008428914472460747,
0.8650701642036438,
0.4757818579673767,
-0.28823530673980713,
-0.05868053063750267,
-0.7798320055007935,
-0.045464564114809036,
-0.40905746817588806,
-0.6653576493263245,
0.26053154468536377,
0.04585351422429085,
0.613349974155426,
0.9725889563560486,
-0.026130029931664467,
-0.10315660387277603,
0.21541328728199005,
0.35291120409965515,
0.04862017184495926,
0.8726769089698792,
0.44980567693710327,
0.5337764024734497,
-0.9684815406799316,
0.1996690034866333,
-0.24947930872440338,
0.3196951150894165,
-0.31278276443481445,
-0.1693643480539322,
-0.33972373604774475,
-0.016906892880797386,
-0.1453138142824173,
-0.284282922744751,
-0.46643033623695374,
0.13643939793109894,
0.9347513318061829,
-0.5119456052780151,
0.971423327922821,
-0.5056350231170654,
0.05115795135498047,
0.03559769317507744,
-0.16315138339996338,
-0.6270938515663147,
-0.058386921882629395,
-0.33977624773979187,
1.010842204093933,
-0.059964559972286224,
-0.6976662278175354,
-0.3031354546546936,
-0.021686093881726265,
0.016289521008729935,
0.1733178198337555,
0.6503873467445374,
0.5090689063072205,
-0.2742269039154053,
0.08047398179769516,
0.5668434500694275,
0.2768559157848358,
-0.3688962757587433,
-0.6127875447273254,
-0.7097180485725403,
-0.7969254851341248,
-0.2549416720867157,
0.5684022903442383,
0.6533412337303162,
-0.615507960319519,
-0.33897414803504944,
0.01775314100086689,
0.10897785425186157,
-0.7389714121818542,
0.0036791090387851,
0.038802970200777054,
-0.7307239174842834,
-0.3154158890247345,
0.6014333963394165,
1.0382781028747559,
0.33335816860198975,
-0.6658897995948792,
0.1570163518190384,
-0.8176144957542419,
0.07255595177412033,
0.5560394525527954,
0.5847254991531372,
0.1834552139043808,
-0.5025129914283752,
-0.23467883467674255,
-0.24319466948509216,
-0.3104493021965027,
-0.09905335307121277,
0.5860207676887512,
0.004038508981466293,
-0.007261476945132017,
0.40680670738220215,
-0.13560476899147034,
-0.7535110712051392,
-0.016218246892094612,
-0.4048422873020172,
-0.11707654595375061,
-0.05180519446730614,
-0.2383473813533783,
-0.39313358068466187,
1.054097056388855,
-5.349740982055664,
-0.30176952481269836,
0.5052642822265625,
-0.13775375485420227,
0.15403775870800018,
0.37919020652770996,
0.6087751984596252,
0.07765220105648041,
-0.8091201186180115,
0.03521965816617012,
-0.13889123499393463,
-0.2645303010940552,
-0.2424830198287964,
1.1004256010055542,
0.34578874707221985,
-0.17890869081020355,
0.6145949959754944,
0.06862764060497284,
0.35301339626312256,
0.47617223858833313,
-0.536921501159668,
-0.041726406663656235,
-0.2539443373680115,
-0.05492287874221802,
0.16941645741462708,
0.291364461183548,
-0.13863790035247803,
-0.032886892557144165,
-0.6720818877220154,
0.15888968110084534,
-0.5054752230644226,
-0.666927695274353,
0.03858252242207527,
-0.31566157937049866,
0.2809082865715027,
0.31758832931518555,
-0.29497939348220825,
0.018580695614218712,
0.15501701831817627,
-0.3451555669307709,
-0.20806342363357544,
1.1200013160705566,
-0.3539893925189972,
0.29064640402793884,
-0.05035002529621124,
-0.37344878911972046,
-0.24290351569652557,
0.49567145109176636,
-0.32318541407585144,
1.25401771068573,
-0.5024524927139282,
-0.04828941822052002,
0.3364933133125305,
-1.000259518623352,
0.1164713129401207,
0.13330021500587463,
0.26042380928993225,
-0.02778978832066059,
-0.25474119186401367,
0.1023649275302887,
0.7581309676170349,
-0.9795163869857788,
0.5382612347602844,
-0.5251058340072632,
-0.28919216990470886,
0.04385872930288315,
-0.9239879250526428,
-0.49557122588157654,
0.6105344295501709,
0.26824429631233215,
0.24070917069911957,
0.13788005709648132,
0.164790540933609,
-0.8897493481636047,
-0.33663931488990784,
-0.3615553081035614,
0.00016700159176252782,
-0.6079106330871582,
0.7638076543807983,
0.15600313246250153,
-0.6437045931816101,
0.20568230748176575,
-0.13225305080413818,
0.2936463952064514,
0.26655128598213196,
-0.47499218583106995,
-0.6611028909683228,
-0.27701571583747864,
-0.7219950556755066,
-0.20538125932216644,
0.6742984056472778,
-0.2803202271461487,
0.7818981409072876,
0.14071698486804962,
-0.1264847218990326,
0.7816005945205688,
-0.3548370897769928,
0.22751177847385406,
-0.05325981229543686,
-0.07096321135759354,
0.33158692717552185,
-0.4309349060058594,
-0.3209698796272278,
-0.10992860794067383,
0.19064490497112274,
0.7629848122596741,
-0.6616786122322083,
0.4880438446998596,
0.4623824954032898,
0.037423063069581985,
-0.2591996490955353,
0.0671134665608406,
0.22756248712539673,
-0.23934704065322876,
0.2445579171180725,
0.0889553651213646,
-0.85699462890625,
0.4230455756187439,
0.8902258276939392,
0.15107372403144836,
0.403145968914032,
0.383748859167099,
-0.36705806851387024,
-0.2936001718044281,
0.5761404037475586,
0.26859286427497864,
-0.013273605145514011,
0.10109919309616089,
-0.45520856976509094,
-0.09461032599210739,
0.12318892031908035,
0.3016439378261566,
0.29314908385276794,
0.13578805327415466,
0.6396416425704956,
-0.6410980224609375,
0.20455963909626007,
0.14898984134197235,
-0.03615085408091545,
-0.36278513073921204,
0.7738134264945984,
0.10451434552669525,
0.11606235057115555,
-0.7569470405578613,
0.5257386565208435,
0.035743359476327896,
0.45067504048347473,
-0.09663096070289612,
-0.5993303060531616,
0.5731892585754395,
0.37169769406318665,
-0.481258749961853,
0.18557514250278473,
-0.6022186875343323,
-0.5500586032867432,
-0.5338436961174011,
-0.05562368407845497,
0.019204149022698402,
0.781622052192688,
-0.3823714554309845,
0.44951531291007996,
-0.7643044590950012,
-1.0050865411758423,
-0.21057838201522827,
-0.07869404554367065,
0.12343199551105499,
-0.21548499166965485,
0.07866302132606506,
-0.22719936072826385,
0.6815252900123596,
-0.3742873966693878,
-0.6312547922134399,
-0.2508101165294647,
-0.6889322400093079,
-0.32459065318107605,
-0.01003583986312151,
0.2253180891275406,
0.546984076499939,
-0.39471113681793213,
-0.7212069630622864,
0.2686235308647156,
-0.11802671104669571,
-0.4831174612045288,
0.16554397344589233,
0.4304533004760742,
-0.4658515751361847,
0.05812641233205795,
0.33169442415237427,
-0.2821846306324005,
-0.5111742615699768,
0.22538712620735168,
0.6199601292610168,
0.35244229435920715,
-0.13975204527378082,
-0.14240391552448273,
-0.5220645070075989,
-0.3534963130950928,
0.4841189682483673,
-0.36456063389778137,
-0.7914999127388,
0.6875016689300537,
0.15529072284698486,
-0.3276548683643341,
0.5071489810943604,
0.40832552313804626,
-0.5459651350975037,
-0.1712888479232788,
0.05900555104017258,
0.10701940953731537,
0.19939450919628143,
-0.8030101656913757,
-0.7106075882911682,
-0.5703226327896118,
-0.04312942549586296,
-0.5967537760734558,
-0.1463627964258194,
0.8501113653182983,
-0.519629955291748,
0.30744993686676025,
-0.19160136580467224,
-0.1806780993938446,
-0.009941194206476212,
-0.5976473689079285,
-0.04108557105064392,
0.017272574827075005,
0.1117754578590393,
0.3424973785877228,
-0.2743934392929077,
1.2212090492248535,
-0.14247074723243713,
-0.644406259059906,
-0.23286236822605133,
-0.2659255862236023,
-0.10254964977502823,
-0.47088882327079773,
-0.8797798156738281,
-0.20644992589950562,
0.3230288028717041,
-0.3414474129676819,
-0.10868506878614426,
0.10300089418888092,
0.9116246104240417,
-0.07278189808130264,
-0.49422770738601685,
-0.2827952802181244,
0.22019079327583313,
0.7548946142196655,
-0.5617609024047852,
-0.13518714904785156,
-0.4925104081630707,
0.3346085250377655,
0.4285624325275421,
-0.4766879379749298,
-0.011770853772759438,
1.0924005508422852,
0.5699747800827026,
-0.13296331465244293,
-0.5038871765136719,
0.2599213123321533,
0.22940446436405182,
-0.3012293577194214,
-0.3695390224456787,
-0.6886221766471863,
-0.31464657187461853,
0.3022184669971466,
-0.04837825149297714,
-0.4201616644859314,
-0.307567834854126,
0.3974367678165436,
-0.634118378162384,
0.47142985463142395,
-0.6129313707351685,
-0.06628578156232834,
0.5345274209976196,
0.42336732149124146,
0.39206939935684204,
-0.45233163237571716,
-0.3612107038497925,
0.3781244158744812,
-0.754830002784729,
-0.7787171602249146,
-0.029563933610916138,
0.3623404800891876,
0.010091682896018028,
0.8463951349258423,
-0.5332525968551636,
0.015314633026719093,
-0.3564213216304779,
-0.052399780601263046,
0.034605659544467926,
-0.6303207874298096,
0.09077072888612747,
-0.622185230255127,
0.22215454280376434,
-0.06640074402093887,
0.40778040885925293,
0.17486125230789185,
0.6276869773864746,
0.04701247066259384,
-0.19533157348632812,
-0.15159353613853455,
0.5771523118019104,
0.24906447529792786,
0.36321547627449036,
0.8375435471534729,
-0.046619247645139694,
0.36639153957366943,
-0.10270441323518753,
0.256950318813324,
-0.07075122743844986,
0.43022918701171875,
0.4348193109035492,
-0.43646129965782166,
0.36669930815696716,
-0.29198265075683594,
-0.167582169175148,
0.3687630295753479,
-0.7955284118652344,
0.3012808859348297,
0.49900463223457336,
-0.25264978408813477,
-0.37773606181144714,
0.7827147245407104,
-0.5839837193489075,
-0.32261747121810913,
0.8797556757926941,
-0.16570933163166046,
0.12514883279800415,
-0.05153759568929672,
-0.20404653251171112,
1.0730026960372925,
0.3360186219215393,
-0.6035118699073792,
0.07554870843887329,
-0.26332125067710876,
0.45774534344673157,
0.20366546511650085,
-0.4767148494720459,
-0.5381861329078674,
-0.09736789762973785,
0.29554247856140137,
0.7892200350761414,
-0.3239649534225464,
0.07176895439624786,
0.05085493624210358,
0.36861875653266907,
0.13813570141792297,
0.32167187333106995,
0.09010541439056396,
0.13190191984176636,
0.22345545887947083,
0.06933408230543137,
0.061652474105358124,
-0.2642133831977844,
-0.5765660405158997,
0.007659380789846182,
0.7167760133743286,
-0.33035892248153687,
-0.04784311726689339,
0.4206748306751251,
0.48096421360969543,
0.5634573101997375,
0.24996769428253174,
-0.3440170884132385,
0.6343490481376648,
-0.06090185046195984,
0.03558051586151123,
-0.2698571979999542,
0.16880251467227936,
-0.25069013237953186,
-0.18697284162044525,
0.17985941469669342,
-0.5251546502113342,
0.10484710335731506,
0.03319564834237099,
-0.03235817328095436,
0.22251632809638977,
0.33021384477615356,
-0.10216381400823593,
-0.22716151177883148,
0.06599576771259308,
0.07530959695577621,
-0.231959268450737,
-0.13938769698143005,
-0.18946756422519684,
-0.05742349848151207,
-0.25231650471687317,
0.4099575877189636,
-0.13418151438236237,
-0.19899699091911316,
0.6701522469520569,
-0.34135693311691284,
-0.07827311754226685,
0.09250795841217041,
-0.11487647891044617,
0.09366349130868912,
-0.29653817415237427,
0.8471412062644958,
0.46941331028938293,
-0.7066645622253418,
0.36825281381607056,
-0.2943464517593384,
-0.19238589704036713,
0.6656707525253296,
-0.1287434846162796,
0.7844440340995789,
-0.5790002942085266,
1.0974102020263672,
-0.6012871265411377,
1.0464277267456055,
0.46471425890922546,
-0.856107771396637,
-0.21832063794136047,
0.3308262228965759,
0.006646971218287945,
0.48126739263534546,
0.2781054973602295,
-0.26823893189430237,
-0.011965918354690075,
-0.574065625667572,
0.05567769333720207,
-0.43847477436065674,
0.25532618165016174,
0.37102195620536804,
-0.2916427552700043,
-0.3533615171909332,
0.4110696613788605,
0.2015354186296463,
-0.4814722537994385,
-0.25138556957244873,
0.24070672690868378,
0.03271540626883507,
-0.6654349565505981,
0.5414354205131531,
-0.6721928119659424,
0.47504106163978577,
0.30401715636253357,
0.4080667495727539,
-0.10523805767297745,
-0.32926586270332336,
-0.15837913751602173,
0.016744816675782204,
0.38109174370765686,
0.8123103976249695,
-0.24928776919841766,
0.1381402164697647,
-0.1478320062160492,
-0.19992250204086304,
-0.4315685033798218,
0.40420132875442505,
0.6756179332733154,
-0.24870748817920685,
-0.5002560615539551,
-0.4994678795337677,
-0.5403859615325928,
-0.2200593203306198,
-0.0679711401462555,
-0.6309443712234497,
0.038032278418540955,
0.7053685188293457
] |
206071
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20Lampson%2C%201st%20Baron%20Killearn
|
Miles Lampson, 1st Baron Killearn
|
Miles Wedderburn Lampson, 1st Baron Killearn, (24 August 1880 – 18 September 1964) was a British diplomat.
Background and education
Miles Lampson was the son of Norman Lampson, and grandson of Sir Curtis Lampson, 1st Baronet. His mother was Helen, daughter of Peter Blackburn, MP for Stirlingshire.
He was educated at Eton.
Diplomatic career
Lampson entered the Foreign Office in 1903. He served as Secretary to Garter Mission, Japan, in 1906, as 2nd Secretary at Tokyo, Japan, between 1908 and 1910, as 2nd Secretary at Sofia, Bulgaria in 1911, as 1st Secretary at Peking in 1916, as Acting British High Commissioner in Siberia in 1920 and as British Minister to China between 1926 and 1933.
In 1934 he was appointed High Commissioner for Egypt and the Sudan. As a result of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in December 1936, to which Lampson was a signatory, Britain loosened its grip on Egypt and the post title was changed to Ambassador to Egypt and High Commissioner for the Sudan in 1936. Lampson continued in this office until 1946. As ambassador to Egypt he forced King Farouk I to change the cabinet to a Wafdist one through surrounding the king's palace with tanks.
He was then Special Commissioner in Southeast Asia between 1946 and 1948. He was admitted to the Privy Council in 1941 and raised to the peerage as Baron Killearn, of Killearn in the County of Stirling, on 17 May 1943. He was also awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon of Japan and the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon of Japan.
Family
Lord Killearn married firstly Rachel, daughter of William Wilton Phipps, in 1912. They had one son and two daughters:
Graham Curtis Lampson, 2nd Baron Killearn (1919–1996). He died leaving daughters only, the youngest Hon. Nadine Marisa Lampson being married to Sir Nicholas Bonsor, Bt.
Hon. Mary Lampson
Hon. Margaret Lampson
After Rachel's death in 1930 he married secondly Jacqueline Aldine Leslie Castellani (1910–2015), daughter of Aldo Castellani, (Hon.), in 1934. They had one son and two daughters:
Victor Miles George Aldous Lampson, 3rd Baron Killearn. He has issue, including a son and heir apparent.
Hon. Jacquetta Jean Frederica Lampson; she married Peregrine Eliot, 10th Earl of St Germans, and had issue, three sons.
Hon. Roxana Rose Catherine Naila Lampson. She married to Ian Ross, mother of six children, including the musicians Atticus Ross, Leopold Ross and the model Liberty Ross.
Lampson was a close personal friend of Sir Edward Peel.
Succession
Lord Killearn died in September 1964, aged 84, and was succeeded in the barony by his son by his first marriage, Graham. As Graham died without male heirs, the title subsequently passed to Lord Killearn's son from his second marriage, Victor.
The 3rd Lord Killearn took legal action in 2011 to prevent his mother selling off the family home, Haremere Hall.
Arms
See also
List of colonial heads of Egypt
Military history of Egypt during World War II
References
Sources
The Killearn Diaries, 1934–1946, London: Sidwick and Jackson, 1972.
Yapp, M.E. (ed.): Politics and diplomacy in Egypt: The diaries of Sir Miles Lampson, 1935–1937, Oxford: Published for the British Academy by Oxford University Press, 1997.
Lord Killearn's Diaries: Custodial history: In the possession of Lord Killearn, the Lampson family, Drs Trefor Evans and David Steeds of the University of Aberystwyth. Reference code: GB165-0176. Dates of creation: 1926–1951. 8 boxes 25 volumes. Scope and content: 25 MS and TS volumes of diaries, 1926–51, covering his service in China, Egypt and the Sudan, and South-East Asia.
Cassandra Jardine: "Grande dame is still giving high society plenty of cause for gossip", in: The Independent, Sunday 27 January 2008. Describes the life and times of the Dowager Lady Killearn (née Jacquetta Aldine Leslie Castellani).
O'Sullivan, Christopher D.: FDR and the End of Empire: The Origins of American Power in the Middle East., Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
External links
1880 births
1964 deaths
Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to China
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Egypt
High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to Egypt
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Diplomatic peers
History of Egypt (1900–present)
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Members of the Royal Victorian Order
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Eton College
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Peers created by George VI
|
[
-0.43197914958000183,
0.4641359746456146,
-0.20787006616592407,
-0.7032181620597839,
-0.2275993824005127,
0.16703034937381744,
0.8202207684516907,
0.00650783022865653,
-0.2003640979528427,
-0.06698250770568848,
-0.5478691458702087,
0.48836565017700195,
-0.5211795568466187,
0.49628162384033203,
0.544687807559967,
-0.21106857061386108,
-0.31972840428352356,
0.5780485272407532,
-0.0846763402223587,
-0.4283345639705658,
-0.14191016554832458,
-0.11303367465734482,
0.2123890221118927,
0.008951366879045963,
-0.17264924943447113,
0.442048043012619,
0.2594543397426605,
-0.16712097823619843,
0.01769035868346691,
-0.22856533527374268,
0.38219118118286133,
0.6163269281387329,
-0.23626768589019775,
-0.38355493545532227,
-0.29888156056404114,
0.0029386095702648163,
0.13666972517967224,
-0.6539398431777954,
-0.05624550208449364,
0.5234467387199402,
0.05609174072742462,
0.49748846888542175,
0.24327878654003143,
0.1785014569759369,
0.077717125415802,
-0.7507556080818176,
-2.042219877243042,
0.15404963493347168,
-0.28377392888069153,
-0.5318992733955383,
-0.17577022314071655,
0.1328238695859909,
1.0675981044769287,
-0.008914592675864697,
0.3655056357383728,
0.8476522564888,
-0.763484537601471,
0.08616916090250015,
0.7145492434501648,
0.15306879580020905,
-0.08628173917531967,
-0.0674300566315651,
0.39570754766464233,
0.1683284193277359,
0.5023282170295715,
0.27826640009880066,
-0.15573497116565704,
0.38563263416290283,
0.12424696236848831,
0.20563118159770966,
-0.1545974314212799,
0.07860089093446732,
0.49201443791389465,
0.5893713235855103,
0.18834538757801056,
0.49152621626853943,
0.19017484784126282,
-0.04636424034833908,
0.05804092064499855,
-0.3922317326068878,
0.12808600068092346,
-0.3087334930896759,
0.6230130195617676,
0.21322350203990936,
0.09978818893432617,
0.06453969329595566,
-0.577836811542511,
0.6543935537338257,
-0.16135475039482117,
0.7754618525505066,
-0.3712969720363617,
-0.21598155796527863,
-0.09246817231178284,
-0.15578921139240265,
-0.2735397517681122,
0.1832459270954132,
0.01689193770289421,
0.21799878776073456,
-0.11355026066303253,
-0.07437470555305481,
0.44686925411224365,
0.37742388248443604,
0.29025399684906006,
-0.3838948607444763,
-0.8143673539161682,
0.15262611210346222,
-0.5537797808647156,
-0.4577030837535858,
0.3433896005153656,
-1.3894251585006714,
-0.4395633637905121,
0.36300039291381836,
-0.4471201002597809,
0.06783100962638855,
0.32135409116744995,
0.32388630509376526,
0.25011903047561646,
-0.7555615901947021,
-0.5607848167419434,
0.19946768879890442,
-0.02724265679717064,
0.6973642706871033,
-0.48714548349380493,
0.14861781895160675,
-0.34392988681793213,
0.15250654518604279,
0.4164349436759949,
-0.0112855713814497,
0.1132044792175293,
1.0922857522964478,
0.25682511925697327,
1.3476946353912354,
-0.7562465071678162,
-0.30728745460510254,
-0.36120694875717163,
-0.33274558186531067,
0.7406216263771057,
-0.056510090827941895,
0.24108128249645233,
0.3787122070789337,
-0.35181379318237305,
-0.059544578194618225,
-1.6401218175888062,
0.08999853581190109,
0.857234537601471,
0.30370718240737915,
-0.17100267112255096,
-0.4551467299461365,
0.24615806341171265,
0.06631253659725189,
0.2290845811367035,
-0.29900339245796204,
0.40015584230422974,
-0.08523811399936676,
-0.6370100975036621,
0.6342962980270386,
0.5067310333251953,
0.2950143814086914,
0.672001838684082,
0.3874228894710541,
-0.12852853536605835,
-0.19314658641815186,
-0.17736348509788513,
-0.036382097750902176,
0.1365048885345459,
0.31099289655685425,
0.19921661913394928,
-0.29459476470947266,
0.10542354732751846,
0.34011510014533997,
-0.2027588188648224,
0.23414255678653717,
0.5258849263191223,
-0.5958648920059204,
-0.1473667472600937,
0.40926772356033325,
0.3698282837867737,
0.22604675590991974,
0.05821019411087036,
-0.9474225044250488,
-0.9756550192832947,
-0.4273141920566559,
0.17374366521835327,
-0.22731885313987732,
0.6496156454086304,
-0.12101171910762787,
0.5301474332809448,
-0.4167923927307129,
0.02740435115993023,
-0.16391776502132416,
-0.32539433240890503,
-0.6828325986862183,
0.28399309515953064,
-0.544000506401062,
0.866310179233551,
0.3761691749095917,
0.10204792022705078,
-0.22561728954315186,
0.3610166013240814,
1.2562930583953857,
-0.1423064023256302,
0.25818440318107605,
-0.02434682287275791,
-0.31758126616477966,
0.055373504757881165,
1.7467055320739746,
0.12094325572252274,
-0.21227340400218964,
0.36057591438293457,
0.9019538760185242,
0.7589747309684753,
-0.34088200330734253,
-0.1772317737340927,
0.7943196296691895,
-0.1359625905752182,
-0.5172601938247681,
0.3280594050884247,
-0.158181294798851,
0.2818444073200226,
-0.32818469405174255,
0.17893452942371368,
0.3226609528064728,
-0.15019471943378448,
0.9752074480056763,
0.08090732991695404,
0.7010850310325623,
0.18329791724681854,
0.3760722279548645,
-0.4091510474681854,
-1.3011499643325806,
0.33388301730155945,
0.25128981471061707,
0.21254011988639832,
-0.6029581427574158,
-0.26144006848335266,
-0.15200434625148773,
-0.26379695534706116,
-0.10965168476104736,
0.008394848555326462,
0.07453296333551407,
0.02654261142015457,
0.2512190043926239,
-0.6667105555534363,
0.4231890141963959,
-0.2287963181734085,
1.1446764469146729,
-0.21773318946361542,
-0.22557373344898224,
0.22566567361354828,
-0.24501566588878632,
0.6147072315216064,
0.36082738637924194,
0.2910844385623932,
-0.38222479820251465,
0.05007307231426239,
-0.0438491515815258,
0.008061529137194157,
0.3501083552837372,
0.09154898673295975,
0.24637846648693085,
0.11402171850204468,
0.33109867572784424,
0.28470292687416077,
0.716412365436554,
-0.25013110041618347,
-0.13455864787101746,
-0.0842527523636818,
-0.59847491979599,
0.054741643369197845,
-0.15410646796226501,
-0.029531091451644897,
-0.5073395371437073,
-0.11610551923513412,
-1.5577510595321655,
0.17584115266799927,
0.07219314575195312,
-0.4992941617965698,
0.48423469066619873,
-0.778789222240448,
-0.2416236400604248,
0.37273991107940674,
0.9522470235824585,
-0.5556663274765015,
0.6595646142959595,
-0.3957550823688507,
-0.13390418887138367,
-0.09376543760299683,
-0.30943048000335693,
0.4329902231693268,
-0.009186675772070885,
-0.20011934638023376,
0.3106023371219635,
-0.32504209876060486,
0.40683454275131226,
-0.5912591218948364,
0.028231654316186905,
-0.33935701847076416,
-0.757599413394928,
0.274406760931015,
-0.2496551275253296,
-0.5346346497535706,
0.5850680470466614,
-0.7177419066429138,
0.2250487059354782,
0.3159177899360657,
0.20853891968727112,
-0.32353851199150085,
-0.25717636942863464,
-4.543986797332764,
0.14850835502147675,
-0.15077368915081024,
-0.390884667634964,
0.29755860567092896,
-0.06977479159832001,
0.4155932664871216,
-0.6563679575920105,
-0.05605247616767883,
-0.17960619926452637,
0.6109269857406616,
-0.37308305501937866,
0.347560852766037,
0.6111617684364319,
1.1598008871078491,
0.6422582864761353,
0.8561820387840271,
0.14248599112033844,
0.878445029258728,
0.1771588921546936,
-0.2202245444059372,
0.31189724802970886,
0.09154172241687775,
0.3798567056655884,
0.2430725395679474,
0.8028101325035095,
-0.07140880823135376,
-0.38642966747283936,
-0.8986549377441406,
-0.09193628281354904,
0.07256210595369339,
0.5370627641677856,
-0.011633430607616901,
-0.012122015468776226,
-0.7874940633773804,
-0.24620947241783142,
0.5623266100883484,
0.3528210520744324,
0.16148674488067627,
-0.33351609110832214,
0.05133335292339325,
0.39528676867485046,
-0.2612714171409607,
0.5871423482894897,
0.40995392203330994,
-0.08495141565799713,
-1.0775384902954102,
0.18384738266468048,
0.20075471699237823,
0.4315834045410156,
-0.35710200667381287,
0.2722875475883484,
0.488857239484787,
0.40458106994628906,
-0.604071319103241,
0.06583143025636673,
0.27736350893974304,
-0.29857271909713745,
-0.8217834234237671,
0.4469834268093109,
0.5715035200119019,
-0.7884442806243896,
0.43162113428115845,
0.2223941683769226,
0.21107430756092072,
-0.14885348081588745,
0.15679258108139038,
-0.38494348526000977,
0.06292645633220673,
-0.4094037711620331,
-0.23927605152130127,
0.8648226261138916,
-0.10549405962228775,
-0.7390788197517395,
-0.4958367645740509,
-0.0852809026837349,
-0.33307307958602905,
0.7252737283706665,
-0.05474942922592163,
0.001729500130750239,
0.47678256034851074,
-0.42523878812789917,
-0.7635507583618164,
1.4832098484039307,
0.38552406430244446,
-0.5479959845542908,
-0.3012230694293976,
0.2684405744075775,
-0.3186202049255371,
-0.10046011954545975,
0.22302807867527008,
-0.45287108421325684,
-0.31369903683662415,
0.6234363317489624,
0.1276070922613144,
-0.2151300311088562,
0.05588287487626076,
-0.21411049365997314,
-0.028793441131711006,
-0.3255356550216675,
-0.7017375230789185,
-0.587517499923706,
-0.13064822554588318,
-0.7334116697311401,
-0.19935251772403717,
-0.16204933822155,
-0.3230871260166168,
0.6194175481796265,
-0.0383143313229084,
-0.04366092011332512,
-0.09804045408964157,
0.1362677812576294,
-0.13150884211063385,
0.02256080135703087,
0.24070385098457336,
-0.704079806804657,
-0.09538441896438599,
0.5091694593429565,
0.590930700302124,
0.823944628238678,
-0.20285430550575256,
0.1698034554719925,
0.21008563041687012,
-0.03114466741681099,
-0.35813072323799133,
0.01610257290303707,
0.9179231524467468,
-0.5560051798820496,
-0.8041476607322693,
-0.0681626945734024,
-0.002058630809187889,
0.6730189323425293,
-0.17913636565208435,
-0.36475056409835815,
0.007357284892350435,
-0.7465319633483887,
-0.9720771312713623,
0.06890638172626495,
0.5651321411132812,
0.029050098732113838,
0.051932912319898605,
-0.2856858968734741,
-0.47746384143829346,
0.45975446701049805,
-0.06289701163768768,
0.32797783613204956,
0.4285324513912201,
-0.30499267578125,
-0.4625488221645355,
0.6671220064163208,
-0.3691643178462982,
-0.37264180183410645,
0.7135065793991089,
-0.8824737071990967,
-0.13600020110607147,
-0.13043148815631866,
-0.5594426989555359,
0.19177007675170898,
-0.37927576899528503,
-0.6904304623603821,
-0.16382288932800293,
0.3634888231754303,
-0.9758062958717346,
0.59022456407547,
0.5653465390205383,
-0.3826577663421631,
-0.526076078414917,
-0.12400776892900467,
-0.7770810127258301,
1.0044729709625244,
-0.08906339108943939,
-0.81731778383255,
-0.5290994048118591,
-0.46111246943473816,
0.18594929575920105,
-0.11040183156728745,
0.09564332664012909,
0.33782050013542175,
0.1006573736667633,
-0.3700583279132843,
-0.17658387124538422,
0.6391483545303345,
-0.4506196975708008,
0.45158928632736206,
0.46732375025749207,
-0.5396308302879333,
-0.772910475730896,
-0.19149449467658997,
0.019551938399672508,
-0.07423783838748932,
0.4561193883419037,
0.013858169317245483,
0.47134995460510254,
0.37527742981910706,
-0.6322598457336426,
-0.5928526520729065,
0.029375582933425903,
0.1965186595916748,
0.033989742398262024,
-0.7862082123756409,
0.6096935868263245,
0.6899677515029907,
-0.2155562937259674,
-0.10581657290458679,
0.07935694605112076,
-1.0217151641845703,
-0.2993500232696533,
0.4404086470603943,
-0.278641939163208,
1.469724178314209,
-0.7799081802368164,
-0.802949845790863,
0.05743299797177315,
0.640616238117218,
-0.33494359254837036,
0.015324144624173641,
0.4612947702407837,
0.38266679644584656,
0.05486808717250824,
-0.6058959364891052,
-0.13214793801307678,
-0.32318949699401855,
-0.3432740569114685,
-0.4515591859817505,
-0.6356104016304016,
0.26257485151290894,
0.14866112172603607,
-0.1883305162191391,
0.89809650182724,
-0.20122313499450684,
-0.7639589905738831,
0.12129370868206024,
0.5783396363258362,
0.2040327936410904,
-0.07070007920265198,
0.572519838809967,
-0.1013362854719162,
0.570454478263855,
0.2197422832250595,
-0.02943497896194458,
0.5993383526802063,
1.3808927536010742,
0.9012331962585449,
-0.5472885370254517,
-0.36249715089797974,
0.29152369499206543,
0.35891199111938477,
-0.47962692379951477,
-0.07552389800548553,
0.220417320728302,
0.021309129893779755,
-0.20582932233810425,
-0.8688874244689941,
-0.6732656359672546,
0.9132128357887268,
-0.23061487078666687,
0.16092513501644135,
0.49175116419792175,
0.40590909123420715,
-0.09666222333908081,
-0.10805847495794296,
0.2804179787635803,
0.039977140724658966,
0.3713338077068329,
0.1422661989927292,
0.6399151682853699,
0.0906897559762001,
-0.047903601080179214,
0.5827146768569946,
-0.02037571556866169,
-0.6738229393959045,
-0.7860948443412781,
-0.43867769837379456,
0.20756731927394867,
-0.5476564764976501,
-0.277343213558197,
0.7026300430297852,
-0.877945601940155,
0.0966079905629158,
-0.3878197968006134,
0.1908012479543686,
-0.28174155950546265,
0.9562958478927612,
-0.5868574976921082,
-0.4094076454639435,
-0.8792991042137146,
-0.42385154962539673,
-0.4650692641735077,
-0.22614994645118713,
0.03095014952123165,
-0.5673544406890869,
-0.30484282970428467,
-0.25937768816947937,
0.3503144085407257,
-0.14486706256866455,
-0.21971262991428375,
-0.9676743745803833,
0.21010005474090576,
-0.8481589555740356,
-0.3777519464492798,
-0.6525166034698486,
0.5245935916900635,
0.08705531060695648,
-0.30386215448379517,
0.5678228735923767,
0.315535306930542,
0.07776860147714615,
-0.2873581647872925,
-0.045950885862112045,
-0.42672401666641235,
-0.14441969990730286,
-0.4897157847881317,
-0.03718813508749008,
0.40490567684173584,
-0.6207504272460938,
-0.3884390890598297,
0.5178014636039734,
-0.9489644765853882,
-0.03900783509016037,
0.068076491355896,
-0.3012823164463043,
-0.15798822045326233,
0.19659312069416046,
-0.13054794073104858,
0.12217894196510315,
0.7596300840377808,
-0.3731246292591095,
-0.07263743132352829,
0.549053430557251,
0.04383603110909462,
-0.16210687160491943,
-0.2589157521724701,
-0.8324955105781555,
0.5517231822013855,
-0.44044697284698486,
0.09574957191944122,
0.2113736867904663,
-0.7641770839691162,
-0.09177079051733017,
0.4930769205093384,
-0.11194197833538055,
1.0927116870880127,
0.11231676489114761,
-0.5048086047172546,
-0.3898237943649292,
0.014294375665485859,
-0.2322610467672348,
0.6262758374214172,
0.5713729858398438,
-0.11819782853126526,
0.5821005702018738,
0.28177309036254883,
0.27857011556625366,
-0.7355350255966187,
-0.03215956315398216,
0.38290083408355713,
0.38499805331230164,
-0.4175412654876709,
-0.38216134905815125,
-1.2967692613601685,
-0.10652647912502289,
-0.26295310258865356,
0.8057013154029846,
0.27633658051490784,
0.407063364982605,
-0.40028050541877747,
0.27034616470336914,
-0.47123122215270996,
0.5346633195877075,
0.8271580338478088,
0.47444799542427063,
-0.07723794877529144,
0.12083183228969574,
-0.1451730579137802,
0.6024408936500549,
0.2567480206489563,
0.600286066532135,
-0.0014800858916714787,
-0.27380192279815674,
-0.26917654275894165,
-0.29590609669685364,
0.7622259259223938,
-0.16862866282463074,
-0.7093973755836487,
0.15999770164489746,
-0.08123571425676346,
-0.6525180339813232,
0.12190353870391846,
-0.06527210026979446,
-0.561811625957489,
1.0268744230270386,
-0.4461978077888489,
-0.47949033975601196,
0.5041743516921997,
-0.7256566286087036,
0.16161447763442993,
-0.36800527572631836,
0.9247939586639404,
0.46595847606658936,
-0.6643908023834229,
-0.3989942967891693,
0.3301818072795868,
-0.07123316079378128,
0.3561548590660095,
-0.010637128725647926,
0.5488175749778748,
-0.24674513936042786,
0.4131423234939575,
-0.9884929656982422,
0.21533042192459106,
0.07702720910310745,
0.11458281427621841,
-0.07802572101354599,
0.4931243062019348,
-0.04814215749502182,
0.12691457569599152,
0.3775772154331207,
-0.5278282165527344,
-0.5741652846336365,
-0.4796576499938965,
0.1527453362941742,
-0.12663871049880981,
-0.1499430537223816,
-0.354766309261322,
0.21933481097221375,
-0.4515906870365143,
0.13069817423820496,
0.2916017174720764,
-0.11024824529886246,
0.4048074781894684,
-0.17054010927677155,
0.22570854425430298,
-0.12238345295190811,
-0.6855000853538513,
-0.1323990523815155,
-0.3712630569934845,
0.5229859948158264,
1.1312127113342285,
0.6071821451187134,
0.10569465905427933,
0.28218650817871094,
-0.24488291144371033,
0.11948362737894058,
0.3624444007873535,
-2.975856304168701,
-0.41746601462364197,
-0.16965855658054352,
-0.9118421673774719,
0.11939326673746109,
0.10362018644809723,
0.043648749589920044,
-0.2749481499195099,
0.36737748980522156,
-0.7892229557037354,
0.3769177198410034,
0.09983319044113159,
-0.4339907467365265,
-0.5825415253639221,
0.6520200371742249,
-0.04468943178653717
] |
206074
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonner%20Fellers
|
Bonner Fellers
|
Bonner Frank Fellers (February 7, 1896 – October 7, 1973) was a US Army officer who served during World War II as military attaché and director of psychological warfare. He is notable as the military attaché in Egypt whose extensive transmissions of detailed British tactical information were intercepted by Axis agents and passed to German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel for over six months, which contributed to disastrous British defeats at Gazala and Tobruk in June 1942.
Early military career
Fellers entered the United States Military Academy at West Point in June 1916. The increased need for junior officers during the First World War caused Fellers's class to be accelerated and to graduate on November 1, 1918. Upon his graduation, Fellers was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Coast Artillery Corps.
Fellers was promoted to first lieutenant in October 1919 and graduated from the Coast Artillery School Basic Course in 1920. The drastic reduction in the Army after the war created limited opportunities for promotion and so Fellers was not promoted to captain until December 3, 1934. In 1935, he graduated from the Command and General Staff School and the Chemical Warfare Service Field Officers Course, when he completed his soon-to-be-influential thesis "The Psychology of the Japanese Soldier."
Fellers served three tours of duty in the Philippines in the 1920s and the 1930s. His assignments included helping to open the Philippine Military Academy, the Philippines' "West Point," and liaisoning with Philippine President Manuel Quezon. The Philippines awarded him its Distinguished Service Star for his contributions to its defenses.
Fellers graduated from the United States Army War College in 1939 and was promoted to major on July 1, 1940. He was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on September 15, 1941, and to temporary colonel the next month.
World War II
Italians and Germans access to Fellers's reports
In October 1940, Major Fellers was assigned as military attaché to the US embassy in Egypt. He was assigned the duty of monitoring and reporting on British military operations in the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre. The British granted Fellers access to their activities and information. He dutifully reported everything he learned to his superiors in the United States. His reports were read by President Franklin Roosevelt, the head of American intelligence, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Fellers was concerned about the security of the "Black Code" of the US State Department. His concerns were overridden and he sent his reports by radio. The US government did not know the details of the code had been stolen from the US embassy in Italy in September 1941 (shortly before the US entered the war) in a covert night raid into the embassy by Italian spies from the Servizio Informazioni Militare (SIM), the Italian military intelligence service. That enabled the Italians to read the reports, and within eight hours, the most secret data on British "strengths, positions, losses, reinforcements, supply, situation, plans, morale etc" were in the hands of the German and the Italian militaries. Around the same time, it was also broken by German cryptanalysts.
Beginning in mid-December 1941, coincidentally when the US entered the war, Germany could identify Fellers's reports until June 29, 1942, when Fellers switched to a newly adopted US code system.
Fellers's radiograms provided to the Axis detailed, extensive, and timely information about troop movements and equipment. Information from his messages alerted the Axis to British convoy operations in the Battle of the Mediterranean, including efforts to resupply the garrison of Malta. In January 1942 information about numbers and the condition of British forces was provided to General Rommel, the famed German commander in Africa, who could thus plan his operations with reliable knowledge of what the opposing forces were. The Germans referred to Fellers as die gute Quelle ("the good source"). Rommel referred to him as "the little fellow."
The information leak cost the Allies many lives. For example, in June 1942, the British attempted to resupply Malta, which was under constant air attack and was being starved. The British determined to sail two supply convoys simultaneously in the hopes that if one were to become discovered, attacks upon it would distract the Axis from the other. Codenamed Operation Vigorous and Harpoon and sailing from Alexandria in the east and Gibraltar in the west, respectively, their sailing was timed with an effort by special forces teams to neutralize Axis ships and aircraft. Fellers efficiently reported all of that in his cable, No. 11119 dated June 11, which was intercepted in both Rome and by the German Military High Command Cipher Branch (OKW Chiffrierabteilung). It read, in part:
NIGHTS OF JUNE 12TH JUNE 13TH BRITISH SABOTAGE UNITS PLAN SIMULTANEOUS STICKER BOMB ATTACKS AGAINST AIRCRAFT ON 9 AXIS AIRDROMES. PLANS TO REACH OBJECTIVES BY PARACHUTES AND LONG RANGE DESERT PATROL.
British and Free French raiders went into action behind the lines in Libya and on the island of Crete. In most of the attacks, the raiders were met with accurate fire of the alerted garrisons and suffered heavy losses but failed to inflict any damage upon the Luftwaffe. Their only success came when Fellers's unwitting early warning was not received or were ignored or ineptly handled. Meanwhile, both convoys were located and came under attack. A day after leaving Gibraltar, Convoy Harpoon's six merchant ships and their escorts came under continuous air and surface attack. Only two of the merchant ships survived to reach Malta. Convoy Vigorous was the larger effort. Made up of 11 merchant ships, it suffered such serious losses that it was forced to turn back to Egypt.
Debates continue on the Fellers leaks' overall impact on the battle for North Africa. For example, John Ferris argues that because Fellers sometimes reported imperfect information and assessments, the leaks also contributed to Rommel's ultimate defeat: "In its last days of life, after Tobruk fell, the 'Good Source' bolstered Rommel's decision to drive all-out on Alexandria, his native over-optimism reinforced by Bonner Fellers' belief that the British would crack under one last blow. Both men were wrong; this time the intelligence failure led to German defeat."
Fellers had been ordered to use the State Department code over his objections. For example, on February 2, 1942, Fellers reported "Believe that code compromised" but was instructed thereafter that the code was secure.
British suspect leak from Egypt
Ultra intercepts seen only by the British indicated the Germans were gaining information from a source in Egypt, and British intelligence had considered Fellers as a possible source. On June 10, 1942, the British became convinced Fellers's reports were compromised because an intercept had compared British tactics negatively to American tactics. The British informed the Americans on June 12, who, on June 14, confirmed the finding that Fellers's reports were the source. Fellers switched codes on June 29, which ended the leaks.
Fellers was not found at fault for the interception of his reports, but he was transferred from Egypt on 7 July 1942. His successor as attaché used the US military cipher, which the Germans could not read. Upon returning to the United States, Fellers was decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal for his analysis and reporting of the North African situation. He was also promoted to brigadier general, the first in the West Point Class of 1918, on December 4, 1942.
While assigned to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in Washington, he was, as recalled by a colleague, "the most violent anglophobe I have encountered." However, that comment may be colored by the context of the American-British intelligence situation of the time. Fellers's North African reports, which his Distinguished Service Medal citation characterized as "models of clarity and accuracy," were bluntly critical of British weapons, operations, and leadership: "The Eighth Army has failed to maintain the morale of its troops; its tactical conceptions were always wrong, it neglected completely cooperation between the various arms; its reactions to the lightning changes in the battlefield were always slow." Such assessments, meant for American officials, were intercepted from the Germans by the British Ultra signals intelligence.
Despite his anti-British attitude, Fellers and his reports influenced decisions to bring American supplies and troops to aid the British in North Africa. Throughout his tenure in North Africa, Fellers advocated for increased American support for the British in North Africa, which included both weapons and a commitment of American troops. This was at odds with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the U.S. European Command as to the level of weapons support and an American troop landing. The military policy then was that saving the British in North Africa was not strategically required, especially not through a North Africa invasion (Operation Torch), which would divert focus from Operation Bolero, a plan for an early European invasion.
President Roosevelt admired Fellers's reports and was influenced by them enough so that on June 29, General George Marshall wrote to Roosevelt, "Fellers is a very valuable observer but his responsibilities are not those of a strategist and his views are in opposition to mine and those of the entire Operations Division." The President invited Fellers to the White House upon his return from Cairo, and they met on July 30, 1942. "Consistent with his previous reporting through 1942, Fellers argued for robust and expeditious reinforcement of British forces in the Middle East." Thus, Fellers' blunt criticism and his analysis of the Middle East's strategic importance may well have influenced Roosevelt's decisions to reinforce the Eighth Army and to support Operation Torch.
Transfer to Pacific
In the summer of 1943, Fellers left his job in the OSS, where he played a role in planning psychological warfare, and he returned to the Southwest Pacific and resumed working for General MacArthur. Fellers later served as military secretary and the Chief of Psychological Operations under MacArthur.
During the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese, Fellers had several assignments, including Director of Civil Affairs for the Philippines. For his efforts, Fellers received a second Philippine Distinguished Service Star.
General Dwight Eisenhower had been at odds with Fellers since they served together under General MacArthur in the Philippines. In a recollection in her personal diary, the Countess of Ranfurly wrote of a comment made by Eisenhower when she expressed admiration for Fellers. Eisenhower reportedly replied, "Any friend of Bonner Fellers is no friend of mine!" Eisenhower apologized the next day for his rudeness. Eisenhower's dislike of Fellers had begun at the time the two were serving under MacArthur. MacArthur had strained his relationship with Eisenhower in 1936–1937 in the Philippines. Eisenhower may have developed such a view because he was aware of the North Africa leaks that had strained British relations and because Fellers had been instrumental in getting presidential approval of increased support for the British in North Africa including Operation Torch, which was not supported by the U.S. military command, including Eisenhower.
Post-war Japan
After the war, Fellers played a major role in the occupation of Japan. Among his duties was liaison between HQ and the Imperial Household. Soon after occupation began, Fellers wrote several influential memoranda concerning why it would be advantageous for the occupation, reconstruction of Japan, and long-term US interests to keep the Emperor in place if he was not clearly responsible for war crimes.
Fellers met with the major defendants of the Tokyo tribunal. Under an assignment with the codename "Operation Blacklist," Fellers allowed them to co-ordinate their stories to exonerate Emperor Hirohito and all members of his family of war crimes. That was at the direction of MacArthur, now head of SCAP, who had decided that there was to be no criminal prosecution of the Emperor and his family.
General Fellers came from a Religious Society of Friends family (commonly known as Quakers) and attended the Quaker-affiliated Earlham College. He was instrumental in the selection of Elizabeth Vining, an American Quaker educator, as tutor to the Emperor's children.
In 1971, Hirohito conferred on Fellers the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure "in recognition of your long-standing contribution to promoting friendship between Japan and the United States."
Fellers's role in exonerating Emperor Hirohito is the main subject of the 2012 film Emperor.
Fellers was also familiar with the writings of Lafcadio Hearn and became a friend of Hearn's descendants in Japan, the Koizumi family.
Retirement from the Army and politics
In October 1946, Fellers reverted to the rank of Colonel as part of a reduction in rank of 212 generals. He retired from the Army on November 30, 1946. In 1948, his retirement rank was reinstated as Brigadier General.
After retiring from the Army, he worked for the Republican National Committee in Washington, DC. In 1952 Fellers was actively involved in promoting Robert A. Taft as a presidential candidate. Fellers was a member of the John Birch Society, which is named after a military intelligence officer, who was considered by its founding members to be the first casualty of the Cold War. In 1953 Fellers, wrote a book: Wings for Peace: A Primer for a New Defense (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1953). Fellers was also involved in promoting Barry Goldwater for the presidency during the 1964 campaign.
Military awards
Promotions
Register of Commissioned Officers of the United States Army, 1948, vol. 2, pg. 2186.
See also
Emperor, a film in which Matthew Fox plays Brigadier General Fellers
References
Notes
Bibliography
Behrendt, Hans-Otto "Rommel's Intelligence in the Desert Campaign: 1941–1943" Irwin, 1985
Bix, Herbert P. "Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan" Perennial, 2001
Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat, 1999
Ranfurly, Hermione "To War With Whitaker: The Wartime Diaries of Countess of Ranfurly 1939–45" Mandarin, 1994
External links
www.bonnerfellers.com, a website maintained by the family of Bonner Fellers.
The Bonner Frank Fellers papers, 1904-1997 are open and available for research at the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.
Example of a report by Colonel Bonner Fellers which was intercepted and decoded by the Italians in 1942
1896 births
1973 deaths
American expatriates in Japan
American expatriates in the Philippines
United States Army generals of World War II
United States Army generals
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army War College alumni
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Military history of Japan
Occupied Japan
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Illinois Republicans
Washington, D.C. Republicans
John Birch Society members
American anti-communists
United States military attachés
New Right (United States)
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Military Academy alumni
Military personnel from Illinois
|
[
-0.5301439762115479,
0.753513514995575,
-0.346433162689209,
0.13890214264392853,
-0.35339412093162537,
0.5130531191825867,
1.5021581649780273,
-0.4010259807109833,
-0.01576249860227108,
-0.16776488721370697,
-0.3435317873954773,
-0.047867707908153534,
0.15087935328483582,
0.2440999448299408,
0.06523984670639038,
0.050922952592372894,
-0.02698512375354767,
-0.3079845905303955,
-0.1397123634815216,
-0.38924652338027954,
-0.5203558206558228,
-0.8349581956863403,
0.1829066127538681,
0.12113697081804276,
-0.3465043306350708,
0.4381738603115082,
0.12636123597621918,
0.0931512862443924,
0.5622707605361938,
0.23439811170101166,
0.07587511837482452,
0.5970239639282227,
0.13684554398059845,
-0.7826134562492371,
-0.513339102268219,
0.3375738859176636,
-0.48014727234840393,
-0.1299820840358734,
0.19018161296844482,
0.22255006432533264,
-0.14392663538455963,
0.48862695693969727,
-0.04408145323395729,
-0.3272271454334259,
0.14372070133686066,
-0.5757368803024292,
-2.1181352138519287,
0.06313619017601013,
-0.631982147693634,
-0.6809819936752319,
-0.14789482951164246,
0.34485194087028503,
1.008062720298767,
-0.3076876699924469,
-0.20494000613689423,
0.4196031093597412,
-0.34989434480667114,
-0.25444716215133667,
0.14475838840007782,
-0.5463197827339172,
0.058267660439014435,
0.0148461377248168,
0.5942417979240417,
-0.39481279253959656,
-0.03266451507806778,
0.19305890798568726,
0.19535383582115173,
0.46053528785705566,
0.3163168430328369,
-0.3065246641635895,
-0.2024402916431427,
0.08228347450494766,
0.6365161538124084,
-0.04048244655132294,
0.020080415531992912,
-0.149258092045784,
0.6300413012504578,
-0.2755257487297058,
-0.10737073421478271,
0.18204687535762787,
-0.2505786716938019,
-0.25273093581199646,
0.8974826335906982,
-0.45761191844940186,
0.0720042809844017,
0.33031708002090454,
-0.16129012405872345,
0.6296650171279907,
-0.503129243850708,
-0.10595326870679855,
-0.1056964322924614,
-0.637598991394043,
0.3248552680015564,
-0.13597317039966583,
0.1919197291135788,
-0.06692150235176086,
0.6510462164878845,
0.7024481892585754,
-0.1489640325307846,
-0.010096625424921513,
0.4112626612186432,
0.15677614510059357,
0.31751397252082825,
0.23772551119327545,
-0.36029958724975586,
-0.15462006628513336,
0.43355101346969604,
-0.8383013606071472,
-0.6375950574874878,
-0.7624803185462952,
-0.8868497610092163,
-0.17258873581886292,
0.023921435698866844,
-0.2943305969238281,
-0.19861672818660736,
0.4316474199295044,
0.20545409619808197,
-0.5761446356773376,
-0.08562999218702316,
0.5307164788246155,
-0.24116119742393494,
0.6101216673851013,
-0.32153528928756714,
0.0031185264233499765,
-0.3308602273464203,
-0.13060559332370758,
0.045811936259269714,
0.255340576171875,
-0.45417746901512146,
0.592060923576355,
0.11433444172143936,
0.6837849617004395,
0.14280450344085693,
0.4451282322406769,
-0.16174210608005524,
-0.6104885935783386,
0.34233906865119934,
0.005275591742247343,
-0.9019596576690674,
0.39930933713912964,
-0.496469646692276,
0.03636791929602623,
-0.9209272265434265,
-0.27251067757606506,
0.5578845739364624,
0.13837754726409912,
-0.3350657522678375,
-0.1699329912662506,
-0.05242941528558731,
-0.3007856011390686,
-0.06779863685369492,
0.2369614839553833,
0.06372301280498505,
0.10835101455450058,
0.06731833517551422,
0.8822056651115417,
-0.12291248887777328,
-0.03386129438877106,
0.7525395154953003,
-0.1950121968984604,
0.13005995750427246,
-0.18536068499088287,
-0.7393912076950073,
0.8915306925773621,
0.3658272325992584,
-0.10557913780212402,
0.07521913945674896,
-0.2907213568687439,
-0.20544925332069397,
0.31786757707595825,
0.18698211014270782,
0.15805597603321075,
0.1822107434272766,
-0.3775608241558075,
-0.05123620480298996,
0.5569425821304321,
0.1252543181180954,
0.4756670892238617,
0.15262575447559357,
-0.501217246055603,
-0.4721035659313202,
-0.29062485694885254,
-0.3367263674736023,
-0.28673553466796875,
0.0926327332854271,
0.404056191444397,
0.42403021454811096,
-0.3634260892868042,
0.16945761442184448,
-0.054528187960386276,
-0.5578376650810242,
-0.8671806454658508,
0.3260323107242584,
0.13538327813148499,
1.347805380821228,
-0.1308792382478714,
-0.3659224808216095,
0.47354626655578613,
0.5291791558265686,
0.3635878562927246,
0.13086052238941193,
-0.7348713874816895,
0.05125889927148819,
0.3137577772140503,
0.01923329383134842,
0.9713807106018066,
0.37699902057647705,
0.009925800375640392,
0.05362187325954437,
0.8439835906028748,
0.37226659059524536,
-0.3249673843383789,
-0.3711622655391693,
0.10922468453645706,
-0.13491475582122803,
-0.20906002819538116,
-0.6817620992660522,
0.038290321826934814,
0.5396097302436829,
-0.5506854057312012,
0.1447819024324417,
-0.16305877268314362,
-0.30084341764450073,
0.8156291246414185,
0.3077985942363739,
0.30153989791870117,
-0.15455806255340576,
-0.034842412918806076,
0.2517072558403015,
-0.881255030632019,
0.32703709602355957,
0.25279462337493896,
0.36134424805641174,
-0.4982024133205414,
0.295297235250473,
0.5744810700416565,
0.040453534573316574,
-0.31732964515686035,
0.15856702625751495,
-0.641887366771698,
0.3778914511203766,
0.18517865240573883,
-0.1467614471912384,
0.3572075664997101,
0.10394486039876938,
0.37819787859916687,
-0.0211823470890522,
-0.014598597772419453,
-0.2748670279979706,
0.2567441463470459,
-0.055933061987161636,
1.0636703968048096,
0.1808253973722458,
-0.3331752121448517,
0.07148028910160065,
-0.15682370960712433,
0.2773290276527405,
0.04927314072847366,
0.45471176505088806,
0.22666621208190918,
0.46119028329849243,
0.4810205399990082,
0.09579331427812576,
0.1416770964860916,
0.2225942313671112,
-0.2522132396697998,
-0.22060945630073547,
-0.425090491771698,
0.0224927868694067,
0.08121687918901443,
0.42479127645492554,
-0.7236015796661377,
-0.04288613051176071,
-0.2813710868358612,
-0.21135470271110535,
-0.6456605195999146,
-0.4382573068141937,
0.2683529257774353,
-0.4387049973011017,
-0.36252203583717346,
0.5198308825492859,
1.0209864377975464,
0.26012012362480164,
0.25272831320762634,
0.27877384424209595,
-0.6217811107635498,
-0.26776957511901855,
0.24748662114143372,
0.4642576575279236,
-0.06335050612688065,
-0.19768762588500977,
0.7918810844421387,
-0.33751675486564636,
0.06508489698171616,
-0.46303555369377136,
0.39578649401664734,
-0.4373374581336975,
-0.2767322063446045,
0.837638795375824,
0.4818631708621979,
-1.0679367780685425,
0.30353590846061707,
-0.3775973320007324,
-0.02446240372955799,
0.13188298046588898,
-0.022587908431887627,
-0.3202819526195526,
-0.12966635823249817,
-5.67983865737915,
-0.1136145293712616,
0.0042309206910431385,
-0.6531145572662354,
-0.0849403440952301,
0.568863570690155,
0.48546645045280457,
-0.5016587972640991,
-0.2344268262386322,
-0.06253451108932495,
0.1526557058095932,
0.13076728582382202,
0.20651468634605408,
0.17136555910110474,
0.37971171736717224,
0.16279983520507812,
0.39595580101013184,
-0.5851846933364868,
0.2774282395839691,
0.19586457312107086,
0.029531244188547134,
0.5954259634017944,
0.04376497119665146,
0.5416936278343201,
0.008836692199110985,
0.6311017870903015,
-0.7654401659965515,
0.6577704548835754,
-0.6043342351913452,
0.0368015356361866,
0.3111540973186493,
-0.01477019116282463,
-0.4675534963607788,
0.39743348956108093,
-0.3617834448814392,
0.06052853912115097,
0.4672252833843231,
0.3492478132247925,
0.15399886667728424,
-0.013411704450845718,
-0.29808008670806885,
0.10831447690725327,
-0.5042834281921387,
-0.05978669598698616,
0.5045589804649353,
0.03611523658037186,
-0.2177041620016098,
0.14036354422569275,
-0.3670240342617035,
0.19605758786201477,
0.2963656187057495,
-0.295654296875,
0.19762039184570312,
0.4722821116447449,
-0.17412003874778748,
-0.008244544267654419,
0.3685407042503357,
-0.1121903583407402,
-0.6556970477104187,
0.2251991331577301,
0.4389563202857971,
-0.3206965923309326,
-0.3112245798110962,
-0.4811091125011444,
-0.1717989444732666,
-0.21511682868003845,
0.06507256627082825,
-0.14823676645755768,
0.10471311211585999,
-0.5791365504264832,
0.17519167065620422,
0.9544201493263245,
0.4480573832988739,
-0.9929330348968506,
0.12780311703681946,
-0.6372938752174377,
-0.46210160851478577,
-0.31218087673187256,
-0.2557979226112366,
0.2026456743478775,
0.1816554218530655,
-0.3366747200489044,
-0.3056015372276306,
0.28849366307258606,
0.6875146627426147,
0.10998088121414185,
-0.3674975037574768,
0.4382310211658478,
-0.21212223172187805,
0.11019378155469894,
-0.30919384956359863,
-0.146674245595932,
0.15711405873298645,
0.28104352951049805,
-0.0236093457788229,
0.768737256526947,
-0.12505529820919037,
0.34382811188697815,
0.3698582649230957,
-0.3920705020427704,
-0.18352600932121277,
-0.5060555338859558,
0.181733638048172,
-0.5441852807998657,
0.3660138249397278,
-0.03540444001555443,
0.3488011658191681,
0.4314357042312622,
0.8927063345909119,
0.19255205988883972,
-0.2179870307445526,
0.7532724142074585,
-0.1179942712187767,
-0.22610513865947723,
0.31578806042671204,
-0.3223167657852173,
-0.3836901783943176,
0.5741496086120605,
0.5968150496482849,
-0.3782499134540558,
-0.4700537621974945,
0.233505979180336,
0.22936302423477173,
-0.006618499755859375,
0.43310919404029846,
-0.21214990317821503,
-0.2838622033596039,
-0.2019515484571457,
-0.8617287874221802,
0.7441672682762146,
0.02472786232829094,
1.1812034845352173,
0.08177365362644196,
0.09218864142894745,
0.2660459876060486,
-0.6237772703170776,
-0.2887837588787079,
-0.21126516163349152,
0.0534062460064888,
-0.21488448977470398,
0.27158525586128235,
0.09703680127859116,
-0.16881749033927917,
0.22028745710849762,
-0.09687753766775131,
-0.16931557655334473,
-0.0132819302380085,
-0.7557669878005981,
-0.2247961163520813,
0.3608526587486267,
-0.1841137856245041,
0.1508202850818634,
0.27294525504112244,
-0.05903487280011177,
-0.4238615930080414,
-0.021766120567917824,
0.056584663689136505,
0.14911669492721558,
-0.4526256322860718,
0.3176039755344391,
-0.08548280596733093,
-0.2899578809738159,
-1.1663165092468262,
-0.20786933600902557,
-0.1365998089313507,
0.051853787153959274,
-0.4063400328159332,
-0.5259996652603149,
-0.14968949556350708,
0.4118252396583557,
-0.06591220200061798,
-0.5934993624687195,
-0.5705558061599731,
0.06542778760194778,
-0.17449945211410522,
0.10114049166440964,
-0.06005389243364334,
-0.22315704822540283,
0.14592453837394714,
0.03758104145526886,
0.0016816906863823533,
0.1805928498506546,
-0.6159207224845886,
-0.06720560789108276,
0.12590272724628448,
0.09362685680389404,
-0.6075481176376343,
-0.12194471806287766,
-0.583533525466919,
-0.21153557300567627,
0.038401391357183456,
-0.4969286620616913,
0.13262511789798737,
0.881746768951416,
-0.21982625126838684,
-0.08063344657421112,
-0.454790323972702,
-0.35456201434135437,
0.03856690973043442,
-0.1715211272239685,
0.19614297151565552,
0.07093960791826248,
-0.030024418607354164,
-0.14083488285541534,
0.4525090456008911,
-1.053571105003357,
-0.03327130153775215,
0.30535411834716797,
-0.17292830348014832,
0.6780461072921753,
-0.2892194390296936,
-0.37324780225753784,
-0.481379896402359,
0.40647101402282715,
-0.22724948823451996,
0.16882480680942535,
0.4574390649795532,
-0.11661651730537415,
-0.4466548562049866,
-0.03411801904439926,
-0.41294440627098083,
-0.01622016355395317,
-0.7109323740005493,
-0.4287918210029602,
-0.7079314589500427,
-0.22907981276512146,
0.31757524609565735,
-0.20153093338012695,
1.2631362676620483,
0.37646445631980896,
-0.3275443911552429,
0.10333780199289322,
0.2951177954673767,
0.42259490489959717,
0.07830728590488434,
-0.33471980690956116,
0.43619292974472046,
0.4874001741409302,
0.01642853580415249,
-0.2073209583759308,
0.2395264357328415,
0.6737538576126099,
0.33105841279029846,
-0.2921646535396576,
0.02333763614296913,
0.2913548946380615,
0.2671380043029785,
-0.7847504615783691,
0.2032155841588974,
0.21102280914783478,
0.07346266508102417,
-0.1671949177980423,
-0.5156595706939697,
0.21153488755226135,
0.9371795058250427,
-0.20228460431098938,
-0.2385571151971817,
-0.12816664576530457,
0.3701271414756775,
-0.5125671029090881,
-0.03799254447221756,
0.14658375084400177,
0.06716221570968628,
0.3778427839279175,
-0.6240928769111633,
0.04022231325507164,
-0.33232176303863525,
-0.2602187693119049,
-0.04746084660291672,
-0.30277019739151,
0.1729147583246231,
-0.043304942548274994,
-0.06781934201717377,
0.5301466584205627,
-0.17180369794368744,
0.09111858904361725,
0.35200273990631104,
-0.22885480523109436,
-0.15478742122650146,
-0.12110038101673126,
-0.11343017965555191,
-0.20945946872234344,
-0.1187625452876091,
-0.3090699315071106,
-0.05319475010037422,
-0.7172865867614746,
-0.2013433873653412,
-0.5240878462791443,
-0.3285934627056122,
0.0056431288830935955,
-0.46707215905189514,
0.401774138212204,
-0.8275038599967957,
0.1218024417757988,
-0.048596251755952835,
0.23544637858867645,
-1.0581716299057007,
0.6492664813995361,
-0.09987255185842514,
-0.2550211548805237,
-0.16725483536720276,
0.4415590465068817,
0.08903145790100098,
-0.09099308401346207,
-0.055792756378650665,
0.06194755807518959,
0.012700757943093777,
-0.4139828681945801,
-0.21319477260112762,
-0.19762927293777466,
0.06858115643262863,
-0.1927599459886551,
-0.2031986266374588,
0.25659438967704773,
-0.532729983329773,
-0.07319329679012299,
0.7272512316703796,
-0.15337958931922913,
-0.09503944218158722,
0.32487744092941284,
-0.2119663804769516,
0.21872849762439728,
1.1017556190490723,
-0.4950740933418274,
0.11489421129226685,
0.8029823303222656,
0.4948418438434601,
0.11324430257081985,
-0.04703059792518616,
0.21310889720916748,
0.27799224853515625,
-0.12844735383987427,
0.03861461207270622,
0.43846872448921204,
-0.09305453300476074,
0.28042611479759216,
0.2443045675754547,
-0.07520245015621185,
0.036104362457990646,
0.11882054805755615,
-0.3691313564777374,
0.7380616664886475,
-0.07107528299093246,
0.044921714812517166,
0.04214371740818024,
0.13833679258823395,
0.09588666260242462,
0.3854479491710663,
0.329857736825943,
0.11160176247358322,
0.22016645967960358,
0.2161078304052353,
0.19400106370449066,
-0.20894165337085724,
0.25342321395874023,
-0.11386461555957794,
0.4937349557876587,
-0.05704436078667641,
-0.7321577072143555,
-0.3583546280860901,
-0.15089276432991028,
-0.8599751591682434,
0.9280716776847839,
0.206089586019516,
0.3619759976863861,
0.08803221583366394,
-0.4644351005554199,
-0.8602501153945923,
-0.024732783436775208,
0.45552217960357666,
0.2503468096256256,
-0.107411690056324,
-0.3128071427345276,
0.3010827600955963,
0.14622727036476135,
0.05780663713812828,
0.6683250069618225,
-0.10894249379634857,
0.24933138489723206,
-0.1634758859872818,
-0.272259920835495,
0.2821127474308014,
-0.12182849645614624,
-0.3446691632270813,
0.28790581226348877,
-0.4386524558067322,
-0.27167510986328125,
0.40470969676971436,
0.16625648736953735,
-0.5715876817703247,
0.6043692231178284,
-0.501347005367279,
-0.49553388357162476,
0.007169729098677635,
0.08500591665506363,
0.5026533603668213,
0.2604886591434479,
0.6139294505119324,
0.44480618834495544,
-0.1396714746952057,
-0.5467614531517029,
0.11326422542333603,
-0.20716114342212677,
-0.2950889766216278,
-0.12136390805244446,
-0.0044358521699905396,
-0.5680336356163025,
0.13226763904094696,
-0.4001988470554352,
0.35903477668762207,
-0.05302129685878754,
0.27377524971961975,
-0.5647975206375122,
0.17456690967082977,
-0.19196271896362305,
0.23780256509780884,
0.5967330932617188,
-0.040267810225486755,
-0.3901504576206207,
-0.545781135559082,
-0.08397601544857025,
0.09699568152427673,
0.2542541027069092,
-0.2718404531478882,
0.07780652493238449,
0.3342016935348511,
0.41307273507118225,
-0.1823580414056778,
-0.11339060217142105,
0.243364155292511,
-0.23397937417030334,
-0.20053042471408844,
-0.19474689662456512,
-0.0882728174328804,
-0.10340430587530136,
-0.5603964328765869,
0.5534992218017578,
0.49603569507598877,
0.7798922657966614,
-0.4647502899169922,
0.3723660707473755,
-0.271194189786911,
0.014625650830566883,
-0.2811906337738037,
-0.6921436786651611,
0.34086811542510986,
-0.20488759875297546,
-0.7613709568977356,
0.4741106629371643,
0.3321388363838196,
-0.2908925712108612,
-0.44790416955947876,
0.45685499906539917,
-1.2898341417312622,
0.2649703323841095,
0.8449839353561401,
-0.2950524687767029,
-0.26203224062919617,
0.3067293167114258,
0.025946572422981262
] |
206078
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Trafford%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Old Trafford (disambiguation)
|
Old Trafford is the home of Manchester United F.C.
Old Trafford may also refer to:
Old Trafford (area), a district of Trafford, England
Old Trafford Cricket Ground, home of Lancashire County Cricket Club
Old Trafford Halt or Manchester United Football Ground railway station, a railway station with a direct connection to the football ground
Old Trafford tram stop, a Metrolink stop adjacent to the cricket ground
Naivasha Stadium or Old Trafford, in Naivasha, Kenya
Old Trafford Medical Center, a hostpotal in St. George's, Grenada
|
[
0.18925794959068298,
0.06529539823532104,
0.4871848225593567,
-0.5492868423461914,
-0.5104753971099854,
-0.31491026282310486,
0.4612731337547302,
0.3706496059894562,
-0.4164835512638092,
-0.0519142746925354,
-0.2629513442516327,
-0.33286014199256897,
-0.31125858426094055,
0.7983404994010925,
0.17231307923793793,
0.4466988742351532,
-0.7847472429275513,
0.7987999320030212,
0.21328574419021606,
0.043604183942079544,
0.05477315932512283,
-0.23980112373828888,
-0.1894955337047577,
-0.2754286229610443,
0.34293681383132935,
-0.4216589331626892,
0.20943111181259155,
-0.2432890683412552,
-0.2692321538925171,
-0.03093336895108223,
0.001623117714188993,
0.09402917325496674,
-0.5377882122993469,
-0.4472659230232239,
0.00045027281157672405,
-0.5533314347267151,
0.2156204879283905,
-0.39462584257125854,
0.1401200294494629,
-1.0777645111083984,
-0.44017529487609863,
-0.6720892190933228,
0.4037879705429077,
0.05450587719678879,
-0.06329788267612457,
0.08386744558811188,
-1.1164612770080566,
0.17109720408916473,
-1.0017647743225098,
-0.06119336560368538,
-0.008886321447789669,
-0.1453866809606552,
0.2735474407672882,
0.278840035200119,
0.07744064927101135,
0.37993207573890686,
-0.5998737215995789,
0.39256659150123596,
0.31097960472106934,
0.037496160715818405,
0.4135887920856476,
0.35916322469711304,
-0.13302776217460632,
0.3204457759857178,
0.14388003945350647,
-0.2407892346382141,
-0.11184199899435043,
0.5800924301147461,
-0.15947377681732178,
-0.3552529215812683,
0.15282951295375824,
-0.48710545897483826,
0.017325086519122124,
0.0734417587518692,
-0.5509999394416809,
-0.06791150569915771,
0.13740324974060059,
-0.09755273908376694,
0.2687808573246002,
0.007738849613815546,
0.02309071645140648,
-0.09057174623012543,
0.5638815760612488,
0.03398900851607323,
0.588355541229248,
0.24787649512290955,
-0.662507176399231,
-0.1982126533985138,
-0.28550559282302856,
1.1136966943740845,
-0.06391136348247528,
0.32505524158477783,
0.08704563230276108,
-0.008017080835998058,
-0.034576788544654846,
-0.18963846564292908,
0.13776247203350067,
0.1882963329553604,
0.11030623316764832,
-0.0445818230509758,
-0.4659333825111389,
0.17872674763202667,
-0.09092018008232117,
-0.4916079342365265,
-0.09353861212730408,
-0.14917106926441193,
-0.364108145236969,
0.15012626349925995,
0.7228008508682251,
-1.0899156332015991,
-0.2964661717414856,
0.04076447710394859,
0.02151835523545742,
0.25685057044029236,
-0.2643636465072632,
0.058285512030124664,
0.5290869474411011,
0.12313392758369446,
0.050150588154792786,
0.20689092576503754,
-0.16865932941436768,
0.5896236300468445,
-0.14441515505313873,
-0.2605363130569458,
-0.25250115990638733,
0.4119495749473572,
0.23575074970722198,
0.300863116979599,
-0.5027633905410767,
-0.009274249896407127,
0.24275580048561096,
1.0223149061203003,
-0.538573145866394,
-0.3308999538421631,
0.1934504508972168,
-0.34862637519836426,
-0.029226461425423622,
0.3153530955314636,
0.4152814447879791,
0.2228807955980301,
-0.4994734525680542,
-0.03804922476410866,
-1.5173958539962769,
0.5613113045692444,
0.18869736790657043,
-0.4791637659072876,
-0.24101664125919342,
-0.06089965999126434,
0.3805803656578064,
0.44028767943382263,
0.006269450765103102,
0.5465964674949646,
-0.13265591859817505,
0.3470326066017151,
-0.16429083049297333,
0.44845956563949585,
0.8908431529998779,
-0.2664451599121094,
0.04456090182065964,
0.4797806143760681,
0.0009205243550240993,
-0.1836935430765152,
0.04032806307077408,
0.1289699375629425,
-0.14246436953544617,
-0.16759230196475983,
0.03024771623313427,
0.1729840487241745,
-0.1904207170009613,
-0.16402187943458557,
-0.5953481793403625,
-0.20472359657287598,
0.4859282076358795,
-0.03867790102958679,
-0.03322984650731087,
0.234528586268425,
0.04481450095772743,
0.16618813574314117,
0.27542048692703247,
0.0627138614654541,
-0.5216165781021118,
0.08077746629714966,
0.2781378924846649,
0.29986003041267395,
0.37806257605552673,
0.13923776149749756,
0.40712466835975647,
0.284140020608902,
0.0654851496219635,
0.048640862107276917,
0.3020351529121399,
0.031484026461839676,
-0.1648007184267044,
-0.9407407641410828,
0.40392211079597473,
0.4963093400001526,
-0.5387123823165894,
0.5986846685409546,
0.25008508563041687,
0.5213422775268555,
0.07429404556751251,
-0.043641895055770874,
0.13911741971969604,
-0.16845476627349854,
0.2814107835292816,
1.0785706043243408,
0.25284716486930847,
0.02895774319767952,
0.25696253776550293,
0.08019038289785385,
0.34205690026283264,
-0.39088138937950134,
-0.01755509153008461,
-0.04006218537688255,
-0.11039520055055618,
-0.5938453078269958,
-0.1055133193731308,
-0.07588322460651398,
0.3103289306163788,
-0.5333070755004883,
0.41082480549812317,
0.4044138789176941,
0.375927209854126,
-0.29138484597206116,
-0.04968291148543358,
0.5175797939300537,
-0.5479139089584351,
0.3135013282299042,
0.3093368113040924,
-0.8652371764183044,
0.07760419696569443,
0.5633251667022705,
-0.1168271079659462,
-0.1066792830824852,
-0.017342600971460342,
-0.6354518532752991,
0.11303054541349411,
-0.468038409948349,
-0.0323171392083168,
-0.02599901519715786,
0.20278967916965485,
0.328254371881485,
-0.021417560055851936,
0.4873942732810974,
-0.12061699479818344,
-0.16707560420036316,
-0.1424485296010971,
0.15508389472961426,
-0.46681448817253113,
-0.09580621123313904,
0.37869253754615784,
-0.19335100054740906,
-0.0813988521695137,
0.12447835505008698,
0.48766976594924927,
0.3059217929840088,
-0.19305679202079773,
0.2498718947172165,
-0.5189549922943115,
0.4193859100341797,
-0.06220895051956177,
-0.09338836371898651,
-0.1848992258310318,
0.5764278769493103,
-0.2996068000793457,
-0.4710632860660553,
-0.42202824354171753,
-0.4626881778240204,
0.4245157837867737,
-0.0869017168879509,
-0.21019583940505981,
-0.055045001208782196,
0.06655638664960861,
-1.2254377603530884,
-0.42952585220336914,
-0.11971443891525269,
0.257972776889801,
0.035468265414237976,
-0.14617615938186646,
-0.006856361869722605,
0.29269838333129883,
0.2936471700668335,
0.1348552107810974,
-0.8734230995178223,
0.051360223442316055,
-0.1395936906337738,
0.06121997907757759,
-0.21725386381149292,
-0.15297077596187592,
-0.05036464333534241,
-0.12675683200359344,
-0.004567684605717659,
-0.1429065614938736,
0.0823306292295456,
-0.1151074469089508,
0.2115316092967987,
-0.15778616070747375,
-0.08589587360620499,
0.09093233197927475,
-0.4513614773750305,
-0.8865428566932678,
0.7142873406410217,
-0.4779926836490631,
-0.5646080374717712,
0.450467586517334,
-0.4961142838001251,
-0.4169696867465973,
-0.281120628118515,
-5.852311134338379,
0.2703656256198883,
-0.1673867404460907,
0.1583222597837448,
0.7168331146240234,
-0.12114434689283371,
0.30816882848739624,
-0.2712424099445343,
-0.5375673174858093,
-0.24315619468688965,
0.5038098692893982,
-0.311215341091156,
-0.008395741693675518,
0.3283580243587494,
0.8637871742248535,
0.7326189279556274,
0.8091808557510376,
-0.15018174052238464,
0.21262195706367493,
-0.15832851827144623,
-0.41239580512046814,
0.722838819026947,
-0.2637883126735687,
0.02563878893852234,
-0.016507048159837723,
0.6100878715515137,
-0.48877090215682983,
-0.11501240730285645,
-0.8990576863288879,
-0.0663825199007988,
0.17760711908340454,
0.507076621055603,
-0.33214789628982544,
0.12891310453414917,
-0.43464893102645874,
0.1385510116815567,
0.1214834675192833,
0.11364859342575073,
-0.36597731709480286,
-0.682064950466156,
0.11635249108076096,
0.7131053805351257,
-0.48237839341163635,
0.1877271682024002,
0.3004796802997589,
-0.41429653763771057,
-0.38498494029045105,
0.0217619389295578,
-0.40874138474464417,
0.3258585035800934,
-0.5601733326911926,
0.07108374685049057,
1.096242070198059,
-0.09456518292427063,
-0.07989721745252609,
-0.5891923904418945,
0.540591835975647,
0.09922149777412415,
0.18983641266822815,
-0.18894465267658234,
0.19766607880592346,
0.050066012889146805,
0.43085798621177673,
-0.06352638453245163,
-0.4429842531681061,
-0.16608667373657227,
0.027839170768857002,
-0.3024626672267914,
0.14427143335342407,
-0.17800737917423248,
-0.8090644478797913,
-0.34795084595680237,
0.14208544790744781,
-0.5797444581985474,
-0.11450827121734619,
-0.0972142219543457,
-0.18351110816001892,
0.20867684483528137,
0.6397727131843567,
0.1508328765630722,
-0.3579106330871582,
-0.4451048970222473,
-0.2513607442378998,
0.1258038580417633,
0.07606381922960281,
-0.2850482761859894,
-0.31678393483161926,
0.2370731681585312,
0.44383299350738525,
-0.14331357181072235,
0.1708633303642273,
-0.4054563641548157,
-0.03493284061551094,
0.34149473905563354,
-0.1808539777994156,
0.22123946249485016,
-0.023334110155701637,
-0.006253174506127834,
0.2871367931365967,
0.2790391147136688,
0.3064554035663605,
-0.5382488965988159,
0.21713081002235413,
0.056250765919685364,
0.4212436378002167,
-0.5006448030471802,
-0.3059841990470886,
0.510776162147522,
0.28557121753692627,
-0.5717324018478394,
0.45446574687957764,
0.19169355928897858,
-0.17962341010570526,
0.04834264889359474,
0.15083010494709015,
-0.512396514415741,
0.01560762245208025,
0.6744586229324341,
-0.02876923605799675,
0.18406036496162415,
0.29999154806137085,
-0.25980016589164734,
-0.37836992740631104,
-0.11664238572120667,
-0.42651909589767456,
-0.10555199533700943,
0.05924363434314728,
0.4997052550315857,
-0.13700470328330994,
-0.22627246379852295,
-0.20480449497699738,
0.13950109481811523,
0.7314718961715698,
0.060273583978414536,
-0.133919358253479,
-0.07767277210950851,
-0.14099383354187012,
-0.1972036510705948,
-0.0064568486995995045,
-0.5763463973999023,
0.5517561435699463,
0.11857964098453522,
-0.076896533370018,
0.721117377281189,
0.18908631801605225,
-0.07871770113706589,
0.4574066996574402,
0.06360834091901779,
-0.4160628914833069,
0.02143959142267704,
0.09771139919757843,
0.004243730567395687,
0.34086790680885315,
-0.30470389127731323,
-0.18358838558197021,
0.42019355297088623,
0.409706711769104,
0.5710230469703674,
-0.21418313682079315,
-0.18557314574718475,
-0.151609405875206,
0.08003518730401993,
-1.0272431373596191,
0.20324616134166718,
0.820314884185791,
-0.8712301850318909,
0.1375533938407898,
-0.10422468930482864,
-0.32056787610054016,
0.2830762565135956,
-0.059735268354415894,
-0.30558666586875916,
-0.659096896648407,
-0.16438452899456024,
0.3212948441505432,
0.6011561751365662,
0.12472249567508698,
0.4035983085632324,
0.252652645111084,
-0.31539374589920044,
0.15048405528068542,
0.021308643743395805,
-0.42152369022369385,
0.30419448018074036,
-0.2432466596364975,
-0.38773640990257263,
-0.130538210272789,
-0.003265602979809046,
0.4671482741832733,
-0.13918118178844452,
0.5459689497947693,
0.21046097576618195,
0.3432408273220062,
0.19143298268318176,
-0.20789095759391785,
-0.4737718105316162,
0.41652631759643555,
0.3550388813018799,
0.21565347909927368,
-0.433307409286499,
0.3741164803504944,
0.8547458648681641,
-0.5928251147270203,
0.07038774341344833,
0.5019892454147339,
-0.47597435116767883,
0.3465043604373932,
0.11572606861591339,
0.01010636705905199,
0.1258092075586319,
-0.09407949447631836,
-0.9375329613685608,
-0.09505894035100937,
0.14557431638240814,
-0.31767842173576355,
-0.35486969351768494,
0.16576674580574036,
-0.20185136795043945,
-0.10113152116537094,
-0.2662409245967865,
0.015670640394091606,
-0.08615417033433914,
0.02841278538107872,
-0.13648730516433716,
-0.3593880832195282,
0.22908028960227966,
0.4727209806442261,
-0.3731969892978668,
0.060205500572919846,
-0.33234161138534546,
0.24745593965053558,
0.1360860913991928,
0.32839691638946533,
0.8014070391654968,
0.25452563166618347,
-0.23108148574829102,
-0.32922083139419556,
-0.23311913013458252,
-0.11018167436122894,
-0.4293992817401886,
0.71919184923172,
0.31884026527404785,
-0.1983436495065689,
-0.7783606052398682,
-0.3573986291885376,
0.011030786670744419,
0.40256625413894653,
-0.0332145094871521,
-0.611779510974884,
0.21078334748744965,
-0.20149709284305573,
-0.09334215521812439,
-0.6970171332359314,
-0.45610183477401733,
0.448459267616272,
-0.395862340927124,
0.20220227539539337,
0.23193511366844177,
0.60822594165802,
-0.3513542115688324,
-0.15243807435035706,
-0.051560573279857635,
-0.052018869668245316,
0.6359617710113525,
-0.46816015243530273,
0.31662264466285706,
-0.14747777581214905,
-0.36076033115386963,
0.21348239481449127,
-0.6680532097816467,
-0.3665025532245636,
0.11079693585634232,
0.5455150604248047,
0.479798287153244,
0.3637293577194214,
-0.21903391182422638,
0.2748403251171112,
-0.16059808433055878,
0.10153324156999588,
-0.08453921228647232,
0.44969701766967773,
0.038819048553705215,
0.18099276721477509,
-0.627045750617981,
-0.025677695870399475,
-0.23161494731903076,
0.11095508188009262,
-0.010442583821713924,
-0.5629687905311584,
0.05645308643579483,
-0.45043906569480896,
0.15160366892814636,
0.2525188624858856,
-0.0640130266547203,
0.028228014707565308,
0.16609792411327362,
-0.019990349188447,
0.2541617453098297,
0.40919408202171326,
-0.24854052066802979,
-1.0667961835861206,
0.6786365509033203,
0.41257980465888977,
-0.6251785755157471,
0.6798713803291321,
-0.13261333107948303,
0.06633543223142624,
-0.09730318188667297,
0.29013970494270325,
-0.25695371627807617,
0.05763871967792511,
0.2153453826904297,
0.10974537581205368,
0.856890857219696,
-0.1092851385474205,
-0.24658098816871643,
0.3903745114803314,
-0.4270693361759186,
0.12740059196949005,
0.7853012084960938,
-0.32492437958717346,
-0.4429026246070862,
0.6566664576530457,
-0.054684776812791824,
0.11145653575658798,
0.7882334589958191,
0.3227171003818512,
-0.014041021466255188,
0.010957317426800728,
0.08460544049739838,
0.461454302072525,
-0.554265022277832,
-0.7682483196258545,
0.5997084975242615,
-0.1997738927602768,
-0.41030240058898926,
0.333838552236557,
-0.005996331572532654,
-0.1901502013206482,
0.19813743233680725,
0.4849717319011688,
-0.08725033700466156,
-0.050650112330913544,
0.07015804946422577,
-0.3749736547470093,
-0.1602366715669632,
-0.26192590594291687,
0.24882984161376953,
0.3354692757129669,
-0.19062493741512299,
0.30111247301101685,
0.24970552325248718,
-0.1579410433769226,
-0.7442434430122375,
0.494147390127182,
-0.0945989191532135,
0.5978826284408569,
-0.2524804174900055,
-0.13308657705783844,
-0.9166086912155151,
0.010513337329030037,
0.18501238524913788,
-0.08478553593158722,
0.17176945507526398,
0.15241244435310364,
-0.3457411229610443,
0.3110027611255646,
0.27837279438972473,
-0.48435959219932556,
0.6776987910270691,
0.38928937911987305,
-0.12501417100429535,
-0.5028312802314758,
0.05122644826769829,
-0.03386929631233215,
-0.009068387560546398,
0.5702524781227112,
0.458484411239624,
0.21497389674186707,
-0.3107870817184448,
-0.08010190725326538,
0.13613444566726685,
0.12415732443332672,
0.010057434439659119,
0.16468560695648193,
-0.18290702998638153,
-0.2710997462272644,
0.29311320185661316,
-0.7715411186218262,
0.1437726467847824,
0.07088074833154678,
0.09903846681118011,
0.13015691936016083,
-0.2033679336309433,
-0.5613073110580444,
-0.16620047390460968,
-0.388457715511322,
0.39124858379364014,
0.019298408180475235,
-0.07605607062578201,
0.10310333222150803,
0.4792487621307373,
-0.21678905189037323,
0.5717571973800659,
-0.3415514826774597,
0.3224512040615082,
-0.3609168529510498,
-0.00004925276880385354,
-0.351575642824173,
0.6242263317108154,
-0.015660863369703293,
-0.5063936114311218,
-0.1950804889202118,
-0.331838995218277,
-0.8923435211181641,
0.07797504216432571,
0.0548042356967926,
-0.19809465110301971,
0.1754370778799057,
0.08930650353431702,
0.13758274912834167,
-0.03957855701446533,
0.5167924165725708,
0.11964580416679382,
-0.22347228229045868,
-0.11013687402009964,
0.7329264283180237,
0.43498799204826355,
-0.5341810584068298,
0.41706594824790955,
-0.20385169982910156,
0.19442270696163177,
-0.46946725249290466,
0.28174033761024475,
-0.8765527009963989,
-0.026865279302001,
-0.06034388393163681,
0.5179206132888794,
-0.44737404584884644,
0.1956160068511963,
-0.25988736748695374,
0.3647216558456421,
0.5902535319328308,
-0.058733563870191574,
-2.1268701553344727,
0.2689572274684906,
-0.018757672980427742,
0.07135951519012451,
-0.3812131881713867,
0.4364195764064789,
0.8274940252304077,
-0.20939864218235016,
-0.12162861973047256,
-0.04224752262234688,
0.36453384160995483,
-0.12124504148960114,
-0.3640662431716919,
-0.4874160587787628,
0.5080437064170837,
0.7847143411636353
] |
206081
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L2TPv3
|
L2TPv3
|
Layer 2 Tunnelling Protocol Version 3 is an IETF standard related to L2TP that can be used as an alternative protocol to Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) for encapsulation of multiprotocol Layer 2 communications traffic over IP networks. Like L2TP, L2TPv3 provides a pseudo-wire service, but scaled to fit carrier requirements.
L2TPv3 can be regarded as being to MPLS what IP is to ATM: a simplified version of the same concept, with much of the same benefit achieved at a fraction of the effort, at the cost of losing some technical features considered less important in the market. In the case of L2TPv3, the features lost are teletraffic engineering features considered important in MPLS. However, there is no reason these features could not be re-engineered in or on top of L2TPv3 in later products. The protocol overhead of L2TPv3 is also significantly bigger than MPLS.
Implementations
Brocade
Cisco
Clavister
D-Link
Huawei Technology
Linux
ProL2TP
YAMAHA RTX810, RTX5000
Ubiquiti
MikroTik
References
External links
IETF L2TPEXT working group
RFC 3931 - Layer Two Tunneling Protocol - Version 3 (L2TPv3)
RFC 2661 - Layer Two Tunneling Protocol "L2TP"
Internet protocols
Tunneling protocols
de:L2TPv3
|
[
-0.2559933364391327,
-0.20728926360607147,
0.18161030113697052,
-0.12978579103946686,
-0.184728741645813,
-0.26291918754577637,
0.48484036326408386,
-0.12114714086055756,
-0.2973456382751465,
-0.23855255544185638,
-0.3300870358943939,
0.13294608891010284,
-0.6877533197402954,
-0.2333131730556488,
0.23513227701187134,
0.07606590539216995,
0.7092359662055969,
0.07392845302820206,
-0.13675643503665924,
-0.8402401208877563,
-0.04281909763813019,
-0.003909680061042309,
0.16705812513828278,
-0.3067077100276947,
0.27144643664360046,
0.20775845646858215,
0.33564725518226624,
0.2282693237066269,
0.30654770135879517,
-0.052556466311216354,
0.222208634018898,
0.26147428154945374,
0.2331962287425995,
-0.34244221448898315,
0.16364571452140808,
-0.39921897649765015,
-0.3053259253501892,
-0.5778679251670837,
-0.2728702127933502,
0.04192330315709114,
-0.173715740442276,
-0.17483116686344147,
-0.021073391661047935,
0.44227102398872375,
0.2974797785282135,
0.06505772471427917,
-1.094382882118225,
0.11533679813146591,
-0.3101331293582916,
-0.08151885867118835,
-0.6580213904380798,
0.44932636618614197,
-0.1752217411994934,
0.5829617977142334,
0.2694353759288788,
-0.010854111984372139,
-0.5703152418136597,
-0.34794294834136963,
0.3987630009651184,
-0.19949936866760254,
-0.24617359042167664,
-0.5627421736717224,
-0.30463674664497375,
0.42266538739204407,
-0.17738313972949982,
0.2694846987724304,
-0.2587965726852417,
0.6045196652412415,
-0.5599637031555176,
-0.5523345470428467,
0.7512751817703247,
-0.19671376049518585,
-0.06712175160646439,
-0.17189575731754303,
0.3825113773345947,
-0.059695951640605927,
-0.5574529767036438,
-0.22400222718715668,
0.27477598190307617,
0.6796261072158813,
-0.20976804196834564,
0.7569112181663513,
0.36847883462905884,
0.16966527700424194,
0.8645133376121521,
0.12306611984968185,
-0.039055414497852325,
0.9986361265182495,
-0.35319867730140686,
0.5373430848121643,
-0.1660270094871521,
-0.2620806396007538,
0.505301833152771,
-0.1892108917236328,
0.4580449163913727,
0.5166325569152832,
-0.5216826796531677,
0.04098482429981232,
0.5681528449058533,
0.09905087202787399,
-0.3025050461292267,
0.16787828505039215,
-0.42605698108673096,
-0.7074888944625854,
-0.9086877107620239,
-0.11846581101417542,
-0.6031833291053772,
-0.4599592089653015,
-0.46904924511909485,
0.06432658433914185,
-0.38485288619995117,
0.00652040122076869,
-0.07743862271308899,
-0.1480872929096222,
-0.045015398412942886,
0.26648029685020447,
-0.04181206598877907,
-0.40982288122177124,
0.3585563600063324,
0.5339959263801575,
0.02509603649377823,
1.0328494310379028,
0.15807048976421356,
0.6747530698776245,
0.5143981575965881,
-0.2591950595378876,
0.2645833492279053,
0.6718414425849915,
-0.23510901629924774,
0.4868887960910797,
0.36884060502052307,
1.3455095291137695,
0.513989269733429,
0.0966249406337738,
-0.26506394147872925,
-0.28735795617103577,
-0.09728414565324783,
0.41904136538505554,
0.17320512235164642,
-0.004667819011956453,
-0.5428783893585205,
0.20913277566432953,
0.18058739602565765,
0.198022723197937,
0.12599368393421173,
0.6669591665267944,
-0.5344740748405457,
-0.1393861621618271,
-0.4644535779953003,
-0.4193219542503357,
-0.02941986545920372,
0.0430336557328701,
-0.04032646864652634,
0.13531386852264404,
-0.31212908029556274,
0.7945840954780579,
0.4404153525829315,
-0.22596833109855652,
-0.017363760620355606,
0.15842653810977936,
0.09090960025787354,
0.10715320706367493,
-0.41458800435066223,
0.4513365626335144,
0.595291018486023,
-0.10134819895029068,
0.15424367785453796,
-0.16973437368869781,
0.5371161103248596,
-0.17523661255836487,
-0.04550373926758766,
-0.3725525438785553,
-0.10728002339601517,
-0.29877969622612,
0.45533233880996704,
-0.29953867197036743,
0.5337931513786316,
0.012229373678565025,
0.3578498661518097,
-0.14593075215816498,
-0.6848101615905762,
-0.22103074193000793,
-0.18107891082763672,
-0.48927441239356995,
0.2846667468547821,
0.38515961170196533,
0.5493223667144775,
0.12774789333343506,
-0.16592207551002502,
-0.2269791215658188,
-0.5219216346740723,
-0.30177047848701477,
0.23467303812503815,
-0.4747622013092041,
1.3517608642578125,
-0.33042094111442566,
0.0879104882478714,
1.0336296558380127,
0.38319131731987,
0.3705856502056122,
0.3355553150177002,
0.039276160299777985,
0.7143629789352417,
-0.03317936137318611,
-0.606365978717804,
0.430653840303421,
-0.10292471945285797,
0.29922497272491455,
-0.41061457991600037,
0.00969350803643465,
0.1674921214580536,
-0.12877196073532104,
-0.0890100821852684,
-0.3407938480377197,
0.42324602603912354,
-0.30449461936950684,
0.2171175181865692,
-0.14903216063976288,
0.28591927886009216,
0.3771601617336273,
0.9533303380012512,
-0.7268311977386475,
0.10202531516551971,
0.4474811553955078,
-0.5408806204795837,
0.939356803894043,
0.2905774712562561,
0.36465486884117126,
0.9014918208122253,
0.10682523995637894,
-0.4090607464313507,
-0.058768030256032944,
-0.01497900765389204,
-0.19939695298671722,
-0.0028489851392805576,
0.03630315139889717,
0.25355467200279236,
-0.10499313473701477,
-0.21932615339756012,
-0.026139086112380028,
0.21815039217472076,
0.3619762659072876,
-0.2739526927471161,
0.03190374746918678,
0.1176731139421463,
-0.06663735955953598,
0.1884600669145584,
-0.09263662248849869,
0.13603149354457855,
0.27711135149002075,
0.17160870134830475,
0.4115159213542938,
0.009133335202932358,
-0.502403736114502,
0.036633409559726715,
0.23519472777843475,
-0.3572721481323242,
-0.4165732264518738,
-0.13841624557971954,
0.3251782953739166,
0.04914656654000282,
0.16049574315547943,
-0.23433136940002441,
0.42578262090682983,
-0.16089513897895813,
-0.17187507450580597,
-0.2825634777545929,
-0.015523393638432026,
1.0389485359191895,
0.3518567383289337,
0.5053866505622864,
-0.41357073187828064,
-0.530007004737854,
-0.13796991109848022,
-0.6039256453514099,
-0.6488779783248901,
0.1174919381737709,
0.38743969798088074,
-0.3084132671356201,
-0.6314226388931274,
-0.31448230147361755,
0.14481446146965027,
0.4494185447692871,
-0.23065494000911713,
-0.15819011628627777,
0.17092326283454895,
0.009498044848442078,
-0.19672273099422455,
-0.1929585188627243,
-0.6391943693161011,
-0.043702419847249985,
0.0052896831184625626,
-0.04835432022809982,
0.010144895873963833,
0.30447298288345337,
0.4579229950904846,
-0.5332399606704712,
0.4506753981113434,
0.8660467267036438,
0.27779579162597656,
-0.29446420073509216,
-0.0398271344602108,
-0.4055423140525818,
-0.2330375462770462,
-0.13138899207115173,
-0.05361534655094147,
-0.1680794507265091,
0.03629133477807045,
-5.921487808227539,
0.4047132730484009,
-0.010113394819200039,
-0.119815893471241,
-0.09288080036640167,
-0.07071925699710846,
0.6919649243354797,
-0.35420098900794983,
0.5386918783187866,
-0.1739802062511444,
-0.08318016678094864,
0.6073949337005615,
0.0973481759428978,
-0.23711681365966797,
-0.2658979594707489,
-0.06455069780349731,
0.16525103151798248,
0.02363712713122368,
0.6539153456687927,
-0.14273951947689056,
-0.28223079442977905,
0.2593368887901306,
0.10070396214723587,
-0.28638291358947754,
0.11870119720697403,
0.21751339733600616,
-0.7711997032165527,
0.2715866267681122,
0.09585154801607132,
0.11990571767091751,
0.32169803977012634,
-0.3363361358642578,
-0.17604629695415497,
-0.07939287275075912,
-0.5113950371742249,
-0.3084977865219116,
0.9432704448699951,
0.13033713400363922,
0.15854789316654205,
-0.31148630380630493,
0.4355306029319763,
0.16610997915267944,
0.07974626868963242,
0.1827673465013504,
0.5731412172317505,
-0.12189064919948578,
-0.19280162453651428,
-0.10292129963636398,
0.00029739580349996686,
1.0014128684997559,
-0.21014849841594696,
-0.03561413288116455,
0.35540375113487244,
0.30422502756118774,
0.4073677659034729,
-0.18350860476493835,
-0.5212528109550476,
0.13155023753643036,
-0.40802764892578125,
0.30397599935531616,
0.2645227015018463,
-0.1608303189277649,
-0.16820791363716125,
-0.6122826933860779,
0.05343567207455635,
0.21030467748641968,
-0.6502528786659241,
-0.1295112520456314,
0.5052654147148132,
-0.20616962015628815,
-0.6250206828117371,
0.4825800359249115,
0.4266810715198517,
-0.6500533819198608,
0.8608418703079224,
-0.3410203158855438,
-0.1676495224237442,
-0.11183787137269974,
-0.2914385199546814,
-0.18022723495960236,
0.09561725705862045,
-0.17382369935512543,
-0.13911958038806915,
0.0952841117978096,
0.18584543466567993,
-0.24877284467220306,
0.10538064688444138,
-0.29399895668029785,
0.1178986132144928,
-0.12734515964984894,
0.4838033616542816,
-0.4150640070438385,
0.004709298722445965,
0.2879284918308258,
0.27083688974380493,
0.6485573649406433,
0.18754111230373383,
0.5427691340446472,
0.17448407411575317,
0.13759079575538635,
0.5486130714416504,
-0.34619107842445374,
-0.24545587599277496,
-0.8673507571220398,
-0.23370829224586487,
-0.051826588809490204,
-0.29366615414619446,
0.27244672179222107,
0.49778884649276733,
-0.1264619082212448,
0.11236786097288132,
-0.032397445291280746,
-0.7662079334259033,
-0.019545719027519226,
0.40184929966926575,
-0.005359169095754623,
-0.3390863239765167,
-0.05002293363213539,
0.2897200584411621,
-0.33462050557136536,
0.007521979510784149,
0.6495393514633179,
0.2811051607131958,
0.12913422286510468,
-0.35571232438087463,
-0.40830838680267334,
0.32873114943504333,
0.12367372959852219,
-0.29190367460250854,
-0.282662570476532,
0.31523028016090393,
0.3680432438850403,
-0.22608016431331635,
-0.4931906461715698,
0.007176682818681002,
-0.7621163725852966,
-0.4887993633747101,
0.2591666877269745,
0.5348048806190491,
-0.28459683060646057,
-0.06544064730405807,
-0.3234507143497467,
-0.3300296366214752,
0.25440260767936707,
0.2870020568370819,
0.4467948377132416,
-0.009141129441559315,
0.16701164841651917,
-0.34784185886383057,
-0.2084779292345047,
-0.2442774772644043,
-0.8959711194038391,
0.7296640276908875,
0.0776345357298851,
0.050483107566833496,
0.24093203246593475,
0.3067381680011749,
0.22721382975578308,
0.1380603015422821,
-0.49339741468429565,
0.13341479003429413,
0.004048381466418505,
-1.0225085020065308,
0.4156264066696167,
0.42827510833740234,
-0.11785250902175903,
-0.06200983375310898,
-0.4173870086669922,
-0.30025336146354675,
-0.004415287636220455,
-0.6302106380462646,
-0.534221887588501,
-0.18730033934116364,
-0.1399177461862564,
0.42818355560302734,
0.19896870851516724,
-0.28156203031539917,
-0.19995716214179993,
-0.040589019656181335,
0.10818485915660858,
0.16709747910499573,
-0.4213085174560547,
0.13545820116996765,
0.39654305577278137,
0.453095018863678,
-0.36554545164108276,
-0.3058341443538666,
0.07383323460817337,
-0.00035356261651031673,
-0.35305657982826233,
0.12984836101531982,
0.31941738724708557,
0.4703027307987213,
0.27165064215660095,
-0.17157335579395294,
-0.5332799553871155,
0.03534599393606186,
0.2980627417564392,
-0.08384072035551071,
-1.0573838949203491,
-0.36093658208847046,
0.5557947754859924,
-0.08947692811489105,
0.423502117395401,
0.05412338674068451,
-0.21187932789325714,
0.25008735060691833,
-0.03209976851940155,
-0.18186649680137634,
-0.06855093687772751,
0.15089549124240875,
-0.5506054759025574,
0.019648872315883636,
0.14505434036254883,
-0.022319676354527473,
0.10706628113985062,
-0.3149965703487396,
0.024899402633309364,
-0.33470118045806885,
0.012379484251141548,
-0.09904130548238754,
-0.4238053262233734,
-0.1333579570055008,
0.3409419655799866,
-0.5202370882034302,
0.8869242072105408,
0.0465337298810482,
-0.8261646032333374,
0.4553200304508209,
-0.09238030761480331,
-0.04978735372424126,
-0.5629964470863342,
0.1877836138010025,
0.6314015984535217,
-0.23328347504138947,
-0.26745086908340454,
-0.4587744474411011,
0.40267470479011536,
0.07542993128299713,
0.23277334868907928,
-0.1709534227848053,
0.2849200665950775,
-0.09495154023170471,
-0.9912203550338745,
-0.5117759704589844,
-0.15819209814071655,
0.18830052018165588,
-0.6184664964675903,
-0.5976892709732056,
-0.2852950692176819,
0.4600144922733307,
-0.17588841915130615,
0.21805956959724426,
-0.4465281665325165,
1.1514521837234497,
-0.2580689489841461,
-0.5150278806686401,
-0.7644009590148926,
-0.10960797965526581,
0.029146458953619003,
-0.26707762479782104,
-0.027448445558547974,
-0.3291876018047333,
-0.3857443928718567,
0.44432178139686584,
-0.1588543951511383,
0.08532752841711044,
-0.7587969303131104,
-0.5204475522041321,
-0.3959451913833618,
-0.5309599041938782,
-0.3834052085876465,
0.18912523984909058,
0.21583974361419678,
0.03225776553153992,
0.04356805980205536,
-0.08204971998929977,
-0.6716477870941162,
0.3104999363422394,
0.35045209527015686,
-0.7301608920097351,
-0.4879562556743622,
-0.07539194822311401,
-0.15742811560630798,
0.036455314606428146,
-0.29989200830459595,
0.02280370332300663,
-0.10982393473386765,
0.12462809681892395,
0.016604743897914886,
-0.3781631290912628,
0.3771779537200928,
-0.9167138338088989,
-0.11615653336048126,
-0.2303808480501175,
0.0817110538482666,
-0.1918380856513977,
-0.09054279327392578,
-0.12172168493270874,
-0.4274214804172516,
-0.03337477892637253,
0.8052704334259033,
0.6911550164222717,
-0.6763362884521484,
0.07316792756319046,
0.0279211588203907,
-0.24204207956790924,
0.010400098748505116,
0.15797480940818787,
0.3431687355041504,
0.05479183420538902,
0.17162808775901794,
0.07133191078901291,
0.4946061670780182,
-0.664860188961029,
0.034833602607250214,
0.03969000279903412,
-0.1224723681807518,
0.06267565488815308,
0.025326555594801903,
0.24733604490756989,
0.46423447132110596,
0.5386935472488403,
0.31075596809387207,
-0.6914634108543396,
0.5756440758705139,
-0.17235367000102997,
-0.26101717352867126,
0.29704710841178894,
0.22118917107582092,
0.834211528301239,
-0.10829991847276688,
-0.00808535423129797,
0.4360261559486389,
0.27519628405570984,
0.008297908119857311,
-0.22174377739429474,
-0.008343318477272987,
0.07771946489810944,
0.5167461633682251,
0.3620578348636627,
0.7411364912986755,
-0.4475012421607971,
-0.020672323182225227,
-0.28262215852737427,
0.419278085231781,
-0.12684020400047302,
-0.12540201842784882,
0.22248299419879913,
0.590264618396759,
0.2905289828777313,
0.3040198087692261,
-0.10531359165906906,
0.1458168774843216,
-0.6569255590438843,
0.23381569981575012,
0.04324394091963768,
-0.18796083331108093,
-0.013138649053871632,
0.05544724687933922,
0.7838602066040039,
0.40957802534103394,
-0.006680441554635763,
0.27841663360595703,
-0.48792213201522827,
-0.5233035683631897,
0.05999121814966202,
-0.09470967203378677,
0.1864842027425766,
-0.0026402813382446766,
-0.23117412626743317,
0.39516469836235046,
-0.34454241394996643,
0.3829159736633301,
-0.3188379108905792,
0.05349063128232956,
0.05121384933590889,
0.17032334208488464,
-0.25589919090270996,
0.31917688250541687,
-0.25385528802871704,
0.1842508763074875,
-0.03876696154475212,
-0.7284337878227234,
-0.6233111023902893,
-0.6024077534675598,
0.01801859214901924,
0.2792414426803589,
-0.06545961648225784,
-0.2832173705101013,
-0.3510085940361023,
-0.5118046998977661,
-0.1289208084344864,
0.14887091517448425,
-0.05564593896269798,
-0.1324290633201599,
0.6361419558525085,
0.8628844022750854,
0.569185197353363,
0.94218909740448,
0.0404246561229229,
0.05509138107299805,
0.12106283009052277,
0.20387642085552216,
-0.667418360710144,
0.5135705471038818,
-0.5001976490020752,
-0.13531842827796936,
-0.6589529514312744,
0.08535943180322647,
0.7731243371963501,
0.6645743250846863,
0.029640506953001022,
-0.4152882695198059,
-0.003075772663578391,
0.2767389118671417,
0.2920849323272705,
-0.6159411072731018,
0.01350706722587347,
-0.02890520542860031,
-0.9043839573860168,
-0.531572699546814,
0.39611533284187317,
0.04849974438548088,
-0.02611231617629528,
0.00003857036790577695,
0.5718282461166382,
-0.15407662093639374,
-0.1858343631029129,
0.38756248354911804,
0.15959958732128143,
-0.5872254371643066,
-0.7580243945121765,
0.34463372826576233,
-0.2663894593715668,
0.36361557245254517,
-0.6561246514320374,
0.0968482717871666,
0.4328852891921997,
-0.21879921853542328,
0.04847478121519089,
-0.25539630651474,
-0.10228666663169861,
0.012870053760707378,
-0.7211198210716248,
-0.020631395280361176,
-0.11768468469381332,
-0.4519045054912567,
-0.6943820714950562,
-0.03356798738241196,
0.587975800037384,
-0.18761925399303436,
0.1213991716504097,
-0.2946414351463318,
0.45044592022895813,
0.4099904000759125,
0.44641250371932983,
-0.2989274263381958,
-0.14287036657333374,
0.009908405132591724
] |
206082
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20West%20Virginia%20%28BB-48%29
|
USS West Virginia (BB-48)
|
USS West Virginia (BB-48) was the fourth dreadnought battleship of the , though because was cancelled, she was the third and final member of the class to be completed. The Colorado class proved to be the culmination of the standard-type battleship series built for the United States Navy in the 1910s and 1920s; the ships were essentially repeats of the earlier design, but with a significantly more powerful main battery of eight guns in twin-gun turrets. West Virginia was built between her keel laying in 1920 and her commissioning into the Navy in 1923. The ship spent the 1920s and 1930s conducting routine training exercises, including the typically-annual Fleet Problems, which provided invaluable experience for the coming war in the Pacific.
West Virginia was moored in Battleship Row on the morning of 7 December 1941 when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into World War II. Badly damaged by torpedoes, the ship sank in the shallow water but was later refloated and extensively rebuilt over the course of 1943 and into mid-1944. She returned to service in time for the Philippines Campaign, where she led the American line of battle at the Battle of Surigao Strait on the night of 24–25 October. There, she was one of the few American battleships to use her radar to acquire a target in the darkness, allowing her to engage a Japanese squadron in what was the final action between battleships in naval history.
After Surigao Strait, the ship remained in the Philippines to support troops fighting during the Battle of Leyte in 1944 and then supported the invasion of Lingayen Gulf in early 1945. The ship also took part in the Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa later that year, providing extensive fire support to the ground forces invading those islands. During the latter operation, she was hit by a kamikaze that did little damage. Following the surrender of Japan, West Virginia took part in the initial occupation and thereafter participated in Operation Magic Carpet, carrying soldiers and sailors from Hawaii to the mainland United States before being deactivated in 1946. She was decommissioned in 1947 and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet, where she remained until 1959 when she was sold to ship breakers and dismantled.
Design
In 1916, design work was completed on the next class of battleships to be built for the United States Navy beginning in 1917. These ships were nearly direct copies of the preceding , with the exception of the main battery, which increased from twelve guns to eight guns. The Colorado class proved to be the last class of battleships completed of the standard type.
West Virginia was long overall and she had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric turbo-electric drives with steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The ship's propulsion system was rated at for a top speed of , though on speed trials she reached and a speed of . She had a normal cruising range of at , but additional fuel space could be used in wartime to increase her range to at that speed. Her crew numbered 64 officers and 1,241 enlisted men.
She was armed with a main battery of eight 16 in /45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four twin-gun turrets on the centerline, two forward and two aft in superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen /51 caliber guns, mounted individually in casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. She carried an anti-aircraft battery of eight /50 caliber guns in individual high-angle mounts. As was customary for capital ships of the period, she had a torpedo tube mounted in her hull below the waterline on each broadside. West Virginias main armored belt was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces on barbettes. Her conning tower had thick sides.
Service history
Prewar career
The keel for West Virginia was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News, Virginia on 12 April 1920. While under construction, she received the hull number BB-48 on 17 July. Her completed hull was launched on 17 November 1921 and she was commissioned on 1 December 1923. West Virginia was to have been the fourth member of the class, but her sister ship was cancelled due to the Washington Naval Treaty that was signed in 1922. Captain Thomas J. Senn was the ship's first commander. On entering service, she began sea trials and a shakedown cruise, followed by repairs at Newport News. She then sailed north to the New York Navy Yard for further alterations. She then steamed south to Hampton Roads, and while en route her steering gear malfunctioned. She underwent an overhaul there to correct the problem and she got underway again on 16 June 1924; while cruising through Lynnhaven Channel at 10:10, the telegraphs for the engine room and steering compartment lost power, rendering the ship unmaneuverable. Senn had to use voice tubes to communicate with the engine room, ordering the port engines to full power and the starboard to stop in an attempt to steer the ship away from the shore. But West Virginia drifted in the channel and ran aground, though she was not damaged in the accident. A subsequent inquiry into the incident faulted incorrect navigational data that exaggerated the size of the navigable part of the channel, exonerating Senn and the ship's navigator.
On 30 October, West Virginia became the flagship for the Commander, Battleship Divisions, Battle Fleet. The ship spent the 1920s conducting routine training exercises and maneuvers with the fleet, punctuated by periodic overhauls; each year's training schedule culminated in the major Fleet Problems that tested operational and strategic doctrine that proved to be critical in the operations conducted against Japan during World War II. These operations took place in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as far north as Alaska and as far south as Panama. In 1925, while Captain Arthur Japy Hepburn commanded the ship, her gunners scored first place during a competition for short range shooting. West Virginia won the Battle Efficiency ribbon that year as well. Later in 1925, the fleet conducted joint Army-Navy maneuvers in Hawaii to test the defenses of the islands before embarking on a major cruise to visit Australia and New Zealand. West Virginia won Battle Efficiency ribbons in 1927, 1932, and 1933. During Fleet Problem X in March 1930, West Virginia was "bombed" by aircraft from the aircraft carrier . In Fleet Problem XI, held the following month, she and the battleship accidentally engaged the carrier , a fellow member of the "black" fleet, mistaking her for the "blue" fleet carrier Lexington. The simulated friendly fire cost "black" fleet their carrier and led to calls for improved communication between ships and better ship identification training.
In the early 1930s, the ship underwent a minor modification. Her battery of 3-inch anti-aircraft guns were replaced with 5-inch /25 cal. guns and .50-caliber machine guns were installed on her fore and main masts. She also received aircraft catapults on her quarterdeck and atop the rear superfiring turret. During Fleet Problem XIV in February 1933, West Virginia and the battleship were "damaged" in a surprise attack by "black" fleet submarines. Plans to modernize West Virginia dated to the mid-1930s, when the navy considered modifying the ship extensively; the Bureau of Construction and Repair planned to add anti-torpedo bulges that would have restored a considerable amount of buoyancy to the hull, raising her at the cost of an additional displacement. The work was not carried out, and in 1937 further plans to modernize West Virginia, her sister ships, and the two Tennessee-class ships, were considered. The proposed modifications included new boilers and fire control equipment and the previously suggested bulges. Further development of the modernization program in 1938 was rejected due to its cost and the fact that, even as modernized, the vessels would be inferior to the new and s being built.
Following the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Admiral Ernest King led a board to evaluate anti-aircraft defenses of the fleet's ships, and it recommended adding blisters to restore freeboard, the adoption of 5 in /38 cal. dual-purpose guns, and a strengthening of the ships' decks. The Chief of Naval Operations decided that, as a result of the likelihood of war, only the bulges would be fitted, and West Virginia was slated to undergo the work from 10 May to 8 August 1941, though the modification was not carried out. The Navy conducted the final iteration of the series, Fleet Problem XXI, in April 1940, by which time tensions with Japan over the latter's initiation of the Second Sino-Japanese War had led the United States to transfer the fleet from California to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii as a deterrent to further aggression by Japan. The fleet spent 1941 occupied with extensive training to prepare for the anticipated war with Japan, even after the diplomatic situation increasingly worsened in the final months of the year. During this period, the Navy sought to improve the anti-aircraft batteries of the fleet's battleships, but production of the new guns was slow, so old 3 in guns were reinstalled as a temporary measure. The ship also had eleven .50-cal. machine guns by this time. In June, men aboard West Virginia fabricated an experimental gun shield for the 5 in guns, which were to be applied to other ships. West Virginia was to have had her 1.1 in guns installed in February 1942.
World War II
Pearl Harbor
On the morning of 7 December 1941, West Virginia and the rest of the fleet were moored at Battleship Row in Pearl Harbor; West Virginia was tied alongside Tennessee. Japanese aircraft appeared over the harbor shortly before 08:00, beginning the surprise attack on the base. Torpedo bombers hit the ship with seven Type 91 torpedoes on her port side, while bombers hit her with a pair of armor-piercing shells that had been converted into bombs. The first bomb hit the port side and penetrated the superstructure deck, causing extensive damage to the casemates below. Secondary explosions of the ammunition stored in the casemates caused serious fires there and in the galley deck below them. The second bomb struck the rear superfiring turret roof; it penetrated but failed to explode. It nevertheless destroyed one of the guns, the OS2U Kingfisher floatplane on the catapult atop the turret, and knocked a second aircraft down to the main deck. That Kingfisher spilled gasoline on the deck that then caught on fire.
One of the torpedoes hit aft, disabling the rudder, at least three hit below the belt armor, and at least one hit the belt, damaging seven armor plates. These torpedoes opened two large holes in the hull, from frames 43 to 52 and from 62 to 97; at least one torpedo passed through the holes after the ship began to list and exploded on the second armor deck. The torpedo hits caused extensive damage and the ship avoided capsizing only through prompt damage control efforts initiated by Lieutenant Claude V. Ricketts, then the ship's assistant fire control officer. Captain Mervyn S. Bennion was mortally wounded by bomb fragments from a hit on Tennessee; for remaining aboard the ship and assisting in its defense until he died, he was awarded the Medal of Honor. As the ship filled with water and slowly sank on an even keel, the crew was evacuated, though a group volunteered to return to fight the fires that had broken out. Fuel oil leaking from the destroyed Arizona caught fire and engulfed West Virginia in flames, which was also fed by her own leaking fuel oil. The fires were eventually put out the next day. A total of 106 men were killed in the attack. On 6 December 2019, the Department of Defense announced that eight of the thirty-five unknown remains from West Virginia had been identified.
Repairs and modernization
Workers fixed patches over the two torpedo holes and pumped West Virginia dry, refloating her on 17 May 1942. She was then taken into Dry Dock No. 1 in Pearl Harbor on 9 June for an inspection; it had been initially believed that she had been hit by five torpedoes, but a sixth impact had been discovered during the patching, and this inspection revealed the seventh hit. The shipyard workers then began temporary repairs to make the ship seaworthy, and during this period they discovered the remains of 66 or 70 men who had been trapped below decks when she sank. Some of these had survived for several days in air bubbles with emergency rations and fresh water, but their oxygen and supplies ran out long before the ship was refloated. Three of them survived for sixteen days. After completing repairs, West Virginia got underway for the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton, Washington for a thorough reconstruction.
Almost immediately after the attack, the navy began considering the extent to which the old battleships should be modernized, with proposals to replace the lattice masts with other structures that could accommodate the heavier radar equipment being fitted to the fleet's ships. Since West Virginia and had been badly damaged in the Pearl Harbor attack and thus could not be quickly returned to service like the other battleships, they would have the bulges that had been planned before the war installed, which would offset the loss of freeboard incurred by the addition of of deck armor. Plans were also made to install a battery of the dual-purpose 5-inch guns, but the work was deferred as a result of the length of time necessary to reconstruct the ship. In addition, the limited number of drydocks on the west coast slowed the pace of reconstruction, and West Virginia had to wait until Tennessee and California were rebuilt; work on West Virginia was not completed until September 1944.
Work on West Virginia saw the ship radically altered. In addition to the torpedo bulges, her superstructure was completely revised, with the old heavily armored conning tower being removed and a smaller tower erected in its place to reduce interference with the anti-aircraft guns' fields of fire. The new tower had been removed from one of the s that had recently been rebuilt. The foremast was replaced with a tower mast that housed the bridge and the main battery director, and her second funnel was removed, with those boilers being trunked into an enlarged forward funnel. The ship's weapons suite was also overhauled. She received air-search radar and fire-control radars for her main and secondary batteries, the latter being replaced by a uniform battery of sixteen 5-inch/38 cal. guns in eight twin mounts. These were controlled by four Mk 37 directors. The light anti-aircraft battery was again revised, now consisting of ten quadruple Bofors guns and forty-three 20 mm Oerlikons.
By early July 1944, the ship was ready to begin sea trials in her post-refit condition. She loaded ammunition on 2 July and departed for trials off Port Townsend, Washington, with the evaluations continuing until 12 July, at which point she returned to Puget Sound for repairs. She then steamed south to San Pedro, Los Angeles for a shakedown cruise before departing for Hawaii on 14 September in company with a pair of escorting destroyers. After arriving there on 23 September, she joined Battleship Division 4 (BatDiv 4) and the carrier , all of which sailed on to Manus in the Admiralty Islands to begin preparations for the upcoming operations in the Philippines. The ships arrived in Seeadler Harbor on 5 October and the following day, West Virginia became the flagship of Rear Admiral Theodore D. Ruddock, the commander of BatDiv 4.
Operations in the Philippines
Leyte
On 12 October 1944, West Virginia and the rest of the fleet sortied to begin the invasion of the Philippines, starting with the island of Leyte. West Virginia was assigned to Task Group (TG) 77.2, the shore bombardment force for the operation that was commanded by Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf. While en route later that day, West Virginia steamed astern of California and the latter vessel's paravanes cut the anchor chain for a naval mine, forcing West Virginia to steer around it; gunfire from a nearby destroyer detonated the mine safely. The invasion fleet arrived in San Pedro Bay early on 19 October and at 07:00, West Virginia and the rest of TG 77.2 moved into their bombardment positions. They opened fire on targets around Tacloban, shelling Japanese positions and providing covering fire for the Underwater Demolition Teams that were preparing the invasion beaches for much of the day before withdrawing that evening. In the course of the day's bombardment, she fired a total of 278 shells from her main battery and 1,586 rounds from her secondary guns.
The next morning, ground forces from Sixth Army went ashore and West Virginia remained on station throughout the day to provide naval gunfire support. The fleet came under Japanese air attack, though the ship's anti-aircraft gunners were not able to shoot any aircraft down. On 21 October, while moving into her bombardment station, she lightly grounded, damaging three of her propellers. The damaged blades caused vibration that limited her speed to (or in emergencies). She nevertheless remained on station for the next two days to support the invasion as the soldiers fought their way inland, providing fire support and anti-aircraft defense as the fleet continued to be attacked by Japanese aircraft. Each night she and the rest of TG 77.2 withdrew from the beaches.
Battle of Leyte Gulf
The landing on Leyte led to the activation of Operation Shō-Gō 1, the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: the Northern Force under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, the Center Force under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita, and the Southern Force under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura. Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly. Kurita's ships were detected in the San Bernardino Strait on 24 October 1944, and in the ensuing Battle of the Sibuyan Sea, American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship , causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral William F. Halsey, the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the Northern Force, which had by then been detected. While these maneuvers were occurring, Nishumura's force approached the Surigao Strait to attack the invasion fleet from the south. His fleet consisted of the battleships and , the heavy cruiser , and four destroyers, supplemented by Vice Admiral Kiyohide Shima's Second Striking Force, consisting of the heavy cruisers and , the light cruiser , and four more destroyers.
As Nishimura's flotilla passed through the strait on the night of 24 October, they came under attack from American PT boats, followed by destroyers, initiating the Battle of Surigao Strait. One of these US destroyers torpedoed Fusō and disabled her, though Nishimura continued on toward his objective. West Virginia steamed at the head of the American line. Observers aboard Tennessee spotted the flashes in the distance as the light American craft attacked Nishimura's force, and at 03:02, her search radar picked up the enemy ships at a range of . West Virginias radar picked them up fourteen minutes later, by which time the range had fallen to . Oldendorf gave the order to open fire at 03:51, and West Virginia opened fire first a minute later, followed by Tennessee and California, concentrating their fire on Yamashiro; the other American battleships had trouble locating a target with their older, less-effective radars and held their fire. West Virginia probably hit Yamashiro on her bridge with her first salvo, though Nishimura and his staff were not injured at that time. Yamashiro was quickly hit several times by several American vessels that concentrated their fire on her. With Yamashiro badly damaged and burning furiously, the Americans then shifted fire to Mogami, which was also hit several times, suffering severe damage.
At about 04:00, Mogami and then Yamashiro turned to retreat, both burning; the destroyer fled with them, though she had not suffered any serious damage. Shortly thereafter, Oldendorf ordered his battleships to make a 150-degree turn, and West Virginia complied at 04:02, leading the other battleships on the new course, which ran parallel to Yamashiros line of retreat. Confusion aboard California led her to fall out of position, and in so doing, mask the rest of the battleships and force them to cease firing to avoid hitting her. Shortly thereafter, reports of Japanese torpedoes in the water prompted the American battleships to turn to the north at 04:18 to avoid them. This marked the end of the action, as the remaining Japanese ships retreated in the darkness. In the course of the action, West Virginia fired sixteen salvos at the Japanese ships; this proved to be the last ever battle between battleships.
Later operations
On 29 October 1944, West Virginia, Tennessee, and the battleship got underway, headed to the navy's advance base at Ulithi. From there, West Virginia proceeded on to Espiritu Santo for repairs to her damaged propellers; Ruddock shifted his flag to Maryland during this period. On arriving, she entered the floating drydock for maintenance before returning to the Philippines in November. Steaming first to Manus and then to Leyte Gulf, she arrived on 25 November and resumed patrols in the area to defend the fleet from air attacks. On 27 November, the fleet came under another attack and at 11:39, her gunners shot down a kamikaze suicide aircraft. During further attacks the next day, she assisted in the destruction of several other kamikazes. Ruddock returned to the ship on 30 November, and the battleship remained in the area until 2 December, when she departed for the Palau Islands for replenishment. There, she became the flagship of TG 77.12, the bombardment group for the next landing in the Philippines.
The fleet passed through Leyte Gulf on 12 December, turning south through Surigao Strait the next day and entering the Sulu Sea for the assault on Mindoro in company with TG 78.3, the invasion transport force. After landing ground forces, the transports withdrew on 15 December and West Virginia was tasked with covering their departure. West Virginia refueled in Leyte Gulf and then continued on to the Kossol Roads in the Palaus, arriving on 19 December. She remained there for the rest of the year, and on 1 January 1945, Rear Admiral Ingram C. Sowell replaced Ruddock as the commander of BatDiv 4. That same day, she sortied as part of TG 77.2. After entering Leyte Gulf on 3 January, the ships steamed into the Sulu Sea, where they came under heavy Japanese air attack the next day; the escort carrier was badly damaged by kamikazes and was then scuttled; nearby destroyers took off the crew, some of whom were then transferred to West Virginia.
On 5 January, the fleet entered the South China Sea and then turned north toward Lingayen Gulf; further Japanese air attacks took place throughout the day and West Virginia contributed her guns to the fleet's defense. While on the way, the ship closed with San Fernando Point and bombarded Japanese positions in the area. Waves of kamikazes struck the fleet and hit several ships but West Virginia avoided them. The next day, the minesweeper was sunk by a Japanese torpedo and West Virginia took on survivors from the vessel. Over the course of 8–9 January, the ship bombarded the town of San Fabian in Lingayen Gulf to prepare for the invasion that took place later on the 9th. That evening, the survivors from Ommaney Bay and Hovey departed West Virginia.
The ship continued her fire support mission on 10 January and then spent the next week patrolling Lingayen Gulf to protect the beachhead. During this period, she was called on to neutralize defensive positions, destroy ammunition dumps, and shell rail and road junctions to disrupt the Japanese ability to reinforce their positions. Heavy bombardment from West Virginia and the other ships flattened San Fabian. Over the course of the bombardment, she fired 395 main battery shells and more than 2,800 secondary shells. On 21 January, the ship departed at 07:07 to support ground forces fighting in the towns of Rosario and Santo Tomas to the north of Lingayen Gulf, opening fire at 08:15. She remained there for several days, providing fire support, before returning to Lingayen Gulf on 1 February. The ships of TG 77.2 thereafter covered transports carrying supplies for the Army as they arrived to unload their cargo at the beachhead. On 10 February, West Virginia departed for Leyte Gulf.
Battle of Iwo Jima
West Virginia passed through San Pedro Bay in Leyte Gulf before proceeding on to Ulithi, which she reached on 16 February 1945. There she joined Fifth Fleet and she immediately began preparations for the attack on Iwo Jima. She refueled and replenished supplies for the upcoming operation and was ready to depart at 04:00 the next morning; the ship got underway three and a half hours later, escorted by the destroyers and . On arriving off the island on 19 February, she joined Task Force (TF) 51, and at 11:25 she received orders to join the bombardment already underway as ground forces landed on the beach. She moved to her assigned station at 11:45 and opened fire an hour later; the marines fighting ashore directed her fire to target blockhouses, machine gun positions, tanks, and other Japanese positions.
The ship withdrew for the evening and returned two days later on 21 February, opening fire at 08:00 and remaining on station all day. During the bombardment, she hit an ammunition or fuel dump, setting off large, repeated explosions for the next two hours. She was hit by a small artillery shell the next day that struck near the forward superfiring turret and wounded one sailor. The ship remained off the island for the rest of the month as the marines fought to secure Iwo Jima from the tenacious Japanese defenders. On 27 February, she neutralized an artillery battery that had been firing on the destroyer . The battleship left the following day to replenish ammunition before returning later that day to resume the bombardment. She shelled targets throughout the night to harass the Japanese troops and interdict their movements. West Virginia continued to shell the island for the next three days before departing for Ulithi on 4 March; she arrived there two days later.
Battle of Okinawa
West Virginia then joined Task Force 54 (TF 54) for the next major amphibious assault in the Ryukyu Islands; the ships departed on 21 March 1945 and arrived off the island of Okinawa on 25 March. West Virginia moved to her assigned bombardment station and began to shell the planned landing zones. At 10:29 on 26 March, a single Japanese shell fell some off West Virginias port bow; she fired twenty-eight 16-inch shells in response. Intense Japanese air counterattacks began the next morning, and she shot down a Yokosuka P1Y twin-engined bomber that day. The ship remained off the island for the next few days, bombarding the landing beaches to prepare for the assault that was scheduled for 1 April. Before the attack began, the ship withdrew to replenish ammunition at Kerama Retto, which had been seized at the start of the campaign to provide an advance base for the invasion fleet.
The ship returned to the island early on 1 April to support the landings; while approaching Okinawa at 04:45, she had to reverse her engines to avoid colliding with a destroyer that inadvertently crossed her bow in the darkness. As she continued to steam to her assigned station, her anti-aircraft gunners spotted an enemy aircraft, which they shot down; shortly thereafter, a group of four more hostile aircraft appeared, one of which West Virginias guns destroyed. By 06:30, the ship had reached her station just from shore and began shelling the beach as the landing craft slowly made their way to the landing zone. The ship remained off the island throughout the day, though ground forces initially encountered little resistance and West Virginias guns were not immediately needed. That evening, however, a wave of kamikazes arrived and at 19:03, one of them crashed into West Virginia. The plane struck the ship's superstructure just forward of the No. 2 director for the secondary battery. The resulting explosion killed four and wounded seven in one of the 20 mm gun batteries. The aircraft had been carrying a bomb that penetrated to the second deck, though it failed to detonate; it was later defused by the ship's bomb disposal officer.
West Virginia nevertheless remained off the island through the night, firing star shells to illuminate marine positions to help repel Japanese infiltration attacks. The next day, the dead were buried at sea and the ship returned to bombardment duty shortly thereafter. On 6 April, her gunners shot down an Aichi D3A dive bomber. The next day, the Japanese Navy launched a last strike with a small squadron centered on the battleship , and West Virginia was sent to patrol to the west of the island to intercept any Japanese vessels that broke through heavy American air attacks. On 8 April, the ship received word that most of the Japanese vessels had been sunk or fled. West Virginia resumed bombardment operations and air defense of the fleet. She remained on station until 20 April, when she got underway for Ulithi; she did not reach her destination, however, as she was quickly recalled to replace her sister after the latter suffered an accidental explosion while replenishing ammunition. West Virginia briefly returned to Okinawa, operating off Hagushi Beach in support of XXIV Corps. She was then relieved and sailed to Ulithi with the heavy cruiser and the destroyer , arriving there on 28 April.
The ship then returned to Okinawa to resume fire support duties, which she carried out through June. During this period, on 1 and 2 June, she destroyed a Japanese blockhouse that had held up the American advance during a series of bombardments. On 16 June, having moved south to support the 1st Marine Regiment, one of the ship's Kingfishers was shot down by Japanese fire. The pilot and observer both bailed out from the aircraft, but they fell behind Japanese lines and were pinned down. West Virginia, the destroyer , and a Landing Craft, Infantry attempted to suppress the Japanese defenses in the area so ground forces could break through and rescue the downed air crew, but the effort failed and the men were killed. The ship received another Kingfisher from Tennessee, allowing her to continue to support the forces ashore through the end of the month.
End of the war
At the end of June 1945, the ship left Okinawan waters for San Pedro Bay in company with the destroyer escort , arriving there on 1 July. Four days later, she received a group of replacement crewmen, and after loading ammunition there, began training in preparation for the expected invasion of Kyushu, the invasion of the Japanese mainland. These operations continued through July, and on 3 August she got underway for Okinawa, arriving in Buckner Bay on 6 August. That day, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and a second was dropped on Nagasaki three days later. After these two attacks, rumors spread on 10 August that the Japanese would surrender, prompting celebrations among the crews of the ships in Okinawa, though two days later the battleship was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine. West Virginia sent a whaleboat with pumps to assist the damaged battleship.
On 15 August, the Japanese surrendered, and West Virginias contingent of marines began preparations for the occupation of Japan. The ship departed on 24 August, headed for Tokyo Bay, assigned to TG 35.90, arriving there on 31 August. She was present during the formal surrender ceremonies aboard the battleship on 2 September, and West Virginia loaned five musicians from the ship's band to play during the ceremony. West Virginia remained in Tokyo for the next two weeks to assist with the initial occupation effort, and on 14 September she took on a group of 270 passengers to be carried back to the United States. The ship got underway on 20 September with TG 30.4 for Okinawa; after a stop in Buckner Bay on 23 September, she continued on to Pearl Harbor, arriving there on 4 October. There, her crew repainted the ship before departing on 9 October for San Diego, California, which she reached on 22 October. Sowell left the ship two days later.
In the course of the war, West Virginia was awarded five battle stars, despite having missed much of the war due to the severe damage suffered at Pearl Harbor.
Postwar
During the Navy Day celebrations on 27 October 1945, some 25,554 people visited the ship. Three days later, she departed for Pearl Harbor to begin her role in Operation Magic Carpet, the repatriation effort to return American servicemen from the Pacific. She took on passengers in Pearl Harbor and carried them back to San Diego, making three runs through the end of the year, the last arriving in San Diego on 17 December. She remained in port until 4 January 1946, when she departed for Bremerton, arriving there on 12 January, where she was taken to be deactivated. She was moved to Seattle, Washington, four days later and tied up alongside Colorado. Further work to prepare her for the reserve fleet continued into February and she was formally decommissioned on 9 January 1947, assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet. West Virginia remained in the navy's inventory until 1 March 1959, when she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register and placed for sale; she was sold on 24 August to the Union Minerals & Alloys Corp. and towed to Todd-Pacific Shipyard in Seattle on 3 January 1961 to be broken up.
Several parts of the ship are preserved in locations throughout the United States, primarily in West Virginia. One of her anti-aircraft guns is on display in City Park in Parkersburg, West Virginia, and the ship's wheel and binnacle are on display at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum. When the ship was sold for scrap, students at West Virginia University helped raise funds to preserve the ship's mast, which is housed on the campus. The ship's bell is on display at the West Virginia State Museum in Charleston. In 2000, governor Cecil Underwood issued a proclamation on the 59th anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack naming Interstate 470 in West Virginia the USS West Virginia Memorial Highway.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS West Virginia BB-48 Photo Gallery
Colorado-class battleships
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
1921 ships
World War II battleships of the United States
Ships present during the attack on Pearl Harbor
Ships sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor
Maritime incidents in December 1941
United States Navy West Virginia-related ships
Battleships sunk by aircraft
Pacific Reserve Fleet, Seattle, Washington
|
[
-0.39290130138397217,
-0.056548696011304855,
-0.5212668180465698,
0.4232020080089569,
-0.07395866513252258,
0.1921754628419876,
0.46437951922416687,
-0.7744059562683105,
-0.8430795073509216,
0.22445547580718994,
0.2785120904445648,
0.26601988077163696,
-0.3873455822467804,
0.8707419037818909,
-0.09477239847183228,
0.41723909974098206,
0.2565789222717285,
0.510212242603302,
-0.04006262868642807,
-0.8193299770355225,
-0.10481042414903641,
-0.01719055138528347,
0.47109681367874146,
0.1899305135011673,
-0.1494162678718567,
0.2632160782814026,
0.5266101360321045,
0.06791355460882187,
0.7121421098709106,
0.15893828868865967,
0.04913907125592232,
0.4722920060157776,
-0.04441011697053909,
0.1979510635137558,
-0.07025890052318573,
-0.29646244645118713,
-0.03298884257674217,
-0.3690524101257324,
0.4672268033027649,
-0.350871205329895,
-0.8502295017242432,
-0.30300265550613403,
0.19084946811199188,
0.22105741500854492,
-0.10432514548301697,
0.03250725567340851,
-1.5735431909561157,
0.014659691601991653,
0.31396040320396423,
-0.28636398911476135,
-0.4310813844203949,
0.4440225064754486,
0.07692297548055649,
0.5908366441726685,
-0.09888649731874466,
0.44706836342811584,
-0.8186655640602112,
0.045146457850933075,
-0.38308337330818176,
-0.5029441118240356,
0.4928075075149536,
-0.07779107242822647,
0.7982133030891418,
0.7040888071060181,
0.26783522963523865,
-0.07777438312768936,
-0.5172666907310486,
0.3525232672691345,
0.2426120489835739,
0.01091480441391468,
0.5506733059883118,
-0.37275445461273193,
0.3867470324039459,
-0.03428848087787628,
-0.17423786222934723,
0.030533410608768463,
-0.12248913198709488,
-0.5367438197135925,
0.42972081899642944,
0.3225674331188202,
-0.052590444684028625,
0.1294277161359787,
0.6834396123886108,
0.11066994816064835,
0.35899385809898376,
0.42293620109558105,
-0.5172572135925293,
-0.303693950176239,
-0.19569160044193268,
0.7843525409698486,
-0.6206548810005188,
0.10174671560525894,
0.20309516787528992,
0.5608464479446411,
-0.1617785543203354,
-0.04309513419866562,
-0.11868467926979065,
0.0826151967048645,
0.3163260817527771,
0.16180185973644257,
-0.2678183913230896,
0.22027695178985596,
0.5316353440284729,
0.01717536523938179,
-0.4924308955669403,
-0.13309246301651,
-0.2823021411895752,
-0.33206555247306824,
-0.20965415239334106,
-0.05848677456378937,
-0.13381622731685638,
-0.1586626023054123,
0.43085119128227234,
-0.10532646626234055,
-0.3083709478378296,
-0.04841930791735649,
0.32464587688446045,
-0.7756479382514954,
0.04594246670603752,
-0.027905255556106567,
0.5721767544746399,
0.900846540927887,
-0.8075290322303772,
-0.0625038743019104,
0.42220595479011536,
0.37332239747047424,
0.4694375693798065,
0.467958927154541,
-1.1123194694519043,
-0.05794086679816246,
0.6921202540397644,
0.9012637138366699,
-0.20815803110599518,
0.11434796452522278,
-0.43272721767425537,
-0.13056910037994385,
-0.3754691481590271,
0.18894007802009583,
0.08024511486291885,
0.41190558671951294,
-0.5048016905784607,
-0.29367920756340027,
-0.1934845894575119,
0.0017398365307599306,
0.14292357861995697,
-0.231124147772789,
0.28486520051956177,
0.056846246123313904,
-0.6858689188957214,
0.1262109875679016,
0.25117358565330505,
-0.23131804168224335,
0.0012836571549996734,
0.0880918949842453,
-0.5765551924705505,
0.12340469658374786,
0.5439153909683228,
-0.3087705969810486,
0.4961824119091034,
0.5570234060287476,
-0.5406329035758972,
0.1497056633234024,
0.1355046033859253,
0.14440780878067017,
-0.2642928957939148,
0.12162420153617859,
0.5396318435668945,
-0.1755826473236084,
-0.26738399267196655,
-0.36919960379600525,
-0.4017707109451294,
-0.26958227157592773,
0.3310118019580841,
0.20381325483322144,
0.2008107751607895,
-0.13537782430648804,
0.22698476910591125,
0.1278260350227356,
0.08445410430431366,
-0.9716158509254456,
-0.2703167796134949,
-0.04352746903896332,
0.25663870573043823,
0.1865295022726059,
0.36062484979629517,
0.09059444069862366,
0.02321433089673519,
0.16952544450759888,
-0.11763234436511993,
-0.28464508056640625,
-0.03608350083231926,
-0.39611655473709106,
-0.355849951505661,
0.20651978254318237,
1.3883843421936035,
-0.07719993591308594,
-0.272946834564209,
0.2806454300880432,
0.09141930937767029,
0.3455059230327606,
0.9213377833366394,
-0.3197474479675293,
0.61476731300354,
0.15870071947574615,
-0.5099394917488098,
0.012395435012876987,
-0.0055033983662724495,
1.0207438468933105,
0.1941450834274292,
0.49682581424713135,
0.11512116342782974,
-0.736785888671875,
-0.246124267578125,
0.22869481146335602,
0.23935255408287048,
-0.0882476270198822,
0.21310465037822723,
-0.7776906490325928,
0.30205851793289185,
0.05971931666135788,
0.7213891744613647,
0.008684470318257809,
-0.12270928174257278,
-0.011597380973398685,
-0.26083189249038696,
-0.08198821544647217,
-0.5510329008102417,
0.726026177406311,
-0.2782037556171417,
-0.25977158546447754,
0.07773490250110626,
-0.06931228935718536,
-0.5961467027664185,
-0.03794534131884575,
0.410315603017807,
0.26262831687927246,
-0.23978663980960846,
-0.2223837822675705,
0.4215596318244934,
-0.5221980810165405,
0.21207356452941895,
0.48802614212036133,
-0.30221933126449585,
0.459718257188797,
-0.12628349661827087,
-0.7969584465026855,
0.16873399913311005,
-0.5838507413864136,
-0.2776963710784912,
-0.7454091906547546,
0.5523467063903809,
0.6729685068130493,
0.32622388005256653,
-0.3545861840248108,
-0.07781600952148438,
0.10665461421012878,
-0.15104669332504272,
-0.48345252871513367,
0.6317368745803833,
-0.2498134821653366,
0.2779267728328705,
0.2887670397758484,
-0.07117277383804321,
0.02754634991288185,
0.35010120272636414,
-0.37861377000808716,
-0.6662360429763794,
0.025078292936086655,
0.130486398935318,
0.2832700312137604,
0.06769504398107529,
-0.045089349150657654,
0.7462377548217773,
-0.23235614597797394,
0.32471147179603577,
-0.3350776433944702,
0.07670858502388,
0.3667009472846985,
-0.992708683013916,
-0.669771671295166,
0.27119800448417664,
0.6956992745399475,
-0.1685618907213211,
-0.5392357707023621,
-0.3797917366027832,
-0.3423267602920532,
0.4781248867511749,
0.029131468385457993,
-0.14039656519889832,
-0.01814143918454647,
-0.4685245752334595,
-0.5449226498603821,
-0.20313090085983276,
0.3423343300819397,
-0.14042149484157562,
0.8589381575584412,
-0.40921419858932495,
0.3128163814544678,
-0.033481623977422714,
-0.03624545782804489,
-0.7350475788116455,
0.460880845785141,
-0.02088627777993679,
-0.06268089264631271,
0.09943711012601852,
-0.654692530632019,
-0.3175522983074188,
0.8334710597991943,
-5.514830589294434,
-0.1745072603225708,
-0.46198782324790955,
0.0010415080469101667,
0.01382689643651247,
0.47818803787231445,
-0.14738395810127258,
0.02013631910085678,
-0.0777299702167511,
-0.3666507303714752,
0.8865835666656494,
0.2480798363685608,
0.09815534949302673,
-0.00694864010438323,
0.22270889580249786,
0.21759550273418427,
0.8092562556266785,
-0.3125317692756653,
0.3461472988128662,
-0.18049050867557526,
0.0759754478931427,
-0.2397647202014923,
-0.003066407749429345,
0.1995970904827118,
0.4961334466934204,
-0.17227882146835327,
-0.39772242307662964,
0.03957929462194443,
-0.26322102546691895,
-0.1538534313440323,
-0.42570391297340393,
-0.2646448612213135,
0.04609839618206024,
0.07437512278556824,
0.22051528096199036,
-0.4768458902835846,
0.4014571011066437,
0.3460772633552551,
0.017821770161390305,
-0.4293525218963623,
-0.12468000501394272,
0.05477330833673477,
-0.5491852760314941,
0.5788149833679199,
0.33756235241889954,
-0.10631308704614639,
-0.04912525787949562,
0.25040143728256226,
0.42623209953308105,
0.9723437428474426,
0.35423246026039124,
0.015272962860763073,
0.58254474401474,
0.3339950442314148,
0.6022298336029053,
-0.4707213044166565,
-0.6359918117523193,
0.007871954701840878,
-0.568118155002594,
0.005977434106171131,
0.1390199363231659,
-0.3522874414920807,
0.1225762590765953,
-0.38604554533958435,
-0.5319239497184753,
-0.4836159944534302,
-0.7234113812446594,
0.12587541341781616,
0.7371363043785095,
0.055700626224279404,
-0.06681492924690247,
1.1346089839935303,
-0.027344096451997757,
-1.0321308374404907,
0.5774438381195068,
-0.3109947144985199,
-0.36050698161125183,
-0.32968294620513916,
-0.35222768783569336,
-0.01273095142096281,
-0.0034637057688087225,
0.0033399020321667194,
0.0809825137257576,
0.9187076091766357,
0.5498194098472595,
-0.15647557377815247,
-0.29016417264938354,
0.1725197285413742,
-0.09708356857299805,
-0.10385710000991821,
0.18470889329910278,
-0.47294875979423523,
0.41098037362098694,
0.27924856543540955,
0.4644780457019806,
-0.8177345395088196,
-0.2931715250015259,
0.5723584890365601,
0.8568450212478638,
-0.2596096098423004,
0.7855264544487,
-0.4394075870513916,
0.16864486038684845,
-0.584868311882019,
-0.6055640578269958,
-0.09992820769548416,
-0.24009639024734497,
0.2355276197195053,
0.5178170800209045,
0.1562265157699585,
-0.43255415558815,
-0.7976765036582947,
0.1513085663318634,
-0.6737689971923828,
1.0197861194610596,
-0.1200011819601059,
0.19673508405685425,
0.16480383276939392,
0.22985324263572693,
0.38368311524391174,
0.2127651423215866,
0.6085051894187927,
-0.33063647150993347,
-0.35591045022010803,
0.2816881835460663,
-0.6790583729743958,
0.24447529017925262,
-0.09925772994756699,
-1.0766206979751587,
0.11789920181035995,
0.22755055129528046,
0.08636633306741714,
0.04048330336809158,
0.4110075831413269,
0.0688510537147522,
-0.6811776757240295,
0.1121562048792839,
0.026931248605251312,
0.3170553743839264,
-0.20168916881084442,
-0.7000487446784973,
-0.14213556051254272,
-0.8504159450531006,
-0.036464471369981766,
0.5566485524177551,
0.2028781622648239,
0.5589224100112915,
0.09705355763435364,
-0.46274226903915405,
0.3260795772075653,
-0.6932768225669861,
-1.2410179376602173,
0.3823924660682678,
-0.6487969160079956,
-0.07780084013938904,
0.27809756994247437,
0.5505603551864624,
0.10601519793272018,
-0.09058691561222076,
-0.16120924055576324,
-0.39162924885749817,
0.23767580091953278,
-0.33301982283592224,
-0.45100030303001404,
0.483097106218338,
0.10480683296918869,
-0.37259843945503235,
-0.5201591849327087,
-0.142491415143013,
0.4022216498851776,
0.35370081663131714,
-0.2022380530834198,
-0.46601784229278564,
-0.05048881843686104,
0.32632383704185486,
0.6148771643638611,
-0.8122274875640869,
-0.24956823885440826,
0.10017607361078262,
-0.16988171637058258,
0.035796843469142914,
-0.30965960025787354,
-0.18098193407058716,
0.2059212028980255,
-0.1062455102801323,
0.28835928440093994,
-0.13465851545333862,
0.2198716104030609,
-0.4030551016330719,
0.30952420830726624,
0.11530224233865738,
-0.4075492322444916,
0.6105777025222778,
0.44019225239753723,
-1.1702395677566528,
0.5212721228599548,
0.5601872205734253,
0.5579293966293335,
0.5810275673866272,
-0.5779184699058533,
0.2539873719215393,
0.6181474328041077,
-1.0773577690124512,
0.07057352364063263,
0.3657475411891937,
-0.33053210377693176,
0.5046026110649109,
-0.14942790567874908,
0.16535672545433044,
0.6942309141159058,
-0.06109204143285751,
-0.7636405229568481,
0.2969381809234619,
0.5609315633773804,
-0.14815959334373474,
-0.1477707028388977,
0.05036238580942154,
-0.16443976759910583,
-0.42461687326431274,
-0.7355717420578003,
-0.7735806107521057,
-0.021165108308196068,
-0.20710179209709167,
-0.5619843602180481,
-0.8942978978157043,
0.10398144274950027,
-0.2887498438358307,
-0.3781374394893646,
0.13844741880893707,
-0.18784171342849731,
-0.7140998840332031,
-0.42355722188949585,
0.19894683361053467,
0.08817538619041443,
0.40689995884895325,
-0.4060199558734894,
0.4407353103160858,
-0.37527841329574585,
-0.2779165506362915,
0.5264540314674377,
0.6709209084510803,
0.6492348909378052,
-0.032995425164699554,
-0.36813509464263916,
-0.4451211392879486,
-0.27559250593185425,
0.408719927072525,
-0.23380185663700104,
-0.10735870152711868,
0.28529492020606995,
0.38653355836868286,
-0.8749598860740662,
-0.8893928527832031,
-0.2855721116065979,
1.0680334568023682,
-0.5731781721115112,
0.1160973459482193,
0.05541073530912399,
0.0952330082654953,
0.06332280486822128,
-0.3642595112323761,
0.3204941749572754,
-1.2808905839920044,
-0.3738877475261688,
0.5734396576881409,
0.47114723920822144,
-0.17026440799236298,
-0.5416114926338196,
0.2066209763288498,
-0.03022654354572296,
0.13395187258720398,
0.40120530128479004,
0.05680307745933533,
-0.015047028660774231,
-0.2140304297208786,
0.4090511202812195,
-0.391078919172287,
-0.5637373924255371,
0.7782749533653259,
0.030431387946009636,
-0.628653883934021,
0.28974106907844543,
-0.6446011066436768,
-0.21397288143634796,
-0.3703494071960449,
-0.3865327537059784,
-0.5610041618347168,
-0.6590827107429504,
-0.24132977426052094,
0.41718974709510803,
0.5245401263237,
-0.14865176379680634,
-0.41742393374443054,
-0.41701704263687134,
-0.019443606957793236,
0.2603822350502014,
-0.37687966227531433,
0.4646316170692444,
0.19274473190307617,
0.9937708377838135,
-0.6465709209442139,
0.731699526309967,
-0.38210609555244446,
0.041533924639225006,
0.13039490580558777,
-0.09001950919628143,
0.024904882535338402,
0.04619220271706581,
-0.11204125732183456,
0.06588714569807053,
-0.18894030153751373,
-0.8275038599967957,
0.4745638966560364,
0.5499937534332275,
-0.8820138573646545,
-0.5620642900466919,
0.8102770447731018,
-0.025963012129068375,
0.13654109835624695,
-0.10264789313077927,
0.2806500792503357,
0.3934049606323242,
0.5829741358757019,
0.9490709900856018,
-0.13284792006015778,
0.728657603263855,
-0.9529496431350708,
-0.05958801135420799,
0.6023458242416382,
0.5781866312026978,
-0.11769876629114151,
-0.7651967406272888,
-0.3133106827735901,
0.5779406428337097,
0.119913250207901,
0.11920231580734253,
0.46878504753112793,
-0.321757048368454,
-0.3796798586845398,
0.6063327193260193,
0.0862477496266365,
0.26594313979148865,
-0.24069222807884216,
-0.059433434158563614,
-0.07646612823009491,
0.4319327175617218,
0.08900102972984314,
0.19983235001564026,
0.1875144988298416,
-0.36866989731788635,
0.3085802495479584,
0.08625044673681259,
0.32661154866218567,
-0.019931752234697342,
0.22982804477214813,
0.5546593070030212,
0.6109199523925781,
-0.4292953908443451,
0.1711304634809494,
-0.3454434871673584,
-0.1497281938791275,
-0.08852900564670563,
0.5286514163017273,
-0.39368438720703125,
-0.09037444740533829,
0.0313468873500824,
0.11912824958562851,
0.4422242343425751,
-0.29747045040130615,
0.13623103499412537,
0.2277243584394455,
0.029027177020907402,
0.0837574377655983,
0.03278568759560585,
0.192832350730896,
0.4527347683906555,
0.592315673828125,
-0.33662348985671997,
0.03577994927763939,
0.3707955479621887,
-0.1315692961215973,
0.2795344591140747,
-0.14247925579547882,
-1.0156619548797607,
-0.17150618135929108,
-0.2246304750442505,
0.04366790130734444,
0.3415529727935791,
0.23363244533538818,
-0.3544227182865143,
-0.08465798199176788,
-0.5118062496185303,
-0.5778340697288513,
0.12042674422264099,
-0.07554879039525986,
-0.07391604036092758,
0.11904493719339371,
0.3007705807685852,
0.03461720794439316,
1.0956226587295532,
-0.35832229256629944,
0.17777898907661438,
0.14668338000774384,
0.17472270131111145,
-0.36954745650291443,
-0.20088231563568115,
-0.4024791419506073,
0.40436145663261414,
-0.29426029324531555,
0.13685521483421326,
-0.6447387337684631,
-0.36285483837127686,
-0.012531253509223461,
0.1861073076725006,
-0.23658233880996704,
-0.4193958044052124,
0.9772500991821289,
-1.070041298866272,
-0.5350431799888611,
-0.26948413252830505,
0.26633644104003906,
-0.30980879068374634,
-0.2886405289173126,
0.7819430828094482,
-0.652487576007843,
-0.4319695830345154,
0.17211207747459412,
-0.6237252950668335,
-0.222214013338089,
0.19982777535915375,
0.035179536789655685,
-0.4841790795326233,
-0.746554434299469,
0.1561344414949417,
-0.41279128193855286,
0.1893843561410904,
0.07506278157234192,
0.08153942972421646,
0.29503875970840454,
0.0522383488714695,
0.27414238452911377,
-0.27207911014556885,
0.45364776253700256,
0.0563013069331646,
-0.07530170679092407,
-0.043070852756500244,
-0.08709093183279037,
-0.5247286558151245,
0.1871766448020935,
0.76195228099823,
-0.0201574694365263,
-0.1867482215166092,
0.18816475570201874,
-0.18482215702533722,
0.5623720288276672,
0.4743046760559082,
0.19619731605052948,
-0.300428181886673,
-0.14919576048851013,
0.05184143781661987
] |
206084
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry%20Atkinson
|
Terry Atkinson
|
Terry Atkinson (born 1939) is an English artist.
Atkinson was born in Thurnscoe, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. He lives in Leamington Spa, England with his wife, artist Sue Atkinson, with whom he has frequently collaborated. In 1967, he began to teach art at the Coventry School of Art while producing conceptual works, sometimes in collaboration with Michael Baldwin. In 1968 they, together with Harold Hurrell and David Bainbridge who also taught at Coventry, formed Art & Language, a group whose influence on other artists both in the UK and in the United States is widely acknowledged. Atkinson was founder-member (with colleagues John Bowstead, Roger Jeffs and Bernard Jennings) of the group Fine-Artz (1963), and (with David Bainbridge, Michael Baldwin and Harold Hurrell) of the group Art & Language (1968–74), two of the most influential collectives in contemporary Western art.
Atkinson stopped teaching at Coventry in 1973 and the following year left Art & Language. He has since exhibited under his own name, including at the 1984 Venice Biennale.
In 1985 he was nominated for the Turner Prize and exhibited a series of paintings, including The Stone Touchers I.
"Whilst Conceptualism had been international in orientation, his 1980s output, which dealt with subjects such as class identity and English attitudes to Northern Ireland, seemed to represent a deliberate return to 'local' issues." (Caption, p. 221); "Having parted company with the British Art & Language group in the early 1970s, Terry Atkinson had, by the mid-1970s, moved away from their stringent Conceptualism to explore his working-class heritage in a set of 'history paintings'. In his First World War series (c.1974-81) he reinterpreted photographs of troops taken during the Great War, using a strategically 'botched' drawing style and satirical captions. He thereby encoded a critique of the way working-class labor was mobilized for capitalist warfare. By 1984-5 such explorations of ideological undercurrents were brought to bear on family photographs. The Stone Touchers I (1984-5) incorporates an ironically diligent 'copy' of a photograph of Atkinson's children taken during a holiday in northern France. Intrigued by the rows of war graves, they are shown flanking a stone dedicated, according to the 'key' beneath the image [shown in Hopkins, p.220], to a South African infantryman. In a mock-poetic caption Atkinson asks them: 'Do you think God is a person? If he is, is he a he? If he is, is he black or white… is he a South African, or an Argentinian …?' Britain's faded imperialism had recently been rekindled by the Falklands War, and South African apartheid was a pressing issue. Atkinson thus presented his suntanned children as inextricably (if unknowingly) implicated in such events." (Excerpt, pp. 219, 221); The full "mock-poetic caption" to this painting, as indicated on p. 220 of Hopkins, reads: "Ruby and Amber in The Gardens of their old Empire history-dressed men. Dear Ruby and Amber, Do you think God is a person? If he is, is he a he? If he is, is he black or white, or brown or yellow, or pink or orange or blue or red, or green or purple….? Do you think God is a dissident? Or is he a South African, Or an Argentinian, or an Anglo-Saxon, etc.? Do you think he's the best knower? If he is a she do you think all the he's would admit she's the best knower?"
Hopkins, David. After Modern Art: 1945-2000. Oxford History of Art. Oxford; New York: Oxford UP, 2000. (p. 220)
Atkinson's work is held in many collections, including the Tate Gallery.
Atkinson taught Fine Art at the University of Leeds.
References
External links
Information from Château de Montsoreau-Museum of contemporary
information from Tate Britain website
Terry Atkinson in Artfacts.Net
Art & Language in Artfacts.Net
1939 births
Living people
British conceptual artists
People from Thurnscoe
English contemporary artists
Art & Language
|
[
0.37575483322143555,
0.8975735902786255,
-0.9283664226531982,
-1.0317009687423706,
-0.22137831151485443,
0.6361625790596008,
0.5745225548744202,
0.20235396921634674,
-0.7510105967521667,
0.36630237102508545,
-0.30975964665412903,
0.3754628896713257,
-0.19608911871910095,
0.2760876417160034,
-0.25597894191741943,
0.07855414599180222,
-0.8401970863342285,
0.01767979934811592,
-0.4943247437477112,
-0.05456287041306496,
-0.06475376337766647,
-0.9313863515853882,
-0.19881898164749146,
-0.35846906900405884,
-0.9120395183563232,
0.4162638783454895,
0.07467418164014816,
-0.020560776814818382,
-0.06294263154268265,
-0.44519126415252686,
0.28350400924682617,
0.07890184223651886,
0.4511767029762268,
-0.5533545017242432,
0.42869213223457336,
0.11233694106340408,
-0.26013436913490295,
-0.837942361831665,
-0.16547052562236786,
-0.2925125062465668,
-0.13049852848052979,
0.44915199279785156,
0.5559097528457642,
0.030666137114167213,
0.13559959828853607,
-0.3764778673648834,
-1.9637712240219116,
0.0292650256305933,
-0.5105240941047668,
0.19123223423957825,
-0.4276980757713318,
0.6034594774246216,
1.0638829469680786,
0.007600091863423586,
0.5763301849365234,
0.36601191759109497,
-0.1541866809129715,
-0.25122928619384766,
0.18803782761096954,
-0.2756534516811371,
0.6769901514053345,
-0.37096065282821655,
0.01581149362027645,
0.29536283016204834,
0.36300337314605713,
0.1939391940832138,
0.11762280762195587,
0.7963916063308716,
-0.493034690618515,
0.015346157364547253,
-0.25273868441581726,
-0.0388968326151371,
0.8078576922416687,
0.24797038733959198,
-0.1891869157552719,
-0.5501135587692261,
0.3818846642971039,
-0.9341316819190979,
-0.09097747504711151,
0.2354293167591095,
0.4733506441116333,
0.3983916640281677,
0.6233389973640442,
0.5064934492111206,
0.5751938819885254,
0.021725276485085487,
-0.4079596996307373,
-0.10378807038068771,
-0.5595663785934448,
0.593070924282074,
-0.444601446390152,
-0.44890502095222473,
-0.26911821961402893,
0.3711731731891632,
-0.1974399834871292,
0.07118310779333115,
-0.33100855350494385,
0.6071562170982361,
0.3834233582019806,
-0.07009027153253555,
-0.18752078711986542,
-0.08124922960996628,
0.049249742180109024,
0.10989692807197571,
-0.5084001421928406,
-0.4136146605014801,
-0.49698567390441895,
-0.13736888766288757,
-0.07044269889593124,
-0.6164513230323792,
-0.35077735781669617,
0.35389506816864014,
-0.5381580591201782,
-0.16782331466674805,
0.13677901029586792,
0.17641572654247284,
-0.2599078416824341,
-0.5129861235618591,
-0.6176189184188843,
0.17781880497932434,
-0.12978821992874146,
0.0033710659481585026,
-0.36382511258125305,
0.14173012971878052,
-1.4055570363998413,
-0.054516278207302094,
0.0005816291668452322,
0.7293325066566467,
-0.6169167757034302,
0.36823365092277527,
0.08855462074279785,
1.1640008687973022,
-0.34963637590408325,
-0.8520542979240417,
-0.12065474689006805,
-0.24081118404865265,
0.11698698252439499,
0.061059750616550446,
0.030407622456550598,
0.11243991553783417,
-0.10263659060001373,
-0.26650768518447876,
-1.1124578714370728,
0.2723347842693329,
0.16911371052265167,
-0.1875084638595581,
-0.3694591224193573,
0.14708378911018372,
-0.1208498477935791,
-0.11029332131147385,
0.3303513824939728,
-0.34492015838623047,
0.41027504205703735,
-0.3925383687019348,
-0.25909772515296936,
0.6981889009475708,
0.6630994081497192,
0.0022515151649713516,
0.29139846563339233,
-0.3328779637813568,
0.7735034823417664,
-0.5117644667625427,
0.03315683454275131,
0.07130536437034607,
0.6311826705932617,
-0.09903300553560257,
-0.12153324484825134,
-0.5599023103713989,
0.02407177723944187,
0.0789852887392044,
-0.24605515599250793,
0.17609894275665283,
-0.04562566429376602,
-0.3102738559246063,
-0.20313715934753418,
-0.06838643550872803,
0.26490354537963867,
0.4736471474170685,
0.4192189872264862,
0.006319311913102865,
-0.4919179677963257,
-0.44811394810676575,
0.08175189048051834,
0.6278683543205261,
0.3588451147079468,
-0.18787655234336853,
0.16745126247406006,
-0.15262837707996368,
0.8142735362052917,
0.2327796071767807,
-0.01166196633130312,
0.36398205161094666,
0.4299732744693756,
-0.6096729636192322,
0.814784824848175,
0.8043750524520874,
-0.4547635018825531,
-0.24732568860054016,
0.05046883597970009,
1.0437589883804321,
0.14028286933898926,
0.2398252934217453,
-0.42396506667137146,
-0.7348883152008057,
0.5884444117546082,
0.8524848818778992,
0.5119405388832092,
0.20342065393924713,
-0.021284865215420723,
1.0080980062484741,
-0.03524503484368324,
-0.9265965819358826,
0.3900246024131775,
1.4148178100585938,
-0.438963919878006,
-0.576931357383728,
-0.45375439524650574,
-0.2300165891647339,
0.12662048637866974,
-1.3200087547302246,
0.33537063002586365,
0.6721768975257874,
-0.4009832441806793,
0.9331980347633362,
0.03542337939143181,
0.7105823159217834,
-0.33065852522850037,
-0.4212516248226166,
0.593541145324707,
-0.834398627281189,
0.1798313558101654,
1.5387115478515625,
0.028809236362576485,
-0.21155844628810883,
-0.26703545451164246,
0.23287051916122437,
0.596912145614624,
-0.4820374548435211,
0.43641453981399536,
-0.4373871386051178,
0.4346899688243866,
0.1469862014055252,
-0.4659247398376465,
0.34804314374923706,
0.2710522413253784,
-0.032526895403862,
0.02219129540026188,
0.26822441816329956,
-0.02612496167421341,
0.2822186350822449,
0.8547372817993164,
0.5751880407333374,
0.433258056640625,
-0.13068802654743195,
-0.5850730538368225,
-0.024707075208425522,
-0.2859673500061035,
-0.8475831151008606,
0.2826896607875824,
0.33018532395362854,
-0.06684175133705139,
-0.23865117132663727,
0.3714866638183594,
0.17985393106937408,
-0.34837156534194946,
-0.6152397394180298,
-0.027706218883395195,
-0.39265739917755127,
0.08693379908800125,
-0.4060695767402649,
-0.11238262057304382,
-0.33144131302833557,
-0.15707537531852722,
-1.1338484287261963,
0.13155607879161835,
0.38215431571006775,
-0.17181755602359772,
0.37674152851104736,
-0.1358056217432022,
-0.41505512595176697,
0.270185649394989,
0.46519699692726135,
-0.10345505177974701,
-0.47672757506370544,
-0.11900848895311356,
0.387686163187027,
-0.5302215218544006,
-0.12065980583429337,
0.07270684093236923,
-0.37053418159484863,
0.15055041015148163,
1.4636591672897339,
-0.5031834244728088,
0.46607115864753723,
-0.6514047980308533,
0.5311223268508911,
-1.0128976106643677,
-0.9214988350868225,
-0.16408579051494598,
-0.36012545228004456,
-0.2917761504650116,
0.5822460055351257,
-0.1869799792766571,
0.1260722577571869,
0.008667204529047012,
0.7429417967796326,
-0.6426198482513428,
-0.4845162034034729,
-4.679673194885254,
-0.23687727749347687,
0.4762549102306366,
-0.003591117449104786,
-0.014152188785374165,
0.08508529514074326,
0.5588062405586243,
0.03961173817515373,
-0.1834045648574829,
-0.4365229606628418,
-0.05189050734043121,
0.05657007172703743,
-0.21493659913539886,
1.1631150245666504,
1.0359879732131958,
1.1553553342819214,
0.7989197373390198,
-0.48748138546943665,
0.515627920627594,
0.09971313178539276,
-0.2178247720003128,
0.27236732840538025,
-0.10253573209047318,
-0.16450761258602142,
0.05983830243349075,
0.3253426253795624,
-0.9233102202415466,
-0.5335066318511963,
-0.944182276725769,
-0.00504585774615407,
0.14289525151252747,
-0.2717113792896271,
-0.7175334095954895,
-0.001545878709293902,
-0.567939043045044,
0.40566807985305786,
-0.04010559618473053,
0.48755204677581787,
-0.026760105043649673,
-0.5953269600868225,
-0.2344445288181305,
0.46823829412460327,
-0.8513776659965515,
0.28441309928894043,
0.3267748951911926,
-0.13939133286476135,
-1.036996603012085,
-0.8132885098457336,
-0.11160746216773987,
0.6336671113967896,
-0.09582307934761047,
0.8762670159339905,
0.853872537612915,
0.21524633467197418,
-0.12226888537406921,
-0.24610771238803864,
0.5975274443626404,
-0.08524537831544876,
-0.7921856641769409,
0.08408862352371216,
-0.24447770416736603,
-0.42051607370376587,
0.7698051929473877,
-0.49316972494125366,
-0.1296209990978241,
-0.026501420885324478,
0.11335637420415878,
-0.3723899722099304,
0.1931716501712799,
-0.996753990650177,
-0.2964020371437073,
0.40504273772239685,
-0.22703830897808075,
-1.0683385133743286,
-0.29682084918022156,
0.024930443614721298,
0.4102635383605957,
-0.26193860173225403,
0.026317769661545753,
-0.3171346187591553,
0.3085108995437622,
-0.5236240029335022,
-0.7216882705688477,
0.7444943785667419,
-0.14700636267662048,
-0.42667174339294434,
-0.5076836347579956,
0.49176308512687683,
-0.06562851369380951,
-0.34032967686653137,
-0.05922842398285866,
0.4522142708301544,
-0.38110560178756714,
0.1585681140422821,
0.11737103015184402,
0.3236764371395111,
1.3404862880706787,
0.014599742367863655,
0.2035987377166748,
-0.2788305878639221,
-0.7640302777290344,
-0.6980696320533752,
-0.9545682072639465,
-0.2331453263759613,
0.0009369624895043671,
-0.2616064250469208,
0.09894593060016632,
-0.015148993581533432,
0.7842933535575867,
0.41588735580444336,
0.017309090122580528,
0.28850850462913513,
-0.6432418823242188,
-0.210129052400589,
0.039722055196762085,
0.10574144124984741,
0.22015875577926636,
0.6607064008712769,
0.2529192566871643,
0.26765212416648865,
0.390174925327301,
0.6297353506088257,
-0.09545102715492249,
0.3081531524658203,
-0.4156636595726013,
0.3892028033733368,
0.017208777368068695,
-0.11902536451816559,
-0.21914871037006378,
0.020412608981132507,
-0.799281120300293,
0.8070864081382751,
-0.08226516842842102,
-0.18619555234909058,
-0.13539274036884308,
0.11173968017101288,
-0.7413523197174072,
-0.0034427710343152285,
0.2749129831790924,
-0.11334506422281265,
0.5265125632286072,
0.13611307740211487,
0.15992015600204468,
0.6611902713775635,
-0.04036335647106171,
0.5145213007926941,
0.39159706234931946,
0.15781748294830322,
-0.3719012439250946,
0.7587928771972656,
0.2582523226737976,
-0.2024117112159729,
0.06007419154047966,
-0.5492183566093445,
-0.039574798196554184,
-0.046474944800138474,
-0.9374015927314758,
0.12539058923721313,
-0.21031104028224945,
-0.36045750975608826,
0.23431049287319183,
0.06919962167739868,
-0.9762911200523376,
-0.165066197514534,
0.18403607606887817,
-0.6092345118522644,
-0.06884223967790604,
-0.12651799619197845,
-0.6346292495727539,
0.11567670851945877,
-0.10948503017425537,
-0.7867816090583801,
-0.09437370300292969,
-0.2559734582901001,
0.6361493468284607,
-0.5423881411552429,
0.016498401761054993,
-0.21437908709049225,
0.09208892285823822,
0.05237668752670288,
0.15961265563964844,
0.47609809041023254,
-0.6244699954986572,
-0.25985145568847656,
0.3623989224433899,
-0.44548285007476807,
-0.8592318296432495,
-0.7546846866607666,
0.05851195380091667,
0.027990618720650673,
0.36181601881980896,
-0.04621519893407822,
0.48742979764938354,
0.9033202528953552,
-0.6451905965805054,
-0.6192077994346619,
-0.10722789913415909,
-0.424038290977478,
0.24223800003528595,
-0.7150686383247375,
0.04280165582895279,
0.3874373137950897,
-0.23206926882266998,
0.1887514740228653,
0.3762626051902771,
-1.30741548538208,
-0.4513566195964813,
0.13514013588428497,
-0.5150430798530579,
0.41952112317085266,
-0.28748735785484314,
-0.17530634999275208,
-0.552355945110321,
0.2888695299625397,
-1.0399357080459595,
-0.12537549436092377,
0.3447800874710083,
0.33595967292785645,
-0.35519540309906006,
-0.09112093597650528,
-0.18558456003665924,
-0.1946270614862442,
-0.5091068744659424,
0.32100093364715576,
-0.7072516083717346,
0.24563799798488617,
0.479826956987381,
-0.36025160551071167,
0.584043562412262,
-0.18648087978363037,
0.26700329780578613,
-0.044677503407001495,
0.16180436313152313,
0.054900288581848145,
-0.4795476794242859,
-0.011971273459494114,
0.14638842642307281,
0.48186811804771423,
-0.1299634724855423,
0.11224780976772308,
0.5960774421691895,
1.187818169593811,
0.3225896954536438,
-0.25721240043640137,
0.15886293351650238,
0.2375487983226776,
0.4263269305229187,
-0.43187832832336426,
-0.35723307728767395,
0.3600868284702301,
-0.0790085420012474,
-0.006425154861062765,
-0.12317928671836853,
-0.5787401795387268,
1.4654492139816284,
-0.42566126585006714,
0.1274188756942749,
0.14350634813308716,
0.43318143486976624,
-0.8520550727844238,
0.4834853708744049,
0.1284392923116684,
-0.3215179741382599,
-0.357211172580719,
-0.04449060186743736,
0.48270589113235474,
0.2703048586845398,
0.351854145526886,
0.4439695179462433,
-0.13555903732776642,
-0.09617865085601807,
-0.0054070428013801575,
-0.18655790388584137,
1.3671118021011353,
-0.010388954542577267,
-0.3134165406227112,
0.030232233926653862,
-0.9991836547851562,
0.4614048898220062,
-0.5833485126495361,
0.35829299688339233,
0.09151613712310791,
0.5944812893867493,
-0.46811848878860474,
-0.05832001939415932,
-0.4016387462615967,
0.5103146433830261,
-0.30135577917099,
-0.3291114270687103,
-0.7208262085914612,
-0.280407190322876,
-0.09482118487358093,
0.2053457796573639,
0.04644560441374779,
-0.0024851153139024973,
0.2910347878932953,
-0.8302044868469238,
0.3358488380908966,
-0.22294843196868896,
-0.3238493502140045,
-0.509571373462677,
0.626128613948822,
0.19910019636154175,
0.1363345831632614,
0.31741970777511597,
-0.161883145570755,
-0.4858590066432953,
-0.202641099691391,
-0.18550582230091095,
0.690417468547821,
-0.3105403780937195,
0.2550375461578369,
0.1625371277332306,
0.19423606991767883,
-0.6510366797447205,
-0.3754834532737732,
0.6970528960227966,
-0.5752655863761902,
-0.08542434126138687,
-0.2771678864955902,
-0.11852756142616272,
-0.304283082485199,
0.3935984969139099,
-0.15166287124156952,
-0.3124430775642395,
0.7168905138969421,
-0.013259830884635448,
0.14782199263572693,
0.09308209270238876,
0.009195933118462563,
0.12403849512338638,
-0.5712993741035461,
-0.6672878861427307,
0.3945440649986267,
0.1537761688232422,
-0.048798151314258575,
0.5062228441238403,
-0.05731499567627907,
0.3955477476119995,
-0.28968724608421326,
-0.026696035638451576,
0.8868603706359863,
-0.26727819442749023,
0.08335915952920914,
0.19994476437568665,
0.2887319326400757,
-0.1049523800611496,
0.27896448969841003,
-0.1581769585609436,
-0.05241770297288895,
0.8541691899299622,
0.35733312368392944,
0.5512349009513855,
-0.16289348900318146,
0.6409928202629089,
-0.4948655664920807,
0.7912653088569641,
-0.3074254095554352,
0.09114415943622589,
-0.3876536786556244,
-0.10147356241941452,
-0.3700243830680847,
0.39752963185310364,
0.3264707326889038,
-0.8862338662147522,
-0.4578319787979126,
0.11541582643985748,
-0.6355530023574829,
0.08969703316688538,
1.188145637512207,
0.7807527184486389,
-0.029561912640929222,
0.18437041342258453,
0.7883548140525818,
0.6230659484863281,
0.471027672290802,
0.5774498581886292,
0.3643350899219513,
-0.6113759875297546,
-0.2954218089580536,
-0.37807461619377136,
0.3278484046459198,
-0.2434072047472,
-0.16644245386123657,
0.4808399975299835,
-0.3096686601638794,
0.06508661806583405,
0.9525035619735718,
-0.21217982470989227,
0.28317782282829285,
0.2532554268836975,
-0.012953594326972961,
-0.15606260299682617,
0.3692152202129364,
-0.9503352046012878,
0.19203855097293854,
-0.7168557047843933,
0.84740149974823,
0.3439582884311676,
-0.40163663029670715,
-0.04891554266214371,
0.7937741279602051,
-0.5929505825042725,
0.37459149956703186,
-0.3662424683570862,
-0.14752966165542603,
-0.4548300802707672,
0.14005251228809357,
-0.7712218761444092,
0.9249231219291687,
-0.3162279725074768,
-0.40582573413848877,
-0.13382777571678162,
-0.23133710026741028,
-0.6247497797012329,
0.3784630000591278,
0.5414922833442688,
-0.578662097454071,
0.14000661671161652,
-0.030899060890078545,
0.41672804951667786,
-0.11869358271360397,
0.5322524905204773,
-0.008188438601791859,
-0.07831821590662003,
-0.10564249008893967,
0.3164690434932709,
0.22539210319519043,
0.3584548532962799,
0.09987126290798187,
0.18232473731040955,
0.7623068690299988,
-0.484131783246994,
-0.6707675457000732,
-0.6225123405456543,
-0.847065806388855,
0.9064592123031616,
1.4731671810150146,
0.9515263438224792,
0.08224819600582123,
0.7445204257965088,
-0.030654506757855415,
-0.10413273423910141,
-0.20596274733543396,
-2.287726640701294,
-0.15369421243667603,
0.11555823683738708,
-0.529046893119812,
0.4807489216327667,
0.2393008917570114,
0.42541924118995667,
0.32138684391975403,
-0.03410615399479866,
-0.2963794469833374,
0.020687319338321686,
0.3594302535057068,
0.23761636018753052,
-0.1099957600235939,
0.33056068420410156,
0.029013339430093765
] |
206086
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain%20of%20Neptune
|
Fountain of Neptune
|
The Fountain of Neptune (Italian: Fontana del Nettuno) is the name of several fountains in the world:
Neptunbrunnen (Neptune fountain) in Berlin, Germany.
Fountain of Neptune, Bologna, by Giambologna
Fountain of Neptune, Florence, by Bartolommeo Ammanati located in the central Piazza della Signoria
Neptune's Fountain, Gdańsk
Fountain of Neptune, Madrid
Fountain of Neptune, Messina by Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli
Fountain of Neptune, Naples
Fountain of Neptune, Rome, located in Piazza Navona (another is in Piazza del Popolo)
Trevi Fountain, Rome features Neptune in central Exedrae
Fountain of Neptune, Santiago de Chile
Fountain of Neptune, Trento
Fountain of Neptune, located on the Schönbrunn Palace grounds, Vienna
|
[
0.2921724319458008,
0.006287453696131706,
0.4068205654621124,
0.4234790802001953,
0.13780614733695984,
0.8061387538909912,
0.1576998382806778,
0.38218188285827637,
-0.6952916979789734,
-0.41266143321990967,
-0.22193263471126556,
-0.448108971118927,
-0.01390092819929123,
0.8744452595710754,
-0.13177689909934998,
-0.619995653629303,
0.5409209132194519,
0.5722631216049194,
0.11086036264896393,
0.04388948902487755,
-0.06326928734779358,
-0.06030754745006561,
0.37699639797210693,
-0.5225463509559631,
-0.5711621642112732,
0.0640055388212204,
0.45164796710014343,
0.13208116590976715,
-0.006351165939122438,
0.3699527382850647,
-0.20273534953594208,
0.7062485218048096,
-0.24212566018104553,
-0.40879520773887634,
-0.08467717468738556,
-0.6560746431350708,
-0.09034612029790878,
-0.17117498815059662,
-0.395419180393219,
-0.7253292202949524,
0.3694505989551544,
-0.2255440652370453,
0.34670695662498474,
-0.09076914191246033,
-0.2857232391834259,
-0.2135530561208725,
-1.3360357284545898,
0.40148451924324036,
-0.6462423205375671,
-0.09204860031604767,
-0.6751759648323059,
-0.046706438064575195,
-0.16891776025295258,
0.6840218305587769,
0.22146132588386536,
0.7405732274055481,
-1.3029826879501343,
0.21826528012752533,
0.2309884876012802,
-0.684455156326294,
0.5725674629211426,
0.6632214784622192,
0.030829021707177162,
0.3071052134037018,
0.30639952421188354,
0.1298651397228241,
0.18160901963710785,
0.49086427688598633,
0.5081051588058472,
-0.6931993961334229,
-0.14403624832630157,
0.3936347961425781,
-0.44932958483695984,
0.3762592375278473,
-0.5409949421882629,
-0.29553428292274475,
-0.08808932453393936,
0.07615721970796585,
0.29353660345077515,
-0.19167929887771606,
0.09990308433771133,
-0.3463110327720642,
1.1601955890655518,
0.20879019796848297,
0.3073704242706299,
0.13239474594593048,
-0.19929519295692444,
-0.3883284330368042,
-0.02451568841934204,
-0.08919721096754074,
-0.6954414248466492,
-0.2767573595046997,
0.546832263469696,
0.01631060615181923,
0.029375644400715828,
0.0341918021440506,
-0.15234370529651642,
0.1367509812116623,
0.5171277523040771,
0.12273359298706055,
-0.009739807806909084,
-0.3252039849758148,
-0.15438365936279297,
-0.1667965054512024,
-0.08723369985818863,
-0.8359207510948181,
-0.25040626525878906,
-0.6363633871078491,
0.6715087294578552,
0.4469866454601288,
-0.18856732547283173,
0.2828802466392517,
0.50377357006073,
0.2881622314453125,
-0.2709371745586395,
0.06156325340270996,
0.7105305194854736,
-0.2886926233768463,
-0.4592258632183075,
-0.16666953265666962,
0.6019195914268494,
0.2682109773159027,
0.23349401354789734,
-0.14679083228111267,
0.35177087783813477,
0.3154691457748413,
-0.1208374947309494,
0.6506415605545044,
-0.8521580696105957,
-0.3804802894592285,
0.4233865737915039,
0.6230666041374207,
0.0875006914138794,
-0.6597025990486145,
0.21497078239917755,
-0.7789710164070129,
0.24393421411514282,
-0.563906192779541,
-0.02885914221405983,
0.7695455551147461,
-0.4625919461250305,
-0.13279759883880615,
-0.33694571256637573,
-0.13854359090328217,
0.09746631979942322,
-0.04499470442533493,
0.06445378065109253,
-0.5806396007537842,
0.258484423160553,
-0.14918409287929535,
-0.10705503076314926,
0.39777982234954834,
-0.10494538396596909,
0.11161068081855774,
0.08637799322605133,
0.054467082023620605,
0.6331772208213806,
0.38984745740890503,
0.05017086863517761,
-0.26820704340934753,
0.27218398451805115,
-0.052432913333177567,
-0.3424362242221832,
0.16091610491275787,
0.18870925903320312,
-0.4514772891998291,
0.6379578709602356,
0.1774129867553711,
-0.33177533745765686,
0.05656985566020012,
-0.3723874092102051,
-0.0408584401011467,
0.210276797413826,
0.32666733860969543,
-0.14828065037727356,
-0.5626029968261719,
0.4916234016418457,
0.18860389292240143,
0.549404501914978,
-0.3380073308944702,
-0.6373079419136047,
0.38250401616096497,
-0.44354915618896484,
0.09596985578536987,
0.7763074040412903,
-0.0440160408616066,
0.16183526813983917,
0.49295684695243835,
-0.05008823424577713,
0.0945928767323494,
-0.13108497858047485,
-0.5938107967376709,
-0.15225079655647278,
0.13768762350082397,
0.6179559826850891,
0.02245349995791912,
-0.9474948048591614,
0.45091912150382996,
-0.06545703858137131,
0.3685968816280365,
-0.7876666784286499,
-0.26529407501220703,
0.23749691247940063,
0.08461811393499374,
-0.9372762441635132,
-0.16439585387706757,
0.20442083477973938,
-0.6322489976882935,
0.6431515216827393,
0.12396922707557678,
0.13470911979675293,
-0.8293293714523315,
0.4274017810821533,
-0.3168104588985443,
-0.43085986375808716,
0.01435094140470028,
-0.8072654008865356,
0.42060136795043945,
-0.057771746069192886,
0.41141802072525024,
0.9298044443130493,
0.24657967686653137,
-0.14600946009159088,
0.25960400700569153,
-0.13941113650798798,
0.5051122307777405,
-0.130231574177742,
-0.13050627708435059,
-0.2048918455839157,
-0.266838401556015,
0.24131974577903748,
0.1034286841750145,
0.40324923396110535,
-0.11073330044746399,
-0.20565646886825562,
0.2206433266401291,
0.5713968276977539,
-0.4445387125015259,
1.0521994829177856,
0.26022204756736755,
0.20566262304782867,
0.34594929218292236,
-0.7234014272689819,
0.5245876908302307,
0.3608004152774811,
0.3825329542160034,
0.10213606804609299,
0.20499862730503082,
-0.09624640643596649,
-0.4646645188331604,
-0.19459135830402374,
0.2948266267776489,
-0.1915563941001892,
-0.22562715411186218,
0.397901326417923,
-0.08817494660615921,
0.2457933872938156,
-0.08575349301099777,
0.03582538664340973,
0.2263750582933426,
-0.8464569449424744,
-0.2844504415988922,
0.02379772812128067,
-0.07737595587968826,
0.11790502816438675,
0.2438352108001709,
-0.33101314306259155,
-0.7533767223358154,
0.02063264511525631,
0.31462037563323975,
0.27161335945129395,
0.3579094111919403,
-0.5481880903244019,
0.27398934960365295,
0.06598912924528122,
-0.11380038410425186,
-0.8169298768043518,
0.010034275241196156,
-0.5306441783905029,
-0.8534824252128601,
0.0652088150382042,
0.3328626751899719,
-0.08475621044635773,
-0.2207646667957306,
-0.21996554732322693,
-0.10960695147514343,
0.14901524782180786,
-0.15298116207122803,
-0.15108606219291687,
-0.1796715259552002,
-0.13612264394760132,
-0.11011290550231934,
-0.2114804983139038,
0.21876606345176697,
-0.2100580632686615,
0.5489518046379089,
-0.2543320059776306,
-0.3479441702365875,
0.48125332593917847,
0.061545468866825104,
-0.5225418210029602,
0.08158335089683533,
-0.3258358836174011,
0.09144637733697891,
0.5411658883094788,
-0.5546056628227234,
0.42954856157302856,
0.39857086539268494,
-5.6581339836120605,
-0.20759953558444977,
-0.25187498331069946,
0.5011759400367737,
-0.17036210000514984,
0.4231942594051361,
0.7412577271461487,
0.2409829944372177,
0.09831946343183517,
0.0843452587723732,
0.20275770127773285,
-0.23381903767585754,
0.016190122812986374,
1.0325210094451904,
0.22538988292217255,
0.22757913172245026,
0.7552476525306702,
-0.10707508772611618,
-0.06554720550775528,
-0.05187324807047844,
0.21431022882461548,
0.014439592137932777,
-0.04498138651251793,
0.6055009961128235,
0.030835751444101334,
-0.06770078837871552,
-0.051122866570949554,
0.3472532331943512,
-0.757536768913269,
-0.28349101543426514,
-0.17367570102214813,
-0.2048732489347458,
-0.055904194712638855,
-0.4092397093772888,
0.1508343368768692,
0.2536274790763855,
-0.04526377469301224,
-0.4414539635181427,
0.6123560070991516,
-0.1452219933271408,
0.07335101068019867,
0.061235394328832626,
0.46702417731285095,
-0.06570397317409515,
0.12113925814628601,
-0.7525885701179504,
-0.12434785068035126,
-0.11783876270055771,
-0.5398024916648865,
0.5539621114730835,
0.45757102966308594,
0.10218729823827744,
0.564199686050415,
-0.25340166687965393,
-0.42485687136650085,
-0.11842839419841766,
-0.0046128141693770885,
0.11567199975252151,
-0.4098053276538849,
0.10666665434837341,
-0.01685347966849804,
-0.37146273255348206,
0.21786697208881378,
-0.24784071743488312,
0.04749364033341408,
-0.31591254472732544,
-0.5392321348190308,
-0.03466487675905228,
-0.24132803082466125,
0.520438551902771,
-0.6434547901153564,
0.5470653176307678,
-0.8350778818130493,
-0.940862238407135,
0.13102087378501892,
-0.19313399493694305,
-0.5172560214996338,
0.07293171435594559,
-0.0497419536113739,
-0.43756768107414246,
-0.8190504312515259,
-0.3470347225666046,
-0.6087851524353027,
1.127650499343872,
0.6882417798042297,
0.1274382323026657,
-0.030813921242952347,
-0.6479630470275879,
-0.4065886437892914,
-0.3592122197151184,
0.8494873046875,
-0.09373615682125092,
0.3936013877391815,
-0.09357230365276337,
-0.3999632000923157,
0.8229409456253052,
-0.351335734128952,
-0.14964227378368378,
-0.05806365981698036,
0.1141592487692833,
0.3759266436100006,
-0.0941363200545311,
-0.12997516989707947,
0.21735955774784088,
0.07335866987705231,
-0.19302546977996826,
0.4864732027053833,
0.4748277962207794,
-0.12889496982097626,
0.14442746341228485,
-0.5886579751968384,
0.21024750173091888,
0.28482621908187866,
-0.3850252032279968,
0.09576970338821411,
0.019749708473682404,
-0.19542236626148224,
0.8172597885131836,
0.6022655963897705,
-0.1352095901966095,
0.3061751425266266,
0.8521791100502014,
0.44645625352859497,
-0.5831774473190308,
0.15298344194889069,
-0.5972200036048889,
-0.3857855200767517,
-0.3617594540119171,
0.09766513854265213,
0.43969589471817017,
0.15035587549209595,
0.2599141001701355,
0.2622874975204468,
0.005421965848654509,
-0.11011730879545212,
-0.20852287113666534,
-0.23453514277935028,
-0.9634891152381897,
-0.23642468452453613,
0.04001492261886597,
0.07934051752090454,
0.2749013900756836,
-0.4436447322368622,
0.22465664148330688,
0.24603015184402466,
0.5738816261291504,
0.2421286702156067,
0.13137422502040863,
-0.3947494626045227,
0.8362204432487488,
0.24467647075653076,
-0.6581647992134094,
0.5755510926246643,
-0.31711065769195557,
0.11499948799610138,
0.1277988851070404,
0.20540933310985565,
0.7180156111717224,
0.37547653913497925,
0.7239945530891418,
0.14646488428115845,
-0.19830916821956635,
-1.1019657850265503,
-0.20751291513442993,
-0.2721632421016693,
0.3342824876308441,
-0.459529310464859,
-0.7832159996032715,
-0.11992555111646652,
0.6576931476593018,
0.5569303035736084,
0.12192998081445694,
-0.3544706404209137,
0.38779449462890625,
-0.07391470670700073,
0.2907944321632385,
-0.21594470739364624,
0.4548169672489166,
-0.01734318397939205,
-0.30318498611450195,
-0.06604421138763428,
0.1919432431459427,
-0.06469257920980453,
0.4948478639125824,
0.2498868852853775,
0.3021814823150635,
-0.5840376615524292,
0.3081950545310974,
-0.02349109761416912,
0.18669608235359192,
-0.029648954048752785,
0.1389622986316681,
0.3024387061595917,
-0.2412685751914978,
-0.3194812536239624,
-0.6450748443603516,
-0.040271736681461334,
0.8906078934669495,
-0.6514095067977905,
-0.036802344024181366,
-0.7281745672225952,
0.40401285886764526,
-1.2730599641799927,
0.3957681357860565,
-0.10070870816707611,
-0.5459904074668884,
0.7035611271858215,
0.21537324786186218,
0.18413038551807404,
0.514225423336029,
-0.5211098194122314,
-0.2167636901140213,
0.24390845000743866,
0.0587550550699234,
-0.9582896828651428,
0.08735458552837372,
0.26496410369873047,
-0.7912563681602478,
-0.5527712106704712,
-0.01919664442539215,
-0.41208648681640625,
0.2793581485748291,
-0.609335720539093,
-0.2676698863506317,
-0.4129112660884857,
0.18038398027420044,
0.4958518147468567,
-0.3327702283859253,
0.32414934039115906,
-0.34713056683540344,
0.27140894532203674,
-0.0004279816057533026,
0.2483913004398346,
-0.12148581445217133,
-0.0008402382954955101,
0.1883358359336853,
0.31848669052124023,
-0.007133336737751961,
-0.44752323627471924,
0.6943232417106628,
0.15556780993938446,
0.18364058434963226,
-0.09364601969718933,
-0.2439679652452469,
-0.17707933485507965,
0.11229658871889114,
-0.06690472364425659,
-0.07706810534000397,
-0.6750638484954834,
0.001483613159507513,
0.228773295879364,
-0.10490093380212784,
-0.248782679438591,
-1.0594964027404785,
0.7400026321411133,
-0.4512355327606201,
0.6500182151794434,
0.16121050715446472,
0.24235205352306366,
-0.062412094324827194,
0.38785555958747864,
0.17700360715389252,
-0.685955286026001,
-0.26012933254241943,
-0.2290140837430954,
0.062254633754491806,
-0.00899895653128624,
-0.3603215217590332,
0.08457720279693604,
-0.3685019612312317,
0.4133967161178589,
0.22351667284965515,
0.29759204387664795,
0.44456616044044495,
-0.22711730003356934,
0.08812010288238525,
-0.2086954563856125,
-0.5444760322570801,
1.1541850566864014,
-0.7174936532974243,
-0.46744558215141296,
0.5793436765670776,
0.27402496337890625,
-0.1858629286289215,
0.05258425697684288,
-0.2963089942932129,
-0.6655968427658081,
0.19329504668712616,
-0.0532730370759964,
0.5742294788360596,
-0.6582842469215393,
-0.3978312313556671,
0.04482654109597206,
-0.0036644176580011845,
0.2514031231403351,
0.6263328790664673,
0.30470430850982666,
0.1705603003501892,
-0.532150387763977,
-0.2166876643896103,
-0.7533003091812134,
0.2925758957862854,
0.31504181027412415,
-0.6032309532165527,
0.003428130643442273,
0.37713101506233215,
0.3567381799221039,
-0.4180440306663513,
-0.2882506549358368,
-0.09802240133285522,
0.46042609214782715,
-0.1729251593351364,
0.06740554422140121,
0.39256343245506287,
-0.1906745582818985,
0.14801616966724396,
0.5523936748504639,
-0.1660493165254593,
-0.5094802379608154,
0.5303176045417786,
-0.17589785158634186,
-0.3644634187221527,
0.5670919418334961,
-0.3570649027824402,
0.17644871771335602,
0.2069682478904724,
-0.1330612301826477,
-0.2249472290277481,
0.3016384243965149,
0.28640592098236084,
-0.13319970667362213,
-0.311463326215744,
-0.43589937686920166,
0.24358321726322174,
-0.07245776057243347,
-0.030451102182269096,
0.25464752316474915,
-0.5289341807365417,
-0.7091476321220398,
0.3697189688682556,
0.5684161186218262,
0.5477567315101624,
-0.5401456952095032,
0.04622967168688774,
0.3781949579715729,
0.6020282506942749,
-0.37227344512939453,
0.2537015378475189,
-0.17525121569633484,
0.10068541765213013,
0.37834325432777405,
-0.37489843368530273,
-0.2135532796382904,
-0.7359800934791565,
0.12714743614196777,
-0.14144375920295715,
-0.11844488233327866,
-0.1713360846042633,
0.5194078087806702,
0.1345428228378296,
-0.2000194638967514,
0.327494740486145,
0.26309874653816223,
-0.5440818667411804,
-0.6679288744926453,
0.4427895247936249,
0.022699479013681412,
-0.2646489143371582,
-0.07602828741073608,
-0.16779090464115143,
0.11717130988836288,
0.2543138563632965,
-0.32191866636276245,
0.3615940809249878,
0.3245050311088562,
-0.26340410113334656,
-0.11284999549388885,
0.37164855003356934,
-0.06682062149047852,
-0.18769241869449615,
-0.18651652336120605,
0.23868289589881897,
-0.31330612301826477,
-0.08324411511421204,
-0.17480634152889252,
-0.14142970740795135,
0.29496246576309204,
-0.24872496724128723,
-0.38177600502967834,
-0.17733588814735413,
-0.26963746547698975,
-0.13841427862644196,
-0.22489707171916962,
0.07865391671657562,
-0.791861891746521,
-0.4792257845401764,
-0.23075757920742035,
0.39636901021003723,
-0.8126885294914246,
-0.38993680477142334,
0.6978784203529358,
0.480472594499588,
0.7881350517272949,
0.3187256455421448,
0.07598850876092911,
-0.13701900839805603,
-0.30567458271980286,
0.03594844043254852,
-0.25957489013671875,
0.07053335756063461,
0.2022767812013626,
-0.2820926904678345,
0.0565079003572464,
0.033295877277851105,
-0.16999126970767975,
-0.013412794098258018,
0.5367756485939026,
0.06521105021238327,
-0.12823759019374847,
-0.7082196474075317,
-0.32677096128463745,
-0.7472630143165588,
0.1974344253540039,
0.7330895066261292,
-0.2502416968345642,
-0.37691164016723633,
0.7274661660194397,
-0.520624577999115,
-0.5729120969772339,
0.2028461992740631,
-0.10921169817447662,
0.10565012693405151,
-0.5042628049850464,
0.5114749073982239,
-0.9079808592796326,
-0.10384912043809891,
0.8927630186080933,
0.5615882873535156,
0.2079894244670868,
-0.5837684869766235,
0.08513131737709045,
0.4512040317058563,
0.4627071022987366,
0.38067564368247986,
0.652154803276062,
-0.31594887375831604,
0.050866130739450455,
0.024711240082979202,
-0.3195676803588867,
0.04939587786793709,
0.6184305548667908,
0.5852760672569275,
0.2471727728843689,
-0.07238190621137619,
0.13485866785049438,
-0.2522489130496979,
0.04477258026599884,
-0.659410297870636,
-0.004872203338891268,
0.7596684098243713
] |
206087
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Arundel
|
Thomas Arundel
|
Thomas Arundel (1353 – 19 February 1414) was an English clergyman who served as Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of York during the reign of Richard II, as well as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1397 and from 1399 until his death, an outspoken opponent of the Lollards. He was instrumental in the usurpation of Richard by his cousin Henry Bolingbroke, who became Henry IV.
Life
Early life and career
Arundel was born, probably in Etchingham, Sussex, England, a younger son of Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel and Eleanor of Lancaster. His elder brothers were Richard Fitzalan, 4th Earl of Arundel, who was executed for his opposition to Richard II, and John FitzAlan, 1st Baron Arundel, who drowned at sea in an expedition to aid the Duke of Brittany.
Arundel studied at Oriel College, Oxford, until papally provided as Bishop of Ely on 13 August 1373 entirely by reason of his father's status and financial leverage with the Crown during the dotage of Edward III, and happily abandoning his student days at Oxford, from which he gained little pleasure. A hugely wealthy near-sinecure, Ely seems to have captured the young bishop's genuine interest until his brother Richard's political opposition to Richard II's policies both at home and towards France grew rancorous and dragged him in. In an extremely grave crisis, teetering towards civil war during the years from 1386 through 1388, the bishop found himself, at least in formal terms, right at the front of the dangerous attempts by five leading temporal lords to purge the king's advisors and control future policy.
On 3 April 1388, Arundel was elevated to the position of Archbishop of York at a time when Richard II was, in effect, suspended from rule. Given Ely's wealth and ease, this promotion was clearly as much to do with status and consolidating the conspirators' control in the north as with remuneration.
Arundel served twice as Lord Chancellor during the reign of King Richard II, first from 1386 to 1389, and again from 1391 to 1396. Throughout his life Arundel was more trustful than was good for him, as shown by the king's ability, after working his way astutely back into real authority, to assure Arundel of his confidence right until the "counter-coup" of 1397, when the archbishop was deceived into bringing his brother Richard out of hiding under a royal safe conduct—to his death.
Despite his political preoccupations, which certainly led to him being largely absent from York, he has been credited with sponsoring a lively revival of personal religious piety in the northern province. Besides, as was to prove the case at Canterbury too, he was also a very good spotter of administrative talent.
Archbishop of Canterbury
On 25 September 1396, Arundel was made Archbishop of Canterbury. The king's nomination seemed to wish him nothing but success. Yet, within a year, he was exiled by the king during Richard's fierce counter-attack against his enemies of ten years earlier, and was replaced by Roger Walden.
Arundel spent his exile in Florence, where in 1398, at Richard II's request, the Roman Pope Boniface IX translated him to become Bishop of St. Andrews, a cruel, empty fate because Scotland during the Western Schism recognised the pope in Avignon, already had a bishop in place and would probably never have accepted him anyway, even in peaceful times.
However, shortly afterwards, he joined up with his fellow exile Henry Bolingbroke. They invaded England together and forced Richard to yield the crown to Henry.
Arundel played a prominent part in the usurpation and may have been the most hawkishly determined of all that the king should be removed entirely: whether he actually lied under oath to Richard II to lure him out of Conwy Castle remains open to debate. The new regime secured the reversal of several of Richard's acts, including the pope's installation of Walden at Canterbury. Arundel returned to his primacy, while Walden—with the support of Arundel—was eventually translated to the important see of London.
As Henry IV collapsed into ill health from 1405, Arundel returned to the forefront of government. At one point, he even took the sick king into Lambeth Palace itself for care.
In 1405–06 he had to deal with the crisis with the papacy provoked by the king's decision to execute the archbishop of York, Richard Scrope, who had participated in the Percy rebellion.
Formally, under Henry IV, Arundel served twice as Lord Chancellor, first in 1399 and again from 1407 to 1410. Following the accession of Henry V, Arundel's influence at court decreased.
Lollardy
Arundel was a vehement opponent of the Lollards, the followers of John Wycliffe, who in his 1379 treatise De Eucharistia had opposed the dogma of Transubstantiation.
King Henry IV passed the De heretico comburendo statute in 1401, which recited in its preamble that it was directed against a certain new sect "who thought damnably of the sacraments and usurped the office of preaching." It empowered the bishops to arrest, imprison, and examine offenders and to hand over to the secular authorities such as had relapsed or refused to abjure. The condemned were to be burnt "in a high place" before the people.
This act was probably pushed through by the authoritative Arundel. Its passing was immediately followed by the burning of William Sawtrey, curate of St Margaret's, Lynn. He had previously abjured but had relapsed, and he now refused to declare his belief in transubstantiation or to recognise the authority of the Church.
In 1407, Arundel presided at a synod at Oxford, which passed a number of constitutions to regulate preaching, the translation and use of the Scriptures, and the theological education at schools and the university. In 1410, a body of Oxford censors condemned 267 propositions collected out of Wycliffe's writings. These different measures seem to have been successful at least as far as the clergy were concerned, and Lollardy came to be more and more a lay movement, often connected with political discontent.
The death penalty was seldom carried out. Until 1410, no further Lollards were executed. The 1414 Oldcastle Revolt saw a minority of the seventy or so who were hanged also burned. Thereafter, executions were again few until the Tudor period.
Arundel had a stroke which left him unable to speak shortly afterwards. Henry V (his sister Joan's grandson), who had had uneasy relations with Arundel, installed Henry Chichele in his place.
Death and burial
Arundel died on 19 February 1414, and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. It has been suggested that the tomb originally designated for him during his lifetime had been given up to King Henry IV of England in the previous year, and that his own tomb was hastily built and was destroyed during the 17th century. Its remnants were discovered under the nave during archaeological excavations in the 1990s.
Legacy
In 2005/2006, BBC History Magazine chose Thomas Arundel as the 15th century's entry for their Ten Worst Britons poll, in which he tied in ninth place with Hugh le Despenser. In "Who Killed Chaucer?" Terry Jones argued that Arundel was responsible for the death of Geoffrey Chaucer. Arundel appears as the antagonist in the 2014 Doctor Who audio drama The Doctor's Tale played by John Banks.
Citations
References
External links
Latin transcription; Arundel's prohibition of Bible translation into vernacular languages.
1353 births
1414 deaths
14th-century English Roman Catholic archbishops
15th-century English Roman Catholic archbishops
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
Archbishops of Canterbury
Archbishops of York
Bishops of Ely
Burials at Canterbury Cathedral
Lord Chancellors of England
People from Etchingham
|
[
-0.6485493779182434,
-0.49144139885902405,
0.31519341468811035,
-0.10344964265823364,
-0.49798187613487244,
0.8622371554374695,
0.0931512862443924,
-0.11179462820291519,
-0.8722701668739319,
-0.1432238072156906,
0.023337483406066895,
0.5914878249168396,
-0.10041417926549911,
-0.28281453251838684,
0.10981001704931259,
-0.18583738803863525,
0.1745307445526123,
-0.5830628275871277,
-0.43363362550735474,
-0.6227936148643494,
0.08266868442296982,
-0.4270913302898407,
0.06525548547506332,
0.19663183391094208,
0.10869361460208893,
0.09565073996782303,
0.23724767565727234,
-0.6906441450119019,
-0.447797030210495,
-0.22278647124767303,
0.14902552962303162,
0.4476386606693268,
0.46232616901397705,
-0.2645450830459595,
-0.5797069072723389,
-0.2071988731622696,
-0.6044178605079651,
-0.4413739740848541,
-0.5077967047691345,
0.2881365120410919,
-0.26337239146232605,
-0.10051105916500092,
-0.23703837394714355,
0.38547006249427795,
-0.11392801254987717,
-0.22957521677017212,
-1.0484198331832886,
0.05407547578215599,
-0.36047041416168213,
-0.27442577481269836,
0.17491190135478973,
0.43288809061050415,
-0.47613525390625,
0.18580956757068634,
0.27021902799606323,
-0.1842193603515625,
-0.4263063967227936,
-0.04869340360164642,
0.4257625341415405,
-0.25179654359817505,
0.341956228017807,
-0.33852922916412354,
0.19645287096500397,
0.1659662276506424,
0.026642095297574997,
-0.013427941128611565,
0.023470433428883553,
0.3611021935939789,
-0.9281019568443298,
-0.5511786937713623,
0.017720168456435204,
0.1924157738685608,
-0.1326979547739029,
0.8614898324012756,
0.08556649088859558,
-0.24552473425865173,
0.6130951642990112,
-0.010106172412633896,
0.23170806467533112,
0.083051897585392,
0.39521801471710205,
-0.30753007531166077,
0.7542142271995544,
0.5162374377250671,
-0.009009850211441517,
-0.007584539242088795,
-0.06194811686873436,
0.7908056378364563,
-0.23801305890083313,
-0.3317417800426483,
0.3936883807182312,
0.4407781958580017,
-0.1300194263458252,
-0.2194584310054779,
-0.32386380434036255,
0.12436928600072861,
0.3107546269893646,
-0.5409300923347473,
-0.2556766867637634,
-0.48854130506515503,
0.0012439023703336716,
0.5933810472488403,
0.25469911098480225,
0.1983649730682373,
-0.7703142762184143,
-0.02874363772571087,
0.13931341469287872,
0.042408768087625504,
0.024284880608320236,
0.21840114891529083,
-0.46823418140411377,
0.340786337852478,
-0.3565818965435028,
-0.07704267650842667,
0.15908706188201904,
0.21910850703716278,
0.06336922198534012,
-0.7673364877700806,
-0.793705403804779,
-0.300845742225647,
-0.17393586039543152,
0.6529222130775452,
0.29811254143714905,
0.5879093408584595,
-0.06988954544067383,
-0.4622863531112671,
0.24328458309173584,
0.2661195695400238,
-0.118318572640419,
-0.2165183573961258,
0.08419923484325409,
0.6384351849555969,
-0.6704710721969604,
-0.2790979743003845,
0.3032577931880951,
0.09570415318012238,
-0.2399766445159912,
0.024281295016407967,
0.25286194682121277,
0.3035537898540497,
-0.40487635135650635,
-0.04668803513050079,
-0.22908972203731537,
0.16415348649024963,
0.08257003873586655,
-0.09012650698423386,
0.1392914056777954,
-0.25242090225219727,
-0.10528892278671265,
0.3147633373737335,
-0.10774864256381989,
0.8702800273895264,
0.08422306180000305,
-0.7114984393119812,
0.35898450016975403,
0.6353628635406494,
0.44784605503082275,
-0.08835098147392273,
0.17273858189582825,
0.5977693796157837,
0.03937210142612457,
-0.18163681030273438,
-0.29750701785087585,
-0.13246290385723114,
0.3363340198993683,
-0.023557256907224655,
0.3548247814178467,
-0.6848360300064087,
-0.2449297159910202,
-0.417874276638031,
-0.8788214921951294,
0.43377357721328735,
0.4128010869026184,
-0.18361186981201172,
0.09126412123441696,
0.6617677211761475,
0.6966809034347534,
-0.31558284163475037,
0.2754267454147339,
-0.22645899653434753,
-0.5881366729736328,
0.3548952043056488,
0.17627468705177307,
-0.4878903329372406,
-0.014859524555504322,
0.502903401851654,
0.19891612231731415,
-0.2715519070625305,
0.7071325778961182,
0.21639837324619293,
0.04992039129137993,
-0.26471126079559326,
-0.20464514195919037,
-0.10531815886497498,
0.6676469445228577,
0.447254478931427,
-0.3191716969013214,
0.17823591828346252,
-0.10533155500888824,
0.7603307366371155,
-0.18702580034732819,
-0.1360187977552414,
0.022238468751311302,
0.0767960175871849,
0.19529637694358826,
-0.5923883318901062,
-0.19621902704238892,
0.06602489203214645,
0.7222703099250793,
0.8113639950752258,
0.3805272579193115,
-0.2329106479883194,
-0.2015519142150879,
0.4074403643608093,
-0.625546395778656,
-0.3949321210384369,
0.19732603430747986,
-0.06565073132514954,
0.1678256094455719,
-0.5315089225769043,
0.5840837359428406,
0.2690389156341553,
0.16702011227607727,
0.6073621511459351,
-0.0546419583261013,
0.8975242972373962,
-0.7424142956733704,
0.3965141773223877,
-0.44765135645866394,
-0.9330271482467651,
-0.3704689145088196,
0.6468262076377869,
-0.25967466831207275,
-0.12878192961215973,
0.43795230984687805,
0.09319950640201569,
-0.12291152775287628,
-0.0752708688378334,
0.19094596803188324,
-0.37630897760391235,
0.09082676470279694,
-0.09960450232028961,
-0.38229814171791077,
0.5895679593086243,
-0.2429622858762741,
0.21861101686954498,
-0.15254662930965424,
-0.12796936929225922,
0.13859549164772034,
-0.09549060463905334,
-0.16872230172157288,
0.22778084874153137,
0.2781166732311249,
0.17765109241008759,
0.5316279530525208,
-0.04040858894586563,
0.3470555245876312,
0.4619961977005005,
-0.1366366297006607,
0.8353415727615356,
-0.01243548933416605,
0.23757506906986237,
-0.4566809833049774,
0.495423287153244,
0.0167558453977108,
-0.6204915642738342,
0.3499912917613983,
-0.10504322499036789,
0.041000522673130035,
-0.34148821234703064,
0.14888563752174377,
-0.39755240082740784,
-0.4387895464897156,
-0.34328117966651917,
-0.07189350575208664,
-0.4658805727958679,
0.06537386029958725,
0.4213995933532715,
0.09556333720684052,
-1.0309282541275024,
-0.18210239708423615,
0.5186209678649902,
-0.48642873764038086,
0.17409390211105347,
0.12069349735975266,
0.08056965470314026,
-0.42887213826179504,
-0.4091593027114868,
-0.2016422301530838,
-0.07235218584537506,
0.11860954016447067,
0.28055310249328613,
0.22744958102703094,
0.022820070385932922,
-0.4333079755306244,
0.695146381855011,
-0.6032596230506897,
-0.17146076261997223,
-0.34498831629753113,
-0.07904310524463654,
-0.568226158618927,
0.15384121239185333,
0.14900505542755127,
0.2811743915081024,
0.6554127335548401,
-0.20583263039588928,
-0.16437840461730957,
-0.29563966393470764,
-5.768693447113037,
0.36629223823547363,
0.2242135852575302,
-0.15870918333530426,
0.5872735381126404,
0.042122479528188705,
0.3707970082759857,
-0.45265182852745056,
0.38692766427993774,
0.26407280564308167,
0.18224932253360748,
-0.13814400136470795,
-0.35504430532455444,
0.2930072844028473,
0.972115159034729,
0.2151690423488617,
0.6855173707008362,
-0.3775925934314728,
0.3036772906780243,
0.015979046002030373,
-0.11563043296337128,
-0.12205611914396286,
-0.11263064295053482,
0.4093257784843445,
0.19206731021404266,
0.030739134177565575,
-0.05146164447069168,
-0.08532392233610153,
-0.7017565369606018,
-0.5067933201789856,
-0.0707448348402977,
0.3066185414791107,
0.4301156997680664,
0.42425671219825745,
-0.2385784387588501,
-0.07135076820850372,
0.34155750274658203,
0.660415530204773,
-0.41119495034217834,
0.030757322907447815,
0.10164617747068405,
-0.25916871428489685,
-0.3918664753437042,
0.09994252771139145,
0.3328395485877991,
-0.33238595724105835,
-0.37066397070884705,
-0.020357567816972733,
-0.4302839934825897,
0.26846542954444885,
0.05151805654168129,
0.22710250318050385,
-0.05429821088910103,
0.20718397200107574,
-0.12432108074426651,
0.4656337797641754,
0.05997674912214279,
0.2017962783575058,
-0.6484283208847046,
0.25490546226501465,
0.5176346302032471,
-0.39122721552848816,
-0.3467521667480469,
0.3263294994831085,
-0.1981770098209381,
0.1202363595366478,
-0.13213416934013367,
-0.20982594788074493,
1.0075619220733643,
0.39401862025260925,
-0.21165044605731964,
0.432424932718277,
0.7939665913581848,
-1.0296744108200073,
0.27231571078300476,
-0.429110050201416,
-0.25445476174354553,
0.46588361263275146,
0.13826531171798706,
-0.12569738924503326,
-0.3481476902961731,
-0.49009090662002563,
0.26277199387550354,
0.15883074700832367,
-0.03162768483161926,
-0.013576185330748558,
-0.4899432063102722,
0.03746206685900688,
0.0004969296860508621,
0.09331770986318588,
0.5702351331710815,
-0.5569761991500854,
-0.21298246085643768,
0.459865003824234,
0.18472306430339813,
-0.06521893292665482,
-0.1565067172050476,
0.3005872070789337,
0.2030734270811081,
0.3928123414516449,
-0.5716790556907654,
0.5118108987808228,
-0.3338252604007721,
-0.4953417181968689,
0.41879794001579285,
0.07715308666229248,
-0.06064637377858162,
0.24066157639026642,
-0.15427131950855255,
0.16061949729919434,
0.7189736366271973,
0.21410460770130157,
-0.08113593608140945,
-0.4697716534137726,
-0.3600773513317108,
-0.2517046332359314,
0.08612173050642014,
0.14019612967967987,
0.8271677494049072,
-0.3183520436286926,
-0.10118281841278076,
0.33519497513771057,
-0.7290415167808533,
-0.25643494725227356,
-0.255179226398468,
0.18605534732341766,
0.3620365262031555,
0.11478247493505478,
-0.6539617776870728,
0.08247542381286621,
0.29112720489501953,
-0.2595706880092621,
0.12012221664190292,
-0.2155759483575821,
-0.08642163127660751,
-0.32447874546051025,
-0.2450156807899475,
-0.3396039307117462,
-0.4879360496997833,
0.34672239422798157,
0.4080255627632141,
-0.13631534576416016,
0.6733490824699402,
0.11762091517448425,
0.4404166042804718,
-0.5788615345954895,
0.048018403351306915,
0.15647177398204803,
-0.07073134928941727,
0.3986380100250244,
0.12802360951900482,
0.31926092505455017,
0.24674709141254425,
-0.4409927725791931,
0.11124111711978912,
-0.10069597512483597,
0.03235132247209549,
-0.026968039572238922,
-0.10455943644046783,
0.12478014081716537,
-0.19768591225147247,
0.19527776539325714,
-0.4880768954753876,
-0.4604842960834503,
0.34931421279907227,
-0.14573675394058228,
-0.6511278748512268,
-0.41689932346343994,
-0.32047387957572937,
0.6337614059448242,
-0.061733175069093704,
-0.12058423459529877,
-0.46604257822036743,
0.07068702578544617,
0.5119128227233887,
-0.46359115839004517,
0.3275662064552307,
0.2467692494392395,
-0.3373275697231293,
0.07609803974628448,
-0.15290862321853638,
-0.17544834315776825,
-0.14770542085170746,
-0.4426610469818115,
1.4617613554000854,
-0.4928707182407379,
-1.013661503791809,
-0.7691072821617126,
0.11341091990470886,
-0.33402252197265625,
-0.17472346127033234,
-0.1714629828929901,
0.13240498304367065,
0.9287797808647156,
0.33710411190986633,
0.06650929152965546,
0.4391157329082489,
-0.10930810868740082,
-0.039049554616212845,
-0.31195762753486633,
-0.7320861220359802,
0.20309893786907196,
-0.18798841536045074,
-0.354117751121521,
0.126655712723732,
-0.8989876508712769,
0.04607747495174408,
-0.45732372999191284,
-0.019383994862437248,
0.3984510898590088,
0.048082295805215836,
-0.601153552532196,
-0.1530318260192871,
0.46667852997779846,
0.25833621621131897,
-0.042590491473674774,
-0.3106113076210022,
-0.15988174080848694,
-0.2695222795009613,
-0.2905968427658081,
-0.35653722286224365,
-0.232095405459404,
-0.5063283443450928,
0.35087400674819946,
-0.526052713394165,
0.23683318495750427,
0.2763137221336365,
-0.37766796350479126,
1.0007781982421875,
-0.17875461280345917,
0.15015804767608643,
-0.07952025532722473,
-0.4313841164112091,
0.9858998656272888,
0.051558710634708405,
-0.33732131123542786,
0.4529346525669098,
-0.05063365772366524,
0.07004345953464508,
0.1403551697731018,
0.7401514649391174,
1.4558992385864258,
-0.10011327266693115,
-0.1127108559012413,
0.24570590257644653,
0.03502430021762848,
-0.21367211639881134,
0.02665305882692337,
0.12766344845294952,
0.04719185084104538,
0.17167237401008606,
0.17119242250919342,
-0.12468357384204865,
0.03223630413413048,
0.09951276332139969,
-0.346929669380188,
-0.35062676668167114,
-0.17788246273994446,
0.1296786218881607,
-0.1948406994342804,
-0.11632227897644043,
0.33734941482543945,
0.048591334372758865,
0.12809360027313232,
0.24796633422374725,
0.1237214058637619,
0.012320749461650848,
-0.4638102948665619,
-0.06504238396883011,
-0.47247233986854553,
-0.9161300659179688,
-0.38621383905410767,
-0.5430863499641418,
0.3938392400741577,
0.22891545295715332,
0.22207710146903992,
-0.13529819250106812,
-0.6884053945541382,
1.4818884134292603,
-0.05948233976960182,
-0.8884367942810059,
-0.16576127707958221,
-0.06099396571516991,
-0.40565910935401917,
-0.2773137092590332,
-0.21439309418201447,
0.450120747089386,
0.10630305856466293,
0.1684388816356659,
-0.006308819632977247,
-0.13405904173851013,
0.20528265833854675,
0.15910187363624573,
-0.39246833324432373,
-0.47054576873779297,
0.2575629949569702,
0.17545826733112335,
0.08886110037565231,
-0.2622055113315582,
-0.665751576423645,
-0.5594320297241211,
-0.1395784616470337,
0.47053831815719604,
-0.08208034187555313,
0.05664248391985893,
0.06600269675254822,
-0.186244934797287,
-0.6513547897338867,
-0.8999934196472168,
0.07473516464233398,
-0.0005839883233420551,
-0.29263660311698914,
0.02761651575565338,
0.1481475979089737,
-0.3808276355266571,
-0.4610190987586975,
0.2594413757324219,
-0.3196599781513214,
-0.26796817779541016,
-0.00294144032523036,
0.3626479208469391,
0.005688156466931105,
-0.33747267723083496,
-0.4969879984855652,
0.671482503414154,
0.3041157126426697,
-0.13269278407096863,
0.23822888731956482,
-0.561958909034729,
0.2601534426212311,
0.01611355133354664,
0.01723315939307213,
-0.8756015300750732,
0.7977365851402283,
0.474209725856781,
-0.5424826145172119,
-0.024086618795990944,
-0.7081734538078308,
0.41319382190704346,
0.0008722743950784206,
0.32463428378105164,
0.9561409950256348,
-0.323454886674881,
0.36434245109558105,
-0.2710193395614624,
0.36565008759498596,
0.1802169233560562,
-0.06256478279829025,
0.07438849657773972,
0.4983276426792145,
0.2945129871368408,
-0.06944289803504944,
0.014118882827460766,
-0.9298109412193298,
0.2728673815727234,
0.43837010860443115,
0.3073139190673828,
0.2630203664302826,
-0.5177067518234253,
-0.4063042402267456,
-0.10643529891967773,
-0.08804015070199966,
0.24074386060237885,
0.05055960640311241,
-0.15905317664146423,
0.19066911935806274,
0.23997129499912262,
0.45333433151245117,
0.019147608429193497,
0.06533540785312653,
0.07826857268810272,
-0.5894169807434082,
-0.1990797221660614,
-0.5386596322059631,
-0.3319130837917328,
0.26372048258781433,
0.6014506816864014,
0.09306240826845169,
0.3667975664138794,
-0.13003139197826385,
-0.5363879203796387,
-0.3684242367744446,
-0.044371847063302994,
-0.6165391802787781,
0.2940564751625061,
-0.113894984126091,
-0.14088189601898193,
0.16088350117206573,
-0.3465590178966522,
-0.5668649673461914,
-0.2586049437522888,
-0.337562620639801,
0.007461398374289274,
0.6513314843177795,
-0.8061254024505615,
0.3351443111896515,
0.27525296807289124,
0.9676593542098999,
0.7003284692764282,
-0.12513670325279236,
0.20425939559936523,
0.6025952696800232,
-0.5841355919837952,
0.6720691919326782,
-0.0025272860657423735,
0.328461229801178,
-0.0364648774266243,
-0.6079647541046143,
-0.7701910734176636,
0.5183131098747253,
0.013206596486270428,
0.14805974066257477,
-0.33755746483802795,
0.4388563334941864,
-0.19481422007083893,
0.22387635707855225,
0.6353123784065247,
0.19677670300006866,
-0.08067422360181808,
0.1282414048910141,
-0.19294576346874237,
0.4032752215862274,
0.3991333544254303,
-0.030354222282767296,
0.623235821723938,
0.19235268235206604,
1.1279504299163818,
-0.5176316499710083,
-0.8686879873275757,
0.5895760655403137,
-0.25383761525154114,
0.2339264154434204,
-0.9586201906204224,
0.08730707317590714,
0.2619604468345642,
0.5606026649475098,
0.5112335085868835,
0.6565300226211548,
-0.3205770254135132,
-0.13730524480342865,
-0.1906755268573761,
0.11152659356594086,
0.44742709398269653,
-0.3890201449394226,
0.16407081484794617,
-0.2957213521003723,
0.22803403437137604,
-0.0067014568485319614,
-0.1745462268590927,
0.47532230615615845,
0.541172981262207,
-0.16481786966323853,
0.38968905806541443,
-0.7014017701148987,
0.45431724190711975,
-0.05888105928897858,
-0.3442026674747467,
0.11458531767129898,
0.06332098692655563,
-0.059249646961688995
] |
206099
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Parcel%20Service
|
United Parcel Service
|
United Parcel Service (UPS, stylized as ups) is an American multinational shipping & receiving and supply chain management company founded in 1907. Originally known as the American Messenger Company specializing in telegraphs, UPS has grown to become a Fortune 500 company and one of the world's largest shipping couriers. UPS today is primarily known for its ground shipping services as well as the UPS Store, a retail chain which assists UPS shipments and provides tools for small businesses. In addition, UPS offers air shipping on an overnight or two-day basis and delivers to post office boxes through UPS SurePost, a subsidiary that passes on packages to the United States Postal Service for last mile delivery.
UPS is the largest courier company in the world by revenue, with annual revenues around US$85 billion in 2020, ahead of competitors DHL and FedEx. UPS' main international hub, UPS Worldport in Louisville, Kentucky, is the fifth busiest airport in the world by cargo traffic based on preliminary statistics from ACI, and the third busiest in the United States behind FedEx's Memphis Superhub and Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport.
History
Foundation
On August 28, 1907, James Casey founded the American Messenger Company with Claude Ryan in Seattle, Washington, capitalized with $100 in debt. Most deliveries at this time were made on foot and bicycles were used for longer trips.
The American Messenger Company focused primarily on package delivery to retail stores with special delivery mail delivered for its largest client the U.S. Post Office. In 1913, the company acquired a Model T Ford as its first delivery vehicle. Casey and Ryan merged with a competitor, Evert McCabe, and formed Merchants Parcel Delivery. Consolidated delivery was also introduced, combining packages addressed to a certain neighborhood onto one delivery vehicle. In 1916, Charlie Soderstrom joined Merchants Parcel Delivery bringing in more vehicles for the growing delivery business. In 1919, the company expanded for the first time outside of Seattle to Oakland, California, and changed its name to United Parcel Service. The name change to United Parcel Service was to remind the company that expansion operations were still United under the same organization and Parcel identified the type of business offered as part of its Service. Common carrier service was acquired in 1922 from a company in Los Angeles, California. UPS became one of the only companies in the United States to offer common carrier service. At first common carrier was only limited to a small area around Los Angeles but by 1927 expanded to areas up to 125 miles outside the city. In 1924, a conveyor belt system was debuted for the handling of packages for UPS operations.
In 1930, a consolidated service began in New York City, and soon after in other major cities in the East and the Midwest. The use of common carrier for delivery between all customers placed UPS in direct competition with USPS and the Interstate Commerce Commission. The common carrier service was applied in cities where UPS could use the service without the authority of the ICC and state commerce commissions. The first city for UPS to use common carrier status outside California was Chicago, Illinois, in 1953.
Air service through UPS was first used in 1929 through private airlines. However, The Great Depression and a lack of volume ended the air service. In 1953, UPS resumed air service called UPS Blue Label Air with two-day service to major cities along the East Coast and West Coast.
Expansion and diversification
In 1975, UPS moved its headquarters to Greenwich, Connecticut, and began serving all of the 48 contiguous states of the United States. This expansion of operations made UPS the first package delivery company to serve every address in the contiguous United States. Additionally in 1975, UPS went international by establishing operations in Canada. On February 28, UPS Ltd. (later changed to UPS Canada Ltd.) began operations in Toronto, Ontario and today UPS Canada's head office is located in Burlington, Ontario. In 1976, UPS established a domestic operation in West Germany.
UPS Next Day Air Service was launched in 1985 for all 48 contiguous states plus Puerto Rico. In 1988, UPS Airlines was launched with authorization from the Federal Aviation Administration and became the fastest-growing airline in FAA history- currently the 10th largest airline in the United States. Domestic air service was added to Germany in 1989. In 1991, UPS relocated its headquarters to Sandy Springs, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta. Following this in 1992, UPS acquired both Haulfast and Carryfast and rebranded them UPS Supply Chain Solutions. Haulfast provided the pallet haulage and trucking network for the CarryFast group of companies. By 1993, UPS was delivering up to 11.5 million packages and documents per day.
In order for the company to service the large volume of customers in the 1990s, UPS developed technologies to improve efficiency. A handheld device called "Delivery Information Acquisition Device" (DIAD) was created to record and upload delivery information to the UPS network immediately upon pickup by every UPS driver. In 1992, UPS began tracking all ground shipments electronically. In 1994, UPS.com debuted, and provided an interface to make what was primarily internal operational information available for customer access. After 27 years of providing this information, UPS chose to hide it again for most packages in 2021 and this information is no longer available on their consumer facing website.
In 1995, UPS acquired SonicAir to offer service parts logistics and compete with Choice Logistics. In the same year, UPS launched UPS Logistics Group to facilitate global supply chain management services and consulting for customer needs. In 1997, a walkout by the 185,000 members of the Teamsters shut down UPS for 16 days. In 1998, UPS Capital was established to enable companies to grow their business through a comprehensive menu of integrated financial services through UPS. UPS acquired Challenge Air in 1999 to expand its operations in Latin America.
On November 10, 1999, UPS became a public company in the largest initial public offering of the century.
21st century
In 2001, UPS acquired Mail Boxes Etc., Inc. In 2003, approximately 3,000 Mail Boxes Etc., Inc. were rebranded as The UPS Store.
In 2004, UPS entered the heavy freight business with purchase of Menlo Worldwide Forwarding, a former subsidiary of Menlo Worldwide. UPS rebranded it as UPS Supply Chain Solutions. The purchase price was US$150 million and the assumption of US$110 million in long-term debt. On August 5, 2005, UPS announced that it has completed its acquisition of less-than-truckload (LTL) trucking company Overnite Transportation for US$1.25 billion. This was approved by the FTC and Overnite shareholders on August 4, 2005. In 2005, UPS offered non-stop delivery service between Guangzhou and the United States. On April 28, 2006, Overnite officially became UPS Freight. On October 3, 2005, UPS completed the purchase of Lynx Express, one of the largest independent parcel carriers in the United Kingdom, for £55.5 million (US$97.1 million) after receiving approval for the transaction from the European Commission. The first joint package car center operation in Dartford, Kent, was opened in 2006.
On August 28, 2007, United Parcel Service celebrated its 100th anniversary. All Nippon Airways, a Star Alliance member, and UPS formed a cargo alliance and code-share to transport member cargo in 2008, similarly to an airline alliance. On March 19, 2012, UPS announced that it intended to acquire TNT Express for $6.8 billion, in a move to help expand its presence in European and Asian markets. However, the deal fell through in January 2013, after it was announced that UPS had failed to obtain permission from the European Commission and as such had been blocked on competition grounds. In February 2012, UPS acquired Brussels-based company Kiala that provides e-commerce retailers the option to have goods delivered to a conventional retail location.
In 2018, The Wall Street Journal reported that UPS's operations were hampered by its outdated 20th-century technology, lagging behind its competitors.
In May 2019, UPS launched a partnership with autonomous trucking startup, TuSimple to carry cargo across Phoenix, Arizona, and Tucson, Arizona.
In October 2019, UPS won the approval of the Federal Aviation Administration to fly drones. The certification will allow UPS to deliver health care supplies using a fleet of drones.
On January 29, 2020, UPS announced it was investing in UK start-up Arrival and ordering 10,000 Generation 2 electric vehicles as a step towards a cleaner, more high-tech fleet. The deal runs from 2020 until 2024 and was reported to be worth more than $400 million.
In March 2020, the company has appointed Carol Tomé to succeed David Abney as its chief executive officer. It was viewed as a move to steer the parcel delivery company through the turbulence of trade wars, technological disruption and the risk of a pandemic-induced recession.
In March 2020, UPS expands its autonomous trips with TuSimple by adding an extra route between Phoenix and El Paso, Texas.
In January 2021, UPS announced it had agreed to sell UPS Freight, its less-than-truckload (LTL) freight business, to TFI International, a Canadian transport and logistics company, for $800 million. UPS said the move would allow it to focus on small-package delivery. At the time of the sale, UPS Freight had about 14,500 employees, approximately 11,000 of them represented by the Teamsters union, and generated an estimated $3.15 billion in revenue in 2020 offering services across the US, Canada, and Mexico. TFI had reported $4.1 billion in revenue in 2019 and already operated truckload and LTL services in Canada. The acquisition was completed in April and UPS Freight was renamed TForce Freight.
In 2021, following the company's shift to target smaller customers to boost profits during the COVID-19 pandemic, UPS reported a 21% jump in their fourth quarter sales to $24.9 billion. CEO Carol Tomé reported that Amazon paid UPS $11.3 billion in shipping in 2020, accounting for 13.3% of the company's revenue.
In September 2021, UPS entered into an agreement to acquire Roadie for an undisclosed amount with the transaction expected to be closed in the fourth quarter.
Finances
For the fiscal year 2019, UPS reported earnings of US$4.440 billion, with an annual revenue of US$74.094 billion, an increase of 3.1% over the previous fiscal cycle. UPS ranked No. 43 on the 2020 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.
Operations
UPS's primary business is the time-definite delivery of packages and documents worldwide. In recent years, UPS extended its service portfolio to include LTL transportation (primarily in the U.S.) and supply chain services.
UPS reports its operations in three segments: U.S. Domestic Package operations, International Package operations, and Supply Chain & Freight operations.
United States Domestic Shipping
UPS services for consumers include:
UPS Ground for day-definite delivery. Can take up to 5 days.
UPS 3-Day Select for less-sensitive express shipments. This service may use either air or ground transportation depending on distance, demand, and weather conditions, and as noted by its name, can take up to three days.
UPS 2nd Day Air for packages that must arrive within two days. UPS also offers a 2nd Day Air AM service which offers morning delivery.
UPS Next Day Air for shipments that require overnight service. UPS splits Next Day Air into three tiers:
Next Day Air Saver: guaranteed overnight shipping with afternoon delivery
Next Day Air: guaranteed overnight delivery between 10:30 AM and noon
Next Day Air Early: guaranteed overnight shipping by 8:30 AM for major US cities and 9:30 AM to most other destinations.
UPS Express Critical: UPS' fastest service. Delivers to all 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico by end of day.
UPS also offers UPS SurePost, in which packages are handled by UPS in intermodal transit, and delivered last-mile by USPS.
International Package
International Package operations include delivery to more than 220 countries and territories worldwide, including shipments wholly outside the United States, as well as shipments with either origin or distribution outside the United States.
UPS splits its international shipping into a few services:
UPS Standard for shipments to Mexico and Canada
UPS Worldwide Expedited for all international shipments usually delivered within 2-5 business days
UPS Worldwide Saver, also for all international shipments usually delivered overnight to Canada, 2 Days to Mexico, Latin America, and Europe, and 3 or more days to the rest of the world, all by the end of the day.
UPS Worldwide Express for more critical international shipments with similar time frames to Worldwide Saver. Delivers around 10:30 AM to Noon.
UPS Worldwide Express Plus for Worldwide Express shipments that need to arrive to their destination earlier in the morning.
Supply Chain & Freight
Supply Chain & Freight (UPS-SCS for UPS Supply Chain Solutions) includes UPS' forwarding and contract logistics operations and other related business units. UPS' forwarding and logistics business provides services in more than 175 countries and territories worldwide and includes worldwide supply chain design, execution and management, freight forwarding and distribution, customs brokerage, mail and consulting services.
Other business units within this segment include The UPS Store and UPS Capital.
Trailer / railroad reporting marks: UPGX, UPGZ, UPOZ, UPSZ, UPWZ, UPSC, UPSU, NONZ
NMFTA SCAC code: UPSS, UPSN, UPSC
Until 2021, this segment also included UPS Freight which offered a variety of less than truckload ("LTL") and truckload ("TL") services to customers in North America. UPS Freight was sold to TFI International in April 2021 and was renamed TForce Freight.
Personnel structure
UPS employs approximately 444,000 staff: 362,000 in the U.S. and 82,000 internationally. Approximately 250,000 UPS drivers, package handlers and clerks are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. During the United Parcel Service strike of 1997, the company's only nationwide strike in its history, which lasted 16 days, Teamster President Ron Carey negotiated a new contract for workers.
Chief executives
1907–1962, James E. "Jim" Casey
1962–1972, George D. Smith
1972–1973, Paul Oberkotter
1973–1980, Harold Oberkotter
1980–1984, George Lamb
1984–1989, John W. Rogers
1989–1996, Kent C. "Oz" Nelson
1997–2001, James P. Kelly
2002–2007, Michael L. "Mike" Eskew
2008–2014, Scott Davis
2014–2020, David Abney
2020–current, Carol B. Tomé
Competitors
Major competitors in the United States include the United States Postal Service (USPS) and FedEx, along with regional carriers such as OnTrac, and LSO (formerly Lonestar Overnight). In addition to these domestic carriers, UPS competes with a variety of international operators, including SF Express, Canada Post (and its subsidiary Purolator), TransForce, Deutsche Post (and its subsidiary DHL), Royal Mail, Japan Post Service, and many other regional carriers, national postal services and air cargo handlers (see Package delivery and Mail pages).
Historically, the bulk of competition for UPS came from inexpensive ground-based delivery services, such as Parcel Post (USPS) or Choice Logistics. In 1998, FedEx expanded into ground parcel delivery through its acquisition of RPS (formerly Roadway Package System), rebranding it as FedEx Ground in 2000. In 2003, DHL acquired Airborne Express, expanding its operations in the United States.
In response to the expansion of FedEx and DHL, UPS partnered with the US Postal Service to offer UPS Mail Innovations, a program that allows UPS to pick up mail and packages weighing under one pound separately from the main ground network and transfer them to a USPS center, or destination delivery unit (DDU), for final distribution. This process is also known as zone skipping, long used by Parcel Consolidators. UPS also has a separate product called "SurePost" which uses the UPS Ground network to deliver packages weighing under 10 pounds to the nearest UPS Package Center, which transfers them to the USPS DDU for "final mile" delivery.
More recently, the continued growth of online shopping, combined with increasing awareness of the role of transportation (including package delivery) on the environment, has contributed to the rise of emerging competition from niche carriers or rebranded incumbents. For instance, the US Postal Service claims "greener delivery" of parcels on the assumption that USPS letter carriers deliver to each US address, six days a week anyway, and therefore offer the industry's lowest fuel consumption per delivery. Other carriers, like ParcelPool.com, which specializes in residential package delivery to APO/FPO addresses, Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and other US Territories, arose in response to increased demand from catalog retailers and online e-tailers for low-cost residential delivery services closely matching service standards normally associated with more expensive expedited parcel delivery.
In 2019, UPS sued in an attempt to force USPS to raise their prices, but was rejected by the Supreme Court.
Transportation
UPS operates over 119,000 delivery vehicles worldwide, ranging from bicycles to tractor-trailer trucks. In a long-running company policy to avoid advertisement or endorsement of a vehicle manufacturer, all external manufacturer emblems and badging are removed when a vehicle enters service (whenever possible).
The typical lifespan of a UPS ground vehicle is 20–25 years (or more), lasting until the structural integrity is compromised. The company does not re-sell any of its ground vehicles, so retired vehicles are almost always stripped of reusable parts before being sent to be crushed/broken up. Prior to scrapping, UPS trucks and trailers have all company branding painted over and are assigned an ADA (Automotive Destruction Authorization) number and must be crushed under the supervision of UPS Automotive personnel, which records the vehicle's destruction. The only exception to this policy are vehicles taken off the road for internal use; package cars (repainted white) are used for various purposes (typically at large hubs); older semi tractors sometimes see use as terminal tractors.
Delivery vans
UPS refers to its delivery van as a "package car". Several designs and sizes are used by the company, dependent on routes and package volume.
Morgan Olson (Grumman Olson), Union City Body, and Utilimaster manufacture the bodies for UPS delivery vans. While older vehicles were based on Ford or General Motors P-chassis, vehicles manufactured since the 1990s are based on Navistar, Freightliner, or Workhorse chassis. Originally, UPS delivery vehicles were equipped with manual transmissions and steering, although many newer vehicles are updated with automatic transmissions.
For lower-volume delivery routes, UPS utilizes production-based vehicles, including minivans (including the Ford Transit Connect or the Ford Transit, and Dodge Grand Caravan C/V) and Mercedes-Benz (Dodge/Freightliner) Sprinter box vans. UPS has ordered Modec electric vans for its UK and German fleets. Energy costs play a huge part in the potential profitability of package delivery companies.
Most UPS Ground vehicles have no air conditioning, with the exception of tractor-trailers. This has been considered to be a contributing factor to heatstroke and other heat-related health problems in drivers who work in these vehicles for the entire shift. Modern vehicles have improved ventilation systems.
On January 29, 2020, UPS invested in Arrival (company) and ordered 10,000 Generation 2 Electric Vehicles.
Bicycles
In 2008, UPS started hiring bicycle delivery personnel in Vancouver, Washington, and in several cities in Oregon (Portland, Salem, Corvallis, Eugene, and Medford). In fall of 2018, UPS announced a new program in Seattle, Washington using pedal-assist electric cargo bikes (made by Portland-based Truck Trike) around Pike Place and other congested downtown areas. In Amsterdam UPS also uses Urban Arrow delivery bicycles for delivery via a granted concession.
Cargo airline
The fourth-largest cargo airline worldwide, UPS Airlines flies to over 800 destinations worldwide (the most of any airline, cargo or passenger). Formed in 1988, the airline is headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky (home to Worldport, its worldwide air hub) with additional hubs in the United States located in Ontario, California, Dallas, Texas, Rockford, Illinois and Philadelphia. Outside of North America, a hub in Cologne, Germany services Europe; in Asia, UPS Airlines operates a facility in Hong Kong and two hubs in mainland China.
Consisting of a fleet of over 260 aircraft, the airline competes directly against FedEx Express, facilitating air shipments by the company in over 200 countries and territories worldwide.
Cargo drone airline
UPS Flight Forward is a subsidiary which was formed in July 2019 and approved by FAA for Part 135 Standard certification, first ever to receive this specific type of certification. The FAA's Part 135 Standard certification allows company to operate an unlimited number of drones of any size (even allowing the cargo to exceed 55 pounds) even at with an unlimited number of remote operators in command.
Company brand
Brown
The brown color that UPS uses on its vehicles and uniforms is called Pullman brown. Company founder James E. Casey originally wanted company vehicles to use a yellow paint scheme, but one of his partners, Charlie Soderstrom, stated that a yellow vehicle would be hard to keep clean and that Pullman railroad cars were brown for just that reason.
During the 2000s, the company used the familiarity of its color scheme in an advertising slogan: "What can Brown do for you?"
Font
UPS commissioned brand consultancy FutureBrand to develop its own font, UPS Sans, for use in marketing and communication material. UPS Sans was created by slightly altering certain parts of FSI FontShop International's font FF Dax without permission. This has resulted in an agreement between FSI FontShop International and FutureBrand to avoid litigation.
Environmental record
As of 2013, UPS has over 104,900 vehicles in operation worldwide including nearly 7,000 alternative fuel vehicles. In May 2008, UPS placed an order for 200 hybrid electric vehicles (adding to the 50 it had at that point) and 300 compressed natural gas (which are 20% more fuel efficient, and add to the 800 it already has) vehicles from Daimler Trucks North America. The company added 200 hybrid electric vehicles to its fleet in 2016.
UPS received a "striding" rating of 80 points out of 100 totals on the environmental scorecard by the Climate Counts Group for its efforts to lessen the company's impact on the environment. UPS has also been awarded the Clean Air Excellence Award by the United States Environmental Protection Agency because of the alternative fuel program it has developed.
In October 2009, UPS became the first small-package carrier to offer customers the chance to buy carbon offsets to neutralize the greenhouse gas emissions generated by the transport of their packages. Although initially only available on ups.com and to high-volume shippers, they are now widely available through UPS shipping systems and UPS Ready third-party shipping systems.
Carbon footprint
UPS reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 16,500 Kt (+1,546/+10% y-o-y). UPS aims to reach net zero emissions by 2050.
Controversies
On May 26, 2017, a federal judge ordered UPS to pay nearly $247 million in damages and penalties for illegally shipping large amounts of untaxed cigarettes in New York.
UPS has been criticized for its treatment of its workforce, including providing inadequate protections and sick leave during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The company has also been subject to perennial and laughable criticism for damaged, late, or otherwise mishandled packages.
Safe streets activists have attacked UPS, along with other parcel delivery services, for frequently illegally parking their vehicles in bike lanes while making deliveries, a practice that endangers cyclists. They were sued over it in New York in 2015, and criticized alongside peers in a letter from Washington, D.C.'s transportation agency in 2018.
UPS was the fourth largest donor in the US to Republican lawmakers who sought to block certification of the 2020 presidential election results, leading to the January 6, 2021 insurrection. The first three were Koch Industries, Valero Energy and American Crystal Sugar Company. It was revealed that UPS donated to the Texas House of Representatives Republican Caucus after it passed the 6-week abortion ban that was signed into law by Governor Abbott.
See also
Big Brown – 2008 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes winner; named after the company
MaxiCode – A UPS developed and utilized square barcode-like symbol that appears on their package label
James E. Casey – Founder of UPS
References
Further reading
Brewster, Mike and Frederick Dalzell. Driving Change: The UPS Approach to Business (2007) excerpt and text search
Thomas L. Friedman, "Insourcing," in The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, updated and expanded, 2006, pp. 167–176.
Minchin, Timothy J. "Shutting Down 'Big Brown': Reassessing the 1997 UPS Strike and the Fate of American Labor," Labor History, 53 (Nov. 2012), 541–60.
Niemann, Greg. Big Brown: The Untold Story of UPS. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
External links
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Companies in the Dow Jones Transportation Average
Companies based in Sandy Springs, Georgia
Transport companies established in 1907
Express mail
Logistics companies of the United States
Trucking companies of the United States
1999 initial public offerings
1907 establishments in Washington (state)
Multinational companies headquartered in the United States
American companies established in 1907
Transportation companies based in Washington (state)
Transportation companies based in Georgia (U.S. state)
|
[
0.19796812534332275,
0.14443758130073547,
0.25019919872283936,
0.1568775177001953,
0.09189894795417786,
0.36872267723083496,
-0.44043079018592834,
0.4020552635192871,
-0.35440799593925476,
-0.14009219408035278,
-0.1693711280822754,
-0.18286047875881195,
-0.5402142405509949,
0.7318111658096313,
-0.14576637744903564,
-0.3454853594303131,
-0.2361871302127838,
0.7701307535171509,
-0.3230343759059906,
-0.4024009108543396,
-0.7971317172050476,
0.20849421620368958,
0.48715460300445557,
-0.419940322637558,
0.3105985224246979,
-0.2961355745792389,
-0.26846545934677124,
-0.3331575095653534,
-0.36157119274139404,
0.3844749927520752,
0.4346860647201538,
0.07704637944698334,
-0.26415207982063293,
-0.030301367864012718,
-0.6522067785263062,
-0.38305580615997314,
-0.32170990109443665,
-0.15430313348770142,
-0.5162864327430725,
-0.9870085120201111,
-0.6249794363975525,
0.07979458570480347,
-0.0075552756898105145,
-0.04378014802932739,
-0.09073414653539658,
-0.36805498600006104,
-1.2373262643814087,
0.09979263693094254,
-1.2033860683441162,
-0.12268780916929245,
-0.5356488823890686,
0.09328045696020126,
-0.10002778470516205,
0.4541172385215759,
0.08802333474159241,
0.11540065705776215,
-0.47241732478141785,
0.2657988667488098,
-0.2478189617395401,
-0.9252622127532959,
0.3806800842285156,
-0.27859002351760864,
0.9677963256835938,
0.3066842257976532,
0.8233376145362854,
-0.3359420597553253,
0.2008005827665329,
0.4005395174026489,
0.14181290566921234,
-0.33575835824012756,
-0.08759110420942307,
-0.5444633960723877,
0.18720999360084534,
0.44886261224746704,
-0.06026403605937958,
-0.4763332009315491,
-0.05415532365441322,
-0.10558327287435532,
-0.20961494743824005,
0.7158388495445251,
-0.4411329925060272,
0.7000607252120972,
0.28533750772476196,
-0.18019621074199677,
0.11036677658557892,
-0.32852819561958313,
-0.6578111052513123,
0.06700879335403442,
0.28185969591140747,
0.8003618717193604,
0.5348532199859619,
-0.038321174681186676,
0.3886320888996124,
-0.2984117269515991,
0.18221503496170044,
-0.6594276428222656,
-0.13462145626544952,
0.12102224677801132,
-0.015026809647679329,
0.05778626352548599,
-0.9406716227531433,
0.15339671075344086,
0.9147657155990601,
-0.43682852387428284,
0.49057796597480774,
-0.16122125089168549,
0.47408080101013184,
-0.4794076085090637,
0.5149775743484497,
-0.12466344237327576,
-0.15103602409362793,
-0.20989258587360382,
0.25373101234436035,
0.3756274878978729,
-0.31960365176200867,
0.17723214626312256,
0.30164629220962524,
-0.6283316016197205,
0.11231586337089539,
-0.705670177936554,
0.14548981189727783,
0.6380860805511475,
0.0575651153922081,
-0.49218228459358215,
0.11061780154705048,
-0.013946488499641418,
0.4686257541179657,
-0.08328638225793839,
-0.7813583016395569,
-0.2757689952850342,
0.20423072576522827,
0.8274235725402832,
-0.17789693176746368,
0.32269495725631714,
-0.41678085923194885,
0.44612133502960205,
0.3239358365535736,
0.45954465866088867,
0.5430448651313782,
-0.23439206182956696,
-0.8772410154342651,
0.013686941005289555,
-0.6118967533111572,
-0.4609811007976532,
0.6004413962364197,
0.21606242656707764,
0.21214033663272858,
-0.47800400853157043,
-0.5290950536727905,
-0.49331215023994446,
-0.09685979038476944,
-0.18025249242782593,
0.014604015275835991,
0.7056908011436462,
-0.25238659977912903,
-0.09066753834486008,
0.9430698156356812,
-0.1364995390176773,
0.4830165207386017,
0.10565700381994247,
-0.12314237654209137,
0.2103680968284607,
0.04177262634038925,
0.020197467878460884,
-0.40085065364837646,
-0.16395604610443115,
-0.11680036038160324,
0.3045150339603424,
0.010497535578906536,
-0.3033433258533478,
-0.1688230335712433,
-0.2590545117855072,
0.43098998069763184,
-0.08485915511846542,
0.3471107482910156,
-0.15954360365867615,
0.6207948327064514,
0.0715719610452652,
0.26804715394973755,
0.0467853881418705,
-0.50660640001297,
0.7576229572296143,
0.37179550528526306,
-0.17896768450737,
0.08106142282485962,
-0.29886990785598755,
0.2517148554325104,
-0.11645089834928513,
-0.1739765852689743,
-0.13842952251434326,
-0.4589911997318268,
-1.0167478322982788,
-0.3681650459766388,
0.08319392800331116,
0.30816492438316345,
0.26991185545921326,
-0.4024859070777893,
1.192273736000061,
-0.2094135582447052,
0.06819683313369751,
-0.31071802973747253,
0.4634692370891571,
-0.0479060634970665,
-0.5448395609855652,
-0.3838247060775757,
0.2488904595375061,
0.31220582127571106,
0.21858273446559906,
-0.028689488768577576,
0.19977393746376038,
0.3501199185848236,
-0.3061927855014801,
0.3780829608440399,
-0.08120661228895187,
-0.050614967942237854,
-0.48061200976371765,
-0.3032222092151642,
0.36884456872940063,
0.2030579000711441,
0.11451873928308487,
1.2039026021957397,
-0.04065531864762306,
0.3638133704662323,
0.7693036198616028,
-0.0013644052669405937,
0.30868977308273315,
0.04059290140867233,
0.1942913681268692,
-0.011118368245661259,
0.08068680763244629,
0.7258074283599854,
-0.3553957939147949,
-0.16674178838729858,
-0.7335152626037598,
0.2335214465856552,
-0.2736258804798126,
-0.13158665597438812,
-0.3589623272418976,
-0.3225248456001282,
0.2245866358280182,
0.24601882696151733,
0.2747071385383606,
-0.8139550685882568,
0.47250163555145264,
0.229405015707016,
-0.0370386578142643,
-0.3135872483253479,
-0.3652615547180176,
0.4442976117134094,
-0.03475436568260193,
-0.2812116742134094,
0.15162724256515503,
-0.2956174314022064,
-0.19462434947490692,
0.36791011691093445,
-0.2890477180480957,
0.23180684447288513,
0.5760896801948547,
0.44648095965385437,
0.037910230457782745,
0.05479729175567627,
0.28111279010772705,
-0.5062850713729858,
0.2819909155368805,
-0.12519942224025726,
-1.0415538549423218,
-0.6839030981063843,
-0.24046775698661804,
0.14620518684387207,
0.3452519178390503,
1.177263617515564,
-0.3125893771648407,
-0.013409599661827087,
0.005876350682228804,
-0.18425770103931427,
-0.6104335784912109,
0.7713337540626526,
0.06504864245653152,
-0.4090454578399658,
-0.34358224272727966,
0.3567943871021271,
0.4594781994819641,
0.31447410583496094,
-0.4921940267086029,
0.2847159504890442,
0.037074580788612366,
0.19272108376026154,
-0.14939814805984497,
-0.0905979573726654,
0.03562906011939049,
-0.22457829117774963,
-0.20259270071983337,
-0.22013328969478607,
0.3527413010597229,
0.31948554515838623,
0.3426070213317871,
0.6802483797073364,
0.47873830795288086,
-0.15662875771522522,
-0.3119131922721863,
-0.5433191657066345,
0.04873361065983772,
-0.3047583997249603,
-0.44742101430892944,
0.209355428814888,
-0.3998262286186218,
0.3851338028907776,
-0.6225724220275879,
-5.721444606781006,
-0.23379231989383698,
-0.4722696542739868,
-0.3096369504928589,
0.6681790351867676,
-0.30186495184898376,
0.8194106221199036,
-0.3415340483188629,
0.20038889348506927,
0.16211886703968048,
0.1632370799779892,
0.14643864333629608,
0.20647720992565155,
-0.2281116396188736,
0.22476717829704285,
0.5577508211135864,
0.007860030047595501,
0.5656525492668152,
0.14300063252449036,
-0.3068790137767792,
-0.08202912658452988,
-0.884463369846344,
0.5862911939620972,
1.1045476198196411,
-0.016883473843336105,
-0.002147582359611988,
0.3828364312648773,
0.04111134260892868,
-0.5054648518562317,
-0.055917274206876755,
0.28928884863853455,
-0.3274715840816498,
0.3505944609642029,
-0.20327137410640717,
-0.16332510113716125,
-0.9606213569641113,
0.5330896973609924,
0.27745479345321655,
0.30012473464012146,
-0.3473561108112335,
0.34353044629096985,
0.06803799420595169,
-0.06369069218635559,
-0.7281654477119446,
0.02942448854446411,
-0.6466743350028992,
-0.22522307932376862,
-0.22586680948734283,
-0.04824638366699219,
0.8556719422340393,
0.5090256929397583,
0.29980993270874023,
0.13874587416648865,
-0.6487728357315063,
-0.05953371524810791,
-0.30191829800605774,
-0.15561243891716003,
0.1521999090909958,
-0.40863052010536194,
0.076090008020401,
0.4536605775356293,
0.05457494035363197,
-0.3251804709434509,
-0.3483929932117462,
-0.5392921566963196,
-0.035097990185022354,
-0.6263135671615601,
-0.13177821040153503,
0.7503775358200073,
-0.14804735779762268,
-0.020788270980119705,
0.4544890522956848,
0.33186328411102295,
-0.67156583070755,
0.10349733382463455,
-0.9294342398643494,
0.5077186822891235,
-0.30251964926719666,
-0.1733195036649704,
0.2493661344051361,
-0.17234265804290771,
0.03953390195965767,
-0.13947871327400208,
0.2929452955722809,
0.42579385638237,
-0.2477414458990097,
-0.7208498120307922,
-0.018326399847865105,
-0.431254506111145,
-0.25359681248664856,
0.5177246332168579,
-0.3155575692653656,
0.6297857761383057,
0.4635409414768219,
0.19823569059371948,
-0.03195766732096672,
-0.4496491849422455,
0.8063979148864746,
0.48416104912757874,
-0.3745948076248169,
0.06420881301164627,
0.48640167713165283,
-0.07034895569086075,
-0.9383512139320374,
0.24430148303508759,
-0.34600603580474854,
-0.4149051606655121,
-0.07135235518217087,
0.4693045914173126,
0.3411862552165985,
0.2659362852573395,
0.041225362569093704,
-0.4207800626754761,
-0.7983906865119934,
-0.5261572003364563,
0.7811702489852905,
-0.5982651710510254,
0.44028010964393616,
0.2358044534921646,
0.14963699877262115,
0.2980055510997772,
0.34375956654548645,
-0.029512757435441017,
0.14778411388397217,
0.016836058348417282,
-0.3416111469268799,
-0.20297729969024658,
0.3379448652267456,
0.31932204961776733,
-0.2758728861808777,
0.7011556625366211,
0.035930924117565155,
0.745714545249939,
-0.03069433942437172,
0.43895554542541504,
0.1769138127565384,
-0.348704069852829,
-0.28735968470573425,
0.08001338690519333,
-0.1239599883556366,
-0.24549248814582825,
0.01258600503206253,
-0.19371387362480164,
0.15584127604961395,
0.7522268295288086,
0.17020651698112488,
-0.22644898295402527,
-0.12326087057590485,
0.279036283493042,
-0.0626608207821846,
0.10467784106731415,
-0.8187228441238403,
0.16241639852523804,
-0.03985915333032608,
-0.8236249685287476,
-0.5507845878601074,
0.28433647751808167,
0.06643083691596985,
-0.4633162319660187,
-0.18601006269454956,
0.018295248970389366,
-0.7150045037269592,
-0.2628633677959442,
-0.4676210582256317,
0.08600281924009323,
0.11400683969259262,
-0.2913416624069214,
-0.5961225628852844,
-0.08070793747901917,
0.41439855098724365,
-0.1085185706615448,
-0.25360429286956787,
-0.3079138994216919,
-0.35200923681259155,
0.48030123114585876,
0.8586059212684631,
0.11176063120365143,
-0.27022337913513184,
0.29335713386535645,
0.23687368631362915,
-0.22450000047683716,
-0.10218224674463272,
-0.772030234336853,
0.16773265600204468,
-0.017025770619511604,
-0.40226873755455017,
0.2733047306537628,
-0.09752151370048523,
-0.32395151257514954,
-0.44365647435188293,
-0.19699017703533173,
0.06658389419317245,
0.3696743845939636,
0.6059158444404602,
-0.414802610874176,
-0.28010982275009155,
-0.5610706806182861,
0.43561801314353943,
-0.0016763935564085841,
-0.0887245163321495,
-0.12913964688777924,
0.2353295087814331,
-0.3766096532344818,
-0.4671722650527954,
-0.3490089476108551,
-0.3842707574367523,
0.1905325949192047,
-0.017617283388972282,
0.1517414152622223,
0.4029952883720398,
-0.11942670494318008,
-0.20551322400569916,
0.1307721883058548,
0.7294154763221741,
-0.38380488753318787,
0.07286319136619568,
0.334940105676651,
-0.39904916286468506,
0.16946586966514587,
-0.8026178479194641,
0.13682276010513306,
0.22476345300674438,
-0.756981372833252,
-0.23986907303333282,
-0.5604819655418396,
1.075258731842041,
-0.12509028613567352,
-0.8646277785301208,
0.09168130159378052,
-0.42931997776031494,
0.09355559200048447,
-0.41798603534698486,
-0.4609246850013733,
0.33868759870529175,
0.2650321125984192,
0.3059123158454895,
0.11379235237836838,
-0.09027702361345291,
-0.0033958093263208866,
0.21327339112758636,
0.09924740344285965,
0.6445651054382324,
0.3581029176712036,
-0.23312553763389587,
-0.09435004740953445,
0.883730947971344,
0.8653494715690613,
-0.46173208951950073,
-0.24145136773586273,
0.5216220021247864,
0.5171764492988586,
-0.39786359667778015,
-0.7001456618309021,
0.4557265639305115,
0.5223086476325989,
0.0765015110373497,
-0.2604583203792572,
-0.04151181876659393,
-0.8294684886932373,
-0.3154526352882385,
-0.0013509273994714022,
0.3116476237773895,
-0.5117524266242981,
0.4009208083152771,
0.46840181946754456,
0.6669153571128845,
-0.40591660141944885,
-0.1057605966925621,
-0.03592987731099129,
-0.43922504782676697,
0.29264184832572937,
0.4827728867530823,
0.2126465141773224,
0.28243157267570496,
0.4751591384410858,
0.19141526520252228,
0.706861138343811,
-0.5261098742485046,
-0.1047765240073204,
0.019826263189315796,
-0.5741286277770996,
-0.032301802188158035,
-0.18625915050506592,
0.03773663192987442,
0.08239980041980743,
-0.8266212940216064,
-0.3949155807495117,
-0.09135352075099945,
-0.6564691066741943,
0.08860868960618973,
-0.08031263947486877,
0.22503799200057983,
-0.08253473788499832,
0.02607528679072857,
-0.9463569521903992,
-0.11380075663328171,
0.34232044219970703,
0.16139188408851624,
-0.14656320214271545,
0.14956556260585785,
-0.8329121470451355,
-0.03222333639860153,
0.02534566819667816,
-0.607048511505127,
0.20148178935050964,
0.04059845209121704,
-0.11591653525829315,
-0.06273768842220306,
0.22338180243968964,
-0.18904709815979004,
0.20135189592838287,
-0.8068401217460632,
0.31864917278289795,
0.42115089297294617,
-0.5461427569389343,
0.08780865371227264,
0.5159987211227417,
-0.4866492450237274,
0.21543081104755402,
0.04003021866083145,
0.09964339435100555,
0.015055407769978046,
-0.26316267251968384,
-0.185594841837883,
-0.2005901038646698,
0.3314862847328186,
0.10665369033813477,
0.1042071282863617,
-0.12074694782495499,
0.10213378816843033,
0.4179046154022217,
0.10448170453310013,
-0.3972477912902832,
0.1573142260313034,
-0.1447838544845581,
-0.3735453188419342,
-0.07897508889436722,
-0.4106104373931885,
-0.730908215045929,
0.6734411716461182,
0.17159344255924225,
0.39996132254600525,
0.4515666365623474,
0.19381868839263916,
-0.3080926239490509,
0.4957289397716522,
0.49877262115478516,
0.6434829831123352,
0.6507213115692139,
0.2595374584197998,
0.1760481745004654,
0.1962006837129593,
0.2236287146806717,
0.19439002871513367,
-0.04728695750236511,
-0.33852487802505493,
0.3851756155490875,
-0.09590073674917221,
0.31431102752685547,
-0.3771103024482727,
-0.5684908628463745,
0.6825197339057922,
0.7227768898010254,
0.008410288020968437,
0.5395660400390625,
-0.3032180368900299,
0.3989185392856598,
-1.1216752529144287,
-0.05136820301413536,
0.31271496415138245,
-0.1720147579908371,
0.5773983597755432,
-0.3808688223361969,
0.5587966442108154,
-0.08733907341957092,
0.768422544002533,
0.2389993816614151,
0.7289297580718994,
0.4796275496482849,
0.4165092706680298,
-0.1501629799604416,
-0.18321868777275085,
0.17585572600364685,
-0.5997863411903381,
-0.12255591154098511,
-0.06149511784315109,
-0.48417067527770996,
-0.04312504082918167,
0.37771159410476685,
0.08341871201992035,
-0.12601613998413086,
-0.7878065705299377,
-0.09671031683683395,
0.1709543913602829,
0.4498142600059509,
0.13835377991199493,
-0.04844418540596962,
0.5262359976768494,
0.1359218955039978,
-0.4726336598396301,
-0.03777322545647621,
0.36107683181762695,
0.5475685596466064,
-0.2772666811943054,
0.11139431595802307,
0.06245558708906174,
-0.2170833945274353,
-0.05580484867095947,
-0.07176421582698822,
0.11205101013183594,
0.0933629721403122,
0.06333969533443451,
0.006971515715122223,
0.313626229763031,
0.020226918160915375,
0.12024980783462524,
0.5941644906997681,
-0.16195593774318695,
0.23387929797172546,
-0.06514326483011246,
-0.03741300478577614,
0.16748543083667755,
-0.28629228472709656,
0.15073634684085846,
0.38537856936454773,
-0.17720702290534973,
0.22321563959121704,
0.337056040763855,
-0.9262022376060486,
0.6067072749137878,
0.2296927124261856,
0.057194747030735016,
-0.7158494591712952,
-0.0939302146434784,
-0.09028204530477524,
0.009435918182134628,
-0.6077316403388977,
0.2330751270055771,
0.23778705298900604,
-0.35576340556144714,
0.11527715623378754,
0.009409544058144093,
0.001703791320323944,
-0.354767382144928,
0.7993890047073364,
-0.02872086688876152,
0.07880808413028717,
-0.4797077775001526,
-0.9807597994804382,
0.7966209053993225,
-0.06698498129844666,
-0.3082028329372406,
0.39634305238723755,
0.04009034484624863,
0.3529430627822876,
-0.167082741856575,
0.17543232440948486,
0.3618696630001068,
0.42967087030410767,
0.08582858741283417
] |
206101
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes%27%20law
|
Stokes' law
|
In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression, now known as Stokes law, for the frictional force – also called drag force – exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers in a viscous fluid. Stokes' law is derived by solving the Stokes flow limit for small Reynolds numbers of the Navier–Stokes equations.
Statement of the law
The force of viscosity on a small sphere moving through a viscous fluid is given by:
where:
Fd is the frictional force – known as Stokes' drag – acting on the interface between the fluid and the particle
μ is the dynamic viscosity (some authors use the symbol η)
R is the radius of the spherical object
v is the flow velocity relative to the object.
In SI units, Fd is given in newtons (= kg m s−2), μ in Pa·s (= kg m−1 s−1), R in meters, and v in m/s.
Stokes' law makes the following assumptions for the behavior of a particle in a fluid:
Laminar flow
Spherical particles
Homogeneous (uniform in composition) material
Smooth surfaces
Particles do not interfere with each other.
For molecules Stokes' law is used to define their Stokes radius and diameter.
The CGS unit of kinematic viscosity was named "stokes" after his work.
Applications
Stokes' law is the basis of the falling-sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameters are normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerine or golden syrup as the fluid, and the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes. Several school experiments often involve varying the temperature and/or concentration of the substances used in order to demonstrate the effects this has on the viscosity. Industrial methods include many different oils, and polymer liquids such as solutions.
The importance of Stokes' law is illustrated by the fact that it played a critical role in the research leading to at least three Nobel Prizes.
Stokes' law is important for understanding the swimming of microorganisms and sperm; also, the sedimentation of small particles and organisms in water, under the force of gravity.
In air, the same theory can be used to explain why small water droplets (or ice crystals) can remain suspended in air (as clouds) until they grow to a critical size and start falling as rain (or snow and hail). Similar use of the equation can be made in the settling of fine particles in water or other fluids.
Terminal velocity of sphere falling in a fluid
At terminal (or settling) velocity, the excess force Fg due to the difference between the weight and buoyancy of the sphere (both caused by gravity) is given by:
with ρp and ρf the mass densities of the sphere and fluid, respectively, and g the gravitational acceleration. Requiring the force balance Fd = Fg and solving for the velocity v gives the terminal velocity vs. Note that since the excess force increases as R3 and Stokes' drag increases as R, the terminal velocity increases as R2 and thus varies greatly with particle size as shown below. If a particle only experiences its own weight while falling in a viscous fluid, then a terminal velocity is reached when the sum of the frictional and the buoyant forces on the particle due to the fluid exactly balances the gravitational force. This velocity v (m/s) is given by:
(vertically downwards if ρp > ρf, upwards if ρp < ρf ), where:
g is the gravitational field strength (m/s2)
R is the radius of the spherical particle (m)
ρp is the mass density of the particle (kg/m3)
ρf is the mass density of the fluid (kg/m3)
μ is the dynamic viscosity (kg/(m*s)).
Derivation
Steady Stokes flow
In Stokes flow, at very low Reynolds number, the convective acceleration terms in the Navier–Stokes equations are neglected. Then the flow equations become, for an incompressible steady flow:
where:
p is the fluid pressure (in Pa),
u is the flow velocity (in m/s), and
ω is the vorticity (in s−1), defined as
By using some vector calculus identities, these equations can be shown to result in Laplace's equations for the pressure and each of the components of the vorticity vector:
and
Additional forces like those by gravity and buoyancy have not been taken into account, but can easily be added since the above equations are linear, so linear superposition of solutions and associated forces can be applied.
Transversal flow around a sphere
For the case of a sphere in a uniform far field flow, it is advantageous to use a cylindrical coordinate system (r, φ, z). The z–axis is through the centre of the sphere and aligned with the mean flow direction, while r is the radius as measured perpendicular to the z–axis. The origin is at the sphere centre. Because the flow is axisymmetric around the z–axis, it is independent of the azimuth φ.
In this cylindrical coordinate system, the incompressible flow can be described with a Stokes stream function ψ, depending on r and z:
with ur and uz the flow velocity components in the r and z direction, respectively. The azimuthal velocity component in the φ–direction is equal to zero, in this axisymmetric case. The volume flux, through a tube bounded by a surface of some constant value ψ, is equal to 2π ψ and is constant.
For this case of an axisymmetric flow, the only non-zero component of the vorticity vector ω is the azimuthal φ–component ωφ
The Laplace operator, applied to the vorticity ωφ, becomes in this cylindrical coordinate system with axisymmetry:
From the previous two equations, and with the appropriate boundary conditions, for a far-field uniform-flow velocity u in the z–direction and a sphere of radius R, the solution is found to be
The solution of velocity in cylindrical coordinates and components follows as:
The solution of vorticity in cylindrical coordinates follows as:
The solution of pressure in cylindrical coordinates follows as:
The solution of pressure in spherical coordinates follows as:
The formula of pressure is also called dipole-potential in analogues to electrostatics.
A more general formulation, with arbitrary far-field velocity-vector , in cartesian coordinates follows with:
In this formulation the non-conservative term represents a kind of so-called Stokeslet. The Stokeslet is the Greens' function of the Stokes-Flow-Equations. The conservative term is equal to the dipole-gradient-field. The formula of vorticity is a kind of Biot-Savart-Formula, which is also used in electromagnetism.
The following formula describes the viscous-stress-tensor for the special case of stokes-flow. It's needed in the calculation of the force acting on the particle. In cartesian coordinates the vector-gradient is identical to the jacobian-matrix. The matrix represents the identity-matrix.
The force acting on the sphere is to calculate by surface-integral, where represents the radial unit-vector of spherical-coordinates:
Heuristic Proof
The mysterious six in Stokes' formula can be derived from adding the surface area of a sphere to the surface area of its lower hemisphere:
When each term is multiplied by v/r, the number of radial lengths per second of the ball's descent through the fluid, we obtain the rate at which oil is sliding off of the "duck's back", a meters squared per second quantity. This is also the rate of change of volume over time (the chain rule requires the v/r factor).
When multiplied by the viscosity this yields a fluid force. A drop of oil moving over the surface is pushing against the viscosity: meters squared per second multiplied by a kilogram per meter-second nets out to newtons of force. The greater the fluid's speed and the greater the resistance it encounters, the greater the fluid force. For the upper hemisphere:
For the lower hemisphere:
The latter represents the streamlines pushing upwards on the lower half of the ball. One way of coming at this is to view the speed of the streamlines pushing up on the lower hemisphere as v-(-v) or 2v against a speed of only v for the overall descent of the ball. The lower hemisphere is like the biker in front of his passenger catching the "wind", which is just produced by the bike's motion, and shielding his passenger. The quadruple term would refer to the lower hemisphere and the double term would apply to the upper hemisphere.
A more graphic example would be that a victim doesn't care which "end" of an iron ball hit him in the noggin, but the ball does care; you'd rather be the upper hemisphere of the ball. The much vaunted symmetry of the sphere has its limits. This also bears comparison to the change in momentum of a ball bouncing off a wall: mv-(-mv) = 2mv:
.
Rotational flow around a sphere
Other types of Stokes flow
Although the liquid is static and the sphere is moving with a certain velocity, with respect to the frame of sphere, the sphere is at rest and liquid is flowing in the opposite direction to the motion of the sphere.
See also
Einstein relation (kinetic theory)
Scientific laws named after people
Drag equation
Viscometry
Equivalent spherical diameter
Deposition (geology)
Sources
Originally published in 1879, the 6th extended edition appeared first in 1932.
References
Fluid dynamics
|
[
-0.43228214979171753,
-0.14326703548431396,
0.1622595638036728,
0.17863747477531433,
-0.588431179523468,
0.5118388533592224,
-0.11912596225738525,
-0.4513322412967682,
0.0592326745390892,
-0.7582573890686035,
0.0809832289814949,
0.461922824382782,
-0.4468052089214325,
0.949448823928833,
-0.07563956826925278,
0.5544045567512512,
0.014064664021134377,
0.19892477989196777,
-0.5411126613616943,
-0.265205979347229,
0.3721323311328888,
0.19576917588710785,
0.4917066991329193,
-0.020284557715058327,
0.5491845607757568,
-0.5267401337623596,
-0.0018830759217962623,
0.4049789309501648,
0.17399290204048157,
0.6423496603965759,
-0.19452877342700958,
0.9988552927970886,
-0.37929069995880127,
0.3349066972732544,
-0.24654407799243927,
-0.21629184484481812,
0.23217140138149261,
0.12635329365730286,
-0.004292481113225222,
0.10929866135120392,
0.3557843565940857,
-0.0417814627289772,
0.316631942987442,
0.05217032879590988,
0.13575619459152222,
-0.3185328543186188,
-1.2181148529052734,
-0.10538385808467865,
-0.5425444841384888,
-0.8287099003791809,
-0.05089377984404564,
0.7898451685905457,
0.22558948397636414,
0.9503743648529053,
-0.732438862323761,
0.3224714696407318,
-0.563035249710083,
-0.1855902522802353,
0.32071223855018616,
-0.4463176429271698,
0.6029372811317444,
0.4794630706310272,
-0.0830778256058693,
0.4441462755203247,
0.37755024433135986,
0.5646816492080688,
-0.04107227176427841,
0.2080463320016861,
-0.10437587648630142,
-0.25324809551239014,
-0.19869953393936157,
0.07656356692314148,
-0.3984375596046448,
0.02271912433207035,
-0.7624915838241577,
0.24721983075141907,
0.18659889698028564,
-0.11002931743860245,
0.4828234016895294,
0.4870791435241699,
0.1740887314081192,
-0.1333179771900177,
0.027769697830080986,
-0.18282324075698853,
-0.07631349563598633,
0.7526435852050781,
-0.4705119729042053,
0.25167983770370483,
-0.18980608880519867,
0.63596510887146,
-0.027700230479240417,
-0.19785746932029724,
0.25613802671432495,
-0.30421534180641174,
0.3435280919075012,
0.04871257767081261,
0.7539126873016357,
-0.29120904207229614,
-0.18979723751544952,
-0.155791774392128,
-0.41730302572250366,
-0.5450096726417542,
-0.22334164381027222,
0.03550245612859726,
-0.23328424990177155,
-0.9549990296363831,
-0.143437922000885,
-0.439308762550354,
0.15965527296066284,
0.03361300751566887,
-0.5265427231788635,
-0.08318348228931427,
-0.09763044118881226,
-0.0014585709432139993,
-0.4376243054866791,
0.12644752860069275,
-0.0450412780046463,
-0.33973428606987,
0.477895051240921,
0.2989598214626312,
-1.0196243524551392,
0.3619883954524994,
-0.0806444063782692,
0.3048473298549652,
-0.018693657591938972,
0.39479535818099976,
0.5983657240867615,
0.6019947528839111,
-0.6765756011009216,
0.4733775556087494,
0.4607785642147064,
0.8069326877593994,
0.8417834639549255,
0.23181426525115967,
-0.11368701606988907,
-0.5621360540390015,
-0.02494078502058983,
0.03688342124223709,
-1.19866144657135,
0.005610263906419277,
-0.14453960955142975,
-0.2572043538093567,
-0.691300630569458,
-0.0012041518930345774,
0.4348900020122528,
-0.3291909992694855,
-0.35083457827568054,
-0.7675029039382935,
-0.2717764973640442,
-0.2848612666130066,
-0.19472676515579224,
0.5007304549217224,
-0.201288640499115,
-0.018018262460827827,
0.06762144714593887,
-0.014175673015415668,
-0.04520446062088013,
0.5699580311775208,
-0.7512174248695374,
0.13690704107284546,
-0.4797416627407074,
0.15231192111968994,
-0.1326286345720291,
-0.25220951437950134,
0.3558118939399719,
-0.8374271392822266,
1.0006446838378906,
0.22328901290893555,
-0.0799088403582573,
0.37596628069877625,
-0.8155860900878906,
-0.4928819239139557,
-0.17846359312534332,
0.06985436379909515,
-0.10604299604892731,
0.22104744613170624,
0.6794809699058533,
-0.25031277537345886,
1.2512404918670654,
-0.12214674800634384,
-0.467721551656723,
0.45106640458106995,
0.2558008134365082,
0.09911875426769257,
0.4333154559135437,
0.05692297965288162,
0.30728381872177124,
-0.04203880950808525,
0.048056460916996,
-0.3442970812320709,
-0.21184736490249634,
-0.360971063375473,
0.4752715826034546,
-0.5887565612792969,
1.0880588293075562,
0.645788311958313,
-0.4051649570465088,
0.7696740031242371,
-0.1257561445236206,
0.5829458236694336,
-0.3651678264141083,
-0.12243011593818665,
0.21926046907901764,
0.23167303204536438,
-0.3808993995189667,
0.35199958086013794,
-0.08757676184177399,
-0.05861422047019005,
-0.6075112819671631,
0.43616586923599243,
0.1992345005273819,
-0.27286627888679504,
0.21349647641181946,
-0.5173722505569458,
-0.6081820726394653,
-0.25945597887039185,
-0.8540350794792175,
0.47629570960998535,
0.03752461448311806,
0.17810223996639252,
0.4200533926486969,
-0.26690277457237244,
-0.03671441972255707,
0.15014849603176117,
0.5474022030830383,
0.39385703206062317,
0.850496768951416,
0.47584694623947144,
-0.11264526098966599,
-0.4223296642303467,
-0.19924992322921753,
-0.11910754442214966,
0.482151597738266,
-0.09367865324020386,
-0.4724310636520386,
0.27206578850746155,
0.17404629290103912,
-0.46664634346961975,
0.17544367909431458,
-0.029412252828478813,
0.25379297137260437,
0.863383412361145,
-0.2749593257904053,
0.3856263756752014,
-0.5803899168968201,
-0.032123710960149765,
0.22501209378242493,
-0.022534450516104698,
-0.1441200077533722,
0.3612431585788727,
-0.4291761517524719,
0.5645648837089539,
-0.0676184594631195,
-0.28090158104896545,
0.14130765199661255,
-0.22207044064998627,
0.040662579238414764,
-0.04370202124118805,
0.6729759573936462,
0.5235138535499573,
-0.14608851075172424,
-0.2322024703025818,
0.12951764464378357,
-0.06630242615938187,
-0.17735153436660767,
-0.9895685911178589,
-0.11074812710285187,
0.22785906493663788,
-0.3247261941432953,
0.6471643447875977,
0.64497971534729,
-0.016183162108063698,
0.04187273234128952,
-0.2707517445087433,
-0.08905089646577835,
-0.6424617767333984,
0.21898461878299713,
0.19739164412021637,
-0.7384902834892273,
-0.3252931237220764,
0.24604719877243042,
1.2771345376968384,
0.12236450612545013,
-0.16320733726024628,
0.1085314154624939,
-0.7153265476226807,
-0.36664488911628723,
-0.22715531289577484,
0.3229811489582062,
0.1406678557395935,
-0.5920560956001282,
-0.03376039117574692,
-0.44553568959236145,
-0.2615478038787842,
-0.6199229955673218,
1.1389156579971313,
-0.016618700698018074,
-0.6513340473175049,
0.16915515065193176,
-0.24144203960895538,
-0.7719035148620605,
-0.1729470193386078,
-0.2540677785873413,
-0.411529541015625,
-0.23429469764232635,
-0.5575336813926697,
-0.3559408485889435,
0.6361427903175354,
-5.3484320640563965,
0.1959948092699051,
0.3687412440776825,
0.05136372148990631,
-0.07712836563587189,
0.8183048367500305,
0.9552467465400696,
-0.06972374022006989,
-0.5247166752815247,
0.06868883222341537,
-0.4553835093975067,
-0.23747394979000092,
-0.37720027565956116,
0.5774149894714355,
0.268833190202713,
-0.014726278372108936,
0.5438292622566223,
-0.13188861310482025,
0.06344658136367798,
0.5711995363235474,
-0.168910413980484,
-0.340346097946167,
-0.3585100471973419,
-0.08563771098852158,
0.1701931208372116,
0.12170569598674774,
-0.3081202507019043,
0.8709853887557983,
-0.4891589283943176,
0.6695768237113953,
-0.14986613392829895,
-0.7276591658592224,
-0.15179777145385742,
-0.6019861102104187,
0.1490057408809662,
0.1424143761396408,
0.06668518483638763,
0.25609955191612244,
0.31519782543182373,
0.001490786555223167,
-0.6407332420349121,
0.5727378129959106,
-0.3937704563140869,
-0.3794982135295868,
0.37396159768104553,
-0.3329222798347473,
0.4576191008090973,
0.806388258934021,
-0.39172959327697754,
0.4885859787464142,
-0.15812601149082184,
-0.08803343027830124,
-0.15965859591960907,
-0.8140666484832764,
-0.11203012615442276,
0.2307891994714737,
0.4414806067943573,
-0.3335801362991333,
-0.46071892976760864,
0.2945898175239563,
0.6176721453666687,
-0.753277599811554,
-0.04171299561858177,
0.13002745807170868,
-0.18646922707557678,
0.09728708863258362,
-1.1307587623596191,
-0.1030445322394371,
0.26160529255867004,
0.3299150764942169,
0.1685265600681305,
0.7334065437316895,
0.43283528089523315,
-0.5514384508132935,
-0.28810998797416687,
-0.5561878681182861,
0.1752382218837738,
-0.11376303434371948,
0.7032495737075806,
0.4346621632575989,
-0.3677811324596405,
-0.6832916140556335,
-0.5442885756492615,
0.82590651512146,
-0.05707024037837982,
-0.2104630321264267,
-0.4114049971103668,
-0.5515182018280029,
-0.5876098275184631,
-0.9059988260269165,
0.5416821241378784,
0.021340709179639816,
0.5556801557540894,
0.1961423009634018,
-0.07504172623157501,
0.282667338848114,
-0.5675306916236877,
-0.006702732294797897,
0.2822249233722687,
-0.1672733724117279,
0.07975342124700546,
-0.4805569350719452,
0.5048604011535645,
-0.22520805895328522,
0.8653658032417297,
-0.11479748040437698,
-0.4256467819213867,
0.6039310097694397,
0.3761618733406067,
0.1568240523338318,
-0.1030331626534462,
0.5421514511108398,
-0.2158023864030838,
0.21280524134635925,
0.40404054522514343,
0.011231313459575176,
-0.5137590169906616,
0.10073964297771454,
0.45063504576683044,
-0.05365096405148506,
0.2721066176891327,
0.16147099435329437,
-0.3395083248615265,
-0.36707425117492676,
0.7817842364311218,
0.44975483417510986,
0.19133880734443665,
0.4972675144672394,
-0.37115371227264404,
-0.12723581492900848,
0.20048199594020844,
0.8457688093185425,
0.17416304349899292,
0.48509177565574646,
0.17795424163341522,
-0.5498261451721191,
-0.4833723306655884,
-0.14843696355819702,
-0.03169906511902809,
-0.14079739153385162,
0.2780109941959381,
0.754034161567688,
-0.2829221785068512,
-1.1141282320022583,
0.9700700640678406,
0.38439232110977173,
0.2082338035106659,
-0.1901082992553711,
-0.4034165143966675,
0.22677761316299438,
0.6658523082733154,
-0.7292559146881104,
0.05244032293558121,
-0.43349042534828186,
-0.06747738271951675,
0.2581503391265869,
0.34731775522232056,
0.46437758207321167,
-0.0619938001036644,
-0.4353780150413513,
0.11156422644853592,
-0.10350382328033447,
-1.051716923713684,
-0.6409094929695129,
-0.5011482834815979,
0.12633980810642242,
-0.7772011756896973,
-0.07135706394910812,
0.5199607610702515,
0.0936158075928688,
0.057595644146203995,
-0.4812657833099365,
-0.45959118008613586,
-0.7809624075889587,
-0.04821149632334709,
0.24751411378383636,
-0.07003732770681381,
-0.2013707160949707,
-0.34224265813827515,
-0.4436372220516205,
0.32821908593177795,
-0.5094550848007202,
-0.22748731076717377,
0.11161304265260696,
0.3076793849468231,
-0.5878930687904358,
-0.10496681183576584,
0.1394640952348709,
-0.3812909722328186,
-0.3115368187427521,
0.37949520349502563,
0.3961825966835022,
0.12261657416820526,
0.11197716742753983,
-0.16074945032596588,
-0.28636741638183594,
0.24949142336845398,
0.6020098924636841,
-0.4820709824562073,
-0.4092879295349121,
-0.10004084557294846,
0.6640001535415649,
-0.05128898844122887,
0.3737543523311615,
-0.12234070152044296,
-0.5569941997528076,
-0.2760379910469055,
-0.28160515427589417,
-0.6986983418464661,
0.07538168132305145,
-0.6056454181671143,
-0.19155868887901306,
-0.5891105532646179,
0.15685655176639557,
-0.21938243508338928,
0.09507328271865845,
0.691999077796936,
-0.354598730802536,
0.2382240742444992,
-0.21364815533161163,
-0.07752109318971634,
0.03170988708734512,
-0.6294562816619873,
-0.33415383100509644,
0.22262057662010193,
0.2540042996406555,
0.21101278066635132,
-0.25448843836784363,
1.010963797569275,
-0.4727211594581604,
-0.28645384311676025,
0.0945059210062027,
-0.22215858101844788,
0.35689687728881836,
-0.24581219255924225,
-0.15109330415725708,
-0.3588545024394989,
0.14499041438102722,
-0.49201056361198425,
-0.8335803747177124,
0.7915336489677429,
1.1043459177017212,
0.27568626403808594,
0.024721840396523476,
0.104214146733284,
0.08180824667215347,
0.37935343384742737,
-0.4132007360458374,
0.07870398461818695,
-0.2177644968032837,
-0.5109561681747437,
-0.1348152458667755,
-0.6127214431762695,
-0.10275377333164215,
0.18362709879875183,
0.2804660201072693,
0.3297712802886963,
-0.5536854863166809,
0.44712796807289124,
0.478962779045105,
-0.05129679664969444,
0.15847302973270416,
-0.6193846464157104,
-0.12948940694332123,
-0.5833761692047119,
0.5186434388160706,
-0.4135236442089081,
-0.07148049771785736,
0.16159668564796448,
-0.6535639762878418,
0.8454563021659851,
-0.746779203414917,
-0.2237309068441391,
0.21018363535404205,
0.19451360404491425,
0.6038621664047241,
0.0018300263909623027,
0.1096900925040245,
0.682725727558136,
-0.6303869485855103,
-0.5153912901878357,
0.2169816941022873,
0.1332337111234665,
-0.46008068323135376,
0.5503069162368774,
0.3496839106082916,
0.5286111831665039,
0.30724701285362244,
-0.06334168463945389,
0.42891910672187805,
-0.6525275707244873,
-0.11837459355592728,
0.012004610151052475,
-0.18505427241325378,
-0.038954995572566986,
0.16698725521564484,
-0.15364983677864075,
0.35231757164001465,
-0.0096742557361722,
-0.3716585338115692,
-0.9702940583229065,
0.453077107667923,
-0.3439561426639557,
-0.525441586971283,
0.34734901785850525,
-0.6651476621627808,
0.7182338833808899,
0.2068808525800705,
0.19165220856666565,
-0.2374606728553772,
0.42769238352775574,
0.23915612697601318,
-0.862452507019043,
0.33595940470695496,
-0.45437926054000854,
-0.6882422566413879,
0.45671120285987854,
-0.4011000990867615,
0.17901074886322021,
0.5174862742424011,
-0.5950735807418823,
0.049853865057229996,
0.6179362535476685,
-0.6528642773628235,
-0.21958112716674805,
-0.016849275678396225,
-0.632732629776001,
0.8797348737716675,
-0.9745050072669983,
0.33424004912376404,
0.7590923309326172,
-0.2562407851219177,
-0.8940932154655457,
0.509879469871521,
-0.12398134171962738,
0.42484065890312195,
0.6956021189689636,
-0.46135058999061584,
-0.384294718503952,
0.18020623922348022,
0.6027882695198059,
0.6677787899971008,
-0.06569141149520874,
0.14342381060123444,
0.19419319927692413,
0.3351379632949829,
-0.22954677045345306,
0.25755906105041504,
0.15233635902404785,
-0.21519523859024048,
0.17578966915607452,
0.05640736222267151,
0.48743635416030884,
-0.6632422804832458,
-0.33780011534690857,
-0.15839657187461853,
0.9160211086273193,
-0.08196408301591873,
-0.6773726344108582,
0.3732680678367615,
-0.19801951944828033,
0.34630170464515686,
0.5439995527267456,
-0.4719151258468628,
0.5505886077880859,
0.20976458489894867,
0.6875932216644287,
-0.4312760829925537,
0.11298476904630661,
0.09948991239070892,
-0.20954518020153046,
0.1933525949716568,
-0.7375750541687012,
0.40135884284973145,
0.2972336709499359,
0.07730132341384888,
0.0782308354973793,
0.9340498447418213,
0.46259430050849915,
-0.5786060690879822,
0.34468570351600647,
0.30013760924339294,
-0.13414329290390015,
-0.7478350400924683,
-0.07053276151418686,
-0.3988577127456665,
-0.045492932200431824,
0.3911544680595398,
0.3325665295124054,
-0.10534033924341202,
0.6298092603683472,
-0.537189245223999,
-0.019044460728764534,
0.24827353656291962,
-0.5594559907913208,
0.016803380101919174,
-0.40657612681388855,
0.45222002267837524,
0.3298105299472809,
-0.6354237794876099,
0.21132634580135345,
0.09775819629430771,
-0.2541104555130005,
0.4962039291858673,
-0.4133160710334778,
0.619283139705658,
-0.0894177183508873,
0.9103890061378479,
-0.5881123542785645,
0.712586522102356,
-0.06045037508010864,
-0.452014684677124,
-0.24909691512584686,
-0.01198328472673893,
-0.0766901969909668,
-0.1675323247909546,
0.3335803747177124,
-0.18455985188484192,
0.11364048719406128,
-0.3354610800743103,
-0.4075332581996918,
-0.08064926415681839,
-0.1357697993516922,
0.2551420032978058,
0.33403003215789795,
-0.08307076245546341,
0.31613636016845703,
-0.47447818517684937,
0.07443009316921234,
0.17924052476882935,
-0.37671786546707153,
0.8565303683280945,
-1.2546582221984863,
0.4037829339504242,
0.44529664516448975,
-0.1884230375289917,
0.2263018786907196,
0.08930231630802155,
-0.033126696944236755,
-0.39587172865867615,
0.3283568322658539,
0.07543586939573288,
-0.6598373651504517,
0.6202840805053711,
0.0717339813709259,
0.297608345746994,
-0.22543616592884064,
0.11371655017137527,
0.15627028048038483,
0.6207141280174255,
0.8069411516189575,
-0.16478382050991058,
-0.35964855551719666,
-0.525081217288971,
-0.024355866014957428,
-0.6316911578178406,
-0.512600302696228,
-0.6482299566268921,
-0.2481871396303177,
0.5924481749534607
] |
206102
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package%20delivery
|
Package delivery
|
Package delivery or parcel delivery is the delivery of shipping containers, parcels, or high value mail as single shipments. The service is provided by most postal systems, express mail, private courier companies, and less than truckload shipping carriers.
Mail order and next-day delivery in the United Kingdom
Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones formed the first mail order company in 1861. He distributed catalogues of Welsh flannel across the United Kingdom, with customers able to order by mail for the first time—this following the Uniform Penny Post in 1840 and the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) where there was a charge of one penny for carriage and delivery between any two places in the United Kingdom irrespective of distance—and the goods were delivered throughout the UK via the newly created railway system. Price-Jones promised next-day delivery throughout much of the country.
Package delivery in the United States
In 1852 Wells Fargo, then just one of many such services, was formed to provide both banking and express services. These went hand-in-hand, as the handling of California gold and other financial matters required a secure method for transporting them across the country. This put Wells Fargo securely in the stagecoach business and prompted them to participate in the Pony Express venture. They were preceded, among others, by the Butterfield Overland Stage, but the failure of the latter put the business in Wells Fargo's hands and led to a monopoly on overland traffic that lasted until 1869 when the transcontinental rail line was completed. During this period they carried regular mail in addition to the package business, defying the post office monopoly; eventually, a compromise was worked out wherein Wells Fargo charged its own fee on top of federal postage, in recognition of the limitations of the post office reaching all areas easily.
From 1869 on, package services rapidly moved to the rail, which was faster and cheaper. The express office was a universal feature of the staffed railroad station. Packages travelled as "head-end" traffic in passenger trains. In 1918 the formation of the United States Railroad Administration resulted in a consolidation of all such services into a single agency, which after the war continued as the Railway Express Agency (REA).
On 1 January 1913, parcel post service began, providing rural postal customers with package service along with their regular mail and obviating a trip to a town substantial enough to support an express office. This, along with Rural Free Delivery, fueled a huge rise in catalogue sales. By this time the post office monopoly on mail was effectively enforced, and Wells Fargo had exited the business in favour of its banking enterprises.
Motor freight services arose quickly with the advent of gasoline and diesel-powered trucks. United Parcel Service had its origins in this era, initially as a private courier service. The general improvement of the highway system following World War II prompted its expansion into a nationwide service, and other similar services arose. At the same time, the contraction of rail passenger service hurt rail-based package shipping; these contractions led to the cancellation of the mail contracts with the railroads, which in turn caused further passenger cuts. Eventually, REA was dissolved in bankruptcy in 1975.
Air mail was conceived of early, and scheduled service began in 1918. Scheduled airlines carried high valued and perishable goods from early on. The most important advance, however, came with the "hub and spoke" system pioneered by Federal Express (now known as FedEx) in 1973. With deregulation in 1977, they were able to establish an air-based system capable of delivering small packages—including mail—overnight throughout most of the country. In response, the postal service initiated a comparable Express Mail service. In the same period, they also began contracting with Amtrak to carry mail by rail. Thus at the beginning of the 21st century, the U.S. consumer can choose from a variety of public and private services offering deliveries at various combinations of speed and cost.
By 2018, parcel carriers are hauling 14% of U.S. goods, up from 10% 25 years ago, and FedEx’s US domestic volume increased 4.9% in 2018, while UPS reported a 3.3% increase and a 5.6% increase in domestic next-day air package.
Same-day delivery
Same-day delivery for local parcels (such as documents) has long been available by local courier. Rail and air transport made same-day delivery feasible over longer distances; for example, packages shipped in the early morning can be delivered (at relatively high cost) anywhere in the mainland United States. Retail goods were seldom sold with shipping any faster than overnight.
Some online grocers such as AmazonFresh and Webvan, and delivery services operated by grocery stores like Peapod and Safeway have had same-day or next-day delivery windows. Many restaurants have long delivered takeout locally on-demand, and online food ordering services have expanded this to many restaurants that would otherwise not deliver.
In the 2010s, various experimental services launched, using online shopping and retail warehouses or chain stores local to the ordering consumer for fulfillment at relatively low cost. The United States Postal Service "Metro Post" started in 2012, which by 2014 was shipping Amazon orders to 15 cities. In 2013, Walmart was delivering same-day packages from its own stores in test cities via UPS.
Kozmo.com started a general one-hour local delivery service for small items in 1998, but failed in 2001. Same-day retail service Postmates began in 2011, and Google Express began in 2013 with a limited number of vendors and cities. By September 2015, Amazon Prime Now (which includes selected goods including some groceries) offered 1-hour delivery in 13 cities,
and the company launched Amazon Flex, which is a service similar to Postmates using part-time workers to deliver Amazon Prime Now packages.
Some vehicle for hire companies offer courier service and delivery of items ordered online from local vendors. Startups with similar services include Doorman in San Francisco, Chicago, and New York City, Deliv in San Francisco, WeDeliver in Chicago, and Shutl in Manhattan and Chicago.
An alternative to same-day delivery is in-store pickup, which has been adopted even by previously online-only retailers like Amazon.
Regional parcel carriers
In addition, a number of regional parcel delivery companies have sprung up since the 1990s. They combine the track and trace capability of the national carriers with the ability to guarantee next day delivery at ground rates over a larger delivery footprint. Because they are regionally based, they are able to improve shipment time in transit and increase shippers productivity with later pick up times. The regional parcel carriers can be a cost-effective enhancement to UPS and FedEx because they do not charge the full array of accessorial charges mentioned in the section above.
Heavy goods delivery
Delivery of heavy goods, such as furniture or large appliances, requires a different logistical process than most small parcel couriers. For example, the supply chain of shipping large household goods from their manufacturers, to residential or business locations throughout the country and world is more complex and carries with it a higher potential for damage and error than with smaller packages.
Specialized less than truckload shipping carriers handle shipping furniture and other heavy goods from the manufacturer to a last mile hub." The last mile problem can also include the challenge of making deliveries in urban areas. Deliveries to retail stores, restaurants, and other merchants in a central business district often contribute to congestion and safety problems. Once the goods arrive at the last mile hub, which is typically located less than 200 miles from the final delivery location, a dedicated last-mile carrier, also known as a white glove delivery company, will handle the final leg of the delivery.
White glove refers to the highest service level for last-mile delivery of heavy goods. It involves the delivery team bringing the item to the room of choice, unpacking and assembling it, and removing all packaging and debris from the customer's home. There are over 4,000 white glove delivery companies in the United States, most of which only perform local deliveries. Some large less-than-truckload shipping carriers also offer white glove delivery service, and in recent years start-ups have emerged that offer nationwide networks of white glove delivery coverage. With the growth of E-commerce websites that sell heavy goods throughout the country and world the white glove delivery marketplace is shifting from mostly regional carriers working with local brick and mortar stores to E-commerce websites working with national delivery networks.
Package design for distribution
The individual sorting and handling systems of small parcel carriers can put severe stress on the packages and contents. Packaging needs to be designed for the potential hazards which may be encountered in parcel delivery systems. The major carriers have a packaging engineering staff which provides packaging guidelines and sometimes package design and package testing services.
Many e-retailers have specific packaging requirements for their suppliers and also offer assistance in package design.
When shopping retail order from a warehouse, such as for online shopping, multiple items are often placed in a single box (secondary packaging) for cheaper and easier transportation and tracking. This creates waste when there is only a single item that could be transported without an outer box (for example something that already has durable retail primary packaging). To avoid this problem, some items are designated in the industry as ships in own container (SIOC) and will receive only a shipping label. Some products are specifically designed as SIOC for environmental or cost reasons.
Package testing procedures include:
ASTM International D7386- Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Packages for Single Parcel Delivery Systems.
International Safe Transit Association
Project 3K: Fast Moving Consumer Goods for the European Retail Supply Chain
6-FEDEX-A: FedEx Procedures for Testing Packaged Products Weighing Up to 150 lbs
6-FEDEX-B: FedEx Procedures for Testing Packaged Products Weighing Over 150 lbs
6-SAMSCLUB, Packaged-Products for Sam’s Club® Distribution System Shipment
Procedure 7D: Thermal Controlled Transport Packaging for Parcel Delivery System Shipment
Recipients
Recipients, if they are to receive packages in a timely and appropriate manner, must accommodate carriers. With the rise of the sharing economy multiple family dwelling with restricted access face difficulties due to increasing volume of deliveries, some of which, such as food, may be time-sensitive. Some have built storage rooms for packages and installed refrigerators.
Recipients often choose to use a high capacity “parcel box” which will store large numbers of items and mail at the same time. Deposited items are securely stored with the use of internal security baffles which allow parcels to drop down into the lower portions of the box whilst restricting the theft of items through the aperture opening.
See also
Shipping list
Document automation
Mail carrier
Last mile (transportation)
Parcel post
Delivery drone
Autonomous car
References
Read more
A Brief History of the Package Delivery Industry United States Treasury (Wayback Machine link to a MS Word document)
Postal systems
Express mail
Packaging
|
[
0.172389417886734,
-0.15157927572727203,
-0.11817159503698349,
0.2074265331029892,
0.08141262829303741,
0.3370727300643921,
-0.3165748715400696,
0.5024487376213074,
-0.17810015380382538,
-0.6373696327209473,
-0.4387466013431549,
0.0947481319308281,
-0.1861007958650589,
0.6164695620536804,
0.11001644283533096,
0.13462677597999573,
0.20374225080013275,
0.3563523590564728,
-0.2109055519104004,
-0.37490636110305786,
-0.590035080909729,
-0.13460619747638702,
0.2737230658531189,
-0.372743159532547,
0.22475841641426086,
-0.2858474850654602,
-0.17335960268974304,
0.04586619883775711,
-0.7134893536567688,
-0.22090600430965424,
0.07435610890388489,
0.15536805987358093,
0.1192893534898758,
-0.24196258187294006,
-0.032995421439409256,
-0.4079057276248932,
0.19756212830543518,
-0.24975243210792542,
-0.6012682914733887,
-1.0087741613388062,
-0.5537883639335632,
0.28056368231773376,
0.08428127318620682,
0.0428452342748642,
-0.11552879214286804,
-0.8198652863502502,
-1.3447020053863525,
-0.34959569573402405,
-1.1074433326721191,
-0.026286805048584938,
-0.34717679023742676,
0.20670372247695923,
-0.1395009607076645,
0.48198601603507996,
0.5014756321907043,
0.5560106635093689,
-0.6524882316589355,
-0.1602514535188675,
0.18025542795658112,
-0.5299387574195862,
0.58849036693573,
-0.4424319565296173,
0.1542520374059677,
0.5242993235588074,
0.756974995136261,
-0.18830923736095428,
0.014430636540055275,
0.47865578532218933,
-0.2848939895629883,
-0.8032565116882324,
-0.41677480936050415,
-0.4645306169986725,
0.37582486867904663,
-0.1671568751335144,
-0.018560975790023804,
-0.010512304492294788,
-0.26907169818878174,
-0.13104598224163055,
-0.722411572933197,
0.10650423169136047,
-0.5811907052993774,
1.1183143854141235,
0.09034646302461624,
-0.016581593081355095,
0.32761290669441223,
0.06154957413673401,
-0.37379077076911926,
0.801437497138977,
-0.10042881220579147,
0.9006372690200806,
0.6401496529579163,
0.382147878408432,
0.5457035899162292,
-0.2749369442462921,
0.05408339574933052,
-0.45207545161247253,
-0.18814623355865479,
0.2534748315811157,
0.3890509307384491,
0.2626507580280304,
-0.4575613737106323,
0.18030382692813873,
0.908098578453064,
-0.3780095875263214,
0.24844086170196533,
-0.0967341735959053,
-0.0076683214865624905,
-0.3152492642402649,
0.7012766003608704,
-0.05169094726443291,
0.14050494134426117,
-0.41670137643814087,
0.07060910016298294,
0.2617681324481964,
-0.6223554015159607,
0.3900219202041626,
0.1562540978193283,
-0.08729174733161926,
-0.36210790276527405,
-0.5188639163970947,
0.20971781015396118,
0.384353369474411,
-0.1596720665693283,
-0.6361045837402344,
0.15878647565841675,
-0.36611348390579224,
0.44789257645606995,
0.3314123749732971,
-0.18201565742492676,
0.1927933543920517,
-0.12736396491527557,
0.7911307215690613,
0.028647704049944878,
0.7413382530212402,
-0.5465646982192993,
-0.12323710322380066,
0.14341361820697784,
0.37874266505241394,
0.6351755261421204,
-0.5075379014015198,
-1.1803027391433716,
0.2145812064409256,
-0.28436794877052307,
-0.4466698169708252,
0.41601765155792236,
0.541252613067627,
0.13011516630649567,
-0.6495327949523926,
-0.6880659461021423,
-0.2211754024028778,
0.037580206990242004,
0.018389370292425156,
-0.016027381643652916,
0.7168468236923218,
-0.2788396179676056,
0.3631223738193512,
0.8603110909461975,
0.08230070024728775,
-0.24844931066036224,
-0.27650585770606995,
-0.2124248892068863,
0.4993988871574402,
-0.1223040372133255,
-0.0058865319006145,
-0.4422281086444855,
-0.12852025032043457,
0.15422700345516205,
0.5175079703330994,
0.4315063953399658,
-0.25932466983795166,
-0.011877303011715412,
0.25340354442596436,
0.12154698371887207,
-0.20310883224010468,
0.18701186776161194,
-0.044806476682424545,
0.6902740597724915,
0.4626416862010956,
0.49139168858528137,
0.10692396759986877,
-0.47121837735176086,
0.7115527987480164,
0.3073394000530243,
-0.43924960494041443,
0.0836700052022934,
-0.2832738161087036,
0.1623697280883789,
0.043824825435876846,
-0.6557074785232544,
-0.23434829711914062,
-0.567380964756012,
-0.7127594947814941,
-0.4684813916683197,
-0.06575076282024384,
0.39754265546798706,
0.1203136220574379,
-0.3263530433177948,
1.1604632139205933,
-0.12958674132823944,
0.17623817920684814,
0.0769820287823677,
0.560550332069397,
0.0532047338783741,
-0.9751859307289124,
-0.7302197217941284,
0.5000714063644409,
0.5008745193481445,
0.3367171585559845,
-0.010275846347212791,
0.35414379835128784,
0.3575751781463623,
-0.4534890055656433,
0.33066225051879883,
-0.20885953307151794,
0.6337050199508667,
0.37122586369514465,
-0.18912950158119202,
0.5574307441711426,
0.2643527090549469,
-0.04131334647536278,
1.0132596492767334,
-0.1560431569814682,
0.05912028253078461,
0.8754470348358154,
-0.2344939410686493,
0.690217912197113,
0.06400781869888306,
-0.07878512144088745,
0.24661454558372498,
-0.03564189001917839,
0.5296059250831604,
-0.26741087436676025,
0.2559707462787628,
-0.5254560708999634,
-0.41220349073410034,
0.18906307220458984,
0.05249987170100212,
-0.09481901675462723,
-0.3245454728603363,
0.2659291923046112,
-0.0726209357380867,
0.2347399890422821,
-0.6044059991836548,
0.3346145451068878,
0.20192229747772217,
0.0477810837328434,
-0.05723826214671135,
-0.2703450322151184,
0.3074052929878235,
-0.11348074674606323,
0.09226468950510025,
0.33671435713768005,
-0.012821267358958721,
-0.47067636251449585,
0.34718549251556396,
-0.44975489377975464,
-0.11259695142507553,
0.2972523868083954,
0.3385302424430847,
0.02665644697844982,
-0.1686444729566574,
0.15488049387931824,
-0.12559373676776886,
0.3998771011829376,
-0.3601812720298767,
-0.1877099573612213,
-0.510104775428772,
0.15813185274600983,
-0.06216402351856232,
0.506955623626709,
0.9995985627174377,
-0.3504175543785095,
-0.6892194151878357,
-0.08545631915330887,
-0.19660216569900513,
-0.8228254318237305,
0.5619350671768188,
0.11416128277778625,
-0.18134815990924835,
-0.6613534092903137,
0.34778353571891785,
0.387899249792099,
0.5822495818138123,
-0.4689771831035614,
0.5334089994430542,
-0.6139674186706543,
0.15225492417812347,
0.07135677337646484,
0.4136638045310974,
-0.30279800295829773,
-0.1322021335363388,
0.1709643304347992,
-0.24484550952911377,
0.32922354340553284,
0.4896971881389618,
0.123435840010643,
0.0426119789481163,
0.6587094664573669,
0.557466447353363,
-0.27721917629241943,
-0.29711806774139404,
-0.20805244147777557,
-0.4102870523929596,
0.10356512665748596,
-0.05817308649420738,
-0.23972737789154053,
0.17351700365543365,
-0.558631181716919,
-5.591202735900879,
0.11310482770204544,
-0.1612146645784378,
-0.3632482588291168,
0.4833238422870636,
-0.23235923051834106,
0.9111763834953308,
-0.6560291647911072,
0.017665859311819077,
0.03542692959308624,
-0.3347736597061157,
0.20189699530601501,
0.23289333283901215,
-0.22795920073986053,
0.6159711480140686,
0.28011804819107056,
0.23435793817043304,
0.3583811819553375,
0.5873650908470154,
0.14786119759082794,
-0.2884364724159241,
-0.24276188015937805,
0.3351798355579376,
0.6317062973976135,
-0.1417960673570633,
-0.17890626192092896,
-0.1708141565322876,
0.15120601654052734,
-0.4368177652359009,
0.5807392597198486,
0.2576019763946533,
-0.2303624451160431,
0.24328510463237762,
0.008253845386207104,
-0.1460694968700409,
-0.5914546251296997,
0.7093534469604492,
0.16654722392559052,
0.2943520247936249,
-0.30504584312438965,
0.3501111567020416,
0.4440082013607025,
0.0123843839392066,
-0.4557167589664459,
0.12287041544914246,
-0.61723393201828,
-0.1683027595281601,
-0.8879626989364624,
-0.220408096909523,
0.9391699433326721,
0.3235369920730591,
0.3149973452091217,
0.5263685584068298,
-0.5160418152809143,
0.23519426584243774,
-0.13781724870204926,
-0.0999951884150505,
-0.19813749194145203,
-0.3828507959842682,
0.18692655861377716,
0.3583686947822571,
-0.2246740311384201,
-0.3613923490047455,
-0.4082942306995392,
-0.36775532364845276,
-0.10695897787809372,
-0.4912194609642029,
-0.2854834198951721,
0.7937588691711426,
-0.10268227756023407,
-0.5922296643257141,
0.09653758257627487,
0.29027318954467773,
-0.44365766644477844,
0.7072484493255615,
-0.8882022500038147,
0.07331173121929169,
-0.17092688381671906,
0.09093956649303436,
-0.12262409180402756,
-0.09219994395971298,
-0.015542709268629551,
0.14348523318767548,
-0.2758645713329315,
0.42123404145240784,
-0.5809326767921448,
-0.41490817070007324,
0.15725494921207428,
-0.5184624791145325,
-0.4307039976119995,
0.5982065796852112,
-0.2594794034957886,
0.2636588215827942,
0.2597951591014862,
-0.02187339961528778,
0.1411811113357544,
-0.10485933721065521,
0.2242467701435089,
0.2547723650932312,
-0.4254415035247803,
0.27134373784065247,
0.052089154720306396,
-0.4068320691585541,
-0.48683425784111023,
-0.2835600972175598,
-0.3702550530433655,
-0.5680865049362183,
0.20878088474273682,
0.5973217487335205,
0.3985775411128998,
0.1761760264635086,
0.4181477129459381,
-0.37390416860580444,
-0.8457382917404175,
-0.254294216632843,
0.7554345726966858,
-1.083114504814148,
0.6309004426002502,
0.3371428847312927,
-0.32913294434547424,
0.5184605717658997,
-0.050698332488536835,
-0.38990768790245056,
0.14958693087100983,
-0.06692343950271606,
-0.12095601856708527,
-0.19977979362010956,
0.16510017216205597,
0.18266431987285614,
-0.392093300819397,
0.8352339267730713,
-0.08812354505062103,
0.4353195130825043,
-0.5139050483703613,
0.20344547927379608,
-0.438183456659317,
-0.18646188080310822,
-0.326524943113327,
-0.18990850448608398,
-0.5223653316497803,
-0.030437806621193886,
-0.5621386766433716,
-0.25140833854675293,
0.032744619995355606,
0.5219853520393372,
0.02261476032435894,
-0.7575833797454834,
0.003680006368085742,
0.26057395339012146,
-0.39591413736343384,
-0.3072136640548706,
-0.45734041929244995,
-0.11128935217857361,
-0.04134833440184593,
-0.2867752015590668,
-0.3924027383327484,
-0.009923501871526241,
0.17273880541324615,
-0.01324336975812912,
-0.5665619373321533,
0.26820844411849976,
-0.2414398044347763,
-0.8067144155502319,
-0.11439841240644455,
-0.5328793525695801,
0.17427560687065125,
-0.15639100968837738,
-0.22497916221618652,
-0.22695238888263702,
0.7690078616142273,
-0.4157012104988098,
-0.619708240032196,
-0.17485329508781433,
-0.6538941860198975,
0.3035701811313629,
0.6331025958061218,
0.5326685309410095,
-0.20290447771549225,
0.14564582705497742,
0.07369262725114822,
-0.04977137967944145,
-0.599869966506958,
-0.25566211342811584,
0.19566355645656586,
0.15309110283851624,
-0.16304224729537964,
0.10739341378211975,
0.30340778827667236,
-0.8080642819404602,
-0.3829217255115509,
-0.2523441016674042,
0.23769323527812958,
0.27440372109413147,
0.3750062584877014,
-0.12491545081138611,
-0.5013548731803894,
-0.5876232981681824,
0.3775102496147156,
-0.31319350004196167,
0.12798580527305603,
0.10611175745725632,
0.3007216155529022,
-0.5781492590904236,
0.18068334460258484,
-0.02623305469751358,
-0.2600115239620209,
0.2263505756855011,
-0.0594266876578331,
0.022217610850930214,
0.31190285086631775,
-0.03582831844687462,
-0.004994533956050873,
-0.3602655827999115,
0.7146756649017334,
-0.2771647572517395,
0.0027638741303235292,
0.08374322950839996,
-0.5528560280799866,
0.5041868090629578,
-0.4201495051383972,
0.25880903005599976,
0.24856746196746826,
-0.96756911277771,
-0.12625618278980255,
-0.5754210948944092,
1.1473151445388794,
0.061590176075696945,
-1.4388952255249023,
0.37070563435554504,
0.0986776351928711,
0.1423427164554596,
-0.7197194695472717,
-0.37633663415908813,
0.32681021094322205,
0.401513010263443,
0.04489241912961006,
0.10302308946847916,
-0.39518308639526367,
0.047359973192214966,
-0.10039455443620682,
-0.1613524705171585,
0.6598187685012817,
0.302972674369812,
-0.6739810705184937,
-0.5052347183227539,
0.34627968072891235,
0.5687465667724609,
-0.7093008756637573,
-0.4903525412082672,
0.47080984711647034,
0.2498711198568344,
-0.4630890190601349,
-0.5563217401504517,
-0.1604517698287964,
0.3555675745010376,
-0.15112803876399994,
-0.5455867052078247,
-0.16451190412044525,
-0.16528300940990448,
0.5767655968666077,
-0.03913218528032303,
-0.2291407287120819,
-0.26205772161483765,
0.22673960030078888,
0.8037991523742676,
0.15547044575214386,
-0.40999045968055725,
0.7274988293647766,
-0.3112808167934418,
-0.11766134202480316,
0.20169787108898163,
0.18857140839099884,
0.4921287000179291,
0.0007728113560006022,
0.9464414119720459,
-0.04904623329639435,
0.6827773451805115,
-0.9062739014625549,
-0.07682549208402634,
0.5028094053268433,
-0.5416324138641357,
-0.5238004326820374,
-0.013426871970295906,
-0.12165472656488419,
0.25013065338134766,
-0.4622170031070709,
0.21120786666870117,
-0.06392430514097214,
-0.8381363749504089,
0.0753038302063942,
-0.17605534195899963,
0.28692111372947693,
-0.5458585619926453,
0.49263107776641846,
-0.4767638146877289,
0.24996696412563324,
0.29609692096710205,
0.33557891845703125,
-0.345108300447464,
0.03219913691282272,
-0.33909568190574646,
0.39872750639915466,
0.17642079293727875,
-1.3760368824005127,
0.5592021346092224,
0.10993188619613647,
-0.103072389960289,
-0.6429113745689392,
0.4234544634819031,
-0.0020017982460558414,
0.0003936174907721579,
-0.3596370816230774,
0.4632883667945862,
0.4851837754249573,
-0.26652991771698,
-0.12112468481063843,
0.7643718719482422,
-0.3904504179954529,
0.09590331465005875,
0.12322977185249329,
0.17656777799129486,
-0.33192893862724304,
-0.0694548487663269,
0.06215224787592888,
-0.48987993597984314,
0.5351881384849548,
-0.014006254263222218,
-0.709305465221405,
-0.05609598010778427,
0.04219265282154083,
0.6716771721839905,
0.3895506262779236,
0.0320783294737339,
-0.35388681292533875,
-0.3430607318878174,
-0.4044515788555145,
-0.3503625690937042,
-0.5177220702171326,
-0.24080634117126465,
0.9087815880775452,
0.42618024349212646,
0.28909075260162354,
-0.09108137339353561,
0.46699652075767517,
-0.1883929967880249,
0.5510562658309937,
0.7427836656570435,
0.42786478996276855,
-0.06918419897556305,
0.4449433386325836,
0.04618694633245468,
0.4188495874404907,
0.536714494228363,
0.30859020352363586,
-0.09949927031993866,
-0.708885908126831,
0.3856859505176544,
0.0845957100391388,
-0.09574425220489502,
-0.41440853476524353,
0.13627047836780548,
0.8377102613449097,
0.40015852451324463,
0.14210376143455505,
0.909841001033783,
-0.7851045727729797,
0.6468951106071472,
-0.7948253154754639,
-0.03985161706805229,
0.3906584084033966,
-0.08411605656147003,
0.6934174299240112,
-0.5357729196548462,
0.587353527545929,
0.2012939602136612,
0.3039200007915497,
0.07735317200422287,
0.7306849956512451,
0.14296869933605194,
0.21686430275440216,
-0.1229064092040062,
-0.2683177590370178,
0.09915317595005035,
-0.26985377073287964,
-0.32400962710380554,
0.33339858055114746,
-0.2936330735683441,
0.261130154132843,
-0.10040383040904999,
0.07240092754364014,
-0.14287038147449493,
-0.24647419154644012,
-0.07356682419776917,
-0.0485554076731205,
0.5503544211387634,
0.12884436547756195,
0.030709844082593918,
1.0780199766159058,
-0.016485396772623062,
-0.09866486489772797,
-0.6027028560638428,
0.29000124335289,
0.032671257853507996,
-0.06554900109767914,
-0.3312985897064209,
0.12876379489898682,
-0.35077622532844543,
0.5492873787879944,
-0.723988950252533,
0.35340407490730286,
0.8209134936332703,
-0.18181706964969635,
-0.15713021159172058,
-0.1777995079755783,
0.20052470266819,
0.080459825694561,
0.46931830048561096,
-0.4155968725681305,
0.49802860617637634,
-0.5086722373962402,
-0.04309646412730217,
0.032708220183849335,
0.06212077662348747,
0.07588759809732437,
0.16215825080871582,
0.05595683678984642,
0.2141900360584259,
0.6404517889022827,
-0.820328950881958,
0.322145938873291,
0.026654621586203575,
0.0866425409913063,
-0.6797840595245361,
0.3162825405597687,
0.5008367300033569,
0.14231158792972565,
-0.29665157198905945,
0.2255169302225113,
0.6785151958465576,
-0.14917999505996704,
0.6697455048561096,
-0.23254971206188202,
0.008700879290699959,
-0.4790486693382263,
-0.4346853494644165,
-0.24688874185085297,
-0.3837366998195648,
-0.058352280408144,
-1.1596946716308594,
0.861810028553009,
0.03867921605706215,
-0.46741190552711487,
0.6729023456573486,
0.2782154083251953,
-0.03973805531859398,
0.3315383195877075,
0.028236884623765945,
0.1628383845090866,
-0.38823679089546204,
-0.06245031952857971
] |
206115
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild%20radius
|
Schwarzschild radius
|
The Schwarzschild radius (sometimes erroneously referred to as the gravitational radius, which does not have the factor of 2) is a physical parameter in the Schwarzschild solution to Einstein's field equations that corresponds to the radius defining the event horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole. It is a characteristic radius associated with any quantity of mass. The Schwarzschild radius was named after the German astronomer Karl Schwarzschild, who calculated this exact solution for the theory of general relativity in 1916.
The Schwarzschild radius is given as
where G is the gravitational constant, M is the object mass, and c is the speed of light. In natural units, the gravitational constant and the speed of light are both taken to be unity, so the Schwarzschild radius is .
History
In 1916, Karl Schwarzschild obtained the exact solution to Einstein's field equations for the gravitational field outside a non-rotating, spherically symmetric body with mass (see Schwarzschild metric). The solution contained terms of the form and , which become singular at and respectively. The has come to be known as the Schwarzschild radius. The physical significance of these singularities was debated for decades. It was found that the one at is a coordinate singularity, meaning that it is an artifact of the particular system of coordinates that were used; while the one at is a spacetime singularity and cannot be removed. The Schwarzschild radius is nonetheless a physically relevant quantity, as noted above and below.
This expression had previously been calculated, using Newtonian mechanics, as the radius of a spherically symmetric body at which the escape velocity was equal to the speed of light. It had been identified in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace.
Parameters
The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to its mass. Accordingly, the Sun has a Schwarzschild radius of approximately , whereas Earth's is only about and the Moon's is about . The observable universe's mass has a Schwarzschild radius of approximately 13.7 billion light-years.
Derivation
Black hole classification by Schwarzschild radius
Any object whose radius is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius is called a black hole. The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body (a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). Neither light nor particles can escape through this surface from the region inside, hence the name "black hole".
Black holes can be classified based on their Schwarzschild radius, or equivalently, by their density, where density is defined as mass of a black hole divided by the volume of its Schwarzschild sphere. As the Schwarzschild radius is linearly related to mass, while the enclosed volume corresponds to the third power of the radius, small black holes are therefore much more dense than large ones. The volume enclosed in the event horizon of the most massive black holes has an average density lower than main sequence stars.
Supermassive black hole
A supermassive black hole (SMBH) is the largest type of black hole, though there are few official criteria on how such an object is considered so, on the order of hundreds of thousands to billions of solar masses. (Supermassive black holes up to 21 billion have been detected, such as NGC 4889.) Unlike stellar mass black holes, supermassive black holes have comparatively low average densities. (Note that a (non-rotating) black hole is a spherical region in space that surrounds the singularity at its center; it is not the singularity itself.) With that in mind, the average density of a supermassive black hole can be less than the density of water.
The Schwarzschild radius of a body is proportional to its mass and therefore to its volume, assuming that the body has a constant mass-density. In contrast, the physical radius of the body is proportional to the cube root of its volume. Therefore, as the body accumulates matter at a given fixed density (in this example, 997 kg/m3, the density of water), its Schwarzschild radius will increase more quickly than its physical radius. When a body of this density has grown to around 136 million solar masses , its physical radius would be overtaken by its Schwarzschild radius, and thus it would form a supermassive black hole.
It is thought that supermassive black holes like these do not form immediately from the singular collapse of a cluster of stars. Instead they may begin life as smaller, stellar-sized black holes and grow larger by the accretion of matter, or even of other black holes.
The Schwarzschild radius of the supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center of the Milky Way is approximately 12 million kilometres.
Stellar black hole
Stellar black holes have much greater average densities than supermassive black holes. If one accumulates matter at nuclear density (the density of the nucleus of an atom, about 1018 kg/m3; neutron stars also reach this density), such an accumulation would fall within its own Schwarzschild radius at about and thus would be a stellar black hole.
Micro black hole
A small mass has an extremely small Schwarzschild radius. A mass similar to Mount Everest has a Schwarzschild radius much smaller than a nanometre. Its average density at that size would be so high that no known mechanism could form such extremely compact objects. Such black holes might possibly be formed in an early stage of the evolution of the universe, just after the Big Bang, when densities were extremely high. Therefore, these hypothetical miniature black holes are called primordial black holes.
Other uses
In gravitational time dilation
Gravitational time dilation near a large, slowly rotating, nearly spherical body, such as the Earth or Sun can be reasonably as follows:
where:
is the elapsed time for an observer at radial coordinate r within the gravitational field;
is the elapsed time for an observer distant from the massive object (and therefore outside of the gravitational field);
is the radial coordinate of the observer (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object);
is the Schwarzschild radius.
Schwarzschild radius for Planck mass
For the Planck mass , the Schwarzschild radius and the Compton wavelength are of the same order as the Planck length .
See also
Black hole, a general survey
Chandrasekhar limit, a second requirement for black hole formation
John Michell
Classification of black holes by type:
Static or Schwarzschild black hole
Rotating or Kerr black hole
Charged black hole or Newman black hole and Kerr-Newman black hole
A classification of black holes by mass:
Micro black hole and extra-dimensional black hole
Planck length
Primordial black hole, a hypothetical leftover of the Big Bang
Stellar black hole, which could either be a static black hole or a rotating black hole
Supermassive black hole, which could also either be a static black hole or a rotating black hole
Visible universe, if its density is the critical density, as a hypothetical black hole
Virtual black hole
Notes
References
Black holes
1916 in science
|
[
-0.3489497900009155,
0.011274948716163635,
0.3231241703033447,
-0.15079689025878906,
-0.37964490056037903,
0.0007102118106558919,
0.03732660785317421,
-0.18251940608024597,
-0.04581427946686745,
-0.3508019745349884,
-0.5311517119407654,
0.07926202565431595,
-0.31584829092025757,
0.8889517784118652,
0.1301829218864441,
0.47460800409317017,
0.8843427896499634,
-0.15977121889591217,
-0.8523443937301636,
-0.5761323571205139,
0.5348154902458191,
-0.1849345713853836,
-0.10152384638786316,
0.20722544193267822,
0.19132325053215027,
-0.08121772855520248,
-0.15331687033176422,
-0.16107682883739471,
0.416108638048172,
0.38496583700180054,
-0.5392395257949829,
0.6256216168403625,
-0.5085590481758118,
0.011669632978737354,
0.019380725920200348,
-0.06631851196289062,
0.08600625395774841,
0.06882325559854507,
0.06763255596160889,
-0.03534338250756264,
0.5392208695411682,
0.3299788236618042,
0.08955688774585724,
0.04731736704707146,
-0.5952352285385132,
-0.9122719168663025,
-1.3739149570465088,
-0.0167232733219862,
-0.4367677569389343,
-0.7081859707832336,
0.02799076773226261,
0.045884568244218826,
0.2163238227367401,
0.4171851873397827,
-0.47525596618652344,
0.012524045072495937,
-0.7399735450744629,
-0.30699777603149414,
0.7260284423828125,
-0.3714182376861572,
0.3169728219509125,
0.02498733252286911,
0.0074300640262663364,
0.40674370527267456,
0.009604028426110744,
0.7935647368431091,
-0.15637923777103424,
0.21692907810211182,
-0.0023504721466451883,
-0.641233503818512,
0.20483459532260895,
-0.03094884566962719,
-0.27231043577194214,
-0.0583629310131073,
-0.22071029245853424,
0.1653268188238144,
0.008281368762254715,
-0.09593772143125534,
0.022540157660841942,
0.08641022443771362,
-0.12294554710388184,
0.1059056743979454,
0.19894520938396454,
-0.8274459838867188,
-0.11827737092971802,
0.20822402834892273,
-0.37590643763542175,
0.5051881670951843,
-0.2732488811016083,
0.5014619827270508,
0.18379093706607819,
-0.28615930676460266,
0.045121971517801285,
0.24819397926330566,
0.6327584385871887,
0.10564292222261429,
0.8070917129516602,
-0.6657209992408752,
0.13023722171783447,
0.11421823501586914,
-0.03248272091150284,
0.02329237572848797,
0.05885551869869232,
-0.04048943147063255,
-0.3135172724723816,
-0.4124186933040619,
-0.16003213822841644,
-0.7425590753555298,
-0.2631676495075226,
0.4600122272968292,
-1.0393307209014893,
-0.0809883400797844,
-0.17188146710395813,
-0.08803099393844604,
-0.3177585303783417,
-0.5101223587989807,
0.10235104709863663,
-0.6169900894165039,
0.68564373254776,
0.42690786719322205,
-0.2945334315299988,
0.7212662100791931,
-0.08471550047397614,
0.839863657951355,
0.13391296565532684,
0.2705085277557373,
0.3328314423561096,
0.8425757884979248,
-0.9758379459381104,
0.09254320710897446,
0.18749769032001495,
0.7967514395713806,
0.7923835515975952,
0.1446172595024109,
0.0834304541349411,
-0.41488221287727356,
0.017546089366078377,
-0.5500054359436035,
-0.8181330561637878,
0.4105533957481384,
-0.23729786276817322,
-0.28370529413223267,
-0.7521420121192932,
-0.10810701549053192,
0.5186312794685364,
-0.6977418661117554,
-0.6234374046325684,
-0.6363930702209473,
0.47130006551742554,
0.2830367088317871,
-0.39689573645591736,
0.19993437826633453,
-0.626484215259552,
-0.21137401461601257,
-0.4381297528743744,
-0.6129602193832397,
0.157788947224617,
0.3465292155742645,
-0.2512444853782654,
0.31661275029182434,
0.11825922876596451,
-0.03294637054204941,
-0.4509105980396271,
-0.15243405103683472,
0.15667197108268738,
-0.564823567867279,
1.1611703634262085,
-0.3159026503562927,
-0.6178319454193115,
0.407905250787735,
-0.5737125873565674,
-0.2953352928161621,
0.08221989125013351,
0.15928839147090912,
-0.08057958632707596,
0.07624446600675583,
0.6879650354385376,
0.15197764337062836,
0.3094159960746765,
-0.30848318338394165,
-0.7672464847564697,
-0.27814722061157227,
0.14776381850242615,
-0.05901492014527321,
0.4826236367225647,
0.036566171795129776,
-0.35485461354255676,
0.0932387188076973,
0.08331680297851562,
-0.03465115278959274,
-0.44185274839401245,
-0.3913385272026062,
0.48647335171699524,
-0.3746650815010071,
1.2837823629379272,
-0.05781230330467224,
0.1629238724708557,
0.5149014592170715,
-0.44741788506507874,
0.21948373317718506,
-0.6337347030639648,
-0.6024954915046692,
0.4286656975746155,
0.5409102439880371,
-0.30126529932022095,
0.31590938568115234,
0.10862372815608978,
-0.011950831860303879,
-0.2373180389404297,
0.12984828650951385,
0.7054829001426697,
-0.1532279998064041,
0.18021276593208313,
-0.35256120562553406,
-0.43568915128707886,
0.11040695756673813,
-0.7114195823669434,
0.44953298568725586,
-0.22311635315418243,
0.36767369508743286,
1.2404645681381226,
-0.2686159908771515,
0.21520918607711792,
-0.01963055692613125,
-0.005265033338218927,
0.546233057975769,
0.4929303228855133,
0.6057191491127014,
0.21904240548610687,
-0.3676528334617615,
-0.06109725311398506,
-0.1604263186454773,
0.20499607920646667,
0.13104631006717682,
-0.16064858436584473,
0.3496679663658142,
0.05410783365368843,
-0.10589911788702011,
0.37073612213134766,
-0.942820131778717,
0.1942506730556488,
0.5828395485877991,
-0.5410361289978027,
0.840515673160553,
-0.6871612668037415,
0.15193073451519012,
-0.02043723128736019,
0.2744697034358978,
-0.2542591094970703,
0.04151228815317154,
-0.48928242921829224,
0.11974210292100906,
-0.08049675077199936,
-0.5394713282585144,
0.4799984097480774,
-0.07978305220603943,
0.32369035482406616,
0.31807973980903625,
0.9076514840126038,
0.5222905278205872,
0.3130779266357422,
-0.25126680731773376,
0.08117423951625824,
-0.328048437833786,
-0.8233344554901123,
-0.358882337808609,
-0.04318500682711601,
0.10911636054515839,
0.4669227600097656,
0.37285172939300537,
-0.5194851160049438,
0.33935409784317017,
-0.5494697690010071,
0.11807335168123245,
-0.2966066896915436,
-0.6293289661407471,
-0.11634650826454163,
0.40744659304618835,
-0.726923406124115,
-0.029234783723950386,
-0.0042523168958723545,
0.5379834175109863,
0.4667157828807831,
-0.08466187864542007,
0.07157344371080399,
-0.3499460220336914,
-0.161411851644516,
-0.28243449330329895,
-0.082610584795475,
-0.15162944793701172,
-0.8749141693115234,
0.19330431520938873,
0.06481153517961502,
-0.33538898825645447,
-0.0756552517414093,
0.8236459493637085,
-0.2092583030462265,
-0.6589493155479431,
0.3693618178367615,
-0.5797386169433594,
-0.561644434928894,
0.49426865577697754,
-0.22647319734096527,
-0.0755479633808136,
-0.03049602173268795,
0.011640941724181175,
-0.33944687247276306,
0.4861474931240082,
-5.599857330322266,
0.4834754168987274,
-0.005275433883070946,
-0.03630456328392029,
-0.25651437044143677,
0.5902618169784546,
0.766101062297821,
-0.21230415999889374,
-0.4211297333240509,
-0.3847861886024475,
-0.47344252467155457,
-0.31655609607696533,
-0.44021719694137573,
0.6066499352455139,
0.06982572376728058,
0.14102129638195038,
0.30841264128685,
0.4178403615951538,
0.01605696603655815,
0.40355512499809265,
0.15456947684288025,
-0.04188241809606552,
0.09859465062618256,
0.1639063060283661,
0.0720457136631012,
0.3162868320941925,
-0.5509114265441895,
0.4531158208847046,
-0.3494759798049927,
-0.21048377454280853,
0.3449537754058838,
-0.24280963838100433,
-0.507002592086792,
-0.2182759791612625,
0.2219315618276596,
0.30709129571914673,
0.25520673394203186,
-0.34006598591804504,
0.4031432569026947,
0.2756156027317047,
-0.11783207952976227,
0.988437294960022,
-0.1898476481437683,
-0.40061482787132263,
0.5349364280700684,
-0.7226728200912476,
0.3289531469345093,
0.4034140110015869,
-0.5810074210166931,
0.5512653589248657,
-0.40216320753097534,
-0.40667569637298584,
-0.2583855986595154,
-0.4583229422569275,
-0.3082592785358429,
0.10562369227409363,
-0.20883962512016296,
0.3663020133972168,
-0.37706226110458374,
0.19705897569656372,
0.23149143159389496,
-0.3235414922237396,
-0.054617248475551605,
-0.15635713934898376,
-0.7586665153503418,
0.07626980543136597,
-0.6330575346946716,
-0.025186914950609207,
0.368319034576416,
-0.03130831941962242,
-0.15117967128753662,
0.3831821382045746,
0.11078330874443054,
-0.47411441802978516,
-0.003813429968431592,
-0.1707586795091629,
-0.2909393906593323,
-0.19825027883052826,
-0.06300117820501328,
0.547345757484436,
-0.38068947196006775,
-0.2740603983402252,
0.10501070320606232,
0.4519050717353821,
0.3983239233493805,
-0.05019863694906235,
-0.2792093753814697,
-0.4361937940120697,
0.11806371808052063,
-0.3794490098953247,
0.713175356388092,
-0.775404155254364,
0.3582102954387665,
-0.16080406308174133,
-0.0462372861802578,
0.3131980299949646,
-0.21510706841945648,
0.02789224311709404,
0.14653506875038147,
0.5601196885108948,
0.8304816484451294,
-0.35238099098205566,
0.5260294079780579,
-0.5861852765083313,
0.02297136001288891,
-0.1370215117931366,
-0.27225807309150696,
0.9719922542572021,
0.660585880279541,
-0.10051799565553665,
-0.05812626704573631,
0.1457607001066208,
-0.09778258204460144,
-0.14908191561698914,
0.4954957067966461,
-0.3278046250343323,
-0.7549713253974915,
0.1479276418685913,
0.25170570611953735,
0.09527917951345444,
0.20034390687942505,
-0.0014196031261235476,
-0.32225674390792847,
-0.34298384189605713,
-0.3958359956741333,
0.08208155632019043,
-0.09984100610017776,
0.19603507220745087,
-0.0968330055475235,
0.2411850243806839,
-0.4072078466415405,
0.6529932022094727,
0.1244678646326065,
0.38856786489486694,
0.3914554715156555,
-0.4506838023662567,
-0.16313141584396362,
-0.39628171920776367,
-0.03057367168366909,
-0.40847232937812805,
0.7380752563476562,
0.8708837628364563,
-0.16581960022449493,
-0.1631718873977661,
0.49087607860565186,
0.2459116280078888,
-0.020544176921248436,
-0.22071999311447144,
-0.6508262753486633,
0.22366707026958466,
0.24428868293762207,
-0.24857771396636963,
0.15725502371788025,
-0.2680237591266632,
-0.029693717136979103,
0.46380308270454407,
-0.15186628699302673,
0.6365858912467957,
0.4746522009372711,
0.1619144231081009,
0.4496247172355652,
0.17107118666172028,
-0.6891111731529236,
-0.02972615323960781,
0.22441062331199646,
0.07637543231248856,
-0.41499143838882446,
0.059278640896081924,
-0.29917025566101074,
0.2842753231525421,
0.07062934339046478,
0.08532515913248062,
-0.19167345762252808,
-0.7950654625892639,
-0.33082613348960876,
0.21553543210029602,
-0.053936321288347244,
-0.0233665332198143,
0.028375988826155663,
-0.4336013197898865,
0.35467374324798584,
-0.5226171016693115,
-0.21146728098392487,
0.4863150119781494,
0.6102644801139832,
-0.3651396632194519,
-0.17789143323898315,
-0.06363577395677567,
-0.3454149067401886,
-0.5269455909729004,
0.4635666012763977,
-0.5117963552474976,
-0.3377677798271179,
0.4503616392612457,
0.2669932544231415,
-0.7692496180534363,
0.13059434294700623,
0.1492622345685959,
-0.20789594948291779,
-0.5965008735656738,
-0.22410345077514648,
0.3586678206920624,
-0.7699318528175354,
0.9148850440979004,
0.39108356833457947,
-0.36324018239974976,
-0.05895864963531494,
-0.20756882429122925,
0.4020868241786957,
0.3543758988380432,
-0.6291729211807251,
-0.7367332577705383,
-0.043445516377687454,
0.08332653343677521,
0.22678595781326294,
0.576769232749939,
0.21355381608009338,
-0.7049089670181274,
-0.09702391177415848,
-0.1590353548526764,
-0.13900695741176605,
0.07073679566383362,
-0.07636132091283798,
-0.36350515484809875,
0.09052682667970657,
0.19362793862819672,
-0.028127292171120644,
-0.3448908030986786,
0.6176251173019409,
-0.20973053574562073,
0.001460012048482895,
0.12094713002443314,
-0.0761970654129982,
-0.0880650132894516,
0.007522714789956808,
-0.3585164546966553,
-0.4164679944515228,
0.24438467621803284,
-0.22854575514793396,
0.1172664687037468,
0.6958968043327332,
0.39226725697517395,
0.5742454528808594,
-0.04100069776177406,
-0.42140042781829834,
0.23228992521762848,
0.4836719036102295,
-0.0632706955075264,
-0.19156812131404877,
0.01470570545643568,
0.02342025376856327,
-0.34079089760780334,
-0.6340157389640808,
-0.9511947631835938,
0.3495991826057434,
0.18602320551872253,
-0.37687551975250244,
-0.30540552735328674,
0.45395931601524353,
0.3638817071914673,
0.012639829888939857,
-0.06546597182750702,
-0.11560742557048798,
-0.09202904254198074,
-0.32823529839515686,
0.3011733293533325,
-0.7509370446205139,
-1.065122365951538,
0.1355142742395401,
-0.6367732882499695,
0.4581383764743805,
-0.0018261467339470983,
0.5818530321121216,
-0.23283255100250244,
-0.17605404555797577,
1.1140685081481934,
-0.35122430324554443,
0.0034391963854432106,
-0.7335653305053711,
-0.21388356387615204,
-0.40940913558006287,
0.19890284538269043,
0.3144706189632416,
-0.2579681873321533,
0.4437049627304077,
-0.05109237879514694,
0.13179612159729004,
0.2040189504623413,
-0.17505128681659698,
0.4463348090648651,
-0.9111670255661011,
-0.28099867701530457,
-0.5064677596092224,
-0.12491639703512192,
0.2822132706642151,
0.4480717182159424,
0.15372596681118011,
0.2137865275144577,
-0.3391723334789276,
-0.19546754658222198,
-0.6868613362312317,
0.21258428692817688,
0.17402490973472595,
-0.5683611631393433,
0.45383429527282715,
0.12964849174022675,
0.3490062952041626,
0.4404239356517792,
-0.10034392774105072,
-0.31685614585876465,
0.03306734561920166,
0.3777140974998474,
-0.6215245127677917,
0.4687938690185547,
-0.5964630842208862,
-0.38405320048332214,
0.5402094125747681,
-0.03773484379053116,
0.3556017279624939,
0.5940008163452148,
-0.27964264154434204,
0.49598219990730286,
0.6687889099121094,
-0.47003844380378723,
-1.198845624923706,
0.43170517683029175,
-0.3321595788002014,
0.6168116331100464,
-0.6817176938056946,
0.1697307974100113,
0.37902241945266724,
-0.37263691425323486,
-0.4415115416049957,
0.406188040971756,
-0.5795562267303467,
0.40344831347465515,
0.771180272102356,
-0.315559446811676,
-0.30267465114593506,
0.7351690530776978,
-0.04973393306136131,
1.3407254219055176,
-0.2706892192363739,
0.14956992864608765,
-0.31216272711753845,
0.46651965379714966,
-0.07088521122932434,
0.5894733667373657,
0.27450063824653625,
-0.03443825617432594,
0.16590289771556854,
-0.3424857258796692,
-0.31512218713760376,
-0.32896557450294495,
-0.22999221086502075,
-0.050892844796180725,
0.6734269857406616,
-0.10660916566848755,
-0.36457833647727966,
0.37469035387039185,
-0.15819229185581207,
0.32748669385910034,
0.15904580056667328,
0.00393656175583601,
0.028295747935771942,
0.05551033839583397,
0.13646262884140015,
-0.0616237074136734,
0.13664256036281586,
-0.3339619040489197,
-0.10831873118877411,
0.06401423364877701,
0.10686342418193817,
0.060548122972249985,
0.6049021482467651,
-0.2969984710216522,
0.06882224231958389,
0.5912612676620483,
-0.11699008196592331,
0.19487518072128296,
0.5749027132987976,
0.07853446900844574,
-0.07293858379125595,
-0.20162521302700043,
0.17229515314102173,
-0.22628073394298553,
-0.3001183569431305,
0.21619011461734772,
-0.30968186259269714,
-0.23886394500732422,
0.6318506598472595,
-0.25314876437187195,
-0.12826181948184967,
-0.057658322155475616,
0.06098882481455803,
-0.19158469140529633,
-0.3089267611503601,
0.8529883623123169,
0.3576892018318176,
0.07784069329500198,
0.0945485457777977,
0.10408484190702438,
0.26358336210250854,
0.7189715504646301,
-0.4390634000301361,
0.348943829536438,
0.10137064009904861,
0.7909433841705322,
-0.8738908171653748,
0.532335102558136,
0.366728812456131,
-0.39567461609840393,
-0.12056240439414978,
0.40795087814331055,
0.09872055798768997,
0.0039011945482343435,
0.775840699672699,
0.09395270049571991,
-0.04154234007000923,
-0.48533564805984497,
-0.12767434120178223,
-0.5953529477119446,
0.30382832884788513,
0.45513659715652466,
0.6234972476959229,
-0.0787775069475174,
0.770757257938385,
-0.2098352611064911,
-0.04603392630815506,
-0.08946483582258224,
-0.12379324436187744,
0.3159467875957489,
-0.8546358346939087,
0.4670451283454895,
-0.6170774698257446,
-0.7378723621368408,
0.7437192797660828,
0.5443956255912781,
0.07561196386814117,
-0.4774673879146576,
-0.07346569746732712,
0.14256936311721802,
-0.6095185875892639,
0.7510446310043335,
0.6010981798171997,
0.9190157055854797,
-0.21319247782230377,
-0.4614086449146271,
-0.14193813502788544,
0.48984405398368835,
0.20073218643665314,
-0.23257631063461304,
0.37375643849372864,
-0.582221269607544,
-0.31358879804611206,
-0.37751317024230957,
-0.1898367553949356,
-0.2742667496204376,
0.3723832070827484,
-0.07284639030694962
] |
206119
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night
|
Night
|
Night (also described as night time, night-time, or nighttime, unconventionally spelled as nite) is the period of ambient darkness from sunset to sunrise during each 24-hour day, when the Sun is below the horizon. The exact time when night begins and ends depends on the location and varies throughout the year, based on factors such as season and latitude.
The word can be used in a different sense as the time between bedtime and morning. In common communication, the word night is used as a farewell ("good night") and sometimes shortened to "night", mainly when someone is going to sleep or leaving. For example: "It was nice to see you. Good night!", unlike "good morning", "good afternoon", and "good evening", "good night" (or "goodnight") is not used as a greeting.
Astronomical night is the period between astronomical dusk and astronomical dawn when the Sun is between 18 and 90 degrees below the horizon and does not illuminate the sky. As seen from latitudes between about 48.56° and 65.73° north or south of the Equator, complete darkness does not occur around the summer solstice because, although the Sun sets, it is never more than 18° below the horizon at lower culmination, -90° sun a angles occur at Tropic of Cancer on December Solstice and Tropic of Capricorn on June Solstice and at equator on equinoxes.
The opposite of night is day (or "daytime", to distinguish it from "day" referring to a 24-hour period). Twilight is the period of night after sunset or before sunrise when the Sun still illuminates the sky when it is below the horizon. At any given time, one side of Earth is bathed in sunlight (the daytime) while the other side is in the shadow caused by Earth blocking the sunlight. The central part of the shadow is called the umbra.
Natural illumination at night is still provided by a combination of moonlight, planetary light, starlight, zodiacal light, gegenschein, and airglow. In some circumstances, aurorae, lightning, and bioluminescence can provide some illumination. The glow provided by artificial lighting is sometimes referred to as light pollution because it can interfere with observational astronomy and ecosystems.
Duration and geography
On Earth, an average night lasts shorter than daytime due to two factors. Firstly, the Sun's apparent disk is not a point, but has an angular diameter of about 32 arcminutes (32'). Secondly, the atmosphere refracts sunlight so that some of it reaches the ground when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34'. The combination of these two factors means that light reaches the ground when the center of the solar disk is below the horizon by about 50'. Without these effects, daytime and night would be the same length on both equinoxes, the moments when the Sun appears to contact the celestial equator. On the equinoxes, daytime actually lasts almost 14 minutes longer than night does at the Equator, and even longer towards the poles.
The summer and winter solstices mark the shortest and longest nights, respectively. The closer a location is to either the North Pole or the South Pole, the wider the range of variation in the night's duration. Although daytime and night nearly equalize in length on the equinoxes, the ratio of night to day changes more rapidly at high latitudes than at low latitudes before and after an equinox. In the Northern Hemisphere, Denmark experiences shorter nights in June than India. In the Southern Hemisphere, Antarctica sees longer nights in June than Chile. Both hemispheres experience the same patterns of night length at the same latitudes, but the cycles are 6 months apart so that one hemisphere experiences long nights (winter) while the other is experiencing short nights (summer).
In the region within either polar circle, the variation in daylight hours is so extreme that part of summer sees a period without night intervening between consecutive days, while part of winter sees a period without daytime intervening between consecutive nights.
On other celestial bodies
The phenomenon of day and night is due to the rotation of a celestial body about its axis, creating an illusion of the sun rising and setting. Different bodies spin at very different rates, however. Some may spin much faster than Earth, while others spin extremely slowly, leading to very long days and nights. The planet Venus rotates once every 224.7 days – by far the slowest rotation period of any of the major planets. In contrast, the gas giant Jupiter's sidereal day is only 9 hours and 56 minutes. However, it is not just the sidereal rotation period which determines the length of a planet's day-night cycle but the length of its orbital period as well - Venus has a rotation period of 224.7 days, but a day-night cycle just 116.75 days long due to its retrograde rotation and orbital motion around the Sun. Mercury has the longest day-night cycle as a result of its 3:2 resonance between its orbital period and rotation period - this resonance gives it a day-night cycle that is 176 days long. A planet may experience large temperature variations between day and night, such as Mercury, the planet closest to the sun. This is one consideration in terms of planetary habitability or the possibility of extraterrestrial life.
Effect on life
Biological
The disappearance of sunlight, the primary energy source for life on Earth, has dramatic effects on the morphology, physiology and behavior of almost every organism. Some animals sleep during the night, while other nocturnal animals including moths and crickets are active during this time. The effects of day and night are not seen in the animal kingdom alone; plants have also evolved adaptations to cope best with the lack of sunlight during this time. For example, crassulacean acid metabolism is a unique type of carbon fixation which allows photosynthetic plants to store carbon dioxide in their tissues as organic acids during the night, which can then be used during the day to synthesize carbohydrates. This allows them to keep their stomata closed during the daytime, preventing transpiration of precious water.
Social
Electric light was invented during 1835. As artificial lighting has improved, especially after the Industrial Revolution, night time activity has increased and become a significant part of the economy in most places. Many establishments, such as nightclubs, bars, convenience stores, fast-food restaurants, gas stations, distribution facilities, and police stations now operate 24 hours a day or stay open as late as 1 or 2 a.m. Even without artificial light, moonlight sometimes makes it possible to travel or work outdoors at night.
Nightlife is a collective term for entertainment that is available and generally more popular from the late evening into the early hours of the morning. It includes pubs, bars, nightclubs, parties, live music, concerts, cabarets, theatre, cinemas, and shows. These venues often require a cover charge for admission. Nightlife entertainment is often more adult-oriented than daytime entertainment.
Cultural and psychological aspects
Night is often associated with danger and evil, because of the psychological connection of night's all-encompassing darkness to the fear of the unknown and darkness's obstruction of a major sensory system (the sense of sight). Nighttime is naturally associated with vulnerability and danger for human physical survival. Criminals, animals, and other potential dangers can be concealed by darkness. Midnight has a particular importance in human imagination and culture.
Upper Paleolithic art was found to show (by Leroi-Gourhan) a pattern of choices where the portrayal of animals that were experienced as dangerous were located at a distance from the entrance of a cave dwelling at a number of different cave locations.
The belief in magic often includes the idea that magic and magicians are more powerful at night. Séances of spiritualism are usually conducted closer to midnight. Similarly, mythical and folkloric creatures such as vampires and werewolves are described as being more active at night. Ghosts are believed to wander around almost exclusively during night-time. In almost all cultures, there exist stories and legends warning of the dangers of night-time. In fact, the Saxons called the darkness of night the 'death mist'.
The cultural significance of the night in Islam differs from that in Western culture. The Quran was revealed during the Night of Power, the most significant night according to Islam. Muhammad made his famous journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and then to heaven in the night. Another prophet, Abraham came to a realization of the supreme being in charge of the universe at night.
In western culture night is strongly associated with Gothic culture.
People who prefer to be active during the night-time are called night owls.
See also
Earth's shadow
Night aviation regulations in the US
Night sky
Nocturne
Olbers' paradox
References
Further reading
Culture
External links
Darkness
Night
Parts of a day
Time in astronomy
|
[
0.48197227716445923,
-0.23408350348472595,
0.048162490129470825,
-0.09152306616306305,
0.07519177347421646,
-0.40616869926452637,
0.9073441028594971,
0.2796410024166107,
0.005540883168578148,
-0.512464165687561,
-0.7582343816757202,
0.4246121942996979,
-0.2524419128894806,
0.4039328396320343,
-0.058171987533569336,
0.600786566734314,
0.6020572185516357,
-0.00944108422845602,
-0.16988639533519745,
-0.29783886671066284,
-0.25455233454704285,
-0.1939389705657959,
-0.03322150185704231,
0.013195732608437538,
0.286007285118103,
-0.4961126148700714,
-0.4406557083129883,
0.21963945031166077,
-0.0025338330306112766,
0.17813441157341003,
-0.4228672683238983,
-0.04989359900355339,
-0.19767087697982788,
-0.09512636065483093,
0.4514319598674774,
0.08169113099575043,
-0.20889829099178314,
-0.248159721493721,
-0.5605630874633789,
-0.22728532552719116,
-0.539508044719696,
-0.1423390954732895,
0.47800499200820923,
-0.159809872508049,
-0.5884864330291748,
0.14132161438465118,
-0.4132220149040222,
0.42774298787117004,
0.17740917205810547,
0.1517905592918396,
-0.11224362254142761,
0.08992678672075272,
0.4194709062576294,
0.43795648217201233,
0.03062971867620945,
-0.040341004729270935,
0.009063122794032097,
0.21266329288482666,
0.04169671982526779,
-0.40064311027526855,
0.7866448163986206,
-0.18987809121608734,
-0.2064233124256134,
-0.03850877657532692,
-0.003602626733481884,
0.39212489128112793,
-0.18001052737236023,
-0.18539375066757202,
0.28122830390930176,
-0.019065363332629204,
-0.498058557510376,
0.601885974407196,
-0.39310017228126526,
0.07700583338737488,
-0.8114122152328491,
0.08850044757127762,
0.09455947577953339,
-0.42205536365509033,
-0.010930810123682022,
0.14482225477695465,
-0.037015222012996674,
0.3169754445552826,
0.5792983770370483,
-0.014479207806289196,
0.14862865209579468,
-0.3138881325721741,
-0.27661001682281494,
0.2573707103729248,
-0.2234717607498169,
0.24646075069904327,
0.08873133361339569,
-0.10177271068096161,
0.776426374912262,
0.15762974321842194,
-0.7630549073219299,
0.1078987792134285,
0.36116036772727966,
-0.013984628021717072,
0.20146171748638153,
0.02098880149424076,
-0.18667536973953247,
-0.3635343611240387,
0.6541297435760498,
-0.1311396211385727,
0.0030636636074632406,
-0.4059849679470062,
-0.11054320633411407,
-0.31925955414772034,
0.2794865667819977,
0.3664083480834961,
-0.6466803550720215,
0.3144161105155945,
0.17994742095470428,
0.12981922924518585,
-0.22332222759723663,
-0.24306733906269073,
-0.2195110023021698,
0.12935690581798553,
0.17787767946720123,
-0.1780010163784027,
-0.22492218017578125,
-0.12345058470964432,
0.1963680535554886,
0.2086317390203476,
-0.4298965632915497,
0.1566736400127411,
0.3173593282699585,
-0.00882355123758316,
-0.41425567865371704,
-0.2426164597272873,
0.4875217378139496,
0.6403945684432983,
-0.12424657493829727,
0.14858722686767578,
-0.01680823229253292,
-0.21117563545703888,
0.47829216718673706,
0.34747469425201416,
0.32571324706077576,
0.35431236028671265,
-0.910660982131958,
-0.6549689173698425,
-0.2888648211956024,
-0.32599276304244995,
-0.006054180674254894,
-0.3628014028072357,
0.4228774309158325,
-0.2609921395778656,
-0.22410191595554352,
-0.0962647944688797,
-0.024573886767029762,
0.21289202570915222,
-0.6204093098640442,
-0.41043221950531006,
-0.1891355812549591,
-0.8086641430854797,
0.05548453330993652,
0.15255644917488098,
-0.18831560015678406,
-0.15293782949447632,
0.13670223951339722,
0.5035833120346069,
0.05491531267762184,
0.5915626287460327,
0.006580853834748268,
-0.11314520239830017,
0.044411614537239075,
0.22164034843444824,
-0.08128971606492996,
0.4513440728187561,
-0.056177590042352676,
0.29508090019226074,
0.04717426747083664,
-0.3257092833518982,
-0.6811482906341553,
0.24777977168560028,
0.35088399052619934,
0.031145717948675156,
0.35505256056785583,
-0.16275683045387268,
-0.3213808536529541,
-0.5440866947174072,
0.1902724951505661,
0.06774023920297623,
-0.4190080165863037,
-0.6137718558311462,
0.07329341769218445,
0.13538889586925507,
-0.18559551239013672,
-0.15980340540409088,
-0.17009787261486053,
0.04456010460853577,
-0.1674855351448059,
-0.5576270818710327,
0.33173462748527527,
-0.620125949382782,
-0.3012220561504364,
0.7642971277236938,
-0.26490306854248047,
0.4320177435874939,
0.0011027628788724542,
-0.016119908541440964,
0.2178982049226761,
-0.2765060067176819,
-0.27716732025146484,
0.03329463675618172,
0.05338038504123688,
0.27276769280433655,
-0.0258977971971035,
-0.1969989836215973,
-0.018147220835089684,
-0.7411119937896729,
0.09284580498933792,
0.29290062189102173,
0.45065268874168396,
0.23149479925632477,
-0.9077684283256531,
0.005246456246823072,
0.28783053159713745,
-0.35527944564819336,
0.3758988678455353,
-0.05538643151521683,
-0.2276589721441269,
0.16333861649036407,
-0.20385931432247162,
0.30856916308403015,
0.24579733610153198,
-0.1117020696401596,
0.5314623713493347,
-0.9225105047225952,
-0.04734976962208748,
-0.3540731966495514,
-0.2551387846469879,
0.21572008728981018,
0.012650988064706326,
0.23251576721668243,
0.2653093636035919,
-0.2514609396457672,
0.2053575962781906,
-0.46663936972618103,
0.05669572949409485,
-0.3886827230453491,
0.16411185264587402,
0.23376111686229706,
0.3239569365978241,
0.18353986740112305,
0.17736020684242249,
0.4397462010383606,
-0.47254499793052673,
0.5687618851661682,
-0.18323366343975067,
0.27337923645973206,
0.06256570667028427,
0.017609858885407448,
-0.04774109646677971,
-0.3284517824649811,
-0.25540414452552795,
-0.10574182868003845,
0.3572635352611542,
-0.2080710083246231,
-0.20026107132434845,
-0.045523256063461304,
0.5408181548118591,
-0.5114374160766602,
0.10074585676193237,
-0.32654935121536255,
-0.6578289270401001,
-0.19736804068088531,
0.33002200722694397,
0.6160852909088135,
0.5088873505592346,
0.4269981384277344,
-0.42306870222091675,
0.00511354161426425,
-0.7822211384773254,
-0.8187680840492249,
0.8577759861946106,
-0.27824944257736206,
0.11443624645471573,
-0.235201895236969,
0.28145694732666016,
-0.0908108577132225,
0.1843719780445099,
-0.1845242977142334,
-0.3220039904117584,
-0.19525888562202454,
0.32877078652381897,
-0.17419332265853882,
-0.3746007978916168,
-0.39011502265930176,
-0.27646300196647644,
0.64963299036026,
0.1840612143278122,
0.24351270496845245,
0.16987214982509613,
0.07091200351715088,
-0.029332317411899567,
-0.10653786361217499,
0.24442033469676971,
-0.4263516664505005,
-0.088238924741745,
-0.39794281125068665,
-0.3677973747253418,
0.014554041437804699,
0.09426035732030869,
-0.48205310106277466,
-0.01981627382338047,
0.3391484022140503,
-6.099400520324707,
0.23639370501041412,
0.0017313952557742596,
-0.19838295876979828,
-0.3844885528087616,
0.18391256034374237,
1.1028108596801758,
0.2523334324359894,
-0.22756193578243256,
-0.35046350955963135,
-0.2877974808216095,
-0.3007156252861023,
0.17600828409194946,
0.4217013716697693,
0.34358909726142883,
-0.10812276601791382,
0.01698022149503231,
-0.3084104657173157,
-0.08182501792907715,
0.7597032189369202,
-0.23249538242816925,
0.5905855894088745,
-0.05565229058265686,
0.3019692301750183,
0.5394483804702759,
-0.13965383172035217,
-0.1414225697517395,
-0.16653741896152496,
-0.36240747570991516,
0.06460169702768326,
0.10808316618204117,
-0.48130783438682556,
-0.013560241088271141,
0.44217732548713684,
0.6078382730484009,
0.4252931773662567,
0.3591272830963135,
-0.27228301763534546,
0.03635945916175842,
0.17704443633556366,
-0.09964726120233536,
0.4856967329978943,
0.05483138933777809,
0.06318563222885132,
0.560723602771759,
0.0987011268734932,
-0.18048270046710968,
-0.18403200805187225,
-0.21158213913440704,
0.43389374017715454,
-0.24711044132709503,
0.4529404044151306,
-0.1002616286277771,
-0.3027048707008362,
-0.2575191259384155,
0.28182652592658997,
-0.1922806054353714,
-0.3612285852432251,
-0.09925521165132523,
-0.03354368731379509,
0.08711984008550644,
-0.24424299597740173,
0.10085266828536987,
-0.12235653400421143,
0.41683709621429443,
-0.26655492186546326,
-0.6951560974121094,
-0.4137168228626251,
0.7531318068504333,
0.7583428621292114,
0.09493032097816467,
-0.41773635149002075,
0.27901002764701843,
-1.0966017246246338,
-0.030916230753064156,
-0.49760085344314575,
-0.11926774680614471,
-0.5245015025138855,
0.5908690690994263,
-0.22162432968616486,
0.028728144243359566,
-0.11176719516515732,
-0.1704564243555069,
0.24823349714279175,
-0.09587879478931427,
-0.4539741277694702,
0.1355942189693451,
0.029484251514077187,
-0.18738557398319244,
0.043190255761146545,
0.6444675922393799,
-0.06421248614788055,
0.37982800602912903,
-0.3374975025653839,
0.2185925841331482,
0.6906253099441528,
-0.06989701092243195,
-0.30377182364463806,
0.732309103012085,
0.11593108624219894,
0.6702132821083069,
-0.3354686498641968,
0.1903506964445114,
-0.4557746946811676,
-0.45517122745513916,
-0.3202235698699951,
-0.05382654443383217,
0.7142677307128906,
0.6570088863372803,
-0.1922411173582077,
0.033489104360342026,
0.536978006362915,
-0.24536214768886566,
-0.396761417388916,
0.501254677772522,
-0.19136404991149902,
-0.22688668966293335,
0.8115814328193665,
0.36278221011161804,
-0.10898812860250473,
-0.22458460927009583,
-0.1453426033258438,
-0.07877516746520996,
0.004511307924985886,
0.19830237329006195,
-0.14082194864749908,
-0.20103171467781067,
-0.2234896570444107,
0.425951212644577,
0.14833292365074158,
0.5913095474243164,
0.8426865339279175,
0.32424673438072205,
0.05564950779080391,
-0.34150320291519165,
-0.36060377955436707,
-0.035646021366119385,
-0.40459325909614563,
-0.07961782813072205,
-0.19121380150318146,
-0.12123800814151764,
0.34573736786842346,
0.1272546947002411,
0.08776260912418365,
0.3711528182029724,
0.2485903948545456,
-0.20138412714004517,
-0.8560826778411865,
0.008401607163250446,
0.5615437030792236,
0.23309093713760376,
-0.1559719741344452,
0.5469529032707214,
-0.3215765357017517,
-0.2701801657676697,
-0.5507718324661255,
0.2653503119945526,
0.10254096239805222,
-0.26003360748291016,
-0.2220817357301712,
-0.1532841920852661,
-0.5342069864273071,
-1.0084558725357056,
-0.06496328860521317,
-0.11859976500272751,
-0.356483519077301,
-0.5772637724876404,
-0.2525501847267151,
-0.11940900981426239,
0.12045273929834366,
-0.2109847217798233,
-0.4038248360157013,
0.2536035478115082,
-0.16856136918067932,
0.05358428135514259,
0.0799984335899353,
-0.17614740133285522,
-0.059573713690042496,
-0.3694356083869934,
-0.5066838264465332,
0.36116620898246765,
0.09341288357973099,
-0.7840508222579956,
0.08776763826608658,
0.2999190390110016,
0.15103185176849365,
-0.275623619556427,
-0.027699420228600502,
0.25936585664749146,
0.36134102940559387,
0.6164535284042358,
-0.24571079015731812,
0.06915174424648285,
-0.11909165978431702,
0.1989070475101471,
-0.06676086783409119,
0.2594665586948395,
0.9956241250038147,
-0.25634872913360596,
0.06420277804136276,
0.04395650327205658,
0.13804179430007935,
-0.9529276490211487,
-0.026159359142184258,
0.22182747721672058,
-0.5466621518135071,
0.5285153388977051,
-0.07814609259366989,
-0.4506702721118927,
0.010538888163864613,
-0.5029829740524292,
-0.09509775787591934,
-0.36993566155433655,
0.06855762749910355,
-0.21256442368030548,
0.32861408591270447,
-0.3078981935977936,
-0.48049867153167725,
0.2445409744977951,
-0.594104528427124,
0.5269140601158142,
0.1847631186246872,
-0.11388144642114639,
0.15257301926612854,
0.0028682465199381113,
-0.1317681074142456,
0.7135016322135925,
-0.021908245980739594,
0.25956499576568604,
0.14489734172821045,
-0.0335516631603241,
0.47342464327812195,
-0.03570358082652092,
0.10437778383493423,
-0.5716902017593384,
-0.28290194272994995,
-0.05537071451544762,
-0.4543621242046356,
-0.035853710025548935,
0.5198073983192444,
0.23326879739761353,
0.5423491597175598,
-0.00357917626388371,
-0.5229780673980713,
0.16324423253536224,
0.15104296803474426,
-0.040296703577041626,
-0.571316123008728,
-0.47063755989074707,
-0.02674635499715805,
0.2946033775806427,
-0.49295735359191895,
0.007294545415788889,
-0.12106919288635254,
0.28884509205818176,
0.004717450123280287,
0.33311736583709717,
-0.14951154589653015,
-0.02096138708293438,
0.3092728853225708,
0.005309185013175011,
-0.8445871472358704,
-0.23041020333766937,
-0.2818908393383026,
-0.0007764504989609122,
0.3293388783931732,
-0.4058356285095215,
0.21071556210517883,
-0.1952870935201645,
-0.28536900877952576,
0.5021234154701233,
-0.09744001924991608,
0.6283870339393616,
-0.3542800545692444,
0.6200172901153564,
0.13171015679836273,
-0.2993834912776947,
-0.06562834233045578,
-0.020480701699852943,
0.13021346926689148,
-0.31709542870521545,
-0.543885350227356,
-0.055380258709192276,
-0.5094433426856995,
0.04347218573093414,
-0.299785315990448,
0.6428629159927368,
0.010149882175028324,
-0.6334959864616394,
-0.37130826711654663,
0.1323218196630478,
-0.02488894946873188,
0.3180701434612274,
0.32473665475845337,
-0.061076097190380096,
0.30186086893081665,
0.2727496027946472,
0.6109687685966492,
0.42086929082870483,
-0.3545984923839569,
-0.13750115036964417,
0.27514201402664185,
0.14095231890678406,
-0.47992584109306335,
0.47720158100128174,
-0.21598953008651733,
0.4997027814388275,
-0.6267310976982117,
-0.11164120584726334,
-0.20632895827293396,
0.7370738983154297,
0.538851797580719,
0.21629685163497925,
0.6690993309020996,
-0.5628889799118042,
0.3531496226787567,
0.46867188811302185,
0.17837801575660706,
0.520861804485321,
0.08707958459854126,
0.3601663410663605,
-0.17168636620044708,
0.4945540726184845,
0.0707029327750206,
0.029765691608190536,
0.27904048562049866,
-0.11167022585868835,
0.4455642104148865,
0.43817493319511414,
-0.31820473074913025,
0.5514339208602905,
0.021995002403855324,
0.038232482969760895,
0.5975852608680725,
-0.32688695192337036,
-0.16294358670711517,
0.10250303149223328,
-0.5888798832893372,
-0.5716666579246521,
0.35569635033607483,
1.2863121032714844,
0.44322875142097473,
0.21940243244171143,
0.2070012390613556,
0.04035913944244385,
0.15229828655719757,
0.2868060767650604,
0.14769096672534943,
-0.5062611103057861,
0.3383549451828003,
-0.032353222370147705,
-0.7394039034843445,
0.52470463514328,
-0.05648598447442055,
0.15875814855098724,
0.037440091371536255,
0.6952130794525146,
-0.31842729449272156,
-0.1889156997203827,
-0.5513333678245544,
0.12920771539211273,
0.4453585743904114,
0.2993229329586029,
0.11281506717205048,
-0.27173760533332825,
-0.03562832623720169,
0.13123111426830292,
-0.5143272280693054,
-0.06969791650772095,
-0.509012758731842,
0.3758445382118225,
0.7272853255271912,
-0.5995311141014099,
-0.5218709707260132,
0.3942563235759735,
-0.30481404066085815,
0.6373717784881592,
0.5102478861808777,
-0.17304611206054688,
-0.6995998024940491,
-0.2657054662704468,
-0.38179391622543335,
-0.2863937318325043,
-0.5727868676185608,
-0.02040383778512478,
0.10037371516227722,
-0.22976474463939667,
-0.04674965515732765,
-0.2232198417186737,
0.2591748833656311,
0.5734081268310547,
0.25784164667129517,
0.2685709297657013,
-0.5243884921073914,
-0.09830449521541595,
0.23806972801685333,
0.24808140099048615,
0.6758463382720947,
0.23929718136787415,
-0.006520606577396393,
0.2881462574005127,
-0.289422869682312,
0.16132956743240356,
-0.3883386552333832,
-0.47341376543045044,
0.3564566671848297,
-0.44572341442108154,
-0.3319539725780487,
-0.4820212125778198,
0.7300746440887451,
0.6383814811706543,
-0.35276368260383606,
0.06017124652862549,
0.37351474165916443,
-0.1451413929462433,
-0.010754384100437164,
0.7460542917251587,
-0.44594806432724,
0.2934647500514984,
-0.581018328666687,
-0.12073731422424316,
0.24119186401367188,
-0.021559692919254303,
0.00895744003355503,
0.010795004665851593,
0.0007530489237979054,
0.220526322722435,
0.4049187898635864,
-0.09223295748233795,
0.5546145439147949,
-0.2511005699634552,
-0.4512060880661011,
-0.5275606513023376,
0.5844112038612366,
-0.2871175706386566,
-0.26339399814605713,
0.10581658780574799,
0.3225760757923126,
0.8063397407531738,
-0.6602762341499329,
0.41111281514167786,
-0.06662797927856445,
-0.3187548518180847,
-0.1404481828212738,
0.020815402269363403,
-0.493772953748703,
-0.34506866335868835,
-0.4247077703475952,
-0.3929254412651062,
0.223557248711586,
-0.2027563452720642,
-0.30743253231048584,
0.393560528755188,
0.339661568403244,
-0.5755191445350647,
0.1373927891254425,
0.5531025528907776,
-0.241416797041893,
0.08712893724441528,
0.30561476945877075
] |
206120
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richie%20Havens
|
Richie Havens
|
Richard Pierce Havens (January 21, 1941 – April 22, 2013) was an American singer-songwriter and guitarist. His music encompassed elements of folk, soul, and rhythm and blues. He had an intense and rhythmic guitar style (often in open tunings), and played soulful covers of pop and folk songs. He was the opening act at Woodstock.
Early life
Born in Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, New York City, New York, Havens was the oldest of nine children. He was of Native American (Blackfoot) descent on his father's side and of the British West Indies on his mother's. His grandfather was Blackfoot of the Montana/South Dakota area.
Havens's grandfather and great-uncle joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, moved to New York City thereafter, and settled on the Shinnecock Reservation on Long Island. Havens's grandfather married, then moved to Brooklyn.
As a youth, Havens began organizing his neighborhood friends into a street corner doo-wop group. At age 16, he was performing with the McCrea Gospel Singers.
Career
Early career
At age 20, Havens left his hometown Brooklyn, seeking artistic stimulation in Greenwich Village in Manhattan. "I saw the Village as a place to escape to, in order to express yourself," he recalled. "I had first gone there during the beatnik days of the 1950s to perform poetry, then I drew portraits for two years and stayed up all night listening to folk music in the clubs. It took a while before I thought of picking up a guitar."
Havens's solo performances quickly spread beyond the Village folk music circles. After cutting two records for Douglas Records, he signed on with Bob Dylan's manager, Albert Grossman, and landed a record deal with the Verve Folkways (later Verve Forecast) label. Verve released Mixed Bag in late 1966, which featured tracks such as "Handsome Johnny" (co-written by Havens and actor Louis Gossett Jr.), "Follow", and a cover of Bob Dylan's "Just Like a Woman". Havens released his first single, "No Opportunity Necessary", in 1967.
Something Else Again (1968) became his first album to hit the Billboard charts, and it pulled Mixed Bag back onto the charts. By 1969 he had released five albums. Two of those albums were unauthorized "exploitation albums" released by Douglas Records (or Douglas International): Electric Havens (released June 1, 1968) and Richie Havens Record (1969).
Woodstock and rise in fame
Havens' live performances earned widespread notice. His Woodstock appearance in 1969 catapulted him into stardom and was a major turning point in his career. Despite Havens' recollection that he performed for nearly three hours, the actual recording and setlist reflect that he played about fifty minutes. Havens recalled that he was told to continue playing because many artists scheduled to perform after him were delayed in reaching the festival location with highways at a virtual standstill. Havens recalled being called back for several encores. At the end of his set, Havens improvised a song based on the old spiritual "Motherless Child" that became "Freedom". In an interview with Cliff Smith, for Music-Room, he explained:
I'd already played every song I knew and I was stalling, asking for more guitar and mic, trying to think of something else to play – and then it just came to me ... The establishment was foolish enough to give us all this freedom and we used it in every way we could.
The subsequent Woodstock movie release helped Havens reach a worldwide audience. He also appeared two weeks later at the Isle of Wight Festival, in late August 1969.
Following the success of his Woodstock performance, Havens started his own record label, Stormy Forest, and released Stonehenge in 1970. Later that year came Alarm Clock, which included the George Harrison–penned hit single, "Here Comes the Sun". This was Havens's first album to reach Billboards Top 30 Chart. Stormy Forest went on to release four more of his albums: The Great Blind Degree (1971), Live On Stage (1972), Portfolio (1973), and Mixed Bag II (1974). Memorable television appearances included performances on The Ed Sullivan Show and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. On the latter program, the audience reacted with such enthusiasm that, when the applause continued even after the commercial break, Carson asked Havens to return the following night.
Havens also began acting during the 1970s. He was featured in the original 1972 stage presentation of The Who's Tommy, as Othello in the 1974 film Catch My Soul, in Greased Lightning alongside Richard Pryor, and in Bob Dylan's Hearts of Fire.
Havens increasingly devoted his energies to educating young people about ecological issues. In the mid-1970s, he co-founded the Northwind Undersea Institute, an oceanographic children's museum on City Island in The Bronx, New York City. That, in turn, led to the creation of the Natural Guard, an organization Havens described as "...a way of helping kids learn that they can have a hands-on role in affecting the environment. Children study the land, water, and air in their own communities and see how they can make positive changes from something as simple as planting a garden in an abandoned lot."
In July 1978, he was a featured performer at the Benefit Concert for The Longest Walk, an American Indian spiritual walk from Alcatraz to Washington, D.C. affirming treaty rights, as a result of legislation that had been introduced to abrogate Indian treaties.
Branching into other media
During the 1980s and 1990s, Havens continued a world touring schedule and steadily released albums. In 1982, he composed and performed a promotional slogan for NBC's 1982–83 television season, entitled We're NBC, Just Watch Us Now. He also performed slogans for CBS and ABC, and recorded commercials for Amtrak (singing the slogan, "All Aboard Amtrak") and in 1985, for Coca-Cola. Havens also did corporate commercial work for Maxwell House Coffee and Folgers as well as sang "The Fabric of Our Lives" theme for the cotton industry. In 1982, he appeared at the UK's Glastonbury Festival, closing the show on the Sunday night.
On Jun 22, 1990 Richie Havens played at a packed Yankee Stadium concert in honor of Nelson Mandela who had come to New York for three days after Mandela’s release from the South African prison, Robbin Island. Other performers at the concert were Judy Collins, Tracy Chapman and The Mighty Sparrows.
In 1993, Havens performed at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton. Among the selections was the "Cotton" song, made famous by a series of television ads in the early 1990s. In 1999, Havens played at the Tibetan Freedom Concert for an audience of more than 100,000.
The release of 1993's Resume, The Best of Richie Havens, on Rhino Records, collected his late 1960s and early 1970s recordings.
Havens played a small role, as a character named Daze, in the film Street Hunter (1990), starring John Leguizamo. He played himself in "Rock of Ages", an episode of the TV sitcom Married... with Children (Season 7, Episode 9).
Havens was the 20th living recipient of the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award, presented in Sherborn, Massachusetts, on April 12, 1991.
Final years
In 2000, Havens teamed with the electronic music duo Groove Armada for the retro 1970s-style song, "Hands of Time". The song was featured on the soundtrack of the film Collateral; that song was also used in the films Domino, A Lot Like Love, Tell No One and in the Cold Case episodes The Badlands & Street Money. Havens was also featured on "Little By Little" and "Healing" on the band's third album, Goodbye Country.
In 2000, he published They Can't Hide Us Anymore, an autobiography co-written with Steve Davidowitz. Havens maintained his status as a folk icon and continued to tour. In 2002 he sang, uncredited, Dylan's "The Times They Are a Changin'" in the TV series The West Wing (Season 4, Episode 7). Also in 2002, he released Wishing Well, followed by the 2004 album Grace of the Sun.
In 2003, the National Music Council awarded Havens the American Eagle Award for his place as part of America's musical heritage and for providing "a rare and inspiring voice of eloquence, integrity and social responsibility."
On October 15, 2006, Havens was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame.
In 2007, Havens appeared as "Old Man Arvin" in the Todd Haynes film I'm Not There. In a front-porch jam scene, he is shown singing the Bob Dylan song "Tombstone Blues" with Marcus Carl Franklin and Tyrone Benskin. Havens' version of the song also appears on the I'm Not There soundtrack. In February 2008, Havens performed at The Jazz Café in London.
Havens was invited to perform at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival opening ceremony. He played "Freedom" at the request of the jury president, Sean Penn. Havens also performed at the London, Ontario, Blues Festival in July 2008.
In March 2008, Havens released a new studio album, Nobody Left To Crown. The first single release was the country-tinged "The Key".
Havens appeared in the acclaimed 2009 film Soundtrack for a Revolution, which provided a general history of the modern Civil Rights Movement and featured modern artists performing many of the era's musical classics. In the film, Havens performed a haunting rendition of "Will the Circle Be Unbroken?".
On May 3, 2009, Havens performed at the fundraising concert in honor of Pete Seeger's 90th birthday. In June 2009, he performed at the fifth annual Mountain Jam Festival. The event, hosted by The Allman Brothers Band and Gov't Mule guitarist Warren Haynes, was held at the Hunter Mountain Ski Resort in Hunter, New York. As is the tradition, the festival took place on the weekend following Memorial Day.
On June 20, 2009, Havens performed at the Clearwater Festival. On July 4, 2009, he performed at the Woodstock Tribute festival in Ramsey, New Jersey. On August 8, 2010, he performed at Musikfest 2010, at Foy Hall at Moravian College in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
Personal life
Health issues
In 2010, Havens underwent kidney surgery but did not recover fully enough to perform as he had before. In March 2012, he announced on his Facebook page that he would retire from touring after 45 years, due to health concerns.
Death
On April 22, 2013, Havens died of a heart attack at the age of 72. The BBC referred to him as a "Woodstock icon", while Stephen Stills of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young said Havens "could never be replicated". The Daily Telegraph stated Havens "made an indelible mark on contemporary music", while Douglas Martin of The New York Times reported that Havens had "riveted Woodstock".
Pursuant to Havens's request, he was cremated, and his ashes were scattered from the air over the original site of the Woodstock Festival, in a ceremony held on August 18, 2013, the 44th anniversary of the festival's last day.
Havens was survived by his wife Nancy, three children, five grandchildren, and two great-grandchildren.
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilations
Singles
Appearances
A Long Time Comin' by The Electric Flag – sitar and percussion (1968)
Sesame Street (1971), He sings Imagination Rain. Animated by Steve Zuckerman.
Please Don't Touch by Steve Hackett (1978)
Music and Songs from Starlight Express (1987) – performing "Light at the End of the Tunnel" and the "Starlight Sequence"
Goya... a Life in Song – vocal/guitar performance on "Dog in the Quicksand".
Songs of the Civil War (1991) – "Follow the Drinking Gourd" and "Give Us a Flag"
OVO by Peter Gabriel (2000) (soundtrack to the Millennium Dome Show)
"Freedom" on The Best of The Jammy's Volume One w/ The Mutaytor
"The Long Road" (duet with Cliff Eberhardt) on 1990 album The Long Road
"Gay Cavalier" (duet with Pino Daniele) on 1983 album Common Ground
Some Assembly Required by Assembly of Dust's 2009
Married... with Children (1992), "Rock of Ages" – guest appearance as himself
"El Lugar (The Place)" by Francesco Bruno (1995), in which he appears as co-author and interpreter of the song
Lifelines Live by Peter, Paul and Mary (1996)
Warriors of Virtue (1997) – "Inside of You"
Goodbye Country by Groove Armada (2001) – "Little by Little" and "Healing"
Lovebox (Groove Armada) by Groove Armada (2002) – "Hands of Time"
References
External links
1941 births
2013 deaths
Blackfoot people
American acoustic guitarists
American male guitarists
American autobiographers
American folk singers
American people of West Indian descent
American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters
American blues guitarists
American blues singers
American folk guitarists
American soul guitarists
American soul singers
A&M Records artists
Elektra Records artists
Polydor Records artists
Musicians from Brooklyn
Musicians from Jersey City, New Jersey
Verve Forecast Records artists
SOLAR Records artists
Singers from New York City
Singer-songwriters from New Jersey
Guitarists from New Jersey
Guitarists from New York City
20th-century American guitarists
People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn
People from Greenwich Village
African-American guitarists
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American male singers
African-American male singer-songwriters
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
|
[
-0.3294427990913391,
0.03841959685087204,
-0.5829601883888245,
-0.25066906213760376,
0.3922105133533478,
0.4705943465232849,
0.865776538848877,
-0.012371368706226349,
-0.23960113525390625,
-0.10090874135494232,
0.3214125335216522,
0.5198653936386108,
-0.5396671295166016,
0.0940149798989296,
-0.5189489126205444,
0.30337247252464294,
-0.150353342294693,
-0.5643484592437744,
-0.4582969844341278,
-0.4466358721256256,
-0.1923622339963913,
-0.1620408445596695,
0.012538595125079155,
0.368190735578537,
-0.40082117915153503,
0.5619303584098816,
-0.967337965965271,
-0.33521634340286255,
0.5658668279647827,
-0.3346342146396637,
-0.109853096306324,
0.26906371116638184,
0.7581815123558044,
-0.6533549427986145,
-0.3680543005466461,
0.25189417600631714,
-0.3612651228904724,
-0.6316542625427246,
0.06982512027025223,
0.31032511591911316,
-0.22573857009410858,
-0.4320305585861206,
0.5106042623519897,
0.11517119407653809,
-0.17415951192378998,
0.04464618116617203,
-1.2446404695510864,
0.36602193117141724,
-0.38104504346847534,
-0.8229767084121704,
-0.34672772884368896,
0.6427685022354126,
0.21839198470115662,
0.2865254878997803,
0.11139797419309616,
-0.6376601457595825,
0.5017753839492798,
0.09298075735569,
-0.2378699779510498,
-0.2633649706840515,
-0.30424124002456665,
-0.2915117144584656,
0.40771207213401794,
-0.6128154993057251,
0.042834408581256866,
0.1534656137228012,
0.10307741165161133,
0.1989360898733139,
0.15966908633708954,
-0.5000467300415039,
-0.10096194595098495,
0.30589818954467773,
0.356259286403656,
-0.4588308334350586,
0.4060240089893341,
0.13303709030151367,
0.18595658242702484,
-0.5030013918876648,
-0.10686401277780533,
0.8414029479026794,
-0.009659270755946636,
-0.10262942314147949,
0.9145036339759827,
0.33444759249687195,
0.22886039316654205,
-0.3506985306739807,
-0.6375711560249329,
0.7411760091781616,
-0.7375030517578125,
0.13472378253936768,
-0.5561553239822388,
-0.4523881673812866,
0.2886101007461548,
0.8633372783660889,
-0.488830029964447,
-0.47142162919044495,
0.602579653263092,
0.25165820121765137,
0.44816744327545166,
0.18614166975021362,
0.42900729179382324,
-0.40010955929756165,
0.40365853905677795,
-0.30302539467811584,
-0.4461594521999359,
0.14077530801296234,
-0.0385691374540329,
-0.4718100428581238,
-0.16143721342086792,
-0.132828027009964,
-0.7492012977600098,
0.3028782904148102,
0.23698854446411133,
-0.19142219424247742,
0.02529793418943882,
0.6231848001480103,
-0.23594439029693604,
-0.7337734699249268,
-0.5704412460327148,
-0.12580452859401703,
-0.04305233806371689,
0.2625553011894226,
-0.026607640087604523,
0.12786109745502472,
-0.9065514206886292,
-0.3886006772518158,
0.019160699099302292,
0.30858656764030457,
-0.5382717847824097,
0.32427355647087097,
0.1680327206850052,
0.5443698763847351,
-0.20099154114723206,
0.023469500243663788,
-0.5548430681228638,
-0.09238661080598831,
-0.09534341841936111,
0.4120577871799469,
0.02260039933025837,
-0.28918254375457764,
-0.511134684085846,
0.3247078061103821,
-0.8694261908531189,
-0.6212997436523438,
0.5901203751564026,
0.05268564820289612,
0.08058077096939087,
0.05641595646739006,
0.28123411536216736,
-0.1150147095322609,
0.4020291566848755,
-0.0070937396958470345,
0.09509966522455215,
-0.543115496635437,
-0.5259271860122681,
-0.022173775359988213,
0.1171448677778244,
-0.05838256701827049,
0.577708899974823,
-0.23437102138996124,
0.13461630046367645,
0.2273835837841034,
-0.317782461643219,
0.6896058320999146,
-0.029209163039922714,
0.30101391673088074,
-0.29373621940612793,
0.004967264831066132,
0.012823729775846004,
0.10784981399774551,
-0.12901589274406433,
0.09906718879938126,
-0.04557366296648979,
-0.30005091428756714,
-0.21962495148181915,
0.41236764192581177,
0.39383888244628906,
0.6213608980178833,
0.40798473358154297,
-0.041269395500421524,
-0.24709291756153107,
-0.4182378053665161,
0.36202138662338257,
0.23807471990585327,
-0.1968258172273636,
0.4408406913280487,
0.18482697010040283,
0.008509431034326553,
0.7895625829696655,
-0.24768273532390594,
-0.7332053780555725,
-0.46406280994415283,
-0.07059216499328613,
0.25855234265327454,
0.37921833992004395,
0.04504990950226784,
-0.48225998878479004,
0.3698206841945648,
0.6285568475723267,
0.02634473517537117,
-0.20045888423919678,
-0.5923307538032532,
0.2441389262676239,
-0.03978634625673294,
0.11055103689432144,
0.5694597959518433,
0.8034774661064148,
-0.36342352628707886,
-0.2760820984840393,
0.6888646483421326,
-0.00933295302093029,
-1.0708428621292114,
0.18841665983200073,
0.5703457593917847,
-0.34637829661369324,
-1.0731935501098633,
-1.0476406812667847,
-0.4113774597644806,
0.4790251553058624,
-0.8376994132995605,
0.5488156676292419,
0.7938308715820312,
-0.04032202437520027,
0.032189395278692245,
-0.2111566662788391,
1.2236565351486206,
-0.5360472798347473,
-0.11268547177314758,
0.31836533546447754,
-0.08826424181461334,
0.14935235679149628,
0.3019416630268097,
-0.23042793571949005,
-0.30647730827331543,
0.36212363839149475,
0.8680406212806702,
0.5799855589866638,
-0.32342997193336487,
-0.280654639005661,
-0.8271995782852173,
0.06122826039791107,
-0.3988926112651825,
-0.6478272676467896,
-0.004135183524340391,
0.07193976640701294,
-0.06552436202764511,
-0.03453998640179634,
-0.3037460148334503,
-0.4397049844264984,
0.1904500275850296,
0.423523485660553,
0.7383437752723694,
0.33141690492630005,
0.7565364241600037,
0.23262308537960052,
0.33833223581314087,
0.3744105100631714,
0.40298500657081604,
0.3997573256492615,
0.36107319593429565,
-0.02500767633318901,
0.32037240266799927,
0.3934668004512787,
-0.22049883008003235,
-0.03690969944000244,
-0.33037811517715454,
-0.16565288603305817,
-0.29227426648139954,
0.703403115272522,
-0.6483797430992126,
-0.20073918998241425,
0.15040716528892517,
-0.011101956479251385,
0.6176921129226685,
-0.005841240752488375,
0.38100847601890564,
-0.046361371874809265,
-0.1683664619922638,
-0.14062313735485077,
-0.8963027000427246,
0.7534933090209961,
0.4236011505126953,
0.016186421737074852,
-0.6312830448150635,
0.08496503531932831,
-0.10364467650651932,
-0.18428455293178558,
0.018655899912118912,
0.2856346666812897,
-0.1985883116722107,
-0.34219861030578613,
0.726182222366333,
-0.212782084941864,
0.671856164932251,
-0.2562924325466156,
0.7979511022567749,
0.2523070275783539,
-0.44946902990341187,
-0.30967164039611816,
-0.16594819724559784,
-0.2528241276741028,
-0.6139548420906067,
-0.22267112135887146,
-0.2182355374097824,
0.6555776596069336,
0.060961607843637466,
0.30217963457107544,
-0.7023211121559143,
-5.345349311828613,
0.5683859586715698,
-0.169994056224823,
-0.16828404366970062,
0.32981520891189575,
0.37874290347099304,
0.28804585337638855,
-0.7908217310905457,
-0.0025254625361412764,
-0.5625787377357483,
-0.5347887873649597,
0.22045797109603882,
-0.1977984756231308,
0.5017054677009583,
0.35041508078575134,
0.1963573396205902,
0.6307913661003113,
-0.5323218107223511,
-0.07524082809686661,
0.07005298882722855,
-0.06493459641933441,
-0.3656744956970215,
-0.15076550841331482,
-0.3423074185848236,
-0.49401235580444336,
0.396058052778244,
-0.22902372479438782,
0.518041729927063,
-0.48571646213531494,
0.12922541797161102,
-0.27418890595436096,
-0.3126792907714844,
-0.3978499472141266,
-0.4306699335575104,
-0.2443772554397583,
-0.08892263472080231,
0.4230763614177704,
-0.23341961205005646,
0.16545455157756805,
-0.08949275314807892,
0.03427308425307274,
0.28527769446372986,
-0.12112754583358765,
-0.0565270371735096,
0.10772820562124252,
-0.06103344261646271,
-0.318686306476593,
-0.8846845626831055,
-0.10836154222488403,
0.60602867603302,
0.26087823510169983,
0.20992805063724518,
0.8935809135437012,
-0.35939961671829224,
0.09798938035964966,
-0.20579007267951965,
0.1378100961446762,
-0.027751939371228218,
-0.02722293883562088,
0.5884180665016174,
0.5217750072479248,
-0.43198028206825256,
-0.34029415249824524,
-0.3815661370754242,
0.02433174103498459,
-0.10406692326068878,
0.282083660364151,
0.6058119535446167,
0.4458966553211212,
-0.40498262643814087,
0.5021006464958191,
0.615017294883728,
0.20710024237632751,
-1.4482518434524536,
0.04598386213183403,
-0.4349406659603119,
0.32377374172210693,
-0.11843513697385788,
-0.7332011461257935,
0.27010345458984375,
0.14297331869602203,
-0.3300156891345978,
-0.2473292350769043,
0.3221396803855896,
0.23202985525131226,
-0.14275002479553223,
-0.5542980432510376,
0.6989107131958008,
-1.0918078422546387,
-0.09122729301452637,
-0.17517971992492676,
-0.08351630717515945,
0.27738893032073975,
-0.20561997592449188,
0.531171977519989,
0.7004234790802002,
0.11246916651725769,
0.8238605856895447,
0.35056838393211365,
0.7520406246185303,
0.012226156890392303,
-0.33439624309539795,
0.7111244797706604,
-0.6412517428398132,
-0.009466010145843029,
-0.2764168977737427,
0.6593655943870544,
0.20360897481441498,
0.8009427189826965,
0.2153586894273758,
-0.21619108319282532,
0.4843854606151581,
-0.08062516152858734,
-0.5734765529632568,
0.5593103766441345,
-0.4635961651802063,
0.3998587429523468,
0.3541412651538849,
0.06430777162313461,
0.05166321620345116,
0.5841666460037231,
0.3240097463130951,
0.3964763283729553,
-0.20477083325386047,
-0.09226507693529129,
-0.12667475640773773,
-0.23111526668071747,
-0.5179774165153503,
-0.02173706702888012,
0.36745399236679077,
-0.33847594261169434,
0.8288955688476562,
0.4319615364074707,
0.6336311101913452,
0.07243826240301132,
-0.49262383580207825,
-0.44806966185569763,
-0.42796972393989563,
-0.3145778775215149,
-0.3922313153743744,
-0.07406270503997803,
-0.36189475655555725,
0.012832543812692165,
0.1982242614030838,
-0.1292184591293335,
0.09119977802038193,
0.14961519837379456,
-0.285562664270401,
-0.15913176536560059,
0.15750570595264435,
-0.10808496177196503,
-0.35288283228874207,
0.43084755539894104,
-0.5699776411056519,
-0.1669985055923462,
0.2320805788040161,
-0.4978944659233093,
-0.6612728238105774,
0.24882027506828308,
-0.1765746772289276,
0.2368917167186737,
-0.43342605233192444,
-1.1556804180145264,
0.3072623312473297,
-0.47035548090934753,
0.0864960178732872,
-0.02839541807770729,
-0.6850431561470032,
-0.4285947382450104,
0.2797856032848358,
-0.338199645280838,
0.0018511179368942976,
0.12411154061555862,
0.05881614238023758,
0.09275023639202118,
0.3587668240070343,
0.057814110070466995,
-0.7967517971992493,
0.25651711225509644,
-0.32353663444519043,
0.08265121281147003,
0.34358179569244385,
-1.1393506526947021,
-0.13610529899597168,
0.012468566186726093,
-0.45572301745414734,
-0.48518645763397217,
-0.4633466899394989,
-0.09968899190425873,
0.011656275950372219,
-0.34154441952705383,
-0.7378966808319092,
0.31847232580184937,
0.5335838198661804,
-0.5235483050346375,
0.04312289506196976,
0.24891795217990875,
-0.21206609904766083,
-0.46064385771751404,
-0.28518596291542053,
0.21904639899730682,
-0.5291383266448975,
0.029700065031647682,
-0.13123923540115356,
-0.10054583847522736,
-1.0376813411712646,
0.19898530840873718,
0.033293429762125015,
-0.5294962525367737,
0.7318650484085083,
-0.21274913847446442,
-0.3621876537799835,
-0.12460342049598694,
0.2823909819126129,
0.30197203159332275,
0.48440468311309814,
0.36694851517677307,
-0.14464592933654785,
-0.5534871816635132,
-0.4916386902332306,
-0.4931410849094391,
0.19918082654476166,
0.10215214639902115,
0.22050727903842926,
-0.774353563785553,
-0.4388522803783417,
-0.24422016739845276,
-0.1283140927553177,
0.28401538729667664,
-0.2518339455127716,
-0.24316272139549255,
-0.5272718667984009,
0.12080252915620804,
0.2666330933570862,
-0.3210865557193756,
0.4876116216182709,
0.36133629083633423,
0.14674630761146545,
0.05603686347603798,
0.15536394715309143,
0.7341069579124451,
0.9278654456138611,
0.02992922253906727,
0.047045715153217316,
0.12411097437143326,
-0.37053078413009644,
0.7862269282341003,
-0.2995809018611908,
-0.011410747654736042,
0.2132135033607483,
0.7395190596580505,
0.11392165720462799,
-0.3873252272605896,
0.47832897305488586,
0.6829732060432434,
-0.4365369379520416,
-0.26980355381965637,
-0.7566753029823303,
0.08282018452882767,
0.14330388605594635,
0.2034234255552292,
0.6067662239074707,
0.16445183753967285,
-0.23645219206809998,
-0.21530108153820038,
-0.18218713998794556,
-0.1855952888727188,
0.4881102442741394,
-0.11388090252876282,
-0.5343264937400818,
-0.07216006517410278,
0.5572109222412109,
-0.6487182974815369,
0.6086307168006897,
-0.6831546425819397,
0.2469908893108368,
0.6413436532020569,
-0.3071736991405487,
-0.00045810203300789,
-0.08701825886964798,
-0.8680392503738403,
-0.22727881371974945,
-0.34541264176368713,
-0.646257758140564,
-0.6721824407577515,
-0.16570521891117096,
0.029263071715831757,
-0.0925007089972496,
0.30096420645713806,
-0.034268103539943695,
-0.35523703694343567,
0.19258831441402435,
0.13473695516586304,
0.5592468976974487,
0.001815433381125331,
-0.20452089607715607,
-0.3425002694129944,
0.9573671221733093,
-0.0804796889424324,
-0.27207282185554504,
-0.10581406205892563,
0.4989573359489441,
0.3354901373386383,
0.10219778120517731,
0.1829891949892044,
-0.3002392053604126,
-0.06007365137338638,
-0.4906993508338928,
-0.2402537316083908,
0.3729296326637268,
0.865460216999054,
0.007690137717872858,
-0.29640185832977295,
0.7515127658843994,
-0.464456707239151,
-0.06824453175067902,
1.2447417974472046,
0.18511682748794556,
-0.2737385928630829,
0.1348155438899994,
-0.32149237394332886,
-0.07369880378246307,
0.27124929428100586,
0.05515884608030319,
0.6085599064826965,
0.6491127610206604,
-0.20179909467697144,
-0.4415675699710846,
-0.11692310124635696,
0.5021154880523682,
0.07471592724323273,
-0.4937531054019928,
0.37369704246520996,
0.5263767838478088,
-0.18631736934185028,
-0.5499715209007263,
-0.23637264966964722,
-0.12311732023954391,
-0.02838808298110962,
0.6564878821372986,
-0.07929141819477081,
0.5646778345108032,
0.41003066301345825,
0.11266718059778214,
0.3619929552078247,
-0.23412147164344788,
0.1506064534187317,
0.4638940095901489,
-0.2830333411693573,
-0.871494710445404,
0.08409884572029114,
-0.002913224510848522,
0.47270265221595764,
-0.44952449202537537,
0.6286911964416504,
-0.41474369168281555,
0.5836836695671082,
0.005601904354989529,
-0.2941019535064697,
-0.12224965542554855,
-0.10453154891729355,
-0.05543781816959381,
1.044142246246338,
0.1447538137435913,
-0.16010235249996185,
-0.4942624568939209,
-0.6129364967346191,
-0.665329098701477,
-0.189764603972435,
0.5722623467445374,
0.17667967081069946,
0.2987467646598816,
-0.35771095752716064,
0.7035149931907654,
0.23642130196094513,
0.1805948168039322,
0.42190021276474,
0.20273147523403168,
0.0453842356801033,
0.30021387338638306,
-0.11825680732727051,
-0.2086421251296997,
-0.1675747036933899,
-0.47297149896621704,
-0.07956776022911072,
-0.26498696208000183,
-0.23000356554985046,
0.13851667940616608,
0.17189954221248627,
-0.2687138020992279,
0.4258921146392822,
-1.016396403312683,
-0.7456508278846741,
0.39126425981521606,
-0.18006664514541626,
-0.14051461219787598,
-0.23838317394256592,
0.7964223623275757,
0.6787867546081543,
0.4663392901420593,
0.10255337506532669,
0.264752060174942,
0.4739704728126526,
-0.03861769661307335,
-0.26833873987197876,
0.18150706589221954,
-0.515595018863678,
-0.11210270971059799,
-0.6820007562637329,
0.9032644033432007,
0.26832979917526245,
0.6081576347351074,
-0.46155205368995667,
0.4683443307876587,
-0.32588568329811096,
-0.058578699827194214,
0.4133772850036621,
-0.27003592252731323,
-0.6051983833312988,
-0.013191762380301952,
0.5733038783073425,
0.7412407994270325,
0.015377267263829708,
0.05320192500948906,
0.17584823071956635,
0.7256454229354858,
-0.27256274223327637,
-0.1976231187582016,
-0.34007930755615234,
0.7527260184288025,
0.0691525787115097,
-0.2612406015396118,
0.02341333217918873,
-0.23472271859645844,
-0.009008284658193588,
-0.737756073474884,
1.0833410024642944,
0.32211539149284363,
0.47579285502433777,
-0.7517561912536621,
1.1178817749023438,
0.39914071559906006,
-0.27302756905555725,
-0.13077518343925476,
-0.09210919588804245,
-0.4808404743671417,
0.03835185244679451,
-0.6951899528503418,
0.07182347774505615,
0.8165731430053711,
-0.24275243282318115,
-0.6023987531661987,
0.7153447270393372,
-0.5916593670845032,
0.06890910863876343,
-0.17590411007404327,
0.1524749994277954,
0.47653114795684814,
0.19882774353027344,
-0.6885200142860413
] |
206122
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Crunch
|
Big Crunch
|
The Big Crunch is a hypothetical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentially followed by a reformation of the universe starting with another Big Bang. The vast majority of evidence indicates that this theory is not correct. Instead, astronomical observations show that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather than being slowed by gravity, suggesting that the universe is far more likely to end in heat death or a Big Rip.
Overview
The Big Crunch scenario hypothesized that the density of matter throughout the universe is sufficiently high that gravitational attraction will overcome the expansion which began with the Big Bang. The FLRW cosmology can predict whether the expansion will eventually stop based on the average energy density, Hubble parameter, and cosmological constant. If the metric expansion stopped, then contraction will inevitably follow, accelerating as time passes and finishing the universe in a kind of gravitational collapse.
A more specific theory called "Big Bounce" proposes that the universe could collapse to the state where it began and then initiate another Big Bang, so in this way the universe would last forever, but would pass through phases of expansion (Big Bang) and contraction (Big Crunch).
Experimental evidence in the late 1990s and early 2000s (namely the observation of distant supernovae as standard candles, and the well-resolved mapping of the cosmic microwave background) led to the conclusion that the expansion of the universe is not being slowed by gravity but is instead accelerating. The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to researchers who contributed to making this discovery.
Physicist Roger Penrose advanced a general relativity based theory called the conformal cyclic cosmology in which the universe expands until all the matter decays and is turned to light. Since nothing in the universe would have any time or distance scale associated with it, it becomes identical with the Big Bang (resulting in a type of Big Crunch which becomes the next Big Bang, thus starting the next cycle). Penrose and Gurzadyan suggested that signatures of conformal cyclic cosmology could potentially be found in the cosmic microwave background; as of 2020, these have not been detected.
Effects
Paul Davies considered a scenario in which the Big Crunch happens about 100 billion years from the present. In his model, the contracting universe would evolve roughly like the expanding phase in reverse. First, galaxy clusters, and then galaxies, would merge, and the temperature of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) would begin to rise as CMB photons get blueshifted. Stars would eventually become so close together that they begin to collide with each other. Once the CMB becomes hotter than M-type stars (about 500,000 years before the Big Crunch in Davies' model), they would no longer be able to radiate away their heat and would cook themselves until they evaporate; this continues for successively hotter stars until O-type stars boil away about 100,000 years before the Big Crunch. In the last minutes, the temperature of the universe would be so great that atoms and atomic nuclei would break up and get sucked up into already coalescing black holes. At the time of the Big Crunch, all the matter in the universe would be crushed into an infinitely hot, infinitely dense singularity similar to the Big Bang. The Big Crunch may be followed by another Big Bang, creating a new universe.
See also
References
Physical cosmology
Ultimate fate of the universe
|
[
0.013078213669359684,
-0.11609110236167908,
0.2307939976453781,
0.27238768339157104,
0.13590583205223083,
-0.09097273647785187,
-0.12970273196697235,
0.8063205480575562,
-0.3447844684123993,
-0.37873271107673645,
-0.5450495481491089,
0.19375412166118622,
-0.48962172865867615,
1.0412875413894653,
-0.15199072659015656,
0.019089071080088615,
0.14538730680942535,
0.28145265579223633,
-0.7994717359542847,
-0.23372027277946472,
0.0712670236825943,
-0.3089796006679535,
0.15041957795619965,
0.30129992961883545,
-0.006314861588180065,
-0.47765305638313293,
-0.0530172660946846,
-0.12925803661346436,
0.1989777386188507,
0.6359297633171082,
-0.3482782542705536,
0.2884593605995178,
-0.2973078191280365,
0.16084545850753784,
-0.10529645532369614,
-0.11445503681898117,
-0.42821627855300903,
0.0423349067568779,
-0.38263770937919617,
0.04610079899430275,
0.5629888772964478,
0.03138091042637825,
0.1031780019402504,
0.41937941312789917,
-0.4032115340232849,
-0.7261129021644592,
-1.1938220262527466,
0.23765972256660461,
-0.38543716073036194,
-0.8981818556785583,
0.20461879670619965,
0.6638427376747131,
0.3471437692642212,
0.20913635194301605,
-0.4299442172050476,
0.1863781213760376,
-0.03955754265189171,
-0.09159912168979645,
0.08470603823661804,
-0.28918400406837463,
0.13770052790641785,
-0.3418421745300293,
-0.19227617979049683,
-0.15788009762763977,
-0.39943400025367737,
-0.05142137035727501,
0.29081952571868896,
0.4467015564441681,
-0.6464620232582092,
-0.09302926808595657,
-0.6518175005912781,
-0.39452752470970154,
-0.37838611006736755,
-0.1851348727941513,
-0.498174250125885,
-0.1082797423005104,
0.12271092087030411,
0.2263154834508896,
-0.0021059077698737383,
0.028341645374894142,
0.08057798445224762,
-0.12260463088750839,
0.08742529898881912,
-0.7431042790412903,
0.062362540513277054,
-0.38213562965393066,
-0.07239014655351639,
0.4868747889995575,
-0.5069922804832458,
0.8979488015174866,
-0.2289351373910904,
0.08231373131275177,
0.30893999338150024,
0.3021082580089569,
-0.013272200711071491,
-0.1750485897064209,
0.6088149547576904,
-0.19912926852703094,
-0.12137796729803085,
0.34227535128593445,
0.4904979169368744,
-0.6262408494949341,
0.20277158915996552,
-0.27404457330703735,
0.3092738091945648,
-0.5711326599121094,
-0.1588180810213089,
-0.8367594480514526,
0.29294538497924805,
-0.2504822611808777,
-0.5678020119667053,
0.34644559025764465,
-0.03419911861419678,
0.28051766753196716,
-0.2139958292245865,
-0.1834372580051422,
-0.17065373063087463,
-0.6668494343757629,
0.1588779091835022,
-0.2806966006755829,
-0.0071266950108110905,
0.5471882224082947,
-0.17241770029067993,
-0.011205351911485195,
0.16577672958374023,
0.05575784668326378,
-0.04081194847822189,
0.18715710937976837,
-0.6486405730247498,
-0.11014027148485184,
0.4940701425075531,
0.44786182045936584,
-0.1636093407869339,
-0.22146664559841156,
0.13206170499324799,
0.2179376184940338,
0.248457670211792,
0.18292830884456635,
0.10694261640310287,
-0.44357791543006897,
-0.4299112856388092,
-0.5866827368736267,
-0.28427961468696594,
0.3311825394630432,
0.37015026807785034,
0.37680646777153015,
-0.33620551228523254,
-0.38336631655693054,
0.11436635255813599,
-0.11207759380340576,
-0.23507298529148102,
-0.011154667474329472,
-0.4536954164505005,
-0.1497744619846344,
0.2985619902610779,
-0.15737482905387878,
-0.24989311397075653,
-0.09782925993204117,
-0.1901715099811554,
0.30710697174072266,
0.6549596190452576,
0.2700957953929901,
-0.4339166581630707,
-0.6426140069961548,
0.11309657990932465,
-0.1916898638010025,
0.9951023459434509,
-0.14142929017543793,
-0.4197655916213989,
0.0734637901186943,
-0.22368445992469788,
0.31676003336906433,
0.47044917941093445,
-0.35511261224746704,
0.012459151446819305,
-0.09136690199375153,
0.7327487468719482,
-0.01949235610663891,
0.7401326894760132,
0.1930588036775589,
-0.7081511616706848,
-0.35097968578338623,
0.49987807869911194,
-0.39665597677230835,
0.11297683417797089,
-0.28097954392433167,
-0.026343533769249916,
0.4415505826473236,
0.05562998726963997,
0.19330072402954102,
-0.56709223985672,
-0.037238139659166336,
0.12811294198036194,
-0.47324109077453613,
0.7736808657646179,
-0.609003484249115,
0.13613075017929077,
0.9652491807937622,
0.026365961879491806,
0.2490210235118866,
-0.4825536906719208,
-0.08559359610080719,
0.19832994043827057,
-0.1621963381767273,
-0.38724255561828613,
0.6264578104019165,
0.037647563964128494,
0.432781457901001,
-0.18952041864395142,
0.27430295944213867,
0.401847779750824,
-0.4590669572353363,
-0.18890134990215302,
-0.39990854263305664,
0.0002597991260699928,
0.04167929291725159,
-1.1451756954193115,
0.13577468693256378,
-0.6748037934303284,
0.28551286458969116,
0.31332555413246155,
-0.1887895166873932,
0.38649919629096985,
-0.4836196303367615,
0.46189016103744507,
0.2853369414806366,
0.5999667048454285,
0.26092609763145447,
0.7275636792182922,
-0.830619752407074,
0.4639596939086914,
0.012160872109234333,
-0.03228369727730751,
0.2479771375656128,
0.09821709245443344,
0.015028229914605618,
-0.06374797970056534,
-0.09153202176094055,
-0.08142250776290894,
-0.19095849990844727,
-0.18086595833301544,
0.13805872201919556,
-0.5684562921524048,
0.48043233156204224,
-0.36932870745658875,
0.06088785454630852,
-0.09442867338657379,
0.35096800327301025,
-0.5575524568557739,
0.15469281375408173,
-0.32791581749916077,
0.5146239399909973,
0.35413289070129395,
0.224273681640625,
-0.03751646354794502,
-0.12634187936782837,
-0.04591123014688492,
0.27848824858665466,
0.622603178024292,
-0.040559615939855576,
-0.06087978556752205,
-0.42435428500175476,
-0.24633757770061493,
-0.6171593070030212,
-0.428200900554657,
-0.6358274221420288,
-0.6878585815429688,
-0.10272248834371567,
0.11469307541847229,
0.47720426321029663,
0.5964187383651733,
0.17564892768859863,
-0.03778061270713806,
0.28699564933776855,
0.22618983685970306,
-0.8346155285835266,
0.48255372047424316,
0.5977221727371216,
-0.4409119784832001,
0.09325890243053436,
-0.05425301939249039,
0.6862227916717529,
0.23141171038150787,
-0.8023124933242798,
-0.14678534865379333,
-0.31147125363349915,
0.038366250693798065,
-0.02723592519760132,
0.04291670024394989,
-0.3125517666339874,
-0.554283618927002,
0.033930979669094086,
-0.10308733582496643,
0.05816583335399628,
0.11501988768577576,
0.5822300314903259,
0.28359565138816833,
-0.05113036185503006,
0.43340837955474854,
0.16225659847259521,
0.09691573679447174,
0.2594686448574066,
-0.2525070309638977,
-0.18831589818000793,
-0.060535404831171036,
0.3018067479133606,
-0.06923634558916092,
0.40699145197868347,
-5.9576640129089355,
0.085666723549366,
-0.26610127091407776,
-0.44811496138572693,
-0.2658136188983917,
0.5839367508888245,
1.313151240348816,
0.3516422510147095,
-0.4359362721443176,
0.07996559143066406,
-0.23492386937141418,
-0.1187400370836258,
-0.20562638342380524,
0.29605546593666077,
-0.07245520502328873,
0.19916874170303345,
0.4559729993343353,
0.5417217016220093,
0.05680130049586296,
0.20053590834140778,
0.3033711016178131,
-0.1836763471364975,
-0.543352484703064,
0.33025145530700684,
-0.016827762126922607,
-0.09912455826997757,
-0.12492617219686508,
0.2136928290128708,
-0.18002861738204956,
0.43751174211502075,
0.3969023525714874,
-0.6371374726295471,
-0.26589488983154297,
-0.7234036922454834,
0.311948299407959,
0.2331375777721405,
0.3051755130290985,
0.22953036427497864,
0.5181808471679688,
0.48053187131881714,
-0.34610703587532043,
0.26378342509269714,
-0.20197035372257233,
-0.10947524011135101,
0.8631256818771362,
0.021479254588484764,
0.33662399649620056,
0.03204348310828209,
-0.6997771263122559,
0.49840694665908813,
0.26150819659233093,
0.10270453989505768,
0.24867871403694153,
0.026935972273349762,
0.6220084428787231,
0.3827442526817322,
-0.19903714954853058,
0.1950981169939041,
-0.35647711157798767,
-0.381320595741272,
0.616784930229187,
-0.17514796555042267,
0.07326361536979675,
-0.0672655925154686,
0.15083256363868713,
-0.39758047461509705,
-0.05759800970554352,
-0.318646103143692,
0.7135142087936401,
0.22870762646198273,
-0.01195827592164278,
-0.1637372374534607,
0.21842361986637115,
-0.7614080905914307,
-0.04263782873749733,
0.11086457222700119,
0.1344379484653473,
0.417525053024292,
-0.09340730309486389,
-0.20735089480876923,
-0.41828110814094543,
-0.24326655268669128,
-0.2613378167152405,
-0.1214672401547432,
0.30532416701316833,
-0.4810640513896942,
-0.5335018038749695,
0.22643576562404633,
-0.4502316117286682,
0.24458305537700653,
-0.1003025621175766,
-0.45233163237571716,
0.14307646453380585,
-0.16752630472183228,
0.33164525032043457,
0.6898559331893921,
-0.1151164099574089,
0.3385189175605774,
0.151301309466362,
0.2939023971557617,
0.28798040747642517,
-0.5317683219909668,
0.20709653198719025,
-0.6098023653030396,
-0.5877969861030579,
-0.10204407572746277,
0.288546621799469,
0.9468405842781067,
0.20093564689159393,
-0.15529610216617584,
0.01826488971710205,
0.43642908334732056,
-0.35101789236068726,
-0.44768983125686646,
0.23779360949993134,
0.2935987114906311,
-0.12943971157073975,
0.774407684803009,
0.027775311842560768,
0.11821196228265762,
0.042927633970975876,
-0.052140310406684875,
-0.7935374975204468,
-0.23326638340950012,
-0.07061959058046341,
-0.33846354484558105,
-0.27162396907806396,
0.30252644419670105,
0.2605894207954407,
-0.23222710192203522,
0.11302521079778671,
0.4133743345737457,
0.054635364562273026,
0.07181616872549057,
0.22631701827049255,
-0.08772984147071838,
0.42540818452835083,
-0.44467636942863464,
0.06878141313791275,
-0.5007144808769226,
-0.049500931054353714,
0.35083839297294617,
0.2083137035369873,
-0.473734050989151,
0.002653951058164239,
0.38344430923461914,
0.13545489311218262,
0.28625401854515076,
0.08308376371860504,
0.09621864557266235,
-0.17128188908100128,
0.22202476859092712,
0.16761116683483124,
-0.45092934370040894,
-0.21310769021511078,
0.32731887698173523,
0.4259423613548279,
-0.08585675805807114,
0.49613672494888306,
-0.12304477393627167,
0.33967772126197815,
-1.0652843713760376,
-1.062598466873169,
-0.3302844762802124,
0.12911444902420044,
0.5740993022918701,
-0.32320287823677063,
-0.4929314851760864,
0.17657099664211273,
0.5022467970848083,
-0.049929745495319366,
0.07138242572546005,
-0.6176241636276245,
-0.31055912375450134,
0.21763014793395996,
-0.14479464292526245,
-0.13318850100040436,
-0.8626881837844849,
0.11824945360422134,
0.00201001507230103,
0.08466991037130356,
-0.32583457231521606,
-0.20642833411693573,
0.4250314235687256,
0.13289956748485565,
0.02812887728214264,
-0.16756296157836914,
0.8423406481742859,
-0.25465697050094604,
-0.4915217161178589,
0.07309000939130783,
0.028182944282889366,
0.3318338990211487,
0.21033161878585815,
0.47286924719810486,
-0.16326940059661865,
-0.35837286710739136,
0.23152495920658112,
-0.3798765540122986,
0.043264105916023254,
-0.08009235560894012,
0.061087716370821,
-0.6282474994659424,
0.23810197412967682,
1.0875481367111206,
-0.15728995203971863,
0.0637090802192688,
-0.013116411864757538,
-0.31172773241996765,
0.19359660148620605,
-0.4585793912410736,
-0.4508651793003082,
-0.6339948773384094,
0.11969916522502899,
-0.06484715640544891,
-0.014843643642961979,
0.3268124461174011,
-0.2530269920825958,
-0.05244232341647148,
0.18534281849861145,
-0.16701829433441162,
0.16727963089942932,
-0.28478965163230896,
-0.3347133994102478,
0.2672017216682434,
0.6252259016036987,
0.308759480714798,
-0.24631759524345398,
0.3404558598995209,
-0.05686265602707863,
-0.304082989692688,
-0.32601064443588257,
-0.5672500729560852,
-0.13618777692317963,
-0.2872310280799866,
0.07242666184902191,
0.10631269961595535,
-0.07437390089035034,
-0.12637124955654144,
-0.09032120555639267,
0.21374773979187012,
-0.07953593134880066,
0.5423287749290466,
-0.5986544489860535,
-0.744810938835144,
0.09603463858366013,
0.7878295183181763,
0.2567676305770874,
-0.21513372659683228,
-0.3045227527618408,
-0.04739966243505478,
-0.4137912690639496,
-0.6090191602706909,
-0.015222909860312939,
0.4873378574848175,
-0.2908249497413635,
-0.3246106803417206,
-0.6368662714958191,
-0.13470807671546936,
0.06381037086248398,
0.2464962750673294,
-0.1253475397825241,
-0.45080476999282837,
-0.09831256419420242,
0.600562572479248,
0.462733656167984,
-0.5688700079917908,
-0.3817932903766632,
-0.023503253236413002,
-0.7296154499053955,
0.6963911652565002,
0.42618077993392944,
0.46968209743499756,
0.22282437980175018,
-0.05049361288547516,
0.41456252336502075,
-0.20883670449256897,
-0.2315104752779007,
-0.42290210723876953,
-0.26385194063186646,
-0.026367763057351112,
0.5319154262542725,
-0.1931130290031433,
-0.3053211569786072,
0.6160369515419006,
-0.6239448189735413,
0.2768132984638214,
-0.1975255012512207,
0.16258937120437622,
-0.11418425291776657,
-0.8432952761650085,
0.28895607590675354,
-0.227270245552063,
-0.10753782838582993,
0.337510883808136,
0.37391406297683716,
0.5154818892478943,
-0.20770856738090515,
0.35383090376853943,
-0.22393755614757538,
-0.34585046768188477,
0.9197457432746887,
-0.23565322160720825,
-0.48003634810447693,
0.5981040000915527,
-0.16861063241958618,
-0.30081960558891296,
0.47104424238204956,
0.21996578574180603,
-0.008206971921026707,
0.5567155480384827,
0.1485188901424408,
-0.30630287528038025,
0.6355272531509399,
-0.06857103854417801,
-0.00135701650287956,
0.6214262843132019,
-0.10857143253087997,
0.06765995174646378,
0.16874778270721436,
-0.026697440072894096,
0.3594643771648407,
0.356883704662323,
-0.6913236975669861,
-0.4724952280521393,
0.14756228029727936,
-0.1371557116508484,
0.16489319503307343,
-0.33023935556411743,
0.4747169017791748,
0.713057816028595,
0.3345034420490265,
0.029030969366431236,
0.27378344535827637,
-0.6413131356239319,
0.05998614430427551,
0.2923469841480255,
-0.6779409646987915,
-0.10588964819908142,
0.2792722284793854,
0.5780447721481323,
0.4201090335845947,
-0.3724471926689148,
0.5432372093200684,
-0.2785608768463135,
0.18131355941295624,
-0.15450634062290192,
0.3167836368083954,
0.168235644698143,
0.4017111361026764,
-0.11590974777936935,
-0.4628506600856781,
-0.5210113525390625,
-0.8289149403572083,
0.2223537564277649,
-0.33927711844444275,
0.8215107321739197,
-0.4210992157459259,
-0.059740662574768066,
0.0516226626932621,
0.21431151032447815,
0.7393234372138977,
0.520478367805481,
-0.2715427875518799,
0.3365100026130676,
0.10401932150125504,
-0.1915251463651657,
0.18902991712093353,
0.22521954774856567,
-0.21497999131679535,
0.08900105208158493,
0.3275359570980072,
-0.017708009108901024,
0.20109212398529053,
0.32303154468536377,
0.4423506557941437,
0.2196062058210373,
0.8135842084884644,
0.20571966469287872,
0.4737285375595093,
-0.08468315005302429,
-0.288166880607605,
-0.389741450548172,
0.10688143968582153,
0.11403340101242065,
-0.04229936748743057,
0.09471653401851654,
0.38474977016448975,
0.22976770997047424,
0.0021167246159166098,
0.40461966395378113,
-0.6538498997688293,
-0.515076220035553,
0.0845579281449318,
0.06164606288075447,
-0.9163472652435303,
0.04258556291460991,
0.24409589171409607,
-0.23672786355018616,
0.5642727017402649,
0.10838308185338974,
-0.7069492936134338,
0.04735416918992996,
0.5134021639823914,
-0.13600260019302368,
0.39909523725509644,
0.020603112876415253,
0.1268763393163681,
-0.8281769752502441,
0.6295366287231445,
0.7509178519248962,
-0.4344962239265442,
-0.12689413130283356,
0.44460228085517883,
0.021263908594846725,
-0.4631009101867676,
0.45540136098861694,
-0.31261223554611206,
0.10677408427000046,
-1.1053965091705322,
0.004331426229327917,
-0.5755506753921509,
0.0825982540845871,
0.07630325108766556,
0.2320297509431839,
-0.45029252767562866,
0.13635048270225525,
-0.43157923221588135,
-0.07224402576684952,
0.514068067073822,
-0.40256020426750183,
-0.1365586519241333,
-0.08999206870794296,
0.6960662603378296,
-0.3065960705280304,
-0.4488201439380646,
0.7134200930595398,
0.3309740424156189,
0.03280969336628914,
-0.4726344645023346,
-0.42793095111846924,
0.04660608619451523,
-0.15768040716648102,
0.3451527953147888,
0.1461792290210724,
0.08229649811983109,
-0.14414849877357483,
-0.08012904226779938,
-0.3052588105201721,
0.7316498160362244,
-0.28103479743003845,
0.2917514145374298,
0.0029512669425457716,
0.1822572946548462,
-0.15442399680614471,
-0.6604244112968445,
-0.29918593168258667,
-0.2345423847436905,
0.339979887008667,
-0.11313173174858093
] |
206124
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Scofield
|
John Scofield
|
John Scofield (born December 26, 1951), sometimes referred to as "Sco", is an American jazz-rock guitarist and composer whose music includes bebop, jazz fusion, funk, blues, soul, and rock. He has worked with Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, Dave Liebman, Joe Henderson, Charles Mingus, Joey DeFrancesco, Herbie Hancock, Eddie Palmieri, Pat Metheny, Bill Frisell, Joe Lovano, Pat Martino, Mavis Staples, Phil Lesh, Billy Cobham, Medeski Martin & Wood, George Duke, Jaco Pastorius, John Mayer, Robert Glasper, and Gov't Mule.
Biography
Scofield's family left Ohio and moved to Wilton, Connecticut, where he discovered his interest in music. Educated at the Berklee College of Music, Scofield left school to record with Chet Baker and Gerry Mulligan. He joined the Billy Cobham/George Duke Band soon after and spent two years playing, recording, and touring with them. He recorded with Charles Mingus in 1976 and replaced Pat Metheny in Gary Burton's quartet.
In 1976 Scofield signed with Enja, which released his first album, John Scofield, in 1977. He recorded with pianist Hal Galper on Rough House in 1978 and then on Galper's album Ivory Forest (1980), where he played a solo rendition of "Monk's Mood" by Thelonious Monk. In 1979 he formed a trio with his mentor Steve Swallow and Adam Nussbaum which, with drummer Bill Stewart replacing Nussbaum, became the signature group of Scofield's career.
In 1982, he joined Miles Davis, with whom he remained for three and a half years. He contributed tunes and guitar to three of Davis's albums, Star People, Decoy, and You're Under Arrest. After he left Davis, he released Electric Outlet (1984) and Still Warm (1985)
He started what is referred to as his Blue Matter Band, with Dennis Chambers on drums, Gary Grainger on bass, and Mitchel Forman, Robert Aries, or Jim Beard on keyboards. The band released the albums Blue Matter, Loud Jazz and Pick Hits Live. Marc Johnson formed Bass Desires with Peter Erskine, and Bill Frisell. This "most auspicious [pairing] since John McLaughlin and Carlos Santana" recorded two albums, Bass Desires (1986) and Second Sight (1987).
At the beginning of the 1990s, Scofield formed a quartet that included Joe Lovano with whom he recorded several albums for Blue Note. Time on My Hands (1990), with Joe Lovano, Charlie Haden, and Jack DeJohnette, showcased Scofield's guitar and Mingus-influenced writing. Bill Stewart became the group's drummer and played on Meant to Be (1991) and What We Do (1993). In 1992, Scofield released Grace Under Pressure, featuring guitarist Bill Frisell, with Charlie Haden on bass and Joey Baron on drums. Stewart rejoined Scofield and Steve Swallow for I Can See Your House from Here, a collaboration with Pat Metheny.
Near the end of his time with Blue Note, Scofield returned to a sound that included more funk and soul jazz. In 1994 and 1995, he formed a group with organist/pianist Larry Goldings, bassist Dennis Irwin, and alternately drummers, Bill Stewart and Idris Muhammad. The group toured extensively, and the albums Hand Jive and Groove Elation feature this funk/groove/soul-jazz dimension in Scofield's music with tenor saxophonist Eddie Harris, percussionist Don Alias, and trumpeter Randy Brecker. He recorded the 1997 album A Go Go with avant-garde jazz trio Medeski, Martin & Wood.
Also during this period he began to work with British composer Mark-Anthony Turnage. He appeared as a soloist on Turnage's Blood on the Floor: Elegy for Andy. They collaborated on Scorched, an album of Turnage's orchestrations of Scofield's compositions, largely from the Blue Matter period. John Patitucci and Peter Erskine performed at the live premiere of Scorched at the Alte Oper in Frankfurt in September 2002 with the Radio-Symphony-Orchestra Frankfurt and the hr-Bigband. The performance was recorded and released by Deutsche Grammophon.
Scofield released Überjam in 2002 and Up All Night in 2004, two albums on which he experimented with drum and bass. He recorded in Europe with the Bugge Wesseltoft New Conception of Jazz in 2001–2002 and 2006. In 2004 EnRoute: John Scofield Trio LIVE was released with Steve Swallow on bass and Bill Stewart on drums. It was recorded live at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City in December 2003. This was followed the next year by That's What I Say: John Scofield Plays the Music of Ray Charles. This led to performances with Mavis Staples, Gary Versace on organ, John Benitez on bass, and Steve Hass on drums. After sitting in for two engagements in December 2005 with Phil Lesh and Friends, Scofield has since played numerous shows with the band.
On September 26, 2006 he released Out Louder, his second collaboration with Medeski, Martin & Wood. The group, known collectively as MSMW, toured worldwide in 2006 and 2007. Scofield performed in a duo with John Medeski named The Johns and in a trio with Medeski and drummer Adam Deitch. He recorded music inspired by gospel on the 2009 album Piety Street with Jon Cleary and George Porter Jr.
On September 18, 2007 EmArcy released This Meets That, an album recorded with Steve Swallow, Bill Stewart, and a horn trio. In 2011 EmArcy released A Moment's Peace, recorded with pianist Larry Goldings, bassist Scott Colley, and drummer Brian Blade. Scofield's 2010 album 54 had its origin in the 1990s when Vince Mendoza asked him to play on his first album. As director of the Metropole Orchestra, Mendoza collaborated with Scofield on arrangements of Scofield's compositions that were performed by the orchestra.
Scofield has been an adjunct faculty member in the Jazz Department in the Steinhardt School of Education at New York University.
Awards and honors
1997: Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee
1998: Miles Davis Award, Montreal International Jazz Festival
2002: Grammy nomination for Best Contemporary Jazz Album: Überjam
2004: Grammy nomination for Best Contemporary Jazz Album: Scorched, and Best Jazz Instrumental Solo for "Wee"
2006: Grammy nomination for Best Jazz Instrumental Album, Individual or Group: Trio Beyond - Saudades
2010: Grammy nomination for Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album: 54 featured with Metropole Orkest conducted by Vince Mendoza
2010: Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, French Ministry of Culture
2016: Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Album: Past Present, and nominated for Best Improvised Jazz Solo: "Past Present"
2017: Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Album: Country for Old Men
2017: Grammy Award for Best Improvised Jazz Solo: "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry"
Discography
As leader and co-leader
Compilations
Slo Sco: The Best of the Ballads (Gramavision, 1990)
Liquid Fire: The Best of John Scofield (Gramavision, 1994)
Best of John Scofield (Blue Note, 1996)
Steady Groovin': The Blue Note Groove Sides (Blue Note, 2000)
Sco-Mule (Evil Teen Records, 2015)
As a sideman
Albums listed by year of release. (Links to artists and labels on first appearance.)
References
External links
Official site
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
American jazz guitarists
Grammy Award winners
Jazz-funk guitarists
Jazz fusion guitarists
Lead guitarists
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
Miles Davis
Berklee College of Music alumni
Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development faculty
People from Wilton, Connecticut
Guitarists from Connecticut
Musicians from Dayton, Ohio
1951 births
Living people
Guitarists from Ohio
American male guitarists
20th-century American composers
Trio Beyond members
Manhattan Jazz Quintet members
Motéma Music artists
Verve Records artists
Blue Note Records artists
Gramavision Records artists
African-American guitarists
20th-century jazz composers
|
[
0.10069917142391205,
0.5020698308944702,
-1.0845001935958862,
-0.39418554306030273,
0.8117899894714355,
0.5321758389472961,
-0.40178602933883667,
0.16805917024612427,
-0.3490057587623596,
-0.3696324825286865,
-0.11906671524047852,
0.33486929535865784,
-0.4965634047985077,
-0.012515620328485966,
-0.11288881301879883,
0.1635735034942627,
0.3559533655643463,
-0.6456883549690247,
-0.46507301926612854,
-0.6773126125335693,
0.3485857844352722,
-0.05568237230181694,
-0.2670951187610626,
0.2580312192440033,
0.011572727002203465,
0.40175673365592957,
-0.6882647275924683,
-0.2351451963186264,
0.5851352214813232,
0.08211849629878998,
0.25356751680374146,
0.31225091218948364,
0.4433022141456604,
-0.6319407224655151,
-0.22622951865196228,
0.30768391489982605,
-0.12344593554735184,
0.32368168234825134,
0.23400147259235382,
-0.0146656958386302,
0.20863492786884308,
-0.20137453079223633,
0.6075285077095032,
0.24820399284362793,
-0.05582023411989212,
-0.16522438824176788,
-1.1268200874328613,
0.7623476982116699,
-0.8305816650390625,
-0.6524500250816345,
0.21318568289279938,
0.26839545369148254,
0.3755861520767212,
0.09831999242305756,
0.1840616911649704,
-0.3200802206993103,
-0.1643579602241516,
-0.003308657556772232,
0.014340386725962162,
-0.7818326354026794,
-0.14225521683692932,
0.1255491077899933,
0.19994452595710754,
-0.7203206419944763,
0.06597494333982468,
-0.05363554134964943,
0.43991753458976746,
0.19489134848117828,
0.17792609333992004,
-0.3654702305793762,
0.08584143221378326,
0.32585498690605164,
-0.04352455586194992,
-0.5726824998855591,
0.09782252460718155,
-0.07772739976644516,
0.5577458143234253,
0.05543266609311104,
0.011009059846401215,
0.754614531993866,
0.2534593641757965,
0.0390787199139595,
1.0501114130020142,
0.40741094946861267,
-0.05295192450284958,
0.14540080726146698,
-0.7481639981269836,
0.6061044931411743,
-0.6939159631729126,
0.005242941901087761,
-0.4410639703273773,
-0.7773677706718445,
0.2336694896221161,
0.6389608979225159,
0.3153568208217621,
-0.09484723955392838,
0.3186192810535431,
0.4150630235671997,
-0.31480035185813904,
0.3535231053829193,
0.30229461193084717,
-0.5475221872329712,
0.1339224874973297,
0.08811532706022263,
-0.1339910626411438,
0.09108187258243561,
0.1552824079990387,
-0.7172171473503113,
-0.028734683990478516,
0.18842124938964844,
-0.34508800506591797,
-0.4367121756076813,
0.15561091899871826,
-0.13170193135738373,
0.29430973529815674,
0.04135991260409355,
-0.33990344405174255,
-0.5911340117454529,
-0.7341808676719666,
0.08457301557064056,
0.30518731474876404,
0.2378135472536087,
-0.23836694657802582,
0.2734147608280182,
-0.9401039481163025,
-0.17102718353271484,
0.4040790796279907,
0.21385784447193146,
-0.7424395680427551,
-0.4198794662952423,
0.1716294139623642,
1.042758584022522,
0.10242397338151932,
-0.012987377122044563,
-0.15344657003879547,
-0.21742485463619232,
0.07461708039045334,
-0.10505492240190506,
-0.3141742944717407,
0.6171576976776123,
-0.5662931203842163,
-0.4962165355682373,
-0.29162368178367615,
-1.0839762687683105,
0.5047647356987,
-0.4597882628440857,
-0.34306320548057556,
0.05110131576657295,
0.30793577432632446,
-0.1861393004655838,
0.3800765872001648,
0.0076381852850317955,
-0.36722466349601746,
-0.2197035253047943,
-0.29812565445899963,
-0.2334398478269577,
0.35910508036613464,
0.02784033864736557,
0.07204090058803558,
-0.5327596664428711,
0.08786634355783463,
-0.27485334873199463,
-0.009124540723860264,
-0.13585734367370605,
-0.0643150731921196,
-0.09284988790750504,
0.3838581442832947,
0.1296527087688446,
-0.1351829618215561,
0.7791999578475952,
-0.03639902547001839,
0.5561375617980957,
0.14657562971115112,
0.0941031277179718,
-0.06336389482021332,
0.22279387712478638,
0.6829530000686646,
0.4970815181732178,
0.3143618702888489,
0.2852368950843811,
-0.19471034407615662,
-0.7256395220756531,
-0.17495180666446686,
-0.22851838171482086,
0.2305774688720703,
-0.41859427094459534,
0.09773162007331848,
-0.21477705240249634,
0.5696915984153748,
-0.1433243453502655,
-0.5086705088615417,
-0.6449428796768188,
-0.010812537744641304,
-0.12400145828723907,
1.0301001071929932,
-0.14640316367149353,
-0.44147789478302,
0.3120448887348175,
0.4489020109176636,
0.15644630789756775,
-0.20885726809501648,
-0.15635079145431519,
0.6193217635154724,
-0.2011479139328003,
-0.10636383295059204,
0.06372569501399994,
0.8175169229507446,
-0.1682509183883667,
-0.13508085906505585,
0.33605313301086426,
0.03989103063941002,
-0.3895939290523529,
0.13012176752090454,
0.056548088788986206,
-0.5029290318489075,
-0.6727267503738403,
-0.8413593769073486,
0.0579272098839283,
-0.2881549298763275,
-0.2950303852558136,
0.9980031847953796,
0.18730059266090393,
-0.31775498390197754,
0.13825541734695435,
-0.5758695006370544,
0.9693683981895447,
-0.31051692366600037,
-0.15551134943962097,
0.14367397129535675,
0.15319527685642242,
0.6163676977157593,
-0.03996022790670395,
-0.11227332055568695,
-0.31940439343452454,
-0.013810699805617332,
0.4248424768447876,
0.41117894649505615,
-0.18637190759181976,
-0.16329868137836456,
-0.6330285668373108,
0.30280768871307373,
0.3508100211620331,
-1.137367606163025,
-0.18057498335838318,
0.11598530411720276,
-0.159842848777771,
0.237921342253685,
0.023513371124863625,
-0.322243869304657,
0.8357425332069397,
-0.19458456337451935,
0.7133100628852844,
0.8451086282730103,
0.366028368473053,
-0.13605935871601105,
-0.07246796041727066,
0.36872175335884094,
-0.060347601771354675,
0.7600851058959961,
-0.20177237689495087,
0.14788855612277985,
-0.48308971524238586,
0.472019225358963,
-0.59092116355896,
-0.7409855127334595,
-0.6941182613372803,
0.6151922941207886,
-0.2198379933834076,
0.8903355002403259,
-0.30393487215042114,
0.23970434069633484,
0.19504566490650177,
-0.07213812321424484,
1.0128809213638306,
-0.3633024990558624,
0.1226142942905426,
-0.0933178961277008,
-0.43262284994125366,
0.16537877917289734,
-0.9458661079406738,
0.5573387742042542,
0.29042816162109375,
-0.35532495379447937,
-0.4815961718559265,
-0.40097907185554504,
0.17784826457500458,
0.3298099637031555,
-0.1680033802986145,
0.1691441833972931,
-0.018848642706871033,
-0.3908948302268982,
0.7063791155815125,
-0.3744426369667053,
-0.10340788215398788,
0.24199099838733673,
0.7888240814208984,
0.15451274812221527,
-0.3040461540222168,
-0.592225193977356,
-0.23354004323482513,
-0.029688164591789246,
-0.2223648726940155,
0.24070946872234344,
0.12401334196329117,
0.8394804000854492,
-0.06579570472240448,
-0.19128447771072388,
-0.08242844045162201,
-5.414462089538574,
0.2826631963253021,
-0.26467058062553406,
0.13400383293628693,
-0.15673738718032837,
0.7366572618484497,
0.33503457903862,
-0.8284119367599487,
0.28454849123954773,
-0.6533748507499695,
-0.9309356212615967,
0.16468890011310577,
-0.4277384281158447,
0.9611181020736694,
0.169313445687294,
0.35636812448501587,
-0.3727854788303375,
-0.5646121501922607,
0.0937442034482956,
0.5389794707298279,
0.207480788230896,
-0.6156665682792664,
-0.1476830095052719,
0.5335567593574524,
0.04191016033291817,
0.23039235174655914,
-1.2890468835830688,
0.21099863946437836,
-0.37451663613319397,
-0.06935907900333405,
0.1711437851190567,
-0.26811301708221436,
-0.2534925639629364,
-0.7493643164634705,
0.033426497131586075,
0.3481977581977844,
0.7163726091384888,
0.04118262603878975,
0.1882452815771103,
0.04613666608929634,
0.16425372660160065,
0.1616167426109314,
-0.24058382213115692,
-0.41715988516807556,
0.046505965292453766,
-0.18852980434894562,
-0.2920602858066559,
-0.42587465047836304,
-0.6009858250617981,
0.8300937414169312,
0.0640830546617508,
0.06415005773305893,
0.20137181878089905,
-0.23123204708099365,
0.013366212137043476,
0.39578765630722046,
0.10099124163389206,
0.09233789145946503,
0.11217515915632248,
0.3857985734939575,
0.6239594221115112,
-0.4814140200614929,
-0.3230538070201874,
-0.2493891566991806,
-0.43480023741722107,
-0.25167885422706604,
-0.3228580355644226,
0.7456903457641602,
0.3247929811477661,
0.24848972260951996,
0.7239744663238525,
0.5067164897918701,
0.19198571145534515,
-1.4873803853988647,
-0.036770306527614594,
-0.4312918484210968,
0.1557704210281372,
0.2915741205215454,
-0.5476464629173279,
0.7430639863014221,
0.07429013401269913,
-0.2542388141155243,
-0.08912406861782074,
0.2416808307170868,
-0.31702128052711487,
0.09027402848005295,
-0.9963338971138,
0.7177716493606567,
-1.1725800037384033,
-0.07522280514240265,
-0.19304661452770233,
-0.23522436618804932,
0.05128214508295059,
-0.23915068805217743,
0.2248637080192566,
0.1167309582233429,
0.18643534183502197,
0.5409446954727173,
0.8108843564987183,
0.5258911848068237,
0.08377629518508911,
-0.17562313377857208,
0.25958868861198425,
-0.4692232608795166,
0.11194261908531189,
-0.7650658488273621,
0.5339511036872864,
-0.010921123437583447,
0.9880996346473694,
0.5120393633842468,
0.07024058699607849,
0.3388875126838684,
-0.46729937195777893,
-0.7110031247138977,
0.2789643406867981,
-0.1880614310503006,
-0.1645621508359909,
-0.10086395591497421,
0.041753627359867096,
0.08914829045534134,
-0.21500499546527863,
0.02950078807771206,
-0.17110620439052582,
0.12216968089342117,
-0.5788980722427368,
-0.34091681241989136,
-0.5238556265830994,
0.148082435131073,
-0.08120839297771454,
0.3711017072200775,
-0.41671907901763916,
0.6252947449684143,
-0.44914886355400085,
0.4172820448875427,
0.37773582339286804,
-0.12005366384983063,
-0.8175157904624939,
-0.068744957447052,
0.3362221121788025,
-0.39206406474113464,
0.6001006960868835,
-0.4709531366825104,
0.3632675111293793,
0.002228419529274106,
-0.2327091246843338,
0.5880211591720581,
-0.3025910258293152,
0.35278233885765076,
-0.04899151995778084,
0.13098685443401337,
0.2707884907722473,
0.08839327096939087,
-0.1295364946126938,
-0.41226333379745483,
-0.2657691538333893,
0.10561172664165497,
-0.26821431517601013,
-0.2128225564956665,
0.4666503369808197,
0.09770210087299347,
0.7443139553070068,
-0.11117403209209442,
-1.017194151878357,
-0.6284447312355042,
0.09985832124948502,
0.18164761364459991,
-0.18927501142024994,
-0.8692103028297424,
-0.5535312294960022,
0.04427310451865196,
-0.2409176379442215,
-0.7891013026237488,
0.12407363951206207,
-0.6708330512046814,
0.22414210438728333,
-0.25501349568367004,
-0.1182999536395073,
-0.712618350982666,
-0.06535456329584122,
0.14063523709774017,
-0.015209122560918331,
-0.0859377458691597,
-0.6966170072555542,
-0.1405762881040573,
-0.15774276852607727,
-0.29436033964157104,
-0.7839493155479431,
-0.46664077043533325,
0.12322387099266052,
0.021456964313983917,
-0.4444471597671509,
-0.3593269884586334,
0.19537830352783203,
0.6581133008003235,
-0.10063653439283371,
-0.07698850333690643,
-0.23630186915397644,
0.14493457973003387,
-0.09378180652856827,
-0.5420036911964417,
0.2517172694206238,
0.07312916964292526,
0.1754567176103592,
0.025599688291549683,
0.3216409683227539,
-0.7119475603103638,
-0.10470154881477356,
-0.23686404526233673,
-0.35597744584083557,
0.44330209493637085,
-0.3525538146495819,
-0.43185243010520935,
0.16690050065517426,
-0.14761865139007568,
-0.31924739480018616,
0.8020530939102173,
0.5527246594429016,
-0.40345102548599243,
-0.8454015254974365,
-0.10600653290748596,
-0.338675856590271,
0.6471889019012451,
-0.4099736213684082,
-0.3115517795085907,
-0.4841950535774231,
0.32947254180908203,
-0.08081453293561935,
0.11925576627254486,
0.23961028456687927,
0.3813517093658447,
-0.5366435050964355,
0.04782544821500778,
-0.42687875032424927,
0.10741588473320007,
-0.3673892915248871,
-0.18499867618083954,
0.0971270501613617,
0.04197423905134201,
0.4011480510234833,
0.5755820870399475,
0.578669011592865,
0.46618571877479553,
0.4240930378437042,
-0.012011379934847355,
-0.048329442739486694,
0.07767821848392487,
0.9697208404541016,
-0.11373072862625122,
-0.4147701859474182,
0.28623947501182556,
0.42901068925857544,
-0.305545836687088,
-0.2263004183769226,
-0.3422970771789551,
0.7177183628082275,
-0.38877803087234497,
0.02908077836036682,
-0.21609321236610413,
0.010235224850475788,
-0.11856067180633545,
0.45302116870880127,
0.08850611001253128,
-0.4165726900100708,
0.13589654862880707,
-0.1311904937028885,
-0.16751517355442047,
0.11820704489946365,
-0.14795903861522675,
0.28564202785491943,
-0.7368794679641724,
0.686446487903595,
0.3174125850200653,
0.3207958936691284,
0.813308835029602,
-0.035488199442625046,
0.4316692054271698,
0.12878169119358063,
-0.28215697407722473,
0.16780249774456024,
-0.07034320384263992,
-0.34651458263397217,
0.4637911915779114,
-0.1597902774810791,
-0.49933061003685,
0.20039837062358856,
-0.1099301129579544,
-0.5151754021644592,
-0.4372301995754242,
0.0483986921608448,
-0.10383093357086182,
-0.6418303847312927,
-0.06688669323921204,
-0.01916571334004402,
0.6084485650062561,
0.03669185936450958,
0.33436232805252075,
-0.002919833641499281,
-0.009387517347931862,
-0.0772767886519432,
-0.2214178591966629,
-0.2998187839984894,
0.40112388134002686,
0.20463964343070984,
-0.6825997233390808,
0.01717742532491684,
-0.24167515337467194,
-0.07881981879472733,
-0.031610243022441864,
-0.33860647678375244,
0.6545642018318176,
0.6520167589187622,
-0.3036423921585083,
-0.18983951210975647,
0.8588937520980835,
-0.3328215777873993,
0.46057426929473877,
0.6146574020385742,
-0.2462894171476364,
0.7505576014518738,
0.34327399730682373,
0.141139417886734,
-0.3647976517677307,
0.37706640362739563,
0.0007251693168655038,
0.4547264575958252,
0.3334806263446808,
0.2753070592880249,
-0.00034909392707049847,
-0.08744129538536072,
0.4357399344444275,
0.06080450490117073,
-0.10982083529233932,
-0.288364440202713,
0.4793478548526764,
-0.4392283260822296,
-0.36389920115470886,
-0.018328813835978508,
-0.1724402904510498,
-0.5084201097488403,
0.2852586507797241,
-0.379666805267334,
0.5931612849235535,
0.06250675767660141,
0.07308944314718246,
-0.17830334603786469,
-0.1639777570962906,
0.2443462759256363,
0.2987382411956787,
-0.6575556993484497,
-0.3496699333190918,
0.23749244213104248,
0.5408653616905212,
-0.10629433393478394,
-0.4701620042324066,
0.8788194060325623,
-0.19799309968948364,
0.695242702960968,
-0.3696405589580536,
0.22623728215694427,
0.3117634057998657,
-0.18886223435401917,
0.5746941566467285,
1.3530046939849854,
0.0046258592046797276,
-0.1752939373254776,
0.2724027931690216,
-0.42587363719940186,
-0.9397653341293335,
-0.10475526005029678,
0.2693960964679718,
0.5023074150085449,
0.48784583806991577,
-0.5369567275047302,
0.7088290452957153,
0.12815043330192566,
0.3538901209831238,
0.20812839269638062,
0.3874713182449341,
0.01247955858707428,
0.06043834239244461,
-0.3431765139102936,
-0.24970529973506927,
-0.5995916724205017,
-0.20552371442317963,
0.4439865052700043,
-0.6159641742706299,
0.24651969969272614,
-0.3539388179779053,
0.017463359981775284,
-0.027135077863931656,
0.2817084789276123,
-1.3518787622451782,
-0.08532043546438217,
0.12531067430973053,
0.21641221642494202,
-0.7175511717796326,
0.4731700122356415,
1.075377106666565,
0.030841805040836334,
0.3416394293308258,
0.44873201847076416,
-0.11018387228250504,
0.357828825712204,
-0.422916978597641,
-0.21558982133865356,
0.014125008136034012,
-0.555076539516449,
-0.21083079278469086,
-0.5334170460700989,
0.6480401754379272,
0.26498913764953613,
-0.17749731242656708,
-0.4271523356437683,
0.4016391336917877,
0.09432438015937805,
0.6332098245620728,
0.530231773853302,
-0.3734523355960846,
0.015249770134687424,
0.06941214948892593,
0.6395551562309265,
0.8267495632171631,
0.37629711627960205,
0.2878173291683197,
-0.4537307322025299,
0.3573365807533264,
0.14570097625255585,
-0.5058465600013733,
-0.09807822853326797,
0.7207602262496948,
-0.1572369486093521,
0.009151837788522243,
-0.26267969608306885,
0.041703492403030396,
0.21215365827083588,
-0.827132523059845,
0.6508978009223938,
0.255851686000824,
0.17340299487113953,
-0.7263484597206116,
0.8163353800773621,
0.4360790252685547,
-0.7126741409301758,
-0.18122518062591553,
0.15087053179740906,
0.17105276882648468,
-0.21336650848388672,
-0.6622538566589355,
0.019085858017206192,
0.7950169444084167,
-0.22151261568069458,
-0.7799134254455566,
0.2748135030269623,
-0.4750624895095825,
-0.11122521758079529,
-0.23169022798538208,
0.4116136431694031,
0.17606359720230103,
0.5119852423667908,
-0.5636173486709595
] |
206126
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Hamilton%20Finlay
|
Ian Hamilton Finlay
|
Ian Hamilton Finlay, CBE (28 October 1925 – 27 March 2006) was a Scottish poet, writer, artist and gardener.
Life
Finlay was born in Nassau, Bahamas, to James Hamilton Finlay and his wife, Annie Pettigrew, both of Scots descent.
He was educated at Dollar Academy in Clackmannanshire and later at Glasgow School of Art. At the age of 13, with the outbreak of the Second World War, he was evacuated to family in the countryside. In 1942, he joined the British Army. Finlay was married twice and had two children, Alec and Ailie. He died in Edinburgh. He is buried with his parents and wife in Abercorn Churchyard in West Lothian. The grave lies in the extreme south-east corner of the churchyard.
Poetry
At the end of the war, Finlay worked as a shepherd, before beginning to write short stories and poems, while living on Rousay, in Orkney. He published his first book, The Sea Bed and Other Stories, in 1958, with some of his plays broadcast on the BBC, and some stories featured in The Glasgow Herald.
His first collection of poetry, The Dancers Inherit the Party, was published in 1960 by Migrant Press with a second edition published in 1962. The third edition, published by Fulcrum Press (London) in 1969, included a number of new poems and was inaccurately described by the publisher as a first edition, which led to a complex legal dispute. Dancers was included in its entirety in a New Directions annual a few years later.
In 1963, Finlay published Rapel, his first collection of concrete poetry (poetry in which the layout and typography of the words contributes to its overall effect), and it was as a concrete poet that he first gained wide renown. Much of this work was issued through his own Wild Hawthorn Press, in his magazine Poor. Old. Tired. Horse.
Finlay became notable as a poet, when reducing the monostich form to one word with his concrete poems in the 1960s. Repetition, imitation and tradition lay at the heart of Hamilton's poetry, and exploring ' the juxtaposition of apparently opposite ideas'.
Art
Later, Finlay began to compose poems to be inscribed into stone, incorporating these sculptures into the natural environment.
This kind of 'poem-object' features in the garden Little Sparta that he and Sue Finlay created together in the Pentland Hills near Edinburgh. The five-acre garden also includes more conventional sculptures and two garden temples.
In December 2004, in a poll conducted by Scotland on Sunday, a panel of fifty artists, gallery directors and arts professionals voted Little Sparta to be the most important work of Scottish art. Second and third were the Glasgow School of Art by Charles Rennie Mackintosh and The Skating Minister by Henry Raeburn. Sir Roy Strong has said of Little Sparta that it is "the only really original garden made in this country since 1945".
The Little Sparta Trust plans to preserve Little Sparta for the nation by raising enough to pay for an ongoing maintenance fund. Richard Ingleby, Ian Kennedy, Magnus Linklater, and Ann Uppington are trustees. Former trustees include Ian Appleton, Stephen Bann, Stephen Blackmore, Patrick Eyres, John Leighton, Duncan Macmillan, Victoria Miro, Paul Nesbitt and Jessie Sheeler.
Finlay's work is notable for a number of recurring themes: a penchant for classical writers (especially Virgil); a concern with fishing and the sea; an interest in the French Revolution; and a continual revisiting of World War II and the memento mori Latin phrase Et in Arcadia ego. His 1973 screenprint of a tank camouflaged in a leaf pattern, Arcadia, referring to the Utopian Arcadia of poetry and art (another recurring theme), is described by the Tate as drawing "an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank". In the 1982 exhibition The Third Reich Revisited, Nazi iconography featured on architectural drawings by Ian Appleton, with captions by Finlay which could be read as a sardonic critique of Scotland's arts establishment.
Finlay's use of Nazi imagery led to an accusation of neo-Nazi sympathies and anti-semitism. Finlay sued a Paris magazine which had made such accusations, and was awarded nominal damages of one franc. The stress of this situation brought about the separation between Finlay and his wife Sue.
Finlay also came into conflict with the Strathclyde Regional Council over his liability for rates on a byre in his garden, which the council insisted was being used as commercial premises. Finlay insisted that it was a garden temple.
One of the few gardens outside Scotland to permanently display his work is the Improvement Garden in Stockwood Discovery Centre, Luton, created in collaboration with Sue Finlay, Gary Hincks and Nicholas Sloan.
Finlay was nominated for the Turner Prize in 1985. He was awarded honorary doctorates from Aberdeen University in 1987, Heriot-Watt University in 1993 and the University of Glasgow in 2001, and an honorary and/or visiting professorship from the University of Dundee in 1999. The French Communist Party presented him with a bust of Saint-Just in 1991. He received the Scottish Horticultural Medal from the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society in 2002, and the Scottish Arts Council Creative Scotland Award in 2003. Awarded in the Queen's New Year's Honours list in 2002, Finlay was a CBE.
Finlay's work has been seen as austere, but also at times witty, or even darkly whimsical.
He is represented by the Wild Hawthorn Press, the Archive of Ian Hamilton Finlay, which works closely with the Ingleby Gallery (Edinburgh) and the Victoria Miro Gallery (London) in the U.K.
Collaborators
Finlay's designs were most often built by others. Finlay respected the expertise of sandblasters, engravers and printers he worked with, having approximately one hundred collaborators including Patrick Caulfield, Richard Demarco, Malcolm Fraser, Christopher Hall, Margot Sandeman. He also worked with a host of lettering artists including Michael Harvey and Nicholas Sloan.
Printed works
Sculptures and gardens
A partial list of Finlay sculptures and gardens. A few photographs are reachable through the external links.
Little Sparta, (with Sue Finlay), Dunsyre, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 1966
Canterbury sundial, Canterbury, England, University of Kent, near Rutherford College, 1972
UNDA wall, Schiff, Windflower, Stuttgart, Germany, Max Planck Institute, 1975
anteboreum, Yorkshire, England, private garden
sundial, Liège, Belgium, University of Liège, 1976
sundial, Bonn, Germany, British Embassy, 1979
Five Columns for the Kröller-Müller, second title: A Fifth Column for the Kröller-Müller, third title: Corot – Saint-Just, tree-column bases named LYCURGUS, ROUSSEAU, ROBESPIERRE, MICHELET, COROT, Otterlo, Holland, Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, 1982
sundial, Cherrybank Gardens, Perth, 1984
a basket of lemons, a plough of the Roman sort, two oval plaques, Pistoia, Italy, Villa Celle, 1984
Vienna, Austria, Schweizergarten, 1985
Brittany, France, Domain de Kerguehennec, 1986
Eindhoven, Holland, Van Abbemuseum, 1986
A Remembrance of Annette, with Nicholas Sloan, Münster, Germany, Uberwasser Cemetery, 1987
UNDA, with Sue Finlay and Nicholas Sloan, San Diego, Stuart Collection, 1987
Furka Pass, Switzerland, 1987
Strasbourg, France, Musée d'Art Moderne or Musée des Beaux-Arts, 1988
Grove of Silence, Vincennes, with Sue Finlay and Nicholas Sloan, Forest of Dean, England, 1988
Frechen-Bahem, Germany, Haus Bitz, 1988
Preston, England, Harris Museum and Art Gallery, 1989
Cologne, Germany, Ungers Private Library, 1990
bridge columns, Broomielaw, Glasgow, Scotland, 1990
Ovid wall, Aphrodite herm, tree-plaque, capital, with Nicholas Sloan, Luton, England, Stockwood Park, 1991
tree-plaque, Hennef, Germany, private garden, 1991
Lübeck, Germany, Overbeck-Gesellschaft, 1991
Karlsruhe, Germany, Baden State Library, 1991
Dudley, England, The Leasowes, 1992
Six Milestones, The Hague-Zoetermeer, Holland, 1992
Paris, France, private garden, 1993
Frankfurt/Main, Germany, Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst & Co, 1994
stone bench, stone plinth, three plaques. pergola, tree-plaque, others, Grevenbroich, Germany, 1995, named: Ian-Hamilton-Finlay-Park 2014
Foxgloves, with Peter Coates, Durham, UK, Botanical Gardens, 1996
Shell Research Centre Thornton grounds, Finlay and Pia Simig with or for Latz+Partner, Chester, UK, 1997–
paving, eight benches, tree plaque, with Peter Coates, Serpentine Gallery, Kensington Gardens, London, UK, 1997
Fleur de l'Air, with Pia Simig, Peter Coates, Volkmar Herre, Harry Gilonis, John Dixon Hunt, Wild Hawthorn Press, Provence, France, 1997–2003
Et In Arcadia Ego, with Peter Coates for Stroom, The Hague, Netherlands, 1998 (see Fashion, art, society in Camouflage)
The Present Order, with Peter Coates, for Barcelona City Council, supported by The British Council, Barcelona, Spain, Park Güell, 1999
with Peter Coates, Hamburg, Germany, 1999
benches, with Peter Coates, Erfurt, Germany, Erfurt Federal Labour Court, 1999
Cythera, with Peter Coates, Lanarkshire, Scotland, Hamilton Palace grounds, 2000
Six Definitions, Dean Gallery grounds, Edinburgh, Scotland, National Galleries of Scotland, 2001
Ripple with Peter Coates, Luxembourg, Casino Luxembourg, 2001 or 2002
with Peter Coates, Neanderthal, Germany, 2002
with Peter Coates, Carrara, Italy, Carrara International Biennale, 2002
Basel, Switzerland, with Peter Coates, 2003
with Peter Coates, St. Gallan, Switzerland, private residence, 2004
seven Idylls, Dean Gallery allotments, Edinburgh, Scotland, Dean Gallery Allotments Association, 2005
L'Idylle des Cerises with Pia Maria Simig (with Peter Coates), Ingleby Gallery, Edinburgh, Scotland, preparatory drawings and sculpture, 2005
Books by Finlay
Original: 1960 Migrant Press, 1961 Wild Hawthorn Press, 1961 Wild Flounder Press, 1969 Fulcrum Press, 1995 or 1996 or 1997 Polygon
Bibliography
Original: 1960 Migrant Press, 1961 Wild Hawthorn Press, 1961 Wild Flounder Press, 1969 Fulcrum Press, 1995 or 1996 or 1997 Polygon
Original: 1992 MIT Press or
Original: 1994 Chapman Publishing
See also
Monostich
Concrete poetry
References
Sources
Eyres, Patrick (1982), The Third Reich Revisited, in Hearn, Sheila G. (ed.), Cencrastus No. 10, Autumn 1982, pp. 23 - 27,
Craig, Cairns (2010). "Finlay, Ian Hamilton", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online, accessed 29 September 2016. .
External links
Ian Hamilton Finlay papers, 1948–1992, finding aid, Getty Research Institute.
Finding aid to Ian Hamilton Finlay manuscripts at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
Scottish gardeners
Scottish sculptors
Scottish male sculptors
Scottish short story writers
British Poetry Revival
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Landscape or garden designers
Scottish landscape architects
1925 births
2006 deaths
People from Nassau, Bahamas
People educated at Dollar Academy
Scottish contemporary artists
20th-century British sculptors
20th-century Scottish poets
Scottish male poets
20th-century British short story writers
21st-century British short story writers
20th-century British male writers
21st-century British male writers
British Army personnel of World War II
British people of the Colony of the Bahamas
|
[
-0.05350123345851898,
0.6350632309913635,
-0.7537229061126709,
-0.9535388350486755,
-0.35282206535339355,
0.8090612292289734,
1.061754584312439,
0.006212461274117231,
-0.09634660184383392,
-0.12461795657873154,
-0.7065941095352173,
-0.11233192682266235,
-0.37044650316238403,
0.6390969157218933,
0.31490984559059143,
0.47032368183135986,
-0.3778940737247467,
-0.1267065554857254,
-0.008063358254730701,
0.15513843297958374,
-0.23757754266262054,
-0.443305641412735,
0.19206379354000092,
0.363021582365036,
-0.11470947414636612,
0.14270995557308197,
0.3640878200531006,
-0.0025111879222095013,
0.25279030203819275,
-0.24437980353832245,
0.01670367829501629,
0.5205816030502319,
0.4322507679462433,
-0.6117478609085083,
0.0012365474831312895,
-0.08595625311136246,
-0.2651008665561676,
-0.7282410860061646,
-0.09899839013814926,
0.20361043512821198,
-0.25254058837890625,
0.22512346506118774,
0.48095443844795227,
-0.20722004771232605,
0.4038136899471283,
-0.7261562943458557,
-2.029742956161499,
0.3052506148815155,
-0.2857244312763214,
0.14219880104064941,
-0.19717080891132355,
0.5209179520606995,
1.3491225242614746,
-0.25825247168540955,
-0.21587775647640228,
0.7243772745132446,
-0.7293799519538879,
-0.19443094730377197,
0.6055355668067932,
-0.3821985125541687,
0.35015755891799927,
0.18500906229019165,
0.3304659426212311,
0.3216801583766937,
0.548906147480011,
0.4651390016078949,
-0.5304194092750549,
0.48276597261428833,
-0.13719627261161804,
0.411454439163208,
-0.07766763120889664,
0.8959433436393738,
0.6449626684188843,
-0.060710687190294266,
-0.0613802969455719,
-0.258049339056015,
0.17164494097232819,
-0.3297666311264038,
0.16633565723896027,
0.09844395518302917,
0.12677417695522308,
0.18732865154743195,
0.3476122319698334,
0.9699411988258362,
0.4269163906574249,
-0.38131436705589294,
-0.5977398753166199,
0.5311220288276672,
-0.16855567693710327,
0.23585322499275208,
-0.5050047039985657,
-0.8326852917671204,
-0.04000876471400261,
0.1695035696029663,
-0.03521881625056267,
0.3461425006389618,
-0.3408868610858917,
0.5709171891212463,
-0.12388664484024048,
-0.1307407170534134,
0.11528131365776062,
0.26752930879592896,
0.029613545164465904,
0.1187877357006073,
-0.7568605542182922,
-0.13207410275936127,
-1.0168331861495972,
-0.7235593199729919,
0.6014370322227478,
-0.5781753659248352,
-0.34350526332855225,
-0.332256942987442,
-0.4722216725349426,
-0.10871243476867676,
0.7897672653198242,
0.7055838704109192,
0.46407657861709595,
-0.9570170640945435,
-0.7047703266143799,
0.34881654381752014,
-0.2897951006889343,
-0.213400736451149,
-0.44435545802116394,
0.27299657464027405,
-1.0715693235397339,
-0.49034515023231506,
0.20562158524990082,
0.11602557450532913,
-0.5909121632575989,
0.5556274056434631,
0.2516825199127197,
1.2359119653701782,
-0.5742206573486328,
-0.7452284097671509,
-0.30308181047439575,
-0.026884211227297783,
0.71631920337677,
0.02602347917854786,
-0.12867899239063263,
0.5142690539360046,
-0.46426188945770264,
0.16430915892124176,
-1.0528697967529297,
-0.1306913048028946,
0.5580718517303467,
0.2387797087430954,
-0.516402006149292,
-0.5364227294921875,
0.05893401801586151,
-0.28796711564064026,
0.5027848482131958,
-0.2525133788585663,
0.2971096634864807,
0.007194896694272757,
-0.5869342684745789,
0.4375084936618805,
0.5418214201927185,
0.5086542367935181,
0.4641478359699249,
-0.06399928033351898,
0.4976160228252411,
-0.17600208520889282,
0.19349609315395355,
0.07938102632761002,
-0.03927622362971306,
0.3506569564342499,
-0.16586817800998688,
-0.2453051507472992,
-0.23346802592277527,
0.20615103840827942,
-0.1004573255777359,
-0.01496940664947033,
0.5097816586494446,
-0.1696893572807312,
0.2680870294570923,
-0.31795114278793335,
0.18224135041236877,
0.1327710598707199,
-0.004252975806593895,
-0.3256993889808655,
-0.7807722687721252,
-0.38078057765960693,
-0.14023622870445251,
-0.04585464671254158,
0.6866284012794495,
-0.08863034099340439,
0.29732832312583923,
-0.04776051640510559,
0.6693074107170105,
0.1268441379070282,
-0.6833747625350952,
-1.061294436454773,
0.020291175693273544,
-0.14555566012859344,
0.7881630659103394,
0.21716274321079254,
0.16008585691452026,
0.39864856004714966,
0.3949922025203705,
1.3459323644638062,
-0.03651011735200882,
0.07311370223760605,
0.11721482127904892,
-0.5423161387443542,
0.2604500651359558,
0.9056597352027893,
0.4285406172275543,
-0.056392963975667953,
0.23395413160324097,
0.3001461327075958,
0.3637620508670807,
-0.7139907479286194,
0.009609013795852661,
0.4262682795524597,
-0.3077768385410309,
-0.686943769454956,
-0.08036509901285172,
-0.49144184589385986,
-0.20720359683036804,
-0.6294960975646973,
0.2872772812843323,
0.29334205389022827,
0.065282441675663,
0.723684549331665,
0.10788891464471817,
0.7059392929077148,
0.321429580450058,
-0.29882165789604187,
-0.1062573492527008,
-0.6944233775138855,
-0.8186489939689636,
0.3999064564704895,
0.07676863670349121,
-0.4651716649532318,
-0.09720898419618607,
0.01956436224281788,
0.1715063452720642,
-0.16802814602851868,
0.3107996881008148,
-0.17098957300186157,
0.1608419567346573,
0.18117685616016388,
-0.7312527894973755,
0.3529253602027893,
0.10791599750518799,
0.6581694483757019,
-0.2619177997112274,
-0.07496152073144913,
0.47391682863235474,
-0.015458346344530582,
0.6959652900695801,
0.37622928619384766,
0.6833539009094238,
0.48162123560905457,
-0.07948646694421768,
0.1300426423549652,
0.16081549227237701,
-0.2892867624759674,
0.27491042017936707,
-0.018652306869626045,
-0.36272063851356506,
0.3041909635066986,
0.45423632860183716,
0.07389132678508759,
0.09665577113628387,
-0.2709406018257141,
-0.12328879535198212,
-0.6245342493057251,
0.17570392787456512,
-0.2010778784751892,
0.07283923029899597,
-0.23447896540164948,
-0.2011939138174057,
-0.43947383761405945,
-0.03649158775806427,
0.4666830897331238,
-0.12265250831842422,
-0.3914470672607422,
-0.5421978235244751,
-0.607811450958252,
0.26881882548332214,
1.045751690864563,
-0.4988973140716553,
-0.2358151376247406,
-0.06564219295978546,
0.6281169652938843,
-0.30622774362564087,
0.3439052104949951,
0.045247599482536316,
-0.10602831095457077,
0.14788006246089935,
0.8380534052848816,
0.06350313127040863,
0.371650755405426,
-0.6099628210067749,
0.34609556198120117,
-0.7469823956489563,
-1.158879280090332,
0.12421369552612305,
-0.15060622990131378,
-0.29122933745384216,
0.45153456926345825,
0.030175739899277687,
0.608423113822937,
0.4645775556564331,
0.25492531061172485,
-0.3070491850376129,
0.2535743713378906,
-4.955508232116699,
0.1341051459312439,
0.017325561493635178,
-0.4086366593837738,
0.22479526698589325,
0.4247121512889862,
0.6512166857719421,
-0.4670584797859192,
0.05031750351190567,
-0.7768739461898804,
-0.16405755281448364,
-0.09712894260883331,
-0.09903053194284439,
0.760077178478241,
1.0298582315444946,
0.8019573092460632,
0.36104416847229004,
-0.0849468782544136,
0.4080711603164673,
0.19638918340206146,
0.2282889187335968,
0.1339149922132492,
-0.1112004965543747,
0.004428754560649395,
0.08953705430030823,
0.6925588250160217,
-0.25831177830696106,
-0.07917807996273041,
-0.6089154481887817,
0.1691550314426422,
0.3587498962879181,
0.0236495453864336,
-0.1902243047952652,
-0.281729131937027,
-0.2942326068878174,
0.013131925836205482,
0.10933615267276764,
0.1999853551387787,
0.2684078812599182,
0.10560000687837601,
-0.22631826996803284,
0.1229221299290657,
-0.5645120739936829,
0.5138586163520813,
-0.13053755462169647,
-0.4373663365840912,
-1.0182539224624634,
-0.18130730092525482,
0.303232342004776,
0.7370753884315491,
-0.16921797394752502,
0.12032318115234375,
0.7627984881401062,
0.22663187980651855,
-0.4314984679222107,
0.3258384168148041,
0.15165796875953674,
-0.6814746260643005,
-0.505283534526825,
0.21330124139785767,
0.7660444378852844,
-0.756535530090332,
0.4020431339740753,
-0.4651024043560028,
0.06070666387677193,
-0.2092391699552536,
0.2158571481704712,
-0.20820008218288422,
-0.21180668473243713,
-0.19662943482398987,
-0.20236143469810486,
0.6849700808525085,
-0.40666818618774414,
-1.5075805187225342,
-0.45729994773864746,
-0.013403373770415783,
0.15602344274520874,
0.12761087715625763,
-0.21201439201831818,
-0.6028537750244141,
-0.07138112932443619,
-0.23484282195568085,
-0.9925997853279114,
1.6940817832946777,
-0.07907101511955261,
-0.3809455335140228,
-0.6648893356323242,
0.28904202580451965,
-0.6413102746009827,
-0.6810248494148254,
0.025144873186945915,
-0.12495759129524231,
-0.41681206226348877,
-0.042545463889837265,
0.47964996099472046,
-0.12275300920009613,
0.22336474061012268,
-0.05081354081630707,
0.34674710035324097,
0.03692568838596344,
-0.8434861302375793,
-0.22674857079982758,
-0.4500892758369446,
-0.14216583967208862,
0.03168598935008049,
-0.3841553032398224,
-0.49161678552627563,
0.6519827842712402,
0.4149400293827057,
0.37874525785446167,
-0.3372328579425812,
0.033966317772865295,
-0.35865306854248047,
-0.1363554447889328,
0.2011173963546753,
-0.4137415587902069,
0.3510141372680664,
0.5206394791603088,
0.7119618654251099,
0.7293924689292908,
0.13483892381191254,
0.9127238988876343,
0.35061395168304443,
-0.16121838986873627,
0.2818230986595154,
-0.13832248747348785,
0.805994987487793,
-1.0185033082962036,
-0.5036517381668091,
-0.12854371964931488,
0.1298450529575348,
0.5593117475509644,
0.14408545196056366,
-0.06654253602027893,
-0.32073774933815,
-0.5754448771476746,
-0.5501008033752441,
-0.01402592658996582,
-0.11580273509025574,
-0.41521990299224854,
0.021035822108387947,
-0.24148185551166534,
0.033079106360673904,
0.2586049437522888,
0.12350552529096603,
0.6381194591522217,
-0.05381809175014496,
-0.08533746749162674,
-0.6128894686698914,
0.5987551212310791,
-0.3229169249534607,
0.0942206159234047,
0.37416785955429077,
-1.189677119255066,
-0.48998913168907166,
-0.07821832597255707,
-1.3929818868637085,
0.09278088063001633,
0.35304874181747437,
-0.3739415109157562,
-0.23766584694385529,
0.4563743472099304,
-1.4076682329177856,
0.08310645073652267,
-0.06144918501377106,
-0.27493104338645935,
-0.34816500544548035,
-0.044607002288103104,
-0.535956621170044,
0.6174478530883789,
0.08422777056694031,
-0.7200447916984558,
-0.14590348303318024,
-0.3419547379016876,
0.2628915011882782,
-0.005588307976722717,
-0.25029945373535156,
0.03508733585476875,
-0.07514502108097076,
0.07480001449584961,
-0.04318251833319664,
0.6213170886039734,
-0.5154025554656982,
0.5992026329040527,
0.9494824409484863,
0.05757047235965729,
-0.5001363158226013,
-0.6875622272491455,
0.022559015080332756,
0.4064937233924866,
0.04851606488227844,
-0.001062092138454318,
0.6869611144065857,
0.5051931738853455,
-0.8076321482658386,
-0.3666955530643463,
0.04705985262989998,
-0.3476715087890625,
-0.027220003306865692,
-0.894333004951477,
0.26115167140960693,
0.3460896611213684,
-0.15600569546222687,
-0.02654847875237465,
-0.24938246607780457,
-1.4412627220153809,
-0.07568001747131348,
-0.39766451716423035,
-0.4696977734565735,
0.9744817018508911,
-0.16905415058135986,
-0.3417082726955414,
-0.10115311294794083,
0.8625514507293701,
-0.4334407448768616,
0.05680430307984352,
0.0722436010837555,
0.2453363835811615,
-0.17145036160945892,
-0.4004741311073303,
-0.5694222450256348,
-0.6653295159339905,
-0.9531187415122986,
-0.042183611541986465,
-0.6488656997680664,
0.20153263211250305,
0.22507278621196747,
-0.331283837556839,
0.5949538350105286,
-0.18038086593151093,
-0.37099823355674744,
0.22781556844711304,
0.20856542885303497,
-0.0355047769844532,
-0.7446858882904053,
0.02256063185632229,
-0.07347097247838974,
0.5199621915817261,
0.13045734167099,
0.75575852394104,
0.5435335040092468,
1.1388630867004395,
0.7248165607452393,
-0.3999749422073364,
-0.32806068658828735,
0.16142190992832184,
0.27194464206695557,
-0.367483913898468,
0.13445349037647247,
0.10425195842981339,
0.3807075619697571,
-0.37413161993026733,
-0.493765652179718,
-0.7214644551277161,
0.6728309988975525,
-0.16525250673294067,
0.18488633632659912,
0.2867450714111328,
0.584900438785553,
-0.2625790238380432,
0.7777676582336426,
0.11016549915075302,
-0.24446794390678406,
0.35879507660865784,
0.20786148309707642,
0.32681187987327576,
0.5180416703224182,
-0.12884952127933502,
0.7342935800552368,
0.054554350674152374,
-0.5070750713348389,
-0.4116103947162628,
-0.44741809368133545,
0.701600193977356,
-0.7245776653289795,
-0.54142826795578,
0.3567315340042114,
-0.94771409034729,
0.26482051610946655,
-0.39212536811828613,
-0.2183169573545456,
0.04031607136130333,
0.6108912825584412,
-0.23822122812271118,
-0.10095371305942535,
-0.420114129781723,
0.09593794494867325,
-0.11510740965604782,
0.07420122623443604,
-0.3243716061115265,
-0.29680806398391724,
-0.5312813520431519,
-0.18971389532089233,
0.3479642868041992,
-0.08466266095638275,
-0.2509899437427521,
-0.9863489270210266,
0.09849966317415237,
-0.4881768524646759,
-0.5119808316230774,
-0.632554292678833,
1.070742130279541,
0.6298850774765015,
-0.07111388444900513,
0.6822828650474548,
0.004302094224840403,
0.04251907020807266,
-0.2389409840106964,
0.10394856333732605,
0.25871261954307556,
-0.1029810681939125,
0.28112661838531494,
0.23684756457805634,
0.5614937543869019,
-0.8427557945251465,
-0.09154953807592392,
-0.10040796548128128,
-0.5283158421516418,
0.5696130394935608,
0.08957400918006897,
-0.006176444236189127,
-0.46187087893486023,
0.47172388434410095,
0.08158359676599503,
-0.30530282855033875,
0.8043177127838135,
-0.05547012388706207,
-0.20077601075172424,
0.23970060050487518,
0.21247339248657227,
-0.07952098548412323,
-0.31022828817367554,
-0.7295896410942078,
0.34961676597595215,
-0.19074521958827972,
-0.23825009167194366,
0.20404303073883057,
-0.3917759656906128,
-0.07578741759061813,
0.2660098969936371,
-0.13123737275600433,
0.3907686173915863,
0.1309836059808731,
0.15132804214954376,
0.16678255796432495,
-0.07019422203302383,
0.06165647134184837,
0.6884181499481201,
0.06869757175445557,
-0.4404580891132355,
0.7543379664421082,
0.3125540316104889,
0.2211187332868576,
-0.5744736790657043,
-0.1981590837240219,
0.42193612456321716,
0.48252689838409424,
-0.9192594885826111,
0.03062579594552517,
-0.13745172321796417,
-0.22816075384616852,
0.5885168313980103,
0.42847171425819397,
-0.18205250799655914,
-0.2573179006576538,
-0.12288211286067963,
0.506992757320404,
-0.9145142436027527,
0.29947683215141296,
0.9096966981887817,
0.6527612209320068,
-0.13321040570735931,
-0.06021152436733246,
0.39549246430397034,
0.8828536868095398,
0.07439809292554855,
0.7151543498039246,
-0.0875852033495903,
-0.3909347951412201,
0.2001696228981018,
-0.11149972677230835,
0.6108878254890442,
0.024538224563002586,
-0.3818226754665375,
0.48742610216140747,
0.03355458751320839,
-0.3559315502643585,
0.33016782999038696,
0.021482044830918312,
-0.28739112615585327,
0.6029330492019653,
-0.012811318039894104,
-0.45219823718070984,
0.1606346070766449,
-0.789687991142273,
-0.014355589635670185,
-0.5971201062202454,
1.3660242557525635,
0.42983198165893555,
-0.4018156826496124,
-0.2555844783782959,
0.09705498069524765,
0.02064402773976326,
0.24732697010040283,
-0.2068956196308136,
0.5664165616035461,
0.04756326228380203,
0.246601864695549,
-1.0025863647460938,
0.6120636463165283,
0.15801775455474854,
0.21107956767082214,
-0.12706753611564636,
0.4499332904815674,
-0.4595643877983093,
-0.16650420427322388,
0.4021990895271301,
-0.6040506362915039,
-0.27462366223335266,
-1.0242692232131958,
0.3266618847846985,
-0.08781472593545914,
0.2920289933681488,
0.13900808990001678,
-0.49626779556274414,
-0.2412196844816208,
0.11999484896659851,
0.5205695033073425,
0.0543970987200737,
0.12097086757421494,
-0.09886432439088821,
0.2008102685213089,
-0.013013829477131367,
-0.49175357818603516,
-0.10520150512456894,
0.06788861751556396,
0.3868778347969055,
1.043887734413147,
0.4726317226886749,
-0.035206619650125504,
0.6515487432479858,
-0.42643848061561584,
0.04121372848749161,
0.2246699184179306,
-1.6724040508270264,
-0.27950426936149597,
0.059279657900333405,
-0.8529642224311829,
-0.1358184516429901,
0.07088498026132584,
0.15757755935192108,
-0.4829833507537842,
-0.04404270276427269,
-0.27513933181762695,
0.3439943194389343,
-0.17138773202896118,
-0.4168148338794708,
-0.28373897075653076,
0.9117947220802307,
-0.25004634261131287
] |
206133
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rideau%20River
|
Rideau River
|
The Rideau River (; Ojibwe: Pasapkedjinawong) is a river in Eastern Ontario, Canada. The river flows north from Upper Rideau Lake and empties into the Ottawa River at the Rideau Falls in Ottawa, Ontario. Its length is .
As explained in a writing by Samuel de Champlain in 1613, the river was given the name "Rideau" (curtain) because of the appearance of the Rideau Falls. The Anishinàbemowin name for the river is "Pasapkedjinawong", meaning "the river that passes between the rocks."
The Rideau Canal, which allows travel from Ottawa to the city of Kingston, Ontario on Lake Ontario, was formed by joining the Rideau River with the Cataraqui River. The river diverges from the Canal at Hog's Back Falls in Ottawa.
In early spring, to reduce flooding on the lower section of the river, workers from the city of Ottawa use ice blasting to clear the ice which covers the river from Billings Bridge to Rideau Falls by cutting "keys" through the ice and using explosives to break off large sheets of ice. This practice has been going on for more than 100 years.
The regulatory authority charged with protecting the Rideau River and its tributaries is the Rideau Valley Conservation Authority.
Geography
Tributaries
Adrians Creek
Duck Creek
Tay River
Black Creek
Otter Creek
Rosedale Creek
Irish Creek
Babers Creek
Atkinsons Creek
Rideau Creek
Dales Creek
Brassils Creek
Murphy Drain
Kemptville Creek
McDermott Drain
Cranberry Creek
Steven Creek
Mud Creek
Jock River
Black Rapids Creek
Nepean Creek
Brewer Park Pond (connected via a culvert)
Sawmill Creek
Communities
Communities along the Rideau include:
Ottawa, Ontario
Manotick, Ontario
Kars, Ontario
North Grenville, Ontario
Merrickville, Ontario
Smiths Falls, Ontario
Islands
Barnes Island
Beech Island
Cummings Island
Green Island
James Island
Kilmarnock Island
Libby Island
Long Island
Maple Island
Nicolls Island
Porter Island
Sanders Island
History
Samuel de Champlain, who was the first European to have seen the river, named it rideau (the French word for "curtain") due to the resemblance between Rideau Falls and a curtain.
In earlier times, the river was used as a transportation route between the Ottawa and Saint Lawrence River. The fertility of the lands along the banks of Rideau river attracted loyalist settlers looking for good farmlands, which led to growth of settlements in the surrounding regions. After the War of 1812, a waterway, designed by John By, was built through Rideau River connecting Kingston to Montreal.
See also
Ottawa's Green spaces along the Rideau River
List of Ontario rivers
Royal Swans, that occupy a stretch of the river
References
Further reading
External links
Rideau Valley Conservation Authority
Biodiversity of the Rideau River (CMN, nature.ca)
Rivers of Ottawa
Canadian Heritage Rivers
|
[
-0.6702983975410461,
0.7366289496421814,
-0.6099390387535095,
0.35766494274139404,
0.3950115144252777,
0.9133351445198059,
0.9396812915802002,
1.3594388961791992,
0.2799983620643616,
-1.1930887699127197,
-0.13071481883525848,
0.15971435606479645,
0.25695425271987915,
-0.05651161074638367,
-0.557461142539978,
0.256853848695755,
-0.6412325501441956,
-0.058269087225198746,
0.827871561050415,
-0.43388110399246216,
0.18010903894901276,
0.12893755733966827,
0.3320241868495941,
0.771487832069397,
-0.056479524821043015,
0.6474317908287048,
0.05163003131747246,
0.03273196518421173,
-0.2105618566274643,
0.029139693826436996,
-0.16539715230464935,
0.9792596697807312,
0.38247448205947876,
-0.48639872670173645,
0.2506049573421478,
-0.4081900715827942,
-0.4648573398590088,
-0.5778694152832031,
-0.8750514984130859,
-0.37068304419517517,
0.16905836760997772,
-0.08594568073749542,
-0.15694569051265717,
0.19756345450878143,
1.0450249910354614,
0.6664857864379883,
-1.0578608512878418,
-0.6414754986763,
-0.9595249891281128,
-0.18102002143859863,
-0.31319406628608704,
0.7285388112068176,
-0.15913839638233185,
0.09088616818189621,
0.22848451137542725,
0.35847875475883484,
-0.6976075768470764,
0.47317421436309814,
-0.07556434720754623,
-0.09478159993886948,
0.5809961557388306,
0.728452742099762,
0.19830341637134552,
0.3269466161727905,
-0.343774676322937,
0.3211584985256195,
0.8312578797340393,
0.43425461649894714,
-0.7963305115699768,
-0.4396419823169708,
0.35749098658561707,
-0.11625128239393234,
0.05669371411204338,
1.1431596279144287,
0.059874773025512695,
0.10688774287700653,
-0.06416959315538406,
0.34599655866622925,
-0.3887157142162323,
0.6561092734336853,
-0.014928026124835014,
0.5467151403427124,
0.49528294801712036,
0.9226413369178772,
-0.2776065468788147,
1.066346287727356,
-0.6731998324394226,
0.35682445764541626,
-0.19546674191951752,
0.08913563936948776,
-1.334687352180481,
-0.07966769486665726,
0.16826213896274567,
-0.39646264910697937,
-0.23325082659721375,
-0.20783956348896027,
0.1988798826932907,
0.237477645277977,
0.273413747549057,
0.3881699740886688,
-0.20097751915454865,
-0.6221631169319153,
1.1059341430664062,
0.9251803755760193,
-0.9079853892326355,
-0.20486699044704437,
-0.5608503222465515,
-0.22009064257144928,
0.24130000174045563,
-0.13693422079086304,
0.03252067789435387,
0.2801150679588318,
-0.5805433392524719,
0.26422953605651855,
0.38283905386924744,
0.05851183459162712,
-0.13240188360214233,
-0.2938416600227356,
-0.4579644501209259,
-0.5344478487968445,
0.7204962968826294,
-0.6141819357872009,
0.24069353938102722,
-0.3379446864128113,
0.09323330968618393,
0.06107209995388985,
0.1431456059217453,
-0.8107373118400574,
0.23621389269828796,
-0.016179421916604042,
0.44651103019714355,
1.0331435203552246,
-0.036324866116046906,
-1.1352483034133911,
-0.7991225719451904,
0.31031355261802673,
-0.017784960567951202,
0.028943507000803947,
-0.2580319941043854,
0.5211340188980103,
-1.0007765293121338,
-0.49199190735816956,
-0.3096191883087158,
-0.6928952932357788,
0.06717230379581451,
0.17767518758773804,
-0.21621602773666382,
-0.4816402494907379,
0.4644237458705902,
-0.389821320772171,
0.18778039515018463,
0.3976733386516571,
0.01713714562356472,
-0.15762612223625183,
0.2040170580148697,
0.18053150177001953,
0.5884473919868469,
0.30945301055908203,
0.3265022039413452,
0.27038657665252686,
0.2473572939634323,
0.8053472638130188,
0.665120542049408,
-0.3217279016971588,
0.19588565826416016,
-0.27153605222702026,
0.13566741347312927,
-0.4296669065952301,
-0.006580305751413107,
0.39623934030532837,
0.17768549919128418,
-0.256388396024704,
0.47760868072509766,
-0.7845759987831116,
-0.16049858927726746,
0.0947689488530159,
0.5012028217315674,
0.36309677362442017,
0.44956445693969727,
-0.5081741809844971,
-0.8993485569953918,
0.5435287356376648,
0.16283558309078217,
-0.39655089378356934,
-0.8136394619941711,
-0.19298548996448517,
0.007629950065165758,
-0.16249245405197144,
0.20579831302165985,
0.6418915390968323,
0.28636807203292847,
-0.5300887823104858,
0.47329363226890564,
-0.8555755615234375,
0.681856632232666,
0.003256109543144703,
-0.5465574860572815,
0.8807047009468079,
-0.35624486207962036,
0.11698269098997116,
-0.556289792060852,
0.03249577060341835,
1.1134361028671265,
-0.508891224861145,
-1.429852843284607,
0.08965399116277695,
-0.31873929500579834,
-0.24583081901073456,
0.15715259313583374,
0.2506784498691559,
0.020695026963949203,
-0.533566951751709,
0.07116707414388657,
0.46053290367126465,
0.2929714024066925,
-0.42998987436294556,
-0.1431889533996582,
-0.21735036373138428,
0.1406976282596588,
-0.2164817601442337,
0.3032234311103821,
0.28000539541244507,
0.4252151548862457,
0.16811136901378632,
-0.3257499933242798,
0.8059142231941223,
0.3579643666744232,
0.4020419120788574,
0.32152366638183594,
-0.5878126621246338,
0.4608229398727417,
0.6095064878463745,
0.5514074563980103,
-0.8396540880203247,
-0.2978458106517792,
-0.9877241849899292,
0.4757382571697235,
-0.13724960386753082,
0.8126938939094543,
-0.04701878875494003,
0.21481217443943024,
-0.2516830861568451,
-1.1852766275405884,
0.038074322044849396,
0.8700486421585083,
-0.2990962862968445,
0.6936707496643066,
0.4107491374015808,
-0.05092994123697281,
-0.7024467587471008,
0.10022290050983429,
0.5402802228927612,
0.3964594006538391,
0.8112062811851501,
0.6227800250053406,
-0.13706311583518982,
0.22970633208751678,
0.0867212787270546,
0.24430854618549347,
0.5166534781455994,
-0.015485234558582306,
0.057715706527233124,
-0.8607234954833984,
0.049548473209142685,
0.02330189384520054,
0.08830942958593369,
-0.35213062167167664,
-0.09707755595445633,
-0.4859587848186493,
0.3713546693325043,
0.17307059466838837,
0.05624302849173546,
-0.07470931112766266,
-0.15090705454349518,
0.8866727352142334,
0.6266114115715027,
0.30713528394699097,
0.2119019329547882,
-0.7931394577026367,
-1.0300227403640747,
0.13760198652744293,
1.2340240478515625,
-0.4455276131629944,
-0.6044774055480957,
0.720345675945282,
-0.077053964138031,
-0.25328147411346436,
0.3223239779472351,
-0.29367130994796753,
0.18673062324523926,
-0.11065266281366348,
-0.7124979496002197,
-0.4116668105125427,
-0.15077447891235352,
0.3922567665576935,
-0.6750613451004028,
0.25058120489120483,
0.10694148391485214,
0.45735087990760803,
-0.5530860424041748,
-0.11004265397787094,
-0.15461692214012146,
-0.00788012333214283,
-0.3386615514755249,
0.060654133558273315,
-0.8836825489997864,
0.27553051710128784,
-0.2811434268951416,
-4.824308395385742,
0.02034703455865383,
-0.3115369975566864,
0.03665264695882797,
0.5975833535194397,
0.0796675831079483,
-0.01283339038491249,
-0.07151315361261368,
0.009119565598666668,
-0.0005538086406886578,
-0.08604808151721954,
0.0159178227186203,
-0.07126114517450333,
0.09521107375621796,
0.2766072154045105,
0.025961337611079216,
0.16180741786956787,
0.022509803995490074,
-0.07285233587026596,
0.06796894967556,
0.005841072648763657,
0.1125103086233139,
-0.01974569633603096,
-0.33194226026535034,
-0.08253823220729828,
0.2539278268814087,
0.025366293266415596,
-0.5610465407371521,
-1.2619081735610962,
-0.563849687576294,
0.23527267575263977,
0.11563210934400558,
0.1042339950799942,
-0.6506051421165466,
0.06316787749528885,
-1.0181244611740112,
0.3130235970020294,
0.616634726524353,
0.8522353172302246,
-0.4796721935272217,
-0.5984588861465454,
0.15997488796710968,
-0.16535301506519318,
-0.6248947381973267,
0.4352778494358063,
-0.24779637157917023,
-0.6539830565452576,
-0.40811777114868164,
-0.34649983048439026,
0.4504881203174591,
-0.18107832968235016,
0.43475863337516785,
0.5492299795150757,
-0.19709549844264984,
0.2354595810174942,
-0.44854021072387695,
0.008331133052706718,
-0.5806480646133423,
-0.12525367736816406,
0.8603240251541138,
0.12208598107099533,
-0.3512263894081116,
-0.2956600487232208,
0.13657978177070618,
-0.14107674360275269,
-0.6237136721611023,
0.24807299673557281,
0.8345975279808044,
0.4602646231651306,
0.1762930452823639,
-0.4455544650554657,
-0.3499159514904022,
-0.29641690850257874,
-0.7396095991134644,
-0.25661125779151917,
-0.49018916487693787,
-0.7328453660011292,
1.033750295639038,
0.29678019881248474,
-0.14684009552001953,
0.15316107869148254,
-0.08734117448329926,
-0.09154517203569412,
0.6001505255699158,
0.3892766535282135,
-0.4150533378124237,
-0.6214315891265869,
0.4554080367088318,
0.0713144838809967,
-0.33632567524909973,
0.17745476961135864,
0.33732807636260986,
0.6545249223709106,
-0.001075918786227703,
-0.001053770538419485,
-0.8291367888450623,
0.16958877444267273,
0.043897952884435654,
-0.5243586897850037,
-0.6367566585540771,
0.6768672466278076,
-0.17255789041519165,
0.6147842407226562,
-0.8125830292701721,
-0.1403074562549591,
-0.39439496397972107,
-0.4574115574359894,
-0.5730376839637756,
1.099514126777649,
-0.03300752863287926,
-0.5920783281326294,
-0.6530719995498657,
-0.34623563289642334,
-0.6731679439544678,
-0.3260183036327362,
-0.07759968191385269,
-0.3894682824611664,
0.5197228789329529,
0.9087963700294495,
0.497292160987854,
0.023036591708660126,
0.5734610557556152,
-0.34452375769615173,
0.5548938512802124,
0.6661115884780884,
0.2417708784341812,
0.5698891878128052,
0.5424336194992065,
-0.7575066685676575,
0.4414029121398926,
-0.10013813525438309,
-0.6081898808479309,
-0.03715581074357033,
-0.24827884137630463,
-0.17742137610912323,
-0.5196946263313293,
-0.18338574469089508,
-0.8334088921546936,
0.11169815063476562,
-0.1699630618095398,
-0.06580081582069397,
0.45220500230789185,
0.25714385509490967,
-0.04970207065343857,
0.05307920649647713,
0.6502735018730164,
-0.2751742899417877,
0.2206401824951172,
-0.37187960743904114,
0.9494379758834839,
-0.1500740498304367,
-0.47362425923347473,
-0.07547401636838913,
-0.6407297849655151,
0.38796254992485046,
-0.38527771830558777,
-0.22506831586360931,
0.1982370764017105,
0.652604877948761,
0.20358820259571075,
0.9654644131660461,
0.28607505559921265,
-0.8463152050971985,
0.14988814294338226,
-0.4620121419429779,
0.6439033150672913,
-0.7008747458457947,
-0.3518839478492737,
-0.2665198743343353,
0.5466048121452332,
0.2543637752532959,
-0.32001030445098877,
-0.49789461493492126,
0.08719071000814438,
0.39841192960739136,
-0.17236724495887756,
-0.6261508464813232,
0.3442450165748596,
0.6102195978164673,
0.32150721549987793,
-0.2936649024486542,
-0.4543094336986542,
-0.6427857279777527,
0.031482864171266556,
0.7674049139022827,
-0.8935808539390564,
0.0257833581417799,
0.32054778933525085,
0.1299373358488083,
0.45581504702568054,
0.44387805461883545,
0.026560388505458832,
-0.18312659859657288,
0.6486954689025879,
-0.0023610934149473906,
0.11975391209125519,
0.20312508940696716,
0.16510199010372162,
-0.37016355991363525,
-0.0037332563661038876,
0.13830099999904633,
0.3905540406703949,
-0.3426814675331116,
0.5783112049102783,
-0.253996342420578,
-0.7544346451759338,
0.48274484276771545,
-0.13982178270816803,
-1.0336278676986694,
0.46941524744033813,
0.22155286371707916,
-0.6371898055076599,
0.7220448851585388,
0.3316341042518616,
-0.5202500820159912,
0.226283460855484,
0.0915604904294014,
0.12300962209701538,
-0.26997753977775574,
-0.39938580989837646,
-0.924585223197937,
0.15613864362239838,
-0.32948875427246094,
-0.34892991185188293,
-0.2924889922142029,
0.5145979523658752,
0.8533998131752014,
-0.06887555867433548,
0.5892288684844971,
-0.8940699100494385,
-0.1806018054485321,
-0.5622756481170654,
0.042011842131614685,
0.3151361346244812,
0.5934292674064636,
0.2587495744228363,
-0.06765774637460709,
-0.1425774246454239,
0.3331872820854187,
0.2362506091594696,
0.40447163581848145,
1.169144868850708,
0.2586134076118469,
-0.5434932708740234,
0.3600561320781708,
0.3417636454105377,
0.4449599087238312,
-0.5482299327850342,
-0.44333210587501526,
-0.126035675406456,
0.747944176197052,
-0.7123292684555054,
-0.5857610702514648,
-0.7383715510368347,
1.2430530786514282,
-0.7245741486549377,
0.16467906534671783,
0.2625923752784729,
-0.42005884647369385,
0.5390141010284424,
-0.05382901057600975,
-0.33697980642318726,
-0.04688907042145729,
0.49426794052124023,
0.29524439573287964,
-0.1690749078989029,
-0.8021058440208435,
0.11718213558197021,
0.08278360217809677,
-0.8038873076438904,
0.3147057294845581,
-0.2784286439418793,
-0.193620502948761,
-0.005841256584972143,
-0.7056325674057007,
-0.2905820608139038,
0.36087271571159363,
-0.24517756700515747,
0.6098922491073608,
-0.18937012553215027,
-0.4820285439491272,
0.21073104441165924,
-0.4631240665912628,
-0.255705326795578,
0.5648457407951355,
-0.07850135117769241,
0.13778847455978394,
0.2731620669364929,
0.23926545679569244,
0.5369724631309509,
-0.2168865203857422,
0.23934809863567352,
-0.21420885622501373,
0.13095583021640778,
-0.11617540568113327,
0.16784824430942535,
0.014557343907654285,
0.6562543511390686,
0.1118711531162262,
0.3889254331588745,
-0.9545027613639832,
0.57282954454422,
-0.13604409992694855,
-0.5014067888259888,
0.26805999875068665,
-0.049410708248615265,
-0.5451627373695374,
-0.5952513813972473,
-0.4377215802669525,
0.11493273824453354,
0.8080387711524963,
0.541517436504364,
0.25856247544288635,
0.7350972294807434,
-0.2418007105588913,
0.33547455072402954,
0.12443923205137253,
-0.6024931073188782,
-0.06784585118293762,
-0.054653268307447433,
-0.4688188135623932,
0.07776263356208801,
0.5053883194923401,
0.6442046761512756,
0.17758305370807648,
0.9771955013275146,
-0.39927080273628235,
-0.8155382871627808,
-0.328195184469223,
0.24319688975811005,
-0.048326000571250916,
-0.11882199347019196,
-0.8433072566986084,
0.5260330438613892,
-0.7231570482254028,
-0.08715537190437317,
0.39230984449386597,
-0.2226817011833191,
-0.434073805809021,
0.2892543375492096,
0.6305916905403137,
0.2859286069869995,
-0.4121994078159332,
0.14417769014835358,
0.08041835576295853,
0.3180070221424103,
0.6555931568145752,
0.17783775925636292,
-0.49870404601097107,
-0.41554707288742065,
0.09231985360383987,
-0.6787427067756653,
0.1397179216146469,
-0.40356913208961487,
0.21186120808124542,
0.6530507802963257,
0.36162152886390686,
-0.20585472881793976,
0.3119075894355774,
-0.006854801904410124,
-0.15372341871261597,
-0.282701700925827,
0.6112392544746399,
-0.14592178165912628,
-0.7045340538024902,
-0.38925307989120483,
0.5934900045394897,
-0.7823234796524048,
-0.4139702320098877,
-0.38227009773254395,
-0.26391786336898804,
0.3281051516532898,
-0.27632975578308105,
-0.9357637166976929,
0.06293315440416336,
0.6454170346260071,
-0.8545182943344116,
0.8013790249824524,
-0.3256508409976959,
-0.05080142617225647,
-0.27668848633766174,
0.7946310639381409,
-0.08678870648145676,
-0.3268008530139923,
0.20078948140144348,
0.019859153777360916,
0.06476440280675888,
0.3829072415828705,
-0.9248745441436768,
0.1351930797100067,
-0.2893308401107788,
-0.30517104268074036,
-0.21394023299217224,
0.4533240795135498,
-0.2733570635318756,
-0.9204794764518738,
-0.5292125344276428,
0.6358816623687744,
0.15293705463409424,
0.758341372013092,
0.37218818068504333,
0.3418181538581848,
0.19201913475990295,
0.18710367381572723,
-0.3229823410511017,
0.49489626288414,
-0.7173621654510498,
0.2402828186750412,
-0.7773321270942688,
0.24227048456668854,
-0.23600172996520996,
0.1835661679506302,
-0.5353167653083801,
0.5233709812164307,
-0.43426889181137085,
0.10497342795133591,
0.9583142995834351,
-0.4668266773223877,
0.15238820016384125,
-0.4291239082813263,
-0.22137674689292908,
-0.39843523502349854,
0.4883088171482086,
0.3675532639026642,
0.004859717097133398,
-0.2354000359773636,
-0.5683152675628662,
-0.3913620710372925,
-0.6373172402381897,
-0.1832868903875351,
-0.2248220145702362,
-0.2820815443992615,
-0.8759140372276306,
0.6845511794090271,
-0.2947939932346344,
-0.454773873090744,
0.6167400479316711,
0.21513399481773376,
0.24740684032440186,
-0.4509705901145935,
0.4712327718734741,
-0.1314462572336197,
0.7277525663375854,
0.09130353480577469,
0.0029794250149279833,
-0.30608779191970825,
0.12381553649902344,
-0.596031904220581,
-0.4399852454662323,
0.11486891657114029,
0.5146056413650513,
-0.025660695508122444,
0.01384859811514616,
-0.08480341732501984,
-0.013812294229865074,
-0.3443688750267029,
0.5737679600715637,
-0.6632881760597229,
-0.380362331867218,
0.08122070133686066
] |
206136
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum%20of%20a%20matrix
|
Spectrum of a matrix
|
In mathematics, the spectrum of a matrix is the set of its eigenvalues. More generally, if is a linear operator over any finite-dimensional vector space, its spectrum is the set of scalars such that is not invertible. The determinant of the matrix equals the product of its eigenvalues. Similarly, the trace of the matrix equals the sum of its eigenvalues.
From this point of view, we can define the pseudo-determinant for a singular matrix to be the product of its nonzero eigenvalues (the density of multivariate normal distribution will need this quantity).
In many applications, such as PageRank, one is interested in the dominant eigenvalue, i.e. that which is largest in absolute value. In other applications, the smallest eigenvalue is important, but in general, the whole spectrum provides valuable information about a matrix.
Definition
Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over some field K and suppose T: V → V is a linear map. The spectrum of T, denoted σT, is the multiset of roots of the characteristic polynomial of T. Thus the elements of the spectrum are precisely the eigenvalues of T, and the multiplicity of an eigenvalue λ in the spectrum equals the dimension of the generalized eigenspace of T for λ (also called the algebraic multiplicity of λ).
Now, fix a basis B of V over K and suppose M∈MatK(V) is a matrix. Define the linear map T: V→V point-wise by Tx=Mx, where on the right-hand side x is interpreted as a column vector and M acts on x by matrix multiplication. We now say that x∈V is an eigenvector of M if x is an eigenvector of T. Similarly, λ∈K is an eigenvalue of M if it is an eigenvalue of T, and with the same multiplicity, and the spectrum of M, written σM, is the multiset of all such eigenvalues.
Related notions
The eigendecomposition (or spectral decomposition) of a diagonalizable matrix is a decomposition of a diagonalizable matrix into a specific canonical form whereby the matrix is represented in terms of its eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
The spectral radius of a square matrix is the largest absolute value of its eigenvalues. In spectral theory, the spectral radius of a bounded linear operator is the supremum of the absolute values of the elements in the spectrum of that operator.
Notes
References
Matrix theory
|
[
0.050985001027584076,
-0.2985807955265045,
-0.004132911097258329,
-0.18478351831436157,
-0.5430896878242493,
-0.15346162021160126,
-0.07843272387981415,
-0.3731515407562256,
0.1270609050989151,
-0.544748842716217,
-0.5347204208374023,
0.42082253098487854,
-0.4438258707523346,
0.13771627843379974,
-0.1510910987854004,
0.4291755259037018,
0.5030847787857056,
0.4535974860191345,
-0.451661616563797,
-0.7072558403015137,
0.07668472826480865,
0.3872241973876953,
0.23880885541439056,
-0.18526972830295563,
0.4097524583339691,
-0.17415685951709747,
0.30359968543052673,
0.13635338842868805,
0.35315489768981934,
0.880997359752655,
-0.237706258893013,
0.631057620048523,
0.03710426762700081,
0.2817283570766449,
0.5273789167404175,
0.2415395975112915,
0.34343352913856506,
0.12224776297807693,
0.09982636570930481,
-0.24673232436180115,
0.41100192070007324,
-0.05748038366436958,
0.14621731638908386,
0.2561897337436676,
-0.6976360082626343,
-0.49323153495788574,
-1.686506748199463,
0.22921927273273468,
-0.1324830949306488,
-0.10508634150028229,
-0.3404533267021179,
0.007080163806676865,
0.20671746134757996,
0.8460900187492371,
-0.5105990767478943,
0.7020260691642761,
-0.7783081531524658,
-0.3192702829837799,
0.5742827653884888,
0.06281669437885284,
0.34512442350387573,
-0.08977130800485611,
0.02107410691678524,
-0.09418310225009918,
0.09376512467861176,
0.6954943537712097,
-0.1359911412000656,
-0.24443978071212769,
-0.5342247486114502,
-0.7860533595085144,
-0.12259475886821747,
-0.2834818661212921,
-0.0978589802980423,
0.45585206151008606,
-0.7992580533027649,
0.11131171882152557,
-0.04064272716641426,
0.058433398604393005,
-0.20004847645759583,
0.08937618136405945,
-0.3724869191646576,
1.0190517902374268,
0.639918863773346,
-0.41652917861938477,
0.11544617265462875,
-0.07560549676418304,
-0.7312794923782349,
0.48833948373794556,
-0.761649489402771,
0.88688063621521,
0.25650715827941895,
-0.15106487274169922,
0.247486412525177,
0.20756317675113678,
0.2669171690940857,
0.5592292547225952,
0.025750460103154182,
-0.6869885325431824,
0.5326324105262756,
-0.011241109110414982,
-0.21485427021980286,
-0.09669630974531174,
0.23757211863994598,
-0.7164178490638733,
-0.6900020241737366,
-0.2841242551803589,
-0.11733805388212204,
-0.2314925342798233,
0.1360464096069336,
0.05221634358167648,
-0.8487109541893005,
0.39110249280929565,
0.07598406821489334,
-0.4727801978588104,
-0.2851303517818451,
0.4058026373386383,
0.018777411431074142,
0.31446924805641174,
-0.07620496302843094,
0.4739762246608734,
-0.204512357711792,
0.6765576601028442,
-0.016389550641179085,
0.343550443649292,
-0.21243008971214294,
0.31177759170532227,
0.42508959770202637,
1.071746826171875,
-0.8626549243927002,
-0.5156281590461731,
-0.24260389804840088,
0.45061999559402466,
0.5618166923522949,
0.6003496050834656,
-0.3471285104751587,
-0.5958377718925476,
-0.22801533341407776,
-0.5740987658500671,
-0.2579389214515686,
-0.07824749499559402,
-0.6012611985206604,
-0.5407599210739136,
-0.15872573852539062,
-0.5290461182594299,
0.579623281955719,
-0.5018609166145325,
0.01809467189013958,
-0.7854729294776917,
0.1590995043516159,
-0.0500100776553154,
-0.06713133305311203,
0.1450941413640976,
-0.15728431940078735,
-0.10431074351072311,
-0.354122519493103,
-0.3408629596233368,
0.28237372636795044,
0.5585439205169678,
-0.35627424716949463,
0.11677578091621399,
0.19217655062675476,
-0.35267189145088196,
-0.09853015840053558,
-0.23100164532661438,
0.2387491911649704,
-0.547394871711731,
0.7993140816688538,
0.3080994188785553,
0.06921876221895218,
-0.06798505038022995,
-0.3487030565738678,
-0.7737804055213928,
-0.02630864828824997,
0.6627217531204224,
-0.24308760464191437,
-0.04195726662874222,
0.20201241970062256,
-0.05576105788350105,
0.47408270835876465,
-0.4931853711605072,
-0.7919082641601562,
0.061362363398075104,
0.514509916305542,
-0.28789329528808594,
0.3157980740070343,
-0.023971227928996086,
0.18038055300712585,
0.42270633578300476,
0.3104499578475952,
0.05140780285000801,
-0.4107806384563446,
0.34737712144851685,
-0.025447817519307137,
-0.9958456158638,
1.1421843767166138,
-0.11471394449472427,
-0.9950432777404785,
-0.07579169422388077,
-0.5819035172462463,
0.3547932207584381,
-0.16273057460784912,
-0.2918185293674469,
0.6002846956253052,
-0.14621204137802124,
0.16946804523468018,
0.07081518322229385,
-0.18943259119987488,
0.32214030623435974,
-0.6420044898986816,
0.6491118669509888,
0.25407007336616516,
-0.1649097055196762,
0.35752153396606445,
-0.09920273721218109,
0.6014025807380676,
-0.034391455352306366,
-0.6639083027839661,
0.3750530779361725,
-0.10047604888677597,
0.3884815275669098,
1.3260233402252197,
0.021051637828350067,
-0.5236309170722961,
0.19818486273288727,
-0.1191251203417778,
0.9757959842681885,
0.5559267997741699,
0.442829430103302,
0.6726395487785339,
-0.5667302012443542,
-0.23099187016487122,
-0.3247913718223572,
0.5077850222587585,
0.344645619392395,
-0.3610650599002838,
0.49665600061416626,
0.4106239080429077,
-0.43046578764915466,
0.3825153112411499,
-0.9345254302024841,
0.35051408410072327,
0.10913563519716263,
-0.584597110748291,
-0.4506281316280365,
0.14522649347782135,
0.014617064036428928,
-0.5077291131019592,
-0.12617962062358856,
-0.35535404086112976,
-0.4022265076637268,
-0.27848920226097107,
-0.1967972218990326,
0.06935776770114899,
-0.6824755668640137,
-0.23034843802452087,
-0.2627065181732178,
0.28150126338005066,
-0.22670826315879822,
0.7391685843467712,
0.6492091417312622,
-0.04786866530776024,
0.0009052102686837316,
-0.05237434431910515,
-0.30805012583732605,
-0.450844407081604,
-0.15367962419986725,
-0.6844075918197632,
0.14004284143447876,
0.8662614226341248,
0.46107685565948486,
0.6677982807159424,
-0.7432427406311035,
-0.31024861335754395,
0.0933767706155777,
-0.7054817080497742,
-1.0942723751068115,
-0.11590095609426498,
-0.11109249293804169,
-0.761214017868042,
-0.2326454371213913,
0.1209842786192894,
0.5135245323181152,
0.07870069891214371,
0.24136154353618622,
-0.3885563910007477,
-0.3360985219478607,
-0.051410261541604996,
-0.4372914135456085,
0.11986670643091202,
-0.23471125960350037,
-0.48504507541656494,
0.672939121723175,
0.0040051741525530815,
-0.20326761901378632,
0.3071667551994324,
0.6271108984947205,
0.24898661673069,
-0.1354847550392151,
-0.08399830758571625,
-0.027294866740703583,
-0.5582301616668701,
-0.022523732855916023,
-0.5286187529563904,
0.1491764485836029,
-0.11654727905988693,
-0.31908509135246277,
-0.30552834272384644,
0.7322415113449097,
-5.277949333190918,
0.19450166821479797,
0.21442680060863495,
-0.33650684356689453,
-0.22810687124729156,
0.1578071117401123,
0.03658891096711159,
0.2531071603298187,
-0.13243046402931213,
-0.055345989763736725,
-0.35462817549705505,
-0.4190560579299927,
-0.7529135942459106,
0.9022293090820312,
0.6366451978683472,
-0.22124110162258148,
0.2304861843585968,
0.32151511311531067,
0.30845484137535095,
0.5960952639579773,
-0.32560768723487854,
-0.43081095814704895,
-0.34152984619140625,
-0.10901900380849838,
-0.4610978960990906,
0.1794893890619278,
0.15514686703681946,
0.2835477292537689,
-0.36997348070144653,
-0.6370996832847595,
-0.2174755483865738,
-0.3965825140476227,
-0.05618787929415703,
-0.554900050163269,
-0.033096395432949066,
0.28731462359428406,
0.4797022044658661,
-0.5005342960357666,
0.026152364909648895,
-1.06795072555542,
-0.08209087699651718,
0.8136810064315796,
-0.1370186060667038,
-0.27947622537612915,
0.7309886813163757,
-0.0004747243074234575,
0.00870295986533165,
-0.23852109909057617,
-0.16634641587734222,
0.7339074015617371,
-0.21846844255924225,
-0.06353986263275146,
0.40124690532684326,
-0.3919888436794281,
-0.21702532470226288,
0.1854105442762375,
0.10131026059389114,
-0.08180173486471176,
-0.688825249671936,
0.4742948114871979,
0.5321084856987,
-0.8241550922393799,
0.4868336319923401,
-0.2262602001428604,
-0.6442067623138428,
0.2921084463596344,
-1.1281908750534058,
-0.45853906869888306,
0.5665345788002014,
-0.2083936184644699,
-0.28163963556289673,
0.24070337414741516,
-0.10775831341743469,
-0.29599353671073914,
0.09936928004026413,
-0.6571732759475708,
0.5257552266120911,
0.10759960114955902,
0.08759470283985138,
-0.12837588787078857,
-0.5601072907447815,
-0.24871449172496796,
-0.24566835165023804,
0.07614138722419739,
-0.10389333963394165,
0.293986976146698,
-0.235408753156662,
-0.03672145679593086,
-0.4429868757724762,
-0.3153848350048065,
0.8956043124198914,
-0.20709162950515747,
0.4892621338367462,
0.8548118472099304,
0.3963831067085266,
-0.09160473942756653,
0.6335959434509277,
-0.008696424774825573,
0.6319990158081055,
-0.49269795417785645,
0.8527716994285583,
-0.09873147308826447,
0.1507464051246643,
-0.1499585509300232,
-0.370737224817276,
0.3029722571372986,
-1.005372405052185,
0.7315921783447266,
0.6245381832122803,
-0.2614403963088989,
-0.4890716075897217,
0.24437659978866577,
-0.44559940695762634,
-0.3133145868778229,
0.7781409025192261,
-0.0191461481153965,
-0.7660942077636719,
0.7094981670379639,
1.2630741596221924,
0.1155644878745079,
0.14222529530525208,
0.3299849331378937,
0.3594343364238739,
-0.25997060537338257,
-0.47772419452667236,
-0.048115018755197525,
-0.028584131971001625,
0.5280235409736633,
-0.2541986405849457,
-0.5410632491111755,
0.19435369968414307,
0.4920617938041687,
-0.05966345593333244,
0.2766965329647064,
0.48689186573028564,
-0.4548059403896332,
-0.052078843116760254,
0.19886399805545807,
0.25591570138931274,
-0.2555150091648102,
1.2508515119552612,
0.4350789487361908,
-0.04266137629747391,
-0.29483625292778015,
0.531974732875824,
0.023358309641480446,
-0.3336975872516632,
-0.07287085056304932,
-0.4846743047237396,
0.3208267390727997,
0.0590105801820755,
-0.549180269241333,
0.5515232086181641,
-0.7228618860244751,
0.4030332863330841,
0.41548192501068115,
-0.16556592285633087,
-0.14318376779556274,
0.017661988735198975,
-0.8642336130142212,
0.6024991869926453,
0.4266166687011719,
-0.4879798889160156,
-0.23203840851783752,
-0.3646409511566162,
0.15962864458560944,
-0.6410709023475647,
0.11856269091367722,
0.04097456857562065,
0.5047168135643005,
-0.029678896069526672,
0.0984249860048294,
-0.09154947847127914,
-0.4118330478668213,
0.20509840548038483,
0.5397263169288635,
0.2193085104227066,
0.5005115270614624,
0.3121171295642853,
-0.04094192013144493,
0.3030564785003662,
-0.47733074426651,
-0.6280754804611206,
0.6621842384338379,
1.0483944416046143,
0.32396215200424194,
0.20062173902988434,
0.30215227603912354,
-1.1240986585617065,
-0.08468221873044968,
0.6313189268112183,
-0.187578946352005,
-0.5375332832336426,
-0.5125763416290283,
-0.3521325886249542,
-0.4382195770740509,
0.34178614616394043,
0.1354021579027176,
0.10686667263507843,
-0.6997436881065369,
-0.20382876694202423,
0.8559475541114807,
-0.3230551481246948,
0.705474853515625,
-0.029531916603446007,
-0.5807812809944153,
-0.5260614156723022,
0.17278222739696503,
-0.5323991775512695,
0.2053944617509842,
-0.5289450287818909,
-0.5078108906745911,
-0.7103440165519714,
-0.7079535126686096,
-0.09800925850868225,
0.6036723256111145,
0.13735774159431458,
-0.6914986371994019,
0.1508949249982834,
-0.4570678770542145,
0.20842726528644562,
-0.3742971420288086,
0.3352026343345642,
0.28806254267692566,
0.15264888107776642,
-0.11396028101444244,
0.19666405022144318,
-0.46227094531059265,
0.5004480481147766,
-0.2231733202934265,
-0.3609499931335449,
0.12050508707761765,
-0.36940035223960876,
0.0047016446478664875,
0.2647402286529541,
-0.9814170598983765,
-0.27960869669914246,
0.614835798740387,
-0.2116640955209732,
-0.24694418907165527,
0.12529277801513672,
0.5349109172821045,
-0.11452305316925049,
-0.2323056161403656,
0.6459100246429443,
0.47243136167526245,
0.5117351412773132,
-0.5937075614929199,
-0.40637722611427307,
0.26302531361579895,
0.3125559091567993,
0.014205739833414555,
-0.3241036534309387,
-0.10118085145950317,
1.0073444843292236,
0.6187030673027039,
0.1686890423297882,
-0.51946622133255,
-0.03046422265470028,
0.1959185153245926,
-0.33080098032951355,
-0.7397258281707764,
-0.12539084255695343,
-0.35775095224380493,
0.6340078711509705,
0.48205292224884033,
-0.28303250670433044,
0.4847058057785034,
0.9091837406158447,
0.14493583142757416,
0.3400264084339142,
-0.5580031275749207,
0.3118044435977936,
0.7238016128540039,
0.39079493284225464,
0.3783276081085205,
-0.13592225313186646,
0.31379246711730957,
-0.39515024423599243,
-0.08267145603895187,
-0.6787018775939941,
-0.08723054826259613,
0.10192758589982986,
-0.29326698184013367,
0.16677255928516388,
-0.12883500754833221,
0.39654797315597534,
0.548302412033081,
-0.04883803427219391,
0.40793341398239136,
-0.7549797892570496,
-0.36470523476600647,
-0.2406909316778183,
-0.15562711656093597,
-0.31221768260002136,
0.3233526945114136,
0.5565276145935059,
0.5279261469841003,
-0.4846111536026001,
-0.07972528040409088,
-0.8775015473365784,
-0.11185286194086075,
-0.20437777042388916,
-0.45079341530799866,
0.12666982412338257,
0.26952892541885376,
0.4944097399711609,
-0.46326372027397156,
-0.14568263292312622,
-0.25875118374824524,
0.013930280692875385,
0.30583444237709045,
0.0031669435556977987,
0.24844223260879517,
-0.4181315302848816,
0.010244193486869335,
1.0637027025222778,
-0.20490293204784393,
0.4640760123729706,
0.47422903776168823,
-0.2590819299221039,
0.08084049820899963,
0.19514843821525574,
-0.28740400075912476,
-0.9704845547676086,
0.6032485365867615,
-0.303623765707016,
0.06740685552358627,
-0.13907390832901,
0.12721261382102966,
0.7438264489173889,
0.24204379320144653,
-0.7861306667327881,
0.5849883556365967,
-0.1414303034543991,
-0.246374249458313,
0.5534869432449341,
-0.2688997983932495,
-0.27716144919395447,
0.2532745599746704,
0.8140332698822021,
1.306369423866272,
-0.4373987913131714,
0.5993648767471313,
0.1342124342918396,
0.15773116052150726,
-0.016470158472657204,
0.17154355347156525,
-0.268437922000885,
0.01977580599486828,
0.2520548105239868,
-0.14802591502666473,
0.3555518388748169,
0.1720641553401947,
-0.21387827396392822,
0.23479342460632324,
0.31410351395606995,
-0.13499802350997925,
0.21447725594043732,
0.2363082319498062,
-0.09638161957263947,
0.2914677858352661,
-0.15161100029945374,
-0.15413229167461395,
-0.27565798163414,
0.06139431521296501,
0.2067858874797821,
-0.09453501552343369,
0.11348641663789749,
-0.018818382173776627,
-0.40743908286094666,
0.6582736968994141,
-0.10321900993585587,
0.0900178924202919,
-0.025205440819263458,
-0.6483665108680725,
0.006879408843815327,
0.2612244188785553,
-0.8409351706504822,
0.03301844745874405,
0.21780084073543549,
0.46865764260292053,
-0.02649385668337345,
-1.1169239282608032,
-0.1665252149105072,
-0.12561312317848206,
-0.030114201828837395,
-0.21344351768493652,
-0.22959235310554504,
0.5671364068984985,
0.49041110277175903,
-0.1759800910949707,
-0.2001127451658249,
0.10719139128923416,
0.41165801882743835,
0.6717824339866638,
-0.7131055593490601,
1.2739826440811157,
0.5435572266578674,
-0.2182612270116806,
0.20883217453956604,
-0.180255725979805,
0.3863591253757477,
-0.08380811661481857,
-0.6123738884925842,
0.27712082862854004,
-0.41907355189323425,
0.1917029172182083,
-0.6609954237937927,
0.3686298131942749,
0.4654957950115204,
-0.4016079604625702,
-0.07830297201871872,
0.2900545299053192,
-0.20864766836166382,
0.20044076442718506,
0.42942309379577637,
0.06369827687740326,
-0.4592326283454895,
0.2788093090057373,
-0.302538126707077,
0.12296179682016373,
0.3794730007648468,
0.5543416738510132,
-0.0955410823225975,
-0.04325674846768379,
0.4228035509586334,
-0.06547485291957855,
-0.08415288478136063,
0.07115242630243301,
0.19440145790576935,
0.327093243598938,
-0.5750234723091125,
0.12287964671850204,
-0.5246781706809998,
-0.4576151967048645,
0.4130932688713074,
-0.15038497745990753,
0.6263764500617981,
-0.22889021039009094,
-0.6796908378601074,
-0.06222709268331528,
-0.5458530783653259,
0.6174798011779785,
-0.2756294012069702,
0.447864294052124,
-0.29241958260536194,
-0.34941577911376953,
-0.7198919057846069,
0.3823883533477783,
0.19490264356136322,
-0.6295773386955261,
0.18632566928863525,
-0.00764093641191721,
-0.7178060412406921,
0.6068077087402344,
0.3234296441078186,
-0.6486628651618958,
-0.42619243264198303,
0.4987185597419739
] |
206137
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum%20%28functional%20analysis%29
|
Spectrum (functional analysis)
|
In mathematics, particularly in functional analysis, the spectrum of a bounded linear operator (or, more generally, an unbounded linear operator) is a generalisation of the set of eigenvalues of a matrix. Specifically, a complex number λ is said to be in the spectrum of a bounded linear operator T if is not invertible, where I is the identity operator. The study of spectra and related properties is known as spectral theory, which has numerous applications, most notably the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.
The spectrum of an operator on a finite-dimensional vector space is precisely the set of eigenvalues. However an operator on an infinite-dimensional space may have additional elements in its spectrum, and may have no eigenvalues. For example, consider the right shift operator R on the Hilbert space ℓ2,
This has no eigenvalues, since if Rx=λx then by expanding this expression we see that x1=0, x2=0, etc. On the other hand, 0 is in the spectrum because the operator R − 0 (i.e. R itself) is not invertible: it is not surjective since any vector with non-zero first component is not in its range. In fact every bounded linear operator on a complex Banach space must have a non-empty spectrum.
The notion of spectrum extends to unbounded (i.e. not necessarily bounded) operators. A complex number λ is said to be in the spectrum of an unbounded operator defined on domain if there is no bounded inverse defined on the whole of If T is closed (which includes the case when T is bounded), boundedness of follows automatically from its existence.
The space of bounded linear operators B(X) on a Banach space X is an example of a unital Banach algebra. Since the definition of the spectrum does not mention any properties of B(X) except those that any such algebra has, the notion of a spectrum may be generalised to this context by using the same definition verbatim.
Spectrum of a bounded operator
Definition
Let be a bounded linear operator acting on a Banach space over the complex scalar field , and be the identity operator on . The spectrum of is the set of all for which the operator does not have an inverse that is a bounded linear operator.
Since is a linear operator, the inverse is linear if it exists; and, by the bounded inverse theorem, it is bounded. Therefore, the spectrum consists precisely of those scalars for which is not bijective.
The spectrum of a given operator is often denoted , and its complement, the resolvent set, is denoted . ( is sometimes used to denote the spectral radius of )
Relation to eigenvalues
If is an eigenvalue of , then the operator is not one-to-one, and therefore its inverse is not defined. However, the inverse statement is not true: the operator may not have an inverse, even if is not an eigenvalue. Thus the spectrum of an operator always contains all its eigenvalues, but is not limited to them.
For example, consider the Hilbert space , that consists of all bi-infinite sequences of real numbers
that have a finite sum of squares . The bilateral shift operator simply displaces every element of the sequence by one position; namely if then for every integer . The eigenvalue equation has no solution in this space, since it implies that all the values have the same absolute value (if ) or are a geometric progression (if ); either way, the sum of their squares would not be finite. However, the operator is not invertible if . For example, the sequence such that is in ; but there is no sequence in such that (that is, for all ).
Basic properties
The spectrum of a bounded operator T is always a closed, bounded and non-empty subset of the complex plane.
If the spectrum were empty, then the resolvent function
would be defined everywhere on the complex plane and bounded. But it can be shown that the resolvent function R is holomorphic on its domain. By the vector-valued version of Liouville's theorem, this function is constant, thus everywhere zero as it is zero at infinity. This would be a contradiction.
The boundedness of the spectrum follows from the Neumann series expansion in λ; the spectrum σ(T) is bounded by ||T||. A similar result shows the closedness of the spectrum.
The bound ||T|| on the spectrum can be refined somewhat. The spectral radius, r(T), of T is the radius of the smallest circle in the complex plane which is centered at the origin and contains the spectrum σ(T) inside of it, i.e.
The spectral radius formula says that for any element of a Banach algebra,
Spectrum of an unbounded operator
One can extend the definition of spectrum to unbounded operators on a Banach space X. These operators which are no longer elements in the Banach algebra B(X).
Definition
Let X be a Banach space and be a linear operator defined on domain .
A complex number λ is said to be in the resolvent set (also called regular set) of if the operator
has a bounded everywhere-defined inverse, i.e. if there exists a bounded operator
such that
A complex number λ is then in the spectrum if λ is not in the resolvent set.
For λ to be in the resolvent (i.e. not in the spectrum), just like in the bounded case, must be bijective, since it must have a two-sided inverse. As before, if an inverse exists, then its linearity is immediate, but in general it may not be bounded, so this condition must be checked separately.
By the closed graph theorem, boundedness of does follow directly from its existence when T is closed. Then, just like in the bounded case, a complex number λ lies in the spectrum of a closed operator T if and only if is not bijective. Note that the class of closed operators includes all bounded operators.
Basic properties
The spectrum of an unbounded operator is in general a closed, possibly empty, subset of the complex plane.
If the operator T is not closed, then .
Classification of points in the spectrum
A bounded operator T on a Banach space is invertible, i.e. has a bounded inverse, if and only if T is bounded below and has dense range. Accordingly, the spectrum of T can be divided into the following parts:
if is not bounded below. In particular, this is the case if is not injective, that is, λ is an eigenvalue. The set of eigenvalues is called the point spectrum of T and denoted by σp(T). Alternatively, could be one-to-one but still not bounded below. Such λ is not an eigenvalue but still an approximate eigenvalue of T (eigenvalues themselves are also approximate eigenvalues). The set of approximate eigenvalues (which includes the point spectrum) is called the approximate point spectrum of T, denoted by σap(T).
if does not have dense range. The set of such λ is called the compression spectrum of T, denoted by . If does not have dense range but is injective, λ is said to be in the residual spectrum of T, denoted by .
Note that the approximate point spectrum and residual spectrum are not necessarily disjoint (however, the point spectrum and the residual spectrum are).
The following subsections provide more details on the three parts of σ(T) sketched above.
Point spectrum
If an operator is not injective (so there is some nonzero x with T(x) = 0), then it is clearly not invertible. So if λ is an eigenvalue of T, one necessarily has λ ∈ σ(T). The set of eigenvalues of T is also called the point spectrum of T, denoted by σp(T).
Approximate point spectrum
More generally, by the bounded inverse theorem, T is not invertible if it is not bounded below; that is, if there is no c > 0 such that ||Tx|| ≥ c||x|| for all . So the spectrum includes the set of approximate eigenvalues, which are those λ such that is not bounded below; equivalently, it is the set of λ for which there is a sequence of unit vectors x1, x2, … for which
.
The set of approximate eigenvalues is known as the approximate point spectrum, denoted by .
It is easy to see that the eigenvalues lie in the approximate point spectrum.
For example, consider the right shift R on defined by
where is the standard orthonormal basis in . Direct calculation shows R has no eigenvalues, but every λ with |λ| = 1 is an approximate eigenvalue; letting xn be the vector
one can see that ||xn|| = 1 for all n, but
Since R is a unitary operator, its spectrum lies on the unit circle. Therefore, the approximate point spectrum of R is its entire spectrum.
This conclusion is also true for a more general class of operators.
A unitary operator is normal. By the spectral theorem, a bounded operator on a Hilbert space H is normal if and only if it is equivalent (after identification of H with an space) to a multiplication operator. It can be shown that the approximate point spectrum of a bounded multiplication operator equals its spectrum.
Continuous spectrum
The set of all λ for which is injective and has dense range, but is not surjective, is called the continuous spectrum of T, denoted by . The continuous spectrum therefore consists of those approximate eigenvalues which are not eigenvalues and do not lie in the residual spectrum. That is,
.
For example, , , , is injective and has a dense range, yet .
Indeed, if with such that , one does not necessarily have , and then .
Compression spectrum
The set of for which does not have dense range is known as the compression spectrum of T and is denoted by .
Residual spectrum
The set of for which is injective but does not have dense range is known as the residual spectrum of T and is denoted by :
An operator may be injective, even bounded below, but still not invertible. The right shift on , , , is such an example. This shift operator is an isometry, therefore bounded below by 1. But it is not invertible as it is not surjective (), and moreover is not dense in
().
Peripheral spectrum
The peripheral spectrum of an operator is defined as the set of points in its spectrum which have modulus equal to its spectral radius.
Discrete spectrum
The discrete spectrum is defined as the set of normal eigenvalues. Equivalently, it can be characterized as the set of isolated points of the spectrum such that the corresponding Riesz projector is of finite rank.
Essential spectrum
There are five similar definitions of the essential spectrum of closed densely defined linear operator which satisfy
All these spectra , coincide in the case of self-adjoint operators.
The essential spectrum is defined as the set of points of the spectrum such that is not semi-Fredholm. (The operator is semi-Fredholm if its range is closed and either its kernel or cokernel (or both) is finite-dimensional.) Example 1: for the operator , (because the range of this operator is not closed: the range does not include all of although its closure does).Example 2: for , for any (because both kernel and cokernel of this operator are infinite-dimensional).
The essential spectrum is defined as the set of points of the spectrum such that the operator either has infinite-dimensional kernel or has a range which is not closed. It can also be characterized in terms of Weyl's criterion: there exists a sequence in the space X such that , and such that contains no convergent subsequence. Such a sequence is called a singular sequence (or a singular Weyl sequence).Example: for the operator , if j is even and when j is odd (kernel is infinite-dimensional; cokernel is zero-dimensional). Note that .
The essential spectrum is defined as the set of points of the spectrum such that is not Fredholm. (The operator is Fredholm if its range is closed and both its kernel and cokernel are finite-dimensional.) Example: for the operator , (kernel is zero-dimensional, cokernel is infinite-dimensional). Note that .
The essential spectrum is defined as the set of points of the spectrum such that is not Fredholm of index zero. It could also be characterized as the largest part of the spectrum of A which is preserved by compact perturbations. In other words, ; here denotes the set of all compact operators on X. Example: where is the right shift operator, , for (its kernel is zero, its cokernel is one-dimensional). Note that .
The essential spectrum is the union of with all components of that do not intersect with the resolvent set . It can also be characterized as .Example: consider the operator , for , . Since , one has . For any with , the range of is dense but not closed, hence the boundary of the unit disc is in the first type of the essential spectrum: . For any with , has a closed range, one-dimensional kernel, and one-dimensional cokernel, so although for ; thus, for . There are two components of : and . The component has no intersection with the resolvent set; by definition, .
Example: Hydrogen atom
The hydrogen atom provides an example of different types of the spectra. The hydrogen atom Hamiltonian operator , , with domain has a discrete set of eigenvalues (the discrete spectrum , which in this case coincides with the point spectrum since there are no eigenvalues embedded into the continuous spectrum) that can be computed by the Rydberg formula. Their corresponding eigenfunctions are called eigenstates, or the bound states. The end result of the ionization process is described by the continuous part of the spectrum (the energy of the collision/ionization is not "quantized"), represented by (it also coincides with the essential spectrum, ).
Spectrum of the adjoint operator
Let X be a Banach space and a closed linear operator with dense domain .
If X* is the dual space of X, and is the hermitian adjoint of T, then
We also get by the following argument: X embeds isometrically into X**.
Therefore, for every non-zero element in the kernel of there exists a non-zero element in X** which vanishes on .
Thus can not be dense.
Furthermore, if X is reflexive, we have .
Spectra of particular classes of operators
Compact operators
If T is a compact operator, or, more generally, an inessential operator, then it can be shown that the spectrum is countable, that zero is the only possible accumulation point, and that any nonzero λ in the spectrum is an eigenvalue.
Quasinilpotent operators
A bounded operator is quasinilpotent if as (in other words, if the spectral radius of A equals zero). Such operators could equivalently be characterized by the condition
An example of such an operator is , for .
Self-adjoint operators
If X is a Hilbert space and T is a self-adjoint operator (or, more generally, a normal operator), then a remarkable result known as the spectral theorem gives an analogue of the diagonalisation theorem for normal finite-dimensional operators (Hermitian matrices, for example).
For self-adjoint operators, one can use spectral measures to define a decomposition of the spectrum into absolutely continuous, pure point, and singular parts.
Spectrum of a real operator
The definitions of the resolvent and spectrum can be extended to any continuous linear operator acting on a Banach space over the real field (instead of the complex field ) via its complexification . In this case we define the resolvent set as the set of all such that is invertible as an operator acting on the complexified space ; then we define .
Real spectrum
The real spectrum of a continuous linear operator acting on a real Banach space , denoted , is defined as the set of all for which fails to be invertible in the real algebra of bounded linear operators acting on . In this case we have . Note that the real spectrum may or may not coincide with the complex spectrum. In particular, the real spectrum could be empty.
Spectrum of a unital Banach algebra
Let B be a complex Banach algebra containing a unit e. Then we define the spectrum σ(x) (or more explicitly σB(x)) of an element x of B to be the set of those complex numbers λ for which λe − x is not invertible in B. This extends the definition for bounded linear operators B(X) on a Banach space X, since B(X) is a Banach algebra.
See also
Essential spectrum
Discrete spectrum (mathematics)
Self-adjoint operator
Pseudospectrum
Resolvent set
References
Dales et al., Introduction to Banach Algebras, Operators, and Harmonic Analysis,
Spectral theory
|
[
-0.10830476135015488,
-0.5553702116012573,
0.03196631744503975,
-0.0345785953104496,
-0.48118856549263,
-0.14765426516532898,
-0.29821401834487915,
-0.360490083694458,
0.06030915677547455,
-0.6821672916412354,
-0.7057569026947021,
0.6682983636856079,
-0.6025910973548889,
-0.06402718275785446,
0.057780295610427856,
0.7020700573921204,
0.5349820256233215,
0.3064093589782715,
-0.7039300799369812,
-0.6626641750335693,
0.03565015271306038,
0.17605142295360565,
0.23536309599876404,
-0.04620987921953201,
0.17926691472530365,
-0.09950707852840424,
0.2127571403980255,
0.30345743894577026,
0.3881356716156006,
0.6930880546569824,
-0.1965307891368866,
0.6517032384872437,
-0.1941225826740265,
0.24107107520103455,
0.3096151053905487,
0.37477022409439087,
0.16632430255413055,
0.061289820820093155,
0.13226479291915894,
-0.2901238799095154,
0.5813503861427307,
0.0507388673722744,
-0.06405454874038696,
0.06494448333978653,
-0.5548760294914246,
-0.5459334254264832,
-1.5915156602859497,
-0.11091221123933792,
-0.35899248719215393,
-0.09922691434621811,
-0.16133438050746918,
0.2333357036113739,
0.0951211154460907,
0.6792555451393127,
-0.5443570017814636,
0.4941447675228119,
-0.4472920596599579,
-0.4418192207813263,
0.646113395690918,
-0.2356288880109787,
0.4669327735900879,
0.07495982944965363,
-0.020155834034085274,
0.23970402777194977,
-0.06001098453998566,
0.7472388744354248,
-0.4005579948425293,
-0.22116172313690186,
-0.7232320308685303,
-0.7062770128250122,
0.11949978023767471,
-0.2869688868522644,
-0.1819300502538681,
0.5038086771965027,
-0.6429967880249023,
0.19090436398983002,
-0.12833955883979797,
-0.08805516362190247,
-0.22281016409397125,
0.4024134576320648,
-0.24484965205192566,
0.7706051468849182,
0.7250689268112183,
-0.30490779876708984,
0.25464585423469543,
-0.082709401845932,
-0.6909199953079224,
0.5396211743354797,
-0.46720248460769653,
0.8248955607414246,
0.48560914397239685,
-0.3680049180984497,
0.41031432151794434,
0.16622678935527802,
0.4613586962223053,
0.8913512825965881,
0.3582111895084381,
-0.5042375922203064,
0.2338123619556427,
-0.1587921679019928,
-0.017220307141542435,
-0.2231379598379135,
0.02615755796432495,
-0.9403416514396667,
-0.6027224659919739,
-0.39136797189712524,
-0.03311967849731445,
-0.17766086757183075,
-0.13063809275627136,
0.12403795123100281,
-1.0854319334030151,
0.49733254313468933,
0.3237694501876831,
-0.31150054931640625,
-0.40162840485572815,
0.16009582579135895,
-0.046655163168907166,
0.4259827733039856,
0.044100891798734665,
0.5812650918960571,
-0.3000699281692505,
0.6315850019454956,
0.006419031880795956,
0.3854634463787079,
-0.2870998978614807,
0.11413495987653732,
0.5779085159301758,
0.9573654532432556,
-0.9061440229415894,
-0.4424349367618561,
0.19206032156944275,
0.5835638046264648,
0.4911935031414032,
0.648501455783844,
-0.24097329378128052,
-0.2808108627796173,
0.04707171767950058,
-0.5510245561599731,
-0.13605517148971558,
0.031811777502298355,
-0.5231095552444458,
-0.4820643663406372,
-0.42165759205818176,
-0.5959729552268982,
0.3225311040878296,
-0.6350765228271484,
-0.0015554730780422688,
-0.5137996077537537,
0.06064493581652641,
-0.294887512922287,
0.07855980843305588,
0.23609797656536102,
-0.4163007438182831,
-0.17865857481956482,
-0.3474566340446472,
-0.32724320888519287,
0.20891058444976807,
0.4962552785873413,
-0.11632636934518814,
0.10368987172842026,
-0.05743500217795372,
-0.2719430923461914,
-0.2764524221420288,
-0.3329354524612427,
0.412800133228302,
-0.5472812652587891,
0.742478609085083,
0.21976475417613983,
-0.1241104006767273,
-0.12180078774690628,
-0.014409143477678299,
-0.783904492855072,
0.10977058857679367,
0.4571973979473114,
-0.2144714891910553,
-0.035412710160017014,
0.3818507194519043,
0.11961203068494797,
0.3589872419834137,
-0.4772394597530365,
-0.8521729707717896,
0.05174696072936058,
0.7087828516960144,
-0.3397865891456604,
0.31482505798339844,
0.07644136995077133,
0.3638351261615753,
0.06962253898382187,
0.08813849091529846,
-0.05662563443183899,
-0.45839211344718933,
-0.03954073786735535,
-0.14194022119045258,
-1.057375431060791,
0.9098709225654602,
-0.14480160176753998,
-0.9048092365264893,
0.13388076424598694,
-0.5010983347892761,
0.2812468707561493,
-0.0007444527582265437,
-0.2691324055194855,
0.582309365272522,
-0.07108607143163681,
-0.0446578748524189,
0.07685699313879013,
-0.1820269227027893,
0.34395337104797363,
-0.6916881799697876,
0.6128963828086853,
0.4978466033935547,
-0.35105401277542114,
0.1780524104833603,
0.0672033503651619,
0.4542456567287445,
-0.1202760636806488,
-0.729496955871582,
0.04400268942117691,
-0.18496638536453247,
0.24560214579105377,
1.0980850458145142,
-0.1584526002407074,
-0.22461792826652527,
0.20121720433235168,
0.044017862528562546,
0.5484285354614258,
0.5910589694976807,
0.7775201797485352,
0.9155799746513367,
-0.5117672681808472,
-0.18803004920482635,
-0.2901175916194916,
0.1102476418018341,
0.030252138152718544,
-0.23640413582324982,
0.43986034393310547,
0.5621358752250671,
-0.359070748090744,
0.10129828751087189,
-0.8118563890457153,
0.36911845207214355,
0.19292721152305603,
-0.5031810402870178,
-0.3145923316478729,
0.48971089720726013,
-0.3698117733001709,
-0.535743236541748,
-0.17077791690826416,
-0.2757834494113922,
-0.3894266188144684,
-0.24862702190876007,
0.3034387528896332,
-0.08953661471605301,
-0.6241843104362488,
-0.19421732425689697,
-0.1332322359085083,
0.28668180108070374,
0.13099990785121918,
0.3642347753047943,
0.6378548741340637,
-0.015278201550245285,
-0.0010545802069827914,
0.015640566125512123,
-0.5257279276847839,
-0.40341511368751526,
-0.23062832653522491,
-0.6212737560272217,
0.04204376041889191,
0.7916339039802551,
0.40133726596832275,
0.39960888028144836,
-0.4608060419559479,
-0.2268703281879425,
0.33574220538139343,
-0.8792945146560669,
-1.0761955976486206,
0.08160898834466934,
0.25427258014678955,
-1.069158673286438,
-0.3456292748451233,
0.13867977261543274,
0.2726415991783142,
0.42269206047058105,
0.10393672436475754,
-0.48390913009643555,
-0.30700966715812683,
0.04188781976699829,
-0.21003161370754242,
0.0514218844473362,
-0.16964665055274963,
-0.3750728368759155,
0.638784646987915,
-0.07814443856477737,
-0.10696794837713242,
0.36310335993766785,
0.49074482917785645,
0.3708154857158661,
0.021817481145262718,
-0.15824192762374878,
-0.12698113918304443,
-0.8345752954483032,
0.1589422971010208,
-0.27699756622314453,
-0.07743597030639648,
-0.23323503136634827,
-0.23051458597183228,
-0.3192349076271057,
0.6477929949760437,
-5.499990940093994,
0.2180842161178589,
-0.012005819007754326,
-0.2446194738149643,
-0.28939032554626465,
0.24933882057666779,
0.15548264980316162,
0.19676557183265686,
-0.15095140039920807,
-0.0437050499022007,
-0.21737344563007355,
-0.34570538997650146,
-0.5688417553901672,
0.6997873187065125,
0.49067437648773193,
-0.2095477432012558,
0.132919579744339,
0.3258383572101593,
0.12669453024864197,
0.28197261691093445,
-0.2696058750152588,
-0.5603662729263306,
-0.09265115112066269,
0.37378886342048645,
-0.3365277945995331,
0.12978532910346985,
0.10158731788396835,
0.21685892343521118,
-0.32712605595588684,
-0.6709573268890381,
-0.25799962878227234,
-0.2897976040840149,
-0.052650440484285355,
-0.2475195676088333,
0.17209471762180328,
0.12580491602420807,
0.4326421022415161,
-0.19149887561798096,
-0.0025995359756052494,
-0.915262758731842,
-0.043741315603256226,
0.8135098218917847,
-0.25405317544937134,
-0.2919834554195404,
0.38047221302986145,
-0.132038876414299,
-0.08424472063779831,
-0.0018926996272057295,
-0.29131272435188293,
0.8019769191741943,
-0.38220053911209106,
-0.13599127531051636,
0.20564675331115723,
-0.22900903224945068,
0.09354870766401291,
-0.0003522660699672997,
0.2301626056432724,
-0.039962030947208405,
-0.45538321137428284,
0.6498808860778809,
0.4982682764530182,
-0.6615860462188721,
0.15256837010383606,
-0.5090348124504089,
-0.7808505892753601,
0.4108502268791199,
-1.0076709985733032,
-0.655190110206604,
0.6210776567459106,
-0.015024232678115368,
-0.2085595428943634,
0.40341851115226746,
-0.04581952095031738,
-0.351443350315094,
0.11693976074457169,
-0.6469957232475281,
0.4498889446258545,
-0.05419328808784485,
0.04825020954012871,
0.12432505935430527,
-0.4986986815929413,
-0.24148398637771606,
-0.1315053552389145,
0.12661568820476532,
-0.030791912227869034,
-0.022920487448573112,
-0.3679139018058777,
-0.06406781822443008,
-0.2741236686706543,
-0.013832397758960724,
0.5563496351242065,
-0.19040609896183014,
0.5705851912498474,
0.6566577553749084,
0.43255919218063354,
-0.010597861371934414,
0.6339031457901001,
0.3176268935203552,
0.6540880799293518,
-0.5808107256889343,
0.8298453092575073,
-0.2339528650045395,
0.07342565059661865,
-0.0104593550786376,
-0.13467663526535034,
0.5221735835075378,
-0.8990549445152283,
0.6325762867927551,
0.797955334186554,
-0.4386161267757416,
-0.12966282665729523,
0.093547023832798,
-0.5667902231216431,
-0.4415697455406189,
0.46967703104019165,
0.11263807862997055,
-0.7773185968399048,
0.44736409187316895,
1.0029878616333008,
-0.2060825377702713,
-0.09084408730268478,
0.12786203622817993,
0.24031689763069153,
-0.17000159621238708,
-0.27175286412239075,
-0.1021399050951004,
-0.05898424983024597,
0.5416184663772583,
-0.12072887271642685,
-0.18368054926395416,
0.33720603585243225,
0.5255818367004395,
-0.01293154712766409,
0.36418136954307556,
0.7537028789520264,
-0.5934721827507019,
-0.02253810316324234,
0.25375673174858093,
0.36065471172332764,
-0.33651646971702576,
1.1312037706375122,
0.14411361515522003,
-0.12031760811805725,
-0.3106611669063568,
0.7068777680397034,
0.029615171253681183,
-0.3095271587371826,
-0.11387217789888382,
-0.3807886838912964,
0.32479384541511536,
0.05451834946870804,
-0.6365125775337219,
0.43919509649276733,
-0.7043408751487732,
0.3959711790084839,
0.443440705537796,
-0.2115240842103958,
-0.11322303861379623,
0.09087461978197098,
-0.44381511211395264,
0.41739749908447266,
0.41948676109313965,
-0.5469536781311035,
-0.38214027881622314,
-0.4528729319572449,
0.33493196964263916,
-0.846076250076294,
0.18106883764266968,
-0.18466632068157196,
0.28444668650627136,
-0.04302394390106201,
-0.08590376377105713,
-0.0441737100481987,
-0.5088204145431519,
0.20530261099338531,
0.34046536684036255,
0.1767028123140335,
0.5038774013519287,
0.29483762383461,
-0.06366731226444244,
0.4459449350833893,
-0.5282496213912964,
-0.4383490979671478,
0.6784464120864868,
1.212892770767212,
0.054206155240535736,
0.23470459878444672,
0.31770938634872437,
-0.9265853762626648,
-0.026874158531427383,
0.593092679977417,
-0.06165844574570656,
-0.2576119303703308,
-0.319588840007782,
0.0018166267545893788,
-0.26311811804771423,
0.3118833899497986,
0.020277580246329308,
0.16922979056835175,
-0.6281033158302307,
-0.04871668294072151,
0.6396967768669128,
-0.1789257973432541,
0.6714703440666199,
-0.16970613598823547,
-0.3977624177932739,
-0.3327079117298126,
-0.14688460528850555,
-0.742613673210144,
0.19088542461395264,
-0.6061456799507141,
-0.6358639597892761,
-0.25782376527786255,
-0.42227646708488464,
-0.2753666043281555,
0.45213764905929565,
0.5055184960365295,
-0.49100732803344727,
-0.10009574145078659,
-0.20355620980262756,
0.2147204577922821,
-0.09912535548210144,
0.10371822863817215,
0.31274139881134033,
0.13791191577911377,
-0.33243176341056824,
0.07197855412960052,
-0.6754195094108582,
0.5403880476951599,
-0.10330963134765625,
-0.3852941393852234,
-0.051304709166288376,
-0.32002443075180054,
0.016901399940252304,
0.4456065595149994,
-0.7677714824676514,
-0.4318057596683502,
0.5396527051925659,
-0.3001266419887543,
-0.35971206426620483,
0.3551758825778961,
0.6039031744003296,
0.08337844908237457,
-0.3282729387283325,
0.4528179466724396,
0.36080965399742126,
0.6173557639122009,
-0.484840452671051,
-0.36355188488960266,
0.23813124001026154,
0.49629998207092285,
0.07182741910219193,
-0.2912350594997406,
0.03458278998732567,
0.9633834362030029,
0.2913181483745575,
0.11352106928825378,
-0.581752598285675,
0.11073213070631027,
0.46473243832588196,
-0.2568190395832062,
-0.7572886347770691,
-0.34928226470947266,
-0.18682971596717834,
0.4485973119735718,
0.47370949387550354,
-0.4356163442134857,
0.16999410092830658,
0.8430839776992798,
0.011158500798046589,
0.513812780380249,
-0.30612912774086,
0.36436331272125244,
0.47541096806526184,
0.5750289559364319,
0.3285158574581146,
0.06492072343826294,
0.101627878844738,
-0.40651896595954895,
-0.12019358575344086,
-0.7300974726676941,
-0.3210548758506775,
0.04168058559298515,
-0.5518208742141724,
0.23225627839565277,
-0.36313438415527344,
0.5325060486793518,
0.40605786442756653,
-0.13922497630119324,
0.1430525779724121,
-0.562326967716217,
-0.1723095178604126,
-0.3434872627258301,
-0.0652916356921196,
-0.24141299724578857,
0.3548682630062103,
0.5333280563354492,
0.2653370201587677,
-0.30270054936408997,
-0.28136178851127625,
-0.8135986924171448,
0.13481715321540833,
-0.2523209750652313,
-0.6622530817985535,
0.21462680399417877,
0.12355160713195801,
0.5136964321136475,
-0.1518225073814392,
-0.17815402150154114,
-0.3175424635410309,
0.1512995958328247,
0.435160756111145,
0.11879473924636841,
0.48352861404418945,
-0.020006297156214714,
-0.0329001359641552,
0.6898623108863831,
-0.0969090610742569,
0.6607784628868103,
0.4584939777851105,
-0.10830963402986526,
0.39145728945732117,
0.31947997212409973,
-0.2674139738082886,
-1.0992929935455322,
0.5238149166107178,
-0.2865844964981079,
0.2948698401451111,
-0.033989664167165756,
0.45620402693748474,
0.7421406507492065,
0.30030691623687744,
-0.6045511364936829,
0.710556149482727,
-0.21047315001487732,
-0.3753136694431305,
0.3492850661277771,
-0.23132255673408508,
-0.28974488377571106,
0.19808226823806763,
0.6805254220962524,
1.0937933921813965,
-0.23989073932170868,
0.5144403576850891,
0.08340223133563995,
0.2794671952724457,
-0.029378745704889297,
0.3898342549800873,
-0.34202367067337036,
-0.11995633691549301,
0.37118199467658997,
-0.4183772802352905,
0.5452278852462769,
-0.022284863516688347,
-0.21815457940101624,
0.052524883300065994,
0.20278900861740112,
-0.3867547810077667,
0.19555673003196716,
0.38260018825531006,
-0.08929495513439178,
0.37744805216789246,
-0.05213730409741402,
-0.14261841773986816,
-0.3020939528942108,
0.028470519930124283,
0.3142581284046173,
-0.19142866134643555,
0.08778474479913712,
0.05855247750878334,
-0.21927833557128906,
0.5793686509132385,
-0.03711706027388573,
0.4522481858730316,
0.06741136312484741,
-0.9127414226531982,
0.12596020102500916,
0.38776981830596924,
-0.6728902459144592,
-0.28130361437797546,
0.053155235946178436,
0.34867608547210693,
0.06774226576089859,
-0.9957209229469299,
0.06263333559036255,
-0.38781625032424927,
0.009295370429754257,
-0.4163498878479004,
-0.2918506860733032,
0.3499179780483246,
0.3443339765071869,
-0.25675976276397705,
-0.3344797194004059,
-0.015128044411540031,
0.26137763261795044,
0.4190061390399933,
-0.6564247608184814,
1.0357416868209839,
0.6007403135299683,
-0.15690836310386658,
0.02669902704656124,
-0.15773352980613708,
0.49579229950904846,
-0.1495792418718338,
-0.8866342902183533,
0.2246590107679367,
-0.2856009006500244,
0.1750408560037613,
-0.5117242336273193,
0.3217608332633972,
0.6558469533920288,
-0.1280064433813095,
0.09236883372068405,
0.522291898727417,
0.03980623930692673,
0.0017452675383538008,
0.4302920401096344,
-0.06722695380449295,
-0.02585453726351261,
0.09601924568414688,
-0.16077613830566406,
-0.20207691192626953,
0.5746662020683289,
0.055039744824171066,
-0.10666235536336899,
-0.10404521226882935,
0.2557215094566345,
0.04622793197631836,
-0.08521660417318344,
0.33363085985183716,
0.054206423461437225,
0.3033224642276764,
-0.5567852854728699,
0.2533923387527466,
-0.7471944093704224,
-0.28169387578964233,
0.04787043109536171,
-0.2420988529920578,
0.40214887261390686,
-0.3335769474506378,
-0.5058979988098145,
-0.11325476318597794,
-0.5901240110397339,
0.8540658354759216,
-0.13341788947582245,
0.5861940383911133,
-0.05115300789475441,
-0.47121942043304443,
-0.739528238773346,
0.4752454161643982,
0.20023715496063232,
-0.3770494759082794,
0.25645124912261963,
0.07927192002534866,
-0.837798535823822,
0.31705600023269653,
0.3374978005886078,
-0.530902087688446,
-0.41720274090766907,
0.5128515958786011
] |
206146
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Compass
|
Operation Compass
|
Operation Compass (also ) was the first large British military operation of the Western Desert Campaign (1940–1943) during the Second World War. British Empire forces attacked Italian forces of the 10th Army (Marshal Rodolfo Graziani) in western Egypt and Cyrenaica, the eastern province of Libya, from December 1940 to February 1941.
The Western Desert Force (WDF) (Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor) with about advanced from Mersa Matruh in Egypt on a five-day raid against the Italian positions of the 10th Army, which had about in fortified posts around Sidi Barrani in Egypt and in Cyrenaica. The WDF swiftly defeated the Italians in their fortified posts and at Sidi Barrani and then exploited the success, forcing the rest of the 10th Army out of Egypt and capturing the ports along the Libyan coast. The 10th Army was cut off as it retreated towards Tripolitania and defeated at the Battle of Beda Fomm, the remnants being pursued to El Agheila on the Gulf of Sirte.
The British took over and Libyan prisoners, hundreds of tanks, and more than and many aircraft, against WDF losses of killed and wounded, about of the infantry. The WDF was unable to continue beyond El Agheila, due to worn out vehicles and the diversion in March 1941 of the best-equipped units in Operation Lustre for the Battle of Greece. Italian reinforcements were rushed to Libya to defend Tripoli, assisted by the and .
Background
10th Army
When war was declared, the 5th Army (General Italo Gariboldi) was in Tripolitania the western Libyan province and the 10th Army (General Mario Berti) was in Cyrenaica to the east. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, units of the 5th Army were used to reinforce the 10th Army. When Governor-General of Libya Italo Balbo was killed by friendly fire, Marshal Graziani took his place. Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of the large non-mechanized force to defeat the British, who though smaller in numbers were motorised. After being reinforced from the 5th Army, the 10th Army controlled the equivalent of four corps with and . The XX Corps had the 60th Infantry Division "Sabratha" and the XXI Corps had the 1st CC.NN. Division "23 Marzo", the 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" and the 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene". XXII Corps had the 61st Infantry Division "Sirte" and XXIII Corps had the 4th CC.NN. Division "3 Gennaio" and the 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro".
The new Libyan Divisions Group () had the Maletti Group, the 1st Libyan Division (Major-General ) and the 2nd Libyan Division (Major-General Armando Pescatori). The only non-infantry formation was the partially motorised and lightly armoured Maletti Group. The Maletti Group (General Pietro Maletti) was formed at Derna on 8 July 1940, with seven Libyan motorised infantry battalions, a company of Fiat M11/39 tanks, a company of L3/33 tankettes, motorised artillery and supply units, as the main motorised unit of the 10th Army. On 29 August, as more tanks arrived from Italy, the (Libyan Tank Command [Colonel Valentini]) was formed with three groups: 1st Tank Group (Colonel Aresca) with the I Tank Battalion "M" and the XXI, LXI, and LXII Tank battalion "L", 2nd Tank Group (Colonel Antonio Trivioli), with the II Tank Battalion "M", less one company and the IX, XX, and LXI Tank Battalion "L"s and Maletti Group with one company from the LX Tank Battalion "L", one company from the II Tank Battalion "M", and three Libyan infantry battalions. became part of the (Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops), with the 1st Libyan Division and the 2nd Libyan Division.
Western Desert Force
Middle East Command under General Archibald Wavell had about some outside Egypt, and . The RAF had in two squadrons of Hurricanes, one of Gloster Gladiators, three of Bristol Blenheims, three of Vickers Wellingtons and one of Bristol Bombays, about and The Western Desert Force (WDF) was commanded by Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor with the 4th Indian Infantry Division (Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse) and the 7th Armoured Division (Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh). From 14 December, troops of the 6th Australian Infantry Division (Major-General Iven Giffard Mackay), replaced the 4th Indian Division, which was sent to East Africa, less one brigade. The British had some fast Cruiser Mk I, Cruiser Mk II and Cruiser Mk III tanks with Ordnance QF 2-pounder guns, which were superior to Fiat M11/39 tanks. The British also had a battalion of Matilda II infantry tanks that while slow, were also equipped with the 2-pounder; the armour of the Matildas could not be penetrated by Italian anti-tank guns or field guns.
Border skirmishes
Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940. During the next few months there were raids and skirmishes between Italian forces in Libya and British and Commonwealth forces in Egypt. On 12 June 1940, the Mediterranean Fleet bombarded Tobruk. The force included the cruisers and and exchanged fire with the Italian cruiser . Royal Air Force Blenheim bombers from 45, 55 and 211 squadrons, hit with one bomb. On 19 June, the British submarine fired two torpedoes at but missed. The gunners on then supported the local land-based anti-aircraft units and claimed 47 British aircraft shot down or damaged. The naval gunners also shot down a Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 aircraft and killed Italo Balbo, the Governor-General of Libya and Commander-in-chief of Italian forces in North Africa.
Prelude
E
On 13 September 1940, the Italian 10th Army advanced into Egypt in E. As the Italians advanced, the small British force at Sollum withdrew to the main defensive position east of Mersa Matruh. The Italian advance was harassed by the 3rd Coldstream Guards, attached artillery and other units. After recapturing Fort Capuzzo, the Italians advanced approximately in three days and on 16 September, the advance stopped at Maktila, beyond Sidi Barrani. The Italians dug in and awaited reinforcements and supplies along the , an extension of the () being built from the frontier. Five fortified camps were built around Sidi Barrani from Maktila, east along the coast, south to Tummar East, Tummar West and Nibeiwa; another camp was built at Sofafi on the escarpment to the south-west.
British plan
Following the Italian advance, Wavell ordered the commander of British Troops Egypt, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, to plan a limited operation to push the Italians back. Operation Compass, for administrative reasons, was originally planned as a five-day raid but consideration was given to continuing the operation to exploit success. On 28 November, Wavell wrote to Wilson that,
The 7th Support Group was to observe the Italian camps on the escarpment around Sofafi, to prevent the garrisons from interfering, while the rest of the division and 4th Indian Division passed through the Sofafi–Nibeiwa gap. An Indian brigade and Infantry tanks of 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7th RTR) would attack Nibeiwa from the west, as the 7th Armoured Division protected their northern flank. Once Nibeiwa was captured, a second Indian brigade and the 7th RTR would attack the Tummars. Selby Force (3rd Battalion Coldstream Guards plus some artillery) from the Matruh garrison was to contain the enemy camp at Maktila on the coast and the Royal Navy would bombard Maktila and Sidi Barrani. Preparations were kept secret and only a few officers knew during the training exercise held from that the objectives marked out near Matruh were replicas of Nibeiwa and Tummar; the troops were also told that a second exercise was to follow and did not know that the operation was real until 7 December, as they arrived at their jumping-off points.
Late on 8 December, an Italian reconnaissance aircrew reported that attack on Maktila and Nibeiwa was imminent but Maletti was not informed. On 9 December, the 1st Libyan Division was at Maktila and the 2nd Libyan Division was at Tummar. The Maletti Group was at Nibiewa and the 4th CC.NN. Division "3 Gennaio" and the headquarters of the Libyan Corps were at Sidi Barrani. The 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene" and the headquarters of XXI Corps were at Sofafi and the 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" was at Buq Buq. The headquarters of the XXIII Corps and the 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" were in Sollum and Halfaya Pass respectively and the 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica" was at Sidi Omar, south of Sollum. Berti was on sick leave and Gariboldi, the 1st CC.NN. Division "23 Marzo" and the 10th Army Headquarters were far back at Bardia. (By the time Berti arrived in Libya, so had the British.) Operation Compass (/Battle of the Marmarica) began on the night of The Western Desert Force with the 7th Armoured Division, 4th Indian Division and the 16th Infantry Brigade advanced to their start line. The RAF made attacks on Italian airfields and destroyed or damaged on the ground. Selby Force (Brigadier A. R. Selby) with (the maximum for whom transport could be found), moved up from Matruh, set up a brigade of dummy tanks in the desert and reached a position south-east of Maktila by dawn on 9 December. Maktila had been bombarded by the monitor and the gunboat ; Sidi Barrani had been bombarded by the gunboat .
Battle of the Camps
Nibeiwa
At on 9 December, a detachment of artillery commenced diversionary fire from the east on the fortified camp at Nibeiwa for an hour, which was held by the Maletti Group and at the divisional artillery began a preliminary bombardment. The 11th Indian Infantry Brigade, with 7th RTR under command, attacked Nibeiwa from the north-west, which reconnaissance had established as the weakest sector. By Nibeiwa had been captured; Maletti had been killed in the fighting along with were wounded; and Libyan soldiers were taken prisoner. Large quantities of supplies were captured for British casualties of
The Tummars
The attack on Tummar West began at after the 7th RTR had refuelled and artillery had bombarded the defences for an hour. Another approach from the north-west was made and tanks broke through the perimeter, followed twenty minutes later by the infantry. The defenders held out for longer than the Nibeiwa garrison but by Tummar West was overrun except for the north-eastern corner. The tanks moved on to Tummar East, the greater part of which was captured by nightfall. The 4th Armoured Brigade had advanced to Azziziya, where the garrison of surrendered and light patrols of the 7th Hussars pushed forward to cut the road from Sidi Barrani to Buq Buq, while armoured cars of the 11th Hussars ranged further west. The tanks of 7th Armoured Brigade were held in reserve ready to intercept an Italian counter-attack. The 2nd Libyan Division lost and killed, and wounded, with the survivors being taken prisoner.
Maktila
Unaware of the situation at the Tummars, Selby sent units to cut the western exits from Maktila but the 1st Libyan Division filtered through and escaped. Selby Force followed up the retreat as the 1st Libyan Division moved the from Maktila to Sidi Barrani and drove part of the column into sand dunes north of the coast road. Cruiser tanks of the 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6th RTR) arrived in a sandstorm and overran the Italians in the dunes at about then joined Selby Force to continue the pursuit. The Italian defenders were caught at Sidi Barrani, in a pocket backing on to the sea. When the British attacked again at dawn on 11 December, mass surrenders began everywhere. except at Point 90 where troops of the 2nd Libyan Division held out for a short time, after which surrendered.
Sidi Barrani, Buq Buq and Sofafi
On 10 December, the 16th Infantry Brigade was brought forward from 4th Indian Division reserve and with part of the 11th Indian Brigade under command, advanced in lorries to attack Sidi Barrani. While moving across exposed ground, some casualties were incurred but with support from artillery and the 7th RTR, it was in position barring the south and south western exits to Sidi Barrani by The British attacked at supported by the divisional artillery and the town fell by nightfall; the remains of the two Libyan Divisions and the 4th CC.NN. Division "3 Gennaio" were trapped between the 16th Infantry Brigade and Selby Force. On 11 December, Selby Force and some tanks attacked and overran the 1st Libyan Division and by the evening, the 4th CC.NN Division "3 Gennaio" had also surrendered. On 11 December, the 7th Armoured Brigade was ordered out of reserve to relieve the 4th Armoured Brigade in the Buq Buq area, mop up and capture large numbers of men and guns. A patrol from the 7th Support Group entered Rabia and found it empty; the 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene" had withdrawn from Rabia and Sofafi overnight. An order to the 4th Armoured Brigade to cut them off west of Sofafi arrived too late and the Italians were able to retire along the escarpment and join Italian forces at Halfaya. Italian casualties were killed, wounded and
Exploitation
Over the next few days the 4th Armoured Brigade, on top of the escarpment and the 7th Armoured Brigade on the coast, attempted a pursuit but supply problems and the large number of prisoners (twenty times the number planned for) impeded the advance. Italian forces crowded along the coast road and retreating from Sidi Barrani and Buq Buq, were bombarded by Terror and the two gunboats, which fired on the Sollum area all day and most of the night of 11 December. Late on 12 December, the only Italian positions left in Egypt were the approaches to Sollum and the area of Sidi Omar.
The Italians had lost and Libyan casualties, most taken prisoner, and against casualties. The WDF paused to reorganise and then moved quickly west along the , through Halfaya Pass and re-captured Fort Capuzzo in Libya. On 7 December, Wellington bombers from Malta and Blenheim bombers from Egypt carried out raids on the Italian air bases at Castel Benito, Benina and El Adem, the attack on Castel Benito being particularly successful, with hits on five hangars and strafing runs which hit many Italian aircraft; the attacks continued until the end of the year.
Pursuit
Sollum, Halfaya and Fort Capuzzo
Exploitation continued by the two armoured brigades and the 7th Support Group, with the infantry of 16th Infantry Brigade (which had been detached from the 4th Indian Division) following up. By 15 December, Sollum and the Halfaya Pass had been captured and the British by-passed Italian garrisons further south in the desert. Fort Capuzzo, inland at the end of the frontier wire, was captured by 7th Armoured Division in December 1940, as it advanced westwards to Bardia. The 7th Armoured Division concentrated south-west of Bardia, waiting for the arrival of 6th Australian Division. By this time the WDF had taken and captured and while suffering casualties of and eight missing.
Bardia
The 6th Australian Division (Major General Iven Mackay) attacked the Italian XXIII Corps (Lieutenant-General [] Annibale Bergonzoli) at Bardia from 3 to 5 January 1941, assisted by air support, naval gunfire and artillery. The 16th Australian Infantry Brigade attacked at dawn from the west, where the defences were known to be weak. Sappers blew gaps in the barbed wire with Bangalore torpedoes, then filled in and broke down the sides of the anti-tank ditch with picks and shovels. The Australian infantry and 23 Matilda II tanks of the 7th RTR, overran the Italian defences and took The 17th Australian Infantry Brigade exploited the breach made in the perimeter and pressed south, as far as a secondary line of defences known as the Switch Line. On the second day, the 16th Australian Infantry Brigade captured Bardia, cutting the fortress in two. Thousands of prisoners were taken and the remnants of the Italian garrison held only the northern and southernmost parts of the fortress. On the third day, the 19th Australian Infantry Brigade advanced south from Bardia, supported by artillery and the remaining six Matilda tanks. The 17th Australian Infantry Brigade attacked and the two brigades reduced the southern sector of the fortress. The Italian garrisons in the north surrendered to the 16th Australian Infantry Brigade and the 7th Support Group outside the fortress; about were taken, along with and medium tanks and hundreds of motor vehicles. Italian casualties also included and wounded.
Capture of Tobruk
Derna–Mechili
The area east of the Jebel Akhdar mountains was garrisoned by XX Corps (Lieutenant-General Annibale Bergonzoli) with the 60th Infantry Division "Sabratha" and the Babini Group, which had The tank force included M.13/40 tanks, which needed ten days to be made battle-worthy but had been rushed forward anyway. The Sabratha Division held a line from Derna, along Wadi Derna to Mechili, with the Babini Group at Mechili, Giovanni Berta and Chaulan, guarding the flank and rear of the infantry. On 23 January, the 10th Army commander, General Giuseppe Tellera ordered a counter-attack against the British, to avoid an envelopment of XX Corps from the south. Next day, the Babini Group, with ten to fifteen of the new M.13/40s, attacked the 7th Hussars as they headed west to cut the Derna–Mechili track north of Mechili. The British swiftly retired, calling for help from the 2nd RTR, which complacently ignored the signals. The British lost several tanks and knocked out two M.13s, until eventually, the 2nd RTR mobilised, caught the Italian tanks sky-lined on a ridge and knocked out seven M.13s, for the loss of a cruiser and six light tanks.
To the north, the 2/11th Australian Battalion engaged the Sabratha Division and Bersaglieri companies of the Babini Group at Derna airfield, making slow progress against determined resistance. The 19th Australian Brigade began to arrive in the morning and Italian bombers and fighters attacked the Australians. The Italians swept the flat ground with field artillery and machine-guns, stopping the Australian advance short of the objective. On 26 January, the 2/4th Australian Battalion cut the Derna–Mechili road and a company crossed Wadi Derna during the night against bold Italian counter-attacks. The Italians disengaged on the night of before the garrison was trapped and rearguards of the Babini Group cratered roads, planted mines and booby-traps and managed to conduct several skilful ambushes, which slowed the British pursuit. Derna was occupied unopposed on 29 January and the Australians began a pursuit along the , closing on Giovanni Berta during 31 January.
Battle of Beda Fomm
In late January, the British learned that the Italians were retreating along the () from Benghazi. The 7th Armoured Division was dispatched to intercept the remnants of the 10th Army by moving through the desert, south of the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountain) via Msus and Antelat, as the 6th Australian Division pursued the Italians along the coast road, north of the jebel. The terrain slowed the British tanks and Combe Force (Lieutenant-Colonel John Combe), a flying column of wheeled vehicles, was sent ahead across the chord of the jebel. Late on 5 February, Combe Force arrived at the south of Benghazi and set up road blocks near Sidi Saleh, about north of Ajedabia and south-west of Antelat; the leading elements of the 10th Army arrived thirty minutes later. Next day, the Italians attacked to break through the roadblock and continued to attack into 7 February. With British reinforcements arriving and the Australians pressing down the road from Benghazi, the remnants of the 10th Army surrendered. From Benghazi to Agedabia, the British took captured and
Desert operations
Giarabub, Kufra and Uweinat
Italian garrisons held Giarabub south of Sollum, Kufra Oasis, Jalo at the west end of the Great Sand Sea and Murzuk, south of Tripoli. The oasis of Giarabub was attacked in January 1941 and captured in March by the 6th Australian Cavalry Regiment and an Australian infantry battalion. Further south, on the far side of the Sand Sea, the oasis of Kufra was attacked by Free French from French Equatorial Africa, in concert with Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) patrols. (Kufra later fell after the two-month Capture of Kufra in March 1941.) Further west, on the border with Chad, the Italian base at Murzuk was raided in January, when a patrol of the new Long Range Patrol Unit and a local sheikh travelled to rendezvous near Kayugi with a small Free French detachment. The force attacked Murzuk and destroyed three aircraft and a hangar; the French commander was killed, most of the Italians surrendered and several prisoners were taken. The raiders then shot up three forts and departed.
At Jebel Uweinat, a massif inland, at the junctions of Egypt, Libya and Sudan, were landing grounds with an Italian garrison. The base was the closest Italian outpost to Italian East Africa () and an Italian raid from Uweinat on Wadi Halfa in Sudan was possible. Destruction of the dockyards and railway workshops and the sinking of vessels on the Nile could cut the communications between Khartoum and Cairo. British patrols visited Faya and rendezvoused with another French detachment with General Philippe Leclerc for an attack on Kufra. The British were strafed by aircraft and ambushed by armoured cars of an Italian Auto-Saharan Company (), which destroyed several lorries. Leclerc decided that an attack on Kufra was not possible and the remaining British returned to Cairo, after a journey of . Kufra was captured by the French on 1 March and became the new LRDG base in April.
Aftermath
Analysis
The success of the 7th Armoured Division encouraged a belief in the Royal Tank Regiment that manoeuvre could win battles; the engagement with the Babini Group on 24 January, led to a conclusion that armoured divisions needed more artillery. No integration of tanks with infantry or the use of anti-tank guns offensively was considered necessary. The lack of cover in the desert encouraged dispersion to avoid air attack but this reduced firepower at the decisive point. Due to the exiguous nature of supply and transport, conservation during lulls also encouraged the use of "jock columns" (a small mobile force formed of a motorised infantry company, a field-gun battery and several armoured cars). The success of such columns against the Italians led to exaggerated expectations, which were confounded when German aircraft and better-equipped and -armed troops arrived in Libya. The 7th Armoured Division concluded that the defensive mentality of the Italians had justified the taking of exceptional risks, which would be unjustified against German troops.
Casualties
The WDF suffered casualties of and The RAF lost comprising six Hurricane and five Gladiator fighters, three Wellington bombers, a Vickers Valentia bomber/transport and eleven Blenheim light bombers. A far larger number of aircraft became non-operational due to damage, which could not be repaired quickly for lack of spare parts, a problem made worse by the increased use of explosive bullets by the Italians. (On 14 December, a raid on Bardia by nine Blenheims cost one aircraft shot down and seven damaged by explosive bullets.) The Italian 10th Army lost at least killed, about taken prisoner and losses of and
Subsequent operations
A week after the Italian surrender at Beda Fomm, the Defence Committee in London ordered Cyrenaica to be held with the minimum of forces and the surplus sent to Greece. In the WDF (now XIII Corps), the 6th Australian Division was fully equipped and had few losses to replace. The 7th Armoured Division had been operating for eight months, wearing out its mechanical equipment and was withdrawn to refit. Two regiments of the 2nd Armoured Division with the WDF were also worn out, leaving the division with only four tank regiments. The 6th Australian Division went to Greece in March, with a brigade group of the 2nd Armoured Division containing the best equipment. The remainder of the division and the new 9th Australian Division, minus two brigades and most of its transport sent to Greece, were replaced by two under-equipped brigades of the 7th Australian Division. The division took over in Cyrenaica, on the assumption that the Italians could not begin a counter-offensive until May, even with German reinforcements.
The 3rd Armoured Brigade of the 2nd Armoured Division was left in Cyrenaica comprising an under-strength light tank regiment, a second regiment using captured Italian tanks and from mid-March a cruiser tank regiment, also equipped with worn-out tanks. The 2nd Support Group had only one motor battalion, a field artillery regiment, one anti-tank battery and a machine-gun company; most of the divisional transport had been sent to Greece. A few thousand men of the 10th Army escaped the disaster in Cyrenaica but the 5th Army in Tripolitania had four divisions. The Sirte, Tmed Hassan and Buerat strongholds were reinforced from Italy, which brought the Italian armies up to about German reinforcements were sent to Libya to form a blocking detachment () under Directive 22 (11 January), these being the first units of the ( Erwin Rommel). On 25 March 1941, Graziani was replaced by Gariboldi.
Orders of battle
10th Army
December 1940, detail taken from Montanari (1990) unless specified.
Supreme Commander Italian Forces in North Africa, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani
10th Army, General Italo Gariboldi, from 23 December General Giuseppe Tellera (Killed in action [KIA] 7 February 1941)
Libyan Divisions Group
Libyan Divisions Group, headquarters in Sidi Barrani General Sebastiano Gallina
1st Libyan Division, at Al Maktilah (General Giovanni Cerio)
1st Libyan Infantry Group, 3 × battalions, 1 × anti-tank company with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
2nd Libyan Infantry Group, 3 × battalions, 1 × anti-tank company 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
1st Libyan Artillery Group, 2 × groups with 77/28 mod. 5 field guns
II Mixed Engineer Battalion
Attached units
1 × group from the 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
2 × batteries with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
1 × battery with 105/28 howitzers
1 × gun company with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
2nd Libyan Division, between Ras el Dai and Alam el Tummar (General Armando Pescatori)
3rd Libyan Infantry Group, 4 × battalions, 1 × anti-tank company with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
4th Libyan Infantry Group, 4 × battalions, 1 × anti-tank company 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
2nd Libyan Artillery Group, 2 × groups with 77/28 mod. 5 field guns
I Mixed Engineer Battalion
Attached units
IX Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes
1 × group from the 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
1 × group with 105/28 howitzers
2 × batteries with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
1 × anti-tank company with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
4th CC.NN. Division "3 Gennaio", in Sidi Barrani (General Fabio Merzari)
228th CC.NN. Legion, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
250th CC.NN. Legion "Indomita", 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
204th Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
IV CC.NN. Machine Gun Battalion
IV CC.NN. Mixed Engineer Battalion
4th CC.NN. Anti-Tank Company, with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
Attached units
1 × artillery group with 105/28 howitzers
1 × artillery group with 75/27 C.K. anti-aircraft guns
XXI Corps
XXI Corps, headquarters in Buq Buq General Carlo Spatocco
XX Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes
LXIII Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes
X Machine Gun Squadrons Group
1 × motorcyclists company
63rd Infantry Division "Cirene", at Alam el Rabia and Bir Bofafi (General Alessandro de Guidi)
157th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
158th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
45th Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
LXIII Machine Gun Battalion
LXIII Mixed Engineer Battalion
Attached units:
I/21st Artillery Group, with 105/28 howitzers
III/12th Artillery Group, with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
III/21st Artillery Group, with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
2 × batteries with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
202nd CC.NN. Anti-Tank Company, with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro", at Alam Salamus (General Giuseppe Amico)
141st Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
142nd Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
203rd Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
LXIV Machine Gun Battalion
LXIV Mixed Engineer Battalion
64th Anti-Tank Company, with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
Maletti Group, at Alam Nibeiwa and Alam el Iktufa (General Pietro Maletti, KIA 9 December 1940)
I, V, XVII, XIX Libyan infantry battalions
I Auto-Saharan Battalion
II Tank Battalion "M" 4th Tank Infantry Regiment, with 37 × M11/39 tanks
1 × group with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
1 × group with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
2 × anti-tank companies with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
1 × company with 81 mm mortars
1 × battery with 105/28 howitzers
XXIII Corps
XXIII Corps, headquarters in Sollum, General Annibale Bergonzoli
1st CC.NN. Division "23 Marzo", at Bardia (General Francesco Antonelli)
219th CC.NN. Legion, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
233rd CC.NN. Legion, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
201st CC.NN. Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
CCI CC.NN. Machine Gun Battalion
CCI CC.NN. Mixed Engineer Battalion
201st CC.NN. Anti-Tank Company, with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
Attached units:
LXI Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes
2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre", at Sollum and Halfaya Pass (General Francesco Argentino)
231st CC.NN. Legion, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81mm mortars
238th CC.NN. Legion, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81mm mortars
202nd CC.NN. Artillery Regiment, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers, 2 × groups detached to other divisions
CCII CC.NN. Machine Gun Battalion
CCII CC.NN. Mixed Engineer Battalion
62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica", at Sidi Omar and Gabr du Fares (General Ruggero Tracchia)
115th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81mm mortars
116th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81mm mortars
44th Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
LXII Machine Gun Battalion
LXII Mixed Engineer Battalion
62nd Anti-Tank Company, with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
Attached units:
LXII Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes
2 × batteries with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
2 × anti-tank companies with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
XXII Army Corps (Reserve)
XXII Corps, headquarters in Tobruk General Enrico Pitassi Mannella
61st Infantry Division "Sirte", at Gambut (General Vincenzo della Mura)
69th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
70th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
43rd Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns, 1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
LXI Mixed Engineer Battalion
Attached units:
I Libyan Paratroopers Battalion "Diavoli neri"
II Paratroopers Battalion
Artillery Command
10th Army Corps Artillery Regiment
20th Army Corps Artillery Regiment
Special Armoured Brigade at Marsa Lucch (General Valentino Babini)
I Tank Battalion "M" 4th Tank Infantry Regiment, with 37 × M11/39 tanks
III Tank Battalion "M" 32nd Tank Infantry Regiment, with 37 × M13/40 tanks
XXI Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes (disbanded at Tobruk late in December 1940, personnel used to raise the XXI Tank Battalion "M" at Benghazi in January 1941)
LX Tank Battalion "L", with L3/35 tankettes
1 × Bersaglieri motorcycle battalion
1 × group with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
1 × group with 100/17 mod. 1914 howitzers
Cyrenaica military garrisons
Tobruk
Royal Italian Army:
XXI Libyan Coastal Battalion
2 × mixed engineer units
2 × anti-aircraft groups with 20/65 mod. 35 anti-aircraft guns
Royal Italian Navy:
cruiser San Giorgio
10 × coastal batteries
Infantry: 2,300 men
Artillery: 2 × groups
Bardia
Royal Italian Army:
1 × fortification machine gun squadrons group
3 × anti-tank companies with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
V Coastal Fortification Group
XVII Group, with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
2 × batteries with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
Infantry: 2,500 men
Artillery: 17 × batteries
Giarabub
Royal Italian Army:
1 × motorised Libyan machine-gun company
1 × fusiliers company
4 × Libyan fortification machine-gun companies
1 × section with 2 × 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
1 × platoon with 4 × 20/65 mod. 35 anti-aircraft guns
1/2 × anti-tank company with 6 × 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
Libyan Sahara garrisons
Kufra Oasis
2 × Libyan fortification machine gun companies
1 × Auto-Saharan Company
1 × Auto-Saharan Company with 20/65 mod. 35 anti-aircraft guns
Jalu Oasis
1 × machine gun battalion
1 × Libyan reserve battalion
1 × Auto-Saharan Company
1 × anti-tank company with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
1 × battery with 20/65 mod. 35 anti-aircraft guns
The 10th Army in Egypt consisted of 80,000 troops, 250 guns and 125 tanks.
Reinforcements
These reinforcements reached the 10th Army after the start of Operation Compass (data taken from Montanari, 1990).
60th Infantry Division "Sabratha", took up positions at Derna (General Guido Della Bona)
85th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
86th Infantry Regiment, 3 × battalions, 1 × company with 81 mm mortars
42nd Artillery Regiment, 2 × groups with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
LXIV Machine Gun Battalion
LXIV Mixed Engineer Battalion
Attached units:
60th Bersaglieri Motorcycle Company
XVIII Libyan Infantry Battalion
1 × machine gun battalion
1 × group with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns
3 × anti-tank companies with 47/32 mod. 1935 anti-tank guns
6 × batteries with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
4 × batteries with 20/65 mod. 35 anti-aircraft guns
1 × chemical company
Bignami Column, took up positions at Mechili (General Mario Bignami, organised 22 January 1940)
10th Artillery Regiment, 1 × group with 75/27 mod. 11 field guns (from the 25th Infantry Division "Bologna")
VI Tank Battalion "M" 33rd Tank Infantry Regiment, with 37 × M13/40 tanks
XXI Tank Battalion "M", with 37 × M13/40 tanks (Raised with personnel from the disbanded XXI Tank Battalion "L" in January 1941)
XXV Motorised Machine Gun Battalion (from the 25th Infantry Division "Bologna")
XXVII Motorised Machine Gun Battalion (from the 27th Infantry Division "Brescia")
10th Bersaglieri Regiment
XVI, XXXIV, XXXV Bersaglieri battalions
1 × battery with 65/17 mod. 13 mountain guns
1 × company with 81 mm mortars
V Tank Battalion "M" 32nd Tank Infantry Regiment, with 37 × M13/40 tanks, joined the Babini Group (Special Armoured Brigade)
VII Anti-aircraft Group, with 75/46 mod. 34 anti-aircraft guns
Western Desert Force
Western Desert Force, 9 December 1940 Details taken from Christie (1999) and Montanari (1990) unless specified.
Commander-in-Chief, Middle East (General Sir Archibald Wavell)
Western Desert Force (Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor)
1st Battalion, Royal Sussex (7th Indian Infantry Brigade battalion)
4th Battalion, 11th Sikh Regiment (7th Indian Infantry Brigade battalion)
7th Royal Tank Regiment (Until 11 December, then 6th Australian Division)
2nd Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery
7th Heavy Field Regiment Royal Artillery
104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery
6 × light anti-aircraft batteries
7th Armoured Division (Major General Michael O'Moore Creagh)
4th Armoured Brigade (Brigadier J. A. L. Caunter)
7th Queen's Own Hussars (−1 troop)
2nd Royal Tank Regiment
6th Royal Tank Regiment
7th Armoured Brigade (Brigadier Hugh E. Russell)
3rd The King's Own Hussars
8th King's Royal Irish Hussars
1st Royal Tank Regiment
Support Group (Infantry Brigade) (Brigadier William Gott)
1st Battalion King's Royal Rifle Corps
2nd Battalion Rifle Brigade
1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery
4th Regiment Royal Horse Artillery
11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own) (Reconnaissance)
3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery
106th (Lancashire Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (2 × anti-tank batteries, 2 × anti-aircraft batteries)
2nd (Cheshire) Field Squadron Royal Engineers
141st Field Park Royal Engineers
2 × Royal Air Force Regiment armoured car companies
4th Indian Division (Major General Noel Beresford-Peirse, until 11 December)
5th Indian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd)
1st Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
3rd Battalion, 1st Punjab Regiment
4th Battalion, 6th Rajputana Rifles
1× anti-tank company
11th Indian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Reginald Savory)
1st Battalion, 6th Rajputana Rifles
2nd Battalion, Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders
4th Battalion, 7th Rajput Regiment
1 × anti-tank company
16th British Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Cyril Lomax, until 11 December)
2nd Battalion, Queen's Regiment
1st Battalion, Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders
2nd Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment
Central India Horse (21st King George V's Own Horse) (Reconnaissance)
1st Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers (machine gunners, 1 × company)
1st Field Regiment Royal Artillery
25th Field Regiment Royal Artillery
31st Field Regiment Royal Artillery
4th Field Squadron Royal Engineers
12th Field Squadron Royal Engineers
18th Field Squadron Royal Engineers
21st Field Squadron Royal Engineers
11th Field Park Royal Engineers
7th Indian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Harold Briggs, Mersa Matruh garrison, two battalions detached, until 11 December)
2nd Battalion, 11th Sikh Regiment (detached from)
Selby Force (Brigadier Arthur Selby)
3rd Battalion, Coldstream Guards
1 × company Northumberland Fusiliers (Machine Gunners)
1 × company, 1st Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment
1 × company, 1st Battalion, Cheshire Regiment
1 × platoon, 1st Battalion Durham Light Infantry
1 × troop, 7th Queen's Own Hussars
1 × section, 8th Field Regiment Royal Artillery
1 × section, 107th (South Nottinghamshire Hussars) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery
6th Australian Division (Major General Iven Mackay, from 11 December)
16th Australian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Arthur Allen)
2/1st Australian Battalion
2/2nd Australian Battalion
2/3rd Australian Battalion
17th Australian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Stanley Savige)
2/5th Australian Battalion
2/6th Australian Battalion
2/7th Australian Battalion
19th Australian Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Horace Robertson)
2/4th Australian Battalion
2/8th Australian Battalion
2/11th Australian Battalion
6th Division Reconnaissance Regiment (Reconnaissance)
2/1st Field Regiment
2/2nd Field Regiment
2/3rd Field Regiment
2/1st Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers
2/2nd Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers
2/3rd Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers
The Western Desert Force consisted of about 31,000 soldiers, 120 guns, 275 tanks and sixty armoured cars. The 4th Indian Division was exchanged with the 6th Australian Division for the pursuit after the first part of Operation Compass.
See also
North African campaign timeline
List of British military equipment of World War II
List of Australian military equipment of World War II
List of Italian military equipment in World War II
Military history of Italy during World War II
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
published in
Theses
Websites
Further reading
Books
Journals
Newspapers
published in
published in
Reports
Theses
Websites
External links
La battaglia della Marmarica
A few memories of Corporal Nazzareno Ganino of the Sabratha Division
The Italian Army in Egypt during World War II
The Engagement at Derna, AWM
Animated Map of Operation Compass
Operation Compass Desert War.net
1940 in Egypt
1941 in Egypt
1940 in Italy
1941 in Italy
1940 in Libya
1941 in Libya
Battles of World War II involving Australia
Battles and operations of World War II involving India
Battles of World War II involving Italy
Battles of World War II involving France
Compass
Military history of India during World War II
Military operations involving the United Kingdom
Western Desert campaign
Libya in World War II
Egypt in World War II
World War II operations and battles of Europe
Military history of Italy during World War II
December 1940 events
January 1941 events
February 1941 events
|
[
-0.41582202911376953,
0.1043207198381424,
0.32117801904678345,
-0.6900699734687805,
-0.07210668921470642,
0.19448696076869965,
0.7401718497276306,
-0.31393763422966003,
0.23103418946266174,
0.20837722718715668,
-0.4637695848941803,
0.5517891645431519,
0.16269724071025848,
0.2446473091840744,
-0.03299081698060036,
0.9077165722846985,
0.04247429966926575,
-0.2576046884059906,
-0.07869721204042435,
-0.3058650493621826,
0.15282271802425385,
-0.18082953989505768,
0.010121275670826435,
0.2914023697376251,
0.3693629205226898,
0.08569744974374771,
0.7128818035125732,
0.1277051866054535,
0.4865696430206299,
-0.191813126206398,
0.446216344833374,
0.1743132621049881,
-0.16824689507484436,
-0.5246666669845581,
0.22834846377372742,
0.18516778945922852,
0.13529464602470398,
0.12025947868824005,
-0.3871769607067108,
-0.9838335514068604,
0.1786426305770874,
0.12083118408918381,
0.27960404753685,
0.12916764616966248,
-0.19767776131629944,
-0.01774808019399643,
-1.6563533544540405,
0.039925310760736465,
-0.23567122220993042,
-0.3462313711643219,
-0.47107428312301636,
0.7971093058586121,
0.3985181152820587,
-0.019184770062565804,
0.24999572336673737,
0.9246377348899841,
-0.4342629313468933,
-0.28237786889076233,
0.24695324897766113,
-0.2979414463043213,
0.1770940124988556,
0.33771228790283203,
0.05782250314950943,
0.4701097309589386,
0.03194088861346245,
-0.5969759821891785,
-0.05529297888278961,
0.5010455846786499,
0.06182795390486717,
-0.9522136449813843,
-0.02364339306950569,
0.07301119714975357,
-0.31905823945999146,
0.3429565727710724,
-0.46258100867271423,
-0.2750696837902069,
0.29646116495132446,
-0.14652247726917267,
0.09986250102519989,
0.03887896239757538,
-0.029611462727189064,
-0.47954002022743225,
0.4592854976654053,
-0.22863969206809998,
-0.056192707270383835,
0.4472898840904236,
-0.11298840492963791,
0.5139421224594116,
-0.3046935498714447,
0.1714051514863968,
-0.22194302082061768,
-0.6328657269477844,
0.008370676077902317,
-0.0035836519673466682,
0.043847985565662384,
-0.24024564027786255,
0.02542409487068653,
0.4599308669567108,
0.17764241993427277,
-0.28718721866607666,
0.14970244467258453,
-0.21587781608104706,
0.06481745094060898,
-0.04728841409087181,
-1.3348140716552734,
-0.050077080726623535,
-0.2057592123746872,
-0.4431556463241577,
-0.2373690903186798,
-0.21062569320201874,
-0.4699535071849823,
-0.19615577161312103,
-0.09423030912876129,
-0.12990811467170715,
-0.48070985078811646,
-0.12601667642593384,
0.1626817286014557,
-0.2449948638677597,
-0.2458992749452591,
0.411108136177063,
-0.025020508095622063,
0.9238237142562866,
-0.33809274435043335,
0.18865540623664856,
-0.10524365305900574,
0.03807545080780983,
0.49284061789512634,
0.3029589056968689,
-0.6351783871650696,
0.08099149167537689,
0.27320438623428345,
0.6770284175872803,
-0.3102361559867859,
0.06078198924660683,
-0.4358512759208679,
-0.3190406560897827,
0.07548877596855164,
0.3901953399181366,
-0.07885172218084335,
0.38019242882728577,
-0.7722147107124329,
0.1520906388759613,
-0.2247646301984787,
-0.11207034438848495,
0.6536622643470764,
-0.1669018268585205,
0.3081026077270508,
-0.38584545254707336,
-0.3690524697303772,
-0.6929013133049011,
0.4200603663921356,
-0.32620754837989807,
-0.47793224453926086,
-0.0940830335021019,
-0.36201807856559753,
0.0920649915933609,
0.24481992423534393,
0.08098222315311432,
0.03005143254995346,
-0.13014015555381775,
0.22841930389404297,
0.05748210847377777,
0.02045276015996933,
0.5318289399147034,
-0.050539564341306686,
0.24747124314308167,
0.9556618332862854,
-0.22230854630470276,
0.5830861926078796,
0.24546688795089722,
-0.22634562849998474,
0.2890473008155823,
0.41529580950737,
0.19232794642448425,
-0.18000048398971558,
0.16593633592128754,
0.5992006659507751,
0.5029392242431641,
0.30712607502937317,
-0.006349429488182068,
-0.3611484169960022,
0.021676404401659966,
0.10030415654182434,
-0.21897144615650177,
0.40461820363998413,
0.35757485032081604,
0.2782363295555115,
-0.09916763007640839,
-0.24748638272285461,
0.28385478258132935,
-0.4010716676712036,
-0.686771810054779,
0.001636318163946271,
-0.21547231078147888,
1.0587499141693115,
-0.26024407148361206,
-0.5173575282096863,
0.10344985127449036,
0.2515924572944641,
0.8950088620185852,
0.157011941075325,
-0.015303732827305794,
0.25989291071891785,
0.07147760689258575,
0.16100114583969116,
-0.23328447341918945,
-0.031944043934345245,
-0.06557691097259521,
0.209172323346138,
0.8550189733505249,
-0.5339199304580688,
-0.25400564074516296,
-0.6189016103744507,
-0.07454800605773926,
0.25098374485969543,
0.31203216314315796,
-0.4996858537197113,
0.7390041351318359,
0.3706904351711273,
-0.1099274680018425,
0.08190365880727768,
0.025031616911292076,
-0.5987187027931213,
-0.12844489514827728,
0.12609930336475372,
-0.17883023619651794,
-0.2374359518289566,
0.20937155187129974,
-0.23140071332454681,
-0.5008015036582947,
-0.2625090181827545,
-0.06747858971357346,
-0.28025302290916443,
-0.07835304737091064,
0.016968796029686928,
-0.09236084669828415,
-0.1847848743200302,
-0.3987927734851837,
0.3788428008556366,
0.1524580717086792,
0.5450187921524048,
0.2022777497768402,
-0.43424680829048157,
0.5797033905982971,
-0.3130178153514862,
0.04938049614429474,
0.133939728140831,
0.06975575536489487,
0.8407109379768372,
-0.20455484092235565,
-0.347696453332901,
0.24732622504234314,
0.04488316923379898,
-0.07463667541742325,
0.07717262953519821,
0.05393235757946968,
-0.15867483615875244,
-0.4140437841415405,
0.6284334063529968,
0.18267548084259033,
-0.052145760506391525,
0.37455639243125916,
0.3343448042869568,
0.4175496995449066,
0.5936103463172913,
-0.35278674960136414,
-0.8353570699691772,
-0.006474382244050503,
-0.05035429075360298,
0.13652248680591583,
0.519997239112854,
-0.2851545810699463,
0.16926787793636322,
-0.2782168984413147,
0.18851397931575775,
-0.2285914570093155,
-0.3017086386680603,
0.9018274545669556,
-0.39533406496047974,
-0.3003714978694916,
0.28573867678642273,
0.34803640842437744,
0.15506525337696075,
-0.0961139053106308,
0.14344832301139832,
0.05617419630289078,
0.3806464970111847,
-0.17154240608215332,
-0.0626615583896637,
-0.21758322417736053,
-0.43709245324134827,
-0.10682423412799835,
-0.6683630347251892,
0.4515308439731598,
-0.48232319951057434,
0.5670648813247681,
-0.6382368803024292,
-0.517411470413208,
0.09755261987447739,
-0.021405594423413277,
-0.6821274757385254,
0.5426546335220337,
-0.4982614517211914,
-0.10382713377475739,
0.3867749571800232,
-0.38893288373947144,
-0.872304379940033,
0.4358738362789154,
-5.922580242156982,
-0.17477469146251678,
-0.25642216205596924,
-0.04477040842175484,
-0.06822867691516876,
0.22112344205379486,
0.06978614628314972,
0.004616841208189726,
-0.001819294411689043,
-0.3696327805519104,
-0.18780672550201416,
-0.25901126861572266,
-0.35361358523368835,
-0.05015358701348305,
0.6821576356887817,
0.13447150588035583,
0.6013765931129456,
-0.5001629590988159,
0.9080139994621277,
0.5420934557914734,
0.40522870421409607,
-0.3626127541065216,
-0.08105344325304031,
0.03584926947951317,
-0.20014826953411102,
0.7426628470420837,
-0.16721892356872559,
0.26092174649238586,
-0.23221877217292786,
0.39727991819381714,
0.13743390142917633,
-0.24009740352630615,
-0.030983325093984604,
-0.05723108351230621,
-0.2988499104976654,
-0.0061583369970321655,
0.7571319341659546,
-0.05776821821928024,
0.6430842280387878,
-0.4541996419429779,
-0.13256536424160004,
0.05540408939123154,
-0.17990610003471375,
0.176322802901268,
0.6241333484649658,
-0.5979035496711731,
-0.12149463593959808,
0.46087729930877686,
0.1879495084285736,
0.26139333844184875,
0.1638469398021698,
0.16024354100227356,
-0.40401074290275574,
-0.4192272424697876,
-0.3841651380062103,
-0.18462690711021423,
-0.38494396209716797,
-0.5977188348770142,
0.13265573978424072,
0.47717976570129395,
0.3033892512321472,
-0.45402833819389343,
-0.022596487775444984,
-0.6234472393989563,
0.7468963861465454,
-0.07047970592975616,
-0.010069957934319973,
-0.2910875380039215,
0.05556724965572357,
0.06601732224225998,
0.3112741708755493,
0.2944200038909912,
-0.016641095280647278,
-0.7194087505340576,
0.016222583130002022,
-0.11904127895832062,
0.13751539587974548,
-0.21863897144794464,
-0.09127151221036911,
0.1330142468214035,
0.027599159628152847,
-0.7598674297332764,
0.054512154310941696,
-0.21655669808387756,
-0.12437918037176132,
-0.13150598108768463,
-0.6136769652366638,
0.204146608710289,
-0.05956168472766876,
-0.4922056496143341,
0.9088756442070007,
-0.6552466750144958,
0.10696497559547424,
0.5680208802223206,
0.3322376608848572,
0.36572837829589844,
-0.46604976058006287,
-0.060262538492679596,
0.506641685962677,
-0.11696866899728775,
-0.18668891489505768,
-0.3916092813014984,
0.783209502696991,
-0.451542466878891,
-0.24548952281475067,
-0.2538200914859772,
-0.23484668135643005,
0.33298513293266296,
0.502431333065033,
0.03805331513285637,
-0.10936309397220612,
0.4098009765148163,
-0.2719780206680298,
-0.07503049820661545,
-0.47778427600860596,
-0.017659567296504974,
0.40581029653549194,
0.059213586151599884,
0.5515549778938293,
0.1495656818151474,
-0.5854126811027527,
0.022198138758540154,
0.12399943917989731,
-0.32791391015052795,
0.07722681015729904,
-0.36936071515083313,
-0.11571832001209259,
-0.04788010194897652,
0.002434335183352232,
0.4243748188018799,
0.22059442102909088,
0.5712990760803223,
-0.005576716735959053,
0.40447086095809937,
-0.3751600682735443,
-0.6767654418945312,
-0.37113451957702637,
0.05534535273909569,
-0.08499174565076828,
0.2540014684200287,
-0.3102048933506012,
0.19125568866729736,
-0.05054309219121933,
0.18122005462646484,
0.1640274077653885,
-0.017194576561450958,
0.525763750076294,
-0.8328255414962769,
0.00998025480657816,
0.738959789276123,
-0.01554702315479517,
0.11379282921552658,
0.25463905930519104,
-0.1337316334247589,
0.12967370450496674,
0.5376164317131042,
0.536170482635498,
0.05128344148397446,
-0.07141377031803131,
-0.2888978123664856,
-0.05996556207537651,
0.05059168115258217,
-1.1093931198120117,
-0.02061617560684681,
-0.0032885975670069456,
-0.22106334567070007,
-0.49681439995765686,
-0.5588475465774536,
0.5177193880081177,
0.5592784285545349,
0.2739042639732361,
-0.6165156364440918,
-0.7649163007736206,
0.49661892652511597,
-0.09931287914514542,
0.35675278306007385,
-0.7225223779678345,
-0.6109330654144287,
-0.6276729702949524,
-0.4718363583087921,
0.13400235772132874,
0.09209530800580978,
-0.4495367407798767,
0.5436509251594543,
0.07407151162624359,
-0.6522330045700073,
-1.0842994451522827,
-0.1229657530784607,
0.18946099281311035,
-0.03826090693473816,
0.10115467011928558,
-0.5391300320625305,
0.3442288637161255,
0.26013708114624023,
-0.5537789463996887,
0.04089384153485298,
0.09482889622449875,
0.7170577645301819,
-0.019845882430672646,
-0.21301214396953583,
-0.19508840143680573,
0.5187659859657288,
-0.21334414184093475,
-0.041774407029151917,
0.03666225075721741,
-0.5163754224777222,
0.05052213743329048,
0.11418209969997406,
-0.5134178996086121,
0.5603269338607788,
-0.36507031321525574,
-0.5289396643638611,
0.13649272918701172,
0.7498450875282288,
-0.4551316499710083,
0.4940212070941925,
-0.622369110584259,
0.2707824110984802,
-0.25208622217178345,
-0.1586083024740219,
-0.23138079047203064,
0.018441762775182724,
-0.5271380543708801,
-0.2374686747789383,
-0.42146533727645874,
0.14981204271316528,
0.17589418590068817,
-0.4708738327026367,
0.3668335974216461,
0.7722318768501282,
-0.1301860362291336,
-0.15200242400169373,
0.03629445284605026,
0.4717869758605957,
0.3862707018852234,
0.7009738087654114,
-0.08506748825311661,
-0.41034114360809326,
-0.2027495801448822,
0.2009257674217224,
0.6573716998100281,
0.6724241971969604,
0.6333171725273132,
-0.07046257704496384,
0.2888033986091614,
0.3718833923339844,
0.3917250335216522,
-0.7483202815055847,
-0.057216495275497437,
0.3206207752227783,
-0.20418260991573334,
0.05494727939367294,
-0.7738059759140015,
-0.2722233533859253,
0.6875987648963928,
0.3386969566345215,
-0.3745994567871094,
-0.06284065544605255,
0.12167945504188538,
0.2222663313150406,
0.32380005717277527,
0.34354540705680847,
-0.6692984700202942,
0.10456831008195877,
0.13931989669799805,
-0.06201564893126488,
-0.06281545758247375,
-0.3222179412841797,
-0.0895400121808052,
0.26011452078819275,
0.12023477256298065,
-0.12588629126548767,
0.10287601500749588,
0.5306660532951355,
0.3117225468158722,
-0.24732787907123566,
0.06634024530649185,
-0.8198143839836121,
0.9369843602180481,
-0.042751654982566833,
-0.7406121492385864,
0.20613032579421997,
0.42734625935554504,
-0.27388787269592285,
-0.14568625390529633,
-0.5377717614173889,
-0.15603883564472198,
0.06292157620191574,
0.169405996799469,
-0.06459306180477142,
0.059002410620450974,
-0.13541699945926666,
-0.5344443321228027,
-0.03272918611764908,
-0.20855610072612762,
0.41042929887771606,
-0.43088823556900024,
0.3945109248161316,
-0.13342180848121643,
0.16718296706676483,
-0.38046926259994507,
0.7713717222213745,
-0.009283123537898064,
-0.38041573762893677,
-0.2660400867462158,
-0.06016283854842186,
-0.022127388045191765,
-0.060928329825401306,
-0.05917755141854286,
-0.25806480646133423,
0.40855517983436584,
-0.3689553439617157,
-0.36985066533088684,
0.9148051142692566,
-0.628756046295166,
0.03720753267407417,
0.6703369617462158,
-0.05142899975180626,
0.15110421180725098,
0.2697726786136627,
-0.04481413960456848,
0.2347661703824997,
0.37229764461517334,
0.15384073555469513,
-0.4004850685596466,
0.6746605634689331,
-0.33884409070014954,
-0.02061448246240616,
0.04919779673218727,
-0.18041515350341797,
0.08897263556718826,
0.05573129653930664,
-0.41446352005004883,
0.5951510071754456,
-0.43158018589019775,
0.1430736929178238,
0.34957852959632874,
-0.5348883271217346,
0.15777496993541718,
0.27759483456611633,
-0.22265450656414032,
0.0013230276526883245,
-0.03577239811420441,
-0.5690722465515137,
-0.1859739124774933,
0.1461362987756729,
-0.02605859376490116,
0.022988399490714073,
0.35336485505104065,
0.6436441540718079,
0.3410671651363373,
0.15982991456985474,
-0.0809127688407898,
-0.5817061066627502,
0.558148205280304,
-0.07950538396835327,
0.4276800751686096,
-0.2324923723936081,
-0.2943131923675537,
-0.16907060146331787,
-0.12560562789440155,
-0.11830678582191467,
0.4438105821609497,
-0.3996119797229767,
0.05177917703986168,
0.47292518615722656,
0.41901490092277527,
-0.6822943091392517,
0.6465904116630554,
0.8579102158546448,
0.5251370072364807,
0.22807569801807404,
-0.21968451142311096,
-0.37447717785835266,
0.3544980585575104,
0.14109893143177032,
0.07438117265701294,
0.278097003698349,
0.33993032574653625,
-0.16084913909435272,
0.3072602450847626,
-0.34540748596191406,
-0.10760917514562607,
-0.6512964963912964,
-0.43849459290504456,
-0.49981310963630676,
0.14839541912078857,
-0.19597738981246948,
-0.43373340368270874,
0.024270355701446533,
0.2607227563858032,
-0.8107764720916748,
-0.6227283477783203,
-0.5974750518798828,
-0.2963995337486267,
0.34057703614234924,
-0.06725659966468811,
0.7671526670455933,
0.0459175631403923,
0.055325742810964584,
-0.3406452238559723,
0.3090812861919403,
0.3788168132305145,
-0.0689060240983963,
0.1555280238389969,
0.6377606987953186,
-0.200974702835083,
-0.1594723016023636,
-0.26628586649894714,
-0.08230943977832794,
0.3628862500190735,
0.30731430649757385,
0.03338592126965523,
0.13060946762561798,
-0.24906666576862335,
-0.015860438346862793,
0.24951082468032837,
-0.4224306046962738,
0.19250532984733582,
-0.20695143938064575,
-0.14187999069690704,
0.2685537040233612,
-0.5666545033454895,
0.46232882142066956,
-0.3540235757827759,
-0.2301589399576187,
0.4718630313873291,
0.18864771723747253,
-0.29695144295692444,
0.24396494030952454,
0.051091037690639496,
-0.4557203948497772,
-0.28314802050590515,
-0.48037445545196533,
-0.4535345137119293,
-0.5852278470993042,
0.29376423358917236,
0.6938770413398743,
0.37596288323402405,
-0.06545921415090561,
0.3969463109970093,
-0.23083794116973877,
0.2535046935081482,
0.10701719671487808,
0.2708088457584381,
-0.44969749450683594,
-0.031805604696273804,
-0.6817265748977661,
0.0309059526771307,
1.0966941118240356,
0.0875357836484909,
-0.06396844983100891,
0.4044286906719208,
-0.4625881016254425,
0.14031824469566345,
0.20918689668178558,
0.2227485179901123,
-0.651675820350647,
-0.30680787563323975,
-0.07058588415384293
] |
206147
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Walker%20%28painter%29
|
John Walker (painter)
|
John Walker (born 1939) is an English painter and printmaker. He has been called "one of the standout abstract painters of the last 50 years."
Walker studied in Birmingham at the Moseley School of Art, and later the Birmingham School of Art and Académie de la Grande Chaumière in Paris. Some of his early work was inspired by abstract expressionism and post-painterly abstraction, and often combined apparently three-dimensional shapes with "flatter" elements. These pieces are usually rendered in acrylic paint.
In the early 1970s, Walker made a series of large Blackboard Pieces using chalk first exhibited at the opening of Ikon Gallery, in Birmingham Shopping Centre, Birmingham in 1972 and the Juggernaut works which also use dry pigment. From the late 1970s, his work marked allusions to earlier painters, such as Francisco Goya, Édouard Manet and Henri Matisse, either through the quoting of a pictorial motif, or the use of a particular technique. Also during this time, he began to use oil paint more in his work. His paintings of the 1970s are also notable for what has come to be termed canvas collage – the application of glued-on, separately painted patches of canvas to the main canvas (see the external link below for an example and image).
After spending some time in Australia, Walker got a position at the Victoria College of the Arts in Melbourne. He produced the Oceania series around this time which incorporates elements of native Oceanic art.
Walker is currently the head of the graduate painting program at Boston University.
Walker won the 1976 John Moores Painting Prize and was nominated for the Turner Prize in 1985.
In September 2010, Walker and five other British artists including Howard Hodgkin, John Hoyland, Ian Stephenson, Patrick Caulfield and R.B. Kitaj were included in an exhibition entitled The Independent Eye: Contemporary British Art From the Collection of Samuel and Gabrielle Lurie, at the Yale Center for British Art.
Walker has a 2008 Landscape Painting on display at the National Gallery in Washington, D.C. in the Modern Section. He also has work in the following public collections:
Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney Australia; The Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois; Arts Council, England; Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, England; The British Museum, London, England; City Art Gallery, Leeds Museums and Galleries, England; The Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio; Farnsworth Art Museum, Rockland, Maine; Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Art Museums, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Imperial War Museum, London, England; Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin; Iziko Museum of Cape Town, South Africa; Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York; The Fred Jones, Jr. Museum of Art, University of Oklahoma, Norman; Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, England; MIT-List Visual Arts Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Museum am Ostwall, Dortmund, Germany; Museum Neuhaus—Sammlung Liaunig, Austria; Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Illinois; The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts; The Museum of Modern Art, New York; Brooklyn College Library, New York, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; National Gallery of Australia, Canberra; Neuberger Museum of Art, Purchase College, State University of New York; The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.; Portland Museum of Art, Maine; Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art Gallery, Edinburgh; Southampton City Art Gallery, England; Tate Gallery, London, England; Ulster Museum, Belfast, Northern Ireland; The University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor; Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England; Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond; The Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, England; Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, Connecticut.
In 2010, Walker had a solo exhibition at Tsinghua University in Beijing, images can be viewed at: http://art.china.cn/zixun/2010-03/08/content_3407730.htm
Walker is represented by the Alexandre Gallery in New York City.
See also
Boston Expressionism
References
External links
John Walker in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection
John Walker's Untitled, (1976) (acrylic, chalk, and canvas collage on canvas, 120 x 96 in.; Phillips Collection, Washington, DC)
Exhibition at Tim Olsen Gallery in Sydney Australia (2012)
1939 births
Living people
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
English printmakers
Artists from Birmingham, West Midlands
Boston University faculty
English contemporary artists
20th-century British printmakers
Alumni of the Birmingham School of Art
|
[
0.12766526639461517,
0.39781367778778076,
-0.6133840680122375,
-1.3549845218658447,
0.2973778545856476,
0.9296349287033081,
0.6445785760879517,
-0.2224002480506897,
-0.6105230450630188,
-0.21887041628360748,
-0.270006388425827,
-0.1164117231965065,
-0.5074408650398254,
0.12579114735126495,
-0.04309020936489105,
0.13463805615901947,
-0.19266553223133087,
0.6101694107055664,
-0.4676622450351715,
-0.5423918962478638,
-0.41576507687568665,
-0.6074477434158325,
-0.2754737436771393,
-0.5364495515823364,
-0.8617217540740967,
-0.203732430934906,
-0.05142592266201973,
-0.20228762924671173,
0.28625360131263733,
-0.0379907563328743,
0.6154187321662903,
0.6864057183265686,
0.27844661474227905,
-0.6510472297668457,
0.4421738088130951,
-0.15817129611968994,
-0.22055087983608246,
-0.44392499327659607,
-0.01648370362818241,
-0.1326567530632019,
-0.36417388916015625,
0.31347107887268066,
0.15964843332767487,
0.3404947817325592,
0.17399340867996216,
-0.6536019444465637,
-1.6942178010940552,
-0.5669202208518982,
-0.445051372051239,
-0.00779490452259779,
-0.35926225781440735,
0.352455198764801,
1.002281904220581,
-0.19385522603988647,
0.10538902133703232,
0.6089308857917786,
0.10378214716911316,
0.2706291079521179,
0.19489672780036926,
-0.7026127576828003,
0.41908392310142517,
-0.1773015707731247,
-0.05420440062880516,
-0.3347882628440857,
0.1347326636314392,
0.3073996901512146,
0.09476380050182343,
0.4850701689720154,
0.19686870276927948,
0.267853319644928,
0.0727180764079094,
0.07593142986297607,
0.6063547134399414,
0.3162747919559479,
-0.3576449453830719,
0.21783094108104706,
-0.03030196763575077,
-0.8358529210090637,
-0.34834012389183044,
0.3231230676174164,
0.44835489988327026,
0.31975746154785156,
1.0857445001602173,
0.45911648869514465,
0.6162254810333252,
0.10108277946710587,
-0.41535770893096924,
0.006365007720887661,
-0.1493360549211502,
0.7582823038101196,
-0.06372837722301483,
-0.6926394104957581,
-0.10875533521175385,
0.21809639036655426,
0.12187149375677109,
0.40526068210601807,
-0.3118920624256134,
0.6762122511863708,
0.37306028604507446,
-0.15978868305683136,
-0.12081503868103027,
0.02906331792473793,
0.40162402391433716,
-0.25261756777763367,
-0.310350626707077,
-0.3634580373764038,
-0.5129684805870056,
0.12104454636573792,
0.05501812696456909,
-0.5127372741699219,
-0.2569589912891388,
0.13699160516262054,
-0.4091354310512543,
0.06069141998887062,
-0.2730371356010437,
0.3824421465396881,
-0.15608356893062592,
-0.29072272777557373,
-0.7439289689064026,
0.426601380109787,
-0.39570558071136475,
0.39638668298721313,
-0.458093523979187,
0.41253840923309326,
-1.036983609199524,
0.4207985997200012,
0.27328696846961975,
0.5107249617576599,
-0.23053951561450958,
0.5285515785217285,
-0.28562718629837036,
1.742928147315979,
-0.28657567501068115,
-0.7564895153045654,
-0.16864781081676483,
-0.02758239023387432,
0.06090817600488663,
0.1593496948480606,
-0.28143996000289917,
0.3955676853656769,
-0.19828511774539948,
-0.08657664805650711,
-0.653114914894104,
0.029060427099466324,
-0.027361003682017326,
0.013768601231276989,
-0.23846116662025452,
-0.15975186228752136,
-0.05319055914878845,
0.298788845539093,
0.22294378280639648,
-0.3457818031311035,
0.05503210797905922,
-0.021696383133530617,
-0.4066670536994934,
0.4148666262626648,
0.725998044013977,
-0.09499450773000717,
0.36150410771369934,
-0.3961845934391022,
0.6882875561714172,
-0.0656014084815979,
0.27899453043937683,
-0.029637843370437622,
0.43476977944374084,
-0.2605970501899719,
0.00026507291477173567,
-0.34381309151649475,
-0.1038765013217926,
0.07645668089389801,
0.059887032955884933,
-0.11945535242557526,
0.22535181045532227,
-0.35915303230285645,
-0.03831188753247261,
-0.5795696377754211,
0.3229821026325226,
0.6674514412879944,
0.08561480790376663,
-0.208717942237854,
-0.691210925579071,
-0.30334651470184326,
0.25845998525619507,
0.0655461996793747,
0.5305965542793274,
-0.1686256229877472,
0.06790582090616226,
-0.07831674069166183,
0.5198602676391602,
-0.3006965219974518,
-0.2364797741174698,
-0.7242113351821899,
0.09868454188108444,
-0.5411222577095032,
0.998771071434021,
0.1981794238090515,
-0.5951316952705383,
-0.007928689941763878,
0.5200467705726624,
1.2862073183059692,
0.21664638817310333,
0.13421931862831116,
-0.6476892828941345,
-0.6175870299339294,
0.6084445118904114,
0.9149856567382812,
0.44581153988838196,
-0.05986127257347107,
-0.2349780797958374,
0.7769972681999207,
0.4337264895439148,
-0.7830830812454224,
-0.00002356441291340161,
1.423934817314148,
-0.48288658261299133,
-0.4449341297149658,
-0.3602007329463959,
-0.24859565496444702,
0.08240721374750137,
-0.961923360824585,
0.6746150255203247,
0.5648607611656189,
0.21658337116241455,
0.87223881483078,
0.014318238943815231,
0.7414737939834595,
0.14077676832675934,
0.1891215741634369,
0.1372215896844864,
-0.7233438491821289,
0.10261055082082748,
1.1678526401519775,
-0.6064308881759644,
-0.36019957065582275,
-0.29241129755973816,
-0.31947946548461914,
0.3512268364429474,
-0.44660186767578125,
0.33511197566986084,
-0.5073111057281494,
0.6034324169158936,
0.3610674738883972,
-0.5145092010498047,
0.2897627651691437,
0.24183692038059235,
0.16885365545749664,
0.09603831171989441,
-0.16214677691459656,
0.4952641725540161,
0.11332369595766068,
0.4697653651237488,
0.710792064666748,
0.1879849135875702,
-0.20587249100208282,
-0.34272876381874084,
0.15479549765586853,
0.041077468544244766,
-0.9311861395835876,
0.3797762095928192,
0.2916335165500641,
-0.0773308277130127,
0.07857593148946762,
0.7254272103309631,
0.33633774518966675,
-0.520820677280426,
-0.8979406952857971,
-0.33923763036727905,
-0.50680011510849,
0.2773267924785614,
-0.008969838730990887,
0.21342934668064117,
-0.1157543957233429,
-0.33871614933013916,
-0.9769454598426819,
0.6021234393119812,
0.34829992055892944,
-0.5127148628234863,
-0.11402922123670578,
-0.1869712769985199,
-0.45751556754112244,
0.5196604132652283,
0.8011784553527832,
-0.1555906981229782,
-0.18545810878276825,
0.03690483793616295,
0.21515241265296936,
-0.19673053920269012,
0.13633833825588226,
0.4103057384490967,
-0.3656761646270752,
0.09706424176692963,
1.2179433107376099,
-0.36063599586486816,
0.4029676914215088,
-0.46740496158599854,
0.8174132704734802,
-0.42221829295158386,
-0.6922957897186279,
-0.2576100826263428,
-0.15741011500358582,
-0.654349148273468,
0.6338912844657898,
-0.09426525980234146,
0.17509065568447113,
0.04373006150126457,
0.43175238370895386,
-0.3370390832424164,
-0.5187311172485352,
-4.814277648925781,
-0.35840052366256714,
0.23707686364650726,
0.15039262175559998,
-0.25544148683547974,
-0.09830893576145172,
0.8176913857460022,
-0.081440269947052,
0.5021324157714844,
-0.5309236645698547,
0.4326714873313904,
-0.16462843120098114,
-0.39029285311698914,
0.9799354672431946,
0.859100878238678,
0.6675780415534973,
0.903023898601532,
-0.07396464794874191,
0.33912768959999084,
0.09780219197273254,
-0.31856629252433777,
0.39211249351501465,
-0.052777256816625595,
-0.29651153087615967,
0.07349906116724014,
0.5184963345527649,
-0.7895682454109192,
-0.5711562037467957,
-1.0250372886657715,
0.21128925681114197,
-0.18649448454380035,
-0.20562903583049774,
-0.3201550841331482,
-0.09486318379640579,
-0.4168945252895355,
0.006972977891564369,
0.026553072035312653,
0.601001501083374,
-0.001873372937552631,
-0.15836568176746368,
0.2511190176010132,
0.7319590449333191,
-1.2642775774002075,
0.5409589409828186,
0.14245150983333588,
-0.32754141092300415,
-0.8717272281646729,
-0.854286789894104,
0.13723702728748322,
0.7878159284591675,
-0.21822381019592285,
0.43540093302726746,
0.7871060967445374,
0.028291545808315277,
-0.028946973383426666,
-0.004311396274715662,
0.3015752136707306,
0.14171697199344635,
-0.5241405367851257,
0.29463252425193787,
-0.25969719886779785,
-0.4985337257385254,
0.18452824652194977,
-0.5387682914733887,
-0.16044418513774872,
-0.071888767182827,
-0.21494264900684357,
-0.4915357828140259,
0.2758018970489502,
-0.7087265253067017,
-0.20885425806045532,
0.2360546886920929,
-0.45083510875701904,
-0.9177243113517761,
-0.6682613492012024,
-0.10682555288076401,
0.651187002658844,
-0.2004748433828354,
-0.10112382471561432,
-0.4071575701236725,
0.05113519728183746,
-0.6675626039505005,
-0.20926640927791595,
0.6677488088607788,
0.17649827897548676,
-0.15419088304042816,
-0.7058596014976501,
0.1386653482913971,
-0.5831298828125,
-0.4135703146457672,
0.6248791217803955,
-0.07404904067516327,
-0.2953502833843231,
0.34708040952682495,
0.5794239640235901,
0.3330587148666382,
1.3139352798461914,
-0.054079171270132065,
0.3246757686138153,
-0.6048795580863953,
-0.6004109382629395,
-0.8861925005912781,
-0.8013300895690918,
-0.4894249141216278,
-0.41706904768943787,
-0.19695553183555603,
-0.29971498250961304,
0.4255738854408264,
0.38243961334228516,
0.26749423146247864,
0.7032801508903503,
-0.6153717637062073,
-0.4080007076263428,
-0.14339374005794525,
-0.026722321286797523,
-0.08202240616083145,
0.041383225470781326,
0.3151516616344452,
0.041159577667713165,
0.1971891075372696,
0.49195054173469543,
0.4750376343727112,
0.1702570915222168,
0.03508644178509712,
-0.16854509711265564,
-0.16981720924377441,
0.06928788870573044,
0.07003623247146606,
-0.5444141626358032,
0.18163540959358215,
-0.22830411791801453,
1.1711112260818481,
-0.0005027168081142008,
0.30453577637672424,
-0.02943921834230423,
-0.22413797676563263,
-0.9587016105651855,
0.04972144961357117,
0.9098895192146301,
-0.013228855095803738,
0.5764422416687012,
0.06813638657331467,
-0.6384708881378174,
0.49460485577583313,
-0.10047349333763123,
0.6273333430290222,
0.20349250733852386,
0.1794445514678955,
-0.5618612170219421,
0.6336724758148193,
-0.06452459841966629,
-0.44113385677337646,
-0.09939944744110107,
-0.771306037902832,
0.13421176373958588,
-0.4323572814464569,
-0.9713680148124695,
0.06572482734918594,
-0.38407790660858154,
-0.3240897059440613,
0.1535927802324295,
0.25784021615982056,
-0.9738699197769165,
0.09948336333036423,
0.13703662157058716,
-0.6784887909889221,
-0.005557607393711805,
-0.28313517570495605,
-0.5966733694076538,
0.27418065071105957,
0.24677053093910217,
-0.8961313962936401,
0.0031311754137277603,
-0.4065905809402466,
0.3787822127342224,
-0.3363822102546692,
-0.19599971175193787,
0.2196006327867508,
-0.2398744821548462,
-0.09164156019687653,
0.03692322596907616,
0.7771890163421631,
-0.6776492595672607,
-0.10540968179702759,
0.12349291890859604,
-0.05224085971713066,
-0.4060605466365814,
-0.7380113005638123,
0.0012939284788444638,
-0.1465664505958557,
0.22294877469539642,
0.385055810213089,
0.46315401792526245,
0.6874593496322632,
-0.3399207592010498,
-0.4969986379146576,
0.04370005801320076,
-0.6202676892280579,
0.05084526538848877,
-0.7529057264328003,
-0.10490598529577255,
0.1260230988264084,
-0.33881470561027527,
0.3864037096500397,
0.07906290888786316,
-1.414096713066101,
0.03824978694319725,
0.4643285274505615,
-0.5738507509231567,
0.3993258774280548,
-0.1582328975200653,
-0.34549617767333984,
-0.3602614402770996,
0.22917412221431732,
-1.1075671911239624,
0.1298840343952179,
0.25743502378463745,
0.5100803375244141,
-0.1463676542043686,
-0.4786301255226135,
-0.37449973821640015,
0.23046055436134338,
-1.3238416910171509,
0.029090164229273796,
-0.36897340416908264,
0.5570439100265503,
0.1786813586950302,
-0.31897565722465515,
0.29455944895744324,
-0.3865247964859009,
0.001745769870467484,
0.11579233407974243,
0.0854044035077095,
0.24542024731636047,
0.05527797341346741,
0.22712478041648865,
0.08601304888725281,
0.295628160238266,
0.14464858174324036,
0.07284680753946304,
0.43918392062187195,
1.3238173723220825,
0.6525970101356506,
-0.4919707179069519,
-0.11275611072778702,
0.289106547832489,
0.5520619750022888,
-0.24965611100196838,
-0.4788333773612976,
0.3951992988586426,
0.66328364610672,
-0.2722141444683075,
-0.32813045382499695,
-0.5235713124275208,
1.2427828311920166,
-0.3462660312652588,
0.27503231167793274,
0.34383437037467957,
0.48039373755455017,
-0.2923372685909271,
0.555701494216919,
0.03138304129242897,
-0.5127601027488708,
-0.14050668478012085,
0.11092202365398407,
0.6304657459259033,
0.07601504772901535,
0.35751116275787354,
0.2866380512714386,
-0.26374390721321106,
-0.3465637266635895,
0.3580332100391388,
-0.5400747060775757,
0.59287029504776,
-0.178047314286232,
-0.04469660669565201,
0.7773936986923218,
-0.896792471408844,
0.5048387050628662,
-0.5705918669700623,
0.24772706627845764,
0.476430207490921,
0.6461269855499268,
-0.4530026912689209,
0.301755428314209,
-0.5866716504096985,
0.2730611264705658,
-0.549858808517456,
-0.19222883880138397,
-0.6492590308189392,
-0.3412814736366272,
-0.34920698404312134,
-0.13768470287322998,
-0.07009609043598175,
-0.03366802632808685,
0.5967394113540649,
-0.6701813340187073,
0.3081900179386139,
-0.34548792243003845,
-0.22865276038646698,
-0.42707645893096924,
0.34507647156715393,
0.2835584878921509,
0.17756515741348267,
0.7101935744285583,
-0.037085045129060745,
-0.6539842486381531,
-0.5239630937576294,
0.1345103532075882,
1.007619023323059,
0.018861889839172363,
0.02367406152188778,
0.08911086618900299,
0.14482659101486206,
-0.44406384229660034,
-0.25359654426574707,
0.7575829029083252,
-0.9763325452804565,
0.0503133088350296,
-0.234963521361351,
-0.042214393615722656,
-0.18297185003757477,
0.23209360241889954,
-0.04738130792975426,
-0.19359594583511353,
0.8673638105392456,
-0.05718934163451195,
0.6387712955474854,
0.5373122096061707,
0.1629992127418518,
0.001636440516449511,
-0.5963301658630371,
-0.7079171538352966,
0.18861886858940125,
-0.2033594399690628,
-0.19907498359680176,
0.3195003569126129,
-0.064040407538414,
-0.19924314320087433,
-0.17258623242378235,
-0.41574370861053467,
0.5385127067565918,
0.0861765667796135,
-0.10253030806779861,
0.05721786245703697,
-0.10244892537593842,
-0.103634774684906,
0.12714296579360962,
0.03062191605567932,
0.00027944258181378245,
0.37115418910980225,
0.24334083497524261,
0.34423473477363586,
-0.5747382044792175,
0.24301597476005554,
-0.2353164255619049,
1.0232820510864258,
-0.3469097912311554,
0.05136368051171303,
-0.21154987812042236,
-0.29245710372924805,
-0.4317535161972046,
0.625104546546936,
0.24366499483585358,
-0.5037543773651123,
-0.48093509674072266,
-0.040014635771512985,
-0.38838085532188416,
-0.2735997140407562,
1.3233357667922974,
0.600549042224884,
0.04154261201620102,
0.36780261993408203,
1.1870898008346558,
0.4212915897369385,
0.3645666837692261,
0.4081813395023346,
0.13119353353977203,
-0.4482768774032593,
-0.1543527990579605,
-0.49561259150505066,
0.3623082637786865,
-0.3339957594871521,
-0.3071797490119934,
0.22493396699428558,
-0.706932544708252,
-0.16377262771129608,
0.8730102181434631,
-0.478859007358551,
0.04363305866718292,
0.10686983913183212,
0.26155248284339905,
-0.29734644293785095,
0.30237025022506714,
-1.1375869512557983,
0.2616146504878998,
-0.38639160990715027,
1.2824240922927856,
-0.04239054024219513,
-0.3976134657859802,
-0.026072243228554726,
0.4197787940502167,
-0.28668302297592163,
0.37475836277008057,
0.12504196166992188,
-0.06327290832996368,
-1.172491192817688,
0.5214088559150696,
-0.4958447515964508,
0.09513842314481735,
0.11055207997560501,
-0.17804066836833954,
-0.2627181112766266,
0.11479800939559937,
-0.017438875511288643,
0.4960896968841553,
0.6716605424880981,
-0.39836639165878296,
0.035527098923921585,
-0.14355780184268951,
0.49908533692359924,
-0.3674507439136505,
0.7972516417503357,
-0.12842358648777008,
-0.141073077917099,
-0.07060183584690094,
0.2853970229625702,
0.34893569350242615,
0.027126245200634003,
0.0982990637421608,
0.3088482618331909,
0.6957470774650574,
-0.42929935455322266,
-0.4472811222076416,
-0.521847665309906,
-0.6698323488235474,
0.25928011536598206,
1.3105746507644653,
1.075342059135437,
-0.5581781268119812,
0.6001549959182739,
-0.02670431323349476,
0.2890947759151459,
0.45125454664230347,
-2.254300355911255,
-0.3934420645236969,
-0.10918448865413666,
-0.7416267991065979,
0.2783767580986023,
-0.06230124086141586,
0.47986868023872375,
0.31712454557418823,
-0.09679539501667023,
-0.3090730905532837,
0.046571046113967896,
0.2216804027557373,
-0.042018454521894455,
-0.08544649183750153,
0.30223312973976135,
-0.4226366877555847
] |
206151
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20bilby
|
Greater bilby
|
The greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis), often referred to simply as the bilby since the lesser bilby (Macrotis leucura) became extinct in the 1950s, is an Australian species of nocturnal omnivorous animal in the order Peramelemorphia. Other vernacular names include dalgyte, pinkie, or rabbit-eared bandicoot. Greater bilbies live in arid parts of northwestern and central Australia. Their range and population is in decline.
Etymology and other names
The term bilby is a loan word from the Yuwaalaraay Aboriginal language of northern New South Wales, meaning long-nosed rat. It is also known as dalgyte in Western Australia by the Noongar people. The Wiradjuri of New South Wales also call it bilby. Other names include pinkie and rabbit-eared bandicoot.
Taxonomy
Nomenclature
A scientific description of the greater bilby was first published in 1837 by a Mr J. Reid. Reid based his description on a specimen that he erroneously stated to have come from Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), where the species has not occurred in historical times. As all bandicoot species were then placed in a broadly circumscribed Perameles, Reid placed the bilby there too. However, noting how different it was from other members of the genus, he added that "should more of the same form be discovered, the above characters would constitute a subgenus to which the name of Macrotis might be applied". The specific epithet lagotis was chosen "from its resemblance to the Rabbit".
The following year, Richard Owen read a paper before the Zoological Society of London, in which he proposed to erect a new genus for this species, named Thylacomys. This name was widely adopted and remained in use for many years. Thus it was that when B. Arthur Bensley erected a subfamily to hold the genus in 1903, he named it Thylacomyinae. This name remains valid, and has since been promoted to family rank as Thylacomyidae, but Thylacomys itself is no longer considered valid, as Reid's original paper is held to have established the generic name Macrotis. Thus the currently accepted scientific name for the species is Macrotis lagotis.
Classification
The placement of bilbies within the Peramelemorphia has changed in recent years. Vaughan (1978) and Groves and Flannery (1990) both placed this family within the family Peramelidae. Kirsch et al. (1997) found them to be distinct from the species in Peroryctidae (which is now a subfamily in Peramelidae). McKenna and Bell (1997) also placed it in Peramelidae, but as the sister of Chaeropus in the subfamily Chaeropodinae.
Description
Greater bilbies have the characteristics of long bandicoot muzzle and very long ears. They are about in length. Compared to bandicoots, they have a longer tail, bigger ears, and softer, silky fur. The size of their ears allows them to have better hearing as well. At , the male is about the same size as a rabbit; although male animals in good condition have been known to grow up to in captivity. The female is smaller, and weighs around . Bilbies have an excellent sense of smell and sharp hearing. Their fur is blue-grey with patches of tan and is very soft. The tail is black and white with a distinct crest.
Unlike bandicoots, they are excellent burrowers and can build extensive tunnel systems with their strong forelimbs and well-developed claws. A bilby typically makes several burrows within its home range, up to about a dozen; and moves between them, using them for shelter both from predators and the heat of the day. The female bilby's pouch faces backward, which prevents her pouch from getting filled with dirt while she is digging.
Habitat
Once widespread in arid, semi-arid and relatively fertile areas covering 70 per cent of mainland Australia, by 1995 the bilby was restricted to arid regions and classed as a threatened species. Before the extreme contraction of its range to remote northern desert areas, the species was well known around Adelaide, especially in the city parklands, and it was also recorded as living around Perth.
It makes its home in a burrow that spirals down, making it hard for its predators to get in.
The bilby prefers arid habitats because of the spinifex grass and the acacia shrubs.
Diet
Greater bilbies are nocturnal omnivores that do not need to drink water, as they get all the moisture they need from their food, which includes insects and their larvae, seeds, spiders, termites, bulbs, fruit, fungi, and very small animals. Most food is found by digging or scratching in the soil, and using their very long tongues.
Life cycle
In captivity, bilbies typically live for at least six years with some specimens reaching ten years of age. However, wild caught bilbies tend to be less than 12 months old. Females become reproductively active at six months of age and can breed all year round if conditions are favourable.
Greater bilbies have a very short gestation period of about 12–14 days, one of the shortest among mammals. The young are only long and very underdeveloped when they are born. They must crawl to the mother’s pouch and latch onto one of her eight teats. They leave the pouch after 70–75 days and remain in the natal burrow for two to three weeks before becoming independent. Litters usually consist of one to three joeys and females can have up to four litters per year in favourable conditions.
Behaviour
Greater bilbies are generally solitary marsupials; however, there are some cases in which they travel in pairs. These pairs usually consist of two females, and these females are the sole caregivers of their offspring. Mating occurs between pairs of similar dominance, with females rebuffing lower-ranked males. Much of the plant diet of the bilby is facilitated by fires that occasionally run through Australian regions and facilitate the regrowth of plants that the bilby prefers. They are also a highly motile species when it comes to foraging, with females travelling on average 1.5 km between burrows and male travelling up to 5 km. The difference in male and female motility is most likely due to the fact that males are often in search of mates and need to only care for themselves, while females are responsible for their offspring and must work to support them. Communication remains difficult between bilbies due to poor eyesight, but since these marsupials usually live alone or in very small groups, this obstacle is not incredibly formidable. Any communication that does occur is mostly olfactory between males or auditory. The scent markings implemented by male bilbies primarily function as a mode of communication between members of the same sex, since female bilbies rarely take heed of such signals and males are never aggressive towards their female counterparts.
Conservation
Status
Greater bilbies are a vulnerable species as classified by IUCN, their existence threatened by habitat loss and change as well as the competition with other animals. The main threats are cited as "Livestock farming & ranching" and "Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases". Introduced feral cats and foxes pose a major threat to the bilby's survival, and there is some competition between bilbies and rabbits for food. There is a national recovery plan for saving these animals: this program includes breeding in captivity, monitoring populations, and re-establishing bilbies where they once lived.
The species is also listed as vulnerable under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, with a species recovery plan published in 2007. Under state and territory legislation, it is extinct in New South Wales, endangered in Queensland, and vulnerable in the Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia.
Save the Bilby Fund CEO Kevin Bradley estimated in December 2021 that the animal had been pushed back to around 10% of their former range, which covered 70% of Australia.
Conservation programs and efforts
The bilby has been popularised as a native alternative to the Easter Bunny by selling chocolate Easter Bilbies. Haigh's Chocolates in Adelaide made 950,000 chocolate bilbies between 1993 and Easter 2020, with proceeds donated to the Foundation for Rabbit-Free Australia, which does environmental work to protect the indigenous biodiversity of Australia. A National Bilby Day is held in Australia on the second Sunday in September to raise funds for conservation projects.
Reintroduction efforts have been successful in South Australia, with 16 bilbies released onto Thistle Island in 1997, and 9 released into the Arid Recovery Reserve near Roxby Downs in 2000. The Arid Recovery population's gene pool has been expanded by two additional releases in 2010 and 2020, the latter from the thriving population on Thistle Island. From 2001 to 2003, 19 bilbies were introduced into the Venus Bay Conservation Park at Venus Bay on the Eyre Peninsula. Bilbies have been bred at Monarto Zoo and (since 2009) at Cleland Wildlife Park.
Bilbies were also introduced into the Currawinya National Park in Queensland, with six bilbies released into the feral-free sanctuary in early February 2006. In July 2012 it was reported that the population at Currawinya has been affected by feral cats that had gained access into the protected area after the wire netting had rusted after flooding. The high-salinity flood water had pooled around sections of the fencing, and once parts of it had rusted the cats had entered the reserve through the holes. Surveys found no bilbies in April nor July, when the cats were discovered. As of July 2015 there were 75 bilbies ready to be released into the enclosure, but with at least six cats remaining after around 30 were culled, release was being held back.
The Charleville Bilby Experience at Charleville, Queensland, run by the Save the Bilby Fund, has a breeding program, with the first set of twins born in December 2021. Babies born here are sometimes transferred to Currawinya.
Successful reintroductions have also occurred onto Peron Peninsula in Western Australia as a part of Western Shield. Successful reintroductions have also occurred on other conservation lands, including islands and the Australian Wildlife Conservancy's Scotia and Yookamurra Sanctuaries. There is a highly successful bilby breeding program at Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre, near Perth.
The knowledge of the Martu people of the Western Desert has been incorporated into models that predict bilby distributions.
References
External links
Greater Bilby
Bilby
Photographs of Bilbies in the wild
Peramelemorphs
Vulnerable fauna of Australia
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of the Northern Territory
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Victoria (Australia)
Marsupials of Australia
Nature Conservation Act endangered biota
Mammals described in 1837
|
[
0.052619244903326035,
0.09066254645586014,
-0.41956058144569397,
-0.3845497667789459,
-0.3161317706108093,
0.6479748487472534,
0.7272708415985107,
0.15793924033641815,
-0.325714647769928,
0.15103058516979218,
0.08752474933862686,
0.41507676243782043,
-0.8621836304664612,
0.012765069492161274,
-0.2059689611196518,
0.7625753879547119,
0.4868442714214325,
0.17440539598464966,
-0.33968839049339294,
0.004883385729044676,
0.159401535987854,
-0.7368002533912659,
0.34937891364097595,
-0.25325801968574524,
0.5321310758590698,
0.635409414768219,
0.8210680484771729,
0.7241058349609375,
0.1007087379693985,
-0.3649742901325226,
0.12562507390975952,
0.3783324658870697,
0.6317660808563232,
-0.00005428970689536072,
0.1087484210729599,
0.5126466751098633,
-0.0318789966404438,
-0.6766754984855652,
-0.7062376141548157,
-0.33248183131217957,
0.6023508906364441,
0.25341394543647766,
-0.284248024225235,
0.4716464877128601,
-0.5383522510528564,
-0.07683435082435608,
-1.653429627418518,
0.33899298310279846,
-0.7024487853050232,
-0.3362675905227661,
-0.1758396178483963,
0.7073242664337158,
-0.23117266595363617,
0.4981284439563751,
0.28500887751579285,
0.42659056186676025,
-0.5532584190368652,
-0.42168128490448,
-0.028199225664138794,
-0.4630846381187439,
-0.3587665557861328,
0.26176923513412476,
-0.02859022282063961,
0.0012139849131926894,
-0.2577572762966156,
0.2686763405799866,
0.19989469647407532,
0.4752977788448334,
-0.3892044126987457,
-0.007806778885424137,
-0.2675555646419525,
-0.08106464892625809,
-0.295551061630249,
0.7224579453468323,
-0.6576974987983704,
-0.21857187151908875,
0.03128725662827492,
-0.5257787108421326,
1.0863807201385498,
-0.01029917225241661,
0.4344983994960785,
0.04533622786402702,
0.7544300556182861,
-0.14041739702224731,
0.1237013190984726,
0.1403166800737381,
-0.3753376603126526,
0.35493502020835876,
-0.2574048638343811,
0.172914057970047,
-0.34993261098861694,
-0.4272158145904541,
0.39901450276374817,
0.2289692610502243,
-0.18220603466033936,
-0.5891232490539551,
0.08662116527557373,
0.042116325348615646,
0.2584291398525238,
-0.13515698909759521,
-0.0936083197593689,
-0.1780610978603363,
-0.019782893359661102,
0.2610587179660797,
-0.3714783787727356,
0.06165589764714241,
-0.3189253509044647,
-0.33350586891174316,
-0.0635494589805603,
0.7693079710006714,
-0.5497317314147949,
0.1982332170009613,
-0.019932251423597336,
-0.29479390382766724,
0.42713338136672974,
0.03503940626978874,
0.19066621363162994,
0.07618967443704605,
-0.3372437357902527,
0.008287336677312851,
0.4588710367679596,
0.3103391230106354,
-0.1318085640668869,
0.2090999186038971,
0.18193653225898743,
-0.40785908699035645,
0.2567622661590576,
0.3940386176109314,
-0.7045360803604126,
0.5832469463348389,
1.060663104057312,
1.017122745513916,
-0.10465352982282639,
0.089305080473423,
-0.46931877732276917,
-0.9239886403083801,
-0.07155667990446091,
-0.36462917923927307,
-0.05591561645269394,
0.04944233596324921,
-0.6024603247642517,
-0.15978306531906128,
-0.5272112488746643,
-0.06438387930393219,
-0.1853925883769989,
-0.11450125277042389,
0.11267923563718796,
0.32014578580856323,
-0.1536550223827362,
-0.5275070667266846,
0.11338584125041962,
0.053880516439676285,
-0.213570699095726,
-0.7431891560554504,
0.16454651951789856,
-0.18427985906600952,
-0.26861920952796936,
-0.6053988337516785,
-0.08734703809022903,
-0.17596669495105743,
-0.4222985804080963,
0.49781545996665955,
-0.8116378784179688,
-0.45202481746673584,
0.5373619198799133,
-0.29711002111434937,
0.18733380734920502,
0.17148439586162567,
0.3203609585762024,
0.4239656925201416,
-0.558244526386261,
-0.05293439328670502,
0.7313625812530518,
0.1788867861032486,
-0.4968394935131073,
-0.2797936201095581,
0.3896869421005249,
0.25938519835472107,
0.46008700132369995,
-0.6527113914489746,
-0.509697437286377,
-0.2839168608188629,
0.18834392726421356,
-0.190410315990448,
0.33002573251724243,
0.06493425369262695,
0.5908747315406799,
-0.07739755511283875,
-0.13860997557640076,
-0.36576834321022034,
-0.30643531680107117,
-0.637639582157135,
0.29907605051994324,
0.04508688300848007,
0.6328184008598328,
-0.11663812398910522,
-0.49973317980766296,
0.1778348684310913,
-0.16946016252040863,
-0.007574798539280891,
-0.5413892865180969,
0.0272847730666399,
0.3990079462528229,
-0.2987809181213379,
-1.0017746686935425,
-0.056855492293834686,
0.05601451173424721,
0.3929358124732971,
0.386067658662796,
0.4987201690673828,
0.23580500483512878,
-1.0361385345458984,
-0.27056756615638733,
0.025871170684695244,
-0.1921733021736145,
0.028948292136192322,
-0.1641470491886139,
0.16963239014148712,
-0.09837895631790161,
-0.44911256432533264,
0.6474202871322632,
-0.044255491346120834,
-0.6295319199562073,
0.043160419911146164,
0.1169101744890213,
0.5437183976173401,
0.5169951915740967,
-0.18075284361839294,
0.5383530855178833,
-0.39674612879753113,
-0.0020839732605963945,
0.484972208738327,
0.33737534284591675,
-0.2516716420650482,
-0.2583596706390381,
0.32174161076545715,
-0.048475805670022964,
-0.828437089920044,
0.1662612110376358,
-0.45977330207824707,
0.1999235302209854,
-0.23774205148220062,
-0.18118104338645935,
0.03888338431715965,
0.09773790091276169,
-0.06325952708721161,
-0.3124467134475708,
0.847255527973175,
0.060204632580280304,
0.3508939743041992,
0.5574668645858765,
0.6793167591094971,
0.5785523056983948,
-0.023493049666285515,
0.6836954355239868,
-0.0549265518784523,
-0.008929339237511158,
-0.12250926345586777,
0.5372326374053955,
0.1213868260383606,
-0.5151820182800293,
0.24625137448310852,
0.00714590260758996,
-0.4612264633178711,
0.21609017252922058,
0.05183976888656616,
0.156680166721344,
-0.03310316056013107,
0.13365130126476288,
0.4300400912761688,
0.7111251950263977,
0.3196702003479004,
-0.7627266049385071,
0.6541473865509033,
-0.0785408690571785,
0.14097315073013306,
0.4648694396018982,
-0.2089579552412033,
-0.255239874124527,
-0.9297885894775391,
-0.22391776740550995,
0.781650960445404,
0.12181612104177475,
-0.6164562106132507,
-0.35703957080841064,
-0.4779758155345917,
0.2345210462808609,
-0.17958956956863403,
-0.00011836094927275553,
-0.8334424495697021,
-0.884225606918335,
0.6865140795707703,
0.07999255508184433,
-0.05686159431934357,
-0.9684144854545593,
-0.14226987957954407,
-0.7205407619476318,
0.33858686685562134,
0.7204267382621765,
-0.35151171684265137,
-0.18750636279582977,
0.13006123900413513,
0.4280582070350647,
0.18207353353500366,
0.25449368357658386,
-0.3704417943954468,
0.036353949457407,
0.19483116269111633,
-5.6132588386535645,
0.17339639365673065,
0.05614873766899109,
0.05734911188483238,
0.4766124188899994,
0.3982030153274536,
-0.21832966804504395,
-0.28896889090538025,
-0.07218611240386963,
0.30047133564949036,
0.32301628589630127,
0.13424018025398254,
0.27020183205604553,
-0.097370944917202,
0.6369614601135254,
-0.24486738443374634,
-0.09947401285171509,
0.32208526134490967,
0.10168325901031494,
0.13734392821788788,
0.36955711245536804,
-0.3234735131263733,
-0.015469794161617756,
0.409123033285141,
0.04877353459596634,
0.2530074417591095,
-0.16619065403938293,
-0.2093425691127777,
-0.09047845751047134,
-0.22778061032295227,
-0.016302498057484627,
-0.25653621554374695,
-0.1543273627758026,
-0.218671515583992,
0.40670207142829895,
0.22636230289936066,
0.37709498405456543,
0.42934149503707886,
0.3133547604084015,
-0.28012558817863464,
-0.11111234873533249,
0.30359986424446106,
0.3205157518386841,
-0.408639520406723,
0.7737069129943848,
-0.012244544923305511,
-0.15722301602363586,
-0.17165766656398773,
-0.5993868112564087,
0.4773588180541992,
0.5818474888801575,
-0.10538172721862793,
-0.1624562293291092,
0.5371048450469971,
0.2616865038871765,
0.08946043998003006,
0.046704813838005066,
-0.035740673542022705,
-0.29293614625930786,
0.3039782643318176,
0.39460811018943787,
-0.0007557495846413076,
-0.7692784667015076,
0.12921372056007385,
-0.6040400266647339,
0.5261377096176147,
-0.17951221764087677,
0.23947922885417938,
0.32543647289276123,
0.158253014087677,
-0.3496866822242737,
0.3461814522743225,
-0.15837396681308746,
-1.0706199407577515,
0.6655710339546204,
0.30651161074638367,
-0.20544862747192383,
0.14050813019275665,
-0.3445039391517639,
0.2526128590106964,
-0.02847887948155403,
-0.7257742285728455,
0.5130801200866699,
-0.014778131619095802,
0.16983970999717712,
-0.9924653172492981,
-0.7111931443214417,
0.2667444348335266,
-0.3680996000766754,
-0.9019794464111328,
-0.10184873640537262,
-0.5633105039596558,
0.124143086373806,
0.42563915252685547,
0.4773995578289032,
0.6428860425949097,
0.1218981221318245,
0.14293935894966125,
0.5137923359870911,
0.33674535155296326,
0.7161965370178223,
-0.10927988588809967,
-0.038371916860342026,
-0.3730277121067047,
0.3268946409225464,
-0.5921305418014526,
-0.19826997816562653,
0.2927924692630768,
0.4951949715614319,
-0.6921076774597168,
0.5255537629127502,
0.2425766885280609,
-0.7401934862136841,
0.03661518543958664,
0.4867812693119049,
0.1235596165060997,
0.21528495848178864,
-0.38322848081588745,
0.5766990184783936,
-0.10212641209363937,
-0.2101462036371231,
0.22298192977905273,
-0.13078346848487854,
0.0016559164505451918,
-0.16588088870048523,
-0.33249610662460327,
-0.029832113534212112,
0.567290723323822,
-0.9555113315582275,
0.15296031534671783,
0.1854340136051178,
0.22118501365184784,
-0.06725984811782837,
-0.1837797611951828,
-0.1989167183637619,
-0.03456348180770874,
-0.33874058723449707,
0.2712525427341461,
-0.14860926568508148,
-0.013005071319639683,
-0.10902566462755203,
-0.25666284561157227,
-0.332032710313797,
-0.02355039492249489,
-0.20886552333831787,
0.10776174068450928,
-0.16541223227977753,
-0.5191583633422852,
-0.1083110049366951,
0.4135908782482147,
0.27055877447128296,
-0.17803224921226501,
0.20886404812335968,
-0.692074179649353,
0.29415225982666016,
-0.12296012789011002,
0.38980668783187866,
0.5162127614021301,
0.3870098292827606,
-1.0470032691955566,
-0.09084530174732208,
-0.45701923966407776,
-1.1189113855361938,
-0.02934234030544758,
-0.13807566463947296,
0.36323192715644836,
-0.0918552353978157,
-0.46033769845962524,
0.47588253021240234,
0.34002742171287537,
0.0030032414942979813,
-0.4004051983356476,
-0.2832496166229248,
0.6026772856712341,
0.06755153089761734,
-0.5455849170684814,
-0.6197487711906433,
-0.5146890878677368,
-0.44337424635887146,
-0.02670324221253395,
0.3249804675579071,
0.22141321003437042,
0.10497568547725677,
-0.41766485571861267,
0.772904098033905,
-0.10843682289123535,
-0.20668336749076843,
-0.3699074983596802,
0.08591291308403015,
-0.5069515705108643,
0.14653392136096954,
0.16457542777061462,
0.6585054993629456,
0.5431554913520813,
0.02537211775779724,
0.05012430250644684,
0.04262395575642586,
0.7493954300880432,
-0.04054317995905876,
-0.2761179804801941,
-0.044782377779483795,
0.25904399156570435,
0.03463713452219963,
-0.2766098082065582,
0.45767325162887573,
-0.6292749643325806,
0.1547592729330063,
-0.17033936083316803,
-0.6338230967521667,
0.3447811007499695,
-0.327046662569046,
0.12527573108673096,
-0.27099817991256714,
0.33770763874053955,
-0.6861887574195862,
0.3365376591682434,
-0.058170028030872345,
0.3918907940387726,
0.06913245469331741,
-0.2068766951560974,
-0.6048884391784668,
-0.013630807399749756,
-0.10939090698957443,
-0.011542768217623234,
-0.2863976061344147,
0.2352994680404663,
0.8528649806976318,
-0.2555322051048279,
0.5514269471168518,
-0.006206121761351824,
0.14526446163654327,
-0.34809795022010803,
0.42119917273521423,
-0.11757052689790726,
0.11093068867921829,
0.39277005195617676,
0.3556818962097168,
0.28084060549736023,
-0.2502850294113159,
0.6856239438056946,
0.5058355927467346,
1.1633403301239014,
0.3204951882362366,
0.3434699475765228,
-0.3034583330154419,
0.4331972897052765,
0.02500190958380699,
-0.24736592173576355,
-0.8306395411491394,
-0.48491281270980835,
0.37389126420021057,
0.36167004704475403,
0.10650280863046646,
0.5787728428840637,
0.10116353631019592,
-1.0120105743408203,
0.029007676988840103,
-0.1467553824186325,
0.029678305611014366,
0.48748064041137695,
0.513852059841156,
0.488196462392807,
0.2022857815027237,
0.5214335322380066,
0.015710407868027687,
-0.21313604712486267,
-0.06988005340099335,
-0.21371176838874817,
0.3623988926410675,
-0.13250930607318878,
0.8158257007598877,
0.5070313811302185,
0.2389526069164276,
0.36806631088256836,
-0.032484058290719986,
0.3778521418571472,
-0.37712904810905457,
-1.3415800333023071,
0.16238030791282654,
-0.23068714141845703,
0.2054343968629837,
-0.08400353044271469,
0.003425064729526639,
-0.5776875615119934,
-0.6869673728942871,
-0.6757063865661621,
-0.31046873331069946,
-0.32271212339401245,
-0.1212596669793129,
0.07651400566101074,
0.024155491963028908,
0.036021698266267776,
-0.3108377158641815,
-0.6777007579803467,
0.06269139051437378,
0.15337449312210083,
-0.4397989809513092,
0.14407075941562653,
-0.07823144644498825,
-0.19822964072227478,
-0.610568642616272,
0.2326265424489975,
0.11571082472801208,
-0.35115617513656616,
-0.09310027956962585,
-0.10117699205875397,
-0.13298062980175018,
-0.05112280696630478,
-0.4803168773651123,
-0.49073976278305054,
0.5884494781494141,
0.04444095864892006,
0.12333717197179794,
0.7698109149932861,
-0.21775038540363312,
0.08121559768915176,
0.20605427026748657,
-0.4198552072048187,
0.09962201863527298,
0.900034487247467,
0.08509071916341782,
0.6673845052719116,
0.7239227294921875,
0.5139650106430054,
-0.46152937412261963,
0.045814771205186844,
-0.4437399208545685,
0.2709231674671173,
0.15428964793682098,
0.2948860228061676,
0.33108407258987427,
-0.45115265250205994,
-0.47022169828414917,
0.5123493671417236,
0.08002236485481262,
-0.256497859954834,
0.4212505519390106,
-0.6735214591026306,
-0.14242751896381378,
0.7237604260444641,
0.6903892755508423,
0.33308807015419006,
0.21324872970581055,
0.024450697004795074,
-0.02985709346830845,
0.7681543827056885,
-0.2623862624168396,
-0.6595073938369751,
-0.055916398763656616,
0.35405197739601135,
0.4668576717376709,
-0.43160074949264526,
-0.23591022193431854,
-0.820645272731781,
0.0838242694735527,
0.03541380539536476,
0.26566195487976074,
-0.7170624732971191,
-1.045613408088684,
0.009464551694691181,
0.18521763384342194,
0.4899899661540985,
-0.26252877712249756,
-0.3580538034439087,
-0.8333098888397217,
0.025535954162478447,
-0.3923790752887726,
-0.5047335624694824,
-0.09741268306970596,
0.4863617420196533,
0.053342338651418686,
0.21977266669273376,
-0.3579152822494507,
0.21753476560115814,
0.47104933857917786,
0.48889079689979553,
0.3000144064426422,
0.9887734055519104,
-0.06286483258008957,
-0.14807187020778656,
-0.265727162361145,
-0.03827336058020592,
0.4590040147304535,
-0.8500821590423584,
0.1002897173166275,
-0.2466200292110443,
0.36581745743751526,
-0.6782473921775818,
-0.1318630874156952,
-0.4671406149864197,
0.12250490486621857,
-0.46195143461227417,
-0.40386635065078735,
-0.052151311188936234,
-0.24978183209896088,
-0.9805884957313538,
0.4981714189052582,
0.6457459926605225,
0.1550881266593933,
-0.36690354347229004,
0.5002259612083435,
0.3978826701641083,
-0.12466950714588165,
-0.04977377876639366,
-0.040474243462085724,
0.4255085289478302,
-0.13187338411808014,
0.1140395998954773,
-0.3189186155796051,
0.13134416937828064,
0.7723678946495056,
0.2924739122390747,
-0.23087500035762787,
-0.1358768492937088,
0.2017098069190979,
0.33814048767089844,
0.02876312844455242,
-0.1368667632341385,
-0.31713369488716125,
-0.537550151348114,
0.3596206605434418,
-0.058058444410562515,
0.29790064692497253,
-0.09722233563661575,
0.28874608874320984,
-0.13904890418052673,
0.2255234271287918,
-0.5737493634223938,
-0.6558985710144043,
0.35569941997528076,
-0.30510425567626953,
0.29947835206985474,
-0.598101794719696,
-0.19762997329235077,
-0.17051707208156586,
-0.48411816358566284,
0.9038779139518738,
0.13957008719444275,
0.1826428920030594,
-0.5573981404304504,
0.016613587737083435,
0.01713837869465351,
0.2514605224132538,
-0.3265492022037506,
0.024352261796593666,
0.7034533023834229,
-0.03675933554768562,
-0.6691379547119141,
-0.3401961326599121,
0.2576623857021332,
-0.08398225903511047,
-0.015772059559822083,
-0.3087764084339142,
-0.12980806827545166,
-0.1301725208759308,
-0.25841668248176575,
-0.09692781418561935,
-0.5003805756568909,
-0.029151368886232376,
-0.41525885462760925
] |
206153
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uparaja
|
Uparaja
|
Uparaja or Ouparath, also Ouparaja ( - ; - Ouparach; - ; - Oupahat), was a royal title reserved for the viceroy in the Buddhist dynasties in Burma, Cambodia, and Laos and Thailand, as well as some of their minor tributary kingdoms.
Burma
The Great Deputy King, in full Maha Uparaja Anaudrapa Ainshe Min, incorrectly interpreted as Crown Prince by Europeans, and addressed as His Royal Highness, was the single highest rank among the Min-nyi Min-tha, i.e. princes of the royal blood. It is shortened to Einshay Min (, ).
However, the position was not reserved for the highest birth rank (if there is one, Shwe Kodaw-gyi Awratha, i.e. eldest son of the sovereign, by his chief Queen), nor did it carry a plausible promise of succession, which was usually only settled in an ultimate power struggle.
Cambodia
The word Ouparach () is derived from both Sanskrit and Pali languages, literally means Vice King, who obtains the position following the crowned king. The full term of Ouparach in order to provide the proper honor is Samdach Preah Ouparach () or Samdach Preah Moha Ouparach (). According to tradition of Kingdom of Cambodia, Samdach Preah Moha Ouparach positions as the supreme official controlling other high and low officials.
Siam (Thailand)
Uparat (; ), in full Phra Maha Upparat (), as pronounced in historical Siam, translates to viceroy. Front Palace (; ), however, was the more usual designation, often referred to in English as Second King or Vice King.
The office was discontinued in 1876 by Rama V, following the Front Palace Crisis of 1874, in favour of the office of Crown Prince of Siam (; ). Note that those serving vice a king constitute a different office, that of regent or regency council.
See also
Burmese royal titles
Thai royal ranks and titles
Front Palace
Chakri Dynasty
References
Gubernatorial titles
Royal titles
Noble titles
Thai monarchy
Burmese royal titles
|
[
0.10800141841173172,
0.12399566918611526,
-0.6171500086784363,
-0.35259437561035156,
-0.3620627224445343,
0.5522710084915161,
0.6701270937919617,
-0.185703843832016,
-0.532284677028656,
0.15738888084888458,
-0.5552823543548584,
0.045622095465660095,
-0.5120872259140015,
-0.3029974699020386,
-0.2839544713497162,
0.004678209312260151,
0.7737231850624084,
0.487237811088562,
-0.10879964381456375,
-0.3166240453720093,
-0.3320116698741913,
0.12817195057868958,
0.001073417253792286,
0.01065669022500515,
0.7593806385993958,
-0.05970736965537071,
0.13471673429012299,
-0.18606634438037872,
0.0168013758957386,
-0.5583345293998718,
-0.25944626331329346,
0.1328428089618683,
0.15058796107769012,
0.2178957760334015,
-0.35451048612594604,
-0.22390446066856384,
-0.10324276238679886,
-0.2505800426006317,
-0.37209004163742065,
-0.09892996400594711,
-0.14599628746509552,
-0.4074825048446655,
0.24714073538780212,
0.27131393551826477,
-0.5906946063041687,
-0.7055811285972595,
-1.1690949201583862,
0.5529626607894897,
-0.6283143758773804,
0.5469637513160706,
-0.2904042601585388,
0.520894467830658,
-0.2035742551088333,
-0.2311588078737259,
0.45865345001220703,
0.29496538639068604,
-0.2581275701522827,
0.29122239351272583,
-0.10843787342309952,
-0.6459324359893799,
0.383959025144577,
0.031066974624991417,
0.6724706888198853,
0.06402819603681564,
0.05543564632534981,
0.0020804337691515684,
-0.4062102735042572,
-0.2614821493625641,
0.02720274031162262,
-0.002490802202373743,
-0.42176491022109985,
0.14762739837169647,
0.03491471707820892,
0.7009516358375549,
-0.4452638328075409,
-0.6110846400260925,
0.11960802227258682,
-0.31585511565208435,
0.40432417392730713,
-0.4216003715991974,
-0.1732226312160492,
0.0025856532156467438,
0.33256569504737854,
0.3362361788749695,
-0.06488743424415588,
-0.0055896220728755,
-0.33389079570770264,
-0.2853841781616211,
-0.07176918536424637,
-0.24886596202850342,
0.02666928991675377,
0.5283634066581726,
0.5858551263809204,
0.32951781153678894,
-0.6354939341545105,
-0.37511417269706726,
-0.5339178442955017,
-0.5198451280593872,
-0.21334907412528992,
-0.2157401144504547,
-0.36508139967918396,
-0.029165025800466537,
0.24452747404575348,
-0.23199313879013062,
-0.8627697229385376,
-0.10632999241352081,
0.20596922934055328,
0.5848453640937805,
-0.8776554465293884,
0.004901875276118517,
-0.8437814116477966,
0.34722796082496643,
0.1747082620859146,
0.5464948415756226,
0.3785776197910309,
0.28391116857528687,
-0.6540164947509766,
-0.48013055324554443,
-0.4677315354347229,
-0.47054699063301086,
-0.0890347957611084,
0.4584093689918518,
0.6833229064941406,
0.23003964126110077,
0.3527275621891022,
-0.2954905331134796,
0.6035016775131226,
0.2502789795398712,
-0.4904312789440155,
0.3847275972366333,
0.05703044310212135,
0.09892909973859787,
-0.3857995271682739,
0.11228650063276291,
-0.850081205368042,
0.26967835426330566,
0.5178104043006897,
0.4081690013408661,
0.42976027727127075,
0.06872569769620895,
-0.7946173548698425,
0.0793735533952713,
-0.4605903625488281,
-0.07039032876491547,
-0.07437849789857864,
-0.08171120285987854,
0.4179040193557739,
0.052187297493219376,
-0.706318736076355,
-0.4792267680168152,
-0.1525484323501587,
0.0927247703075409,
-0.07925742864608765,
-0.3060555160045624,
0.005908976774662733,
0.4020059406757355,
0.5146123766899109,
0.1017519012093544,
0.40260908007621765,
-0.463157057762146,
-0.3082900047302246,
0.2159072756767273,
-0.3087748885154724,
0.07582024484872818,
0.5146480202674866,
-0.05809921771287918,
-0.32763543725013733,
0.21573173999786377,
-0.3213384747505188,
0.17480343580245972,
-0.29831236600875854,
-0.05725153908133507,
-0.22057506442070007,
-0.11091858893632889,
-0.7309139370918274,
0.3020671308040619,
0.8275083303451538,
-0.09135894477367401,
0.36985817551612854,
-0.14945949614048004,
-0.6964543461799622,
0.5409717559814453,
0.12106504291296005,
0.34868839383125305,
0.12922702729701996,
0.1124061569571495,
0.2030804455280304,
0.22760038077831268,
0.19505269825458527,
-0.4175765812397003,
-0.5805553197860718,
-0.5711248517036438,
-0.16739343106746674,
0.1001197025179863,
0.4699525237083435,
0.47418737411499023,
-0.01732548512518406,
0.5793319940567017,
0.34254440665245056,
0.7200430631637573,
-0.0751575231552124,
0.18147088587284088,
0.10757634788751602,
-0.12654860317707062,
-0.6592143177986145,
0.0975383073091507,
-0.6237302422523499,
0.6136391758918762,
0.7485365271568298,
0.3897968828678131,
0.4102099537849426,
-0.23088198900222778,
-0.13406221568584442,
-0.5209122896194458,
-0.352864146232605,
0.09047283232212067,
-0.6613870859146118,
0.23076049983501434,
-0.30760201811790466,
-0.39641284942626953,
0.5449897050857544,
-0.25427472591400146,
-0.024584829807281494,
0.7282453775405884,
0.15326464176177979,
0.8008758425712585,
-0.1980593204498291,
0.24012134969234467,
-0.15699432790279388,
-0.7761027812957764,
-0.19230568408966064,
-0.5558069944381714,
0.17829211056232452,
0.06931326538324356,
-0.10881250351667404,
0.2606094479560852,
-0.10899150371551514,
-0.36987245082855225,
0.5530310273170471,
-0.39475584030151367,
0.004987047985196114,
-0.048132654279470444,
0.003671766724437475,
0.04326346889138222,
0.45052245259284973,
-0.12071723490953445,
-0.25155267119407654,
-0.23659224808216095,
-0.2499849796295166,
0.5099316835403442,
0.0024230016861110926,
-0.0462615080177784,
0.19538554549217224,
0.12532611191272736,
0.07044880837202072,
-0.1546887904405594,
-0.23833227157592773,
-0.07216561585664749,
0.08582235872745514,
0.037022776901721954,
-0.27786964178085327,
0.43985065817832947,
0.11555501073598862,
0.27551114559173584,
0.270173043012619,
-0.18702496588230133,
0.48240959644317627,
-0.19599564373493195,
0.8905113935470581,
0.422894686460495,
-0.27415549755096436,
-0.34366750717163086,
-0.8446041941642761,
0.06145894154906273,
-0.23588630557060242,
-1.138611078262329,
0.7817810773849487,
0.13317400217056274,
-0.14699147641658783,
-0.6663263440132141,
0.47838497161865234,
0.470131516456604,
-0.10037288814783096,
-0.565802812576294,
0.11913497000932693,
-0.4932721257209778,
-0.533814549446106,
-0.4535835087299347,
0.3015247881412506,
0.3095991909503937,
0.2159472405910492,
0.7995761632919312,
-0.08159895986318588,
-0.07263149321079254,
0.27894020080566406,
0.07874352484941483,
-0.34168556332588196,
0.037700388580560684,
0.24130359292030334,
-0.7361776828765869,
-0.722787618637085,
-0.13684353232383728,
0.19153094291687012,
0.36394065618515015,
0.22316937148571014,
0.4893970489501953,
0.16824783384799957,
0.13537485897541046,
-5.809457302093506,
-0.09923377633094788,
0.19951483607292175,
-0.35599055886268616,
-0.11762988567352295,
0.6818315982818604,
0.3422475755214691,
0.30703940987586975,
0.2528115510940552,
-0.1339593529701233,
0.3713461458683014,
0.01787230186164379,
0.38594016432762146,
0.1794349104166031,
0.0772877186536789,
0.8826236724853516,
-0.1234067976474762,
0.697093665599823,
0.08769325166940689,
0.46076250076293945,
-0.03155479580163956,
-0.28661301732063293,
0.0962124764919281,
0.8604687452316284,
-0.08261188864707947,
-0.10371633619070053,
-0.08801550418138504,
-0.00741151487454772,
-0.7333020567893982,
-0.7264121770858765,
-0.0674346536397934,
0.010639293119311333,
0.7592157125473022,
-0.03377462550997734,
-0.4036557972431183,
-0.3149113655090332,
0.4767267107963562,
0.6165378093719482,
0.3998588025569916,
0.28175342082977295,
-0.40063223242759705,
-0.49038276076316833,
0.13020330667495728,
0.12390409409999847,
-0.1952422857284546,
-0.40866702795028687,
-0.6591563820838928,
0.02402609772980213,
0.07999253273010254,
0.562123715877533,
-0.46671193838119507,
-0.07324002683162689,
0.14902062714099884,
0.052142433822155,
0.04044801741838455,
0.22456130385398865,
0.2127508670091629,
0.8496434688568115,
-0.7169145941734314,
-0.018233753740787506,
0.16982649266719818,
-0.4250241219997406,
-0.1402824968099594,
-0.389902263879776,
0.7537456750869751,
-0.12260688096284866,
-0.4351261854171753,
-0.029981179162859917,
0.3047020435333252,
0.18254941701889038,
-0.168503075838089,
-0.01081319060176611,
-0.2528098523616791,
-0.9025314450263977,
-0.21021969616413116,
-0.5968324542045593,
0.27764636278152466,
0.5968465805053711,
-0.13392522931098938,
0.17580460011959076,
-0.34844666719436646,
0.25620779395103455,
0.47089970111846924,
0.1939111053943634,
0.15862317383289337,
-0.3236269950866699,
0.19826993346214294,
0.14173895120620728,
0.12209486216306686,
0.7770495414733887,
0.7472710609436035,
-0.3438488841056824,
-0.301032692193985,
0.4906303882598877,
0.25247424840927124,
0.04413510859012604,
0.008083637803792953,
-0.01961393654346466,
0.7097979784011841,
-0.24773475527763367,
-0.13692836463451385,
-0.006707930471748114,
-0.19187122583389282,
0.2312716543674469,
-0.2141077220439911,
0.09795016795396805,
-0.45413610339164734,
0.1216113492846489,
0.7720714211463928,
-0.3068627417087555,
0.40259113907814026,
-0.25358670949935913,
0.6750652194023132,
-0.13180512189865112,
0.5622895359992981,
0.3112855553627014,
-0.06566426157951355,
0.33836522698402405,
0.2149493396282196,
0.05170426890254021,
-0.2840070426464081,
0.29120850563049316,
-0.41770684719085693,
0.1281747668981552,
0.15910939872264862,
-0.1279297024011612,
-0.00388595974072814,
0.18059377372264862,
-0.19994337856769562,
-0.13754668831825256,
0.6357275247573853,
-0.33852991461753845,
0.391276478767395,
-0.19134964048862457,
-0.15239301323890686,
-0.37460437417030334,
0.10228915512561798,
-0.15147678554058075,
-0.2762398421764374,
-0.06364522874355316,
-1.0277254581451416,
-0.14076420664787292,
0.05458667501807213,
0.6601372957229614,
0.5039775967597961,
-0.10388031601905823,
-0.38973984122276306,
-0.17585180699825287,
0.1947217881679535,
0.4701709747314453,
-0.3333800435066223,
-0.43626803159713745,
0.7039918303489685,
-0.41075900197029114,
-0.6347689628601074,
-0.5723056793212891,
-0.4165757894515991,
-0.35580459237098694,
0.050536394119262695,
0.21957208216190338,
0.14685854315757751,
-0.9635030031204224,
-0.696546196937561,
-0.5496446490287781,
-0.22909441590309143,
-0.17892581224441528,
-0.23186784982681274,
-0.47077932953834534,
-0.3268757164478302,
0.10522125661373138,
0.7639475464820862,
-0.031651571393013,
-0.22311872243881226,
-0.39386311173439026,
0.3427714407444,
0.4344530403614044,
0.40640974044799805,
0.3267023265361786,
0.12347479909658432,
0.1542489379644394,
-0.2688743770122528,
-0.2563793659210205,
-0.3200069069862366,
0.2759709358215332,
0.07447449117898941,
0.46615099906921387,
-0.5510092377662659,
-0.6845077872276306,
-0.4856048822402954,
0.11939826607704163,
-0.1853315681219101,
-0.07160712778568268,
-0.03006201609969139,
0.14197373390197754,
-0.6436569690704346,
-0.12990979850292206,
-0.2753593921661377,
0.07454250007867813,
0.09774627536535263,
-0.2816431522369385,
0.018313027918338776,
-0.15615183115005493,
-0.198154017329216,
-0.11045340448617935,
-0.14515753090381622,
-0.5538731217384338,
0.6700707077980042,
0.2109977751970291,
-0.12131315469741821,
0.2218758463859558,
-0.550159215927124,
-0.26704907417297363,
0.2318611443042755,
0.5849338173866272,
0.04487157613039017,
0.16651436686515808,
-0.2707943022251129,
-0.19214312732219696,
0.005104143172502518,
-1.4095555543899536,
0.25648584961891174,
-0.21645531058311462,
-0.14019198715686798,
0.03060547076165676,
-0.3002677261829376,
0.021235954016447067,
0.1603865921497345,
-0.6981943249702454,
0.5583140254020691,
-0.22664211690425873,
0.1953059434890747,
0.4598543643951416,
-0.4055694043636322,
-0.3400506377220154,
-0.16064304113388062,
-0.5206940770149231,
0.22240528464317322,
-0.021647296845912933,
0.2819124162197113,
0.4293718636035919,
-0.1334109604358673,
1.0196220874786377,
-0.1967923641204834,
-0.14205840229988098,
-0.006995732430368662,
0.09655527025461197,
-0.5045324563980103,
-0.5878508687019348,
0.09899571537971497,
0.2757889926433563,
0.9060330390930176,
0.12817005813121796,
-0.3225569725036621,
-0.36574119329452515,
1.0795527696609497,
-0.3620544672012329,
0.33768102526664734,
-0.022513605654239655,
0.09478572010993958,
0.25806593894958496,
-0.0988931804895401,
0.051299698650836945,
0.6529121994972229,
-0.2900426685810089,
-0.13483242690563202,
-0.18149085342884064,
-0.3641268312931061,
0.3223080635070801,
0.37536290287971497,
-1.041441559791565,
0.20056888461112976,
-0.3840879499912262,
0.1725253313779831,
-0.1427491158246994,
0.21896307170391083,
-0.10187146812677383,
-0.3060998022556305,
-0.17870396375656128,
0.7603732943534851,
0.11413008719682693,
-0.3766452968120575,
-0.38958823680877686,
-0.06876565515995026,
0.21947899460792542,
0.04806249216198921,
-0.9290280938148499,
0.685810923576355,
0.4421454966068268,
-0.24292615056037903,
-0.1664835661649704,
-0.6831701397895813,
0.46477100253105164,
0.13849037885665894,
0.6818169951438904,
-0.4098461866378784,
0.13884082436561584,
0.39115431904792786,
0.42585229873657227,
-0.12042642384767532,
0.05506370589137077,
-0.5926367044448853,
-0.3417041301727295,
0.6041300296783447,
0.34223803877830505,
-0.6646129488945007,
0.47915300726890564,
0.2586325407028198,
-0.6137629747390747,
-0.4758288860321045,
-0.03494717925786972,
0.09514942020177841,
0.19114626944065094,
0.8061934113502502,
-0.1752031445503235,
-0.323538213968277,
-0.02619020827114582,
0.24148151278495789,
0.01325862668454647,
0.0262614693492651,
0.13051584362983704,
0.2355651706457138,
-0.35322874784469604,
-0.14449670910835266,
0.24402134120464325,
0.5818416476249695,
-0.31479719281196594,
-0.38771989941596985,
-0.23328368365764618,
-0.015018577687442303,
0.41617125272750854,
0.4526810348033905,
0.2137242704629898,
-0.382341593503952,
0.2768271267414093,
0.1691056489944458,
-0.6557623147964478,
0.10842322558164597,
-0.6632599830627441,
0.16654737293720245,
0.33953627943992615,
0.3822190761566162,
0.6676170825958252,
0.35937801003456116,
0.36317893862724304,
0.3378322422504425,
0.5071909427642822,
0.2129310518503189,
0.06983903795480728,
-0.44589415192604065,
0.47724857926368713,
-0.21711105108261108,
0.12031742930412292,
0.37128710746765137,
-0.4418931305408478,
0.28460609912872314,
0.5841612815856934,
0.4747436046600342,
0.4333067238330841,
0.5070953369140625,
-0.3594660460948944,
-0.5871595144271851,
0.1449124962091446,
-0.26435306668281555,
0.37237775325775146,
-0.05018613487482071,
-0.0831216424703598,
-0.35697421431541443,
-0.23422552645206451,
-0.10299897938966751,
0.07495076954364777,
0.12352084368467331,
0.22821786999702454,
-0.283274382352829,
0.17032010853290558,
0.24258528649806976,
0.0876886174082756,
0.4930223524570465,
0.08248864859342575,
0.38792675733566284,
-0.05428798496723175,
-0.31511643528938293,
-0.3642844259738922,
0.5638238787651062,
-1.2202088832855225,
-0.04860632121562958,
0.633282482624054,
-0.4066293239593506,
0.10282301902770996,
-0.4481523334980011,
0.4091564118862152,
-0.24865663051605225,
0.2026856392621994,
-0.01972254551947117,
0.519887387752533,
-0.0538199245929718,
0.21693895757198334,
-0.5184402465820312,
0.5305149555206299,
0.6068341135978699,
-0.33434462547302246,
0.3158697485923767,
0.06247410178184509,
-0.01636781357228756,
-0.01799406297504902,
0.09994637966156006,
-0.031233375892043114,
-0.13510149717330933,
-0.9172086715698242,
-0.4939047694206238,
-0.2605765759944916,
-0.0017331679118797183,
-0.08059440553188324,
0.284249484539032,
0.5717076659202576,
-0.20387528836727142,
0.2883487641811371,
0.36236122250556946,
-0.3770824372768402,
0.29849478602409363,
-0.4774949252605438,
0.16609883308410645,
-0.07273140549659729,
-0.09726099669933319,
0.2983512878417969,
-0.042585231363773346,
0.018804868683218956,
0.49054038524627686,
0.7804004549980164,
-0.5390718579292297,
0.7833155989646912,
-0.22337588667869568,
-0.21031413972377777,
-0.8652117252349854,
-0.034907400608062744,
0.16773755848407745,
-0.07077363133430481,
0.5060980916023254,
0.4183921217918396,
0.05264252424240112,
-0.7419153451919556,
-0.5050076246261597,
0.4133225083351135,
0.5545738935470581,
0.04995166137814522,
0.11236705631017685,
0.2524012327194214,
-0.15024223923683167,
-0.1308504045009613,
-0.9054471850395203,
0.543643057346344,
-0.07866410911083221,
-0.1343795657157898,
0.6787756085395813,
-0.25905662775039673,
0.07564253360033035,
0.09022809565067291,
0.2525671422481537,
0.44525399804115295,
-0.016089992597699165,
-0.04916601628065109
] |
206156
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three%20Princes%20of%20the%20Kingdom%20of%20Laos
|
Three Princes of the Kingdom of Laos
|
The Three Princes was a name given to Princes Boun Oum, Souvanna Phouma and Souphanouvong who represented respectively the royalist, neutralist and communist factions in the Kingdom of Laos in the post-WWII period. The trio were named by King Sisavang Vatthana to form a coalition government following the independence of Laos.
Background and Representatives
The Three Princes represented three different political views held during the Laotian Civil War. The Laotian Civil War (1959–75) was fought between the Communist Pathet Lao (including many North Vietnamese of Lao ancestry) and the Royal Lao Government, with both sides receiving heavy external support in a proxy war between the global Cold War superpowers. It is called the Secret War among the CIA Special Activities Division and Hmong veterans of the conflict.
Prince Boun Oum Na Champasak
Prince Boun Oum (also Prince Boun Oum Na Champassak (December 12, 1911 – March 17, 1980) was the son of King Ratsadanay, and was the hereditary prince of Champassak and also Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos from 1948–1950 and again in 1960–1962. The right-wing Prince, cousin to the other two princes, overthrew the Phouma Government in 1960 which was supported by Lao leaders Phoui Sananikone and General Phoumi Nosavan, and the Hmong leader General Vang Pao.
Prince Souvanna Phouma
Prince Souvanna Phouma (7 October 1901 – 10 January 1984) was the leader of the neutralist faction and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos several times (1951–1954, 1956–1958, 1960, and 1962–1975). The Prince was supported by Kong Le and the Royal Lao Government.
Prince Souphanouvong
Prince Souphanouvong (13 July 1909 – 9 January 1995) unlike his half-brothers, Souvanna Phouma and Phetsarath Ratanavongsa, whose mothers were of royal birth, his mother was a commoner, Mom Kham Ouane. He was the figurehead President of Laos from December 1975 to August 1991. A staunch communist and the leader of the Pathet Lao, was supported by Kaysone Phomvihane (later Prime Minister and President of the LPDR) and the North Vietnamese. By 1972, the Pathet Lao found it unacceptable to form a coalition with rightist members, mostly military generals and the rich and powerful Na Champassak and Sananikone families.
Supporters of the Princes
References
Trios
Laotian princes
|
[
0.022483672946691513,
0.4256838262081146,
-0.2850579619407654,
-0.2267080694437027,
-0.7149927616119385,
0.2940846085548401,
0.473578542470932,
-0.3959839344024658,
-0.7429792284965515,
-0.03206312656402588,
-0.1121516153216362,
0.35882794857025146,
-0.7312631607055664,
0.09559142589569092,
-0.22627809643745422,
0.22546429932117462,
0.7324701547622681,
0.5141059160232544,
0.09882281720638275,
-0.8550857305526733,
-0.3169212341308594,
0.1227613091468811,
0.4190583825111389,
-0.46997445821762085,
0.4380241930484772,
0.2564963400363922,
0.39754781126976013,
0.1509593427181244,
1.0510516166687012,
0.14372289180755615,
0.2544442415237427,
0.8757396936416626,
0.08606116473674774,
-0.2632055878639221,
-0.44933781027793884,
0.031094690784811974,
0.6809013485908508,
0.15794336795806885,
-0.05353717878460884,
-0.25872117280960083,
0.14513517916202545,
-0.3578451871871948,
-0.2682744860649109,
0.15381859242916107,
0.2114650309085846,
-0.9117909669876099,
-0.6789025664329529,
0.4836854636669159,
-0.5391495227813721,
0.17285503447055817,
-0.6216781139373779,
-0.16900067031383514,
-0.24168869853019714,
0.4528980851173401,
0.40628960728645325,
0.1966901421546936,
-1.1386024951934814,
0.10217449814081192,
-0.39343470335006714,
-0.22748957574367523,
0.0002791444130707532,
0.22029447555541992,
0.12394062429666519,
-0.056320253759622574,
-0.30087608098983765,
0.032802145928144455,
-0.35910630226135254,
0.40740540623664856,
-0.1515793651342392,
-0.09293603152036667,
0.4229127764701843,
0.7035456299781799,
0.4060985743999481,
0.6618360280990601,
0.26214033365249634,
-0.26209577918052673,
0.15851521492004395,
-0.2956884205341339,
0.6074104905128479,
-0.1841983199119568,
0.10989610105752945,
0.1447817087173462,
0.5291869044303894,
0.8266465663909912,
-0.06427610665559769,
0.3632384240627289,
0.17996783554553986,
-0.037867285311222076,
-0.2373500019311905,
-0.015733765438199043,
-0.46067145466804504,
-0.22090119123458862,
0.42302003502845764,
0.17178286612033844,
-0.6302894949913025,
-0.2845267057418823,
-0.1440339833498001,
0.371319442987442,
0.37557703256607056,
0.4701100289821625,
0.37093228101730347,
0.27482351660728455,
0.33281204104423523,
-0.5871158838272095,
-1.522642970085144,
-0.3698241412639618,
-0.5164211392402649,
-0.32833346724510193,
-0.9323242902755737,
-0.5866557955741882,
-0.9578713178634644,
0.4020499289035797,
0.1582295149564743,
0.35037723183631897,
-0.03646247833967209,
0.55948406457901,
-0.05737605318427086,
-0.4644564986228943,
0.10584229975938797,
-0.10896585136651993,
0.6411057710647583,
0.6982858777046204,
-0.3624366819858551,
0.9873050451278687,
0.4398239254951477,
-0.33280816674232483,
0.08158207684755325,
-0.017326537519693375,
-0.3819837272167206,
0.4862997531890869,
0.25000759959220886,
0.6468908190727234,
-0.3588407039642334,
0.16120664775371552,
-0.35644102096557617,
-0.7684573531150818,
0.7071724534034729,
0.8222588300704956,
0.16067759692668915,
0.07235421240329742,
-1.3114184141159058,
-0.12335296720266342,
-0.3115043044090271,
0.17791973054409027,
0.0796426311135292,
-0.19747120141983032,
-0.18972620368003845,
0.24005921185016632,
-0.4088113307952881,
-0.3400539457798004,
-0.31568849086761475,
-0.6579217314720154,
0.39033305644989014,
-0.08480618894100189,
-0.4844760000705719,
0.496669739484787,
0.45705586671829224,
0.40975528955459595,
0.42941057682037354,
0.12718862295150757,
0.1648493856191635,
0.22746512293815613,
0.21394357085227966,
0.5073559284210205,
0.44901973009109497,
0.09072288125753403,
-0.3987484574317932,
0.40245968103408813,
-0.6562764048576355,
0.3499950170516968,
-0.25933438539505005,
0.27757877111434937,
-0.266194611787796,
-0.442942351102829,
0.0316091813147068,
0.03672134503722191,
0.4480811059474945,
-0.015660563483834267,
-0.14783217012882233,
-0.3360990583896637,
-0.6346046924591064,
0.15292634069919586,
0.14774635434150696,
-0.3021126985549927,
0.7067415118217468,
0.41309890151023865,
0.6480268836021423,
-0.04328116402029991,
0.0006782138952985406,
-0.25540223717689514,
-0.6681212186813354,
-0.44639503955841064,
0.40557757019996643,
-0.42270535230636597,
0.3313336968421936,
0.3157041370868683,
0.3887998163700104,
0.5963714122772217,
-0.049357831478118896,
0.6351935863494873,
0.12050468474626541,
-0.45102566480636597,
0.982160747051239,
0.19857637584209442,
-1.0176658630371094,
0.5279513597488403,
-0.42701882123947144,
0.4746053218841553,
0.7538606524467468,
0.7930616736412048,
0.4801557958126068,
0.08394475281238556,
-0.8175244927406311,
0.38914403319358826,
0.20508375763893127,
-0.575743556022644,
-0.598986804485321,
0.4088163375854492,
-0.10257633030414581,
0.1086849644780159,
0.33448541164398193,
-0.5185160636901855,
-0.35375916957855225,
0.6172722578048706,
0.04510825499892235,
0.9013364911079407,
0.21068549156188965,
-0.49744319915771484,
-0.19876952469348907,
-0.12752167880535126,
-0.11792123317718506,
-0.18790538609027863,
0.7454977631568909,
-0.2961806654930115,
-0.009338410571217537,
-0.18892742693424225,
-0.17908038198947906,
-0.1159546971321106,
0.10937545448541641,
-0.6556798219680786,
0.3328547775745392,
0.031114229932427406,
-0.3124425709247589,
0.012341229245066643,
-0.1680486500263214,
0.6401069164276123,
-0.5145926475524902,
-0.17377029359340668,
-0.29984721541404724,
-0.3229701519012451,
-0.04180531948804855,
0.2622740864753723,
0.45319199562072754,
-0.37343090772628784,
0.500366747379303,
0.02546985074877739,
-0.2930118441581726,
0.09626611322164536,
0.03450722619891167,
-0.36393383145332336,
-0.43289709091186523,
-0.11174686998128891,
0.3793170750141144,
-0.02063785307109356,
0.16823546588420868,
-0.29447996616363525,
-0.3152540922164917,
-0.3836323618888855,
0.7894161343574524,
0.2906070649623871,
0.2851637303829193,
-0.3258356750011444,
-0.7304955720901489,
-0.6029601097106934,
-0.32453352212905884,
-0.7954736948013306,
-0.4660482406616211,
0.38007041811943054,
-0.8926516175270081,
-1.0627069473266602,
0.7115336656570435,
0.6780073642730713,
-0.1476415991783142,
-0.7208074331283569,
-0.2956483066082001,
-0.10728837549686432,
0.07143399119377136,
-0.21572832763195038,
0.4765528440475464,
0.2346104383468628,
0.17021825909614563,
-0.05800355225801468,
-0.7038553953170776,
-0.5123039484024048,
-0.0003621704818215221,
-0.043480284512043,
-0.4095226526260376,
0.2548981010913849,
0.7788813710212708,
-0.05042441561818123,
-0.10993041098117828,
0.1156528890132904,
-0.11071687936782837,
0.22982797026634216,
0.7810479998588562,
-0.09479106962680817,
0.12063335627317429,
0.48263898491859436,
-5.2310895919799805,
-0.41766682267189026,
0.09685209393501282,
-0.046879928559064865,
0.5413556098937988,
0.2910672128200531,
0.7148536443710327,
-0.546500027179718,
0.1597733348608017,
-0.41771435737609863,
-0.010148235596716404,
-0.4833357334136963,
0.21643365919589996,
0.11114836484193802,
0.4873114228248596,
0.3624170124530792,
0.020284263417124748,
-0.16724680364131927,
0.6367367506027222,
0.519903838634491,
0.43619397282600403,
-0.16654875874519348,
-0.1409991830587387,
0.20294857025146484,
0.33899468183517456,
0.4766201376914978,
-0.204378142952919,
-0.6667038202285767,
-0.8996665477752686,
-0.3886859118938446,
-0.5687419772148132,
0.3897034525871277,
0.7661977410316467,
-0.62408447265625,
-0.22673450410366058,
-0.8331770896911621,
0.30670908093452454,
0.33079877495765686,
-0.10755880922079086,
-0.09173259139060974,
-0.20967279374599457,
-0.6804682016372681,
-0.1506546288728714,
0.1874094307422638,
-0.15075139701366425,
-0.2621195912361145,
-0.6779142618179321,
-0.22333021461963654,
-0.0630028173327446,
1.0275737047195435,
-0.08016767352819443,
0.06778377294540405,
0.5491276383399963,
-0.024258645251393318,
-0.02660444751381874,
0.45106279850006104,
-0.41445377469062805,
0.23852090537548065,
-0.9430345892906189,
0.738801121711731,
0.5716420412063599,
-0.10163860768079758,
-0.1885787397623062,
-0.20169872045516968,
0.3642880916595459,
-0.7215301394462585,
0.001078551053069532,
0.14087499678134918,
-0.09124506264925003,
0.3638157546520233,
-0.4432935118675232,
0.6457827091217041,
-0.7022790908813477,
-1.0152747631072998,
0.4722592532634735,
0.17215245962142944,
-0.38041242957115173,
0.1521422266960144,
0.41062188148498535,
0.05584561452269554,
-0.3313445746898651,
0.00022881738550495356,
-0.007006754167377949,
0.8174620866775513,
0.3188737630844116,
-0.3427746295928955,
-0.027910945937037468,
0.29978904128074646,
0.06381714344024658,
1.047362208366394,
0.25895461440086365,
-0.9977259635925293,
0.4935612976551056,
0.5982422828674316,
0.23138457536697388,
0.3034707009792328,
0.27385416626930237,
0.12063316255807877,
0.846130907535553,
0.03161239251494408,
-0.005804813466966152,
-0.22252792119979858,
0.36005309224128723,
-0.15210700035095215,
-0.5646612644195557,
-0.25657206773757935,
0.2580922245979309,
0.21912160515785217,
0.08363737165927887,
0.12090753763914108,
0.15761831402778625,
-0.21390347182750702,
0.10893011838197708,
-0.08742473274469376,
0.5386202931404114,
-0.6552624106407166,
0.08148955553770065,
0.4511125385761261,
0.3852510452270508,
-0.01579385995864868,
-0.4009762406349182,
1.1249983310699463,
0.23008447885513306,
0.42559897899627686,
0.24064132571220398,
-0.2954978346824646,
-0.39191728830337524,
0.09953954815864563,
-0.0168178528547287,
0.13563770055770874,
0.16395516693592072,
-0.870577871799469,
0.15500064194202423,
-0.8396220207214355,
0.0703166201710701,
-1.0811949968338013,
-0.46660083532333374,
-0.5388193130493164,
-0.3044416606426239,
-0.571574330329895,
-0.25192317366600037,
-0.20214708149433136,
-0.5684353113174438,
0.5075141787528992,
-0.11113308370113373,
-0.0625806599855423,
0.479433536529541,
-0.08472169190645218,
0.0335383303463459,
0.5654197931289673,
-0.18440969288349152,
-0.1488623470067978,
1.3087470531463623,
-0.8182563185691833,
-0.38398391008377075,
-0.1565699279308319,
-0.0053253076039254665,
0.40100768208503723,
-0.024292483925819397,
0.1179860532283783,
0.038678158074617386,
-0.3874412178993225,
-1.057472825050354,
0.061897557228803635,
0.1879836618900299,
0.02074470929801464,
0.5205681920051575,
0.009148620069026947,
-0.4455106258392334,
0.5788235664367676,
0.6698751449584961,
-0.600263237953186,
-0.2844441831111908,
0.15739880502223969,
0.3099580407142639,
-0.2847030758857727,
-0.01462414301931858,
-0.10627133399248123,
-0.26866215467453003,
-0.5218812227249146,
-0.4185386598110199,
0.38914456963539124,
-0.44262218475341797,
0.2808215022087097,
0.7376794815063477,
0.22647659480571747,
-0.25864818692207336,
-0.8613118529319763,
-0.7036788463592529,
0.22226294875144958,
-0.03501458838582039,
0.6174784302711487,
-0.05348484590649605,
-0.08355497568845749,
-1.109862208366394,
-0.5801196694374084,
-0.8188527822494507,
0.5483696460723877,
0.561165988445282,
-0.19516968727111816,
0.11772138625383377,
0.41684865951538086,
0.7841852903366089,
-0.14088934659957886,
0.37799373269081116,
-0.6955805420875549,
0.6663413643836975,
-0.08451550453901291,
0.22940166294574738,
0.16979940235614777,
0.05556368827819824,
-1.1029101610183716,
-0.07834386080503464,
0.48828333616256714,
-0.1234450489282608,
-0.03777458891272545,
0.3418683409690857,
-0.37952718138694763,
-0.3530847728252411,
-1.2592233419418335,
0.11610157787799835,
-0.7020097374916077,
-0.6402664184570312,
0.04949177801609039,
-0.4957737326622009,
0.37509387731552124,
0.4749722480773926,
-0.6893269419670105,
0.9459406733512878,
-0.512338399887085,
-0.49572452902793884,
0.7466781139373779,
0.4053243398666382,
0.28179922699928284,
-0.8566655516624451,
0.5074343085289001,
0.7805569767951965,
0.08101073652505875,
0.2284526377916336,
0.29979798197746277,
-0.027122972533106804,
1.346474051475525,
-0.1986251324415207,
-0.9019493460655212,
0.03561241924762726,
0.018159369006752968,
0.2490820437669754,
-0.6786721348762512,
0.14547517895698547,
-0.21760505437850952,
0.1463986337184906,
0.20371626317501068,
-0.48907580971717834,
-0.9277675747871399,
0.8961483240127563,
-0.3489309549331665,
-0.5512034893035889,
0.1689172238111496,
0.3273771405220032,
-0.019619252532720566,
-0.4806672930717468,
-0.10511945933103561,
-0.23648016154766083,
-0.45655694603919983,
0.7012562155723572,
-0.04167938977479935,
-0.009862946346402168,
0.10868954658508301,
0.2367996722459793,
-0.1885518729686737,
-0.46183058619499207,
-0.9071380496025085,
-0.08917319029569626,
0.27905184030532837,
-0.16102175414562225,
0.054302964359521866,
-0.025937138125300407,
-0.22168052196502686,
0.40345847606658936,
-0.3727758228778839,
-0.9192801117897034,
-0.328355610370636,
-0.06609310209751129,
0.4824650287628174,
0.256000280380249,
-1.018808364868164,
-0.1462317854166031,
0.008619301952421665,
-0.5797283053398132,
0.3028195798397064,
-0.51568603515625,
0.056398387998342514,
-0.15653982758522034,
0.10789996385574341,
0.08739344775676727,
0.45788949728012085,
0.0609089694917202,
0.5243921279907227,
-0.16730591654777527,
0.21440401673316956,
-0.09319206327199936,
-0.3026978075504303,
0.45486029982566833,
-0.3144300580024719,
-0.19507713615894318,
-0.0410308763384819,
0.05097472667694092,
-0.9545094966888428,
-0.041553743183612823,
0.9084007740020752,
0.30908697843551636,
0.3692949414253235,
0.16057012975215912,
-0.2737772762775421,
-0.5486065745353699,
0.4578617513179779,
0.3977963924407959,
-1.1719672679901123,
-0.1424308866262436,
0.22762086987495422,
0.4655345380306244,
0.33265936374664307,
0.0037329518236219883,
0.6140281558036804,
-0.17078888416290283,
0.810102641582489,
-0.48265013098716736,
-0.6044460535049438,
0.6079156994819641,
-0.19578057527542114,
-0.04958832263946533,
0.7326676845550537,
-0.6834911108016968,
0.4764431416988373,
-0.4591709077358246,
-0.4071122109889984,
0.12172815203666687,
-0.43850260972976685,
0.5386428236961365,
0.849785566329956,
0.4249489903450012,
0.6999198198318481,
-0.21075335144996643,
-0.3979288935661316,
0.19222517311573029,
0.5984150767326355,
-0.1526637077331543,
0.09752421826124191,
0.4827755093574524,
0.47867321968078613,
0.5627797842025757,
0.4731471538543701,
-0.07010848075151443,
-0.14372947812080383,
0.311512291431427,
0.7240408658981323,
-0.6584234833717346,
-0.16586922109127045,
0.16204425692558289,
-0.10482017695903778,
0.012515240348875523,
-0.14828789234161377,
-0.284940242767334,
0.4193693697452545,
0.5935154557228088,
0.2990388572216034,
0.09040936082601547,
-0.09368583559989929,
-0.12208239734172821,
-0.14589844644069672,
0.32050666213035583,
0.041586291044950485,
-0.4485352337360382,
0.05328542739152908,
-0.6046447157859802,
-0.1692734658718109,
0.2823180854320526,
-0.41241613030433655,
-0.285030335187912,
-0.6223971843719482,
-0.20165376365184784,
-0.20308031141757965,
-0.06527506560087204,
-0.2625192105770111,
-0.32261189818382263,
0.25177308917045593,
0.6416560411453247,
-0.059526458382606506,
0.2359488159418106,
0.08745568245649338,
0.1219177395105362,
-0.15213587880134583,
-0.056889910250902176,
0.002413187175989151,
-0.0626801997423172,
0.5337932109832764,
-0.029510125517845154,
0.739387571811676,
0.25990763306617737,
-0.0861581414937973,
0.35689714550971985,
0.1558380275964737,
-0.12174675613641739,
-0.09823261201381683,
0.11970014125108719,
0.14360953867435455,
-0.3175122141838074,
-0.38818198442459106,
-0.724118709564209,
0.8202838897705078,
-0.19890663027763367,
-0.37914806604385376,
0.22597870230674744,
0.3461962044239044,
-0.24331213533878326,
-0.30647027492523193,
0.14526326954364777,
-0.7117184996604919,
-0.11721371114253998,
-0.18596898019313812,
-0.40183281898498535,
-0.11233378201723099,
0.14585818350315094,
0.2750280797481537,
-0.6007665395736694,
-0.5833422541618347,
-0.020252540707588196,
0.6220415234565735,
-0.5466333031654358,
0.5257312059402466,
-0.03714865818619728,
-0.21187752485275269,
-0.4664207100868225,
-0.7117242813110352,
-0.6286290287971497,
-0.1790374368429184,
0.3125053346157074,
0.44823887944221497,
-0.3974910378456116,
-0.23844261467456818,
-0.3050805926322937,
-0.2270764410495758,
0.7248072624206543,
0.7835486531257629,
0.034531742334365845,
-0.18105150759220123,
0.26149141788482666,
0.1297149509191513,
-0.6029917597770691,
0.24886377155780792,
-0.03799872100353241,
0.3490859270095825,
0.22989241778850555,
-0.3188197612762451,
-0.08605602383613586,
0.14226648211479187,
0.18936659395694733,
0.25828367471694946,
0.6728651523590088,
0.05462532117962837
] |
206159
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Union
|
French Union
|
The French Union () was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial empire system, colloquially known as the "French Empire" (). It was the formal end of the "indigenous" () status of French subjects in colonial areas.
Composition
The French Union had five components:
Metropolitan France, which included French Algeria.
'Old' colonies, notably those of the French West Indies in the Caribbean that became overseas departments in 1946: Guadeloupe, French Guiana, Martinique, Réunion.
'New' colonies, renamed overseas territories: Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Guinea, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, French Sudan, Upper Volta, Congo, Gabon, Ubangi-Shari, Chad, Comoros, French India, Madagascar, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, French Somaliland.
Associated states: Protectorates of French Indochina. It had been expected that other protectorates would become part of the French Union, but the rulers of French Morocco and French Tunisia refused to become members and never belonged.
United Nations Trust Territories, such as French Cameroons and French Togoland, successors of the League of Nations mandates.
History
The French Union was established by the French constitution of 27 October 1946 (Fourth Republic). Under it, it was said that there were no French colonies, but that metropolitan France, the overseas departments, and the overseas territories combined to create a single French Union, or just one France.
The goal of this union was "assimilation of the overseas territories into a greater France, inhabited by French citizens, and blessed by French culture". Whereas the British colonial system had local colonial governments which would eventually evolve into separate national governments; France wanted to create a single government under a single French state.
This French Union had a President, a High Council and an Assembly. The President was the President of the Republic. The Assembly of the Union had membership from the Council of the Republic, from the National Assembly and from regional assemblies of the overseas territories and departments but ultimately had no power. The High Council ultimately met only three times, first in 1951. The Assembly was the only actually functioning institution that could manage legislation within the overseas territories.
In reality, the colonial areas had representation but all power remained in the French Parliament and thus was centralized. The colonies had local assemblies but these had only limited local power. Instead, various natives of the overseas territories in metropolitan France grew into a group of elites, known as .
On 31 January 1956, in response to the Algerian War, the system changed, abandoning assimilation in favor of autonomy, allowing territories to develop their own local government and to eventually gain their independence. This would not succeed however and in 1958 the French Union was replaced by the French Community by Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic wherein France was now a federation of states with their own self-government.
Contemporary views on the French Union
The limited democratic reforms and increased investment in the French colonies brought about by the formation of the French Union did receive some support from African leaders at the time. For instance, Félix Houphouet-Boigny, at the time a member of the French National Assembly, was very supportive of France’s investment in Cote d’Ivoire through the Central Fund for France Overseas, which disbursed over 600Bn Francs to French colonies. He was also supportive of the greater democratic freedoms that were granted to Africans within the Union, such as new elected territorial assemblies.
Leopold Senghor was similarly supportive of the French Union, and after visiting Cote d’Ivoire in 1952, believed that cooperation between France and its colony was mutually beneficial and that such French assistance should be “extended…to all the territories of the Federation”.
Yet more support for the French Union came from French Togoland, now Togo, where in June 1955 the locally elected Territorial Assembly voted unanimously on a motion to remain within France’s sphere of influence.
On the other hand, there did exist popular resistance to the French Union. According to Louisa Rice, the increase in the number of African students being educated in France following the Union’s formation resulted in a realisation among them of the contradiction between the colonial narrative of equality and reality, thus heightening resistance to its supposedly egalitarian institutions. A concrete example of this resistance occurred on Bastille Day 1952, when a group of West African students returning home by ship were excluded from celebrations due to them travelling in third class. The students argued that they were discriminated against because of their race, yet the ship’s captain viewed these allegations with surprise, thinking that their exclusion was merely due to the ship’s “interior order which had nothing to do with racist theories”. This example is a microcosm of differing contemporary opinions of the French Union. On the one hand there is a view that all citizens of the Union, be they French or African, are equal and are treated as such. On the other, that it was institutionally exclusionary towards Africans, and that despite ostensible changes, the French Union was merely a continuation of colonialism under a new guise.
Furthermore, there was a view among French officials that the French Union constituted an important part of a wider European economic and political project, that is, the European Economic Community. Indeed, according to Peo Hansen and Stefan Jonsson, at the genesis of the EEC, the integration of Africa into the economic bloc was an important strategic goal for its architects and supporters.
One of these supporters, French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau, said in 1957 that the continued development of Africa by Europe would turn the continent into “an essential factor in world politics”, and the alleviation of poverty would help to ward off communist influence. Here we can see that the French Union was viewed by the French government as a useful tool to both consolidate European economic integration and fight the Cold War.
The model of the EEC was also used by African leaders to justify their countries’ continued membership of the French Union. For instance, Houphouet-Boigny wrote in 1957 that by “relinquish[ing] a part of their sovereignty”, European countries would bring about “a more fully elaborated form of civilization which is more advantageous for their peoples” that goes beyond backward nationalism. Senghor echoes this view, arguing that “it would be pointless to cultivate particularism in Africa”, and that instead there should be a goal to remove borders entirely, forming a large economic/political bloc. Here we can see a view that greater integration into economic and political blocs, such as the French Union and the EEC, was viewed by both French officials and African leaders as progressive, forward thinking, and within their interests to do so.
Withdrawals from the French Union
Cambodia withdrew on 25 September 1955.
South Vietnam withdrew on 9 December 1955.
Laos withdrew on 11 May 1957 by amending its constitution.
Youth Council
The Youth Council of the French Union (, abbreviated CJUF) was a coordinating body of youth organizations in the French Union. CJUF was founded in 1950. The organization had its headquarters in Paris and held annual congresses.
Aftermath of the French Union and the French Community
In 1958, the French Fourth Republic was replaced by a new Fifth Republic, characterised by a stronger presidential system, led by President Charles De Gaulle. A constitutional referendum was held on 28 September 1958 , in order to replace the French Union, as part of a wider referendum across the French Union (and France itself) on whether to adopt the new French Constitution; if accepted, colonies would become part of the new French Community; if rejected, the territory would be granted independence.
All major political parties in each respective country apart from two in Guinea and Niger, supported a yes vote in the 1958 constitutional referendum, seeking a looser form of autonomy rather than the system of close relations dominated by French influence, the leading political activists in guinea were opposed to the new French community, instead preferring immediate and complete independence from Metropolitan France.
The referendum proposal was overwhelmingly approved by upward of 90% of the population in each respective territory. Even in Niger where the main organised political force opposed the replacing of the French union with a community, the new constitution was supported by a clear majority. However, the results in Guinea showed that more than 95% of voters voted against the constitution, with a turnout of 85.5%.
In response to the result in Guinea, French officials destroyed furniture, lightbulbs and windows. Any crockery, medical equipment or documents that could not be carried were also destroyed and over 3000 French civil servants and army health officials left the country. This only reinforced anti colonial sentiment inside of Guinea, and Toure would continue to urge other African nations to declare independence.
The former west and central African colonies after the passage of the referendum formed a transitionary organisation in 1959 called the Union of Central African Republics, replacing the bloc of French Equatorial Africa that existed as a subsection of the French Union and became part of the new French Community.
Within metropolitan France itself, most political parties supported the proposed changes to the constitution, most significantly those of ascendant Charles De Gaulle as well as the majority of the SFIO. Notable opposing forces were the French Communist Party as well as a smaller section of socialists that included the future President of France, Francois Mitterrand. Opposition to the changes were split between those who wanted complete independence for the African former colonies, mainly those on the French left and then those who opposed any change to the existing system of the French union at all, mostly positioned on the right.
De Gaulle successfully argued that his position on creating a French community as opposed to the Continuance of the French Union, as a sensible and moderate compromise. However, the new French community did not last long, with most African states leaving the organisation by 1962, preferring complete independence. The French community was finally abolished in the 1990s. its replacement the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie is based on promotion of the French language.
See also
CEFEO
Decolonization
First Indochina War
Françafrique
French colonial empire
French Community
References
Further reading
Cooper, Frederick. "French Africa, 1947–48: Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation." Critical Inquiry (2014) 40#4 pp: 466–478. in JSTOR
Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford University Press, 2004).
Smith, Tony. "A comparative study of French and British decolonization." Comparative Studies in Society and History (1978) 20#1 pp: 70-102. online
Smith, Tony. "The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946–58." Journal of Contemporary History (1974): 217–247. in JSTOR
Constitution of the French Fourth Republic. https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1946
French colonial empire
Overseas France
Defunct organizations based in France
Former international organizations
French West Africa
French Equatorial Africa
French Indochina
French India
French Togoland
States and territories established in 1946
States and territories disestablished in 1958
1946 establishments in France
1958 disestablishments in France
1946 establishments in the French colonial empire
1958 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
Former polities of the Cold War
|
[
0.3187725245952606,
-0.24037566781044006,
-0.23548460006713867,
0.24847224354743958,
-0.29494673013687134,
0.40374472737312317,
0.04442063346505165,
0.6078622341156006,
-0.29605454206466675,
-0.4716989994049072,
-0.3321385383605957,
0.29945284128189087,
-0.20664238929748535,
0.6970182657241821,
-0.029937656596302986,
0.25206050276756287,
0.3988915681838989,
0.1983136087656021,
-0.07092317938804626,
-0.20327305793762207,
-0.5912874341011047,
0.7905192971229553,
0.2456618845462799,
-0.039056792855262756,
0.0202016644179821,
-0.23055240511894226,
0.48637494444847107,
-0.22671544551849365,
0.2398778647184372,
-0.07272160798311234,
0.3119026720523834,
-0.10275345295667648,
-0.11395801603794098,
-0.0927293449640274,
-0.330520898103714,
0.03464657440781593,
-0.11015599966049194,
-0.2876775562763214,
-0.44571009278297424,
-0.5718607902526855,
-0.11338404566049576,
-0.29452988505363464,
0.2814173698425293,
0.6304535269737244,
0.022679852321743965,
-0.17653392255306244,
-1.4023327827453613,
0.5177794098854065,
-0.22725282609462738,
-0.03236149251461029,
-0.35554271936416626,
0.17894642055034637,
0.4415833652019501,
0.5205002427101135,
-0.11395827680826187,
-0.011609594337642193,
-0.7805736064910889,
-0.25569310784339905,
-0.006644091103225946,
-0.9582535624504089,
0.15087521076202393,
0.614319384098053,
0.5910694599151611,
0.10771600157022476,
0.001000465010292828,
-0.09443853050470352,
0.42405980825424194,
0.09722204506397247,
-0.16405262053012848,
-0.5333915948867798,
-0.25425925850868225,
0.06739715486764908,
-0.1899155229330063,
-0.025211354717612267,
-0.0725257396697998,
-0.7404168844223022,
0.11078853160142899,
0.21096134185791016,
0.1246076226234436,
0.0716792643070221,
-0.1325834095478058,
0.07428079843521118,
0.7790665030479431,
-0.2637782692909241,
0.4037608802318573,
0.15006940066814423,
-0.4087270498275757,
-0.08275096863508224,
-0.28317713737487793,
0.05831215903162956,
-0.6707929968833923,
0.31896519660949707,
0.49269771575927734,
-0.4264899790287018,
-0.267023503780365,
-0.03446343541145325,
0.5726897716522217,
0.08905046433210373,
0.20713236927986145,
0.2920348346233368,
-0.37839609384536743,
-0.012427358888089657,
0.2776695191860199,
-0.10278622806072235,
-0.5007109045982361,
-0.3844941556453705,
-0.26604536175727844,
-0.3736722469329834,
-0.23955434560775757,
0.06789450347423553,
-0.1993720680475235,
0.09818574786186218,
0.2736119329929352,
0.12242359668016434,
-0.0051608094945549965,
0.3353595435619354,
-0.14913363754749298,
-0.3549223840236664,
0.25761324167251587,
-0.04172351211309433,
-0.16222035884857178,
0.2720867693424225,
0.08823935687541962,
0.26195380091667175,
0.5111265778541565,
-0.08931583166122437,
0.457026869058609,
0.03842037543654442,
-1.1598454713821411,
-0.09021187573671341,
0.8201495409011841,
0.7001591920852661,
-0.6204501986503601,
0.16226951777935028,
-0.11048892140388489,
-0.1924372762441635,
0.5265225172042847,
0.0817934051156044,
0.3339523673057556,
0.44594115018844604,
-0.5911466479301453,
-0.1185082197189331,
-0.3372640013694763,
0.12782064080238342,
0.14449778199195862,
-0.07953131198883057,
-0.045561905950307846,
0.0062001487240195274,
-0.23699849843978882,
0.02858111634850502,
0.040972985327243805,
-0.29376593232154846,
-0.18046635389328003,
0.022133933380246162,
-0.2269919067621231,
0.08402373641729355,
0.5299111008644104,
-0.09201022237539291,
0.5344821810722351,
0.43794959783554077,
0.28742992877960205,
0.34804093837738037,
0.08754242956638336,
-0.04306653141975403,
0.2097804993391037,
-0.31330370903015137,
-0.4814828038215637,
0.39972957968711853,
0.041933171451091766,
0.37417906522750854,
-0.2174745798110962,
0.22052277624607086,
0.23735690116882324,
-0.4004119336605072,
-0.3383711278438568,
0.4616292119026184,
0.5654473900794983,
0.3354428708553314,
0.3427871763706207,
0.2467774897813797,
-0.2904120087623596,
-0.09910882264375687,
0.14740440249443054,
0.01952323503792286,
-0.006208346225321293,
0.48985743522644043,
0.4128982126712799,
-0.0858716294169426,
0.01686837337911129,
0.2486686408519745,
-0.1681562215089798,
-0.918929398059845,
-0.36053651571273804,
-1.1612534523010254,
0.8410126566886902,
-0.06388893723487854,
-0.27995750308036804,
0.804906964302063,
-0.3495975434780121,
-0.23630885779857635,
-0.1692323237657547,
-0.09575527906417847,
0.2897372841835022,
0.07858799397945404,
0.012376181781291962,
0.2943965494632721,
0.01262520533055067,
0.15437811613082886,
0.22499357163906097,
0.4809191823005676,
0.320544570684433,
-0.4952008128166199,
0.8643630146980286,
-0.05893027409911156,
-0.0015197626780718565,
-0.22221560776233673,
-0.8285993933677673,
-0.007821367122232914,
0.12471798062324524,
0.41190198063850403,
0.5390748381614685,
-0.5238991975784302,
0.05626828223466873,
0.7160851359367371,
-0.07113587856292725,
-0.007679789327085018,
0.2598647475242615,
0.3113526701927185,
-0.06606841832399368,
0.10768456012010574,
0.0005038931267336011,
0.031032389029860497,
-0.023890560492873192,
-0.3776119351387024,
0.17035545408725739,
0.03936845436692238,
-0.3623223304748535,
-0.34063711762428284,
-0.2828404903411865,
0.013771206140518188,
0.07113546133041382,
-0.20838239789009094,
0.0940064936876297,
0.14893992245197296,
-0.4428606629371643,
0.058408692479133606,
-0.362091600894928,
0.14305834472179413,
0.5076141357421875,
-0.25795242190361023,
-0.05069226399064064,
0.05199994891881943,
0.09286623448133469,
-0.2751957178115845,
-0.1303083896636963,
-0.5972680449485779,
0.6061065196990967,
-0.3176743686199188,
0.2416185885667801,
0.11072157323360443,
-0.18964044749736786,
-0.2872658669948578,
-0.4629341959953308,
0.21994341909885406,
0.5241079330444336,
-0.32023176550865173,
-0.7489696741104126,
-0.18247999250888824,
0.0015635737217962742,
0.41213124990463257,
0.22174589335918427,
0.2889293432235718,
-0.5635150074958801,
-0.1809714436531067,
-0.16818206012248993,
0.3676953613758087,
-0.20328561961650848,
0.5154958963394165,
-0.5152362585067749,
-0.5135621428489685,
-0.2539672553539276,
0.23791952431201935,
-0.36760231852531433,
-0.8914474248886108,
0.01644122786819935,
-0.0015238886699080467,
-0.18326708674430847,
-0.5750502943992615,
-0.08715691417455673,
-0.24950672686100006,
0.2596498727798462,
-0.034677062183618546,
-0.29416996240615845,
-0.4522429406642914,
-0.10732387006282806,
-0.23442205786705017,
-0.3950517177581787,
0.5610100626945496,
0.26865917444229126,
-0.09210368245840073,
-0.45748138427734375,
0.4203220009803772,
-0.06199238821864128,
0.16484840214252472,
0.7454995512962341,
-0.32910236716270447,
-0.2924143075942993,
0.16669780015945435,
-6.154156684875488,
-0.11662841588258743,
0.25495824217796326,
0.33196210861206055,
-0.2181783765554428,
0.09118801355361938,
0.2741060256958008,
0.07399055361747742,
-0.15915554761886597,
-0.4550943374633789,
-0.2288840264081955,
-0.05299055203795433,
-0.2097059041261673,
0.5370310544967651,
0.04177455976605415,
0.4541764259338379,
0.41110995411872864,
0.08347488194704056,
-0.17242778837680817,
0.2088959515094757,
-0.386561781167984,
0.137745663523674,
0.31293290853500366,
0.4021611511707306,
0.5850332379341125,
-0.5732405185699463,
-0.08262385427951813,
0.1656850427389145,
-0.42740297317504883,
-0.1558639407157898,
-0.28299105167388916,
0.18260866403579712,
0.723780632019043,
-0.3271898925304413,
0.2953427731990814,
-0.375771164894104,
0.4287707507610321,
0.5277871489524841,
-0.3537524938583374,
-0.18788950145244598,
-0.29771164059638977,
0.619972825050354,
-0.09481021761894226,
0.15364527702331543,
-0.2087470442056656,
-0.24147367477416992,
-0.2085508555173874,
-0.06483914703130722,
-0.3872709274291992,
0.7993997931480408,
-0.5903450846672058,
0.14229241013526917,
0.13918498158454895,
-0.3175541162490845,
0.14201225340366364,
-0.09648879617452621,
0.36940938234329224,
-0.028755133971571922,
-0.7713430523872375,
0.6048317551612854,
0.45754894614219666,
-0.11247359216213226,
0.10373524576425552,
-0.7985981106758118,
-0.3004632890224457,
-0.10698433220386505,
-1.060200810432434,
0.6716194152832031,
0.3684972822666168,
0.33608245849609375,
-0.07919195294380188,
0.637798547744751,
-0.1165434941649437,
-0.9434217810630798,
-0.305744469165802,
-0.33096984028816223,
-0.402668297290802,
0.05324883759021759,
0.5217757821083069,
0.6884379982948303,
0.034131716936826706,
0.2149510234594345,
0.052367765456438065,
0.6956988573074341,
-0.04106428474187851,
0.05357176065444946,
0.4281696081161499,
0.5628634095191956,
-0.6268858909606934,
0.49753254652023315,
-0.3011988699436188,
-0.6419104933738708,
0.48927581310272217,
-0.02061869204044342,
0.4078569710254669,
0.13495095074176788,
-0.2766428291797638,
-0.19138655066490173,
-0.07675454020500183,
-0.09478949010372162,
0.41090863943099976,
-0.0956500694155693,
-0.2574765384197235,
0.11008170992136002,
0.480441153049469,
-0.011724580079317093,
0.0954480692744255,
0.4263657331466675,
0.30792489647865295,
0.11305965483188629,
-0.14917516708374023,
-0.08842694759368896,
-0.35260009765625,
0.04941539093852043,
0.2437749058008194,
-0.14349859952926636,
-0.4605938792228699,
0.05589530989527702,
0.13572664558887482,
0.0619131363928318,
-0.13398945331573486,
0.426800012588501,
-0.3288612961769104,
0.20285634696483612,
0.15151046216487885,
0.04918212071061134,
-0.10246039927005768,
-0.045383892953395844,
0.17846710979938507,
0.33996278047561646,
0.17436791956424713,
0.16574528813362122,
-0.01256871223449707,
-0.250916063785553,
0.972076952457428,
-0.13668343424797058,
0.033873092383146286,
0.051053114235401154,
-0.32324331998825073,
-0.17470161616802216,
-0.3494274914264679,
-0.2629462778568268,
0.15745465457439423,
-0.005923864431679249,
0.28326302766799927,
0.20723631978034973,
-0.2161148488521576,
-0.10551118850708008,
0.10974255204200745,
0.33324185013771057,
0.23251871764659882,
0.40148478746414185,
0.7080418467521667,
0.2367086112499237,
0.10068995505571365,
-0.5588816404342651,
0.5303182005882263,
0.08852352946996689,
0.31109389662742615,
-0.5559391379356384,
0.335589736700058,
-0.8528515696525574,
-0.6493869423866272,
0.23421449959278107,
0.8073265552520752,
0.060277149081230164,
-0.18601009249687195,
-0.6085760593414307,
-0.049755681306123734,
0.53514564037323,
0.33274751901626587,
-0.01899055764079094,
-0.2147696316242218,
-0.2551976442337036,
-0.2579890787601471,
-0.2308669090270996,
0.05310448631644249,
0.03625985607504845,
-0.15329521894454956,
-0.4639366567134857,
0.23763269186019897,
-0.09466982632875443,
-0.20837722718715668,
0.07694312185049057,
0.18512356281280518,
-0.5263854265213013,
-0.21360905468463898,
0.21012283861637115,
0.30774474143981934,
0.05166752263903618,
0.4349616467952728,
0.23272663354873657,
0.06249077618122101,
0.41527172923088074,
-0.586148738861084,
-0.1820240169763565,
-0.5905231237411499,
0.2255212664604187,
-0.19835419952869415,
-0.03745877370238304,
0.16137510538101196,
0.05117236077785492,
0.3027917742729187,
-0.2799313962459564,
0.06514237076044083,
0.029799018055200577,
0.6765563488006592,
-0.5886446237564087,
-0.24081236124038696,
-0.025712814182043076,
-0.718338131904602,
-0.2655865550041199,
-0.40044334530830383,
0.3894028663635254,
-0.656312108039856,
0.1381792426109314,
0.13098719716072083,
-0.19929711520671844,
-0.07183340191841125,
-0.31004971265792847,
0.3197941780090332,
-0.07022343575954437,
-0.19379515945911407,
-0.07007632404565811,
-0.5221679210662842,
0.3947690725326538,
0.48941102623939514,
0.1841011345386505,
-0.35682007670402527,
0.31072983145713806,
0.18532134592533112,
-0.4368159770965576,
-0.09331145137548447,
-0.5320465564727783,
-0.071280837059021,
0.11212402582168579,
0.2213289588689804,
-0.0699210911989212,
-0.4420109689235687,
0.06925860047340393,
0.06271586567163467,
0.7480438351631165,
0.11269131302833557,
-0.6124941110610962,
-0.39599665999412537,
0.15001705288887024,
0.43364080786705017,
-0.1784292608499527,
-0.023949772119522095,
0.10219533741474152,
-0.36291420459747314,
0.09222926199436188,
-0.7296198010444641,
-0.3052676320075989,
0.42241397500038147,
-0.07000747323036194,
-0.2969597578048706,
0.10579392313957214,
0.015380111522972584,
-0.0045834812335669994,
-0.2531721591949463,
-0.4520089626312256,
-0.4977932572364807,
0.19027511775493622,
0.03733425587415695,
-0.1133912205696106,
-0.071151964366436,
-0.002987923100590706,
-0.3754424452781677,
-1.1602352857589722,
0.22924576699733734,
0.22676660120487213,
-0.5041786432266235,
0.5792792439460754,
0.5740711092948914,
0.11285191774368286,
-0.04930336773395538,
0.005019358824938536,
0.4094085693359375,
-0.1137743666768074,
-0.5517593622207642,
0.023949040099978447,
0.10842231661081314,
0.044092629104852676,
0.6115848422050476,
-0.5449647307395935,
-0.24986140429973602,
0.01191173680126667,
-0.5873734354972839,
-0.08719334006309509,
-0.31734269857406616,
-0.043054625391960144,
0.7125610113143921,
0.149953693151474,
-0.30528321862220764,
0.1447763890028,
-0.5081832408905029,
-0.07595108449459076,
0.4379795789718628,
0.38150808215141296,
-0.4325599670410156,
0.03293369710445404,
0.15322169661521912,
-0.3364444077014923,
0.181369349360466,
0.18479682505130768,
-0.1583918333053589,
0.16757453978061676,
0.09659329056739807,
0.23510392010211945,
0.8691679835319519,
-0.38181889057159424,
-0.2160133421421051,
-0.2299346625804901,
-0.407327800989151,
0.44541120529174805,
0.40442946553230286,
-0.8027241230010986,
0.4134638011455536,
0.10345534980297089,
-0.09132302552461624,
0.5024107098579407,
-0.3947974443435669,
-0.20478881895542145,
0.3311392366886139,
0.37006428837776184,
-0.16269361972808838,
0.27505677938461304,
-0.11382898688316345,
-0.09983690083026886,
0.020819080993533134,
0.31470173597335815,
-0.433336079120636,
0.2299656718969345,
-0.7945764064788818,
-0.6252235770225525,
-0.0532086007297039,
-0.17572537064552307,
0.3619903028011322,
0.47466403245925903,
0.23508353531360626,
0.1619757115840912,
-0.4137144088745117,
-0.10926544666290283,
0.1889607310295105,
0.20762334764003754,
-0.3655334711074829,
-0.2350912094116211,
0.30466827750205994,
0.6675806641578674,
0.4828917384147644,
-0.5496430397033691,
-0.24662470817565918,
-0.17678169906139374,
-0.03222343325614929,
-0.5573261976242065,
0.4392366111278534,
0.12006556242704391,
0.2575264573097229,
-0.18302711844444275,
-0.02240198664367199,
0.046342283487319946,
0.5493055582046509,
0.011861014179885387,
-0.05227149650454521,
0.19374985992908478,
0.19876675307750702,
-0.18101650476455688,
-0.1623140126466751,
0.12895044684410095,
0.2645561993122101,
-0.32874926924705505,
0.3822762072086334,
-0.10499418526887894,
0.24927257001399994,
-0.23644372820854187,
0.3214862644672394,
0.1207951232790947,
0.26042789220809937,
-0.04452936723828316,
-0.010205321945250034,
-0.17664726078510284,
0.40622758865356445,
-0.5389276146888733,
-0.2606603503227234,
0.06527121365070343,
0.36149224638938904,
0.2993355393409729,
0.02627427689731121,
0.2930276095867157,
-0.5037646293640137,
-0.7065986394882202,
0.15666703879833221,
-0.38656049966812134,
0.04709327593445778,
0.11003568768501282,
-0.23334775865077972,
0.5198354721069336,
0.7060345411300659,
-0.48874813318252563,
0.45312267541885376,
0.4240438938140869,
0.11578730493783951,
-0.10428544878959656,
0.5364412665367126,
0.4547910988330841,
-0.46274563670158386,
-0.3055834174156189,
-0.24851050972938538,
0.39317527413368225,
0.07461998611688614,
-0.10702051222324371,
-0.18363647162914276,
0.7263888716697693,
0.03388376161456108,
0.10778236389160156,
0.6099855303764343,
-0.025004222989082336,
0.05910931155085564,
-0.2914016544818878,
-0.010913309641182423,
-0.3528096675872803,
0.19447515904903412,
0.11266304552555084,
-0.01844981499016285,
-0.26565131545066833,
0.24274303019046783,
0.2780289053916931,
0.11702445894479752,
0.8315746784210205,
0.0713006854057312,
-0.22368763387203217,
0.007188288029283285,
0.017540156841278076,
-0.5877537727355957,
-0.25923192501068115,
0.1340586543083191,
0.08809878677129745,
-0.23850741982460022,
-0.5023283362388611,
-0.1345118135213852,
0.1817803680896759,
0.4170476794242859,
-0.13439302146434784,
-0.06725955754518509,
-0.4727543294429779,
0.3368527889251709,
-0.025931362062692642,
-0.6717723608016968,
-0.04492088407278061,
0.104245625436306,
0.31587639451026917,
0.5958155393600464,
-0.41535094380378723,
0.25060537457466125,
-0.715723991394043,
0.27549487352371216,
-0.6880051493644714,
0.1701282411813736,
0.1812855452299118
] |
206160
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang%20Rai
|
Chiang Rai
|
Chiang Rai (, ; , ) is the northernmost major city in Thailand, with a population of about 200,000 people. It is located in Mueang Chiang Rai District, Chiang Rai Province. Chiang Rai was established as a capital city in the reign of King Mangrai, in 1262 CE.
History
The city was founded by King Mangrai in 1262 and became the capital of the Mangrai Dynasty. The word 'Chiang' means 'city' in Thai, so Chiang Rai would mean 'the City of (Mang) Rai'. Subsequently, Chiang Rai was conquered by Burma and remained under Burmese rule for several hundred years. It was not until 1786 that Chiang Rai became a Chiang Mai vassal. Siam (Thailand) annexed Chiang Mai in 1899, and Chiang Rai was proclaimed a province of Thailand in 1933.
In 1432, during the reign of King Sam Fang Kaen of the Mangrai Dynasty (1402–1441), the Phra Kaeo, or Emerald Buddha, the most revered Buddha statue, was discovered in Chiang Rai when an earthquake split the chedi at Wat Phra Kaeo of Chiang Rai city. The beautiful jade figure was then seen concealed within. Another telling of the story has the "Emerald Buddha" hastily covered in mud just before marauders entered to pillage. Many years later, the clunky-looking mud Buddha was found to actually house a magnificent jade statue, perhaps by way of the earthquake mentioned above—which caused a piece of the clay to break off—revealing the jade beneath.
In 1992, the city pillar was moved from Wat Klang Wiang to Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong, where it is known as Sadue Mueang (), the "navel" or omphalos of the city.
Geography
Chiang Rai lies on the flat alluvial plain of the Kok River, a tributary of the Mekong, between the Daen Lao Range in the north and the Phi Pan Nam Range in the south. The Kok River runs along Chiang Rai's north side, flowing eastwards out of Burma at Tha Ton(ท่าตอม) town, bending north-eastwards and joining the Mekong River about north-east of the city. The Lao River, a tributary of the Kok, flows south of Chiang Rai.
There are four bridges spanning the Kok River within the town's boundaries, each running south–north. Most of the terrain surrounding Chiang Rai town is either flat or has moderate hills. The exception is outward in the west and north-west directions, where limestone hills are evident, some of which have vertical exposed cliffs. That is also the direction where most of the region's hill tribe people have their villages, further afield.
The city is north of Bangkok, about north-east of Chiang Mai, south of Mae Sai and the Burmese border; south-west of the town of Chiang Saen on the Mekong River across from Laos; and north of Phayao town. The Golden Triangle, the tripoint of the Thailand, Laos and Myanmar borders, is north-east of the city.
Climate
Chiang Rai has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Winters are fairly dry and warm. Temperatures rise until April, which is hot with the average daily maximum at . The monsoon season runs from late April through October, with heavy rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day, although nights remain warm.
Demographics
According to the Thai National Statistical Office, as of September 2010, Chiang Rai municipal district had a population of 199,699. With the spread of the city extending into neighboring districts, the metropolitan area is considered somewhat larger by local residents. Chiang Rai city is the capital city and business center of the Chiang Rai Province, home to 1.1 million residents.
A significant share—12.5 percent—of the population are of hill tribes descent. "Hill tribes" is a collective term for the minority ethnic groups in north Thailand such as the Karen, Akha, Lisu, Miao, and Hmong.
Government
Chiang Rai City is the capital of Chiang Rai Province.
The city hall houses the provincial offices. The thesaban houses the municipal offices .
Buddhist temples
Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong,
Wat Phra Kaeo, Chiang Rai,
Wat Phra Sing, Chiang Rai,
Wat Doi Khao Khwai,
Wat Rong Khun, , a modern temple built since 1998 by Thai artist Chalermchai Kositpipat
Chedi Doi Trimoorati,
Education
Colleges and universities
Mae Fah Luang University
Chiang Rai Rajabhat University
Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Chiang Rai Campus
International schools
Chiang Rai International School
Chiang Rai International Christian School
High schools
Samakkhi Witthayakhom School
Damrongratsongkroh School
Chiang Rai Witthayakhom School
Chiangrai municiplarity school 6
Chiang Rai International School
Primary schools
PSEP Bilingual School.
Bansankhong (Chiangraijaroonrat) School
Piti Suksa Montessori School
AMEC School, Chiang Rai
Hospitals
In 2018 the survivors of the Tham Luang cave rescue were brought to Chiang Rai, the nearest large city for hospital care.
Overbrook Hospital (semi-private) Founded in 1903 by Dr. William A. Briggs, as a Missionary hospital.
Kasemrad Sriburin General Hospital, Private hospital.
Chiang Rai Prachanukhro Hospital, Public hospital.
Fort Mengraimaharaj Hospital, Military public hospital.
Chiang Rai Inter Hospital, Private hospital.
Bangkok Hospital - Chiang Rai, Private hospital by BDMS chain.
Transportation
Route 1 runs from Bangkok through Chiang Rai to Mae Sai on the Burma border. Chiang Rai is 839 kilometers from Bangkok, about 14 hours by car or by bus. According to official bus schedules, the bus ride to Chiang Rai from Chiang Mai takes approximately 3 hours and 30 minutes, All of these times should take into account the rainy season which lasts from about June to late October, this can severely inhibit travel with road sections often completely flooded and even washed out.
Several flights are available to and from Bangkok daily. Mae Fah Luang International Airport flight time is about 1 hour and 30 minutes. There are several major operators including Thai Airways, Air Asia, Nok Air.
There is scheduled boat service between Chiang Rai and Thaton in Chiang Mai Province daily. This journey will last about 3–4 hours and is a pleasant alternative to the bus ride through the mountains.
There are currently no rail services to Chiang Rai as the railway line from Bangkok ends at Chiang Mai. There have been talks of extending the rail line from Den Chai to Chiang Rai in the near future, but this is unlikely to happen as the city's population is well below 1 million and there aren't as many international tourists visiting Chiang Rai as Chiang Mai. Also there are no major industrial complexes in the region as it is largely a rural economy.
References
External links
Chiang Rai Times Provincial and local news for Chiang Rai (English language)
1262 establishments in Asia
Populated places in Chiang Rai province
Cities and towns in Thailand
13th-century establishments in Thailand
|
[
0.2661587595939636,
0.18334390223026276,
0.6412728428840637,
0.026719996705651283,
-0.04256062209606171,
0.04205913469195366,
0.5216241478919983,
0.5571858882904053,
-0.3365030586719513,
0.061998333781957626,
-0.45837029814720154,
-0.4892440736293793,
-0.6067593693733215,
0.1707051694393158,
-0.3796694278717041,
0.5178303122520447,
0.3440264165401459,
0.11983802914619446,
0.06256886571645737,
-0.413845032453537,
-0.2589271068572998,
-0.2686443328857422,
0.4350595474243164,
-0.11760839819908142,
0.3382687270641327,
-0.17916755378246307,
0.09945330768823624,
0.5119081735610962,
0.4337744414806366,
-0.008518699556589127,
-0.12686757743358612,
0.28338122367858887,
-0.1134093627333641,
0.4103405773639679,
-0.09877242147922516,
0.11231125891208649,
0.28908514976501465,
0.3776085674762726,
-0.06556648015975952,
0.053460922092199326,
-0.06209655478596687,
-0.016309009864926338,
0.0639556497335434,
-0.13340836763381958,
0.18238958716392517,
-1.1469438076019287,
-0.9905058145523071,
0.7300063967704773,
-0.18554852902889252,
0.46924108266830444,
-1.293912649154663,
0.3052496016025543,
-0.4032016694545746,
0.3465617299079895,
0.4494142234325409,
0.4868738651275635,
-0.8164582848548889,
0.042959921061992645,
-0.5360456705093384,
0.09707646816968918,
-0.06983470171689987,
0.05315754562616348,
-0.21959975361824036,
0.6083793640136719,
-0.12640924751758575,
0.17805203795433044,
-0.2177133858203888,
-0.10257846117019653,
0.6061233878135681,
-0.8660131692886353,
0.2636891007423401,
0.33871033787727356,
-0.07603814452886581,
0.4728301167488098,
-0.441435307264328,
-0.3471880555152893,
-0.4727489650249481,
-0.42677417397499084,
-0.15710893273353577,
-0.25957047939300537,
-0.30607789754867554,
-0.15317992866039276,
0.6010701656341553,
-0.03509589284658432,
0.3779764473438263,
0.1976134479045868,
0.06418370455503464,
0.3416820466518402,
-0.13880334794521332,
0.18607933819293976,
-0.027397021651268005,
0.245456263422966,
0.5096006989479065,
-0.27093926072120667,
-0.4439699053764343,
-0.7360563278198242,
-0.026085441932082176,
0.3310997784137726,
0.32387575507164,
0.0261190515011549,
-0.13000784814357758,
0.21352170407772064,
0.7091096639633179,
-0.15869109332561493,
-0.968987226486206,
-0.4983598291873932,
-0.08458030968904495,
0.582291305065155,
-0.006373554468154907,
0.015911994501948357,
-0.5845391154289246,
-0.027865862473845482,
0.2880760431289673,
0.47644227743148804,
0.16122986376285553,
0.11681773513555527,
0.299663782119751,
-0.2824513018131256,
0.07692986726760864,
-0.2853701114654541,
0.12703567743301392,
0.37033820152282715,
-0.18799099326133728,
0.3337133526802063,
0.254733145236969,
0.3604060709476471,
0.16380180418491364,
0.22337792813777924,
-0.15918342769145966,
0.5696803331375122,
0.08775560557842255,
0.19979745149612427,
-0.3391747772693634,
0.11232932657003403,
0.17634476721286774,
-0.5120904445648193,
0.06081533804535866,
0.5326593518257141,
0.3397715389728546,
-0.09284121543169022,
-1.1773908138275146,
-0.08003289252519608,
-0.47717714309692383,
-0.09879306703805923,
0.21816833317279816,
-0.27459487318992615,
-0.3095283806324005,
-0.8434765338897705,
-0.4832726716995239,
-0.08843600004911423,
0.010791216976940632,
0.32881960272789,
-0.35566121339797974,
0.08472509682178497,
-0.32145771384239197,
-0.18427614867687225,
1.3584089279174805,
0.4407693147659302,
0.41383031010627747,
0.101669542491436,
0.15976399183273315,
-0.053186606615781784,
-0.14571425318717957,
-0.1264483630657196,
0.13484805822372437,
-0.1203003004193306,
0.2844059467315674,
0.6910296082496643,
0.1331067681312561,
0.20961353182792664,
-0.5256872773170471,
0.09995588660240173,
0.1835123598575592,
0.07393737882375717,
-0.021464450284838676,
-0.31272268295288086,
-0.04121753200888634,
0.45363524556159973,
-0.041355032473802567,
-0.14594857394695282,
-0.5737435221672058,
0.6628122329711914,
-0.07081584632396698,
0.6001227498054504,
0.20480874180793762,
-0.10607881098985672,
0.6812258958816528,
0.2253800928592682,
-0.17569595575332642,
0.25063538551330566,
-0.1493416130542755,
-0.5906288027763367,
0.11215248703956604,
0.08908593654632568,
0.14696212112903595,
0.653580367565155,
0.15510612726211548,
0.7110487222671509,
-0.05136459320783615,
0.9477565884590149,
-0.1382334679365158,
0.00302502722479403,
0.5867649912834167,
-0.005369504448026419,
-0.8146127462387085,
0.5220599174499512,
-0.24852067232131958,
0.5019205212593079,
0.3109121322631836,
0.35136908292770386,
0.13273057341575623,
-0.7080665230751038,
-0.6344308257102966,
0.06336487084627151,
-0.3680334985256195,
-0.32222628593444824,
-0.4493638575077057,
-0.2007586508989334,
0.26475778222084045,
-0.5297383666038513,
0.5747126340866089,
0.24734562635421753,
-0.4033185839653015,
0.40514668822288513,
0.24147263169288635,
0.8928605914115906,
0.3021339476108551,
0.20780391991138458,
-0.22543533146381378,
-0.3227209448814392,
-0.181732177734375,
-0.22557097673416138,
0.4855717420578003,
0.10150963068008423,
-0.12920686602592468,
0.18184661865234375,
0.2153555154800415,
-0.40165892243385315,
0.6441583633422852,
-0.4894421398639679,
0.2999441921710968,
0.12246189266443253,
-0.09489218890666962,
0.08539697527885437,
0.05613625422120094,
0.5129457712173462,
-0.6720612049102783,
-0.46365147829055786,
0.043668776750564575,
0.31619009375572205,
0.0887683555483818,
-0.40508657693862915,
-0.005898105446249247,
0.20388510823249817,
-0.03844578191637993,
-0.026748361065983772,
-0.4240700900554657,
0.0126067865639925,
0.36341699957847595,
-0.16053999960422516,
-0.23286224901676178,
-0.03522558882832527,
0.3714617192745209,
0.24444325268268585,
-0.3316862881183624,
-0.2562539875507355,
-0.07583083212375641,
-0.5717793107032776,
0.33887913823127747,
0.6917333006858826,
-0.24875839054584503,
-0.19901737570762634,
-0.41511404514312744,
-0.25502461194992065,
-0.03575994819402695,
-0.434468537569046,
0.18011009693145752,
0.23030820488929749,
-0.7702549695968628,
-0.085222527384758,
0.376944363117218,
0.5246965289115906,
-0.050096526741981506,
-0.6258378624916077,
-0.25186043977737427,
-0.04663100093603134,
-0.17821155488491058,
-0.7237687706947327,
-0.40323588252067566,
0.5224702954292297,
-0.31619423627853394,
0.04453904181718826,
-0.19159932434558868,
-0.1765897125005722,
-0.40712642669677734,
-0.462781697511673,
-0.042308371514081955,
-0.09310419857501984,
0.6215465664863586,
-0.6225296258926392,
-0.4111979603767395,
0.18034705519676208,
-0.12294972687959671,
0.07756311446428299,
0.1433771550655365,
-0.27937349677085876,
-0.26439884305000305,
0.36354589462280273,
-5.8155999183654785,
-0.011162661015987396,
-0.2478049397468567,
-0.5472300052642822,
0.024682417511940002,
0.03142465278506279,
0.18765385448932648,
-0.20056766271591187,
0.3738230764865875,
-0.16285042464733124,
0.8406363725662231,
-0.28388234972953796,
-0.07410673052072525,
0.3492332696914673,
0.2771734595298767,
0.6884002089500427,
0.1562681496143341,
-0.3052918016910553,
0.3352762460708618,
-0.23928089439868927,
-0.3314931094646454,
-0.32991424202919006,
0.1935245841741562,
0.7909088134765625,
-0.027562152594327927,
0.8048507571220398,
-0.11086059361696243,
-0.28089001774787903,
-0.5900887250900269,
-0.349488228559494,
-0.36515748500823975,
-0.3400341868400574,
0.19274860620498657,
-0.014212190173566341,
-0.26952508091926575,
-0.5107331275939941,
0.46581992506980896,
0.15481281280517578,
0.06953658908605576,
-0.3297228217124939,
0.03777310997247696,
-0.2583308219909668,
0.017536232247948647,
-0.1853952705860138,
0.10709771513938904,
-0.8769546151161194,
-0.5221171379089355,
0.04606262221932411,
-0.1586327701807022,
0.3214145004749298,
0.38012197613716125,
-0.06380173563957214,
0.010631420649588108,
-0.2507379651069641,
-0.4196685254573822,
-0.07071874290704727,
-0.004342214670032263,
0.18273204565048218,
-0.9822421073913574,
0.3776074945926666,
0.10752387344837189,
0.1896197348833084,
-0.3493475615978241,
0.3765839636325836,
0.3945663273334503,
0.2316536158323288,
-0.1575283408164978,
0.0007347682258114219,
-0.08425386995077133,
0.12947894632816315,
-0.782643735408783,
0.17592164874076843,
-0.3772204518318176,
-0.6842702627182007,
-0.319234162569046,
-0.355750173330307,
-0.49587225914001465,
0.05253627151250839,
0.3682780861854553,
-0.3237205445766449,
-0.7324573993682861,
0.09412122517824173,
0.33760324120521545,
0.6130256652832031,
0.2068464308977127,
-0.4990873634815216,
-0.19288580119609833,
0.2340892106294632,
0.7309475541114807,
0.053903982043266296,
0.8261832594871521,
-0.9122738242149353,
0.8267662525177002,
0.12693926692008972,
0.3782060444355011,
0.39373549818992615,
0.5692092776298523,
-0.31674784421920776,
0.4695214033126831,
-0.7175437211990356,
0.3799181282520294,
-0.2920757234096527,
-0.20225456357002258,
0.020568562671542168,
-0.38400521874427795,
-0.40317195653915405,
0.3615519404411316,
0.6985422372817993,
0.4851905405521393,
-0.406419575214386,
-0.3568543791770935,
0.45983704924583435,
0.2754379212856293,
0.33928772807121277,
0.431905061006546,
-0.8319926261901855,
-0.21901899576187134,
0.05403245985507965,
0.2671799659729004,
0.11504576355218887,
-0.5940074920654297,
0.36775410175323486,
0.4790664315223694,
0.7509605288505554,
-0.10521283745765686,
-0.3182317316532135,
-0.5789316892623901,
0.5249122977256775,
0.30088749527931213,
-0.0179331935942173,
0.3518271744251251,
-0.14012524485588074,
0.7745704054832458,
-0.48501044511795044,
-0.3118363320827484,
-0.4561130404472351,
-0.14316360652446747,
-0.4898521602153778,
-0.1512182652950287,
-0.033098943531513214,
0.38439756631851196,
0.3262459635734558,
-0.30161425471305847,
0.6354503631591797,
0.05765795335173607,
-0.22542549669742584,
-0.007934044115245342,
-0.15185657143592834,
-0.18304228782653809,
0.12921665608882904,
0.04474847391247749,
-0.685355007648468,
0.2863933742046356,
-0.3208821713924408,
-0.26980066299438477,
0.3190128207206726,
0.10338043421506882,
0.5079735517501831,
0.6032919883728027,
0.06430298089981079,
0.008019126951694489,
-0.4511590301990509,
-0.8498369455337524,
0.10855706036090851,
-0.03170570731163025,
-0.497296005487442,
0.3548333942890167,
-0.0438065342605114,
-0.0664777159690857,
0.4111260771751404,
0.9977015256881714,
-0.1253976970911026,
-0.2828653156757355,
-0.0776539146900177,
-0.021158870309591293,
-0.11397828906774521,
-0.4824966788291931,
0.20775406062602997,
-0.3705327808856964,
0.10671626031398773,
-0.40431371331214905,
-0.5912705063819885,
-0.591340184211731,
0.6216290593147278,
0.21277287602424622,
0.21885450184345245,
-0.15874633193016052,
-0.9319739937782288,
-0.05519167333841324,
0.2706400752067566,
0.4945162832736969,
-0.28578242659568787,
-0.6329672932624817,
0.344594806432724,
-0.24136754870414734,
-0.9544007182121277,
-0.14545650780200958,
0.7663180232048035,
-0.15473401546478271,
0.09092129021883011,
-0.30512410402297974,
0.656718909740448,
-0.34895026683807373,
0.005932282656431198,
0.2718386948108673,
-0.3289247155189514,
0.2957032322883606,
0.1640363484621048,
0.1872202605009079,
-0.5334916710853577,
-0.7442318797111511,
-0.13334202766418457,
-0.0160968154668808,
0.439517617225647,
-0.1972457319498062,
-0.0019343799212947488,
-0.1698259711265564,
-0.4642139971256256,
0.008420486934483051,
-0.6116222739219666,
-0.20920662581920624,
0.03952443599700928,
0.1658751368522644,
-0.34055766463279724,
0.06600435078144073,
0.4822915494441986,
0.24480216205120087,
-0.8109069466590881,
0.15408742427825928,
-0.7440972924232483,
0.2508324086666107,
0.06898278743028641,
0.5037945508956909,
0.6058226823806763,
0.13688233494758606,
0.08697399497032166,
0.017544260248541832,
0.08996862918138504,
0.7953504323959351,
0.3748442828655243,
0.09272726625204086,
0.6188424229621887,
-0.2651134729385376,
-0.19571715593338013,
-0.16408070921897888,
-0.04371294751763344,
-0.2737187445163727,
-0.8197810053825378,
-0.8271374106407166,
0.29761865735054016,
-0.013773424550890923,
-0.30193862318992615,
-0.3240378499031067,
-0.3021050989627838,
0.5907518863677979,
-0.3626268804073334,
0.3039112389087677,
0.6307923793792725,
0.18069054186344147,
-0.18296977877616882,
-0.5631536841392517,
-0.23229548335075378,
0.2500356137752533,
-0.2524375319480896,
0.09567727893590927,
-0.3973369896411896,
-0.4111235439777374,
-0.1196223720908165,
0.19244340062141418,
-0.2926415801048279,
-0.3341074287891388,
-0.7590320110321045,
0.3338868021965027,
-0.44141748547554016,
0.25462621450424194,
-0.1531824767589569,
0.29005950689315796,
0.13260319828987122,
-0.26609206199645996,
0.252968430519104,
-0.5973210334777832,
-0.30832576751708984,
0.0834876000881195,
-0.2534245550632477,
-0.05956652760505676,
-0.869384229183197,
0.27123355865478516,
0.26226088404655457,
-0.516745924949646,
0.26136514544487,
-0.3753373920917511,
-0.46694236993789673,
-0.19057492911815643,
-0.008824438787996769,
0.0778147429227829,
0.14991910755634308,
0.43481960892677307,
0.8758493065834045,
-0.5299199819564819,
-0.009296434000134468,
-0.7149037718772888,
0.20017224550247192,
0.25012442469596863,
-0.6016134023666382,
-0.1489754021167755,
-0.39304235577583313,
0.4535881578922272,
-0.5019363760948181,
-0.15029960870742798,
0.4933493733406067,
0.5274346470832825,
0.5809583067893982,
0.3620154857635498,
0.5831267237663269,
-0.19079966843128204,
0.380413681268692,
0.2685821056365967,
-0.6403679847717285,
-0.12845994532108307,
0.6095955967903137,
-0.05681147426366806,
-0.4448322355747223,
0.2719492018222809,
0.7233359217643738,
0.06771969050168991,
0.5021747350692749,
-0.0230204239487648,
-0.22593915462493896,
0.19675056636333466,
0.18564745783805847,
-0.2641070485115051,
-0.26090461015701294,
-0.2753393054008484,
0.4922237992286682,
-0.38187673687934875,
-0.4685056507587433,
0.5075733661651611,
-0.7342384457588196,
-0.19789908826351166,
-0.010364196263253689,
0.7941386699676514,
0.6243742108345032,
0.11240146309137344,
-0.08708634972572327,
0.15645286440849304,
-0.06201304867863655,
0.2255597710609436,
-0.18039503693580627,
0.11876815557479858,
-0.1600080281496048,
0.7115190625190735,
0.3208794593811035,
-0.256115198135376,
-0.1407911628484726,
0.5652511119842529,
0.2316925823688507,
-0.495442658662796,
-0.45491448044776917,
0.2603186368942261,
0.06136109679937363,
0.137334942817688,
-0.4575490355491638,
-0.4046420753002167,
0.24036285281181335,
0.31164196133613586,
-0.2350645512342453,
0.6194854974746704,
-0.7739869952201843,
-0.1792987436056137,
0.4963710606098175,
0.17965203523635864,
0.2805615961551666,
0.22685161232948303,
-0.07080525159835815,
-0.24517908692359924,
0.3603822588920593,
-0.12933507561683655,
0.24074527621269226,
0.24745725095272064,
-0.33503878116607666,
-0.18049518764019012,
-0.08525997400283813,
0.3352392911911011,
-0.836506187915802,
-0.1060970202088356,
0.2612546980381012,
0.2340141385793686,
-0.05515912175178528,
-0.1640510857105255,
0.5129607319831848,
0.2509077489376068,
0.3308755159378052,
0.25503286719322205,
-0.23806306719779968,
0.30209481716156006,
-0.08772992342710495,
-0.3743269741535187,
0.26997998356819153,
0.42302829027175903,
0.36859917640686035,
0.4974771738052368,
0.08300130814313889,
0.38009607791900635,
0.2287878394126892,
0.35481032729148865,
0.15155990421772003,
0.082123301923275,
-0.02659783512353897,
-0.512401282787323,
-0.2303413599729538,
0.0653228610754013,
0.36326032876968384,
0.22219900786876678,
-0.41400131583213806,
-0.2653995156288147,
0.10099103301763535,
0.2360764741897583,
-0.4366605579853058,
0.3211538791656494,
-0.38197454810142517,
-0.21195831894874573,
-0.5154103636741638,
-0.16171763837337494,
0.6794021725654602,
-0.03221803158521652,
-0.6557053327560425,
0.44418829679489136,
0.2605869174003601,
-0.2651645243167877,
0.665921151638031,
-0.009788913652300835,
0.27445924282073975,
-0.4006761908531189,
-0.23351898789405823,
-0.3842447102069855,
-0.3164651393890381,
0.43342411518096924,
0.6383968591690063,
-0.39837971329689026,
-0.20068258047103882,
-0.3621479868888855,
0.03771670535206795,
-0.18055909872055054,
0.2995854318141937,
0.11377386003732681,
0.0690384954214096,
-0.30527299642562866,
0.020413830876350403,
-1.0851712226867676,
0.7943170070648193,
-0.09584754705429077,
-0.26770123839378357,
0.277724951505661,
0.1181618794798851,
0.1958799511194229,
0.3282715082168579,
0.5903329253196716,
-0.2665228247642517,
0.5461004972457886,
0.15717077255249023
] |
206161
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred%20Heart
|
Sacred Heart
|
The Sacred Heart, also known as the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus (Sacratissimum Cor Iesu in Latin), is one of the most widely practised and well-known Catholic devotions, wherein the heart of Jesus is viewed as a symbol of "God's boundless and passionate love for mankind". This devotion to Christ is predominantly used in the Catholic Church, followed by high-church Anglicans, Lutherans and some Western Rite Orthodox. In the Latin Church, the liturgical Solemnity of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus is celebrated the third Friday after Pentecost. The 12 promises of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus are also extremely popular.
The devotion is especially concerned with what the church deems to be the long-suffering love and compassion of the heart of Christ towards humanity. The popularization of this devotion in its modern form is derived from a Roman Catholic nun from France, Margaret Mary Alacoque, who said she learned the devotion from Jesus during a series of apparitions to her between 1673 and 1675, and later, in the 19th century, from the mystical revelations of another Catholic nun in Portugal, Mary of the Divine Heart, a religious sister of the congregation of the Good Shepherd, who requested in the name of Christ that Pope Leo XIII consecrate the entire world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Predecessors to the modern devotion arose unmistakably in the Middle Ages in various facets of Catholic mysticism, particularly with Gertrude the Great.
Description
The Sacred Heart is often depicted in Christian art as a flaming heart shining with divine light, pierced by the lance-wound, encircled by the crown of thorns, surmounted by a cross, and bleeding. Sometimes, the image is shown shining within the bosom of Christ with his wounded hands pointing at the heart. The wounds and crown of thorns allude to the manner of Christ's passion, while the flames represent a furnace of ardent love.
History of the devotion
Early devotion
Historically the devotion to the Sacred Heart is an outgrowth of devotion to what is believed to be Christ's sacred humanity. During the first ten centuries of Christianity, there is nothing to indicate that any worship was rendered to the wounded Heart of Jesus. The revival of religious life and the zealous activity of Bernard of Clairvaux and Francis of Assisi in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, together with the enthusiasm of the Crusaders returning from the Holy Land, gave a rise to devotion to the Passion of Jesus Christ and particularly to practices in honour of the Sacred Wounds.
Devotion to the Sacred Heart developed out of the devotion to the Holy Wounds, in particular to the Sacred Wound in the side of Jesus. The first indications of devotion to the Sacred Heart are found in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the fervent atmosphere of the Benedictine or Cistercian monasteries. It is impossible to say with certainty what were its first texts or who were its first devotees.
Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153) said that the piercing of Christ's side revealed his goodness and the charity of his heart for us. The earliest known hymn to the Sacred Heart, "Summi Regis Cor Aveto", is believed to have been written by the Norbertine Herman Joseph (d.1241) of Cologne, Germany. The hymn begins: "I hail Thee kingly Heart most high."
From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, the devotion was propagated but it did not seem to have been embellished. It was everywhere practised by individuals and by different religious congregations, such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Carthusians. Among the Franciscans the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus has its champions in Bonaventure (d. 1274) in his Vitis Mystica ("Mystic Vine") and B. John de la Verna. Bonaventure wrote: "Who is there who would not love this wounded heart? Who would not love in return Him, who loves so much?” It was, nevertheless, a private, individual devotion of the mystical order. Nothing of a general movement had been inaugurated, except for similarities found in the devotion to the Five Holy Wounds by the Franciscans, in which the wound in Jesus's heart figured most prominently.
Lutgarde
According to Thomas Merton, Lutgarde (d.1246), a Cistercian mystic of Aywieres, Belgium, was one of the great precursors of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. A contemporary of Francis of Assisi, she "... entered upon the mystical life with a vision of the pierced Heart of the Saviour, and had concluded her mystical espousals with the Incarnate Word by an exchange of hearts with Him." Sources say that Christ came in a visitation to Lutgarde, offering her whatever gift of grace she should desire; she asked for a better grasp of Latin, that she might better understand the word of God and sing God's praise. Christ granted her request and Lutgarde's mind was flooded with the riches of psalms, antiphons, readings, and responsories. However, a painful emptiness persisted. She returned to Christ, asking to return his gift, and wondering if she might, just possibly, exchange it for another. "And for what would you exchange it?" Christ asked. "Lord, said Lutgarde, I would exchange it for your Heart." Christ then reached into Lutgarde and, removing her heart, replaced it with his own, at the same time hiding her heart within his breast.
Mechtilde
Mechtilde of Helfta (d.1298) became an ardent devotee and promoter of Jesus’ heart after it was the subject of many of her visions. The idea of hearing the heartbeat of God was very important to medieval saints who nurtured devotion to the Sacred Heart. Mechtilde reported that Jesus appeared to her in a vision and commanded her to love him ardently, and to honor his sacred heart in the Blessed Sacrament as much as possible. He gave her his heart as a pledge of his love, as a place of refuge during her life and as her consolation at the hour of her death. From this time Mechtilde had an extraordinary devotion for the Sacred Heart, and said that if she had to write down all the favors and all the blessings which she had received by means of this devotion, a large book would not contain them.
Gertrude
Gertrude the Great was an early devotee of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Book 2 of the Herald of Divine Love vividly describes Gertrude's visions, which show a considerable elaboration on the hitherto ill-defined veneration of Christ's heart. Bernard articulated this in his commentary on the Song of Songs. The women of Helfta—Gertrude foremost, who surely knew Bernard's commentary, and to a somewhat lesser extent the two Mechthildes—experienced this devotion centrally in their mystical visions.
In the sixteenth century, the devotion passed from the domain of mysticism into that of Christian asceticism. It was established as a devotion with prayers already formulated and special exercises, found in the writings of Lanspergius (d. 1539) of the Carthusians of Cologne, the Benedictine Louis de Blois (d. 1566) Abbot of Liessies in Hainaut, John of Avila (d. 1569), and Francis de Sales (d. 1622).
The historical record from that time shows an early bringing to light of the devotion. Ascetic writers spoke of it, especially those of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). The image of the Sacred Heart of Jesus was everywhere in evidence, largely due to the Franciscan devotion to the Five Wounds and to the Jesuits placing the image on the title-page of their books and on the walls of their churches.
The first to establish the theological basis for the devotion was Polish Jesuit Kasper Drużbicki (1590–1662) in his book Meta cordium – Cor Jesu (The goal of hearts – Heart of Jesus). Not much later John Eudes wrote an office, and promoted a feast for it. John Eudes is regarded as "tireless apostle of the devotion of the Sacred Hearts", entitling him as „father, doctor and apostle of the liturgical cult of the hearts of Jesus and Mary.
Little by little, the devotion to the Sacred hearts became distinct, and on 31 August 1670 the first feast of the Sacred Heart of Jesus was celebrated in the Grand Seminary of Rennes. Coutances followed suit on October 20, a day with which the Eudist feast was from then on to be connected. The feast soon spread to other dioceses, and the devotion was likewise adopted in various religious communities. It gradually came into contact with the devotion begun by Margaret Mary Alacoque at Paray-le-Monial, and the two merged.
Margaret Mary Alacoque
The most significant source for the devotion to the Sacred Heart in the form it is known today was Margaret Mary Alacoque (1647–1690), a nun of the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary, who claimed to have received apparitions of Jesus Christ in the Burgundian French village of Paray-le-Monial, the first on 27 December 1673, the feast of Saint John the Evangelist, and the final one 18 months later, revealing the form of the devotion, the chief features being reception of Holy Communion on the first Friday of each month, Eucharistic adoration during a "Holy hour" on Thursdays, and the celebration of the Feast of the Sacred Heart. She said that in her vision she was instructed to spend an hour every Thursday night to meditate on Jesus' Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane.
In probably June or July 1674, Alacoque claimed that Jesus requested to be honored under the figure of his heart, also saying that, when he appeared radiant with love, he asked for a devotion of expiatory love: frequent reception of Communion, especially on the first Friday of the month, and the observance of the Holy hour.
During the octave of Corpus Christi in 1675, probably on June 16, the vision known as the "great apparition" reportedly took place, where Jesus said: "Behold the Heart that has so loved men. ...Instead of gratitude I receive from the greater part (of humankind) only ingratitude," and asked Margaret Mary for a feast of reparation of the Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi, bidding her consult her confessor Claude de la Colombière, then superior of the small Jesuit house at Paray-le-Monial.
Sometime around 1681 Alacoque felt compelled to write a personal testament, passionately donating her life completely to Jesus with her own blood. With the permission of her superior she used a pocket knife to carve the name of Jesus into her breast and used the blood to sign the document. The following account recalls this event.
"She herself wrote out the donation, and signed this humble formula: Sister Peronne-Rosalie Greyfie, at present Superioress, and for whom Sister Margaret Mary daily asks conversion with the grace of final penitence. This done, Sister Margaret Mary implored Mother Greyfie to allow her, in turn, to sign, but with her blood. The Mother having assented, Sister Margaret Mary went to her cell, bared her breast, and, imitating her illustrious and saintly foundress, cut with a knife the name of Jesus above her heart. From the blood that flowed from the wound she signed the act in these words: Sister Margaret Mary, Disciple of the Divine Heart of the Adorable Jesus
Upset by the fact that the wounds which she had cut into her breast were beginning to fade, she attempted to reopen the original wounds on more than one occasion using a knife. But, having failed to open them to her liking, she decided to burn her chest with fire. This incident placed her in the infirmary.
"However, in the midst of the peace and joy that this great act had procured her, the generous and fervent Margaret Mary experienced one regret, namely, that the letters of the holy name of Jesus, which she had engraven on her heart and which she wished to be as lasting as her love, began, after some time, to grow faint, and to disappear. Resting on the permission that she had received, she tried once or twice to renew them by opening the lines with a knife; but not succeeding according to her liking, she determined to apply fire. This she did, but so incautiously that she soon had reason to fear having exceeded the limits of obedience. Trembling and humbled, she went to acknowledge her fault. Mother Greyfie, true to her custom, apparently paid little attention to what Margaret said, but ordered her in a few dry words to go to the infirmary and show her wound to Sister Augustine Marest, who would dress it."
De la Colombière directed her to write an account of the apparition, which he discreetly circulated in France and England. After his death on 15 February 1682, his journal of spiritual retreats was found to contain a copy in his handwriting of the account that he had requested of Margaret Mary, together with a few reflections on the usefulness of the devotion. This journal, including the account – an "offering" to the Sacred Heart in which the devotion was explained – was published at Lyon in 1684. The little book was widely read, especially at Paray-le-Monial. Margaret Mary reported feeling "dreadful confusion" over the book's contents, but resolved to make the best of it, approving of the book for the spreading of her cherished devotion. Along with the Visitandines, priests, religious, and laymen espoused the devotion, particularly the Capuchins. The reported apparitions served as a catalyst for the promotion of the devotion to the Sacred Heart. Jesuit priest Croiset wrote a book called The Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and Joseph de Gallifet promoted the devotion. The mission of propagating the new devotion was especially confided to the religious of the Visitation and to the priests of the Society of Jesus.
Estelle Faguette
On the night of 14 February 1876 a domestic servant Estelle Faguette lay in Pellevoisin dying of pulmonary tuberculosis, and reportedly saw the Virgin Mary. Four days later, during the fifth apparition, Estelle seemed to be healed instantaneously. Altogether she said she experienced fifteen apparitions in the course of 1876. Estelle sought and was granted an audience with the Archbishop of Bourges, Monsignor de La Tour d'Auvergne. By 12 December 1876 she had received his permission to make and distribute copies of the Scapular of the Sacred Heart.
Mary of the Divine Heart
Another source for the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus was Mary of the Divine Heart (1863–1899), a religious sister from the Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd, who reported to have received several interior locutions and visions of Jesus Christ. The first interior locution Mary of the Divine Heart reported was during her youth spent with the family in the Castle of Darfeld, near Münster, Germany, and the last vision and private revelation was reported during her presence as mother superior in the Convent of the Sisters of the Good Shepherd in Porto, Portugal.
Based on the messages she said she received in her revelations of Christ, on 10 June 1898 her confessor at the Good Shepherd monastery wrote to Pope Leo XIII stating that Mary of the Divine Heart had received a message from Christ, requesting the pope to consecrate the entire world to the Sacred Heart. The pope initially attached no credence to it and took no action. However, on 6 January 1899 she sent another letter asking that in addition to the consecration, the first Fridays of the month be observed in honor of the Sacred Heart.
Mary of the Divine Heart died in her monastery in Portugal when the church was singing the first vespers of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on 8 June 1899. The following day, Pope Leo XIII consecrated the entire world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Papal approval
In 1353 Pope Innocent VI instituted a Mass honoring the mystery of the Sacred Heart.
After the death of Margaret Mary Alacoque on 17 October 1690, a short account of her life was published by Croiset in 1691 as an appendix to his book De la Dévotion au Sacré Cœur. In 1693 the Holy See imparted indulgences to the Confraternities of the Sacred Heart, and in 1697 granted the feast to the Visitandines with the Mass of the Five Wounds, but refused a feast common to all, with special Mass and Office. The devotion spread, particularly in religious communities. The Marseille plague in 1720 furnished perhaps the first occasion for a solemn consecration and public worship outside of religious communities. Other cities of southern Europe followed the example of Marseille. In 1726 Rome was again asked for a feast with a Mass and Office of its own; this was refused in 1729, but granted in 1765. In that year, at the request of the queen, the feast was received quasi-officially by the episcopate of France. In 1856, at the urgent entreaties of the French bishops, Pope Pius IX extended the Feast of the Sacred Heart to the Latin Church under the rite of double major. In 1889 it was raised by the Latin Church to the double rite of first class. In 1928, Pope Pius XI raised the feast to the highest rank, double of the first class, and added an octave; the 1955 reforms of the General Roman calendar suppressed, among others, the octave of the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
After Pope Leo XIII received several letters from Mary of the Divine Heart asking him to consecrate the entire world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, he commissioned a group of theologians to examine the petition on the basis of revelation and sacred tradition. The outcome of this investigation was positive, and so in the encyclical letter Annum Sacrum (on 25 May 1899) he decreed that the consecration of the entire human race to the Sacred Heart of Jesus should take place on 11 June 1899. The encyclical letter also encouraged the entire Roman Catholic episcopate to promote the First Friday Devotions, established June as the Month of the Sacred Heart, and included the Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart.
Pope Pius X decreed that the consecration of the human race performed by Leo XIII be renewed each year. Pius XI in his encyclical letter Miserentissimus Redemptor (on 8 May 1928) affirmed the church's position with respect to Margaret Mary Alacoque's visions of Jesus Christ by stating that Jesus had "manifested Himself" to Alacoque and had "promised her that all those who rendered this honor to his Heart would be endowed with an abundance of heavenly graces." The encyclical refers several times to the conversation between Jesus and Alacoque and reaffirmed the importance of consecration and reparation to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Pope Pius X also granted a Pontifical decree for the imposition of a golden crown to the lowly foot of a statue of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in the Nevers Cathedral on 9 July 1908 (via the Archbishop of Nevers and Besancon, Francois Leon Gauthey, both signed and notarized by the Sacred Congregation of Rites).
Pope Pius XII, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of Pius IX's institution of the feast, instructed the entire Latin Church at length on the devotion to the Sacred Heart in his encyclical letter Haurietis aquas (on 15 May 1956). On 15 May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI sent a letter to Peter Hans Kolvenbach, the Superior General of the Society of Jesus, on the 50th Anniversary of the encyclical Haurietis aquas. In his letter to Kolvenbach, Pope Benedict XVI reaffirmed the importance of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Worship and devotion
The Catholic acts of consecration, reparation, and devotion were introduced when the feast of the Sacred Heart was declared. In his papal bull Auctorem fidei, Pope Pius VI praised devotion to the Sacred Heart. Finally, Leo XIII in his encyclical Annum Sacrum (25 May 1899), as well as on June 11, consecrated every human to the Sacred Heart. The idea of this act, which Leo XIII called "the great act" of his pontificate, had been proposed to him by a nun of the Good Shepherd from Oporto (Portugal) who said that she had supernaturally received it from Jesus. Since c. 1850, groups, congregations, and countries have consecrated themselves to the Sacred Heart. In 1873, by petition of president Gabriel García Moreno, Ecuador was the first country in the world to be consecrated to the Sacred Heart.
Ireland was consecrated to the Sacred Heart on Passion Sunday 1873 by the bishops of Ireland, which led to the Sacred Heart lamp becoming a common devotional object in Irish homes.
Peter Coudrin of France founded the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary on 24 December 1800. A religious order of the Latin Church, the order carried out missionary work in Hawaii.
Clelia Merloni from Forlì (Italy) founded the Congregation of the Apostles of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Viareggio, Italy, on 30 May 1894.
Worship of the Sacred Heart mainly consists of several hymns, the Salutation of the Sacred Heart, and the Litany of the Sacred Heart. It is common in Roman Catholic services and occasionally is to be found in Anglican services.
The Feast of the Sacred Heart, in the Catholic liturgical calendar since the changes from 1969 in Mysterii Paschalis , is now categorized as a solemnity and is celebrated on the third Friday after Pentecost, which was up until the changes in the General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII referred to as the Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi.
The Enthronement of the Sacred Heart is a Roman Catholic ceremony in which a priest or head of a household consecrates the members of the household to the Sacred Heart. An image of the Sacred Heart that has been blessed, either a statue or a picture, is then placed in the home as a reminder. The practice of the Enthronement is based upon Pius XII's declaration that devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is "the foundation on which to build the kingdom of God in the hearts of individuals, families, and nations."
In the Catholic tradition, the Sacred Heart has been closely associated with Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ. In his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor, Pope Pius XI stated: "The spirit of expiation or reparation has always had the first and foremost place in the worship given to the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus." The Golden Arrow Prayer directly refers to the Sacred Heart.
Devotion to the Sacred Heart is sometimes seen in the Eastern Catholic Churches, where it remains a point of controversy and is seen as an example of liturgical Latinisation.
Feast day
The Feast of the Sacred Heart is a solemnity in the liturgical calendar of the Latin Church. It falls 19 days after Pentecost, on a Friday. The earliest possible date is 29 May, as in 1818 and 2285. The latest possible date is 2 July, as in 1943 and 2038. The devotion to the Sacred Heart is one of the most widely practiced and well-known Catholic devotions, taking Jesus Christ's physical heart as the representation of his divine love for humanity.
Alliance with the Immaculate Heart
The Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary is based on the historical, theological, and spiritual links in Catholic devotions between the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Immaculate Heart of Mary. The joint devotion to the hearts was first formalized in the seventeenth century by John Eudes who organized the scriptural, theological, and liturgical sources relating to the devotions and obtained the approbation of the church, prior to the visions of Marguerite Marie Alacoque.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the devotions grew, both jointly and individually, through the efforts of figures such as Louis de Montfort who promoted Catholic Mariology and Catherine Labouré's Miraculous Medal depicting the Heart of Jesus thorn-crowned and the Heart of Mary pierced with a sword. The devotions and associated prayers grew into the twentieth century, e.g. in the Immaculata prayer of Maximillian Kolbe and in the reported messages of Our Lady of Fatima saying that the Heart of Jesus wishes to be honored together with the Heart of Mary.
Popes supported the individual and joint devotions to the hearts through the centuries. In the 1956 encyclical Haurietis aquas, Pope Pius XII encouraged the joint devotion to the hearts. In the 1979 encyclical Redemptor hominis, Pope John Paul II explained the theme of unity of Mary's Immaculate Heart with the Sacred Heart. In his Angelus address on 15 September 1985, John Paul II coined the term The Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary, and in 1986 addressed the international conference on that topic held at Fátima, Portugal.
Names of institutions
Sacred Heart is a name used for many Catholic institutions, including schools, colleges, and hospitals in many countries. It is also the name of many Catholic parishes, religious orders, and stores selling Catholic religious goods.
Sacred Heart imagery
The Sacred Heart has also been involved in and depicted in apparitions such as those to Catherine Labouré in 1830, and appears on the Miraculous Medal, where the Sacred Heart is crowned with thorns. The Immaculate Heart of Mary also appears on the medal, next to the Sacred Heart, but is pierced by a sword rather than being crowned with thorns. The M on the medal signifies the Blessed Virgin at the foot of the Cross when Jesus was being crucified.
The Carillon-Sacré-Coeur flag has been adopted by the Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste in Québec.
Religious imagery depicting the Sacred Heart is frequently featured in Catholic, and sometimes in Anglican and Lutheran, homes. Sometimes images display beneath them a list of family members, indicating that the entire family is entrusted to the protection of Jesus in the Sacred Heart, from whom blessings on the home and the family members are sought. The prayer "O Sacred Heart of Jesus, I place all my trust in Thee" is often used. One particular image has been used as part of a set, along with an image of the Virgin Mary. In that image, Mary too was shown pointing to her Immaculate Heart. The dual images reflect an eternal binding of the two hearts.
The Scapular of the Sacred Heart and the Scapular of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary are worn by Catholics.
In Eastern Catholicism
Devotion to the Sacred Heart may be found in some Eastern Catholic Churches, but is a contentious issue. Those who favour purity of rite are opposed to the devotion, while those who are in favour of the devotion cite it as a point of commonality with their Latin Catholic brethren.
Promises of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Made to Margaret Mary Alacoque
Margaret Mary Alacoque said that in her apparitions Jesus promised these blessings to those who practice devotion to his Sacred Heart. The list was tabulated in 1863. In 1882 an American businessman spread the tabular form of the twelve promises throughout the world, in 238 languages. In 1890 Cardinal Adolph Perraud deplored this circulation of the promises in tabular form, which he said were different from the words and the meaning of the expressions used by Alacoque, and wanted the promises to be published in their original words.
I will give them all the graces necessary for their state of life.
I will give peace in their families.
I will console them in all their troubles.
I will be their refuge in life and especially in death.
I will abundantly bless all their undertakings.
Sinners shall find in my Heart the source and infinite ocean of mercy.
Tepid souls shall become fervent.
Fervent souls shall rise speedily to great perfection.
I will bless those places wherein the image of My Sacred Heart shall be exposed and venerated.
I will give to priests the power to touch the most hardened hearts.
Persons who propagate this devotion shall have their names eternally written in my Heart.
In the excess of the mercy of my Heart, I promise you that my all powerful love will grant to all those who will receive Communion on the First Fridays, for nine consecutive months, the grace of final repentance: they will not die in my displeasure, nor without receiving the sacraments; and my Heart will be their secure refuge in that last hour.
On 16 June 1675, Margaret Mary Alacoque reports three specific requests for the temporal power, directly from his spiritual talks. These will have political and religious repercussions and will successively be realized under the regimes royal, imperial and republican French.
The first message is addressed to kings : "He desires to enter pompously and magnificently into the house of princes and kings, to be honored, as much as he has been outraged, despised and humiliated in his passion... that the adorable Heart of his divine Son was received ... to establish his empire in the heart of our Great Monarch, from which he wants to serve for the execution of his designs."
The second message is: "to build a building where the painting of this divine Heart will be, to receive the consecration and the homage of the King and of the whole court..."
The third message asks the King: "to be painted on his standards and engraved on his weapons to make him victorious over all his enemies, by bringing down at his feet the proud and superb heads, in order to make him triumphant to all the enemies of the Holy Church ".
By a law voted on 24 July 1873, the Basilica of the Sacred Heart of Montmartre known as National Vow, is declared of public utility by the National Assembly of 1871. On 16 June 1875, the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Guibert lay the first stone of the basilica, honoring after two hundred years the fourth request reported by Marguerite Marie Alacoque from June 16, 1675.
Made to Mary of the Divine Heart
Mary of the Divine Heart said that in her mystical experiences Jesus Christ inspired her to build a shrine dedicated to his Sacred Heart. The imposing Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (also referred as Church of the Good Shepherd or Sanctuary of the Sacred Heart of Jesus) was built between 14 July 1957 and 21 April 1966, in the civil parish of Ermesinde in north Portugal, and consecrated to the Heart of Christ in fulfillment of the vow made by the nun. According to the writings of Mary of the Divine Heart, Jesus had made this promise: "I will make it a place of graces. I will distribute copiously graces to all who live in this house [the Convent], those who live here now, those who will live here after, and even to their relatives." Jesus also promised her: "Know this, My daughter, that by the charity of My Heart I desire to pour out floods of graces through your heart over the hearts of others. This is why people will come to you with confidence; it will not be your personal qualities which will attract them, but Me. No one, even the most hardened sinner, will leave your presence without having received, in one way or another, consolation, relief, or a special grace."
The body of Mary of the Divine Heart, entombed for public veneration in the Church-Shrine of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Ermesinde, was found incorrupt at its first exhumation.
Scapular of the Sacred Heart
The devotions to the Sacred Heart of Jesus also involve the Scapular of the Sacred Heart. Prior to the existence of a formal Catholic devotional scapular, Margaret Mary Alacoque made and distributed badges bearing an image of the Heart of Jesus. In 1872 Pope Pius IX granted an indulgence for the badge.
Following the claims by Estelle Faguette that the Virgin Mary had appeared to her in 1876 and requested a scapular of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, a scapular of the proposed design was approved by the Congregation of Rites in 1900. It bears the representation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on one side and that of the Virgin Mary under the title of Mother of Mercy on the other side.
Gallery
Criticism
Many Eastern Orthodox Christians disapprove of the actual worship of the physical heart of Jesus as being a form of naturalism and Nestorianism; the Feast of the Sacred Heart has however been inserted in certain Calendars of Western Rite Orthodoxy. Pope Pius XII's encyclical Haurietis aquas, in response to these criticisms, said that the Sacred Heart is venerated as belonging to the Divine Person of the Eternal Word and as "a symbolic image of his love and a witness of our redemption."
Litany of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
V. Lord, have mercy on us.
R. Christ, have mercy on us.
V. Lord, have mercy on us. Christ, hear us.
R. Christ, graciously hear us.
V. God the Father of Heaven, have mercy on us.
God the Son, Redeemer of the world, have mercy on us.
God the Holy Spirit, have mercy on us.
Holy Trinity, one God, have mercy on us.
Heart of Jesus, Son of the Eternal Father, have mercy on us.
Heart of Jesus, formed in the womb of the Virgin Mother by the Holy Spirit, have mercy on us.
Heart of Jesus, united substantially to the Word of God.
Heart of Jesus, of infinite majesty.
Heart of Jesus, holy temple of God.
Heart of Jesus, tabernacle of the Most High.
Heart of Jesus, house of God and gate of heaven.
Heart of Jesus, glowing furnace of charity.
Heart of Jesus, vessel of justice and love.
Heart of Jesus, full of goodness and love.
Heart of Jesus, abyss of all virtues.
Heart of Jesus, most worthy of all praise.
Heart of Jesus, King and center of all hearts.
Heart of Jesus, in whom art all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge.
Heart of Jesus, in whom dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead.
Heart of Jesus, in whom the Father was well pleased.
Heart of Jesus, of whose fullness we have all received.
Heart of Jesus, desire of the everlasting hills.
Heart of Jesus, patient and rich in mercy.
Heart of Jesus, rich to all who call upon Thee.
Heart of Jesus, fount of life and holiness.
Heart of Jesus, expiation for our offenses.
Heart of Jesus, overwhelmed with reproaches.
Heart of Jesus, bruised for our iniquities.
Heart of Jesus, obedient even unto death.
Heart of Jesus, pierced with a lance.
Heart of Jesus, source of all consolation.
Heart of Jesus, our life and resurrection.
Heart of Jesus, our peace and reconciliation.
Heart of Jesus, victim for our sins.
Heart of Jesus, salvation of those who hope in Thee.
Heart of Jesus, hope of those who die in Thee.
Heart of Jesus, delight of all saints.
V. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world,
R. spare us, O Lord.
V. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world,
R. graciously hear us, O Lord.
V. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world,
R. have mercy on us.
V. Jesus, meek and humble of Heart,
R. Make our hearts like unto Thine.
Let us pray.
Almighty and everlasting God, look upon the Heart of Thy well-beloved Son and upon the acts of praise and satisfaction which he renders unto Thee in the name of sinners; and do Thou, in Thy great goodness, grant pardon to those who seek Thy mercy, in the name of the same Thy Son, Jesus Christ, who liveth and reigneth with Thee, world without end.
Enthronement of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Act of enthroning the Sacred Heart in a home or other place
The enthronement is placing an image of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in a place of honor in the home after a time of prayerful preparation.
Many families will also place an image of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in tandem with the Sacred Heart image.
In some areas, there are lay apostolates dedicated to promoting and witnessing Enthronements.
Enthroning the Sacred Heart in a home should not be confused with the practice of having a priest (or other Christian minister) bless a home, which is customarily done when a family first occupies a new home, and is offered by a minister. The presence of a priest is not required for an Enthronement.
Spreading the Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus in the 20th-Century
R. Mateo Crawley-Boevey, Apostle of The Enthronement of the Sacred Heart
In 1907, R. Mateo Crawley-Boevey, a priest in the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, visited the apparition chapel in France, where Jesus had appeared numerous times to Margaret Mary Alacoque. Crawley-Boevey, sick and exhausted, was restored in health and vigor while contemplating the image of the Sacred Heart. There he conceived a plan to "conquer the world" for the Sacred Heart. He presented the idea of Enthroning the Sacred Heart in homes to his superiors and ultimately, to Pope Pius X, who "commanded" him to devote his life to this mission. Thus, Crawley-Boevey became known as the Apostle of Sacred Heart Enthronements.
The National Enthronement Center
The National Enthronement Center, located in Fairhaven, Massachusetts, has been working to spread the devotion of Enthroning the Sacred Heart of Jesus in homes throughout the United States of America since the mid-1960s. This organization received their Nihil Obstat and Imprimatur designation in 1962.
Sacred Heart Columbus
Sacred Heart Columbus, located in Columbus, Ohio, is an Apostolic Organization of Priests, Deacons, and Laymen, and Laywomen dedicated to bringing the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ into every home, school, and business in the Diocese of Columbus and the state of Ohio since 2010. The Sacred Heart Columbus apostolate conducts its ministry of Enthroning the Sacred Heart of Jesus in homes, schools, and businesses by way of Sacred Heart Missionaries. Missionaries are priests, deacons and/or laymen & laywomen who go in teams of 2 to homes, schools and businesses to assist, witness and facilitate the Enthronement process. Sacred Heart Columbus is part of the national Sacred Heart Enthronement Network.
Sacred Heart Enthronement Network
Sacred Heart Enthronement Network is a 501(c)(3) located in Columbus Ohio, that promotes the Sacred Heart devotion nationally. It offers a self-Enthronement kit that can be shipped in the mail with an easy to follow booklet. There is an outreach program to reach a wider audience and includes videos and resources.
See also
Act of Consecration to the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Act of Reparation to the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary
Annum sacrum
Apostles of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Divine Mercy
Immaculate Heart of Mary
References
Sources
Chasle, Louis; Sister Mary of the Divine Heart, Droste zu Vischering, religious of the Good Shepherd, 1863–1899. Burns & Oates, London, 1906.
External links
The Chaplet of the Sacred Heart
John Croiset. ''Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus
The Life of Saint Margaret Mary in her own words.
St. Therese of Lisieux and the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Vitis Mystica, tr. Brownlow, W.R.Bernard. London, R.Washbourne, 1873
Sacred Heart Altar in St Peter's Basilica
Catholic adoration of Jesus
Catholic theology and doctrine
Catholic art by subject
Christian symbols
Sacred Heart
Iconography of Jesus
Heart
|
[
0.004055931232869625,
0.646131157875061,
-0.19373583793640137,
-0.2966878116130829,
0.22981321811676025,
0.5364892482757568,
0.8002899289131165,
0.615657389163971,
-0.2794901728630066,
-0.3988610506057739,
-0.31009241938591003,
0.5239249467849731,
0.032985612750053406,
0.38213226199150085,
0.13569635152816772,
-0.034867025911808014,
1.06148362159729,
0.7078655958175659,
0.5292085409164429,
-0.6233782768249512,
-0.761030912399292,
-0.3915238082408905,
0.31992751359939575,
0.4508751332759857,
0.549716055393219,
-0.0924210250377655,
-0.3006143271923065,
-0.13383209705352783,
0.08871930092573166,
-0.24111011624336243,
0.31532612442970276,
0.5372712016105652,
0.3372441232204437,
-0.591914713382721,
-0.15795591473579407,
-0.6266918778419495,
0.15607480704784393,
-0.1677652895450592,
-0.5074723362922668,
-0.4141038954257965,
-0.10619863867759705,
-0.36268699169158936,
0.3037537634372711,
0.16447719931602478,
0.15544100105762482,
-0.14626647531986237,
-0.8449535965919495,
0.9192793965339661,
-0.21796216070652008,
0.36631885170936584,
0.2881491482257843,
0.2444237470626831,
0.27504777908325195,
0.18295225501060486,
-0.3556618094444275,
0.6263992190361023,
-0.7263989448547363,
0.3992752730846405,
0.12188013643026352,
-0.9174674153327942,
0.0653364509344101,
0.36028915643692017,
0.7278674840927124,
0.22196555137634277,
-0.1546132117509842,
0.022746944800019264,
-0.029175225645303726,
0.2036767154932022,
-0.18613865971565247,
-0.488125741481781,
-0.12360052019357681,
-0.38388651609420776,
-0.31862688064575195,
0.12284797430038452,
-0.4278527498245239,
-0.8020062446594238,
-0.2188592106103897,
-0.30026620626449585,
0.020894857123494148,
0.045180220156908035,
-0.21060296893119812,
0.40665295720100403,
-0.2953360080718994,
0.663877010345459,
-0.29144251346588135,
0.6945056915283203,
0.31019124388694763,
0.2914156913757324,
0.039758116006851196,
0.36638757586479187,
-0.15543104708194733,
-0.06982444226741791,
0.6274426579475403,
-0.5044169425964355,
-0.05881493538618088,
-0.5395872592926025,
0.3953741192817688,
-0.30700215697288513,
-0.17990688979625702,
0.025185951963067055,
-0.7547063231468201,
0.22594475746154785,
-0.05930466577410698,
-0.3317323327064514,
-0.0633922889828682,
0.20006485283374786,
-0.08900238573551178,
-0.5538228154182434,
0.06679702550172806,
0.1623626947402954,
-0.07107755541801453,
-0.41952165961265564,
-0.5782307982444763,
0.16440720856189728,
-0.34830930829048157,
-0.2571704089641571,
-0.19412626326084137,
-1.043075442314148,
-0.5446166396141052,
-0.2568050026893616,
-0.07320550829172134,
-0.4741840362548828,
-0.15921184420585632,
-0.015673337504267693,
0.23597922921180725,
-0.24424293637275696,
0.8024083971977234,
0.7205396294593811,
-0.19963815808296204,
-0.20782160758972168,
0.03328061103820801,
1.043044090270996,
0.14504685997962952,
-0.18418191373348236,
-0.5551867485046387,
-0.38551169633865356,
-0.11498482525348663,
-0.3170587420463562,
-0.06983620673418045,
0.643352746963501,
-0.6533679366111755,
-0.9305852055549622,
0.05326654762029648,
-0.5701018571853638,
0.687625527381897,
-0.43021586537361145,
-0.1992616504430771,
-0.016783585771918297,
-0.22561269998550415,
-0.39244669675827026,
0.22325187921524048,
0.3862468898296356,
-0.17950557172298431,
-0.2714046835899353,
-0.10476590692996979,
0.2924095690250397,
0.20314353704452515,
0.1166640967130661,
-0.1226033940911293,
0.12526574730873108,
-0.21743759512901306,
0.29172560572624207,
0.2772257626056671,
-0.21369598805904388,
-0.13659921288490295,
0.12001856416463852,
0.5920188426971436,
0.5499412417411804,
-0.5406009554862976,
-0.039938513189554214,
-0.690171480178833,
0.014934666454792023,
-0.22020269930362701,
-0.3409426510334015,
-0.7958642244338989,
-0.03237072378396988,
0.6338909864425659,
0.005279276054352522,
0.2822180688381195,
-0.17352335155010223,
-0.553848147392273,
0.6089819073677063,
-0.4911247491836548,
-0.2594665288925171,
-0.06727975606918335,
-0.03000614419579506,
0.009672165848314762,
-0.03771566227078438,
-0.2963903844356537,
0.24841031432151794,
-0.6661977767944336,
-0.07740858197212219,
-0.09100010991096497,
0.11977112293243408,
1.234236240386963,
-0.5445022583007812,
-0.10245248675346375,
0.464194655418396,
0.08399025350809097,
0.10656511038541794,
-0.17050713300704956,
0.16215097904205322,
0.11692532151937485,
-0.6200463771820068,
-1.4950686693191528,
0.15720419585704803,
0.10363611578941345,
0.089164599776268,
0.5765324234962463,
-0.2599979639053345,
-0.09005430340766907,
0.33084937930107117,
0.26463714241981506,
-0.3316628336906433,
-0.05950915068387985,
0.10605522990226746,
-0.3643933832645416,
0.21227829158306122,
0.3447619080543518,
-0.2972675561904907,
0.2884933054447174,
-0.6125945448875427,
0.13130724430084229,
0.32070574164390564,
-0.2880108952522278,
0.22057145833969116,
0.03673660382628441,
0.15568654239177704,
0.25049135088920593,
0.06161652132868767,
0.42587703466415405,
-0.3221606910228729,
0.2591003179550171,
0.13567990064620972,
-0.9965288043022156,
0.1724725067615509,
0.21307100355625153,
-0.1588664948940277,
-0.20875217020511627,
-0.15666978061199188,
0.5537421703338623,
0.38131067156791687,
-0.36373597383499146,
-0.005140527617186308,
0.012180913239717484,
-0.4333069622516632,
-0.39834949374198914,
-0.3644827902317047,
0.10246732085943222,
0.47190597653388977,
-0.5860239267349243,
0.278926283121109,
0.6144953370094299,
0.3128221333026886,
0.2874831259250641,
-0.38938960433006287,
0.3648695647716522,
0.7135204672813416,
0.03135155141353607,
0.3382232189178467,
0.18217229843139648,
-0.3110825717449188,
-0.0018932482926174998,
0.3090260326862335,
-0.13378216326236725,
-0.33010998368263245,
-0.14739476144313812,
-0.23321720957756042,
0.479316383600235,
0.7096119523048401,
-0.304012268781662,
0.01694026030600071,
-0.3840285539627075,
0.4415750503540039,
0.2159900814294815,
-0.4182470738887787,
0.5197180509567261,
0.2922056019306183,
0.20231634378433228,
-0.2374362349510193,
-0.5730038285255432,
-0.013727337121963501,
0.35860392451286316,
-0.3628745675086975,
-0.30106112360954285,
0.32356497645378113,
-0.1392631232738495,
-0.759792149066925,
-0.3019942343235016,
0.2528952360153198,
-0.13067558407783508,
-0.12056190520524979,
0.1036088690161705,
-0.24055573344230652,
0.475177526473999,
-0.1039227619767189,
0.5038506984710693,
0.10843858122825623,
-0.08454787731170654,
-0.07730067521333694,
-0.029983406886458397,
0.4856170117855072,
0.45343172550201416,
0.005997703410685062,
0.664965808391571,
0.37854325771331787,
0.1832152009010315,
0.5691827535629272,
-5.8162384033203125,
-0.4283301830291748,
-0.09200261533260345,
-0.4019901156425476,
0.012379083782434464,
0.30920806527137756,
0.19174820184707642,
-0.5481345653533936,
0.3702445328235626,
-0.2149798721075058,
0.2128879874944687,
0.3440577983856201,
0.37869009375572205,
0.0017487714067101479,
0.33410874009132385,
0.007598211523145437,
-0.15388773381710052,
-0.24847084283828735,
0.12008999288082123,
0.3461969792842865,
0.02517070434987545,
0.01181451603770256,
0.00012035953113809228,
0.7125486731529236,
-0.16048076748847961,
-0.05793793871998787,
-0.1289367526769638,
0.3837670087814331,
-0.14011144638061523,
0.33859485387802124,
0.21595162153244019,
-0.253713458776474,
0.28250980377197266,
-0.5591534376144409,
-0.3537950813770294,
-0.14974147081375122,
0.3265068233013153,
-0.5610184073448181,
0.8141344785690308,
-0.20957662165164948,
-0.09386629611253738,
-0.5495259165763855,
0.24592925608158112,
0.07096698135137558,
0.23918259143829346,
-0.22843436896800995,
-0.4047255516052246,
0.00005208615766605362,
-0.2626218795776367,
0.8473232984542847,
-0.4017351269721985,
-0.10942583531141281,
0.2016090303659439,
-0.24321745336055756,
0.4684297740459442,
0.2830355763435364,
0.06395219266414642,
-0.13689465820789337,
-0.29916492104530334,
-0.1374075710773468,
0.16441357135772705,
0.013025403022766113,
-0.48814159631729126,
0.09170570969581604,
0.07642287015914917,
-0.05163365229964256,
-1.0046560764312744,
-0.20743684470653534,
-0.34161847829818726,
0.7227482795715332,
-0.11877786368131638,
-0.004354569129645824,
0.14944806694984436,
-0.7898086905479431,
-0.5197488069534302,
-0.6490439176559448,
-0.2592417895793915,
0.04620225355029106,
0.24892845749855042,
0.19884395599365234,
-0.28115519881248474,
-0.21190480887889862,
-0.21832893788814545,
-0.11546055972576141,
0.05459103733301163,
0.18150296807289124,
-0.018987879157066345,
-0.520479142665863,
-0.3130664527416229,
-0.09258785843849182,
0.4980306923389435,
-0.07885904610157013,
0.06463006883859634,
0.34193331003189087,
-0.10309671610593796,
0.4912275969982147,
-0.04266365244984627,
0.163517564535141,
0.42104288935661316,
0.13323399424552917,
1.1569342613220215,
0.37707504630088806,
0.33717527985572815,
0.1381414830684662,
-0.31894752383232117,
-0.40680354833602905,
-0.08928822726011276,
0.31993186473846436,
0.6705542802810669,
-0.06974363327026367,
-0.06591105461120605,
-0.21795010566711426,
0.01577906683087349,
-0.29382649064064026,
0.13820971548557281,
0.17835430800914764,
-0.26031744480133057,
-0.1162685826420784,
0.6274893879890442,
0.261321097612381,
0.7300947308540344,
0.40365463495254517,
-0.07768680900335312,
0.4345002770423889,
0.0723714604973793,
0.15838198363780975,
0.5027554035186768,
0.1809462457895279,
-0.35453641414642334,
-0.17808710038661957,
0.6721222996711731,
-0.2750055491924286,
0.3037235736846924,
0.1982732117176056,
0.23252907395362854,
0.3847544491291046,
0.26663821935653687,
-0.7991487383842468,
-0.20904487371444702,
-0.24050495028495789,
-0.09576192498207092,
-0.06087636202573776,
-0.9277871251106262,
0.10394765436649323,
0.49727627635002136,
0.7276363968849182,
-0.5397964715957642,
-0.12675891816616058,
-0.08573805540800095,
0.08628237992525101,
0.1202351525425911,
-0.3808627128601074,
0.5241284370422363,
0.29252827167510986,
-0.42686623334884644,
-0.3065052628517151,
-0.16683903336524963,
0.31308937072753906,
-0.7631629109382629,
0.23223377764225006,
-0.1907762587070465,
-0.5208858251571655,
-1.0391067266464233,
-0.3186681270599365,
-0.09942739456892014,
0.1976267397403717,
-0.23395101726055145,
-1.2100752592086792,
-0.028590919449925423,
0.3414706587791443,
0.2699304521083832,
0.014553827233612537,
-0.22408078610897064,
-0.08356991410255432,
0.35564762353897095,
0.2077426016330719,
-0.2198178470134735,
-0.0636323094367981,
0.035020045936107635,
0.5002292990684509,
-0.1515270620584488,
-0.43498674035072327,
0.1793026477098465,
0.16076330840587616,
0.44470834732055664,
-0.44956642389297485,
-0.00590400630608201,
-0.318009614944458,
-0.15685208141803741,
0.775446355342865,
0.07423693686723709,
-0.39937272667884827,
-0.09236059337854385,
0.1944075971841812,
-0.04861486330628395,
-0.2805823087692261,
-0.46022045612335205,
-0.16409195959568024,
0.27246347069740295,
-0.10830095410346985,
-0.04638059064745903,
0.06234823167324066,
-0.6586315631866455,
0.15421919524669647,
0.3629225492477417,
-0.33172357082366943,
0.792133092880249,
0.1818339228630066,
-0.05308661237359047,
0.5604093074798584,
0.11918775737285614,
-0.6769324541091919,
0.060890376567840576,
0.9934448003768921,
-0.2415868490934372,
0.24518617987632751,
-0.47327786684036255,
-0.5266081094741821,
-0.2782013714313507,
-0.4544260501861572,
0.02030974254012108,
0.31484919786453247,
-0.2517683506011963,
0.2214820683002472,
0.09727329015731812,
0.6206676363945007,
0.20465907454490662,
-0.9661750197410583,
0.3279685974121094,
0.376217246055603,
-0.05457586422562599,
-0.023160886019468307,
-0.02863411046564579,
-0.6393784284591675,
-0.3923332989215851,
-0.23658397793769836,
0.2349167764186859,
0.2764836549758911,
-0.16410912573337555,
0.012614176608622074,
0.049386121332645416,
0.7694107294082642,
-0.19878345727920532,
-0.3112246096134186,
0.09792390465736389,
0.4244946241378784,
-0.11585743725299835,
-0.33735978603363037,
0.028951365500688553,
0.35459914803504944,
-0.010647784918546677,
-0.13511675596237183,
0.9506909251213074,
-0.667911171913147,
0.10488225519657135,
-0.5635300874710083,
0.08707708865404129,
-0.3095254600048065,
0.040285397320985794,
0.03754726052284241,
0.22689281404018402,
-1.0106979608535767,
-0.25308358669281006,
0.15237368643283844,
0.000987142906524241,
-0.05760203301906586,
-0.2410275787115097,
-0.41641858220100403,
-0.0900983139872551,
-0.2970809042453766,
0.607481062412262,
-0.28361478447914124,
0.3647701144218445,
-0.16257134079933167,
-0.18497087061405182,
0.3796209990978241,
-0.5471641421318054,
-0.06836505234241486,
-0.17266693711280823,
0.1524718552827835,
-0.4146098494529724,
-0.0873306542634964,
-0.2943941652774811,
0.3268122375011444,
0.6076186299324036,
-1.0387877225875854,
0.07456890493631363,
0.22407503426074982,
0.291611909866333,
-0.010044602677226067,
-0.6441146731376648,
-0.35058462619781494,
0.059394750744104385,
0.8484798073768616,
0.2709997594356537,
0.27604466676712036,
0.027268793433904648,
-0.1409236192703247,
0.0603107325732708,
-0.21441325545310974,
-0.41215625405311584,
0.3698696792125702,
0.6097197532653809,
-0.4821314215660095,
0.029261121526360512,
0.16255319118499756,
-0.10190720111131668,
0.07031095772981644,
-0.5774883031845093,
0.2950252592563629,
0.3172762393951416,
0.034727536141872406,
0.05559618026018143,
0.18581342697143555,
-0.5470870733261108,
-0.24385428428649902,
0.3737680912017822,
-0.3163168430328369,
0.1745634227991104,
0.4385676085948944,
-0.13205936551094055,
0.32662805914878845,
0.3169045150279999,
0.016235919669270515,
-0.07069592922925949,
0.5825859308242798,
-0.7826815843582153,
-0.22214503586292267,
0.33511871099472046,
0.4502888321876526,
0.622172474861145,
-0.05208289623260498,
-0.34509554505348206,
0.8743930459022522,
-0.6522031426429749,
-0.22183123230934143,
-0.06038197875022888,
-0.7842738032341003,
-0.7542274594306946,
0.42896780371665955,
0.5223225355148315,
-0.22304269671440125,
-0.04731447249650955,
0.4226565361022949,
-0.6975891590118408,
0.5295060873031616,
0.04773646593093872,
-0.02331746555864811,
-0.3913878798484802,
-0.039166323840618134,
0.08986461162567139,
-0.11571718007326126,
0.48292139172554016,
0.5410062670707703,
0.1676529049873352,
0.03365401178598404,
0.22123318910598755,
-0.1404043734073639,
-0.3145829439163208,
-0.32297542691230774,
-0.3645665943622589,
0.36372804641723633,
0.8234776258468628,
-0.23229935765266418,
0.5980034470558167,
0.5908048748970032,
-0.08442481607198715,
-0.7405612468719482,
-0.38482242822647095,
-0.012185249477624893,
-0.353242963552475,
0.37256789207458496,
-0.6983152031898499,
-0.20040716230869293,
0.35467037558555603,
-0.16794326901435852,
-0.0071425046771764755,
0.8218792080879211,
0.0716545432806015,
0.03673579916357994,
-0.07818931341171265,
-0.1159391701221466,
-0.0347629189491272,
-1.1179097890853882,
-0.4549155831336975,
0.3691096901893616,
-0.11330544948577881,
0.12674513459205627,
-0.38832005858421326,
0.117876797914505,
0.469650536775589,
0.13531146943569183,
0.44915351271629333,
0.08204584568738937,
0.0055694873444736,
-0.10760687291622162,
0.4829062819480896,
0.9891858696937561,
0.11408698558807373,
0.49259433150291443,
-0.14690230786800385,
0.11627297103404999,
-0.3230799436569214,
-0.10277126729488373,
-0.6883583068847656,
-0.3217134177684784,
-0.2374640256166458,
-0.29348546266555786,
-0.4756719768047333,
0.08383246511220932,
0.24132758378982544,
-0.3120976984500885,
0.053317148238420486,
0.06884025782346725,
-0.17974013090133667,
0.5032406449317932,
1.1286790370941162,
-0.4864269495010376,
0.5101616382598877,
-0.5331512689590454,
-0.22194939851760864,
-0.03346172347664833,
0.2522309422492981,
0.9067999124526978,
0.2610640525817871,
-0.03404099494218826,
0.195967897772789,
0.1264677792787552,
-0.9772443771362305,
0.31910309195518494,
-0.45576804876327515,
-0.1920042186975479,
-0.3426670432090759,
0.8528239727020264,
0.25173982977867126,
-0.31014883518218994,
0.3933643698692322,
-0.1818619668483734,
0.12259720265865326,
-0.5020398497581482,
0.13262596726417542,
-0.1404867321252823,
-0.06235872581601143,
0.17947497963905334,
-0.1297251135110855,
0.1926853358745575,
0.2719823122024536,
-0.365281343460083,
-0.24910001456737518,
-0.030519748106598854,
0.6417108774185181,
-0.40909409523010254,
0.350229948759079,
-0.32276448607444763,
-0.20463967323303223,
-0.10150477290153503,
0.450032502412796,
0.13746391236782074,
0.27079668641090393,
0.49089324474334717
] |
206164
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20South%20Dakota%20%28BB-57%29
|
USS South Dakota (BB-57)
|
USS South Dakota (BB-57) was the lead vessel of the four fast battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1930s. The first American battleships designed after the Washington treaty system began to break down in the mid-1930s, the South Dakotas were able to take advantage of a treaty clause that allowed them to increase the main battery to guns. However, congressional refusal to authorize larger battleships kept their displacement close to the Washington limit of . A requirement to be armored against the same caliber of guns as they carried, combined with the displacement restriction, resulted in cramped ships. Overcrowding was exacerbated by wartime modifications that considerably strengthened their anti-aircraft batteries and significantly increased their crews.
South Dakota saw extensive action during World War II; immediately upon entering service in mid-1942, she was sent to the south Pacific to reinforce Allied forces waging the Guadalcanal campaign. The ship was damaged in an accidental grounding on an uncharted reef, but after completing repairs she returned to the front, taking part in the Battle of Santa Cruz in October and the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November. During the latter action, electrical failures hampered the ability of the ship to engage Japanese warships and she became the target of numerous Japanese vessels, sustaining over two-dozen hits that significantly damaged her superstructure but did not seriously threaten her buoyancy. South Dakota returned to the United States for repairs that lasted into 1943, after which she was briefly deployed to strengthen the British Home Fleet, tasked with protecting convoys to the Soviet Union.
In mid-1943, the ship was transferred back to the Pacific, where she primarily operated with the fast carrier task force, contributing her heavy anti-aircraft armament to its defense. In this capacity, she took part in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in late 1943 and early 1944, the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign in mid-1944, and the Philippines campaign later that year. In 1945, she participated in the Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and bombarded Japan three times. Following the end of the war in August 1945, she took part in the initial occupation of the country before returning to the United States in September. She later moved to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, where she was laid up in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet until 1962, when she was sold for scrap.
Design
The South Dakota was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleship construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of and a main battery of guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the treaty that allowed displacements to rise to and armament to increase to guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.
South Dakota was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft General Electric steam turbines and eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at , generating a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . She carried three Vought OS2U Kingfisher floatplanes for aerial reconnaissance, which were launched by a pair of aircraft catapults on her fantail. Her peace time crew numbered 1,793 officers and enlisted men but during the war the crew swelled to 2,500.
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 16-inch /45 caliber Mark 6 guns in three triple gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward, with the third aft. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen /38 caliber dual purpose guns mounted in twin turrets clustered amidships, four turrets on either side. This was two fewer turrets than her sisters, a reduction in weight and magazine space to accommodate the extra personnel and equipment for her use as a flagship. To compensate for the reduction in medium anti-aircraft firepower, she received light anti-aircraft guns. As designed, the ship was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of twenty /75 caliber guns and twelve .50-caliber M2 Browning machine guns in single mounts, but she was completed with a battery of seven quadruple Bofors guns, seven quadruple 1.1 in guns, thirty-four Oerlikon autocannon in single mounts, and eight of the .50-cal. guns.
The main armored belt was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces, and they were mounted atop barbettes that were thick. The conning tower had 16 in thick sides.
Modifications
South Dakota received a series of modifications through her wartime career, consisting primarily of additions to her anti-aircraft battery and various types of radar sets. The first addition was the installation of SC air search radar, ordered in 1941, that was fitted in the fore mast. It was later replaced with an SK type set. At the same time, an SG surface search radar was installed on the forward superstructure; a second SG set was added to the main mast after experiences during the Guadalcanal campaign in 1942. During fitting out in 1942, she received a Mark 3 fire control radar, mounted on her conning tower to assist in the direction of her main battery guns and Mark 4 radars for the secondary battery guns. The Mark 3 was quickly replaced with more modern Mark 8 fire control radar, and Mark 4 radars for the secondary battery guns. She later received Mark 12/22 sets in place of the Mark 4s. South Dakota also received a TDY jammer. In 1945, her traditional spotting scopes were replaced with Mark 27 microwave radar sets, and she received an SR air search radar and an SK-2 air search dish.
The ship's light anti-aircraft battery was gradually expanded. In November 1942, eight more .50-cal machine guns were installed and during repairs in late 1942 and early 1943, two of her 1.1 in quadruple mounts were replaced with 40 mm quadruple mounts. By February 1943, all of her 1.1 in guns were removed and thirteen more 40 mm quadruple mounts were added. By this time, her 20 mm battery had been increased to 80 barrels, all in individual mounts. By the end of the war, eight of these had been removed.
Service history
The keel for South Dakota was laid down on 5 July 1939, at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 7 June 1941 and was commissioned into the fleet on 20 March 1942. She was then towed across the river to the Philadelphia Navy Yard and began fitting out; Captain Thomas Leigh Gatch was her first commanding officer. This work was completed by 14 May, and over the next two days she did machinery tests in the Delaware river, followed by more fitting out work that lasted until 3 June. Two days later, she began her shakedown cruise, escorted by four destroyers owing to the threat of German U-boats operating off the east coast of the United States. Over the following two days, she tested her engines at various speeds and test fired her guns to check for structural problems. Training in the area continued until 17 July and the next day, she departed for Hampton Roads, Virginia with four destroyers as escort. From there, she cruised back north to meet the battleship off the coast of Maine before anchoring at Casco Bay on 21 July. There, she engaged in further firing practice before steaming to Philadelphia and being declared ready for active duty on 26 July.
First Pacific deployment
As the fighting between American and Japanese forces in the Guadalcanal Campaign intensified, particularly after the Allied defeat at the Battle of Savo Island, Admiral Ernest King, the Chief of Naval Operations, ordered South Dakota, Washington, the light cruiser , and six destroyers to deploy to the south Pacific to reinforce the American fleet there. Rear Admiral (RADM) Willis Lee took command of the ships, designated Battleship Division (BatDiv) 6 on 14 August, hoisting his flag aboard South Dakota. The next day, she got underway escorted by three destroyers, but her progress was delayed by an engine breakdown that necessitated repairs that were completed the following morning. After steaming south through the Caribbean, Lee detached the escorting destroyers, passed through the Panama Canal, and picked up three other destroyers on the Pacific side of the canal.
Later in August, while still en route to the Guadalcanal area, South Dakota rendezvoused with Juneau, the ships proceeding together to Nukuʻalofa, Tongatapu which they reached on 4 September. After refueling there, they left the port on 6 September, but South Dakota was badly damaged when she struck an uncharted reef in the Lahai Passage. Divers from the repair ship inspected the hull and discovered a length of plating had been damaged. Workers from Vestal patched the hull, allowing her to depart for Pearl Harbor on 12 September, where permanent repairs were effected. She joined the aircraft carrier , which had been torpedoed by a Japanese submarine south of Guadalcanal, and her escorts for the voyage. Repairs lasted from 23 to 28 September, and the work also included removing the 1.1-inch guns, adding four 40 mm quad mounts and twenty-two 20 mm guns.
After loading ammunition and supplies, South Dakota was pronounced ready for sea on 12 October. She conducted anti-aircraft training through the following day before returning to Pearl Harbor on 14 October. She departed for the south Pacific later that day in company with Task Force 16 (TF), which included the aircraft carrier , with nine escorting destroyers. Vice Admiral William F. Halsey, the South Pacific Area commander, ordered TF 16 to sweep for Japanese naval forces north of the Santa Cruz Islands before turning south-west toward the Solomon Islands to block the Japanese path to Guadalcanal. For the operation, TF 16 was reinforced by TF 17—centered on the carrier —which were combined to form TF 61 under the command of RADM Thomas C. Kinkaid. The force was supported by Lee with TF 64, which comprised Washington, two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and six destroyers.
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
Japanese and American reconnaissance aircraft discovered each other's fleets on 25 October, and South Dakotas crew prepared for a night surface action that night, though the anticipated Japanese attack did not materialize. Japanese reconnaissance aircraft that had spotted Lee's force east of Rennell Island had drawn the Japanese fleet in his direction, away from TF 61. The next morning, aircraft from Enterprise located the Japanese aircraft carriers minutes before a Japanese seaplane located TF 61; both sides immediately launched air strikes, leading to the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. The first Japanese wave struck Hornets group, inflicting serious damage on the carrier and forcing her to withdraw, though South Dakota and Enterprise were left unmolested. Hornets withdrawal allowed the Japanese carriers to concentrate their attacks on Enterprises group.
A second strike later that morning, shortly after 10:00 targeted the Enterprise group, and South Dakota provided heavy anti-aircraft fire to drive off the attackers; the ships shot down seven Japanese aircraft and fighters claimed another three. A third wave hit the task force an hour later, and at 11:48, a group of Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers attacked South Dakota. She evaded the torpedoes and shot down one of the attackers. A fourth strike arrived over the fleet half an hour later, and several Aichi D3A dive bombers attacked South Dakota. Most of the bombs fell harmlessly in the sea, but one scored a hit on her forward main battery turret roof, though it exploded without penetrating. Gatch, who was out on the bridge wing to spot the bombers so he could try to maneuver the vessel away, was wounded by a bomb splinter and the concussion from the blast threw him into the wall and knocked him unconscious. Two men were killed and over fifty were wounded by fragments from the bomb. Splinters from the bomb damaged the center and left gun of the number two turret. The gun crew was eventually informed by the Bureau of Ordnance that the gouges were deep enough that the barrels should not be fired.
A miscommunication while transferring steering control to the executive officer's (XO) station caused South Dakota to haul out of formation, briefly headed toward Enterprise before the XO corrected the mistake. The two fleets then disengaged as night approached. South Dakotas gunners claimed to have shot down 26 Japanese aircraft, but only 13 had actually been shot down by all of the ships of TF 16 combined. The ship suffered two fatalities and around sixty wounded between the bomb hit and strafing runs from Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. The effectiveness of South Dakotas anti-aircraft fire was exaggerated in the press after the battle; the 5-inch, 1.1-inch, and 40 mm guns had difficulty tracking targets through the low clouds. The 20 mm guns, with their shorter effective range, were not hampered by the reduced visibility and accounted for two-thirds of the aircraft South Dakota shot down, according to the ship's after action report.
Though the Japanese carriers survived the battle and Hornet eventually had to be scuttled, the Japanese had lost 99 aircraft, nearly half of the carriers' complement, devastating Japanese naval aviation, which relied on a small number of highly trained veterans that could not be easily replaced. While attempting to avoid a submarine contact on the return trip to Nouméa, South Dakota collided with the destroyer on 30 October. Both South Dakota and Mahan suffered significant damage, with Mahans bow deflected to port and crumpled back to Frame 14. Both warships continued to Nouméa, where Vestal repaired South Dakotas collision and battle damage.
The repair team flooded some of South Dakotas internal compartments to induce a list to expose the damaged hull plating; the work lasted from 1 to 6 November, and Gatch had returned to duty the previous day. By this time, Enterprise was the only active carrier in the Pacific, and so Halsey ordered Washington to join South Dakota as part of the escort force to protect the valuable carrier. TF 16 now consisted of South Dakota, Enterprise, Washington, the heavy cruiser , and nine destroyers. The ships sortied on 11 November to return to the fighting off Guadalcanal. The cruiser and two more destroyers joined them the following day. On 13 November, after learning that a major Japanese attack was approaching, Halsey detached South Dakota, Washington, and four of the destroyers as Task Group 16.3, again under Lee's command. Enterprise, her forward elevator damaged from the action at Santa Cruz, was kept to the south as a reserve. The ships of TG 16.3 were to block an anticipated Japanese bombardment group in the waters off Guadalcanal.
Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal
As Lee's task group approached Guadalcanal, his Japanese counterpart Admiral Nobutake Kondō steamed to meet him with his main bombardment force, consisting of the fast battleship , the heavy cruisers and , and a destroyer screen. While en route, TG 16.3 was re-designated as TF 64 on 14 November; the ships passed to the south of Guadalcanal and then rounded the western end of the island to block Kondō's expected route. Japanese aircraft reported sighting Lee's formation, but identification of the ships ranged from a group of cruisers and destroyers to aircraft carriers, causing confusion among the Japanese commanders. That evening, American reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese warships off Savo Island, prompting Lee to order his ships to general quarters. The four destroyers were arrayed ahead of the two battleships. The American task force, having been thrown together a day before, had not operated together as a unit, and both of the battleships had very limited experience shooting their main battery, particularly at night.
At around 23:00 on 14 November, the leading Japanese destroyers in a screening force commanded by RADM Shintarō Hashimoto sent ahead of Kondō's main force spotted Lee's ships and turned about to warn Kondō. At about the same time, Washingtons search radar picked up one of Hashimoto's cruisers and a destroyer. The ships' fire control radars then began tracking the Japanese vessels and Lee ordered both of his battleships to open fire when ready. Washington fired first at 23:17 at a range of , followed quickly by South Dakota, though she was limited to four of her six forward guns owing to the damage to two of the barrels sustained at Santa Cruz. The ships used their radars to determine the range but their optical directors to aim the guns. South Dakota initially targeted the destroyer ; South Dakota missed, but Shikinami immediately turned to open the range. South Dakota then shifted fire to the destroyers and ; her spotters claimed South Dakota had hit both and set them on fire, but she scored no hits during this period. The former approached Washington too closely, however, and was quickly reduced to a flaming wreck, which was scuttled later.
Shortly thereafter, at about 23:30, an error in the electrical switchboard room knocked out power aboard South Dakota, disabling her radar systems and leaving the ship all but blind to the Japanese vessels approaching the force. By this time, Hashimoto's ships had inflicted serious damage on the American destroyer screen; two of the destroyers were torpedoed (one of which, , survived until the following morning) and a third was destroyed by gunfire. This compounded South Dakotas problems, as she had to keep clear of the burning wrecks. By being forced to turn in front of the burning destroyers, the fires backlit South Dakota and highlighted her presence to the Japanese ships. At 23:40, she engaged Hashimoto's ships with her rear turret, which accidentally set her Kingfishers on fire, but a second salvo knocked two of the three burning aircraft overboard and blew out the fire on the third. Power was restored and she fired five salvos from her main battery at a range of , but the shock of firing the guns caused further electrical failures, disabling her gunnery and search radars for five minutes shortly before midnight. Upon reactivating her search radar, South Dakota picked up numerous Japanese vessels directly ahead. These were Kondō's ships, and they immediately launched a volley of torpedoes at South Dakota, though they all missed.
Having inadvertently closed to within of Kondō's force, South Dakota bore the brunt of Japanese attacks during this phase of the battle. Japanese destroyers illuminated the ship and the rest of Kondō's vessels concentrated their fire on South Dakota. She received 27 hits during this phase, including a 14-inch shell from Kirishima that hit the rear turret and failed to penetrate the armor, though it damaged the training gear. Most of the hits came from the medium-caliber guns of the cruisers and destroyers, though they were largely confined to the superstructure, where they did not threaten the ship's survival. They nevertheless inflicted significant damage, destroying radar sets, disabling radio systems, and knocking out other systems, leaving the ship in Lee's words "deaf, dumb, blind, and impotent."
Focused on South Dakota, the Japanese left Washington unengaged, allowing her to attack Kirishima without any disruption. South Dakota fired two or three salvos at the next Japanese ship in the line before shifting fire to target Kirishima as well, firing five salvos in total before checking her fire as her gun directing equipment had been disabled; her secondary battery nevertheless kept up a heavy fire. Washington quickly inflicted fatal damage on Kirishima, destroying two of her four main battery turrets, holing her below the waterline, and starting numerous fires. Shortly after midnight, Kondō turned his ships to bring them back into torpedo range, leaving the stricken Kirishima to steam out of control. At 00:05, the Japanese ceased firing at South Dakota and she increased speed to and checked her fire at 00:08. Since her radios had been disabled by gunfire, Gatch could not communicate with Lee, so he turned south and disengaged.
A hit below the waterline caused minor flooding and a list of 0.75 degrees, though that was quickly corrected. Fires that shell hits had started were suppressed by 01:55. At around 02:00, South Dakota restored radio contact with Washington and Gatch informed Lee of his ship's condition. Lee ordered Gatch to withdraw at high speed. South Dakotas crew had suffered heavy casualties, with 40 killed and 180 wounded. Among the injured was 12-year-old Calvin Graham, who had lied about his age to enlist; he was the youngest American to fight in the war. South Dakota received the Navy Unit Commendation for her role in the battle. By 09:00, South Dakota had formed back up with Washington, Benham, and the destroyer to withdraw from the area.
Repairs and Atlantic deployment
Washington joined South Dakota, and the two battleships withdrew to Nouméa, which they reached on 17 November. There, the repair ship repaired some of South Dakotas damage, the work lasting until 25 November. During that period, she received replacements for her destroyed Kingfishers. On 25 November, she got underway, headed to Nukuʻalofa escorted by a pair of destroyers. After refueling there on 27 November, she proceeded with the destroyers until the 29th, when she detached them to return to the fleet. South Dakota steamed northeast to the Panama Canal, which she reached on 11 December. She refueled on the Pacific side of the canal, passed through the locks, and steamed north to New York. Once she was in the Atlantic, she picked up an escort of two destroyers.
After arriving in New York on 18 December, South Dakota went into dry-dock at the Brooklyn Navy Yard for permanent repairs and a refit. The ship was heralded in the press and credited with the victory off Guadalcanal instead of Washington, despite her poor performance in the action. For security purposes, she was referred to as "Battleship X". Captain Lynde D. McCormick relieved Gatch on 1 February 1943, and the ship went to sea on 25 February to begin sea trials. In March, she began operations in the north Atlantic with the carrier . The British Home Fleet deployed battleships to the Mediterranean to support the Allied invasion of Sicily, and South Dakota was in turn sent to reinforce the Home Fleet. Her primary responsibility during this period was protecting the Arctic supply convoys being sent to the Soviet Union through the Arctic Ocean; a powerful German squadron consisting of the battleships and and several heavy cruisers threatened these convoys.
The American contribution to the convoy escort was designated TF 61, commanded by RADM Olaf M. Hustvedt, and consisted of South Dakota, her sister , and five destroyers. The ships arrived in Scapa Flow on 19 May and joined the battleships and , with which they frequently operated over the next three months. The ships protected convoys going back and forth between Britain and the Soviet Union, and in July, they conducted a demonstration to distract German attention during the Sicily invasion, though the Germans took no notice of the ships. At the end of the month, South Dakota was recalled to Norfolk with five destroyers as escort; they arrived there on 1 August. After her arrival, RADM Edward Hanson, the commander of BatDiv 9, came aboard South Dakota, making her his flagship.
Second tour in the Pacific
The Gilbert and Marshall Islands
South Dakota departed Norfolk on 21 August and reached Efate in the south Pacific on 14 September. From there, she steamed to Fiji on 7 November, where she joined the rest of BatDiv 9, which had been assigned to the support force for TG 50.1, designated the Carrier Interceptor Group. The American fleet embarked on a campaign to conquer the Gilbert and Marshall Islands, beginning with Operation Galvanic, the seizure of Tarawa later in November. On 19 November, the carriers launched raids on Tarawa and nearby islands in advance of the amphibious assault. South Dakota once again came under the command of Lee in December, who commanded TG 50.4, which also included the battleships Alabama, Washington, , and two carriers. The ships were sent to attack Nauru early in the month, and on 6 December they were reinforced by the battleships and , now being re-designated TG 50.8. The ships arrived off Nauru two days later and bombarded it with gunfire from the battleships and strikes from the carriers' aircraft. The Americans achieved little of significance, as the Japanese forces on the island were light and had few aircraft to be targeted. The ships returned to Efate and began preparations for the next major offensive, including loading ammunition and other supplies. She loaded ammunition from the transport on 5 January 1944 and went to sea in company with Indiana and three destroyers for gunnery training on 16 January.
The next operation in which South Dakota participated was the invasion of the Marshalls, code-named Operation Flintlock; South Dakota was now part of TG 37.2, Third Fleet, which included Indiana, Massachusetts, North Carolina, and Washington, escorted by six destroyers. They departed Efate on 18 January, bound for Funafuti. Heavy seas injured several men aboard South Dakota and swept one man overboard, who was not recovered. The ships met the carriers and on the way, and on arriving in Funafuti two days later, the group was re-numbered as TF 58.8, as Fifth Fleet had taken command of the fast carrier task force. The ships refueled and departed on 23 January, and on the morning of 25 January, South Dakota, North Carolina, and Alabama were detached to form TG 58.2.2. The fleet continued on to its objective over the next several days, the voyage marked by false submarine sightings and radar contacts. The ships reached Roi-Namur on 29 January, and the carriers launched major air strikes on the islands in preparation for the coming assault. South Dakota remained with the carriers to protect them from Japanese aircraft that did not materialize. On 30 January, South Dakota and the rest of TG 58.2.2 were sent to shell the islands, part of the preparatory bombardment before the ground forces went ashore the following day.
Central Pacific raids
South Dakota steamed to Majuro to replenish fuel and ammunition on 4 February before departing on 12 February to support Operation Hailstone, a raid on the major Japanese naval base in the central Pacific at Truk. The American strikes sank a number of Japanese warships and logistics vessels in the harbor before continuing on to raid Japanese air bases in the Mariana Islands on 20 February. South Dakotas 5-inch gunners engaged Japanese aircraft at long range late on 21 February and into the early hours of 22 February. Heavy anti-aircraft fire from the fleet kept the Japanese aircraft from closing to attack effectively, and South Dakota claimed several aircraft shot down. The American carriers attacked airfields on Saipan, Guam, and Tinian over the next two days, and on 23 February the fleet came under heavy Japanese air strikes. A wave of Mitsubishi G4M land-based bombers struck the fleet and South Dakota shot down at least two of them, one of which had attempted to bomb the ship.
South Dakota, Alabama, and a screen of destroyers were detached from the carrier raiding force to return to TG 58.2; they arrived back in Majuro on 26 February where they refueled and conducted shooting practice over the next month. Fifth Fleet got underway on 22 March for Operation Desecrate One, a series of carrier raids on islands in the western Carolines, including Palau, Yap, Woleai, and Ulithi. The raids were intended to secure the seaward flank for the landing at Hollandia in New Guinea. For the operation, South Dakota was assigned to TG 58.9, which included four other fast battleships, two carriers, three heavy cruisers, and thirteen destroyers; the ships were tasked with screening the main carrier task force to guard against a possible attack by heavy surface elements of the Japanese Combined Fleet, though they encountered no naval opposition.
On 27 March, three carriers and other warships from TG 36.1 joined TG 58.2, which was re-designated 58.3. Late that evening, South Dakotas air search radar picked up Japanese aircraft approaching; in the ensuing battle, South Dakotas gunners could not identify any targets in the darkness and so she did not engage the Japanese aircraft. For their part, the Japanese inflicted no damage on the fleet. The main carrier force began their raids on 30 March, which continued into 1 April. Another Japanese air strike hit the fleet late on the 30th, and this time South Dakota engaged two waves of attackers but did not shoot any down. The carriers inflicted significant losses to Japanese forces in the region at little cost before further operations were interrupted by bad weather that prevented aircraft from being launched. By 6 April, the fleet had returned to Majuro to prepare for the next operation.
Operation Desecrate Two followed the next week; this series of raids targeted Japanese positions along the coast of New Guinea to support the landing at Aitape. While underway on 19 April, South Dakota picked up a Japanese aircraft that was shadowing the fleet and a fighter from the combat air patrol (CAP) was sent to shoot it down. The carriers began their strikes two days later and inflicted serious losses, sinking a number of Japanese vessels in the area and destroying around 130 aircraft in the air or on the ground. Another series of raids followed the next day to support the ground forces fighting ashore. While the fleet withdrew back to Majuro, the carriers hit Truk again on 29 and 30 April, further battering the island. On 1 May, Lee took the fast battleships, including South Dakota, and created TG 58.7, tasked with bombarding the island of Pohnpei. The ships arrived off the island that afternoon and opened fire, quickly suppressing the Japanese anti-aircraft guns that attempted to engage them. South Dakota, Indiana, and North Carolina briefly disengaged to avoid a reported submarine in the area, but after it failed to attack, they returned to their firing positions. There were few targets for the battleships, but the operation provided the crews with experience operating in the bombardment role together. The ships returned to Majuro on 4 May. South Dakota conducted more shooting practice at sea on 15–16 May.
The Mariana and Palau Islands
TF 58 sortied on 6 June to begin Operation Forager, the invasion of the Mariana Islands. South Dakota operated as part of TG 58.7, again under Lee's command. The unit now included six other battleships, four heavy cruisers, and thirteen destroyers. They were again tasked primarily with escorting the fast carrier strike force, providing protection against surface forces and their ample anti-aircraft batteries to defend against hostile aircraft. The carriers began their raids on 11 June and continued for several days. Japanese aircraft launched the first of several counter-attacks later that night and South Dakota used her air search radar to help vector fighters from the CAP to intercept them. As the Japanese made their approach, South Dakotas 5-inch guns opened fire. On 13 June, South Dakota and the other battleships were sent to shell Saipan and Tinian in advance of the arrival of the old battleships of the bombardment group the following day. Japanese artillery attempted to engage them but South Dakota and the other battleships easily outranged them. South Dakota bombarded the area around Tanapag Harbor for some six hours, hitting two transports in the port and starting several fires in the town. The shelling was generally ineffective, however, as the battleships were not sufficiently experienced with shore bombardment, and Japanese defenses were largely undamaged.
On 14 June, South Dakota refueled some of the escorting destroyers and employed her Kingfishers to rescue downed pilots from the carriers. The next day, the marines went ashore on Saipan, a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter-thrust with the 1st Mobile Fleet, the main carrier strike force. While the Japanese were approaching, local counter-attacks from land-based aircraft struck the fleet. The first of these hit on the evening of 15 June, with South Dakota shooting down one of the attackers. The ship refueled the next day, and on 17 June the carriers and escorting battleships left the Saipan area to meet the 1st Mobile Fleet after patrolling submarines had reported its approach through the Philippine Sea. On 18 June, Lee and Admiral Marc Mitscher, the commander of the fast carrier task force, discussed strategies for the coming battle, and Lee decided to deploy his battleships with the carriers to screen them during the anticipated Japanese attack, rather than pursue the Japanese fleet in a night action, as Mitscher suggested.
Battle of the Philippine Sea
Lee kept his ships steaming in a circle that was in diameter to cover a wide area as the Japanese scouts approached the fleet early on 19 June. South Dakota and the other battleships tracked these aircraft on their air search radars. By 10:04, South Dakota picked up the first wave of strike aircraft inbound and ordered her crew to general quarters. In the ensuing Battle of the Philippine Sea, the CAP fighters engaged the incoming aircraft at 10:43, but Japanese planes broke through and continued on to the fleet. One of these, a Yokosuka D4Y dive-bomber, hit South Dakota with a bomb at 10:49, blasting an hole in the deck, disabling a 40 mm mount, and killing twenty-four and wounding another twenty-seven men. Gun crews claimed to have shot the bomber down, but observers aboard Alabama stated that the plane evaded the fire and escaped.
At 11:50, a second wave of about twenty aircraft punched their way through the CAP. Two Nakajima B6N torpedo bombers attempted to launch their torpedoes at South Dakota, but heavy fire from her and Alabama forced them to break off their runs. Other aircraft targeted South Dakota at around 11:55, but she again emerged unscathed. Third and fourth waves hit the fleet later in the day, but South Dakota was not attacked during these actions. That evening, the men killed in the bomb hit were buried at sea; one of the wounded men succumbed to his injuries the next morning and he was buried as well. The battle continued throughout 20 June, but South Dakota did not see further action. The American strike aircraft had had to fly at extreme range to attack the retreating Japanese fleet, and so many were forced to ditch their aircraft after running out of fuel; South Dakota spent the next morning searching for downed aircrews. During this period, another man who had been wounded by the bomb hit died.
South Dakota turned to the east on 22 June; with the 1st Mobile Fleet having been badly mauled by Mitscher's carrier strike, the invasion fleet off the Marianas was no longer under significant threat and the battleships of TG 58.7 could withdraw from the area. South Dakota was transferred to TG 58.2 and sent to Eniwetok on 23 June, arriving there four days later. From there, she got underway for Puget Sound by way of Pearl Harbor; while in Pearl Harbor on 2 July, she embarked a group of 248 wounded, 279 sailors, and 90 marines to carry them to the mainland. She reached Puget Sound on 10 July and disembarked her passengers and her own wounded crewmen the next day. She was then dry-docked for repairs that evening. The work was completed by 6 August and after being re-floated, she loaded ammunition on 19 August. Sea trials began two days later. She was then assigned to Task Unit (TU) 12.5.1 in company with a pair of destroyers on 25 August, departing for Pearl Harbor, which she reached on the last day of the month.
The ship took part in a series of gunnery exercises off Hawaii from 6 to 8 September, including anti-aircraft shooting and defending against simulated torpedo boat attacks. She replenished fuel and ammunition in Pearl Harbor on 9 September and departed two days later for further maneuvers. During these exercises, she experienced difficulties with her engines; divers inspected the screws and discovered that several of the blades on three of her four propellers were bent or chipped. Instead of participating in the scheduled exercises, she had to return to dry dock in Pearl Harbor for repairs that lasted until 16 September. She resumed training operations that day before getting underway to re-join the fleet on 18 September. TU 12.5.1 initially headed to Seeadler Harbor in Manus Island off New Guinea, but while en route they were redirected to Ulithi, which had recently been seized to serve as the fleet's advance base. They reached their destination on 30 September, by which time Third Fleet had taken operational control of the fast carrier task force.
Okinawa and Formosa raids
On 3 October, the fleet at Ulithi was forced to go to sea to avoid being caught in harbor by a typhoon that struck that night. After returning to the anchorage the next morning, the stores ship accidentally collided with South Dakota, striking her port side and inflicting only superficial damage. On 5 October, Hanson came back aboard the ship and she resumed her role as the flagship of BatDiv 9. The next day, TF 38, to which BatDiv 9 had been assigned, sortied to embark on the next major operation, a series of carrier raids on Japanese positions in the western Pacific. The fast carrier task force, still under Mitscher's command, steamed north to launch strikes on the Okinawa Islands; they arrived early on the morning of 10 October and began the raid, which sank twenty-nine Japanese vessels in the area. Early the next morning, the battleship picked up a radar contact at long range and South Dakota confirmed the contact; it turned out to be a G4M bomber shadowing the task force that was shot down by one of the CAP fighters.
After leaving the Okinawa area, Mitscher turned to make a feint toward the Philippines late in the day before turning west toward Formosa, which he attacked in a major raid beginning on 12 October. The aircraft inflicted significant damage to Japanese installations around the island, bombing airfields, factories, and other military facilities and sinking eighteen ships and damaging six more. A G4M dropped chaff to interfere with the fleet's search radars, but the measure was only partially effective and the bomber was shot down. CAP intercepted three waves of bombers, but they were able to approach the fleet much closer before being detected, possibly as a result of the chaff. South Dakota opened fire with her 5-inch guns at 19:03 as the first wave arrived before the target turned away. The second wave reached the fleet about twenty minutes later and South Dakotas gunners engaged it as well. The Japanese air strikes convinced Mitscher to disengage to the east before returning the next morning for another attack. While the Americans were withdrawing, Japanese aircraft repeatedly attacked the ships, though South Dakota initially held her fire since no aircraft approached close enough for her to engage them. At 22:31, she reported shooting down one aircraft, and she kept another group of aircraft at bay with long-range 5-inch fire closer to midnight.
The carriers returned to their strike positions on 13 October, but Japanese aircraft counter-attacked almost immediately, though this first wave was broken up by CAP fighters. Several waves of G4M bombers struck the fleet, torpedoing the cruiser . South Dakota maneuvered at high speed to avoid their torpedoes while engaging the bombers. The American carriers launched another round of strikes the next day to cover the withdrawal of Canberra and her escorts. Later that afternoon, lookouts on South Dakota spotted a wave of seven B6N torpedo bombers approaching the fleet; she opened fire on the two closest aircraft, shooting one of them down. Five more were destroyed by fire from other ships in the area. The fast carrier task force then withdrew to support the invasion of the Philippines.
Philippines campaign
Battle of Leyte Gulf
The landing on Leyte on 17 October triggered the Japanese high command to initiate Operation Shō-Gō 1, a complicated counter-thrust that involved four separate fleets converging on the Allied invasion fleet to destroy it. The 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force, had been significantly reduced in strength by three years of combat and was intended to serve only as a distraction to lure the American fast carrier task force away from the invasion fleet. Meanwhile, Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's Center Force would pass through the San Bernardino Strait and attack the invasion fleet. The Americans detected Kurita's approach, however, and the carriers launched a major attack on his fleet while it passed through the Sibuyan Sea. After losing the powerful battleship in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on 24 October, Kurita temporarily reversed course. This convinced Halsey, now the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected.
Later that evening, Commodore Arleigh Burke, Mitscher's Chief of Staff, suggested that Mitscher detach South Dakota and Massachusetts (along with a pair of light cruisers and a destroyer screen) to send them ahead of the carriers to fight a night action with the Northern Force. Mitscher agreed, and at 17:12 ordered RADM Forrest Sherman to put the plan into action. Halsey intervened before Sherman could send the ships north and overruled Mitscher, ordering them to keep the battleships with the main fleet. As Halsey sent Mitscher north to pursue the Japanese carriers, he established TF 34, consisting of South Dakota and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers, commanded by now Vice Admiral Lee. TF 34 was arrayed ahead of the carriers, serving as their screen.
On the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the Battle off Cape Engaño; over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into Leyte Gulf the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the Battle off Samar, he was held off by a group of escort carriers, destroyers, and destroyer escorts, TU 77.4.3, known as Taffy 3. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene. However, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet, to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south.
Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before South Dakota and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached the battleships Iowa and as TG 34.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships. South Dakota refueled at sea on 26 October before in turn refueling a pair of destroyers two days later. She refueled another two destroyers on 30 October, though the process was temporarily interrupted by the appearance of a G4M. On 1 November, South Dakota was transferred to BatDiv 6, though Hanson remained aboard the ship until her replacement, the new battleship , arrived later that month. South Dakota withdrew to Ulithi the following day.
Later operations
Immediately on arrival in Ulithi on 2 November, South Dakota sortied as part of TG 38.1, tasked with supporting ground forces ashore on Leyte that had encountered heavy Japanese resistance. On 4 November, South Dakota was transferred to TG 38.3 to support a group of four carriers launching strikes on Luzon the next day. The group came under air attack on the afternoon of 5 November; errant rounds from other ships accidentally killed a man and wounded seven more aboard South Dakota during the action. Another wave of aircraft approached the following morning, prompting the fleet to assume a defensive formation. The Japanese planes did not attack, however, and the fleet returned to its cruising formation. South Dakota spent the next several days refueling destroyers and replenishing her own fuel bunkers. The carriers launched another series of raids on 13 and 14 November before withdrawing to Ulithi, arriving on 17 November.
The next day Hanson transferred to Wisconsin and Lee, who was by now the Commander Battleships, Pacific Fleet, came aboard the ship, making her his flagship. South Dakota and the rest of TG 38.3 sortied on 22 November. The unit by this time consisted of two fleet and two light carriers, South Dakota and the two s, three cruisers, and two destroyer squadrons. Most of the ships conducted gunnery training while the carriers conducted strikes independently against targets in the Philippines over the next three days. South Dakota spent the rest of the month taking part in anti-aircraft training and refueling destroyers. She arrived back in Ulithi on 2 December, where the crew made repairs and loaded ammunition and stores for future operations.
On 11 December, TG 38.3 departed Ulithi to join the rest of TF 38 for an assault on the island of Mindoro; the purpose of the operation was to seize a large airfield that could be used to support the invasion of Luzon. The carriers began a series of strikes on airfields on Luzon on 14 December to destroy or otherwise prevent Japanese aircraft there from interfering with the landing on Mindoro. The American raids continued over the next several days and significantly degraded the remaining strength of Japanese air forces in the Philippines. Late in the day on 17 December, Typhoon Cobra swept through the area, battering the fleet, sinking three destroyers, and inflicting serious damage to several other vessels, though South Dakota emerged relatively unscathed. The damage inflicted on the fleet delayed further support of ground troops for two days and the continuing bad weather led Halsey to break off operations; the ships arrived back in Ulithi on 24 December.
TF 38 refueled over the next several days and embarked on another raid on Formosa on 3–4 January 1945, but bad weather hampered flight operations and Halsey broke off the operation, having achieved little. The ships returned to the Philippines and made repeated strikes on Lingayen over the course of 6 and 7 January in preparation for the next landing, particularly targeting the airfields being used by the kamikaze suicide aircraft. The ships then entered the South China Sea on 10 January and refueled before conducting a further series of strikes against various targets in the region, including Formosa on 21 January and the Ryuku Islands the following day.
Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa
By early February, Fifth Fleet had resumed control of the fast carrier task force and South Dakota was transferred to TG 58.3, along with New Jersey, the large cruiser , and several other warships. The fleet carriers conducted a series of air strikes on Japan, targeting the Tokyo area on 17 February, but bad weather made it difficult for the aircraft to operate. The ships of TG 58.3 were then sent to reinforce the invasion fleet during the Battle of Iwo Jima from 19 to 22 February. The carriers made repeated strikes as the marines went ashore on the first day of the landing. The ships of TF 58 were then recalled for another series of raids on Japan, targeting Tokyo on 25 February; planned attacks on Kobe and Nagoya were cancelled due to poor weather.
The fleet then returned to Ulithi to replenish ammunition and fuel before embarking on another raid of Japan in mid-March. The carriers struck Kyushu on 18 March while the battleships continue their air defense role. Four days later, having inflicted serious damage on airfields and several warships in Kure, the task force withdrew to refuel. The following day, air strikes to prepare Okinawa for assault began, interrupted by the need to disengage and refuel on 28–29 March. The initiation of major attacks on the island, a clear indicator of an impending amphibious assault, led the Japanese to begin a serious, concentrated kamikaze campaign against the fleet, damaging numerous vessels but not seriously impeding the Allies' progress. Over the coming weeks, the task groups of TF 58 rotated through the waters off Okinawa, two groups at a time, to allow the other groups to replenish fuel and ammunition and repair battle damage. Throughout the maelstrom off Okinawa, South Dakota emerged without having been hit by any of the kamikazes.
On 19 April, South Dakota was detached from the carriers to join a shore bombardment group sent to support a major offensive by XXIV Army Corps against Japanese defensive positions in southern Okinawa, though they made little progress. The ships of TF 58 then departed for a raid on the Sakishima Islands before withdrawing to Leyte. After replenishing there, the task groups resumed their rotations off Okinawa for the next week. On 6 May, South Dakota was replenishing ammunition from the ammunition ship when a tank of propellant for the guns exploded. The blast detonated four more tanks and caused a serious fire, forcing the crew to flood the magazine for turret number 2 to avoid a catastrophic explosion. Three men were killed by the explosion and eight more were seriously wounded and later died; another twenty-four were less-seriously injured in the accident.
South Dakota was detached from TG 58.4 for repairs at Ulithi on 13 May in company with a pair of escorting destroyers, arriving there the next day. She entered the auxiliary floating drydock to be inspected. The ship's propellers, shafts, and strut bearings all had worn badly and suffered from pitting. These were repaired and she was refloated on 27 May; during this period, Third Fleet resumed command of the fast carrier task force, reverting all subordinate unit designations to the 30-series. Two days later, South Dakota went to sea to begin anti-submarine training with a pair of destroyers. Further combat practice, including main-battery and anti-aircraft gunnery practice and night combat training, continued over the next several days, during which time the ship crossed the Philippine Sea to Leyte Gulf. A reorganization of TF 38 saw South Dakota reassigned to TG 38.1 on 16 June, the same day she became the flagship of RADM John F. Shafroth Jr. The ship took part in more anti-aircraft training from 23 to 24 June.
Bombardments of Japan
With Okinawa in Allied hands, preparations were beginning for Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyushu. TF 38 sortied from Leyte on 1 July to begin a series of strikes on targets in Japan to deplete Japanese forces in the Home Islands. While en route, South Dakota kept several destroyers fueled before the fleet arrived off the coast of Japan on 10 July. The carriers began their raids that day, though the Japanese had anticipated the attacks and had dispersed and camouflaged their aircraft, holding them back for the eventual landing instead of losing them prematurely. As a result, the carrier aircraft found few Japanese planes to destroy over the next several days. On 14 July, South Dakota was assigned to TU 38.8.1 with Indiana, Massachusetts, two heavy cruisers, and nine destroyers. The battleships were then sent to bombard the town of Kamaishi to destroy the Kamaishi Steel Works, but the mountainous terrain made targeting the facility difficult. This was the first time that Japan came under bombardment by capital ships during the war. Despite their difficulty in observing the effects of their shooting, in the course of six passes, the battleships inflicted what was later estimated to have been a two-and-a-half-month interruption in coke production and a one-month disruption of pig iron manufacture.
The battleships then returned to their positions with TF 38 and covered them during air strikes on Honshu and Hokkaido on 15 July. Further reinforced by the British Pacific Fleet, the Allied fleet struck targets around Tokyo on 17 July, sinking or damaging several warships in the area. Over the course of 20 through 22 July, South Dakota replenished fuel, ammunition, and other supplies at sea. Additional carrier strikes were made from 24 to 28 July, inflicting further losses to the remnants of the Japanese fleet; the battleships , , and were all sunk at their moorings, along with a number of cruisers, destroyers, and other warships. TU 38.8.1 was re-formed on 29 July to bombard Hamamatsu; this time, South Dakota, Indiana, and Massachusetts were reinforced by the British TU 37.1.2, centered on the battleship , and they were covered by CAP fighters from the carrier . The battleships opened fire shortly before midnight on 29 July and continued firing into the early hours of the 30th.
The ships withdrew shortly after ceasing fire with South Dakota in the lead of the formation. The task unit was again dissolved later that morning and South Dakota returned to TG 38.1, which thereafter resumed launching air strikes on the Tokyo and Nagoya areas. Another typhoon threatened the fleet, but Halsey steered the ships out of its way on 31 July and 1 August. South Dakota refueled on 3 August and the carriers launched simulated strikes on the fleet for anti-aircraft training two days later. South Dakota again replenished her fuel bunkers on 7 August before re-forming TU 34.8.1 for a third bombardment mission on 9 August. This time, the unit consisted of South Dakota, six Allied cruisers and ten Allied destroyers. South Dakota shelled Kamaishi that afternoon for a period of about an hour and a half before disengaging. As the ships withdrew, a single Japanese plane attacked them but evaded all fire from the ships and escaped. South Dakota returned to TG 38.1 and supported the carriers during further strikes on airfields later that day and on the 10th. Shafroth transferred to Alabama on 12 August and South Dakota was reassigned to TG 38.3 the next morning.
End of the war
TF 38 carriers had already launched aircraft on the morning of 15 August when Halsey received word that the Japanese had agreed to surrender unconditionally. The aircraft were recalled and South Dakota received the order to cease offensive operations at 06:58. Problems communicating their surrender to all subordinate units led to some Japanese aircraft launching attacks on the fleet later that day, but they were all shot down by CAP aircraft. South Dakota spent the next several days refueling and replenishing ammunition before steaming to Sagami Wan on 27 August as part of the initial occupation of Japan. Two days later, she moved to Tokyo Bay; that afternoon, Halsey and Nimitz came aboard the ship. Halsey left later in the day, but Nimitz remained until he left for the battleship , where the formal surrender ceremony took place on 2 September. Nimitz returned later that day before departing for Guam on 3 September and South Dakota came alongside Missouri to transfer Halsey and his staff to the ship. South Dakota thereafter served as Halsey's flagship while he directed the initial stages of the occupation.
Halsey remained aboard until 20 September when he left to return to Pearl Harbor. South Dakota got underway that afternoon in company with numerous other warships for the voyage back to the United States. South Dakota stopped in Buckner Bay in Okinawa on 23 September and then resumed her journey across the Pacific the next morning with some 600 sailors, soldiers, and marines aboard. The ships passed Hawaii and thereafter dispersed to different ports; South Dakota entered San Francisco on 27 October, with Halsey once again aboard for Navy Day celebrations. Governor Earl Warren boarded the ship for the ceremonies. Two days later, she steamed down to San Pedro, California.
Post-war
On 3 January 1946, South Dakota got underway for the Atlantic; she steamed south and transited the Panama Canal a final time and steamed north to the Philadelphia Navy Yard, arriving there on 20 January. She then underwent an overhaul in preparation for deactivation. A month later on 21 February, RADM Thomas R. Cooley hoisted his flag aboard the ship, making her the flagship of the Fourth Fleet, a reserve unit. Cooley's tenure aboard the ship was brief and he was replaced by Vice Admiral Charles H. McMorris just five days later. On 3 July, McMorris transferred his flag to the heavy cruiser and the Navy dissolved the Fourth Fleet on 1 January 1947. South Dakota was decommissioned on 31 January and laid up in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet.
Plans were drawn up during the period she was in reserve to modernize South Dakota and the other ships of her class should they be needed for future active service. In March 1954, a program to equip the four ships with secondary batteries consisting of ten twin guns were proposed, but the plan came to nothing. Another plan to convert the ship into a guided missile battleship arose in 1956–1957, but the cost of the conversion proved to be prohibitive. She would have had all three main battery turrets removed and replaced with a twin RIM-8 Talos missile launcher forward, two RIM-24 Tartar launchers aft, anti-submarine weapons, and equipment to handle helicopters. The cost of the project amounted to $120 million.
The ship remained in the Navy's inventory for another fifteen years before being stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1962. South Dakota was sold to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers and Co. to be broken up for scrap on 25 October. Tugboats towed her from Philadelphia in November to Kearny, New Jersey to be dismantled. Some parts of the ship were retained through the efforts of the Sioux Falls Chamber of Commerce, and they were installed in a memorial to the ship in the city on 7 September 1969. The memorial consists of a low concrete wall built in the outline of the ship in full scale, and artifacts from the ship, including an anchor, a simulated gun turret, and a 16-inch gun are displayed in the outline. A museum was erected in the center of the outline, and it displays other artifacts, including her bell, sailors' uniforms, a scale model of South Dakota, and various other displays.
Additional artifacts from the ship are preserved at the National Museum of the United States Navy, including one of South Dakotas screws and a section of armor plate. Both items are on display in Willard Park.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
South Dakota-class battleships (1939)
Ships built in Camden, New Jersey
1941 ships
World War II battleships of the United States
United States Navy South Dakota-related ships
|
[
-0.3015279471874237,
-0.06379127502441406,
-0.42966386675834656,
0.5981796979904175,
-0.15193074941635132,
0.29997390508651733,
0.6926065683364868,
-0.4453766644001007,
-0.5885931253433228,
0.04169266298413277,
0.7743358016014099,
0.05202186480164528,
-0.3447732925415039,
0.8132320046424866,
0.19422878324985504,
0.25775209069252014,
0.3812658488750458,
0.6941906213760376,
0.19108419120311737,
-0.4153681993484497,
-0.13235513865947723,
-0.528254508972168,
0.4831727147102356,
0.24400483071804047,
0.3116006553173065,
0.301972895860672,
0.78204345703125,
-0.19216297566890717,
0.42346808314323425,
0.41502371430397034,
0.1117262989282608,
0.21034052968025208,
-0.01225078385323286,
0.12970072031021118,
0.07052422314882278,
-0.10148830711841583,
0.030549420043826103,
-0.1731971949338913,
-0.023235168308019638,
-0.049711041152477264,
-0.7413408160209656,
-0.039430633187294006,
0.3369646668434143,
0.24141013622283936,
-0.1930605173110962,
0.013718926347792149,
-1.5351601839065552,
0.18084478378295898,
0.5584707260131836,
-0.31669721007347107,
-0.5900316834449768,
0.2860492169857025,
0.38600191473960876,
0.7489423751831055,
0.1098608523607254,
0.4525454342365265,
-0.5115429759025574,
0.4885389804840088,
-0.5560606122016907,
-0.9345920085906982,
0.36145639419555664,
0.14988663792610168,
0.6043279767036438,
0.6252874732017517,
0.2164749652147293,
0.005362071096897125,
-0.4340551495552063,
0.6472291946411133,
-0.11256519705057144,
-0.20850376784801483,
0.03577233478426933,
-0.2866233289241791,
-0.010781582444906235,
0.33018189668655396,
-0.1660355031490326,
0.13566702604293823,
-0.010884230956435204,
-0.3723383843898773,
0.15528759360313416,
0.0038475668989121914,
-0.04440847039222717,
0.4978690445423126,
0.5456740856170654,
0.10141071677207947,
0.4127107262611389,
0.015492498874664307,
-0.485243022441864,
-0.1973174810409546,
-0.42787495255470276,
0.2756912112236023,
-0.942240297794342,
-0.14429663121700287,
-0.18072237074375153,
0.37149056792259216,
-0.03931902348995209,
-0.2396421581506729,
-0.07922086119651794,
0.17571255564689636,
0.6803959012031555,
0.4087091088294983,
0.0647469237446785,
-0.15213829278945923,
0.7901700735092163,
0.3420637547969818,
-0.20438358187675476,
-0.5530338883399963,
0.047029759734869,
-0.4156884551048279,
-0.5739692449569702,
-0.2065664678812027,
-0.4457448422908783,
-0.31216561794281006,
0.12038205564022064,
-0.3140283226966858,
-0.2671051025390625,
0.410653680562973,
0.2417578101158142,
-1.079329490661621,
-0.2950812876224518,
-0.3930143415927887,
0.26189079880714417,
0.7494754195213318,
-0.7260315418243408,
0.11732712388038635,
-0.018749892711639404,
0.48200011253356934,
0.7840884327888489,
0.447815865278244,
-1.1335937976837158,
-0.06235286593437195,
0.2554149925708771,
0.7529984712600708,
-0.013131524436175823,
0.22650110721588135,
-0.5021588206291199,
-0.12696056067943573,
0.2378608137369156,
0.3694063723087311,
0.24908606708049774,
0.22169813513755798,
-0.3826139569282532,
-0.20817767083644867,
-0.29806602001190186,
-0.336405485868454,
0.5006104111671448,
-0.4098532497882843,
0.5536875128746033,
0.053181249648332596,
-0.32548972964286804,
-0.11624573916196823,
0.05312608554959297,
-0.029829347506165504,
0.09737735241651535,
0.36947691440582275,
-0.8620530962944031,
0.6043379306793213,
0.5201987624168396,
-0.41769054532051086,
0.7347743511199951,
0.4950123727321625,
-0.4459259808063507,
0.3744891881942749,
-0.1559908390045166,
0.3327798545360565,
-0.3797937035560608,
-0.3657519817352295,
0.23586702346801758,
-0.42739492654800415,
-0.25862470269203186,
-0.24081800878047943,
-0.42532405257225037,
0.10953148454427719,
0.5312891602516174,
0.22892457246780396,
0.029836775735020638,
-0.28081631660461426,
0.28084877133369446,
-0.05597493797540665,
0.24217288196086884,
-1.1138205528259277,
-0.41040468215942383,
0.18301641941070557,
0.7368868589401245,
0.07803961634635925,
0.16522283852100372,
0.17680078744888306,
0.15290653705596924,
0.3173195421695709,
0.06569385528564453,
-0.6492583155632019,
0.2140699177980423,
-0.658377468585968,
-0.02573215402662754,
-0.21004021167755127,
1.2825472354888916,
0.1184765174984932,
-0.22625181078910828,
0.031921759247779846,
0.18918175995349884,
0.3393203616142273,
0.6917092800140381,
-0.20942075550556183,
0.43268823623657227,
-0.05575663968920708,
-0.5828417539596558,
0.1283533126115799,
0.20758168399333954,
0.6020686030387878,
0.48005247116088867,
0.733127772808075,
-0.07309765368700027,
-0.9143145084381104,
0.013808476738631725,
0.1089605838060379,
-0.43285679817199707,
-0.4459557831287384,
0.20414844155311584,
-0.46183255314826965,
0.24889451265335083,
-0.19191284477710724,
0.6623109579086304,
0.15034089982509613,
-0.7218618988990784,
-0.2652933597564697,
-0.016958484426140785,
0.05954283848404884,
-0.2861085534095764,
0.28367578983306885,
-0.5702000856399536,
0.24035631120204926,
0.33548203110694885,
0.6270714402198792,
-0.5794699192047119,
-0.2097754031419754,
0.2584342062473297,
-0.08602260053157806,
-0.02818310633301735,
-0.08217702060937881,
0.709043562412262,
-0.6681267023086548,
0.22658397257328033,
0.57916659116745,
-0.45372170209884644,
0.1853514462709427,
0.0008538368856534362,
-0.7240545749664307,
0.5386875867843628,
-0.4699517786502838,
-0.15835265815258026,
-0.37474626302719116,
0.48005712032318115,
0.4833641052246094,
0.43413978815078735,
-0.6866527795791626,
-0.21323834359645844,
0.35416072607040405,
-0.4480929374694824,
-0.5616313219070435,
0.8899142742156982,
-0.4804559350013733,
0.33433711528778076,
-0.021204693242907524,
0.014193156734108925,
-0.19040848314762115,
0.43587949872016907,
-0.3915320038795471,
-0.19679008424282074,
0.015433689579367638,
0.1309562474489212,
0.04228120297193527,
0.15463455021381378,
0.25670668482780457,
0.6380529403686523,
-0.5449845194816589,
0.1225498765707016,
-0.4041779637336731,
0.21230429410934448,
0.5880351066589355,
-0.9939814209938049,
-0.6347663998603821,
0.6467108130455017,
1.107055425643921,
-0.46540457010269165,
-0.9430450797080994,
-0.3053724467754364,
-0.2744560241699219,
0.15874513983726501,
-0.49618664383888245,
-0.3644569218158722,
-0.014039341360330582,
0.010487641207873821,
-0.6278795003890991,
-0.6881600618362427,
-0.1213637962937355,
-0.7119594812393188,
0.8668107390403748,
0.0469495914876461,
-0.1375947892665863,
0.34122589230537415,
-0.1918230950832367,
-0.5346747040748596,
0.1370558887720108,
-0.18858842551708221,
0.32063400745391846,
0.32790425419807434,
-0.14055316150188446,
-0.5354050397872925,
0.10538511723279953,
-5.343202114105225,
-0.14807000756263733,
-0.5590922832489014,
-0.043885886669158936,
0.22802814841270447,
0.5277677178382874,
0.013837556354701519,
0.2607070505619049,
-0.20421844720840454,
-0.5641893148422241,
0.2863369584083557,
0.4789796471595764,
-0.4302372634410858,
0.21115882694721222,
0.33275049924850464,
0.1167864054441452,
1.1992918252944946,
-0.2901257872581482,
0.669863760471344,
-0.08149342238903046,
0.19251962006092072,
-0.1319333165884018,
0.04167626425623894,
0.17295987904071808,
0.7843973636627197,
0.024844840168952942,
-1.1703535318374634,
0.19783227145671844,
-0.6683980822563171,
-0.4369228780269623,
-0.35188713669776917,
-0.5040831565856934,
-0.32645827531814575,
-0.040114354342222214,
-0.04644086956977844,
-0.16694799065589905,
0.8278845548629761,
0.2957780063152313,
0.3573356866836548,
-0.5190132856369019,
-0.18650750815868378,
0.1303224116563797,
-0.2356521189212799,
0.5288683772087097,
0.5568864941596985,
-0.1749381572008133,
-0.09486398100852966,
-0.07005520164966583,
0.20640534162521362,
0.9792842864990234,
0.1202659085392952,
0.34923818707466125,
0.22950337827205658,
0.6283805966377258,
0.5696707963943481,
-0.7287411689758301,
-0.4725756347179413,
0.09710703790187836,
-0.3452836871147156,
0.06993576884269714,
0.29782989621162415,
-0.3914647698402405,
-0.0908924788236618,
-0.5730153322219849,
-0.4213443696498871,
-0.6776565313339233,
-0.12769250571727753,
0.09404687583446503,
0.17290395498275757,
-0.25212621688842773,
-0.1760595142841339,
1.313662052154541,
-0.06695690751075745,
-0.833026647567749,
0.6735376715660095,
-0.34791767597198486,
-0.32391348481178284,
-0.5092343688011169,
-0.4533899128437042,
0.2107848972082138,
-0.14678315818309784,
0.16191886365413666,
-0.11956090480089188,
0.7220178842544556,
0.49702271819114685,
-0.4783533811569214,
-0.3328837752342224,
0.4475517272949219,
-0.18785803020000458,
-0.044421758502721786,
0.19697046279907227,
-0.35489797592163086,
0.5387533903121948,
0.011410401202738285,
0.3958127498626709,
-0.3838946223258972,
-0.46103858947753906,
0.22559663653373718,
0.6923314332962036,
-0.46320152282714844,
0.3694779872894287,
-0.2281503528356552,
0.05713272467255592,
-0.007907112129032612,
-0.2895517647266388,
-0.3682047426700592,
-0.19191980361938477,
0.2757449746131897,
0.4310344457626343,
0.16626319289207458,
-0.524389922618866,
-0.643408477306366,
-0.1263822615146637,
-0.314251571893692,
0.7886645197868347,
0.22698041796684265,
-0.24963761866092682,
0.2900395393371582,
0.48031553626060486,
0.7396549582481384,
0.018696874380111694,
0.7476963996887207,
-0.6996341943740845,
-0.3789364993572235,
0.3081861734390259,
-0.8117751479148865,
0.13392271101474762,
-0.0417449064552784,
-0.901760995388031,
-0.09780319035053253,
0.11642107367515564,
0.03461984544992447,
0.34181687235832214,
0.21455156803131104,
-0.0030580994207412004,
-0.47545483708381653,
-0.041315674781799316,
-0.44422248005867004,
0.049258727580308914,
-0.367001473903656,
-0.7891056537628174,
0.5646315813064575,
-0.5249720215797424,
0.06349565833806992,
0.7604777812957764,
0.30161839723587036,
0.5336199998855591,
-0.23824730515480042,
-0.41183194518089294,
0.43213918805122375,
-0.7039808034896851,
-0.833615779876709,
0.33329519629478455,
-1.2222737073898315,
-0.002032787771895528,
0.12259358167648315,
1.0556684732437134,
0.33750542998313904,
-0.18914683163166046,
0.07003465294837952,
-0.262550950050354,
-0.1693519502878189,
-0.3175385892391205,
-0.28809064626693726,
0.13404355943202972,
0.15245197713375092,
-0.1335131824016571,
-0.5960471034049988,
-0.13464245200157166,
0.42195209860801697,
0.34136876463890076,
-0.34663549065589905,
-0.52757728099823,
0.3107592761516571,
0.45660561323165894,
0.27901121973991394,
-0.6517513394355774,
-0.18826504051685333,
0.049352798610925674,
0.3310278356075287,
-0.3827175199985504,
-0.19237011671066284,
-0.6633313298225403,
0.16293926537036896,
0.17021122574806213,
-0.08260394632816315,
-0.46974462270736694,
0.194349005818367,
-0.39504337310791016,
0.24290098249912262,
-0.08595667034387589,
-0.3932211697101593,
0.6854393482208252,
0.3353828489780426,
-0.8847429752349854,
0.11152485013008118,
0.33198821544647217,
0.38241061568260193,
0.5279486179351807,
-0.6991842985153198,
0.434006929397583,
0.9149136543273926,
-1.1496044397354126,
0.2531373202800751,
0.4395485818386078,
-0.45716479420661926,
0.32404205203056335,
-0.3157094120979309,
0.4602312445640564,
0.3266042172908783,
0.053974851965904236,
-0.580944836139679,
0.1272112876176834,
0.8100244402885437,
0.06484624743461609,
-0.2527947723865509,
0.049102555960416794,
-0.33458149433135986,
-0.206558957695961,
-0.6848927140235901,
-0.6066245436668396,
-0.3142487108707428,
-0.3099508285522461,
-0.7794801592826843,
-0.961280107498169,
0.14241686463356018,
-0.37996742129325867,
-0.1593325287103653,
-0.13198727369308472,
-0.5836510062217712,
-0.005961923860013485,
-0.18707142770290375,
-0.28062182664871216,
0.02798454836010933,
0.5349258184432983,
-0.3255007565021515,
0.032295335084199905,
0.021958250552415848,
0.249113067984581,
0.2728135287761688,
0.675493061542511,
1.6273841857910156,
0.413638174533844,
-0.4588131904602051,
-0.2597421705722809,
0.007074120920151472,
0.3750792443752289,
-0.47725099325180054,
-0.44980576634407043,
0.290279358625412,
-0.019658967852592468,
-1.0340908765792847,
-1.0628328323364258,
-0.3598725497722626,
1.0599514245986938,
-0.27823713421821594,
-0.3376519978046417,
-0.14897401630878448,
-0.017212027683854103,
-0.05165611952543259,
-0.36200588941574097,
0.3169829249382019,
-1.1274043321609497,
0.14037831127643585,
0.12473798543214798,
0.0871696025133133,
-0.3940410017967224,
-0.171599879860878,
0.5175215601921082,
-0.5309101939201355,
-0.06545727699995041,
0.5963340997695923,
0.04365154355764389,
-0.19317549467086792,
-0.08632678538560867,
0.4447266757488251,
-0.20507895946502686,
0.13423892855644226,
0.40018996596336365,
0.09439284354448318,
-0.1977386325597763,
0.40933480858802795,
-0.2454264909029007,
-0.3306638300418854,
-0.6626163125038147,
-0.4095253646373749,
-0.2592392563819885,
-0.7319867610931396,
-0.33975040912628174,
0.15350288152694702,
0.23817864060401917,
-0.05220109224319458,
-0.0883675217628479,
-0.3042452037334442,
-0.31573250889778137,
0.5938511490821838,
0.03475230932235718,
0.3549010753631592,
0.04099844768643379,
0.8572415113449097,
-0.39618879556655884,
0.8977903127670288,
-0.3053029477596283,
0.06242362782359123,
0.12307768315076828,
0.007759249769151211,
0.0790497437119484,
-0.07045115530490875,
-0.058274030685424805,
0.3460671901702881,
-0.1394820213317871,
-0.7082272171974182,
0.2582719326019287,
0.5991014242172241,
-0.781601071357727,
-0.10030960291624069,
0.7251339554786682,
-0.27262935042381287,
0.015543350018560886,
-0.51810622215271,
-0.03383411839604378,
-0.03585861623287201,
0.14954647421836853,
0.4164818525314331,
-0.1014799252152443,
0.8165627717971802,
-0.9866029620170593,
0.06450694799423218,
0.2208995670080185,
0.7971654534339905,
-0.39703401923179626,
-0.8287172913551331,
-0.5212314128875732,
0.5183935761451721,
0.12099798023700714,
0.3222976624965668,
0.9453266263008118,
-0.07923942804336548,
-0.31675875186920166,
0.3640430271625519,
0.15494279563426971,
0.1537642627954483,
-0.21542204916477203,
-0.3322528898715973,
0.07989533990621567,
-0.021869497373700142,
0.18713298439979553,
0.26666587591171265,
0.1024622768163681,
0.25128069519996643,
-0.07376771420240402,
0.43878433108329773,
0.05082399398088455,
0.14471349120140076,
0.29445353150367737,
-0.11938835680484772,
0.7971084713935852,
-0.6177014112472534,
-0.012646659277379513,
-0.44225403666496277,
-0.5314489006996155,
-0.20948919653892517,
0.4884190261363983,
-0.08580092340707779,
-0.3262436091899872,
0.007180599495768547,
0.2714373767375946,
0.17780183255672455,
-0.12972815334796906,
0.17825257778167725,
0.5286443829536438,
-0.02062818966805935,
0.021309569478034973,
0.2888683080673218,
0.4776316285133362,
0.5528309941291809,
0.4751882553100586,
-0.67109614610672,
0.04124349728226662,
0.45225971937179565,
-0.43317437171936035,
0.45071014761924744,
-0.4369649291038513,
-0.6024078130722046,
-0.00006176221359055489,
0.10642056167125702,
-0.005973536986857653,
0.5333800315856934,
0.34069764614105225,
-0.15755580365657806,
0.53270423412323,
-0.17769795656204224,
-0.056060947477817535,
0.035317618399858475,
0.21123383939266205,
0.27642568945884705,
-0.09197729825973511,
0.5003921389579773,
0.10871855914592743,
0.7095523476600647,
-0.12752819061279297,
0.5158265829086304,
0.18439719080924988,
0.6790406107902527,
0.02348780259490013,
-0.1633009910583496,
-0.6366052627563477,
0.36292144656181335,
0.1723593771457672,
0.12128602713346481,
-0.1002197116613388,
-0.4011635482311249,
-0.2890932261943817,
0.018940765410661697,
-0.11826902627944946,
-0.022199243307113647,
0.8933072686195374,
-0.790054976940155,
-0.6088160276412964,
-0.03933553397655487,
0.24392026662826538,
-0.32013222575187683,
-0.3117063045501709,
0.3964316248893738,
-0.7949733138084412,
-0.28330540657043457,
0.36853983998298645,
-0.7563486099243164,
-0.5441352128982544,
0.29347968101501465,
-0.08527779579162598,
-0.47803232073783875,
-0.7039110064506531,
0.5214750170707703,
-0.2560896575450897,
-0.10748086124658585,
0.1507861167192459,
0.4490596354007721,
0.6579123735427856,
-0.1465560346841812,
0.3385179936885834,
-0.12828750908374786,
0.4595143795013428,
-0.10898519307374954,
-0.022461500018835068,
0.30221718549728394,
-0.42651715874671936,
-0.7612503170967102,
0.4015539288520813,
0.6098732352256775,
-0.10478947311639786,
-0.3136579990386963,
-0.16626141965389252,
-0.14765459299087524,
0.32038548588752747,
0.1475619524717331,
0.4028770923614502,
-0.14339756965637207,
0.10288610309362411,
-0.16446398198604584
] |
206165
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie%20Morshead
|
Leslie Morshead
|
Lieutenant General Sir Leslie James Morshead, (18 September 1889 – 26 September 1959) was an Australian soldier, teacher, businessman, and farmer, whose military career spanned both world wars. During the Second World War, he led the Australian and British troops at the Siege of Tobruk (1941) and at the Second Battle of El Alamein, achieving decisive victories over Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps. A strict and demanding officer, his soldiers nicknamed him "Ming the Merciless", later simply "Ming", after the villain in the Flash Gordon comics.
When the First World War broke out in August 1914, Morshead resigned his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps to travel to Sydney and enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in September. He landed at Anzac Cove, Gallipoli on 25 April 1915, and his battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day. Invalided to Australia, he became commander of the 33rd Infantry Battalion, which he led on the Western Front at Messines, Passchendaele, Villers-Bretonneux, and Amiens.
Between the wars Morshead made a successful business career with the Orient Steam Navigation Company, and remained active in the part-time Militia, commanding battalions and brigades. In 1939, he was appointed to command the 18th Infantry Brigade of the 6th Division in the Second Australian Imperial Force. In 1941, he became commander of the 9th Division, which he led in the Siege of Tobruk and the Second Battle of El Alamein. He returned to Australia in 1943, where he was appointed to command II Corps, which he led during the New Guinea campaign. In 1945, he commanded I Corps in the Borneo campaign.
Early life
Morshead was born on 18 September 1889 in Ballarat, Victoria, the sixth of seven children of William Morshead, a gold miner who had emigrated from Cornwall via Canada, and his wife Mary Eliza Morshead, formerly Rennison, the Australian-born daughter of a fellow Cornish immigrant. William died when Morshead was six years old. He was educated at Mount Pleasant High School, where he was appointed a junior teacher in 1906.
In 1909, he became a student at the Melbourne Teachers Training College to obtain formal teaching qualifications. After his graduation in December 1910, he was awarded a scholarship to complete an education diploma at the University of Melbourne, but decided to defer for a year in order to teach at schools in country Victoria. He became a schoolteacher, teaching first at Tragowell in the Swan Hill district, and then at Fine View State School in the Horsham district. In 1911 he entered Trinity College at the University of Melbourne. After failing an exam in deductive logic, he decided to quit the state school system, and in 1912 took up a position at The Armidale School in the New England district of New South Wales. In 1914 he moved to the prestigious Melbourne Grammar School.
Morshead had been commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Army Cadets in 1908. At Armidale, he was appointed commander of the school cadet unit, and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Militia on 10 February 1913. He was promoted to captain in September. At Melbourne Grammar he commanded a company in that school's much larger cadet unit. While at Melbourne Grammar, he met Myrtle Catherine Woodside, the daughter of a Happy Valley, Victoria, grazier, and the sister of one of Morshead's pupils.
First World War
Gallipoli
Morshead's teaching career was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. He resigned both his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps and travelled up to Sydney to enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) because it was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Braund, whom Morshead knew well from his time teaching in Armidale. Morshead's time in the ranks was brief, as he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the AIF on 19 September. He embarked for Egypt on the transport Suffolk on 18 October 1914. While his battalion was in training there, he was promoted to captain on 8 January 1915.
The 2nd Infantry Battalion landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. Morshead's platoon transferred from the transport Derfflinger to the destroyer , which took it to within of the shore. They then transferred to wooden boats which were towed to the shore, arriving at around 09:30. The battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day, reaching the slopes of Baby 700, but was driven back by a Turkish counter-attack in the afternoon. It beat off further counter-attacks over the next three days. Morshead assumed command of C Company on 28 April. The battalion defeated major Turkish attacks on its position on 18 May and 8 June.
Promoted to major on 8 June, Morshead distinguished himself in the Battle of Lone Pine on 6 August. So intense was the fighting that of the 22 officers in the battalion, Morshead was the only one who did not become a casualty. However, on 16 September, like many others, he succumbed to dysentery and paratyphoid fever. He was evacuated to the 3rd General Hospital on Lemnos, and then to England on the hospital ship Aquitania, where he was admitted to the 3rd London General Hospital in Wandsworth, England. For his services in the Gallipoli campaign, he was mentioned in despatches.
Western Front
Morshead returned to Australia on 22 January 1916 where he was treated at the 4th General Hospital at Randwick, New South Wales. After he recovered, he was posted to the 33rd Infantry Battalion, which was being raised in Armidale as part of the 3rd Division. He became its commander on 16 April, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel three days later. He embarked for England again with his battalion on 4 May 1916.
The 33rd Infantry Battalion trained at Larkhill on Salisbury Plain in England until November 1916, when it embarked at Southampton for France. On 7 December it relieved a British battalion in the quiet "nursery" sector of the Western Front around Armentières. Morshead was mentioned in despatches, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order. His citation, written by his division commander, Major General John Monash, read:
Official historian Charles Bean described Morshead as:
Morshead subsequently led the 33rd Infantry Battalion through the Battle of Messines in June 1917, and the disastrous Battle of Passchendaele in October, where the 3rd Division suffered heavy losses. In March 1918, the 3rd Division was sent to the Somme sector to help halt the German Spring Offensive. The 9th Infantry Brigade, of which the 33rd Infantry Battalion was a part, was detached from the 3rd Division and sent to Villers-Bretonneux. On 30 March, the 9th Infantry Brigade's commander, Brigadier General Charles Rosenthal, ordered Morshead to restore the front around Aubercourt. With the aid of the British 12th Lancers, the battalion was able to restore the line, although it was unable to advance as far as Rosenthal hoped. The 33rd Infantry Battalion was then relieved, and withdrawn to Villers-Bretonneux to rest. However, on 4 April, Morshead was astonished to find that the line had again been broken and Villers-Bretonneux threatened. In the First Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, the battalion participated in halting the advance, and prevented the Germans from capturing the town. On 18 April, the 33rd Infantry Battalion was still in the town when it was heavily shelled with poison gas. Many men, including Morshead, became mustard gas casualties. He did not return to his unit until June.
Morshead again led the 33rd Infantry Battalion in the Battle of Amiens. For the fighting in August 1918, he was awarded the French Légion d'honneur in the grade of Chevalier. His citation, written by his new division commander, Major General John Gellibrand, read:
For his service on the Western Front, Morshead was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in December 1919, and was mentioned in despatches three more times.
Between the wars
Morshead returned to Australia in November 1919 and his AIF appointment was terminated in March 1920. He considered applying for a regular army commission, but found that these were reserved for graduates of the Royal Military College, Duntroon. He tried farming, accepting a soldier settlement block of near Quilpie, Queensland, but this venture was a failure, and he returned to Melbourne, where he married Myrtle at Scots Church, on 17 November 1921. They had a daughter, Elizabeth in 1923.
After working in odd jobs he joined the Orient Line in Sydney on 24 October 1924. He was appointed passenger manager of the Sydney office in 1926. Many Orient Line appointments followed. He became publicity manager in January 1927, acting manager of the Melbourne office in May 1928, passenger and publicity superintendent, and then temporary business manager of the Brisbane office in April 1931. He returned to Sydney, and then moved to the Melbourne office, where he became temporary office manager, a position which became permanent in December 1933; in 1937 he went back to the Sydney office.
All this time, he remained active in the part-time Militia, commanding the 19th Infantry Battalion from 1921 to 1925. He became commander of the 36th Infantry Battalion on 1 August 1926. He was promoted to colonel in 1933, and was appointed to command the 14th Infantry Brigade on 1 January 1933. When he moved to Melbourne in 1934, he transferred to command of the 15th Infantry Brigade, then part of the 3rd Division under Major General Sir Thomas Blamey. On returning to Sydney in 1937 he assumed command of the 5th Infantry Brigade. During a visit to England in 1937 as part of his duties with the Orient Line, he had occasion to observe the British Army on manoeuvres in East Anglia, and was impressed by the pace of modern mechanised forces. He also realised that the Australian Army was lagging a long way behind in both human and technical resources. He was promoted to brigadier in 1938. Known for his right-wing views even before the war, he was also a member of the clandestine far-right wing paramilitary organisation the New Guard.
Second World War
Britain
On 6 October 1939, Morshead was selected by Blamey to command the 18th Infantry Brigade in the new 6th Division. This brigade was composed of four battalions from the smaller states, and would have been a natural assignment for a regular officer had Prime Minister Robert Menzies not restricted commands to senior posts to Militia officers, few of whom had much experience of the Army outside their home states. Morshead met with Blamey on 13 October to select officers for the new brigade. Like the other brigadiers, he was given a regular officer as brigade major, in this case Major Ragnar Garrett.
Morshead formally enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on 10 October 1939 and was given the AIF serial number NX8. He was given the rank of colonel and made temporary brigadier three days later. A delay in preparing 18th Infantry Brigade's camp in the Hunter Region meant that it was not concentrated there until December. In the meantime its battalions trained in their home states. After the 16th Infantry Brigade departed for Palestine in January 1940, the 18th Infantry Brigade moved into its vacated accommodation at Ingleburn, New South Wales. As a consequence, its training proceeded more slowly than that of the 16th and 17th Infantry Brigades.
The 18th Infantry Brigade finally embarked from Sydney on the Mauretania on 5 May 1940 but en route was diverted to the United Kingdom owing to the dangerous military situation there following the Battle of France. It moved into camps on Salisbury Plain, where the 3rd Division had trained back in 1916. The Australian force there under Major General Henry Wynter was poorly equipped but the 18th Infantry Brigade was nonetheless given an important role in the defence of Southern England. In September 1940, Wynter was informed that his force would become the nucleus of a new 9th Division, which he was appointed to command. Morshead and his 18th Infantry Brigade embarked for the Middle East on 15 November, reaching Alexandria on 31 December. Morshead was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1941. Before his other two brigades could arrive from England and Australia, Wynter became seriously ill. Blamey decided to send him home and appointed Morshead to command the 9th Division on 29 January 1941.
According to Official historian Barton Maughan:
Tobruk
In February 1941, the 9th Division was completely reorganised, with its 18th and 25th Infantry Brigades transferred to the 7th Division. In return, it received the 20th and 24th Infantry Brigades, the latter short one battalion which was on garrison duty in Darwin. The 9th Division, less its partly trained and equipped artillery, was ordered to move to the Tobruk–Derna area where it would relieve the 6th Division, so that formation could participate in the Battle of Greece. The half-trained and half-equipped 9th Division was pitched into the thick of the action almost immediately, steadying the retreat of Commonwealth forces from the newly arrived German Afrika Korps, under General Erwin Rommel, and occupying the vital port of Tobruk. Morshead was given command of the Tobruk garrison which, as the retreat (known to the Australians as the "Benghazi handicap") continued, became surrounded, hundreds of miles behind enemy lines. Lieutenant General John Lavarack determined that Tobruk could be held and ordered Morshead to defend it. He also ordered the 18th Infantry Brigade to reinforce the garrison, bringing it up to four brigades, with British artillery and tank units brought up to provide support.
General Sir Archibald Wavell instructed Morshead to hold the fortress for two months while the rest of Wavell's forces reorganised and mounted a relief mission. With the 9th Division, 18th Infantry Brigade and supporting forces from various Allied nations, Morshead's force decisively defeated Rommel's powerful initial assaults, and retained possession of the fortress. His strategy for the defence of Tobruk is still mentioned in officer training colleges around the world as an example of how to arrange and conduct in-depth defences against a superior armoured force. An important part of Morshead's tactics was conducting offensive operations when these were possible. His attitude was summed up in a reported remark, made when his attention was drawn to a British propaganda article entitled "Tobruk can take it!" Morshead commented: "we're not here to take it, we're here to give it."
Aggressive use of snipers, artillery and counter-attacks achieved surprise at crucial junctures, and kept Rommel's forces off balance. The Axis troops learned to fear the aggressive patrolling of the Australian infantry who dominated no-man's-land and made constant raids on enemy forward positions for intelligence, to take prisoners, to disrupt attack preparations and minelaying operations, even to steal supplies that were not available in Tobruk. The troops were backed up by well-sited artillery and mobile reserves. The 9th Division held Tobruk not for eight weeks, but for eight months, during which time three separate relief campaigns by the main Allied force in Egypt failed. Axis propagandists described Morshead as "Ali Baba Morshead and his 20,000 thieves", and branded the defenders of the port as the "Rats of Tobruk", a sobriquet that they seized on and wore as a badge of pride. Morshead's men referred to him humorously as "Ming the Merciless", and later simply as "Ming", after the villain in Flash Gordon comics.
By July 1941, Morshead had become convinced that his troops were becoming tired. Their health was deteriorating and, in spite of his efforts, their morale and discipline were slipping. He informed Generals Blamey and Auchinleck that they should be relieved. Auchinleck arranged for the 18th Infantry Brigade to be relieved by the Polish Carpathian Brigade so that it could rejoin the 7th Division in August but baulked at relieving the 9th Division. At this point, political considerations came into play. The newly installed government of Prime Minister John Curtin in Australia, on Blamey's advice, took up the matter with Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who protested that the relief would cause a postponement of Operation Crusader. As it turned out, the operation had to be postponed anyway. In October 1941, Morshead and most of the 9th Division was replaced by the British 6th Division. This account is contradicted, in terms of the commander's views, in the documentary 'Narrow Escapes of World War 11' (2012) 'Morshead Holds Tobruk' with a statement that Morshead objected to the withdrawal. This information is recorded here merely to advise that a contrary account exists in the only documentary account. The documentary also adds important information on this stage of the siege. A description, with footage, is given of the extraordinary replacement operation which was undertaken entirely by sea over many nights, and was completed without the Axis becoming aware of it; according to the documentary. The 9th Division moved to Syria to serve as an occupation force, as well as resting, re-equipping and training reinforcements.
The Battle of Tobruk marked a rare defeat for German armoured forces at this stage of the war. For his part in the battle, Morshead was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 6 January 1942. He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari by the Polish government in Exile and was decorated by Generał broni Władysław Sikorski on 21 November 1941.
El Alamein
The outbreak of war with Japan in December 1941, and the imminent threat of invasion saw the 6th and 7th Divisions transferred to the Far East in early 1942. In March, Morshead was given command of all Australian forces in the Mediterranean theatre, and was promoted to lieutenant general, while still remaining commander of the 9th Division.
Morshead was one of only a few Allied divisional commanders with a distinct record of success at this stage of the war and had been acting commander of the British XXX Corps, a formation largely composed of Commonwealth troops, on two occasions. He had hopes that he might be given command of a corps, as Harry Chauvel had been in the Great War. Many war correspondents, including Gavin Long, thought that Morshead would be an excellent choice, but disagreements with Auchinleck had led to the latter labelling Morshead "a difficult subordinate", who, while an excellent division commander, was not up to the demands of commanding a corps. Moreover, while Chauvel had been an Australian, he had been a regular officer, while Morshead was not. The new commander of the British Eighth Army, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery felt that a reservist could not "possess the requisite training and experience" to command a corps. Morshead was passed over in favour of Oliver Leese, a British regular officer, who was junior to him and had never commanded a division in action.
At the Second Battle of El Alamein, the 9th Division was given responsibility for clearing a corridor through the German and Italian forces in the North and threatening to cut off those between the coastal road and the sea. In the initial assault the division hacked its way through the enemy defences but failed to clear the minefields. As the British attack faltered, the main effort switched to the 9th Division, which punched a massive dent into the German and Italian position over the next five days at great cost, "crumbling" the Afrika Korps in the process, and ultimately forcing Rommel to retreat. "I am quite certain", Leese informed Morshead, "that this breakout was made possible by Homeric fighting over your divisional sector." During the El Alamein Campaign, the 9th Division suffered 22% of the British Eighth Army's casualties; 1,177 Australians were killed, while 3,629 were wounded, 795 were captured and 193 were missing. Morshead received yet another mention in despatches in June 1942, and in November 1942 he was also created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath.
New Guinea Campaign
After El Alamein, Morshead and the 9th Division were recalled to the South West Pacific Area (SWPA). Morshead arrived in Fremantle on 19 February 1943 where he was welcomed home by Lieutenant General Gordon Bennett, who had been his divisional commander in Sydney between the wars. Morshead then flew to Melbourne where he was met by Lady Morshead, Sir Winston Dugan and Sir Thomas Blamey, who informed Morshead that he would take over command of a corps. In March 1943, Morshead became commander of II Corps, handing over command of the 9th Division to Major General George Wootten. The association between Morshead and the 9th Division was not entirely broken however, as it formed part of his corps, along with the 6th and 7th Divisions, all three of which were undergoing jungle warfare training on the Atherton Tableland for upcoming battles in New Guinea. It was Blamey's intention that Morshead would spend some time learning the art of jungle warfare before his II Corps replaced Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring's I Corps in New Guinea. Morshead's chief of staff at II Corps was Brigadier Henry Wells, who had been his chief of staff at El Alamein.
In late September 1943, Morshead was summoned to New Guinea to relieve Herring by Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay, the commander of New Guinea Force, which he did on 7 October 1943. Morshead found a difficult situation. The Japanese not only held the high ground overlooking the Australian beachhead at Finschhafen, they were rapidly reinforcing their position and were about to mount a major counter-attack. Morshead demanded and got critical reinforcements, including Matilda tanks of the 1st Tank Battalion. The Japanese counter-attack was crushed. Morshead relieved Brigadier Bernard Evans of command of the 24th Infantry Brigade, replacing him with Brigadier Selwyn Porter, who had commanded a brigade in the Kokoda Track campaign. Unlike most reliefs of senior officers in SWPA this relief, while controversial at the time, has attracted little attention since.
Adjusting to jungle warfare was a challenge for both Morshead and his men. Gavin Long recalled that
On 7 November 1943, Morshead became acting commander of New Guinea Force and Second Army on Mackay's departure to become the Australian High Commissioner to India. This became permanent on 20 January 1944. Major General Frank Berryman became commander of II Corps. Because of some sensitivities concerning the relative seniority of Berryman and Major General George Alan Vasey, Blamey placed Vasey's 7th Division directly under Morshead's command. Vasey soon chafed under Morshead's command, feeling that "he has too many favourites both individually and collectively", with men who had served at El Alamein receiving preferential treatment. Morshead was in overall charge of the forces in New Guinea in the battles of Sattelberg, Jivevaneng, Sio and Shaggy Ridge. His perseverance was rewarded with the capture of Madang in April 1944.
Borneo campaign
Morshead handed over command of New Guinea Force to Lieutenant General Stanley Savige on 6 May 1944, and returned to Australia, where he remained the commander of the Second Army. Despite the fact that Morshead had been in command in an active area, some critics of the government picked up on the public announcement in November that Morshead would command Second Army, and charged that he had been "shelved". On the contrary, Blamey had recommended to Curtin that Morshead should succeed him as commander-in-chief in the event that he became incapacitated. However, dealing with the politicians held little appeal for Morshead, and while he was pleased at the recognition, hoped that this would not occur.
In the event, this was not the end of Morshead's wartime service, just a respite. In July 1944, Morshead was appointed as commander of I Corps on the Atherton Tableland. Although nominally a lesser command, it would be the spearhead of the Australian Army in subsequent operations. The staff was that of Morshead's former II Corps, as the I and II Corps headquarters had exchanged names. In February 1945, Morshead received word that his objective would be Borneo. General Douglas MacArthur placed I Corps under his direct command for the operation. Morshead had to make a series of landings at Tarakan, North Borneo and Balikpapan on the east and north west coasts of the island. These were carried out with great efficiency, achieving their objectives with low casualties.
The British government proposed that British Lieutenant General Sir Charles Keightley be given command of a Commonwealth Corps for Operation Coronet, the proposed invasion of Honshu, the main island of Japan, but the Australian government had no intention of concurring with the appointment of an officer with no experience fighting the Japanese, and counter-proposed Morshead for the command. The war ended before the issue was resolved.
Postwar life
After the war Morshead returned to civilian life, becoming the Orient Steam Navigation Company's Australian general manager on 31 December 1947. He continued to receive honours for his military service, including a further mention in despatches in 1947 and the American Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm. He was president of the Bank of New South Wales, the chairman of David Jones, and director of several companies. From 1950 Morshead headed 'The Association', a secret organization similar to the New Guard movement with which he had been involved in the mid-1920s, and which was prepared to oppose communist attempts at subversion. It was quietly disbanded in 1952.
In later life, Morshead turned down various offers of military and diplomatic posts, as well as the governorship of Queensland. He did serve as president of the Boy Scouts Association of New South Wales and the Big Brother Movement, a British youth emigration support scheme, and was a trustee of the Gowrie scholarship trust fund, which provided assistance to the descendants of Second World War veterans. In 1957 he was appointed chairman of a committee which reviewed the group of departments concerned with defence. The Menzies government accepted the committee's recommendation that Supply and Defence Production be amalgamated, but dropped the key proposal that the Department of Defence absorb the Departments of Army, Navy and Air. This reform was finally carried out by the Whitlam government in 1975.
Morshead died of cancer on 26 September 1959 at St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney. He was given a military funeral at which former soldiers of the 9th Division paid their respects, after which his body was cremated. He was survived by his wife and daughter.
Legacy
Morshead was commemorated in several ways. Morshead Drive, which runs past the Royal Military College, Duntroon, in Canberra is named after him. In the Canberra suburb of Lyneham is the Morshead War Veterans Home, with high-dependency care and associated self-care two-bedroom houses. His portrait by Ivor Hele is held by the Australian War Memorial, as are his wartime papers.
A memorial fountain to Morshead stands opposite the State Library of New South Wales, at the entrance to Sydney's Royal Botanic Gardens, designed by Robert Woodward, who also designed the El Alamein Fountain in Kings Cross.
Notes
References
|-
|-
1889 births
1959 deaths
Australian Anglicans
Australian generals
Australian military personnel of World War I
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Deaths from cancer in New South Wales
Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
People from Ballarat
Recipients of the Virtuti Militari
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Australian recipients of the Medal of Freedom
Presidents of the Bank of New South Wales
|
[
-0.0724935233592987,
0.36331239342689514,
-0.46490585803985596,
-0.11946051567792892,
0.15205252170562744,
0.9396011233329773,
0.9751224517822266,
-0.18864838778972626,
-0.19611579179763794,
-0.2929283380508423,
-0.7693039774894714,
0.2312145084142685,
0.184378981590271,
0.5727846026420593,
0.5757105350494385,
0.7724146842956543,
-0.2879730463027954,
0.1397731453180313,
-0.30127695202827454,
0.09078414738178253,
-0.4244210422039032,
-0.6150097846984863,
0.353264719247818,
0.46373802423477173,
0.25529879331588745,
0.29028794169425964,
0.5081950426101685,
0.49833253026008606,
0.2511519491672516,
0.002164720557630062,
-0.09100991487503052,
0.23014196753501892,
0.5351130366325378,
-0.5487654805183411,
-0.477292537689209,
0.09162203967571259,
-0.2210172414779663,
-0.46574732661247253,
0.11848954856395721,
0.17044195532798767,
-0.4033477306365967,
0.2996525168418884,
0.4301639199256897,
-0.22496187686920166,
0.2485070377588272,
-0.14515835046768188,
-1.876729965209961,
-0.2603836953639984,
-0.14059576392173767,
-0.47554346919059753,
0.028757566586136818,
0.0296954233199358,
0.6651332974433899,
-0.8712832927703857,
0.3734571635723114,
0.5618996024131775,
-0.3254151940345764,
-0.4817430377006531,
0.4330059587955475,
-0.5849877595901489,
0.3447308838367462,
0.24213622510433197,
0.4450590908527374,
-0.3341224789619446,
0.09083271771669388,
-0.16012164950370789,
-0.24486103653907776,
0.4089607298374176,
0.10575953871011734,
0.15899407863616943,
0.03579876944422722,
-0.15731602907180786,
0.4719662666320801,
0.4136000871658325,
-0.2965450584888458,
-0.22989246249198914,
0.2514761686325073,
0.3133101165294647,
0.021947531029582024,
-0.0776139348745346,
-0.057792291045188904,
-0.46012818813323975,
0.6319456696510315,
0.031009159982204437,
-0.31787827610969543,
-0.04500894248485565,
-0.5568896532058716,
-0.03126688301563263,
-0.6517375111579895,
-0.028661491349339485,
-0.17358160018920898,
-0.266198068857193,
0.2853323519229889,
0.2696554362773895,
-0.2564146816730499,
-0.0938006341457367,
0.10038594901561737,
0.5418838858604431,
-0.21994540095329285,
-0.4229656159877777,
0.10175979137420654,
-0.12958499789237976,
0.12745267152786255,
0.18704332411289215,
-0.9840322732925415,
0.1755351573228836,
-0.12605223059654236,
-0.4991135597229004,
-0.141333669424057,
-0.45720046758651733,
-0.6266006231307983,
-0.37328046560287476,
-0.33230167627334595,
-0.19049358367919922,
0.28546056151390076,
0.24883954226970673,
0.5800487399101257,
-0.5579567551612854,
-0.1564638912677765,
-0.1447237879037857,
-0.29029610753059387,
0.5685290098190308,
-0.6999502778053284,
0.4650680124759674,
-0.9882020354270935,
0.10451632738113403,
0.1340000182390213,
-0.4636675715446472,
-0.6336103677749634,
0.5131444931030273,
0.3836263418197632,
1.197105050086975,
-0.5622192025184631,
0.15474939346313477,
-0.4487341344356537,
-0.3400530219078064,
-0.19126278162002563,
0.2584956884384155,
-0.6354169845581055,
-0.27954378724098206,
-0.8103381395339966,
-0.1988716572523117,
-0.9212597012519836,
-0.2049034982919693,
0.432567298412323,
-0.20909541845321655,
-0.03397390618920326,
-0.14754413068294525,
-0.1568140685558319,
-0.3436618447303772,
0.3088018596172333,
-0.34655654430389404,
-0.2782728970050812,
-0.3831671476364136,
-0.6193541884422302,
0.7296621203422546,
0.6281906962394714,
0.24302938580513,
0.5071614980697632,
0.39193862676620483,
0.3128173053264618,
0.01089684758335352,
0.07886107265949249,
0.08349215239286423,
0.6660905480384827,
0.3075886070728302,
0.2389678806066513,
-0.41271600127220154,
-0.16537193953990936,
0.12375885248184204,
-0.19909246265888214,
-0.20194318890571594,
0.480466365814209,
-0.37443023920059204,
-0.9790560603141785,
0.34961220622062683,
0.2706216275691986,
0.0772654339671135,
0.32117608189582825,
-1.0166054964065552,
-0.5404910445213318,
-0.20252977311611176,
0.3207281231880188,
0.24635949730873108,
0.5347752571105957,
0.1672966480255127,
0.06804614514112473,
-0.6741162538528442,
0.7023190855979919,
0.09758220613002777,
-0.15578685700893402,
-1.0583823919296265,
0.4454064965248108,
-0.41383692622184753,
0.7548430562019348,
0.12064172327518463,
-0.496686190366745,
0.28328847885131836,
0.5448976755142212,
0.5549106001853943,
0.2300131767988205,
0.1026843935251236,
-0.0800676941871643,
0.030892711132764816,
0.041978057473897934,
0.744015634059906,
0.8300289511680603,
-0.01028629019856453,
-0.10268178582191467,
1.0822763442993164,
0.4959803819656372,
-0.8399828672409058,
-0.2567652761936188,
0.38683947920799255,
0.26024624705314636,
-0.38447457551956177,
-0.3728664219379425,
-0.6349571347236633,
-0.28003349900245667,
-0.5647100210189819,
0.07843085378408432,
0.11307036131620407,
-0.5617501139640808,
0.7277598977088928,
0.15616407990455627,
0.573760986328125,
0.2589695155620575,
0.15250608325004578,
-0.4700518846511841,
-1.0661592483520508,
0.5751592516899109,
0.3526763319969177,
-0.16824331879615784,
-0.3152402937412262,
0.08092696964740753,
0.07516483962535858,
0.39098918437957764,
0.16878531873226166,
-0.2701370418071747,
-0.08184944093227386,
-0.5146471858024597,
0.08196001499891281,
0.009174376726150513,
0.25073710083961487,
-0.30107006430625916,
-0.027316482737660408,
-0.3478928208351135,
-0.05632954463362694,
0.15537145733833313,
0.09829133003950119,
0.4466050863265991,
0.34726178646087646,
0.7357538938522339,
0.40622851252555847,
-0.11806108802556992,
-0.4496886134147644,
0.05364065617322922,
-0.28611379861831665,
-0.17359858751296997,
0.002188325161114335,
0.1042427346110344,
0.0729343518614769,
0.33001217246055603,
0.042049162089824677,
0.2635965645313263,
-0.2525108754634857,
-0.24667535722255707,
-0.36238470673561096,
0.05697768181562424,
0.1858309805393219,
0.21550029516220093,
-0.5346928238868713,
0.3368140459060669,
-0.6804502010345459,
0.31375646591186523,
-0.01708592288196087,
-0.3527393341064453,
0.1819719672203064,
-0.42205488681793213,
-0.6920452117919922,
0.7708845734596252,
0.8669176697731018,
-0.192084401845932,
0.2543719708919525,
-0.2653784453868866,
0.45364412665367126,
-0.0748869851231575,
0.384964257478714,
0.39420849084854126,
-0.08826155215501785,
-0.47832420468330383,
0.6620683670043945,
-0.4828072786331177,
0.35454192757606506,
-0.13197216391563416,
0.045531876385211945,
-0.40488407015800476,
-0.9207314848899841,
0.192770317196846,
-0.1436343938112259,
-0.916881263256073,
0.4991714060306549,
-0.18724825978279114,
0.39306315779685974,
0.03639700263738632,
0.3287828862667084,
-0.3696218430995941,
0.06712239980697632,
-5.385584354400635,
-0.4010622501373291,
-0.0403624102473259,
-0.5001000761985779,
0.04946755990386009,
0.19835983216762543,
0.060510873794555664,
-0.2439788281917572,
-0.2251044362783432,
-0.5071172714233398,
0.5095549821853638,
-0.04588134586811066,
0.10380318015813828,
0.02106352522969246,
1.155202031135559,
-0.033614568412303925,
1.0277105569839478,
0.12464571744203568,
0.7477875351905823,
0.2279662787914276,
0.3208334743976593,
0.012063423171639442,
-0.07389436662197113,
0.08609030395746231,
0.019257256761193275,
0.47870147228240967,
-0.4109373390674591,
0.23233303427696228,
-1.0713732242584229,
-0.415810227394104,
-0.06148407608270645,
0.008840946480631828,
-0.16796480119228363,
0.12911681830883026,
-0.30113691091537476,
-0.23137353360652924,
-0.07351671904325485,
0.484844446182251,
-0.14328572154045105,
-0.0259042177349329,
0.3156498372554779,
-0.3101521134376526,
-0.7111824750900269,
0.34588512778282166,
0.3396299183368683,
-0.6247643828392029,
-0.7195148468017578,
0.49057456851005554,
-0.034143660217523575,
0.1086592972278595,
0.46021756529808044,
0.5973723530769348,
0.1772158294916153,
0.30021074414253235,
-0.45768043398857117,
0.24684584140777588,
0.4011336863040924,
-0.10296431928873062,
-0.6554254293441772,
0.24012574553489685,
0.2061653584241867,
-0.5765108466148376,
0.2839322090148926,
0.019397713243961334,
-0.2400556057691574,
0.1547369658946991,
0.2212265282869339,
-0.25215548276901245,
-0.03548291325569153,
-0.21663323044776917,
-0.17829358577728271,
0.8528045415878296,
0.07125020027160645,
-0.9593212008476257,
0.025204695761203766,
-0.5709120035171509,
-0.04415841028094292,
0.381112664937973,
-0.15820392966270447,
-0.2565361559391022,
-0.3329794108867645,
-0.5505371689796448,
0.22881361842155457,
0.644838809967041,
-0.15120689570903778,
-0.11262756586074829,
-0.7791588306427002,
0.332811564207077,
0.3977305293083191,
-0.6649325489997864,
-0.08106813579797745,
-0.31547054648399353,
0.2012668401002884,
0.3102310299873352,
0.43842649459838867,
-0.07028604298830032,
-0.08270463347434998,
0.41288524866104126,
0.5535881519317627,
-0.056165169924497604,
-0.6538922190666199,
-0.6601604223251343,
-0.00842320080846548,
-0.3864586055278778,
-0.07169051468372345,
0.011004211381077766,
0.380900502204895,
0.1361829936504364,
0.07737109065055847,
0.004319131374359131,
0.14140407741069794,
0.2971971929073334,
-0.24252858757972717,
0.034413568675518036,
0.08829761296510696,
-0.2330797165632248,
0.08782602101564407,
0.318183034658432,
1.2606971263885498,
0.6658806800842285,
-0.4653933346271515,
0.18371795117855072,
-0.01046833023428917,
-0.1529150754213333,
0.5852122902870178,
0.19514833390712738,
0.3081997334957123,
-0.6047266125679016,
-0.5596182346343994,
-0.3497958481311798,
0.030784709379076958,
1.0890657901763916,
0.11046962440013885,
0.4575607180595398,
-0.400864839553833,
-0.5391795039176941,
-0.2995823919773102,
-0.11709006130695343,
0.27670204639434814,
0.20503970980644226,
0.26002857089042664,
0.1861422061920166,
-0.15534314513206482,
0.08885449916124344,
-0.3642629384994507,
0.2847222089767456,
0.38735857605934143,
-0.2526805102825165,
0.20480133593082428,
0.5552113652229309,
-0.5488269329071045,
-0.6430453658103943,
0.36817556619644165,
-0.6638319492340088,
-0.5991548895835876,
0.22252832353115082,
-0.18394224345684052,
0.26681140065193176,
-0.2874763011932373,
-0.48757776618003845,
-0.06377056986093521,
0.19333216547966003,
-0.7884838581085205,
-0.34131595492362976,
-0.018027454614639282,
0.20397980511188507,
-0.2913902997970581,
-0.26172181963920593,
0.007532198913395405,
0.6326632499694824,
0.13938292860984802,
-0.48627856373786926,
-0.6464748978614807,
0.012820888310670853,
0.08403996378183365,
-0.007118028122931719,
-0.07114661484956741,
-0.9012079238891602,
0.2065775841474533,
-0.3266388773918152,
-0.1260681301355362,
0.4159996807575226,
-0.750720739364624,
0.6121764183044434,
0.5974462628364563,
-0.024548053741455078,
-0.8344013690948486,
-0.3446633517742157,
-0.061926066875457764,
0.026483196765184402,
-0.22751453518867493,
-0.4523642957210541,
0.21650420129299164,
0.5515857338905334,
-0.08671794086694717,
0.32441991567611694,
-0.2016352266073227,
0.13816426694393158,
0.3980405628681183,
-0.3573101758956909,
0.19872671365737915,
0.4478256106376648,
-0.33828338980674744,
0.03215344250202179,
0.6823939681053162,
-1.1518745422363281,
-0.1094181090593338,
0.005205507390201092,
0.18565087020397186,
0.5616018176078796,
-0.25277265906333923,
-0.43697136640548706,
-0.20065437257289886,
0.2939210534095764,
-0.6610602140426636,
-0.02363171987235546,
0.2291942685842514,
0.7841309309005737,
-0.23890475928783417,
-0.2074929177761078,
-0.7268223166465759,
-0.31866392493247986,
-0.5727201104164124,
-0.14505842328071594,
-1.148576259613037,
0.5959420204162598,
0.48460623621940613,
-0.41970476508140564,
0.41534003615379333,
0.47363051772117615,
-0.35887423157691956,
0.17504927515983582,
0.2376655638217926,
0.5693840384483337,
0.36510786414146423,
0.17391641438007355,
0.43733057379722595,
0.25530385971069336,
0.05020923912525177,
0.3038327991962433,
0.6843560338020325,
1.226954460144043,
0.7807499170303345,
-0.573860764503479,
0.35523080825805664,
0.019772108644247055,
0.7795350551605225,
-1.0564340353012085,
-0.12041669338941574,
-0.041958656162023544,
0.31989574432373047,
-0.29911190271377563,
-0.7540730237960815,
0.09079474955797195,
0.42482301592826843,
-0.24670499563217163,
-0.5058929324150085,
0.2932487726211548,
0.28590038418769836,
0.4871515929698944,
0.1956339329481125,
0.5624216198921204,
0.23497597873210907,
0.5309002995491028,
0.3561130464076996,
0.26396140456199646,
-0.4187237322330475,
-0.039805151522159576,
0.48431646823883057,
-0.02053960971534252,
-0.40050047636032104,
-0.2897394597530365,
0.41722092032432556,
0.7364402413368225,
-0.05785445123910904,
-0.10119543224573135,
0.4297035038471222,
-0.776688277721405,
0.5355928540229797,
-0.7614622116088867,
-0.43727582693099976,
0.1365179717540741,
0.4763498604297638,
-0.844021201133728,
-0.20044369995594025,
-1.0485213994979858,
-0.44478335976600647,
-0.08972816914319992,
-0.05462920665740967,
-0.15268990397453308,
-0.22340014576911926,
-0.18198443949222565,
-0.4566667973995209,
-0.05572264641523361,
-0.1242402046918869,
-0.18467196822166443,
-0.7464498281478882,
0.23207411170005798,
0.19418230652809143,
-0.21680599451065063,
-0.4155218005180359,
1.2361518144607544,
0.6192528605461121,
-0.5095971822738647,
0.1666315793991089,
0.1546725332736969,
0.06384994834661484,
-0.03580517694354057,
-0.38323545455932617,
0.21198098361492157,
0.5477620363235474,
-0.6710899472236633,
0.13281148672103882,
0.18258197605609894,
-0.4513714015483856,
-0.24217785894870758,
0.030190054327249527,
-1.290544867515564,
0.17986032366752625,
0.16705657541751862,
-0.3796655833721161,
0.3045119345188141,
0.5095849633216858,
0.014367046765983105,
0.2994944453239441,
0.7852641940116882,
0.1212230697274208,
-0.1606280654668808,
0.3577805161476135,
0.28559207916259766,
-0.22615912556648254,
-0.7075065970420837,
-0.6021478176116943,
0.8697951436042786,
-0.4528844654560089,
0.054145973175764084,
0.4316294193267822,
-0.139712855219841,
0.2712200880050659,
0.5750720500946045,
0.0317646861076355,
0.7186177968978882,
-0.13387204706668854,
-0.09321815520524979,
0.11557203531265259,
0.4601156711578369,
-0.06567421555519104,
0.4572283625602722,
-0.0012009249767288566,
-0.07072679698467255,
0.17346225678920746,
0.01670890487730503,
0.5172405242919922,
-0.5248154401779175,
-0.07370741665363312,
0.05192721262574196,
0.588452160358429,
-0.7477969527244568,
-0.3886844515800476,
-0.2674837112426758,
-0.17688530683517456,
-0.4440215229988098,
1.0047796964645386,
0.13512718677520752,
0.26213037967681885,
0.14158830046653748,
0.09188754856586456,
-0.7815490961074829,
0.4310474693775177,
0.6446598768234253,
0.3042369782924652,
-0.0185072124004364,
-0.12789244949817657,
0.07418779283761978,
0.08268938213586807,
0.1217346042394638,
0.47092846035957336,
0.21602961421012878,
-0.3495471775531769,
0.21687766909599304,
-0.05887896940112114,
0.4116961359977722,
-0.0746685042977333,
-0.4721156358718872,
0.1365644633769989,
-0.6522767543792725,
0.04243400692939758,
0.5293374061584473,
0.34565165638923645,
-0.43249940872192383,
0.6856997013092041,
-0.7699296474456787,
-0.8081426024436951,
-0.059715647250413895,
-0.30167481303215027,
-0.1567336469888687,
-0.18300044536590576,
0.8159666657447815,
1.038155198097229,
-0.3605019152164459,
-0.16718265414237976,
0.2210845947265625,
0.06660237163305283,
-0.2614121437072754,
-0.14607414603233337,
-0.08151726424694061,
0.35762184858322144,
0.031370606273412704,
-0.45644134283065796,
0.4965675175189972,
0.08968412131071091,
0.3970188498497009,
-0.4919605553150177,
0.05243341252207756,
0.06156730279326439,
-0.20989026129245758,
0.3288382887840271,
-0.6517200469970703,
-0.2779596745967865,
-0.6717805862426758,
0.29437050223350525,
0.07639174908399582,
-0.03411257639527321,
-0.16410358250141144,
-0.11201499402523041,
-0.1205865815281868,
0.19013558328151703,
0.12968894839286804,
0.08488881587982178,
0.3139503300189972,
0.0162954218685627,
-0.316837877035141,
-0.5515598058700562,
-0.39532414078712463,
-0.12267153710126877,
-0.5116111636161804,
0.7004421353340149,
0.5400190949440002,
0.3380700349807739,
-0.2577216923236847,
0.5391472578048706,
-0.3881091773509979,
-0.24677622318267822,
-0.21189677715301514,
-0.4901159703731537,
-0.2113916575908661,
-0.08563311398029327,
-0.536862850189209,
0.7981907725334167,
0.4913844168186188,
0.4615349769592285,
-0.16444122791290283,
0.3949947655200958,
-1.1264058351516724,
0.42568832635879517,
-0.051517412066459656,
-0.30811604857444763,
0.25273388624191284,
0.34818556904792786,
0.3195227086544037
] |
206176
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rommel%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Rommel (disambiguation)
|
Erwin Rommel was a German World War II field marshal.
Rommel may also refer to:
Rommel (surname)
Rómmel, a surname
Rommel (film), a German television film
German destroyer Rommel (D187), a West German guided missile destroyer
Jurgen Vsych or Rommel, film director
People with the given name
Rommel Adducul (born 1976), Filipino basketball player
Rommel Fernández (1966-1993), first Panamanian footballer to play in Europe
Rommel Pacheco (born 1986), Mexican diver
|
[
-0.23988991975784302,
0.18527990579605103,
-0.5060043931007385,
-0.012904001399874687,
-0.3619881868362427,
0.37466368079185486,
0.9762262105941772,
-0.21891124546527863,
-0.2619846761226654,
0.11057636886835098,
-0.37879350781440735,
0.07250075787305832,
0.008195429109036922,
0.29508668184280396,
0.2357088178396225,
0.4608587622642517,
-0.23914523422718048,
-0.00008980222628451884,
-0.44789668917655945,
-0.27323031425476074,
0.06955399364233017,
-0.6710144281387329,
0.14832204580307007,
-0.0008883914561010897,
-0.04756320267915726,
0.24474304914474487,
0.4067186713218689,
-0.37225276231765747,
0.3853002190589905,
0.22501599788665771,
-0.490348756313324,
0.24316343665122986,
0.3304242789745331,
-0.4939541220664978,
-0.3233577311038971,
0.16631169617176056,
-0.47614991664886475,
-0.16583901643753052,
0.2676528990268707,
-0.36335310339927673,
0.19178986549377441,
0.5619859099388123,
-0.033556923270225525,
0.1957738846540451,
-0.020179439336061478,
-0.11197590827941895,
-2.0792055130004883,
0.41627800464630127,
-0.6782306432723999,
-0.6320151686668396,
0.13417628407478333,
0.139463871717453,
-0.07358012348413467,
0.6152681708335876,
-0.07630663365125656,
0.23392176628112793,
-0.5610637068748474,
-0.3693038523197174,
0.11187361925840378,
-0.0716916099190712,
0.23895809054374695,
0.04951518028974533,
0.14296290278434753,
0.20899885892868042,
0.22117196023464203,
-0.25542116165161133,
0.06160837784409523,
0.544469952583313,
-0.0916995108127594,
-0.18713942170143127,
-0.04662519693374634,
-0.4334698021411896,
0.39171352982521057,
-0.10278592258691788,
-0.14343973994255066,
-0.5617175698280334,
0.36406275629997253,
0.05708809942007065,
0.27446961402893066,
-0.35979825258255005,
-0.25560224056243896,
-0.9610751867294312,
0.516440212726593,
-0.08804763108491898,
0.0036627603694796562,
0.29213082790374756,
-0.06708183139562607,
-0.06248963251709938,
-0.38541948795318604,
0.34795665740966797,
0.06707394123077393,
-0.3418196141719818,
0.36273112893104553,
-0.10151754319667816,
0.18916065990924835,
-0.22168956696987152,
0.1245611384510994,
0.6210986375808716,
0.19339042901992798,
-0.16428543627262115,
0.3913927972316742,
0.5585930347442627,
-0.15555782616138458,
0.14444813132286072,
-1.12476646900177,
-0.2396395206451416,
0.4288240373134613,
-0.10016986727714539,
0.08354488760232925,
-0.524852454662323,
-0.6006265878677368,
-0.02019566483795643,
-0.2899544835090637,
0.0014826999977231026,
-0.35333752632141113,
0.21480941772460938,
0.13670599460601807,
-0.7092152833938599,
-0.2580970227718353,
0.384316086769104,
-0.16972501575946808,
0.8986107110977173,
-0.30311858654022217,
0.22933407127857208,
0.1717543601989746,
-0.29987651109695435,
0.3301221430301666,
0.47988200187683105,
-0.4192252457141876,
0.5688648223876953,
0.4365319609642029,
1.1051028966903687,
-0.7027806043624878,
0.1392533779144287,
0.3595072329044342,
-0.6387546062469482,
0.494703471660614,
0.21806158125400543,
-0.812486469745636,
0.06744634360074997,
-0.9786596298217773,
0.07041022926568985,
-1.2451677322387695,
0.3196388781070709,
0.5133081078529358,
-0.3342977464199066,
-0.14219167828559875,
-0.22225037217140198,
0.022953812032938004,
-0.334484726190567,
0.30268678069114685,
0.10957702994346619,
-0.2462741881608963,
-0.6408339738845825,
-0.20203903317451477,
0.7332712411880493,
0.37111955881118774,
-0.23252645134925842,
0.46755868196487427,
-0.1548774689435959,
0.40432778000831604,
-0.1656748354434967,
-0.1467607468366623,
0.38623112440109253,
0.08089161664247513,
0.5026058554649353,
0.3314262926578522,
-0.38757258653640747,
-0.47608503699302673,
-0.2362441122531891,
-0.667576789855957,
-0.20484532415866852,
-0.008606079034507275,
-0.0953904241323471,
0.37918445467948914,
0.5737610459327698,
0.2131507843732834,
0.41754046082496643,
0.29136088490486145,
-0.7730640172958374,
-0.4110053777694702,
-0.22237233817577362,
-0.10721633583307266,
-0.1947445571422577,
0.7854872941970825,
0.44680047035217285,
0.23616936802864075,
-0.3006373941898346,
0.49009546637535095,
0.16375604271888733,
-0.2973850965499878,
-0.30702996253967285,
0.1879296600818634,
-0.46962976455688477,
1.2900991439819336,
0.08064267784357071,
-0.550330638885498,
0.09179475903511047,
-0.2665586471557617,
0.5973756909370422,
0.08589289337396622,
-0.5370795130729675,
-0.46610793471336365,
0.3738798499107361,
0.024888591840863228,
1.3877760171890259,
0.18176208436489105,
-0.31355857849121094,
0.09927451610565186,
0.6295720934867859,
0.9222949743270874,
-0.17832940816879272,
-0.6491723656654358,
-0.08736880868673325,
-0.03885090723633766,
0.10358960181474686,
-0.4411260783672333,
0.0011086813174188137,
0.08865514397621155,
-0.4177253544330597,
0.8314148187637329,
-0.06910432130098343,
-0.42495545744895935,
0.436892569065094,
0.118435338139534,
0.7721012830734253,
-0.6577734351158142,
0.39148271083831787,
-0.19372272491455078,
-0.9445913434028625,
0.14326846599578857,
0.5037034153938293,
-0.18313659727573395,
0.3076240122318268,
0.10434817522764206,
-0.03593776002526283,
-0.010198521427810192,
0.010333654470741749,
0.4281430244445801,
-0.01798640750348568,
0.1441306322813034,
0.11758587509393692,
0.05418326333165169,
0.13850726187229156,
0.1005036011338234,
0.24526695907115936,
-0.35705509781837463,
0.20431150496006012,
-0.4495353102684021,
-0.07630709558725357,
-0.10144969820976257,
0.3419571816921234,
0.21655191481113434,
-0.5924603939056396,
-0.14949309825897217,
-0.3170972466468811,
0.22219747304916382,
0.18363995850086212,
-0.06226920336484909,
0.4510969817638397,
0.09776416420936584,
-0.015328201465308666,
-0.31221863627433777,
0.2837086021900177,
0.13620835542678833,
-0.3022240102291107,
-0.9552402496337891,
-0.07334909588098526,
0.09769942611455917,
0.5198954343795776,
0.21343359351158142,
-0.32744914293289185,
-0.3291439116001129,
-0.8750705122947693,
0.28094884753227234,
0.07331281155347824,
-0.838505208492279,
0.7930763959884644,
-0.28757476806640625,
-0.201675146818161,
0.1913175731897354,
0.2547732889652252,
-0.013057386502623558,
0.03939453512430191,
-0.08063168823719025,
-0.03136755898594856,
-0.06452637165784836,
0.02704673632979393,
0.37272948026657104,
-0.2541605234146118,
-0.19426551461219788,
0.6725104451179504,
-0.5588498115539551,
-0.15301664173603058,
0.07873913645744324,
0.5964357852935791,
-0.6285603046417236,
-0.9418367743492126,
0.15106801688671112,
0.22875069081783295,
-0.9862838387489319,
0.6787919998168945,
-0.13296908140182495,
-0.3402811586856842,
0.2280096709728241,
0.18569570779800415,
-0.35057878494262695,
0.39820387959480286,
-5.708071231842041,
0.16788649559020996,
-0.46963444352149963,
-0.32104676961898804,
-0.1178329735994339,
0.3778882920742035,
-0.030221732333302498,
-0.07182043045759201,
-0.2702977657318115,
-0.36592549085617065,
0.17614389955997467,
-0.16754300892353058,
0.1783061921596527,
0.7222980260848999,
0.6532778739929199,
0.1556577980518341,
0.6654903292655945,
-0.4459806978702545,
0.2595503032207489,
0.3371734917163849,
0.2517031133174896,
0.3207983374595642,
0.09851589798927307,
0.3208378851413727,
-0.19665570557117462,
0.6452811360359192,
-0.31723451614379883,
0.3100571632385254,
-0.6892544031143188,
-0.08891475945711136,
0.09527634084224701,
-0.0901043713092804,
0.22520750761032104,
-0.136368066072464,
-0.11908460408449173,
-0.474515438079834,
0.2176995575428009,
0.5876529812812805,
-0.13108482956886292,
0.13287033140659332,
0.059151630848646164,
0.11962585151195526,
-0.4406847059726715,
-0.11738425493240356,
0.7281230092048645,
-0.11109504103660583,
-0.4197598397731781,
0.26281657814979553,
-0.47846537828445435,
-0.15201328694820404,
0.3535626232624054,
-0.12326883524656296,
0.41832655668258667,
0.16658015549182892,
0.32285985350608826,
-0.17288415133953094,
0.013041605241596699,
0.0771041065454483,
-0.03544102609157562,
0.5331507921218872,
0.177509143948555,
0.12407751381397247,
-0.1162826418876648,
-0.20426543056964874,
0.15210673213005066,
0.0940491333603859,
-0.19268526136875153,
-0.7451185584068298,
-0.12338530272245407,
0.15110479295253754,
-0.07712392508983612,
0.8779900670051575,
-0.24898643791675568,
-0.8203376531600952,
0.2509682774543762,
-0.058975882828235626,
-0.816331684589386,
-0.44898054003715515,
-0.10737615078687668,
0.26386764645576477,
-0.221002459526062,
-0.6260058879852295,
-0.35771244764328003,
-0.35328155755996704,
0.5639693737030029,
0.36192837357521057,
-0.29055312275886536,
0.34356412291526794,
0.21206282079219818,
0.05043873190879822,
-0.14859561622142792,
-0.5994662046432495,
0.23514887690544128,
0.22724604606628418,
0.006391746923327446,
0.18801304697990417,
-0.14521057903766632,
0.1635178178548813,
0.6867937445640564,
0.17098040878772736,
-0.5595181584358215,
-0.3148205876350403,
0.5838995575904846,
-0.5682145357131958,
0.523252546787262,
0.11503449827432632,
0.5299988389015198,
0.19638727605342865,
0.4433218240737915,
0.33907216787338257,
-0.059267669916152954,
0.3974666893482208,
-0.4055052697658539,
-0.2987620532512665,
0.4321656823158264,
-0.4399416446685791,
0.18249134719371796,
0.4363771975040436,
0.552573561668396,
-0.09753554314374924,
-0.08130399882793427,
0.24591504037380219,
-0.052288416773080826,
-0.5922414064407349,
0.2885480225086212,
-0.05772526189684868,
-0.13980692625045776,
0.047409538179636,
-0.13163115084171295,
0.45204848051071167,
-0.07187142223119736,
1.089221477508545,
0.23722118139266968,
0.06805434077978134,
0.4906468093395233,
-0.610797107219696,
-0.19723482429981232,
-0.3154439330101013,
-0.07421942800283432,
-0.3435395359992981,
0.35729220509529114,
-0.017819233238697052,
-0.12607355415821075,
0.4873349666595459,
0.014021537266671658,
-0.0048200334422290325,
0.09253733605146408,
-0.5018329620361328,
0.21668298542499542,
0.4772479832172394,
-0.11487076431512833,
0.021317386999726295,
0.4911467730998993,
0.17284992337226868,
-0.1258769929409027,
0.4545721411705017,
0.09231466799974442,
0.031997133046388626,
-0.3128388524055481,
-0.1067124456167221,
-0.04938632622361183,
-0.34273314476013184,
-1.0895975828170776,
-0.012120508588850498,
0.1296125203371048,
-0.007412799168378115,
0.13302357494831085,
-0.6048036217689514,
0.34498727321624756,
0.7881490588188171,
-0.03065854124724865,
-0.3717305660247803,
-0.5291787385940552,
0.3121354579925537,
-0.1886681318283081,
0.3983363211154938,
0.24204160273075104,
0.10841017961502075,
0.17509262263774872,
-0.553726077079773,
0.16362111270427704,
0.031801726669073105,
-0.4347052574157715,
0.5144131779670715,
-0.11496587842702866,
0.02679593116044998,
-0.7207981944084167,
0.17990998923778534,
-0.906423807144165,
-0.20298545062541962,
-0.3581448495388031,
0.016601869836449623,
0.10807562619447708,
0.6100627779960632,
-0.006910828873515129,
-0.14258475601673126,
-0.05265217646956444,
-0.06327807158231735,
0.11286969482898712,
0.37654104828834534,
-0.19231826066970825,
0.48743441700935364,
-0.27463608980178833,
0.16754698753356934,
0.28739699721336365,
-0.944271981716156,
0.054544270038604736,
0.3010544180870056,
0.18499766290187836,
0.503337562084198,
-0.45932435989379883,
-0.7796600461006165,
-0.29901596903800964,
0.4550444185733795,
-0.14095734059810638,
0.28999391198158264,
0.21626371145248413,
0.3056506812572479,
-0.5301768183708191,
0.2335362583398819,
-0.4049273431301117,
0.21534410119056702,
-0.3404921293258667,
-0.14182738959789276,
-0.872094988822937,
-0.14919081330299377,
0.1310463845729828,
-0.5087628960609436,
0.2592158019542694,
0.4854709208011627,
-0.08779969066381454,
-0.2050722986459732,
0.4179115295410156,
0.4807453155517578,
0.6870746612548828,
-0.4582328200340271,
0.7142089009284973,
0.28728073835372925,
-0.6848661303520203,
-0.23817363381385803,
0.6073722243309021,
0.3951411843299866,
0.27345675230026245,
-0.06332437694072723,
0.07097715884447098,
0.1771993339061737,
0.34195080399513245,
-0.5633533000946045,
-0.041176486760377884,
0.1732872724533081,
0.028593704104423523,
-0.11279768496751785,
-1.2096401453018188,
-0.25915026664733887,
1.4394898414611816,
-0.06625417619943619,
-0.3561955988407135,
-0.14849279820919037,
0.30512189865112305,
0.00981757789850235,
-0.06012911722064018,
0.6441859006881714,
0.07155254483222961,
0.14255426824092865,
-0.03992244601249695,
0.12544910609722137,
-0.03625144436955452,
0.0112059460952878,
-0.3894946575164795,
-0.33313170075416565,
-0.16994215548038483,
-0.11970110982656479,
-0.3007243871688843,
0.8723805546760559,
-0.013389721512794495,
0.3826574981212616,
-0.10187749564647675,
-0.5294215679168701,
0.23626770079135895,
-0.4811590611934662,
-0.199159175157547,
0.02043617144227028,
0.12403914332389832,
-0.4032057523727417,
-0.3700653612613678,
-0.5338110327720642,
0.04732722043991089,
-0.1498253345489502,
-0.18755455315113068,
0.5126622319221497,
-0.06999506056308746,
-0.18446075916290283,
-0.3704341650009155,
-0.14061295986175537,
0.09530379623174667,
0.2953379154205322,
-0.4397665858268738,
0.6220769286155701,
0.0720997080206871,
-0.251352995634079,
-0.30256158113479614,
0.6483621001243591,
0.2225303053855896,
-0.27906814217567444,
0.035207897424697876,
0.26036766171455383,
-0.03025423362851143,
-0.38322150707244873,
0.2524198293685913,
-0.21967080235481262,
0.4730234742164612,
-0.41604217886924744,
-0.4781378507614136,
0.05519544333219528,
-0.39559733867645264,
0.16880996525287628,
0.8908040523529053,
-0.3955247402191162,
-0.15850715339183807,
0.01591097004711628,
0.18886210024356842,
0.4041619300842285,
0.4574723243713379,
-0.152154803276062,
0.18770788609981537,
0.4033774137496948,
-0.012350182048976421,
-0.27700355648994446,
-0.016931544989347458,
-0.040026385337114334,
0.2526234984397888,
-0.3335230052471161,
-0.3352956771850586,
0.5836911797523499,
0.024254238232970238,
-0.0020139708649367094,
0.42611315846443176,
-0.42283597588539124,
0.008381268940865993,
0.3719254732131958,
0.004295758903026581,
0.12945610284805298,
0.07975857704877853,
0.04906073957681656,
0.17735709249973297,
0.6120766401290894,
-0.35487669706344604,
0.17625415325164795,
0.39577001333236694,
0.26363787055015564,
0.6158605813980103,
-0.04085850715637207,
-0.1538999080657959,
-0.7031779885292053,
0.22120751440525055,
-0.08233930915594101,
0.667017936706543,
-0.25293639302253723,
-0.28784608840942383,
-0.9444396495819092,
-0.1589803844690323,
-0.38462236523628235,
0.5704426169395447,
0.04659995064139366,
0.11200608313083649,
0.5162115097045898,
-0.6344667077064514,
-0.2244599312543869,
-0.038996875286102295,
0.6147177815437317,
0.003019476542249322,
-0.46803852915763855,
-0.2907885015010834,
0.11964352428913116,
0.08201085031032562,
-0.2864614427089691,
0.2903978228569031,
-0.06729064136743546,
-0.0628303587436676,
0.15847592055797577,
0.14154745638370514,
0.31213364005088806,
-0.11824283748865128,
-0.23224402964115143,
0.34663864970207214,
-0.5591526031494141,
0.010513998568058014,
-0.0432293564081192,
0.31853246688842773,
-0.24614152312278748,
0.16724692285060883,
-0.6322013139724731,
-0.3463512659072876,
0.21756698191165924,
-0.11050396412611008,
-0.07203100621700287,
-0.14130915701389313,
0.7109936475753784,
0.24416010081768036,
-0.29324421286582947,
-0.4181267321109772,
-0.07379366457462311,
-0.18700218200683594,
0.14588147401809692,
-0.3367975354194641,
-0.07844866812229156,
-0.2306130826473236,
-0.411009818315506,
-0.5119041204452515,
0.4371410012245178,
0.329693466424942,
-0.11569638550281525,
-0.5295548439025879,
-0.02868565171957016,
0.35866013169288635,
-0.11707577109336853,
0.2489730715751648,
-0.5849361419677734,
-0.11338908970355988,
-0.5272631049156189,
0.44513610005378723,
-0.4377932548522949,
-0.09042831510305405,
0.07746951282024384,
-0.23637555539608002,
0.14631658792495728,
0.823772132396698,
0.046965669840574265,
0.028164243325591087,
-0.009066874161362648,
-0.15718521177768707,
-0.0026104352436959743,
-0.3807109296321869,
-0.18255190551280975,
-0.4188685119152069,
-0.3346804976463318,
1.2669073343276978,
0.26175734400749207,
-0.08602286875247955,
-0.2906467914581299,
-0.05682489648461342,
-0.19539685547351837,
0.2644868493080139,
-0.25294163823127747,
-1.9466791152954102,
0.08987783640623093,
0.09090424329042435,
-0.23269884288311005,
-0.2019699513912201,
0.8225468397140503,
0.035931214690208435,
0.2139573097229004,
0.5291092991828918,
-0.6689751744270325,
0.4580172598361969,
0.571513295173645,
-0.24163010716438293,
-0.31589946150779724,
0.38654959201812744,
0.08754543960094452
] |
206178
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souvanna%20Phomma
|
Souvanna Phomma
|
Prince Souvanna Phomma was installed as oupahat of Luang Phrabang in 1878. He was beheaded during the sacking of Luang Prabang, by Đèo Văn Trị, a Tai Dam (Black Tai) chieftain at Lai Chau, on June 8, 1887. He authored a History of Louang Phrabang and had nineteen sons, including Bounkhong, thirty-one daughters, and 3 grandchildren Souphanouvong, Souvanna Phouma, and Phetsarath Ratanavongsa.
References
Year of birth missing
1887 deaths
Laotian writers
People executed by Laos by decapitation
Executed Laotian people
|
[
-0.39879924058914185,
0.6294500827789307,
-0.011293209157884121,
0.10126633197069168,
-0.7743404507637024,
-0.12879590690135956,
0.8622258901596069,
0.009577292017638683,
-0.7476021647453308,
-0.21614034473896027,
-0.1455855369567871,
-0.06086066737771034,
-0.24546648561954498,
0.42552003264427185,
-0.10343658924102783,
0.27783629298210144,
1.1647191047668457,
0.4825780689716339,
0.05210393667221069,
-0.13238048553466797,
0.0019236247753724456,
0.05868523195385933,
0.26337963342666626,
-0.01506110467016697,
0.5898573398590088,
-0.23514382541179657,
0.29605525732040405,
0.22272734344005585,
0.7075880765914917,
-0.22192062437534332,
0.3472985625267029,
0.6295523643493652,
0.11947745084762573,
-0.5549042820930481,
-0.321468710899353,
-0.2080152928829193,
0.5657913088798523,
0.05827364698052406,
-0.15304242074489594,
-0.017291782423853874,
-0.27096596360206604,
0.14277338981628418,
0.07935865223407745,
-0.18650074303150177,
0.12604300677776337,
-1.4363446235656738,
-1.2077820301055908,
0.1162789985537529,
-0.34180760383605957,
-0.30090436339378357,
-0.15174013376235962,
0.4526594281196594,
0.6538872718811035,
0.06050192564725876,
0.0993548110127449,
0.26177507638931274,
-1.1486082077026367,
-0.05401526391506195,
-0.444494366645813,
0.06516175717115402,
0.35723352432250977,
0.16203679144382477,
-0.4244810938835144,
0.2792975902557373,
-0.05630353465676308,
0.009650715626776218,
-0.01508477795869112,
0.03907330334186554,
0.2816633880138397,
0.006084510125219822,
0.06632637232542038,
0.7545294165611267,
0.7517964243888855,
0.21173618733882904,
-0.06305649131536484,
-0.5999892354011536,
-0.29172322154045105,
0.08606308698654175,
0.4232552647590637,
-0.41282951831817627,
-0.08640768378973007,
-0.16752994060516357,
0.44553864002227783,
0.19567495584487915,
0.10457497090101242,
0.012291899882256985,
-0.2435263842344284,
-0.12582102417945862,
-0.36410847306251526,
0.24972793459892273,
-0.212417334318161,
0.30275335907936096,
0.5490445494651794,
-0.05903332680463791,
-0.299819678068161,
-0.2269926816225052,
0.10298336297273636,
0.09821143746376038,
-0.03111954964697361,
0.6110674142837524,
0.31918492913246155,
0.11413121968507767,
0.354295939207077,
-0.12211990356445312,
-0.6669655442237854,
-0.17418968677520752,
-0.7769840955734253,
0.04257562384009361,
-0.39647746086120605,
-0.8384056687355042,
-0.31003835797309875,
0.5575951933860779,
-0.06580653041601181,
-0.04441444203257561,
0.26770448684692383,
0.2223297506570816,
0.3269346356391907,
-0.19385926425457,
0.31031376123428345,
-0.4035837650299072,
0.1546950489282608,
0.6897010207176208,
-0.10541950166225433,
0.5889431238174438,
-0.15778706967830658,
0.16938666999340057,
0.1516217738389969,
0.036363329738378525,
-0.09185289591550827,
0.6937154531478882,
0.31003904342651367,
0.7250180840492249,
-0.6388376355171204,
-0.09973892569541931,
-0.35068362951278687,
0.13271436095237732,
1.10784113407135,
0.6151745319366455,
-0.15664544701576233,
-0.16779465973377228,
-0.5463923215866089,
0.3038160502910614,
-1.0729674100875854,
0.6505502462387085,
0.17065148055553436,
0.22233045101165771,
-0.41115763783454895,
0.008314668200910091,
0.03371085599064827,
-0.19871626794338226,
0.10107949376106262,
-0.7428423762321472,
-0.35012683272361755,
0.17476807534694672,
-0.6810686588287354,
0.757154643535614,
0.200339213013649,
-0.012730270624160767,
0.011052286252379417,
0.7497371435165405,
0.10698442906141281,
0.2834612727165222,
-0.3395884931087494,
0.053902920335531235,
0.05140833184123039,
-0.3075571656227112,
-0.2653901278972626,
0.5286217927932739,
-0.43920764327049255,
0.02702968940138817,
-0.22751133143901825,
0.10663348436355591,
-0.574709415435791,
-0.5054171085357666,
0.2814601957798004,
0.581773042678833,
0.21831610798835754,
0.24806340038776398,
-0.2989705204963684,
-0.1979120671749115,
-0.6207845211029053,
0.6744861602783203,
0.05472150817513466,
0.2961961627006531,
0.9066855311393738,
0.508147120475769,
1.06676185131073,
0.24740806221961975,
0.4035260081291199,
-0.1327666938304901,
-0.5002684593200684,
-0.2629759907722473,
0.62599116563797,
-0.0469294898211956,
0.9232736229896545,
1.2102130651474,
0.2908359467983246,
0.6864493489265442,
0.135270357131958,
1.1741877794265747,
0.04383000358939171,
-0.07892696559429169,
0.8255535364151001,
-0.3425539433956146,
-0.7948403358459473,
1.3182551860809326,
-0.18654686212539673,
0.42712515592575073,
0.7628529071807861,
1.186015248298645,
0.6006047129631042,
-0.44177189469337463,
0.11289799958467484,
-0.3424760103225708,
-0.4060807228088379,
-0.3267943561077118,
-0.5494810938835144,
0.11584091186523438,
-0.17262400686740875,
-0.20153124630451202,
0.3492623269557953,
-0.17682863771915436,
-0.3177238404750824,
0.9115812182426453,
-0.03536352142691612,
0.7729766964912415,
0.1842811554670334,
-0.5901010036468506,
-0.08739562332630157,
-0.7870879769325256,
0.06301862001419067,
-0.5784172415733337,
0.3872721791267395,
0.029570460319519043,
0.026738107204437256,
-0.17709483206272125,
-0.20146769285202026,
-0.3110802173614502,
0.1836998164653778,
-0.23413053154945374,
0.28513675928115845,
0.3594338595867157,
-0.16822685301303864,
0.2569161057472229,
-0.005664003547281027,
0.7567942142486572,
-0.611181378364563,
0.024556901305913925,
-0.37317338585853577,
-0.25067058205604553,
0.4314219653606415,
0.3593624234199524,
0.18956713378429413,
-0.45552167296409607,
0.05322890356183052,
-0.15140077471733093,
-0.6856862306594849,
0.3633330166339874,
-0.07361462712287903,
-0.27974793314933777,
-0.11604513972997665,
-0.1580904871225357,
0.7189580202102661,
0.23132368922233582,
0.035094764083623886,
-0.21749480068683624,
0.02192911133170128,
-0.4296826720237732,
0.23007993400096893,
-0.2646966576576233,
0.1712392419576645,
-0.8472639322280884,
-0.3982239067554474,
-0.972437858581543,
0.01931534707546234,
-0.6689576506614685,
-0.16075754165649414,
0.8914650678634644,
-0.8491846323013306,
-0.890751302242279,
0.7085253596305847,
1.2428051233291626,
-0.07173790037631989,
-0.4151048958301544,
-0.10914392024278641,
-0.23297564685344696,
-0.48032495379447937,
-0.07893679291009903,
0.03877878934144974,
0.39669859409332275,
-0.10344034433364868,
-0.17421595752239227,
-0.26478642225265503,
-0.36925679445266724,
-0.35426387190818787,
0.2037907987833023,
-0.7715380787849426,
-0.3957766890525818,
0.724963366985321,
-0.16308574378490448,
-0.7082312107086182,
-0.02419128455221653,
-0.5402919054031372,
-0.09024287015199661,
0.11568216979503632,
0.10192383825778961,
0.060101769864559174,
0.10158907622098923,
-5.2374372482299805,
-0.41558316349983215,
0.532231330871582,
-0.27507057785987854,
0.19485628604888916,
-0.06419962644577026,
0.6780523061752319,
-0.3707177937030792,
0.07741768658161163,
0.030720889568328857,
-0.0434034988284111,
-0.12872746586799622,
0.3666623830795288,
0.365690678358078,
0.14767515659332275,
0.722133219242096,
0.4157804846763611,
-0.4275156855583191,
0.7378366589546204,
0.42057880759239197,
0.13681283593177795,
-0.019340945407748222,
-0.36018475890159607,
0.055974483489990234,
0.6002576947212219,
0.4530850648880005,
0.04116489738225937,
-0.19992072880268097,
-1.2652592658996582,
-0.4000296890735626,
-0.37663671374320984,
0.2622665464878082,
0.4132891595363617,
-0.2613995671272278,
-0.6446969509124756,
-0.3193436563014984,
0.7199074625968933,
0.7657192945480347,
-0.25260403752326965,
-0.33140239119529724,
0.10744348913431168,
-0.42102494835853577,
-0.5246623754501343,
0.3027257025241852,
-0.21786130964756012,
-0.5547638535499573,
-0.8225480914115906,
-0.055495377629995346,
-0.19678062200546265,
0.49595963954925537,
-0.09366518259048462,
-0.19960777461528778,
0.7611656188964844,
-0.23160211741924286,
-0.23245252668857574,
0.282990038394928,
0.05804278701543808,
0.23226530849933624,
-0.46301543712615967,
0.2892259359359741,
0.5885547995567322,
-0.32570880651474,
-0.20661111176013947,
-0.10686960071325302,
0.43486547470092773,
-0.16965629160404205,
0.03098386712372303,
-0.29291561245918274,
0.1631581336259842,
0.841354250907898,
-0.14422370493412018,
0.126580610871315,
-0.23876899480819702,
-0.7487196922302246,
-0.42472025752067566,
-0.3879680037498474,
-0.1331683248281479,
0.32822132110595703,
0.22326013445854187,
0.15717072784900665,
0.31316107511520386,
0.2413480579853058,
0.07462742924690247,
1.7262053489685059,
0.14974333345890045,
-0.2858981490135193,
0.20710860192775726,
0.48760083317756653,
-0.20444519817829132,
0.5369294285774231,
-0.05840056762099266,
-0.5308191776275635,
-0.32560449838638306,
0.4534628391265869,
0.05678099766373634,
-0.056406158953905106,
0.22299471497535706,
-0.3439260423183441,
0.24671371281147003,
-0.38449013233184814,
0.2745501697063446,
-0.3239560127258301,
-0.13835087418556213,
-0.4224621057510376,
-0.164332315325737,
-0.043886419385671616,
-0.5483226776123047,
-0.03826594352722168,
-0.23846349120140076,
0.6731727123260498,
-0.3544386029243469,
-0.2390325665473938,
0.11197726428508759,
0.2876625061035156,
0.557711124420166,
-0.5256654024124146,
0.18304668366909027,
0.05015834420919418,
0.2737220525741577,
0.10903025418519974,
-0.13782131671905518,
0.5834565162658691,
-0.15699319541454315,
-0.0320381335914135,
0.22345134615898132,
-0.0897151529788971,
-0.1279245764017105,
0.24936652183532715,
-0.29048246145248413,
-0.0673326849937439,
0.10690706223249435,
-0.3061462938785553,
0.024424977600574493,
-0.39236170053482056,
0.11531039327383041,
-1.2504520416259766,
-0.2535305321216583,
-0.5777155160903931,
0.12277069687843323,
-0.18316809833049774,
-0.40173056721687317,
-0.3955517113208771,
-0.36013099551200867,
0.6229543089866638,
0.47540220618247986,
0.21137560904026031,
0.3562629520893097,
-0.33053216338157654,
-0.43304309248924255,
0.5693257451057434,
-0.783173680305481,
-0.97007155418396,
0.7488771080970764,
-0.4716018736362457,
0.04331053048372269,
-0.007140485104173422,
-0.24587875604629517,
-0.10838187485933304,
0.28667616844177246,
0.5944399237632751,
-0.3957601487636566,
-0.8033046722412109,
-1.0344408750534058,
-0.2095005214214325,
-0.06577316671609879,
-0.16636350750923157,
0.42306193709373474,
-0.19222162663936615,
-0.7640892267227173,
0.8183451890945435,
0.33263710141181946,
-0.5263397693634033,
-0.46091392636299133,
-0.3945327401161194,
0.6248748898506165,
-0.37207433581352234,
0.3934064507484436,
0.35309380292892456,
-0.16447047889232635,
-0.7045791149139404,
-0.857096791267395,
0.19682477414608002,
-0.11790616810321808,
0.5686043500900269,
0.40003901720046997,
0.24578963220119476,
-0.3896465301513672,
-0.9735410213470459,
-0.3030059039592743,
0.128579780459404,
0.031589679419994354,
0.5644091367721558,
-0.5615415573120117,
0.055323511362075806,
-0.37820956110954285,
-0.6557133793830872,
-0.601604700088501,
0.3098693788051605,
0.2593286633491516,
-0.006292891688644886,
0.23670734465122223,
0.41475415229797363,
0.745377242565155,
0.45575574040412903,
0.059709690511226654,
-0.7344937324523926,
0.48405250906944275,
0.5712220072746277,
0.19732558727264404,
0.45467546582221985,
0.033348243683576584,
-0.3636711835861206,
0.22839540243148804,
0.6258370876312256,
-0.3823201358318329,
0.05853056162595749,
0.7563400268554688,
-0.17151659727096558,
-0.020256944000720978,
-1.1957184076309204,
-0.316537469625473,
-0.7742480039596558,
-0.5241649150848389,
-0.6849679350852966,
-0.36409875750541687,
0.48451074957847595,
0.7766945958137512,
-0.2726214826107025,
0.8143895864486694,
-0.44182053208351135,
-0.5033608675003052,
0.23766647279262543,
0.21151810884475708,
-0.3075774312019348,
-0.29091599583625793,
0.16930241882801056,
0.05644792690873146,
0.40839481353759766,
-0.4075925946235657,
0.1444888412952423,
-0.29524046182632446,
1.3557806015014648,
-0.11409085988998413,
-0.8224446177482605,
-0.17091697454452515,
0.28309035301208496,
-0.3365319073200226,
-0.12479759752750397,
0.11417333036661148,
-0.3595670163631439,
-0.018272778019309044,
0.11665794998407364,
-0.7463213205337524,
-0.8841390013694763,
0.6409340500831604,
-0.5508033633232117,
-0.1893749088048935,
0.45832696557044983,
0.39252594113349915,
0.04532629996538162,
-0.591995120048523,
0.3825271427631378,
-0.03679471090435982,
0.1250353306531906,
0.3977551758289337,
0.3868587017059326,
-0.12593480944633484,
-0.13052669167518616,
0.4388880133628845,
-0.4527233839035034,
0.01581563428044319,
-1.191491961479187,
-0.2003059983253479,
0.03606215864419937,
-0.05836627259850502,
-0.3203357756137848,
-0.32900911569595337,
-0.28386738896369934,
-0.06130656227469444,
-0.015985721722245216,
-0.023674914613366127,
-0.18161630630493164,
0.15767277777194977,
0.007753169629722834,
0.2633737623691559,
-0.8743811845779419,
-0.14448438584804535,
-0.17664968967437744,
-0.5529857277870178,
0.1265302151441574,
-1.0130009651184082,
0.18414390087127686,
-0.4928218722343445,
0.5476823449134827,
0.1409016102552414,
0.7048852443695068,
-0.48341819643974304,
0.9437851309776306,
-0.259461373090744,
0.02736343815922737,
-0.6747061610221863,
0.14583319425582886,
0.6594874858856201,
0.388153612613678,
-0.3323904573917389,
0.3685436248779297,
0.3061050772666931,
-0.02447872795164585,
0.06619150191545486,
0.4852074384689331,
0.06563972681760788,
0.5618835687637329,
-0.01510399766266346,
-0.06953330338001251,
-0.3843875229358673,
0.12985318899154663,
0.02704298123717308,
-0.4766235053539276,
-0.24322767555713654,
0.05218424275517464,
0.1274755895137787,
-0.9377148747444153,
0.021832704544067383,
0.4134206473827362,
-0.052449245005846024,
0.49378204345703125,
-0.008338107727468014,
0.3323589563369751,
0.47768378257751465,
-0.1928306221961975,
-0.04117694869637489,
0.30848848819732666,
-1.089818000793457,
0.6740871667861938,
-0.02330467849969864,
0.1584153026342392,
0.3919272720813751,
-0.6538177728652954,
0.19037732481956482,
0.5122492909431458,
0.5951743721961975,
0.6454288959503174,
-0.085807204246521,
-0.22580331563949585,
0.21814356744289398,
0.3869870603084564,
-0.12191321700811386,
-0.032564133405685425,
0.4308212101459503,
0.1303851157426834,
-0.033523838967084885,
0.2826305627822876,
0.005364374257624149,
-0.5582910180091858,
0.36478883028030396,
0.19533070921897888,
-0.1652320772409439,
-0.30994629859924316,
0.6129749417304993,
-0.6365889310836792,
-0.41985684633255005,
-0.6245286464691162,
-0.5330877900123596,
0.23359525203704834,
0.6960887312889099,
0.1549331545829773,
0.11887402832508087,
-0.4247424006462097,
-0.08601479977369308,
0.1002444475889206,
0.7166131734848022,
-0.33611106872558594,
-0.13309408724308014,
-0.20150808990001678,
0.030220817774534225,
0.06908143311738968,
0.327507883310318,
-0.1775040626525879,
-0.18832409381866455,
-0.36842912435531616,
0.32666119933128357,
0.2722422182559967,
-0.10185769200325012,
-0.5306131839752197,
0.5030649304389954,
0.45082199573516846,
0.06247471645474434,
0.27952840924263,
0.15103699266910553,
-0.00897214189171791,
0.2384524792432785,
-0.12158313393592834,
-0.4608207941055298,
-0.0852927714586258,
0.0803837701678276,
0.44506406784057617,
-0.38106569647789,
0.43863680958747864,
0.20660719275474548,
-0.7264822721481323,
0.39886367321014404,
0.11836446076631546,
0.27658191323280334,
0.25866276025772095,
0.5299106240272522,
0.8050040006637573,
-0.45438915491104126,
-0.01854373700916767,
-0.7174153923988342,
0.4915774166584015,
-0.43429872393608093,
0.5628200769424438,
0.05976442992687225,
0.06780566275119781,
-0.35674867033958435,
0.08187048882246017,
0.3077034056186676,
-0.9605368971824646,
-0.6837710738182068,
-0.3586161136627197,
-0.3077913224697113,
-0.4984726905822754,
0.1778331845998764,
0.49377045035362244,
-0.37164148688316345,
-1.0076545476913452,
-0.34572529792785645,
0.4126441776752472,
0.1551813930273056,
0.2859923541545868,
-0.00803525373339653,
-0.2511383295059204,
0.013876045122742653,
-0.352131187915802,
-0.2461560219526291,
0.3526367247104645,
0.4711815416812897,
1.1080737113952637,
-0.2142394632101059,
-0.346528559923172,
-0.1640036702156067,
-0.34097665548324585,
0.7107167840003967,
0.6080694794654846,
-1.193259835243225,
0.04826792702078819,
0.020164869725704193,
-0.6387564539909363,
-0.19156505167484283,
0.4217962622642517,
0.40795519948005676,
0.2766536772251129,
0.11694417893886566,
-0.5277929306030273,
-0.08810389041900635,
-0.3380917012691498,
-0.371699720621109,
-0.3067992031574249,
0.32066208124160767,
0.13915029168128967
] |
206182
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phra%20Bang
|
Phra Bang
|
The Phra Bang ("Royal Buddha Image in the Dispelling Fear mudra)," Lao (ພະ + ບາງ) is the palladium of Laos. The Lao-language name for the image has been transliterated in a number of ways, including "Pra Bang," "Prabang," "Phabang" and "Pha Bang." The statue is an 83 cm-high standing Buddha with palms facing forward, cast using thong, an alloy of bronze, gold, and silver. According to local lore, it was cast in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) sometime between the 1st and 9th century. However, the features of the image suggest a much later Khmer origin.
The Phra Bang arrived in Lan Xang during the reign of Fa Ngum from Angkor, and was used to spread Theravada Buddhism in the new kingdom. In 1359 the Khmer king gave the Phra Bang to his son-in-law, the first Lang Xang monarch Fa Ngum (1353-1373); to provide Buddhist legitimacy both to Fa Ngum's rule and by extension to the sovereignty of Laos. The former Lao capital Luang Prabang, where it was kept, is named after the Buddha image.
The Phra Bang has long been seen by devout Buddhists as a symbol of the right to rule Laos, as only a commendable and virtuous government deserves to be caretaker of such a sacred image. In 1705, the Phra Bang was taken to Vientiane. In 1778, the Siamese (now Thai) invaded Vientiane and captured the Phra Bang, taking it back to Bangkok. There, political upheaval and misfortune were attributed to the Phra Bang, and in 1782 it was returned to the Lao people. Again in 1828, the Siamese captured the Phra Bang but again returned it in 1867 after a similar period of political upheaval.
In 2013 the Prabang Buddha was moved from the National Museum and brought to Haw Pha Ban on the Royal Palace grounds. Each year, on the third day of "Pimai" or Lao New Year, the Phra Bang is taken in procession to Wat Mai. There it is exhibited at a shrine where the Buddha image is ritually bathed by devout laypeople during Lao New Year festivities.
See also
Emerald Buddha
References
External links
Tai history
Buddhism in Laos
Buildings and structures in Luang Prabang
1350s in Lan Xang
Buddha statues
|
[
0.31151145696640015,
0.5986329913139343,
-0.07790131866931915,
-0.18136711418628693,
-0.21245911717414856,
0.27428707480430603,
0.3578625023365021,
0.2363288849592209,
-0.8827999830245972,
-0.032696787267923355,
-0.3955226242542267,
0.04596702754497528,
-0.3640866279602051,
-0.0025951103307306767,
-0.36489570140838623,
-0.07691548764705658,
0.9825639128684998,
0.3736991286277771,
0.15847373008728027,
-0.4618073105812073,
-0.3436644971370697,
-0.6338672637939453,
0.06909175217151642,
-0.1509896218776703,
0.406045526266098,
0.17126867175102234,
0.05130250006914139,
-0.06927326321601868,
0.6479036211967468,
0.18334554135799408,
-0.4103419780731201,
0.6487565636634827,
0.13894982635974884,
-0.2598525285720825,
0.0988602340221405,
0.49341222643852234,
0.24235835671424866,
-0.08693013340234756,
-0.28156778216362,
-0.01202048733830452,
0.2555117607116699,
-0.12048846483230591,
0.09696974605321884,
0.10655704885721207,
-0.3024839460849762,
-1.1907358169555664,
-1.0776386260986328,
0.4888531267642975,
-0.6718708276748657,
0.2478211224079132,
-0.331741064786911,
0.5597463250160217,
-0.5252046585083008,
-0.052561137825250626,
0.5256134867668152,
0.7299427390098572,
-1.3155633211135864,
0.40262311697006226,
-0.3672589659690857,
-0.39263659715652466,
0.0066498685628175735,
-0.048564087599515915,
-0.01901521347463131,
0.22830073535442352,
-0.12461354583501816,
0.06001897528767586,
-0.5600301027297974,
-0.004600848536938429,
0.1669461727142334,
-0.6682265400886536,
0.00922034215182066,
0.8009634017944336,
-0.1407497376203537,
0.2532917261123657,
-0.47157537937164307,
0.009510516189038754,
-0.434479296207428,
-0.09889240562915802,
-0.09664756059646606,
-0.6286282539367676,
0.0696733370423317,
0.12159312516450882,
0.5709925889968872,
0.1819564700126648,
0.18611174821853638,
0.039673756808042526,
-0.12038075923919678,
0.018716156482696533,
0.3414629399776459,
0.10997258871793747,
-0.168845534324646,
0.0988302156329155,
0.32535579800605774,
0.190362349152565,
-0.636504590511322,
-0.43114784359931946,
-0.4233247637748718,
0.12106146663427353,
0.2749705910682678,
0.3602517247200012,
0.3320709764957428,
-0.17257127165794373,
0.4529222846031189,
-0.03412995487451553,
-0.587519645690918,
-0.5974460244178772,
-0.6289348602294922,
0.014621254988014698,
-0.5019486546516418,
-0.37552696466445923,
-0.676507294178009,
0.524140477180481,
-0.1607712060213089,
-0.08073030412197113,
0.26600995659828186,
0.3272894024848938,
0.39313769340515137,
-0.48552024364471436,
-0.0791594386100769,
-0.3436286151409149,
0.5890421867370605,
0.3647499680519104,
-0.28564542531967163,
0.33260104060173035,
0.670293927192688,
0.03655645251274109,
0.3056306540966034,
0.6511956453323364,
-0.501043438911438,
0.7808218598365784,
-0.2449365258216858,
0.5917319059371948,
-0.15221412479877472,
-0.3651185929775238,
-0.7170546054840088,
-0.24569182097911835,
0.6783614158630371,
0.07697740197181702,
0.5684037804603577,
0.4014846980571747,
-1.0744332075119019,
-0.28707727789878845,
-0.8597657084465027,
0.16174402832984924,
0.26955804228782654,
-0.32125091552734375,
-0.5573416352272034,
-0.2712061405181885,
-0.3820480704307556,
-0.024928288534283638,
0.5793003439903259,
-0.44801759719848633,
0.14779607951641083,
0.22004421055316925,
-0.6168566346168518,
0.44886675477027893,
0.8116748332977295,
0.34813258051872253,
-0.16548103094100952,
0.04616856202483177,
0.30584269762039185,
-0.48256030678749084,
-0.005732720717787743,
-0.02201901189982891,
0.12197840213775635,
0.4299357533454895,
0.12107968330383301,
0.5797098278999329,
-0.33584949374198914,
-0.141928568482399,
-0.5645984411239624,
0.120862677693367,
-0.09100277721881866,
0.1757376492023468,
-0.16666175425052643,
-0.16123592853546143,
0.22052881121635437,
0.5197902917861938,
-0.16026940941810608,
-0.05787171050906181,
-0.5500214099884033,
0.6262676119804382,
-0.12344550341367722,
-0.3635276257991791,
0.42025133967399597,
0.3009800910949707,
0.6540096402168274,
0.5516360998153687,
0.12592855095863342,
-0.15050460398197174,
-0.4728463590145111,
0.08042559027671814,
0.11244957894086838,
0.1521652340888977,
0.5561892986297607,
0.4154062569141388,
0.31744980812072754,
0.438060462474823,
0.04650641977787018,
1.0412814617156982,
-0.0462849959731102,
-0.03210919722914696,
0.4699116051197052,
-0.08456789702177048,
-0.8786976933479309,
0.3273833692073822,
-0.15499159693717957,
0.5553016066551208,
0.8169535398483276,
0.16498076915740967,
0.6048614978790283,
-0.6182459592819214,
-0.22012388706207275,
0.06310899555683136,
0.11550430208444595,
-0.6696810722351074,
-0.5937857031822205,
-0.06661754101514816,
-0.22446925938129425,
-0.08723001927137375,
0.13342241942882538,
-0.047277286648750305,
-0.3873186409473419,
0.49837568402290344,
-0.29307401180267334,
1.0739232301712036,
-0.2545323967933655,
-0.44441482424736023,
-0.030100131407380104,
-0.24561060965061188,
-0.2576010823249817,
-0.18465851247310638,
0.5327218174934387,
-0.05730200186371803,
-0.5022452473640442,
0.11445000022649765,
0.0607801117002964,
-0.4060364067554474,
0.5408215522766113,
-0.7351560592651367,
0.44707223773002625,
0.06739431619644165,
-0.3929312229156494,
-0.14811135828495026,
0.12901782989501953,
0.33554166555404663,
-0.49202442169189453,
-0.5264686942100525,
0.08298815786838531,
-0.08626919984817505,
0.09083865582942963,
0.4133091866970062,
0.4169294834136963,
-0.10464628785848618,
0.23472489416599274,
0.1066979393362999,
-0.22569282352924347,
0.0028074162546545267,
0.07130321860313416,
-0.303311824798584,
-0.7271616458892822,
0.025798633694648743,
0.8407266736030579,
0.12282393872737885,
-0.4219752252101898,
-0.09467318654060364,
0.7941715717315674,
0.1222059577703476,
0.21318212151527405,
0.5133659243583679,
-0.31680360436439514,
-0.6783307194709778,
-0.5737074613571167,
-0.13253521919250488,
0.2723390758037567,
-0.8730201721191406,
0.373020201921463,
0.27611061930656433,
-0.28963834047317505,
-0.609622061252594,
0.6160582900047302,
0.746345043182373,
0.470918744802475,
-0.5934792160987854,
0.2808924615383148,
0.22549225389957428,
-0.26409369707107544,
-0.4531313180923462,
0.11916602402925491,
0.3073875904083252,
0.10542594641447067,
0.2743080258369446,
-0.09292203933000565,
-0.5063850283622742,
-0.3120487630367279,
0.08411192148923874,
-0.3753778636455536,
-0.19980308413505554,
0.6761416792869568,
-0.2816610038280487,
0.07802266627550125,
-0.024506524205207825,
0.011667597107589245,
0.4911704957485199,
0.3779299557209015,
0.0587739497423172,
-0.042110834270715714,
0.5256980657577515,
-5.632163047790527,
-0.008961056359112263,
0.7041133046150208,
-0.5868578553199768,
0.08316019922494888,
0.03451449051499367,
0.31836286187171936,
-0.2931857109069824,
0.4372006058692932,
-0.3724154531955719,
0.024262983351945877,
-0.39687463641166687,
-0.06415517628192902,
0.33968180418014526,
0.05095408111810684,
0.6547701358795166,
-0.07099926471710205,
-0.0008412526804022491,
0.32647714018821716,
0.19364574551582336,
0.27622559666633606,
0.12073417007923126,
0.21531382203102112,
0.634925365447998,
-0.17504826188087463,
0.5629369020462036,
-0.2065686285495758,
-0.21861347556114197,
-0.7755948305130005,
-0.3379408121109009,
-0.3020404577255249,
-0.08652421832084656,
0.3723450005054474,
-0.5658236742019653,
-0.40253135561943054,
-0.024184901267290115,
0.501685380935669,
-0.15488287806510925,
-0.0105415228754282,
-0.24328307807445526,
0.16358418762683868,
-0.5433200597763062,
0.059085968881845474,
0.40098661184310913,
0.23797105252742767,
-0.7011154294013977,
-0.485758900642395,
-0.677028238773346,
-0.45766276121139526,
0.6999436616897583,
-0.14261744916439056,
-0.2376043200492859,
0.4343005120754242,
-0.5811945796012878,
-0.2339349091053009,
0.23648157715797424,
0.1820012778043747,
0.2161678671836853,
-0.4856521785259247,
0.42236584424972534,
0.5455421209335327,
0.2510315775871277,
-0.2799372673034668,
0.2213442474603653,
0.5467052459716797,
-0.5877609848976135,
-0.05459670349955559,
-0.374923974275589,
0.059527184814214706,
0.5115742683410645,
-0.2126924991607666,
0.25489193201065063,
0.052925318479537964,
-1.0232146978378296,
-0.5145938396453857,
0.1211010217666626,
-0.6375545859336853,
0.031510140746831894,
0.5774320960044861,
-0.06287740916013718,
-0.5270909667015076,
0.23479491472244263,
0.5829188823699951,
0.7248631119728088,
0.15544822812080383,
0.07459834963083267,
-0.34160545468330383,
0.415178507566452,
-0.5147399306297302,
0.49538230895996094,
0.6744106411933899,
-0.5705706477165222,
-0.15883603692054749,
0.34796562790870667,
0.009509420953691006,
0.5122895836830139,
0.5801073312759399,
-0.4939805865287781,
0.5162940621376038,
-0.08049735426902771,
0.4427071213722229,
0.19505634903907776,
0.07252543419599533,
-0.3647744953632355,
-0.6032439470291138,
-0.26276329159736633,
-0.08974908292293549,
0.5664268136024475,
0.21368631720542908,
-0.030533695593476295,
-0.06828979402780533,
0.10351601243019104,
0.744994580745697,
0.2332536280155182,
0.6255215406417847,
0.027999576181173325,
-0.09012896567583084,
0.4468277394771576,
0.2977415919303894,
-0.4967903196811676,
0.10320957005023956,
0.7595148682594299,
-0.18591967225074768,
0.15371333062648773,
-0.24358348548412323,
-0.24445898830890656,
-0.25459542870521545,
0.44806453585624695,
-0.6701071858406067,
-0.1473008394241333,
0.03808644041419029,
-0.7674739360809326,
0.6593930125236511,
-0.2342684417963028,
0.10752969235181808,
-0.766020655632019,
-0.036200519651174545,
-0.3902948200702667,
-0.22398699820041656,
-0.5707553029060364,
-0.28175392746925354,
-0.019917018711566925,
-0.10477664321660995,
0.7369810342788696,
0.42226117849349976,
0.04840599000453949,
0.07235534489154816,
0.04365424066781998,
-0.02346085011959076,
0.29654228687286377,
-0.3614003360271454,
-0.39653319120407104,
0.8772813677787781,
-0.8715069890022278,
-0.311654269695282,
0.019472382962703705,
0.16074544191360474,
0.10588500648736954,
0.6614786982536316,
0.029260149225592613,
0.3345705270767212,
-0.4260886311531067,
-1.2145435810089111,
-0.22154757380485535,
-0.40531957149505615,
-0.41582009196281433,
0.5858331918716431,
0.033407483249902725,
-0.4715779423713684,
0.37262091040611267,
0.598666250705719,
-0.14731603860855103,
-0.6832017302513123,
0.38975435495376587,
0.27762219309806824,
-0.34066975116729736,
0.1073799803853035,
0.09408637136220932,
-0.06616487354040146,
0.41151994466781616,
-0.7140307426452637,
-0.2592172622680664,
-0.22368119657039642,
0.3608418107032776,
0.5562298893928528,
0.0833146795630455,
-0.683330774307251,
-0.5630735158920288,
-0.6415191292762756,
-0.08909096568822861,
0.18390992283821106,
-0.02631135657429695,
-0.20264962315559387,
0.1252865195274353,
0.1053544208407402,
-0.7395400404930115,
-0.7110697031021118,
0.3703687787055969,
0.3244859278202057,
0.18011227250099182,
-0.057641927152872086,
0.4719630181789398,
-0.32240918278694153,
0.48250773549079895,
0.19117595255374908,
-0.6935665011405945,
0.8919708132743835,
0.5237290859222412,
0.6127985715866089,
-0.2059011310338974,
-0.025392809882760048,
-0.4862332046031952,
-0.04612267017364502,
0.2950798273086548,
-0.2660386264324188,
-0.11174095422029495,
0.03135846555233002,
-0.5203410387039185,
-0.4093323349952698,
-0.7238308787345886,
0.0058974046260118484,
-0.22828203439712524,
-0.4199422299861908,
-0.21128924190998077,
0.0628604143857956,
0.7987855672836304,
0.3173503875732422,
-0.4017728269100189,
0.8254035115242004,
-0.38485318422317505,
-0.26120060682296753,
0.22983643412590027,
0.35046085715293884,
-0.11697687208652496,
-0.47004830837249756,
-0.19321821630001068,
0.0971122533082962,
0.06835009157657623,
0.2187189906835556,
0.6292446851730347,
-0.5424610376358032,
0.7163557410240173,
-0.22624528408050537,
-0.7851061224937439,
-0.3800313174724579,
0.757361650466919,
-0.12824036180973053,
-0.17592638731002808,
-0.2871992588043213,
0.23046061396598816,
-0.022756336256861687,
0.1841551661491394,
-0.06789161264896393,
-0.8483133316040039,
0.8149210214614868,
-0.6052319407463074,
-0.03752288967370987,
0.6253743767738342,
0.4616864323616028,
-0.027415333315730095,
-0.5074954032897949,
-0.005721566267311573,
-0.34984421730041504,
-0.3451668918132782,
0.04549179971218109,
0.30765798687934875,
-0.3435535132884979,
0.12105634063482285,
0.25217708945274353,
-0.392141193151474,
-0.5408321022987366,
-0.4008927345275879,
0.22832219302654266,
0.2241741418838501,
-0.008059646002948284,
-0.027028359472751617,
-0.6213604211807251,
-0.35129767656326294,
-0.0392741821706295,
-0.07301352918148041,
-0.7010135650634766,
-0.2850660979747772,
0.001744078123010695,
0.11726871132850647,
0.41891905665397644,
-1.0893151760101318,
0.23189674317836761,
0.3071879744529724,
0.2140740007162094,
-0.19805389642715454,
-0.8788708448410034,
0.23910945653915405,
-0.049323659390211105,
0.47785475850105286,
-0.30113092064857483,
0.47012609243392944,
0.13290710747241974,
0.028611913323402405,
-0.09346254914999008,
-0.28168126940727234,
-1.3333327770233154,
-0.1773790419101715,
0.41152065992355347,
-0.04611716419458389,
-0.28036409616470337,
0.06719430536031723,
0.30490362644195557,
-0.7330065965652466,
-0.32183414697647095,
0.5898427367210388,
0.10247429460287094,
0.2618091106414795,
-0.09306372702121735,
0.23453816771507263,
-0.222188800573349,
0.31009525060653687,
0.27466312050819397,
-0.2554309368133545,
-0.43250957131385803,
0.74772047996521,
-0.10734328627586365,
-0.5687416791915894,
0.06275494396686554,
0.32219329476356506,
0.03556360676884651,
0.15103116631507874,
-0.7485249638557434,
-0.24655625224113464,
0.4848450720310211,
-0.1386299580335617,
0.16930921375751495,
0.34908005595207214,
-0.4709804654121399,
0.7806609869003296,
-0.4115106761455536,
-0.5717251896858215,
0.22828185558319092,
-0.779279351234436,
-0.2397931069135666,
0.07565181702375412,
0.6192079782485962,
0.462295264005661,
-0.2503094971179962,
-0.1875239908695221,
0.2850007116794586,
0.246030792593956,
0.35509878396987915,
-0.043255314230918884,
-0.010817505419254303,
0.11717233061790466,
0.23349985480308533,
0.37042516469955444,
-0.26087382435798645,
-0.3212635815143585,
0.82032310962677,
0.5225542187690735,
-0.08335541188716888,
-0.17703892290592194,
0.6570051908493042,
0.06644140928983688,
-0.02651289291679859,
0.2618604898452759,
-0.4982009530067444,
0.3122040927410126,
-0.2337428629398346,
0.3089243173599243,
-0.07871013879776001,
-0.08744347095489502,
-0.5979593396186829,
0.17383408546447754,
0.27913448214530945,
-0.061817433685064316,
-0.07393648475408554,
-0.13276644051074982,
-0.05600959435105324,
0.3525087535381317,
0.1225372701883316,
-0.06235671788454056,
-0.21437841653823853,
-0.30646952986717224,
0.0041600498370826244,
-0.040042340755462646,
0.11418778449296951,
-0.5434317588806152,
0.23837493360042572,
0.45862382650375366,
0.1850414276123047,
0.014423524960875511,
-0.3695140480995178,
0.27928921580314636,
-0.01600906066596508,
0.2275470644235611,
-0.09799253940582275,
0.06751561909914017,
0.458339661359787,
0.33937984704971313,
-0.1767061948776245,
1.0367553234100342,
-0.1667664498090744,
0.35123634338378906,
0.3348495066165924,
0.008906140923500061,
-0.06618115305900574,
0.39093226194381714,
0.5928598642349243,
-0.13646113872528076,
-0.37852269411087036,
0.38502490520477295,
-1.0686976909637451,
0.35728052258491516,
-0.26402801275253296,
0.361909955739975,
0.22897687554359436,
0.05519236624240875,
-0.2407299429178238,
0.20607686042785645,
0.24773353338241577,
-0.4763874113559723,
0.10302869230508804,
-0.38628414273262024,
-0.36832723021507263,
-0.4227922856807709,
-0.09999224543571472,
0.8563995361328125,
-0.5018893480300903,
-0.6605318784713745,
0.5781514644622803,
0.13562026619911194,
-0.694214940071106,
-0.22292877733707428,
0.21406356990337372,
-0.28094223141670227,
-0.23229670524597168,
0.16392095386981964,
-0.4033627212047577,
-0.07041527330875397,
0.6392175555229187,
0.8598695397377014,
-0.30113890767097473,
-0.6784260272979736,
0.003964681178331375,
0.1601276993751526,
0.6331965923309326,
0.6178014874458313,
-0.4062197208404541,
-0.049282245337963104,
0.10007619112730026,
-0.08853410184383392,
-0.0930299311876297,
0.5064868330955505,
0.5099590420722961,
-0.5844812989234924,
0.41588181257247925,
-0.4066323935985565,
-0.19135217368602753,
-0.12372876703739166,
0.32190489768981934,
0.21083217859268188,
0.3166167140007019,
0.052253346890211105
] |
206183
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Russell%20Terrier
|
Jack Russell Terrier
|
The Jack Russell Terrier is a small terrier that has its origins in fox hunting in England. It is principally white-bodied and smooth, rough or broken-coated and can be any colour.
Small tan and white terriers that technically belong to other breeds are sometimes known erroneously as "Jack Russells". Each breed has different physical characteristics according to the standards of their national breed clubs; size and proportions are often used to tell them apart. Some authorities recognize a similar but separate breed as the Russell Terrier – a shorter-legged, stockier dog, with a range of . However, the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) regards the Russell terrier as a sub-type of Jack Russell terrier. Jack Russells are also frequently confused with the Parson Russell Terrier. Technically, the Parson Russell is usually larger and officially limited to a middle range, with a standard size of , whereas the Jack Russell is a broader type, with a size range of
Jack Russells are an energetic breed that rely on a high level of exercise and stimulation. They are relatively free from any serious health complaints. Originating from dogs bred and used by the Rev. John Russell in the early 19th century, from whom the breed takes its name, the Jack Russell has similar origins to the modern Fox Terrier. It has gone through several changes over the years, corresponding to different use and breed standards set by kennel clubs. Recognition by kennel clubs for the Jack Russell breed has been opposed by the breed's parent societies – which resulted in the breeding and recognition of the Parson Russell terrier. Jack Russells have appeared many times in film, television, and print – with several historical dogs of note.
History
Sporting parson
The small white fox-working terriers we know today were first bred by the Reverend John Russell, a parson and hunting enthusiast born in 1795, and they can trace their origin to the now extinct English white terrier. Difficulty in differentiating the dog from the creature it was pursuing brought about the need for a mostly white dog, and so in 1819 during his last year of university at Exeter College, Oxford, he purchased a small white and tan terrier female named Trump from a local milkman in the nearby small hamlet of Elsfield or Marston. Trump epitomised his ideal fox terrier, which, at the time, was a term used for any terrier which was used to bolt foxes out of their burrows. Her colouring was described as "...white, with just a patch of dark tan over each eye and ear; whilst a similar dot, not larger than a penny piece, marks the root of the tail." Davies, a friend of Russell's, wrote: "Trump was such an animal as Russell had only seen in his dreams". She was the basis for a breeding program to develop a terrier with high stamina for the hunt as well as the courage and formation to chase out foxes that had gone to ground. By the 1850s, these dogs were recognised as a distinct breed.
An important attribute in this dog was a tempered aggressiveness that would provide the necessary drive to pursue and bolt the fox, without resulting in physical harm to the quarry and effectively ending the chase, which was considered unsporting. Russell was said to have prided himself that his terriers never tasted blood. This line of terriers developed by John Russell was well respected for those qualities, and his dogs were often taken on by hunt enthusiasts. It is unlikely, however, that any dogs alive today can be proved to be descendants from Trump, as Russell was forced to sell all his dogs on more than one occasion because of financial difficulty, and had only four aged (and non-breeding) terriers left when he died in 1883.
The Fox terrier and Jack Russell terrier type dogs of today are all descended from dogs of that period. However, documented pedigrees earlier than 1862 have not been found. Several records remain of documented breeding by John Russell between the 1860s and 1880s. The Fox Terrier Club was formed in 1875 with Russell as one of the founder members; its breed standard was aspiration, and not a description of how the breed appeared then. By the start of the 20th century, the Fox Terrier had altered more towards the modern breed, but in some parts of the country the old style of John Russell's terriers remained, and it is from those dogs that the modern Jack Russell type has descended.
Many breeds can claim heritage to the early Fox Terrier of this period, including the Brazilian Terrier, Japanese Terrier, Miniature Fox Terrier, Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz, Rat Terrier, and Tenterfield Terrier.
After John Russell
Following Russell's death, the only people who made serious efforts to continue those strains were two men, one in Chislehurst with the surname of East, and another in Cornwall named Archer. East, at one point, had several couples, all of which were descended from one of Russell's dogs. The type aimed for were not as big as the show Fox Terrier and were usually less than .
Arthur Blake Heinemann created the first breed standard and, in 1894, he founded the Devon and Somerset Badger Club, the aims of which were to promote badger digging rather than fox hunting, and the breeding of terriers suitable for this purpose. Terriers were acquired from Nicholas Snow of Oare, and they were likely descended from Russell's original dogs, as Russell would probably have hunted at some point with Snow's hunting club and is likely to have provided at least some of their original terriers. By the turn of the 20th century, Russell's name had become associated with this breed of dog.
The club was later renamed the Parson Jack Russell Terrier Club. Badger digging required a different type of dog than fox hunting, and it is likely that Bull Terrier stock was introduced to strengthen the breed, which may have caused the creation of a shorter legged variety of Jack Russell terrier that started to appear around this period. At the same time that a split was appearing between show and working Fox terriers, a further split was occurring between two different types of white terrier, both carrying Jack Russell's name. Heinemann was invited to judge classes for working terriers at Crufts with an aim to bring working terriers back into the show ring and influence those that disregard working qualities in dogs. These classes were continued for several years by various judges, but Charles Cruft dropped the attempt as the classes were never heavily competed. Following Heinemann's death in 1930, the kennel and leadership of the club passed to Annie Harris, but the club itself folded shortly before World War II.
Post-World War II
Following World War II, the requirement for hunting dogs drastically declined, and with it the numbers of Jack Russell terriers. The dogs were increasingly used as family and companion dogs. Further crossbreeding occurred, with Welsh Corgis, Chihuahuas, and other smaller breeds of terrier. The offspring of these crosses became known as "Puddin' Dogs", "Shortie Jacks", or "Russell Terriers".
The Jack Russell Terrier Club of America (JRTCA) was formed in 1976 by Ailsa Crawford, one of the first Jack Russell terrier breeders in the United States. Size ranges for dogs were kept broad, with the ability of working dogs awarded higher than those in conformation shows. An open registry was maintained, with restricted line breeding. Registration for the club is made at adulthood for Jack Russells, rather than at birth, to ensure the breed's qualities remain, given the open registry.
Several breed clubs appeared in the United Kingdom during the 1970s to promote the breed, including the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain (JRTCGB) and the South East Jack Russell Terrier Club (SEJRTC). The JRTCGB promoted the range of sizes that remain in its standards today, whereas the SEJRTC set a minimum height for dogs at . While the JRTCGB sought to ensure that the breed's working ability remained through non-recognition with other breed registries, the SEJRTC activity sought recognition with the UK Kennel Club. In 1983, the Parson Jack Russell Club of Great Britain (PJRTCGB) was resurrected to seek Kennel Club recognition for the breed. Although the application was initially rejected, a new standard was created for the PJRTCGB based on the standard of the SEJRTC, and under that standard the breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1990 as the Parson Jack Russell terrier. Jack was dropped from the official name in 1999, and the recognised name of the breed became the Parson Russell Terrier.
In the late 1990s, the American Kennel Club explored the possibility of recognising the Jack Russell Terrier. This move was opposed by the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America as they did not want the breed to lose its essential working characteristics. The Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association formed and petitioned the AKC; the breed's admission was granted in 2001. Under the AKC-recognised standard, the size of the breed was narrowed from the previous club's standard, and the name of the AKC-recognised Jack Russell Terrier was changed to Parson Russell Terrier, with the Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association renamed to the Parson Russell Terrier Association of America.
The Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC) and the New Zealand Kennel Club (NZCK) are some of national kennel associations that register both the Jack Russell terrier and the Parson Russell terrier; however, the size requirements for the Jack Russell terrier under both those standards would classify a dog as a Russell terrier in the United States. In 2009, there were 1073 Jack Russells registered with the ANKC, compared to 18 for the Parson Russell terrier. Other modern breeds are often mistaken for modern Jack Russell terriers, including their cousin the Parson Russell terrier, the Tenterfield terrier, and the Rat Terrier. Several other modern breeds exist that descended from the early Fox Terrier breed, including the Brazilian Terrier, Japanese Terrier, Miniature Fox Terrier, Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz, Rat Terrier, and Tenterfield Terrier.
Description
Due to their working nature, Jack Russell terriers remain much as they were some 200 years ago. They are sturdy, tough, and tenacious, measuring between at the withers, and weigh . The body length must be in proportion to the height, and the dog should present a compact, balanced image. Predominantly white in coloration (more than 51%) with black and/or brown and/or tan markings, they exhibit either a smooth, rough or a combination of both which is known as a broken coat. A broken-coated dog may have longer hair on the tail or face than that which is seen on a smooth-coated dog. The skin can sometimes show a pattern of small black or brown spots, referred to as "ticking" that do not carry through to the outer coat. All coat types should be dense double coats that are neither silky (in the case of smooth coats) nor woolly (in the case of rough coats).
The head should be of moderate width at the ears, narrowing to the eyes, and slightly flat between the ears. There should be a defined but not overpronounced stop at the end of the muzzle where it meets the head, and a black nose. The jaw should be powerful and well boned with a scissor bite and straight teeth. The eyes are almond shaped and dark coloured and should be full of life and intelligence. Small V-shaped ears of moderate thickness are carried forward on the head. When the dog is alert, the tip of the V should not extend past the outer corner of the eyes. The tail is set high and in the past was docked to approximately in order to provide a sufficient hand-hold for gripping the terrier.
The Jack Russell should always appear balanced and alert. As it is primarily a working terrier, its most important physical characteristic is its chest size, which must not be so large that it prevents the dog from entering and working in burrows. The red fox is the traditional quarry of the Jack Russell terrier, so the working Jack Russell must be small enough to pursue it. Red foxes vary in size, but across the world, they average from in weight and have an average chest size of at the widest part.
Differences with related breeds
The Jack Russell terrier and Parson Russell Terrier breeds are similar, sharing a common origin, but have several marked differences – the most notable being the range of acceptable heights. Other differences in the Parson Russell can include a longer head and larger chest as well as overall a larger body size. The height of a Parson Russell at the withers according to the breed standard is which places it within the range of the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America's standard size for a Jack Russell of . However, the Parson Russell is a conformation show standard whereas the Jack Russell standard is a more general working standard.
The Russell Terrier, which is also sometimes called the English Jack Russell terrier or the Short Jack Russell terrier is a generally smaller related breed. Both the breed standards of the American Russell Terrier Club and the English Jack Russell Terrier Club Alliance states that at the withers it should be an ideal height of . Although sometimes called the English or Irish Jack Russell terrier, this is not the recognised height of Jack Russells in the United Kingdom. According to the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain's breed standard, it is the same size as the standard for Jack Russells in the United States, . Compared to the Parson Russell Terrier, the Russell Terrier should always be longer than tall at the withers, whereas the Parson Russell's points should be of equal distance. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard for the Jack Russell terrier has this smaller size listed as a requirement. Terrierman Eddie Chapman, who has hunted in Devon for more than 30 years, the same area that John Russell himself hunted, notes that, "I can state categorically that if given the choice, ninety-nine percent of hunt terrier men would buy an under worker, if it was available, over a one."
Temperament
Jack Russells are first and foremost a working terrier. Originally bred to bolt foxes from their dens during hunts, they are used on numerous ground-dwelling quarry such as groundhog, badger, otter, and red and grey fox. The working JRT is required to locate quarry in the earth, and then either bolt it or hold it in place until they are dug to. To accomplish this, the dog will not bark but will expect attention to the quarry continuously. Because the preservation of this working ability is of highest importance to most registered JRTCA/JRTCGB breeders, Jack Russells tend to be extremely intelligent, athletic, fearless, and vocal dogs. It is not uncommon for these dogs to become moody or destructive if not properly stimulated and exercised, as they have a tendency to bore easily and will often create their own fun when left alone to entertain themselves.
Their high energy and drive make these dogs ideally suited to a number of different dog sports such as flyball or agility. Obedience classes are also recommended to potential owners, as Jack Russells can be stubborn at times and aggressive towards other animals and humans if not properly socialized. Despite their small size, these dogs are not recommended for the condominium or apartment dweller unless the owner is ready to take on the daunting task of providing the dog with the necessary amount of exercise and stimulation. They have a tremendous amount of energy for their size, a fact which can sometimes lead to trouble involving larger animals. They may seem never to tire and will still be energetic after their owner has called it a day. While socialised members of the breed are friendly towards children, they will not tolerate abuse even if it is unintentional.
Health
The breed has a reputation for being healthy with a long lifespan. Breeders have protected the gene pool, and direct in-line breeding has been prevented. Jack Russells can live from 13 to 16 years given proper care. However, certain lines have been noted for having specific health concerns and, therefore, could occur in any line or generation because of recessive genes. These issues can include hereditary cataracts, ectopia lentis, congenital deafness, patellar luxation, ataxia, myasthenia gravis, Legg–Calvé–Perthes syndrome, and von Willebrand disease.
Being a hunt-driven dog, the Jack Russell will usually pursue most creatures that it encounters. This includes the skunk, and the breed is prone to skunk toxic shock syndrome. The chemical in the skunk spray is absorbed by the dog and causes the red blood cells to undergo haemolysis, which can occasionally lead to fatal anaemia and kidney failure. If sprayed underground, it can also cause chemical burning of the cornea. Treatments are available to flush the toxin out of the dog's system.
Eye disorders
Lens luxation, also known as ectopia lentis is the most common hereditary disorder in Jack Russell terriers. Even so, this condition is not a common occurrence in the breed. Most frequently appearing in dogs between the ages of 3 and 8 years old, it is where the lens in one or both eyes becomes displaced. There are two types, posterior luxation (where the lens slips to the back of the eye) and anterior luxation (where the lens slips forward). Posterior luxation is the less severe of the two types, as the eye can appear normal although the dog's eyesight will be affected. In anterior luxation, the lens can slip forward and rub against the cornea, damaging it. Anterior luxation also has a high probability of causing glaucoma which can lead to partial or complete blindness. Treatment is available and may include both medical and surgical options. Secondary lens luxation is caused by trauma to the eye and is not hereditary. The condition appears in a number of terrier breeds as well as the Border collie, Brittany and Cardigan Welsh corgi.
Cataracts can affect any breed of dog and is the same condition as seen in humans. Here the lens of the eye hardens and is characterised by cloudiness in the eye. Cataracts will blur the dog's vision and can lead to permanent blindness if left untreated. While considered mainly a hereditary disease, it can also be caused by diabetes, old age, radiation, eye injury or exposure to high temperatures.
Musculoskeletal conditions
Patellar luxation, also known as luxating patella, is a hereditary disorder affecting the knees. It is where the kneecap slips off the groove on which it normally sits. The effects can be temporary with the dog running while holding its hind leg in the air before running on it again once the kneecap slipped back into place as if nothing has happened. Dogs can have a problem with both rear knees, and complications can include arthritis or torn knee ligaments. Severe cases can require surgery. Some are prone to dislocation of the kneecaps, inherited eye diseases, deafness and Legg Perthes—a disease of the hip joints of small dog breeds. Prone to mast cell tumors. Legg–Calvé–Perthes syndrome, also called Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head, is where the ball section of the femur in the hip joint deteriorates following interruption of the blood flow and is the same condition as in humans. In dogs, this causes lameness of the hind-legs, the thigh muscles to atrophy and pain in the joint. It usually occurs between 6–12 months of age and has been documented in a variety of other terrier breeds including the Border terrier, Lakeland terrier, and Wheaten terrier.
Well-known Jack Russell terriers
Nipper was a dog born in 1884 who was thought to be a dog of the Jack Russell terrier type. He was the inspiration for the painting Dog looking at and listening to a Phonograph, later renamed to His Master's Voice. The painting was used by a variety of music related companies including The Gramophone Company, EMI, the Victor Talking Machine Company, and RCA. Today it remains in use incorporated into the logo for HMV in the UK and Europe.
A Jack Russell named Bothy made history in 1982 as part of the Transglobe Expedition. Owned by explorers Ranulph and Ginny Fiennes, he became the first dog to travel to both the North and South Poles. This feat is unlikely to be repeated, as all dogs have been banned from Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty nations since 1994, due to fears that they could transmit diseases to the native seal population. Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton actually made the trip to the north pole by powered sledges before signalling to the base camp that they had arrived. To celebrate their achievement, a plane was sent out to take the two men champagne, along with Bothy.
On 29 April 2007, a Jack Russell named George saved five children at a carnival in New Zealand from an attack by two pit bulls. He was reported to have charged at them and held them at bay long enough for the children to get away. Killed by the pit bulls, he was posthumously awarded the PDSA Gold Medal in 2009, the animal equivalent of the George Cross. A statue has been erected in Manaia, New Zealand, in his memory. A former US Marine also donated to George's owner a Purple Heart award he had received for service in Vietnam.
In 2019, Boris Johnson and his partner Carrie Symonds took a Jack Russell cross from an animal rescue charity in Wales. The dog's name is Dilyn and he became a famous dog at a polling station in the general election.
On screen and in literature
In the UK, one of the more recognisable canine stars was restaurateur and chef Rick Stein's irrepressible terrier Chalky, who frequently upstaged his owner on his various cookery series. He had his own line of merchandise, including plushes, tea towels, art prints, art paw prints and two real ales – Chalky's Bite and Chalky's Bark, which won gold in the Quality Drink Awards 2009. Chalky was given a BBC obituary when he died in 2007.
Moose and his son Enzo played the role of Eddie on the long-running American TV sitcom Frasier. Eddie belonged to lead character Frasier's father Martin Crane, and constantly "stole the show" with his deadpan antics, receiving more fan mail than any other Frasier character. Moose and Enzo also starred as Skip in the 2000 film My Dog Skip.
Soccer was a Jack Russell who became the star of the American TV series Wishbone, which aired from 1995 to 2001. In the 2009 movie Hotel for Dogs, Friday, one of the main characters is a Jack Russell, played by the dog actor Cosmo. Cosmo went on to appear in the films Paul Blart: Mall Cop and Beginners.
Uggie (2002–2015) was an animal actor, appearing in commercials starting in 2005 and in the films Water for Elephants and The Artist, both in 2011. In the same year, based on interest following The Artist, the "Consider Uggie" campaign was launched, which attempted to gain the dog a nomination for an Academy Award. In 2012, Uggie was named Nintendo's first-ever spokesdog.
Sykes (est. 2001 - 2019) was a dog actor from Clifton, Oxfordshire, England. He was best known in the UK for his appearance as "Harvey" in Thinkbox's three television commercials, and, under his real name in five seasons of Midsomer Murders. He also appeared in several Hollywood blockbusters, as well as in a UK TV movie, several series and miniseries. He retired in 2016 after a long career on the big and small screen. Sykes was also a champion agility competitor.
K.K. Slider is a Jack Russell who is a main character in the Animal Crossing series developed by Nintendo. K.K. is a musician who performs to the townsfolk. He has appeared in every Animal Crossing game to date since the original Animal Crossing game in 2001 to Animal Crossing: New Horizons in 2020.
Crossbreeds
The planned-mating crossbreed of a Jack Russell terrier and a Beagle is called a Jackabee. Jackabees are believed to have first been bred in the United States. They typically have a muscular body with patches and a long tail. The breed brings together the hunting terrier with the scenthound.
See also
Fox hunting
Working terriers
Footnotes
References
External links
Dog breeds originating in England
FCI breeds
Terriers
|
[
0.08051784336566925,
0.31720489263534546,
-0.5550471544265747,
-0.26361554861068726,
0.4082432687282562,
0.5792674422264099,
0.3621346056461334,
0.0026665409095585346,
-0.29743579030036926,
0.05401255190372467,
-0.46841832995414734,
0.13808085024356842,
-0.29495111107826233,
0.42541617155075073,
0.08129444718360901,
0.2613871693611145,
0.10434022545814514,
0.369625061750412,
0.28032130002975464,
-0.48478415608406067,
-0.33240947127342224,
-0.7543458938598633,
-0.3633100986480713,
-0.14624464511871338,
-0.1345287412405014,
0.30138659477233887,
0.8300583958625793,
-0.17885884642601013,
0.290787935256958,
0.21528394520282745,
0.1923806071281433,
0.4642038345336914,
0.3307095468044281,
-0.23568692803382874,
0.22911328077316284,
0.10617474466562271,
0.23057419061660767,
-0.27145177125930786,
-0.56943279504776,
-0.7488662600517273,
0.056166939437389374,
0.3032089173793793,
0.5135189890861511,
0.08570212870836258,
-0.25434598326683044,
0.15168188512325287,
-1.7061930894851685,
-0.23389685153961182,
-0.2867200970649719,
-0.09798555821180344,
-0.007507852278649807,
0.35750165581703186,
-0.18093062937259674,
0.6350399255752563,
0.5329251289367676,
0.9632250666618347,
-0.4567529857158661,
-0.643724262714386,
-0.08281765133142471,
0.449553906917572,
-0.22292351722717285,
0.3924838900566101,
0.24205483496189117,
0.30416351556777954,
-0.2469618320465088,
0.5338254570960999,
0.35638588666915894,
0.35096797347068787,
-0.3171248733997345,
0.5262393951416016,
-0.3455487787723541,
-0.6297086477279663,
0.03542957082390785,
0.642707884311676,
-0.4293476343154907,
-0.524631142616272,
0.14813855290412903,
0.2917900085449219,
0.45820116996765137,
0.1733681559562683,
0.40507829189300537,
0.1791696548461914,
0.1709820032119751,
0.49160316586494446,
0.2511175572872162,
1.0913141965866089,
-0.44369029998779297,
-0.3062797486782074,
-0.09159929305315018,
0.8550337553024292,
-0.33376607298851013,
-0.13933497667312622,
-0.020833181217312813,
0.008489185944199562,
-0.22839711606502533,
-0.1352744698524475,
0.39747223258018494,
-0.4079399108886719,
0.5860238075256348,
0.1751336306333542,
-0.20790399610996246,
0.5285594463348389,
0.3242892920970917,
0.3644893765449524,
-0.8240919709205627,
-0.4684072434902191,
-0.533909797668457,
-0.6216645836830139,
-0.05064374953508377,
0.0978565365076065,
-0.47474390268325806,
0.07803567498922348,
0.2839380204677582,
-0.23536457121372223,
-0.2916043996810913,
0.17328806221485138,
0.294732928276062,
-0.39276108145713806,
-0.12255211174488068,
0.8372143507003784,
0.7895491719245911,
0.7824574708938599,
-0.6307358145713806,
0.3628385663032532,
0.19465093314647675,
0.498746782541275,
-0.02050412818789482,
0.6761713027954102,
-0.06901559978723526,
-0.016315681859850883,
0.23547440767288208,
1.047824501991272,
-0.10598981380462646,
-0.616584062576294,
-0.5197990536689758,
0.4101068079471588,
0.7297394871711731,
-0.3676005005836487,
-0.22229954600334167,
0.8463526964187622,
-0.943597674369812,
-0.09979008138179779,
-0.47638174891471863,
-0.3637722134590149,
0.644047737121582,
0.21313035488128662,
-0.2521108388900757,
-0.19347138702869415,
0.6764414310455322,
-0.2698673605918884,
0.2720200717449188,
-0.09035497158765793,
0.33439821004867554,
-0.5306757092475891,
-0.7991833090782166,
0.2726806700229645,
-0.25739622116088867,
-0.8253452777862549,
0.8916053175926208,
-0.18229664862155914,
-0.1549123078584671,
-0.14254875481128693,
-0.0014886095887050033,
-0.150644451379776,
0.1546015590429306,
-0.16239963471889496,
1.091744065284729,
-0.5040431022644043,
-0.8446933627128601,
0.43112775683403015,
-0.7091181874275208,
0.14290748536586761,
1.0399409532546997,
-0.5125568509101868,
-0.11264229565858841,
-0.2915130853652954,
0.005993937142193317,
0.283081978559494,
0.5963608622550964,
-0.46040624380111694,
-0.9023891687393188,
-0.14820298552513123,
0.30708765983581543,
-0.6475796103477478,
0.264204740524292,
-0.34153565764427185,
0.6114783883094788,
-0.14267921447753906,
-0.29387256503105164,
0.24045364558696747,
-0.5222407579421997,
-0.17874747514724731,
0.4348447918891907,
-0.7182978987693787,
1.3917850255966187,
-0.44773128628730774,
-0.6067191958427429,
0.21736396849155426,
-0.22008880972862244,
1.2058676481246948,
-0.23623405396938324,
-0.4381270408630371,
1.0749552249908447,
-0.012369398958981037,
-0.79323410987854,
0.14394599199295044,
-0.0816006287932396,
0.15857534110546112,
1.0541870594024658,
0.6333371996879578,
0.6324880719184875,
-0.011346740648150444,
0.5612238049507141,
0.027092045173048973,
-0.017848730087280273,
-0.002316288184374571,
0.19699275493621826,
0.04143881797790527,
-0.3113090693950653,
-0.8317806720733643,
0.6451444029808044,
0.12949706614017487,
-0.5073320269584656,
0.6294957995414734,
-0.2559361159801483,
0.5976921319961548,
-0.4757521450519562,
-0.40932774543762207,
0.2723403573036194,
-0.34561002254486084,
0.1574447900056839,
0.3952414393424988,
-0.34389781951904297,
-0.12996268272399902,
-0.4165954887866974,
-0.8547950983047485,
-0.14921386539936066,
-0.6861323714256287,
0.07185815274715424,
0.33083853125572205,
0.28103142976760864,
0.5417571067810059,
-0.3048493564128876,
0.10490962862968445,
-0.20767532289028168,
-0.2781342566013336,
-0.325338214635849,
1.0848166942596436,
-0.17677004635334015,
-0.8134555816650391,
0.19239698350429535,
0.27130767703056335,
0.584173321723938,
-0.05902547389268875,
0.3800939917564392,
0.22124522924423218,
-0.26775094866752625,
0.22236080467700958,
0.46582692861557007,
0.12041738629341125,
0.30639010667800903,
0.3890692889690399,
0.07778140902519226,
-0.08886094391345978,
-0.2635912597179413,
-0.33958524465560913,
-0.21167589724063873,
0.0045124986208975315,
-0.2184552252292633,
0.5878159403800964,
1.0623807907104492,
0.30574798583984375,
-0.5062492489814758,
-0.22901415824890137,
0.2362920641899109,
-0.05099570378661156,
0.057963091880083084,
0.1244283989071846,
-0.40443283319473267,
-0.42778879404067993,
-0.4264616370201111,
0.44845712184906006,
0.18806958198547363,
-0.7440913915634155,
-0.27947935461997986,
-0.1836337447166443,
0.04826340824365616,
-0.9450080394744873,
-0.40379974246025085,
0.656204342842102,
0.06837356090545654,
0.24423183500766754,
-0.8310603499412537,
0.22323152422904968,
-0.6807159185409546,
-0.2703462541103363,
-0.2747861444950104,
0.4778091013431549,
0.20141319930553436,
-0.4596409499645233,
-0.04994369298219681,
0.2227693647146225,
-0.15951839089393616,
0.10139793157577515,
0.7422589063644409,
-0.1626013070344925,
-0.03205731511116028,
-0.2940209209918976,
-4.890317440032959,
-0.13710279762744904,
-0.04708646610379219,
-0.2886999249458313,
0.8893450498580933,
0.2712310552597046,
0.15896667540073395,
-0.2277773767709732,
-0.9481894373893738,
0.6356363892555237,
0.019452864304184914,
-0.023601245135068893,
0.10583670437335968,
0.03571717441082001,
0.02727971225976944,
-0.4893258512020111,
-0.0406232587993145,
0.2873668074607849,
0.01875629834830761,
0.02236165478825569,
-0.15203320980072021,
-0.14252589643001556,
-0.10026339441537857,
0.4674617648124695,
-0.33912578225135803,
1.085856318473816,
-1.107520580291748,
-0.25046616792678833,
-0.4444275498390198,
-0.010222279466688633,
0.21546944975852966,
-0.09884960949420929,
0.10971450805664062,
-0.832806408405304,
-0.04684100300073624,
-0.1369878500699997,
0.5066913366317749,
0.601818323135376,
0.6146483421325684,
-0.32216379046440125,
0.07484102994203568,
-0.1392190158367157,
0.19707757234573364,
0.35971859097480774,
0.44693753123283386,
-0.12489974498748779,
0.18871502578258514,
-0.4906110465526581,
-0.6741154789924622,
0.3957448899745941,
-0.4895290732383728,
0.40094509720802307,
0.3080540895462036,
0.7236724495887756,
0.5208901762962341,
-0.14924505352973938,
0.04309362918138504,
-0.26516222953796387,
-0.3976694941520691,
0.25745517015457153,
0.5279472470283508,
-0.41516026854515076,
0.053765926510095596,
0.11947602778673172,
0.047077447175979614,
-0.6428423523902893,
-0.3690144717693329,
-0.5021979808807373,
0.1650206297636032,
-0.22175846993923187,
-0.6424185037612915,
0.34301137924194336,
0.15205994248390198,
-1.0401633977890015,
0.48848751187324524,
0.04942910745739937,
-0.3846472203731537,
0.23138007521629333,
-0.006408113986253738,
0.3514614999294281,
-0.13156913220882416,
-0.7713791728019714,
-0.5327869057655334,
0.7959365844726562,
-0.22036786377429962,
-1.3056951761245728,
-0.8438833355903625,
0.040582165122032166,
-0.4715137481689453,
-0.8856731057167053,
0.3786082863807678,
-0.7046101093292236,
-0.30368849635124207,
-0.044258780777454376,
0.08092032372951508,
-0.07230350375175476,
-0.3270220458507538,
-0.03969680145382881,
-0.21608711779117584,
0.07359544187784195,
0.43020156025886536,
-0.6946462392807007,
-0.13462302088737488,
-0.6739583611488342,
-0.21235370635986328,
-0.8848453760147095,
0.29830434918403625,
0.5637050867080688,
0.8215538263320923,
-0.1169537827372551,
-0.07322105020284653,
-0.763696014881134,
-0.9129014611244202,
-0.43140482902526855,
-0.04857128486037254,
0.1251019537448883,
0.23506474494934082,
-0.1723661869764328,
-0.19032378494739532,
0.3965167701244354,
-0.24803557991981506,
0.3345378041267395,
0.008766324259340763,
-0.38144010305404663,
0.36494073271751404,
-0.6531162261962891,
0.41610023379325867,
-0.3566693961620331,
-0.36374056339263916,
0.014358951710164547,
-0.18813958764076233,
0.47943034768104553,
-0.8469463586807251,
0.027341272681951523,
-0.4630323052406311,
0.06161639466881752,
-0.7308464646339417,
-0.03377445414662361,
0.3356105089187622,
-0.22957943379878998,
-0.3973117470741272,
0.09779544174671173,
0.4072238504886627,
0.21343451738357544,
0.23997847735881805,
0.19186778366565704,
-0.03829057887196541,
0.15004637837409973,
-0.32952016592025757,
0.4367350935935974,
0.14077907800674438,
-0.4789554476737976,
0.25671058893203735,
-1.0427736043930054,
-0.3368965983390808,
-0.35668450593948364,
0.20944161713123322,
0.7969835996627808,
-0.5495042204856873,
-0.5671926140785217,
0.567438542842865,
-0.13032183051109314,
-1.096693992614746,
0.2213766872882843,
0.376604288816452,
0.0036448624450713396,
0.037161778658628464,
-0.873807966709137,
0.3081265687942505,
0.7657121419906616,
0.021185897290706635,
-0.4358859658241272,
-0.8123649954795837,
0.16624456644058228,
-0.037094201892614365,
0.05862617865204811,
-0.2834543287754059,
-0.1018262654542923,
-0.11015982180833817,
-0.09400982409715652,
0.35592272877693176,
0.428040087223053,
0.06284426897764206,
0.39224523305892944,
0.5458431839942932,
-0.7645010352134705,
-0.047493238002061844,
-0.02435053326189518,
-0.23294870555400848,
-0.3160249590873718,
-0.0488693043589592,
0.5543432235717773,
1.196181058883667,
0.8544318079948425,
-1.2614045143127441,
-0.001343403710052371,
-0.18549221754074097,
0.9950297474861145,
0.21593384444713593,
-0.8865547180175781,
0.07154563814401627,
0.8293991088867188,
0.25947803258895874,
-0.09541714191436768,
0.844190776348114,
-0.9792754650115967,
0.003920827992260456,
0.37868890166282654,
-0.40882009267807007,
1.0528486967086792,
0.0015151146799325943,
-1.3286006450653076,
0.20635122060775757,
0.32042521238327026,
-0.5298796892166138,
0.10023282468318939,
0.37765827775001526,
-0.25526508688926697,
-0.025263559073209763,
0.25372207164764404,
-0.6055412292480469,
-0.1272597461938858,
-0.10685411840677261,
-0.03904120996594429,
-0.5389381051063538,
0.19095554947853088,
0.22809980809688568,
0.08381129056215286,
0.3495241105556488,
-0.6941858530044556,
0.03515272215008736,
0.37908583879470825,
0.5778478384017944,
0.18096503615379333,
-0.11432764679193497,
0.28101786971092224,
0.33649060130119324,
0.40063440799713135,
0.5759307146072388,
0.9082724452018738,
1.3004205226898193,
1.1495399475097656,
0.7681956887245178,
-0.688209593296051,
-0.14752277731895447,
0.9755078554153442,
0.3599647879600525,
-0.9018983244895935,
-0.40430301427841187,
0.5331767797470093,
0.2517065703868866,
-0.336206316947937,
-0.41372859477996826,
-0.22729863226413727,
-0.07682031393051147,
-1.1261403560638428,
-0.02907034009695053,
0.5557631850242615,
0.1843917816877365,
0.0657421201467514,
0.2794553339481354,
0.7798625826835632,
-0.4459848701953888,
1.001574993133545,
-0.13730859756469727,
0.03983568400144577,
-0.32516977190971375,
-0.6537346243858337,
0.10573794692754745,
-0.32275471091270447,
-0.006248849909752607,
-0.0867837592959404,
0.7683161497116089,
0.6257253885269165,
0.4406278133392334,
0.026935260742902756,
0.342852920293808,
-1.1386682987213135,
0.05487740412354469,
-0.6968944668769836,
0.12119276076555252,
0.5965418815612793,
0.20593824982643127,
-0.7071551084518433,
-0.371500164270401,
-0.7194675207138062,
-0.12827467918395996,
-0.36545175313949585,
0.09392035752534866,
0.35246938467025757,
0.10229574888944626,
-0.13447199761867523,
0.5087921023368835,
-0.04021044820547104,
-0.06261488050222397,
0.16517098248004913,
-0.6594226360321045,
-0.09553299844264984,
0.5391420722007751,
0.10369498282670975,
-0.5616903305053711,
0.9075140953063965,
-0.24959765374660492,
-0.26292726397514343,
0.16032783687114716,
0.20616298913955688,
0.12539774179458618,
-0.08423208445310593,
0.0947999656200409,
0.1850643903017044,
-0.03724674880504608,
-0.19301418960094452,
-0.22135396301746368,
0.7875261306762695,
0.037155602127313614,
-0.06228838488459587,
0.37561529874801636,
-0.8032472133636475,
0.31554114818573,
1.0360839366912842,
0.1431972235441208,
0.05170472711324692,
0.8625499606132507,
-0.09789568930864334,
-0.661418616771698,
1.1406300067901611,
-1.1523393392562866,
-0.31494370102882385,
0.49552175402641296,
0.3300651013851166,
0.33772286772727966,
-0.2551714777946472,
-0.7797001004219055,
0.38469597697257996,
0.09843863546848297,
-0.3476017117500305,
-0.10015488415956497,
-0.44714686274528503,
0.2546064257621765,
0.8452102541923523,
-0.04320535436272621,
0.1016445904970169,
-0.04116968810558319,
-0.39423611760139465,
0.11609989404678345,
-0.07010309398174286,
-0.3764188289642334,
-0.24272358417510986,
0.3498251140117645,
-0.16533903777599335,
0.47408008575439453,
0.1679568588733673,
0.3492983281612396,
-0.38358360528945923,
0.33392906188964844,
-0.01035044714808464,
-0.16383273899555206,
-0.325776606798172,
-0.4484087824821472,
0.10787978023290634,
-0.07119422405958176,
-0.28118863701820374,
-0.34461066126823425,
-0.00002861407119780779,
-0.24939879775047302,
0.5687022805213928,
-0.1831318438053131,
-0.7249056696891785,
-0.03374309465289116,
0.32477301359176636,
0.2111944705247879,
0.5097465515136719,
0.2365286499261856,
0.06533920019865036,
0.39688655734062195,
0.40315863490104675,
0.4597787857055664,
0.05075301229953766,
-0.04697185009717941,
0.008377999067306519,
-0.3922068476676941,
0.08028370887041092,
-0.4131077527999878,
-0.537084698677063,
0.18108095228672028,
-0.4889165461063385,
-1.0558854341506958,
-0.3834415674209595,
-0.4570363461971283,
-0.4999246299266815,
-0.27201318740844727,
-0.6909205317497253,
0.1002601608633995,
-0.6582233309745789,
-0.3741641044616699,
-0.9272803068161011,
0.24143241345882416,
0.08291340619325638,
0.3206641674041748,
0.1702207773923874,
0.16726107895374298,
0.7586178779602051,
-0.00635143555700779,
0.4661993682384491,
-0.03265844285488129,
-0.10664452612400055,
-0.06873133033514023,
0.5199731588363647,
-0.5357661247253418,
0.8180394172668457,
0.24507075548171997,
-0.5685864686965942,
0.03627631440758705,
0.18600983917713165,
-0.45731815695762634,
0.38531064987182617,
0.7452569603919983,
-0.4715885818004608,
-0.7190279960632324,
-0.6486969590187073,
0.6743890047073364,
-0.48246315121650696,
-0.07488953322172165,
0.008023282513022423,
-0.23836809396743774,
-0.4069165885448456,
0.8260145783424377,
-0.4066242277622223,
-0.7395727038383484,
0.8111189007759094,
-0.5699918866157532,
0.970387876033783,
-0.4937535226345062,
-0.28806713223457336,
-0.4794359505176544,
-1.2577563524246216,
0.7632676362991333,
0.9381144642829895,
-0.4200890064239502,
0.00009701621456770226,
-0.24311724305152893,
0.24671682715415955,
0.38038399815559387,
0.12605857849121094,
0.085987888276577,
0.45734888315200806,
0.3364589214324951,
-0.40675070881843567,
-0.07251487672328949,
0.5355347990989685,
0.5420804023742676,
-0.18860912322998047,
-0.19433224201202393,
-0.35522517561912537,
0.5842911005020142,
0.08053594827651978,
-0.05618428811430931,
-1.2509771585464478,
0.28316324949264526,
0.0563558004796505
] |
206186
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Bacon%20%28artist%29
|
Francis Bacon (artist)
|
Francis Bacon (28 October 1909 – 28 April 1992) was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his raw, unsettling imagery. Focusing on the human form, his subjects included crucifixions, portraits of popes, self-portraits, and portraits of close friends, with abstracted figures sometimes isolated in geometrical structures. Rejecting various classifications of his work, Bacon said he strove to render "the brutality of fact." He built up a reputation as one of the giants of contemporary art with his unique style.
Bacon said that he saw images "in series", and his work, which numbers c. 590 extant paintings along with many others he destroyed, typically focused on a single subject for sustained periods, often in triptych or diptych formats. His output can be broadly described as sequences or variations on single motifs; including the 1930s Picasso-influenced bio-morphs and Furies, the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms or geometric structures, the 1950s "screaming popes," the mid-to-late 1950s animals and lone figures, the early 1960s crucifixions, the mid-to-late 1960s portraits of friends, the 1970s self-portraits, and the cooler, more technical 1980s paintings.
Bacon did not begin to paint until his late twenties, having drifted in the late 1920s and early 1930s as an interior decorator, bon vivant and gambler. He said that his artistic career was delayed because he spent too long looking for subject matter that could sustain his interest. His breakthrough came with the 1944 triptych Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion, which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition. From the mid-1960s he mainly produced portraits of friends and drinking companions, either as single, diptych or triptych panels. Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971 (memorialised in his Black Triptychs, and a number of posthumous portraits) his art became more sombre, inward-looking and preoccupied with the passage of time and death. The climax of his later period is marked the masterpieces Study for Self-Portrait (1982) and Study for a Self-Portrait—Triptych, 1985–86.
Despite his existentialist and bleak outlook, Bacon was charismatic, articulate and well-read. A bon vivant, he spent his middle age eating, drinking and gambling in London's Soho with like-minded friends including Lucian Freud (although they fell out in the mid-1970s, for reasons neither ever explained), John Deakin, Muriel Belcher, Henrietta Moraes, Daniel Farson, Tom Baker and Jeffrey Bernard. After Dyer's suicide he largely distanced himself from this circle, and while still socially active and his passion for gambling and drinking continued, he settled into a platonic and somewhat fatherly relationship with his eventual heir, John Edwards.
Since his death, Bacon's reputation has grown steadily, and his work is among the most acclaimed, expensive and sought-after on the art market. In the late 1990s a number of major works, previously assumed destroyed, including early 1950s pope paintings and 1960s portraits, re-emerged to set record prices at auction.
Biography
Early life
Francis Bacon was born on 28 October 1909 in 63 Lower Baggot Street, Dublin, Ireland. At that time, all of Ireland was still part of the United Kingdom. His father, army Captain Anthony Edward Mortimer Bacon, known as Eddy, was born in Adelaide, South Australia, to an English father and an Australian mother. Eddy was a veteran of the Boer War, a racehorse trainer, and grandson of Major-General Anthony Bacon, who claimed descent from Sir Nicholas Bacon, elder half-brother of The 1st Viscount St Albans (better known to history as Sir Francis Bacon), the Elizabethan statesman, philosopher and essayist. Bacon's mother, Christina Winifred Firth, known as Winnie, was heiress to a Sheffield steel business and coal mine. Bacon had an older brother, Harley, two younger sisters, Ianthe and Winifred, and a younger brother, Edward. Bacon was raised by the family nanny, Jessie Lightfoot, from Cornwall, known as 'Nanny Lightfoot', a maternal figure who remained close to him until her death. During the early 1940s, he rented the ground floor of 7 Cromwell Place, South Kensington, John Everett Millais's old studio, and Nanny Lightfoot helped him install an illicit roulette wheel there, organised by Bacon and his friends, for their financial benefit.
The family moved house often, moving between Ireland and England several times, leading to a sense of displacement which remained with Bacon throughout his life. The family lived in Cannycourt House in County Kildare from 1911, later moving to Westbourne Terrace in London, close to where Bacon's father worked at the Territorial Force Records Office. They returned to Ireland after the First World War. Bacon lived with his maternal grandmother and step-grandfather, Winifred and Kerry Supple, at Farmleigh, Abbeyleix, County Laois, although the rest of the family again moved to Straffan Lodge near Naas, County Kildare.
Bacon was shy as a child, and enjoyed dressing up. This, and his effeminate manner, angered his father. A story emerged in 1992 of his father having had Bacon horsewhipped by their grooms.
In 1924, shortly after the establishment of the Irish Free State, his parents moved to Gloucestershire, first to Prescott House in Gotherington, then Linton Hall near the border with Herefordshire. At a fancy-dress party at the Firth family home, Cavendish Hall in Suffolk, Bacon dressed as a flapper with an Eton crop, beaded dress, lipstick, high heels, and a long cigarette holder. In 1926, the family moved back to Straffan Lodge. His sister, Ianthe, twelve years his junior, recalled that Bacon made drawings of ladies with cloche hats and long cigarette holders. Later that year, Bacon was thrown out of Straffan Lodge following an incident in which his father found him admiring himself in front of a large mirror wearing his mother's underwear.
London, Berlin and Paris
Bacon spent the latter half of 1926 in London, on an allowance of £3 a week from his mother's trust fund, reading Nietzsche. Although poor (£5 was then the average weekly wage), Bacon found that by avoiding rent and engaging in petty theft, he could survive. To supplement his income, he briefly tried his hand at domestic service, but although he enjoyed cooking, he became bored and resigned. He was sacked from a telephone-answering position at a shop selling women's clothes in Poland Street, Soho, after writing a poison pen letter to the owner. Bacon found himself drifting through London's homosexual underworld, aware that he was able to attract a certain type of rich man, something he was quick to take advantage of, having developed a taste for good food and wine. One was a relative of Winnie Harcourt-Smith, another breeder of racehorses, who was renowned for his manliness. Bacon claimed his father had asked this "uncle" to take him 'in-hand' and 'make a man of him'. Bacon had a difficult relationship with his father, once admitting to being sexually attracted to him.
In 1927 Bacon moved to Berlin, where he first saw Fritz Lang's Metropolis and Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin, both later to be influences on his work. He spent two months in Berlin, though Harcourt-Smith left after one – "He soon got tired of me, of course, and went off with a woman ... I didn't really know what to do, so I hung on for a while." Bacon then spent the next year-and-a-half in Paris. He met Yvonne Bocquentin, pianist and connoisseur, at the opening of an exhibition. Aware of his own need to learn French, Bacon lived for three months with Madame Bocquentin and her family at their house near Chantilly. He travelled into Paris to visit the city's art galleries. At the Château de Chantilly (Musée Condé) he saw Nicolas Poussin's Massacre of the Innocents, a painting which he often referred to in his later work.
Return to London
Bacon moved to London in the winter of 1928/29, to work as an interior designer. He took a studio at 17 Queensberry Mews West, South Kensington, sharing the upper floor with Eric Alden – his first collector – and his childhood nanny, Jessie Lightfoot. In 1929, he met Eric Hall, his patron and lover in an often torturous and abusive relationship. Bacon left the Queensberry Mews West studio in 1931 and had no settled space for some years. He probably shared a studio with Roy De Maistre, circa 1931/32 in Chelsea. Portrait (1932) and Portrait (c. 1931–32) both show a round-faced youth with diseased skin.
Furniture and rugs
The 1933 Crucifixion was his first painting to attract public attention, and was in part based on Pablo Picasso's The Three Dancers of 1925. It was not well received; disillusioned, he abandoned painting for nearly a decade, and suppressed his earlier works. He visited Paris in 1935 where he bought a secondhand book on anatomical diseases of the mouth containing high quality hand-coloured plates of both open mouths and oral interiors, which haunted and obsessed him for the remainder of his life. These and the scene with the nurse screaming on the Odessa steps from the Battleship Potemkin later became recurrent parts of Bacon's iconography, with the angularity of Eisenstein's images often combined with the thick red palette of his recently purchased medical tome.
In the winter of 1935–36, Roland Penrose and Herbert Read, making a first selection for the International Surrealist Exhibition, visited his studio at 71 Royal Hospital Road, Chelsea saw "three or four large canvases including one with a grandfather clock", but found his work "insufficiently surreal to be included in the show". Bacon claimed Penrose told him "Mr. Bacon, don't you realise a lot has happened in painting since the Impressionists?" In 1936 or 1937 Bacon moved from 71 Royal Hospital Road to the top floor of 1 Glebe Place, Chelsea, which Eric Hall had rented. The following year, Patrick White moved to the top two floors of the building where De Maistre had his studio, on Eccleston Street and commissioned from Bacon, by now a friend, a writing desk (with wide drawers and a red linoleum top). Expressing one of his basic concerns from the late 1930s, Bacon said that his artistic career was delayed because he spent too long looking for subject matter that could sustain his interest.
In January 1937, at Thomas Agnew and Sons, 43 Old Bond Street, London, Bacon exhibited in a group show, Young British Painters, which included Graham Sutherland and Roy De Maistre. Eric Hall organised the show. Four works by Bacon were shown: Figures in a Garden (1936), purchased by Diana Watson; Abstraction, and Abstraction from the Human Form, known from magazine photographs. They prefigure Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion (1944) in alternatively representing a tripod structure (Abstraction), bared teeth (Abstraction from the Human Form), and both being biomorphic in form. Seated Figure is lost.
On 1 June 1940, Bacon's father died. Bacon was named sole Trustee/Executor of his father's will, which requested the funeral be as "private and simple as possible". Unfit for active wartime service, Bacon volunteered for civil defence and worked full-time in the Air Raid Precautions (ARP) rescue service; the fine dust of bombed London worsened his asthma and he was discharged. At the height of the Blitz, Eric Hall rented a cottage for Bacon and himself at Bedales Lodge in Steep, near Petersfield, Hampshire. Figure Getting Out of a Car (ca. 1939/1940) was painted here but is known only from an early 1946 photograph taken by Peter Rose Pulham. The photograph was taken shortly before the canvas was painted over by Bacon and retitled Landscape with Car. An ancestor to the biomorphic form of the central panel of Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion (1944), the composition was suggested by a photograph of Hitler getting out of a car at one of the Nuremberg rallies. Bacon claims to have "copied the car and not much else".
Bacon and Hall in 1943 took the ground floor of 7 Cromwell Place, South Kensington, formerly the house and studio of John Everett Millais. High-vaulted and north-lit, its roof was recently bombed – Bacon was able to adapt a large old billiard room at the back as his studio. Lightfoot, lacking an alternative location, slept on the kitchen table. They held illicit roulette parties, organised by Bacon with the assistance of Hall.
Early success
By 1944 Bacon had gained confidence and moved toward developing his unique signature style. His Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion had summarised themes explored in his earlier paintings, including his examination of Picasso's biomorphs, his interpretations of the Crucifixion, and the Greek Furies. It is generally considered his first mature piece; he regarded his works before the triptych as irrelevant. The painting caused a sensation when exhibited in 1945 and established him as a foremost post-war painter. Remarking on the cultural significance of Three Studies, John Russell observed in 1971 that "there was painting in England before the Three Studies, and painting after them, and no one ... can confuse the two."
Painting (1946) was shown in several group shows including in the British section of Exposition internationale d'art moderne (18 November – 28 December 1946) at the Musée National d'Art Moderne, for which Bacon travelled to Paris. Within a fortnight of the sale of Painting (1946) to the Hanover Gallery Bacon used the proceeds to decamp from London to Monte Carlo. After staying at a succession of hotels and flats, including the Hôtel de Ré, Bacon settled in a large villa, La Frontalière, in the hills above the town. Hall and Lightfoot would come to stay. Bacon spent much of the next few years in Monte Carlo apart from short visits to London. From Monte Carlo, Bacon wrote to Sutherland and Erica Brausen. His letters to Brausen show he painted there, but no paintings are known to survive. Bacon said he became "obsessed" with the Casino de Monte Carlo, where he would "spend whole days". Falling in debt from gambling here, he was unable to afford a new canvas. This compelled him to paint on the raw, unprimed side of his previous work, a practice he kept throughout his life.
In 1948, Painting (1946) sold to Alfred Barr for the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York for £240. Bacon wrote to Sutherland asking that he apply fixative to the patches of pastel on Painting (1946) before it was shipped to New York. (The work is now too fragile to be moved from MoMA for exhibition elsewhere.) At least one visit to Paris in 1946 brought Bacon into more immediate contact with French postwar painting and with Left Bank ideas such as Existentialism. He had, by this time, embarked on his lifelong friendship with Isabel Rawsthorne, a painter closely involved with Giacometti and the Left Bank set. They shared many interests, including ethnography and classical literature.
Late 1940s
In 1947, Sutherland introduced Bacon to Brausen, who represented Bacon for twelve years. Despite this, Bacon did not mount a one-man show in Brausen's Hanover Gallery until 1949. Bacon returned to London and Cromwell Place late in 1948.
The following year Bacon exhibited his "Heads" series, most notable for Head VI, Bacon's first surviving engagement with Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X (three 'popes' were painted in Monte Carlo in 1946 but were destroyed). He kept an extensive inventory of images for source material, but preferred not to confront the major works in person; he viewed Portrait of Innocent X only once, much later in his life.
1950s
Bacon's main haunt was The Colony Room, a private drinking club at 41 Dean Street in Soho, known as "Muriel's" after Muriel Belcher, its proprietor. Belcher had run the Music-box club in Leicester Square during the war, and secured a 3 – 11pm drinking license for the Colony Room bar as a private-members club. Bacon was an early member, joining the day after its opening in 1948. He was 'adopted' by Belcher as a 'daughter', and allowed free drinks and £10 a week to bring in friends and rich patrons. In 1948 he met John Minton, a regular at Muriel's, as were the painters Lucian Freud, Frank Auerbach, Patrick Swift and the Vogue photographer, John Deakin.
In 1950, Bacon met the art critic David Sylvester, then best known for his writing on Henry Moore and Alberto Giacometti. Sylvester had admired and written about Bacon since 1948. Bacon's artistic inclinations in the 1950s moved towards his abstracted figures which were typically isolated in geometrical cage-like spaces, and set against flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon said that he saw images "in series", and his work typically focused more on a single subject for sustained periods, often in triptych or diptych formats. Although his decisions might have been driven by the fact that in the 1950s he tended to produce group works for specific showings, usually leaving things until the last minute, there is significant development in his aesthetic choices during the 1950s which influenced his artistic preference for the represented content in his paintings.
Bacon was impressed by Goya, African landscapes and wildlife, and took photographs in Kruger National Park. On his return journey he spent a few days in Cairo, and wrote to Erica Brausen of his intent to visit Karnak and Luxor, and then travel via Alexandria to Marseilles. The visit confirmed his belief in the supremacy of Egyptian art, embodied by the Sphinx. He returned in early 1951.
On 30 April 1951, Jessie Lightfoot, his childhood nanny, died at Cromwell Place; Bacon was gambling in Nice when he learned of her death. She had been his closest companion, joining him in London on his return from Paris, and lived with him and Eric Alden at Queensberry Mews West, and later with Eric Hall near Petersfield, in Monte Carlo and at Cromwell Place. Stricken, Bacon sold the 7 Cromwell Place apartment.
In 1958 he aligned with the Marlborough Fine Art gallery, who remained as his sole dealer until 1992. In return for a 10-year contract, Marlborough advanced him money against current and future paintings, with the price of each determined by its size. A painting measuring 20 inches by 24 inches was valued at £165 ($462), while one of 65 inches by 78 inches was valued at £420 ($1,176); these were sizes Bacon favoured. According to the contract, the painter would try to supply the gallery with £3,500 ($9,800) worth of pictures each year.
1960s and 1970s
Bacon met George Dyer in 1963 at a pub, although a much-repeated myth claims they met when Dyer burgled Bacon's flat. Dyer was about 30 years old, from London's East End. He came from a family steeped in crime, and had till then spent his life drifting between theft and prison. Bacon's earlier relationships had been with older and tumultuous men. His first lover, Peter Lacy, tore up Bacon's paintings, beat him in drunken rages, at times leaving him on streets half-conscious. Bacon was now the dominating personality, attracted to Dyer's vulnerability and trusting nature. Dyer was impressed by Bacon's self-confidence and success, and Bacon acted as a protector and father figure to the insecure younger man.
Dyer was, like Bacon, a borderline alcoholic and similarly took obsessive care with his appearance. Pale-faced and a chain-smoker, Dyer typically confronted his daily hangovers by drinking again. His compact and athletic build belied a docile and inwardly tortured personality, although the art critic Michael Peppiatt describes him as having the air of a man who could "land a decisive punch". Their behaviours eventually overwhelmed their affair, and by 1970 Bacon was merely providing Dyer with enough money to stay more or less permanently drunk.
As Bacon's work moved from the extreme subject matter of his early paintings to portraits of friends in the mid-1960s, Dyer became a dominating presence. Bacon's paintings emphasise Dyer's physicality, yet are uncharacteristically tender. More than any other of Bacon's close friends, Dyer came to feel inseparable from his portraits. The paintings gave him stature, a raison d'etre, and offered meaning to what Bacon described as Dyer's "brief interlude between life and death". Many critics have described Dyer's portraits as favourites, including Michel Leiris and Lawrence Gowing. Yet as Dyer's novelty diminished within Bacon's circle of sophisticated intellectuals, Dyer became increasingly bitter and ill at ease. Although Dyer welcomed the attention the paintings brought him, he did not pretend to understand or even like them. "All that money an' I fink they're reely 'orrible," he observed with choked pride.
Dyer abandoned crime but descended into alcoholism. Bacon's money attracted hangers-on for benders around London's Soho. Withdrawn and reserved when sober, Dyer was highly animated and aggressive when drunk, and often attempted to "pull a Bacon" by buying large rounds and paying for expensive dinners for his wide circle. Dyer's erratic behaviour inevitably wore thin with his cronies, with Bacon, and with Bacon's friends. Most of Bacon's art world associates regarded Dyer as a nuisance – an intrusion into the world of high culture to which their Bacon belonged. Dyer reacted by becoming increasingly needy and dependent. By 1971, he was drinking alone and only in occasional contact with his former lover.
In October 1971, Dyer joined Bacon in Paris for the opening of Bacon's retrospective at the Grand Palais. The show was the high point of Bacon's career to date, and he was now described as Britain's "greatest living painter". Dyer was a desperate man, and although he was "allowed" to attend, he was well aware that he was slipping out of the picture. To draw Bacon's attention, he planted cannabis in his flat and phoned the police, and attempted suicide on a number of occasions. On the eve of the Paris exhibition, Bacon and Dyer shared a hotel room, but Bacon was forced to escape in disgust to the room of gallery employee Terry Danziger-Miles, as Dyer was entertaining an Arab rent boy with "smelly feet". When Bacon returned to his room the next morning, 24 October, together with Danziger-Miles and Valerie Beston, they discovered Dyer in the bathroom dead, sat on the toilet. With the agreement of the hotel manager, the party agreed not to announce the death for two days.
Bacon spent the following day surrounded by people eager to meet him. In mid-evening of the following day he was "informed" that Dyer had taken an overdose of barbiturates and was dead. Bacon continued with the retrospective and displayed powers of self-control "to which few of us could aspire", according to Russell. Bacon was deeply affected by the loss of Dyer, and had recently lost four other friends and his nanny. From this point, death haunted his life and work. Though outwardly stoic at the time, he was inwardly broken. He did not express his feelings to critics, but later admitted to friends that "daemons, disaster and loss" now stalked him as if his own version of the Eumenides (Greek for The Furies). Bacon spent the remainder of his stay in Paris attending to promotional activities and funeral arrangements. He returned to London later that week to comfort Dyer's family.
During the funeral many of Dyer's friends, including hardened East-End criminals, broke down in tears. As the coffin was lowered into the grave one friend was overcome and screamed "you bloody fool!" Bacon remained stoic during the proceedings, but in the following months suffered an emotional and physical breakdown. Deeply affected, over the following two years he painted a number of single canvas portraits of Dyer, and the three highly regarded "Black Triptychs", each of which details moments immediately before and after Dyer's suicide.
Death
While holidaying in Madrid in 1992, Bacon was admitted to the Clinica Ruber, a private clinic, where he was cared for by the Handmaids of Maria. His chronic asthma, which had plagued him all his life, had developed into a more severe respiratory condition and he could not talk or breathe very well.
He died of a heart attack on 28 April 1992. He bequeathed his estate (then valued at £11 million) to his heir and sole legatee John Edwards; in 1998, at Edwards' request, Brian Clarke, a friend of Bacon and Edwards, was installed as sole executor of the estate by the High Court, following the Court's severing of all ties between Bacon's former gallery, Marlborough Fine Art, and his estate. In 1998 the director of the Hugh Lane Gallery in Dublin secured Edwards' and Clarke's donation of the contents of Bacon's studio at 7 Reece Mews, South Kensington. The contents of his studio were surveyed, moved, and reconstructed in the gallery.
Themes
The Crucifixion
The imagery of the crucifixion weighs heavily in the work of Francis Bacon. Critic John Russell wrote that the crucifixion in Bacon's work is a "generic name for an environment in which bodily harm is done to one or more persons and one or more other persons gather to watch". Bacon admitted that he saw the scene as "a magnificent armature on which you can hang all types of feeling and sensation". He believed the imagery of the crucifixion allowed him to examine "certain areas of human behaviour" in a unique way, as the armature of the theme had been accumulated by so many old masters.
Though he came to painting relatively late in life – he did not begin to paint seriously until his late 30s – crucifixion scenes can be found in his earliest works. In 1933, his patron Eric Hall commissioned a series of three paintings based on the subject. The early paintings were influenced by such old masters as Matthias Grünewald, Diego Velázquez and Rembrandt, but also by Picasso's late 1920s/early 1930s biomorphs and the early work of the Surrealists.
Popes
Bacon's series of Popes, largely quoting Velázquez's famous portrait Pope Innocent X (1650, Galeria Doria Pamphili, Rome) are striking images which further develop motifs already found in his earlier works, like the "Study for Three Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion", such as the screaming open mouth. The figures of the popes, pictorially isolated by partly curved parallel lines indicating psychological forces and symbolising inner energy like strength of feeling, are alienated from their original representation and, stripped of their representation of power to allegories of suffering humanity.
Reclining figures
Many of Bacon's paintings are "inhabited" by reclining figures. Single, or, as in triptychs, repeated with variations, they can be commented by symbolic indexes (like circular arrows as signs for rotation), turning painted images to blueprints for moving images of the type of contemporary GIFs. The composition of especially the nude figures is influenced by the sculptural work of Michelangelo. The multi-phasing of his rendition of the figures, which often is also applied to the sitters in the portraits, is also a reference to Eadweard Muybridge's chronophotography.
The screaming mouth
The inspiration for the recurring motif of screaming mouths in many Bacons of the late 1940s and early 1950s was drawn from a number of sources, including medical text books, the works of Matthias Grünewald and photographic stills of the nurse in the Odessa Steps scene in Eisenstein's 1925 silent film Battleship Potemkin. Bacon saw the film in 1935, and viewed it frequently thereafter. He kept in his studio a photographic still of the scene, showing a close-up of the nurse's head screaming in panic and terror and with broken pince-nez spectacles hanging from her blood-stained face. He referred to the image throughout his career, using it as a source of inspiration.
Bacon described the screaming mouth as a catalyst for his work, and incorporated its shape when painting the chimera. His use of the motif can be seen in one of his first surviving works, Abstraction from the Human Form. By the early 1950s it became an obsessive concern, to the point, according to art critic and Bacon biographer Michael Peppiatt, "it would be no exaggeration to say that, if one could really explain the origins and implications of this scream, one would be far closer to understanding the whole art of Francis Bacon."
Legacy
Estate assignment
In 1999, England's High Court ruled that Marlborough Fine Art had to be replaced by a new independent representative for the Bacon estate. The estate moved its business to Faggionato Fine Arts in Europe and Tony Shafrazi in New York. That same year, the estate sued Marlborough UK and Marlborough International, Vaduz, charging them with wrongfully exploiting Bacon in a relationship that was manifestly disadvantageous to him, until his death in 1992, and to his estate. The suit alleged Marlborough in London grossly underpaid Bacon for his works and resold them through its Liechtenstein branch at much higher prices, contending that Marlborough never supplied a complete accounting of Bacon's works, and failed to account for up to 33 of his paintings. The litigation was settled out of court in early 2002, following Edwards' diagnosis of lung cancer, with both sides paying their own costs. During the legal process, an undisclosed number of Bacon's paintings were recovered from Marlborough, and "vast quantities of correspondence and documents relating to Bacon's life were handed over by the gallery". In 2003, the estate was handed to a four-person trust based in Jersey.
Francis Bacon studio
In August 1998, Bacon's sole heir John Edwards and the artist Brian Clarke, sole executor of Bacon's estate, donated the contents of Bacon's studio to the Hugh Lane Gallery in Dublin. The studio at 7 Reece Mews had remained largely untouched since Bacon's death in 1992, and the decision was taken to preserve it for posterity. A team of archaeologists, art historians, conservators and curators oversaw the wholesale relocation of the studio to Dublin. The locations of over 7,000 items were mapped, survey and elevation drawings made, the items packed and catalogued, and the studio was rebuilt, including the original doors, floor, walls and ceiling. At the time, Edwards commented about the decision to send the entire studio to Ireland: "a little corner of South Kensington moved to his birthplace. Thousands of papers, books, photos, rotted curtains – all in Dublin. I think it would have made him roar with laughter...". In 2001 the relocated studio was opened to the public, with a fully comprehensive database, the first computerised record of the entire contents of an artist's studio. Every item in the studio has a database entry. Each entry consists of an image and a factual account of an object. The database has entries on approximately 570 books and catalogues, 1,500 photographs, 100 slashed canvases, 1,300 leaves torn from books, 2,000 artist's materials and 70 drawings. Other categories include Bacon's correspondence, magazines, newspapers and vinyl records.
In an interview to BBC News, when the decision to move Bacon's London Studio to Ireland was announced, Clarke commented the following about all controversies over the donation of the studio: "Bacon once said that he'd never come back to Dublin until he was dead, (...) I think frankly if he were here today to see what happened, I think he'd be touched but I think he'd probably roar with laughter as well". To The Irish Times he also commented about the Bacon's Studio removal to Ireland: "And it's very appropriate. I'm convinced Francis would have loved it. After all, he was born here, and he said once that he couldn't come back until he was dead – the fuss would be too much."
Auction value
The Popes and large triptychs, in their time, commanded the highest prices at auction. By 1989 Bacon was the most expensive living artist after one of his triptychs sold at Sotheby's for over $6 million. In 2007, actress Sophia Loren consigned Study for Portrait II (1956) from the estate of her late husband Carlo Ponti at Christie's. It was auctioned for the then record price of £14.2 million ($27.5 million).
In 2008, the Triptych, 1976, sold at Sotheby's for €55.465 million ($86.28 million), then a record for a work by Bacon and the highest price paid for a postwar work of art at auction up to 2008. In 2013, Three Studies of Lucian Freud sold at Christie's New York for $142.4 million, surpassing both Triptych and 1976 in auctioned value, and more importantly claiming the record for highest auction price of a work of art at that time, a title previously held by the fourth version of Edvard Munch's Scream and now held by Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi.
Catalogue raisonné
A first, incomplete catalogue raisonné was compiled by curator Ronald Alley in 1964. In 2016, a five-volume Francis Bacon: Catalogue Raisonné, documenting 584 paintings by Bacon, was released by Martin Harrison and others.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Archimbaud, Michel. Francis Bacon: The Final Vision. New York: Phaidon Press, 1994.
Bacon, Francis. Francis Bacon: Important Paintings from the Estate. New York: Tony Shafrazi gallery, 1998.
Baldassari, Anne. Bacon-Picasso: The Life of Images. London: Flammarion, 2005.
Brighton, Andrew. Francis Bacon. London: Tate Publishing, 2001.
Cappock, Margarita. Francis Bacon's Studio. London: Merrell Publishers, 2005.
Deleuze, Gilles. Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation. Paris: Continuum International Publishing- Mansell, 2004.
Domino, Christophe. Francis Bacon. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Edwards, John. 7 Reece Mews: Francis Bacon's Studio. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.
Farson, Daniel. The Gilded Gutter Life of Francis Bacon. London: Vintage, 1994.
Gale, Matthew & Sylvester David. Francis Bacon: Working on Paper London: Tate Publishing, 1999.
Hammer, Martin. Bacon and Sutherland. Boston: Yale University Press, 2005.
Hammer, Martin. Francis Bacon: Portraits and Heads. Edinburgh: National Galleries of Scotland, 2005.
Harrison, Martin. In Camera, Francis Bacon: Photography, Film and the Practice of Painting. Thames & Hudson, 2005.
Harrison, Martin; Daniels, Rebecca. Francis Bacon Incunabula. London: Thames & Hudson, 2009.
Kundera, Milan & Borel, France. Bacon: Portraits and Self-portraits. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996.
Orozco, Miguel. The Complete Prints of Francis Bacon. Catalogue Raisonné. Academia.edu, 2020.
Peppiatt, Michael. Francis Bacon: Anatomy of an Enigma. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1996.
Peppiatt, Michael. Francis Bacon in the 1950s. London: Yale University Press, 2006.
Rothenstein, John (intro); Alley, Ronald. Catalogue raisonnè and documentation, 1964. Francis Bacon. Thames and Hudson
Rump, Gerhard Charles. Francis Bacons Menschenbild. In: Gerhard Charles Rump: Kunstpsychologie, Kunst und Psycoanalyse, Kunstwissenschaft. (1981), pp. 146–168
Russell, John. Francis Bacon. London: Thames and Hudson, 1993.
Sabatier, Bruno. "The Complete Graphic Work, Catalogue Raisonné", Paris, JSC Gallery, 2012.
Schmied, Wieland. Francis Bacon: Commitment and Conflict. London: Prestel Verlag, 2006.
Sinclair, Andrew Francis. Bacon: His Life and Violent Times. London, Sinclair Stevenson, 1993; New York, Crown
Steffen, Barbara; Bryson, Norman. Francis Bacon and the Tradition of Art. Zurich: Skira Editore, 2004.
Stevens, Mark; Swan, Annalyn. Francis Bacon: Revelations. Knopf, 2021.
Sylvester, David. Interviews with Francis Bacon. London: Thames & Hudson, 1987.
Sylvester, David. Looking Back at Francis Bacon. London: Thames & Hudson, 2000.
Sylvester, David. Francis Bacon: The Human Body. London: Hayward Gallery, 1998.
Sylvester, David. About Modern Art: Critical Essays 1948–2000. London: Pimlico, 2002.
Todoli, Vincente. Francis Bacon: Caged. Uncaged. Lisbon: Fundacao De Serralves, 2003.
Van Alphen, Ernst. Francis Bacon and the Loss of Self. London: Reaktion Books, 1992.
Zweite, Armin. Francis Bacon: The Violence of the Real. London: Thames and Hudson, 2006.
External links
– official site
Francis Bacon image licensing at Artimage
Francis Bacon in the Tate Collection
Francis Bacon in the Guggenheim Collection
Francis Bacon at the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
Francis Bacon on the Tate Channel
1909 births
1992 deaths
20th-century British artists
20th-century Irish painters
20th-century textile artists
Academics of the Royal College of Art
Anglo-Irish artists
Artists from Dublin (city)
British people of Australian descent
British textile artists
Civil Defence Service personnel
English expatriates in France
English expatriates in Morocco
English furniture designers
English interior designers
Gay artists
Irish expatriates in England
Irish furniture designers
Irish male painters
LGBT artists from Ireland
LGBT artists from the United Kingdom
Modern painters
Painters from London
People educated at Dean Close School
People from County Kildare
People from South Kensington
|
[
0.440744549036026,
0.46734100580215454,
-0.9514303803443909,
-0.27988606691360474,
-0.25250867009162903,
0.5456976294517517,
0.2988569438457489,
0.03928176686167717,
-0.15353284776210785,
-0.37802207469940186,
-0.5210191011428833,
-0.20679697394371033,
-0.3185964524745941,
0.21177029609680176,
0.4498533606529236,
0.044068314135074615,
-0.4154331386089325,
-0.18523037433624268,
-0.6872413158416748,
-0.23634430766105652,
-0.036950014531612396,
-0.5713091492652893,
-0.0926150307059288,
-0.6991498470306396,
-0.796126663684845,
-0.04780063405632973,
0.04679710790514946,
-0.22132743895053864,
0.42682400345802307,
0.033619169145822525,
0.24704982340335846,
0.3010508716106415,
0.08563294261693954,
-0.5060349106788635,
0.21935345232486725,
-0.0713028684258461,
-0.8855644464492798,
-0.18289408087730408,
-0.2429323047399521,
-0.4207164943218231,
-0.2510436773300171,
-0.11876721680164337,
0.6145567297935486,
-0.09208094328641891,
-0.04900043085217476,
-0.4898759424686432,
-1.4621516466140747,
0.477483332157135,
-0.599798321723938,
0.2613038718700409,
-0.35683923959732056,
0.6115090250968933,
0.8502835631370544,
0.3822437822818756,
-0.16222496330738068,
0.9253779053688049,
-0.31074589490890503,
-0.3439147472381592,
0.07504655420780182,
-0.7031904458999634,
0.6091235876083374,
0.03447697311639786,
-0.023638803511857986,
0.12378323078155518,
-0.36326655745506287,
0.3489048480987549,
0.0617918036878109,
0.2557525932788849,
-0.05904974043369293,
-0.2913888990879059,
0.2158893197774887,
0.39864104986190796,
0.06324159353971481,
0.3142910301685333,
-0.3206666111946106,
0.08433318883180618,
0.5214751362800598,
-0.539878785610199,
0.05138574540615082,
0.48111492395401,
0.2638128399848938,
-0.14051420986652374,
1.2365375757217407,
0.7088298797607422,
0.481048047542572,
0.3476399779319763,
-0.01434244867414236,
0.41917040944099426,
-0.17885586619377136,
0.6367118954658508,
0.2645860016345978,
-0.7509396076202393,
-0.15116076171398163,
-0.19856226444244385,
-0.01883760467171669,
0.49335068464279175,
0.5684419870376587,
0.29046404361724854,
-0.13298045098781586,
-0.43396976590156555,
-0.07350839674472809,
0.31307175755500793,
0.3395075798034668,
-0.16624319553375244,
-0.5314440131187439,
0.0664873719215393,
-0.2936641275882721,
-0.44203779101371765,
0.023464689031243324,
0.0735119953751564,
-0.44293200969696045,
0.17894800007343292,
-0.29342514276504517,
-0.1385544091463089,
0.15470071136951447,
-0.22619307041168213,
-0.16198253631591797,
-0.4145579934120178,
-0.6704643964767456,
0.05396592244505882,
-0.18424709141254425,
0.04162907600402832,
-0.3462793231010437,
0.10097402334213257,
-0.5484350919723511,
-0.18974214792251587,
0.638715386390686,
0.4292371869087219,
-0.19357450306415558,
0.34601157903671265,
0.004882924724370241,
1.5604636669158936,
-0.19240808486938477,
-0.7706788182258606,
0.06176449730992317,
-0.3681029677391052,
-0.11598781496286392,
-0.3281128704547882,
-0.2789335548877716,
0.5349211096763611,
-0.719937801361084,
-0.7235066890716553,
-0.5990299582481384,
0.242815300822258,
0.4138796329498291,
-0.20678363740444183,
0.20690570771694183,
0.11521399021148682,
0.20174835622310638,
0.07238635420799255,
-0.15127886831760406,
-0.7123345136642456,
-0.09718460589647293,
-0.5679123401641846,
0.020894352346658707,
0.3691959083080292,
0.49492600560188293,
0.3697647452354431,
0.5279015302658081,
-0.5451604723930359,
0.4382570683956146,
0.06446792930364609,
-0.07681918889284134,
-0.024776918813586235,
0.3047696352005005,
-0.1190013736486435,
-0.05291365087032318,
-0.1543869525194168,
-0.3854233920574188,
0.25824496150016785,
-0.04384520649909973,
-0.29697704315185547,
0.21481449902057648,
-0.3195338249206543,
-0.3743550181388855,
0.24433742463588715,
0.40787410736083984,
0.21511337161064148,
0.8107520341873169,
0.007062453776597977,
-0.9393266439437866,
0.13321074843406677,
0.22392506897449493,
0.1335156410932541,
-0.1057911366224289,
-0.05572095513343811,
0.05541198328137398,
-0.14095228910446167,
0.06301043927669525,
0.2543719410896301,
-0.5407571792602539,
-0.18663658201694489,
-0.23423776030540466,
-0.9261866211891174,
0.8077162504196167,
0.09255323559045792,
-0.9538503289222717,
0.9365455508232117,
0.22154638171195984,
0.7794581055641174,
0.13586032390594482,
0.004607503302395344,
-0.4547300636768341,
-0.7320998907089233,
0.546979546546936,
0.560547411441803,
0.15267610549926758,
-0.044625889509916306,
0.101888507604599,
0.9384892582893372,
0.2838839888572693,
-0.665046751499176,
0.5136164426803589,
1.2178902626037598,
-0.7986786365509033,
-0.23634730279445648,
-0.5944307446479797,
-0.022433415055274963,
0.035936057567596436,
-0.6752941012382507,
0.14114847779273987,
0.5341199040412903,
-0.19867746531963348,
0.8954980969429016,
0.05086810141801834,
0.39137110114097595,
-0.2822181284427643,
-0.30130645632743835,
0.5555302500724792,
-0.9189276099205017,
-0.0998801589012146,
0.8025869131088257,
0.1052241101861,
-0.06618301570415497,
-0.17533352971076965,
0.11434784531593323,
0.6507546901702881,
-0.3216715455055237,
0.9865804314613342,
-0.33845433592796326,
0.269706130027771,
0.2544049322605133,
-0.08399113267660141,
-0.1504926234483719,
0.18454229831695557,
0.24597704410552979,
-0.13736459612846375,
0.1736375093460083,
-0.14615648984909058,
0.28166210651397705,
0.2999495565891266,
0.8413369059562683,
-0.37246274948120117,
-0.11060725152492523,
-0.23985277116298676,
-0.25911271572113037,
0.47476619482040405,
-1.0175687074661255,
0.5659358501434326,
0.23878711462020874,
0.052375175058841705,
0.09327392280101776,
0.6873765587806702,
0.45342108607292175,
-0.13817191123962402,
-0.8494429588317871,
-0.43518897891044617,
-0.47282060980796814,
0.3403875231742859,
-0.015184136107563972,
0.6316854953765869,
-0.09547580033540726,
-0.31133121252059937,
0.09856916218996048,
0.38094350695610046,
0.08984336256980896,
-0.4608280062675476,
0.4522343575954437,
0.08927560597658157,
-0.2970615029335022,
0.036229100078344345,
0.6025808453559875,
-0.4231679439544678,
-0.11189071834087372,
0.14705981314182281,
-0.13471361994743347,
-0.04940563067793846,
-0.1526346057653427,
0.2843635678291321,
-0.33792245388031006,
-0.11598685383796692,
1.203250765800476,
0.006392082665115595,
-0.06267882138490677,
-0.732761561870575,
0.1164652481675148,
-0.6459072232246399,
-0.3765125572681427,
-0.5911393165588379,
-0.14469203352928162,
-0.240284264087677,
0.4830946922302246,
0.062428832054138184,
-0.014605192467570305,
0.33527085185050964,
0.8572028279304504,
-0.12588642537593842,
-0.04948205500841141,
-5.330602169036865,
0.3019867241382599,
0.44871005415916443,
0.26749271154403687,
-0.6397417783737183,
-0.14409664273262024,
0.42944779992103577,
-0.036290448158979416,
0.45498818159103394,
-0.7560460567474365,
0.611581563949585,
-0.379072368144989,
0.08813048899173737,
0.777967631816864,
0.35335585474967957,
0.3285232484340668,
0.6240126490592957,
-0.37020760774612427,
0.19933998584747314,
0.6244393587112427,
-0.43873512744903564,
0.299537718296051,
0.14933893084526062,
0.2940686047077179,
0.3006524443626404,
0.46656352281570435,
-1.0632197856903076,
-0.21458393335342407,
-0.5974239706993103,
0.42603540420532227,
-0.22187237441539764,
-0.6637799143791199,
-0.07647508382797241,
0.08709350973367691,
-0.2008497267961502,
0.2762535810470581,
0.38908183574676514,
0.2086198478937149,
-0.18039120733737946,
-0.04047972336411476,
-0.20586325228214264,
0.40001678466796875,
-0.793619692325592,
0.15803638100624084,
0.18499180674552917,
-0.35784292221069336,
-0.780596137046814,
-0.5838994979858398,
0.33098018169403076,
0.20994609594345093,
-0.10649368911981583,
0.30903360247612,
0.1517094075679779,
-0.22491684556007385,
-0.12293091416358948,
0.43651923537254333,
-0.2593827247619629,
0.42045608162879944,
-0.5343963503837585,
0.2108333557844162,
0.23977743089199066,
-0.3250208795070648,
0.0634208545088768,
-0.204037144780159,
0.058604493737220764,
0.3332687020301819,
-0.22350485622882843,
-0.04419398680329323,
0.23109790682792664,
-0.41704314947128296,
0.21311861276626587,
0.6115967631340027,
-0.4312674403190613,
-1.0939222574234009,
-0.4694575369358063,
-0.258849561214447,
0.18650682270526886,
-0.3467838764190674,
0.12449266761541367,
-0.39350011944770813,
-0.11982670426368713,
-0.5674570202827454,
-0.5272977948188782,
0.5424475073814392,
0.2523541748523712,
0.10239201784133911,
-0.4163045287132263,
0.2991017997264862,
-0.6710860133171082,
0.1359645277261734,
0.6631330251693726,
0.3683984577655792,
-0.42606666684150696,
0.3518894910812378,
0.25783297419548035,
0.20338761806488037,
1.0147805213928223,
0.2538747191429138,
0.3314461410045624,
0.10481862723827362,
0.02364453673362732,
-0.28208574652671814,
-0.3194044530391693,
-0.5136538743972778,
-0.23559774458408356,
0.049325861036777496,
-0.29031673073768616,
0.6065035462379456,
0.5877396464347839,
-0.1933448314666748,
0.13038687407970428,
0.07890529930591583,
-0.20274585485458374,
-0.1922057718038559,
0.1029350757598877,
-0.2500689923763275,
0.3271353244781494,
0.4122353792190552,
0.4755038321018219,
-0.04755993187427521,
0.32318490743637085,
0.4371562600135803,
-0.30486902594566345,
0.10276365280151367,
-0.01471263263374567,
0.05630579963326454,
-0.3448098599910736,
0.17417499423027039,
0.11670085787773132,
0.24127189815044403,
0.04787295684218407,
0.8720409274101257,
-0.06113528832793236,
0.14128528535366058,
0.5876644849777222,
-0.520717978477478,
-0.39873653650283813,
-0.30299320816993713,
0.14828404784202576,
0.06544972956180573,
0.5780872106552124,
-0.05239104479551315,
-0.0052068657241761684,
0.6597543358802795,
0.012751748785376549,
0.1314050555229187,
-0.29114648699760437,
-0.14317485690116882,
-0.18917933106422424,
0.5354242324829102,
0.0729101151227951,
0.44400453567504883,
-0.027895662933588028,
0.08296665549278259,
-0.10295780748128891,
-0.3196726143360138,
-0.8568452000617981,
-0.34566086530685425,
-0.4037248194217682,
-0.27064692974090576,
0.5307623744010925,
-0.002251968951895833,
-1.2689388990402222,
-0.5185306072235107,
-0.520250678062439,
-0.5624644160270691,
0.1728428304195404,
-0.5555349588394165,
-0.3438645601272583,
-0.16102920472621918,
-0.2545396089553833,
-0.7431876063346863,
0.36857521533966064,
-0.407429575920105,
0.12628233432769775,
-0.025847740471363068,
-0.7907114624977112,
0.1457633376121521,
-0.02648312598466873,
-0.1194743886590004,
0.16445311903953552,
0.5718899965286255,
-0.32630929350852966,
-0.6884105205535889,
0.48893484473228455,
-0.3844259977340698,
-0.3465137481689453,
0.1482679843902588,
-0.2903786599636078,
0.09245173633098602,
0.04403206333518028,
0.2675493359565735,
0.3748304545879364,
1.2562485933303833,
-0.7437983751296997,
-0.03415200114250183,
-0.09514140337705612,
-0.0008703466155566275,
0.08938563615083694,
-0.4376547336578369,
-0.042013876140117645,
-0.007140016183257103,
-0.3979811668395996,
-0.198654443025589,
0.03990520164370537,
-0.7975206971168518,
0.11611343175172806,
0.053131137043237686,
-0.2709871232509613,
0.6851150393486023,
-0.25253981351852417,
-0.21233224868774414,
-0.49561643600463867,
0.09724640101194382,
-0.19201457500457764,
0.37942564487457275,
-0.1561938375234604,
-0.19044950604438782,
-0.13956940174102783,
-0.37758010625839233,
-0.1808062642812729,
0.5724419951438904,
-0.8313958048820496,
0.5622025728225708,
0.1002073884010315,
0.05468868464231491,
0.4536775052547455,
-0.28574663400650024,
0.4206145107746124,
-0.08916827291250229,
0.23887288570404053,
0.12363769859075546,
-0.08884697407484055,
0.6086521744728088,
0.02299346961081028,
-0.0018357449444010854,
0.7551495432853699,
0.03351271525025368,
-0.27629324793815613,
0.23760950565338135,
0.29780513048171997,
0.8287427425384521,
0.2556712329387665,
0.014065097086131573,
0.3028864860534668,
0.48654240369796753,
0.21708376705646515,
-0.5398201942443848,
-0.46835649013519287,
0.17510385811328888,
-0.11546258628368378,
-0.16320975124835968,
0.3000178933143616,
-0.8648052215576172,
1.2603052854537964,
-0.8687158823013306,
0.21994648873806,
0.46461015939712524,
0.35626378655433655,
-0.6551766991615295,
0.47205933928489685,
-0.17515778541564941,
-0.13883206248283386,
-0.3305222690105438,
0.18160609900951385,
0.24185296893119812,
0.06900455802679062,
0.6395826935768127,
0.24647250771522522,
-0.29110240936279297,
0.1970369815826416,
0.28879815340042114,
-0.40114596486091614,
0.798410952091217,
-0.3284913897514343,
-0.4200024902820587,
-0.1266072541475296,
-0.912409245967865,
0.4294011890888214,
-0.8928673267364502,
-0.21120351552963257,
0.2181212157011032,
0.27786239981651306,
-0.4450170695781708,
-0.15734483301639557,
-0.7405421137809753,
0.4002186357975006,
-0.7871782183647156,
-0.3390338122844696,
-0.4585540294647217,
-0.1009712740778923,
0.2456471174955368,
0.2977023422718048,
-0.2847030758857727,
-0.24919013679027557,
1.1337456703186035,
-0.9054805040359497,
0.2665592133998871,
-0.10311701148748398,
-0.8741493821144104,
-0.7333760261535645,
0.4151415526866913,
0.12722638249397278,
-0.33462512493133545,
0.5026198029518127,
-0.47929757833480835,
-0.4769974648952484,
-0.4712252616882324,
-0.18256570398807526,
0.5319172143936157,
0.3588164448738098,
0.11514214426279068,
-0.3685801923274994,
-0.12667837738990784,
-0.38756507635116577,
0.13240808248519897,
0.9972920417785645,
-0.4161282777786255,
-0.3975818455219269,
0.025168979540467262,
0.06279489398002625,
0.23868680000305176,
0.49273672699928284,
-0.5089994668960571,
-0.09093409031629562,
0.5481677651405334,
0.13357093930244446,
0.4721381664276123,
-0.007842987775802612,
0.4129807651042938,
-0.11654132604598999,
-0.8217735290527344,
-0.8984730839729309,
0.760202944278717,
0.025737090036273003,
-0.07353704422712326,
0.34004175662994385,
-0.07245006412267685,
0.08442021161317825,
-0.028925716876983643,
0.14573773741722107,
0.2915121614933014,
-0.11432275176048279,
-0.1470470130443573,
-0.46955522894859314,
0.050394583493471146,
0.29635122418403625,
0.08237715810537338,
0.18550164997577667,
0.03837114945054054,
0.8008542060852051,
0.3580758273601532,
0.5150290131568909,
-0.18724462389945984,
0.5527015328407288,
0.17630192637443542,
0.8073775172233582,
-0.10388945788145065,
-0.5103585124015808,
0.04297460615634918,
-0.5779233574867249,
-0.46116209030151367,
0.7363132238388062,
-0.5394231677055359,
-0.3776715099811554,
-0.007745022885501385,
0.026003746315836906,
-0.3147549331188202,
0.1438518911600113,
0.30844375491142273,
0.3804435431957245,
-0.3651675879955292,
-0.17957501113414764,
0.7335509657859802,
0.31282180547714233,
0.36710861325263977,
0.5975159406661987,
0.3538272976875305,
-0.1535498946905136,
0.05980723351240158,
-0.8204799890518188,
-0.05416424944996834,
-0.549207329750061,
-0.5470567345619202,
0.4525664448738098,
-0.46073704957962036,
0.17724138498306274,
0.45440050959587097,
-0.3604036867618561,
0.13708098232746124,
-0.32861509919166565,
0.12107474356889725,
-0.1485147327184677,
0.5379369854927063,
-0.5008230805397034,
0.40140798687934875,
-0.4058699607849121,
0.9263213872909546,
-0.7291673421859741,
-0.17993630468845367,
-0.09124364703893661,
0.39249882102012634,
-0.04571320489048958,
0.17450998723506927,
-0.574641764163971,
-0.03397051990032196,
-0.545567512512207,
0.19626985490322113,
-1.1412439346313477,
0.4549352824687958,
-0.07681628316640854,
-0.39191558957099915,
-0.02042035572230816,
-0.1560908854007721,
-0.6767587065696716,
0.44169244170188904,
0.8025478720664978,
-0.01698530651628971,
0.015732407569885254,
-0.2987556755542755,
0.4497573971748352,
-0.23321685194969177,
0.6312209367752075,
0.017144037410616875,
-0.5558587908744812,
-0.005927545018494129,
0.4117285907268524,
0.046624429523944855,
0.37348613142967224,
-0.01705077476799488,
0.15223278105258942,
0.9097647666931152,
-0.6324806809425354,
-0.45464202761650085,
-0.2783670127391815,
-0.360931932926178,
0.5299600958824158,
0.7920648455619812,
0.13822421431541443,
-0.8925908803939819,
0.6810517907142639,
-0.020265664905309677,
-0.5049698948860168,
-0.2418927401304245,
-0.5980944037437439,
-0.31714263558387756,
0.12554828822612762,
-0.6790014505386353,
0.5869875550270081,
0.5210367441177368,
0.44296401739120483,
0.4196687936782837,
0.1168380156159401,
-0.9088830947875977,
0.1950455754995346,
0.07703603059053421,
0.6640523672103882,
-0.3513171374797821,
0.3878444731235504,
-0.2286306470632553
] |
206187
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via%20della%20Vittoria
|
Via della Vittoria
|
The Via della Vittoria was a military road between Bardia in Italian Libya and Sidi Barrani in western Egypt.
Characteristics
The "Via della Vittoria" (Victory Road), was built by Italian engineers during World War II, between September and December 1940. The road went from Sidi Barrani, Egypt, to the border of Italian Libya and connected to the Via Balbia. It was wide and asphalted.
It was officially called Via della Vittoria nell'Africa Settentrionale Italiana in order to distinguish it from another "Via della Vittoria" built in 1939 in Ethiopia/Africa Orientale Italiana.
History
The Italian Army invaded Egypt in summer 1940 and penetrated until Sidi Barrani. The need of communication in order to supply the Army forced the construction of this new road.
In fall 1940 Italian Marshal Rodolfo Graziani ordered his Army in western Egypt to complete this new coastal road extending the Via Balbia inside Egypt, even in order to create an infrastructure for a planned Italian invasion of the Nile Delta in January/February 1941.
In December 1940 the new road was used by the British forces during Operation Compass. In the next two years the road was damaged by the continuous changes in the front between Axis forces under Erwin Rommel and the Allies.
See also
North African campaign
Footnotes
References
Roads in Egypt
Roads in Libya
Italian fascist architecture
Libya in World War II
Italian Cyrenaica
Western Desert campaign
|
[
0.15020637214183807,
-0.3392602205276489,
0.28508150577545166,
0.10702400654554367,
-0.0033155279234051704,
0.38374897837638855,
0.39471349120140076,
0.6994336843490601,
-0.013166753575205803,
-0.4790138900279999,
-0.15571865439414978,
-0.4327935576438904,
-0.2729331851005554,
0.7714627981185913,
-0.1862354874610901,
0.10177236050367355,
0.12625056505203247,
-0.012607079930603504,
0.27282199263572693,
-0.324007511138916,
0.24852052330970764,
0.2843417227268219,
0.0616951584815979,
0.16248172521591187,
-0.49591800570487976,
-0.3516163229942322,
0.3298346698284149,
0.24655167758464813,
-0.0008404718828387558,
-0.5270566344261169,
0.39889585971832275,
0.31748878955841064,
-0.03225047141313553,
-0.08822523802518845,
-0.2844727635383606,
0.5347543358802795,
1.2084778547286987,
-0.6516425609588623,
-0.3042029142379761,
-0.06542827934026718,
-0.1042395606637001,
0.3192363977432251,
0.049454446882009506,
0.4985496997833252,
0.2748713791370392,
-0.04862114414572716,
-1.1762036085128784,
0.15381181240081787,
-0.49608123302459717,
-0.2653104364871979,
-0.21582695841789246,
0.31400540471076965,
0.29184120893478394,
0.6270439028739929,
0.15019717812538147,
0.6835548281669617,
-0.7156438827514648,
-0.0129566490650177,
1.034785270690918,
-0.14665287733078003,
0.35483840107917786,
0.5723990797996521,
0.3787633776664734,
0.18236298859119415,
0.07258290797472,
0.0159195177257061,
0.2987103760242462,
0.9530307650566101,
-0.3949848413467407,
-0.44725847244262695,
-0.5629832744598389,
0.061363186687231064,
0.3202899992465973,
0.1298804134130478,
-0.3615891635417938,
-0.8253351449966431,
-0.08678289502859116,
-0.12876440584659576,
-0.393419474363327,
-0.22725443542003632,
0.24605798721313477,
-0.3199434280395508,
1.0043950080871582,
-0.3900521695613861,
0.9698734879493713,
0.885494589805603,
-0.9034697413444519,
-0.266597718000412,
-0.5130416750907898,
0.2576061487197876,
-0.7518954873085022,
-0.1389448046684265,
-0.11826977133750916,
0.13780833780765533,
-0.07838611304759979,
0.1069675087928772,
-0.1406518816947937,
0.3354485332965851,
-0.25589442253112793,
0.5741350054740906,
-0.42650893330574036,
0.14021164178848267,
0.12937131524085999,
-0.29700443148612976,
-0.5080644488334656,
0.06055667623877525,
-0.48635920882225037,
0.02556428126990795,
-0.6235760450363159,
-0.2905462384223938,
-0.8654422163963318,
0.0425882488489151,
-0.9502897262573242,
-0.2159806340932846,
-0.390900582075119,
-0.10781323909759521,
0.5451791286468506,
-0.11940978467464447,
-0.5492681264877319,
0.0036506110336631536,
0.3865199387073517,
0.1102614477276802,
-0.41026243567466736,
-0.5010780692100525,
-0.0529351644217968,
0.7242155075073242,
0.32517796754837036,
0.4096349775791168,
-0.4869307279586792,
0.6401748061180115,
0.46008798480033875,
0.44359341263771057,
0.11827990412712097,
-0.051295846700668335,
-0.1023886650800705,
-0.3384123742580414,
-0.38945209980010986,
0.9711049199104309,
0.1778547614812851,
-0.2818942666053772,
-0.7041186690330505,
0.0011457497021183372,
-0.6934813857078552,
-0.053522661328315735,
0.5679426789283752,
0.17240676283836365,
-0.13334576785564423,
-0.5622413754463196,
-0.008002997376024723,
-0.4327809512615204,
0.027037447318434715,
-0.4344976246356964,
-0.1341811567544937,
-0.1611759066581726,
-0.3683098256587982,
0.5189576148986816,
0.4321315586566925,
0.1342773586511612,
-0.040374819189310074,
0.4821832478046417,
0.47219449281692505,
-0.07777202874422073,
0.14973874390125275,
0.27011919021606445,
-0.11502566933631897,
0.14839071035385132,
0.7234992384910583,
0.2853049635887146,
0.34038203954696655,
0.4964287281036377,
-0.41673287749290466,
-0.2608090341091156,
-0.3614886701107025,
-0.38153818249702454,
-0.37210679054260254,
0.3505445420742035,
0.9073662757873535,
0.15965993702411652,
-0.18040262162685394,
-0.5825643539428711,
-0.4951240122318268,
0.12571294605731964,
0.046501997858285904,
0.09774143993854523,
0.18805818259716034,
0.38872161507606506,
0.3873572051525116,
-0.04655598849058151,
-0.6758022904396057,
-0.10335657000541687,
-0.352093368768692,
-0.19699077308177948,
0.02555040456354618,
-0.46284112334251404,
0.9901362657546997,
0.44418734312057495,
-0.17874060571193695,
0.6073318719863892,
0.0014085349394008517,
0.8870636224746704,
-0.19616363942623138,
-0.13724952936172485,
0.677186131477356,
-0.30128124356269836,
-0.03329390659928322,
1.2177627086639404,
0.4164943993091583,
-0.06161689758300781,
0.4177625775337219,
1.3282923698425293,
0.5042994618415833,
-0.2254723608493805,
0.2701762020587921,
-0.01168191060423851,
0.5855662822723389,
0.23336505889892578,
-0.6179770231246948,
0.434712290763855,
0.0942993238568306,
-0.4388856291770935,
0.12898629903793335,
-0.13336236774921417,
-0.6634440422058105,
0.4036151170730591,
-0.5716708898544312,
0.46172335743904114,
-0.030060620978474617,
1.0196548700332642,
-0.21165812015533447,
-0.7791268229484558,
0.17430001497268677,
0.1738104373216629,
0.26731061935424805,
0.12653909623622894,
0.2276424616575241,
0.008799806237220764,
-0.09163316339254379,
-0.8470985889434814,
0.40376052260398865,
-0.1554977297782898,
0.3877127766609192,
0.19779852032661438,
-0.6142880916595459,
0.4839897155761719,
0.060398977249860764,
0.5093259811401367,
0.34473949670791626,
0.36257022619247437,
0.15886664390563965,
-0.026244603097438812,
0.4480482339859009,
-0.1615227609872818,
0.49908390641212463,
-0.17278531193733215,
0.05710037052631378,
-1.0858529806137085,
0.5090309977531433,
-0.08260077983140945,
0.34467968344688416,
-0.18719977140426636,
-0.24849295616149902,
0.18234308063983917,
0.5851984024047852,
0.414266437292099,
0.19795246422290802,
0.08741047978401184,
-0.859584629535675,
-0.42273762822151184,
0.3978785276412964,
0.25745266675949097,
0.11572401225566864,
0.03684462234377861,
-0.060475271195173264,
-0.3983613848686218,
-0.1018550768494606,
-0.2758418619632721,
-0.9688513278961182,
0.6228781938552856,
-0.7750170826911926,
0.1610594391822815,
0.26538321375846863,
0.1636822521686554,
-0.07936044782400131,
-0.5800418257713318,
-0.37271901965141296,
0.11310222744941711,
0.3933612108230591,
-0.3397003412246704,
0.28025078773498535,
0.1398700624704361,
0.00037914328277111053,
-0.3643539547920227,
-0.38672134280204773,
0.7462515234947205,
-0.2651974856853485,
0.10934791713953018,
-0.7555242776870728,
-0.3133752644062042,
0.76401287317276,
-0.5872097611427307,
-0.4623190462589264,
0.8886246681213379,
-0.2526058554649353,
0.22602982819080353,
-0.30338069796562195,
-0.1684603989124298,
-0.4172598421573639,
-0.05836963653564453,
-5.267004013061523,
0.9499097466468811,
-0.49978095293045044,
0.34897756576538086,
-0.39490485191345215,
-0.020019469782710075,
0.12365634739398956,
-0.027078943327069283,
-0.14609496295452118,
-0.17571601271629333,
0.04579810053110123,
-0.07265496253967285,
-0.12575963139533997,
0.2381000816822052,
0.19383974373340607,
0.508742094039917,
0.2915892004966736,
-0.35973086953163147,
0.8815250992774963,
-0.0659007877111435,
0.015530374832451344,
0.41064420342445374,
0.520326554775238,
0.42411670088768005,
-0.009366845712065697,
0.5693644285202026,
-0.7873559594154358,
0.3187759816646576,
-1.258766531944275,
0.027853138744831085,
0.2630837857723236,
0.03479260951280594,
-0.21774879097938538,
0.014429152943193913,
-0.016159893944859505,
0.3321126103401184,
0.5872031450271606,
-0.01870444044470787,
0.2993481457233429,
-0.529340922832489,
-0.2657809257507324,
0.7045430541038513,
0.1314668357372284,
0.009598497301340103,
0.38631218671798706,
-0.20409423112869263,
-0.6390382051467896,
-0.28113192319869995,
0.39474934339523315,
0.9125081896781921,
-0.17309725284576416,
-0.2002282738685608,
0.2763119339942932,
0.25619980692863464,
-0.5025389790534973,
-0.27582359313964844,
0.4145226776599884,
-0.4921947419643402,
-0.30221447348594666,
0.9192872643470764,
0.5638523101806641,
-0.3998604416847229,
0.04638173431158066,
-0.8472887873649597,
0.11525002121925354,
-0.021265119314193726,
0.0723751038312912,
-0.1388092041015625,
-0.23560985922813416,
0.6942716836929321,
-0.0943332090973854,
0.7907253503799438,
-0.5652911067008972,
-0.8544391989707947,
-0.1055796667933464,
-0.5500138998031616,
-0.409269779920578,
0.23591819405555725,
0.058452557772397995,
0.13522830605506897,
0.3883470296859741,
-0.08819606900215149,
-0.2532065808773041,
-0.07480570673942566,
0.2863030433654785,
-0.02056673914194107,
0.3283645808696747,
0.036638617515563965,
-0.600335955619812,
-0.02270529791712761,
0.15560761094093323,
-0.3656775951385498,
0.2913898527622223,
0.6798632144927979,
-0.4495907127857208,
0.6666785478591919,
-0.1896386295557022,
-0.07039258629083633,
0.3783615231513977,
-0.39051350951194763,
0.29674142599105835,
-0.5497488379478455,
0.2892495393753052,
0.3054182529449463,
-0.6317381858825684,
-0.6221081018447876,
-0.10306801646947861,
0.3203963041305542,
0.31398293375968933,
-0.3674103319644928,
-0.1609901636838913,
0.22758324444293976,
-0.18245667219161987,
-0.6124095916748047,
0.5866705179214478,
-0.4386536180973053,
-0.19717662036418915,
0.9814074039459229,
0.6777399182319641,
-0.36870700120925903,
0.3439970910549164,
0.3029344081878662,
0.43418049812316895,
-0.39040300250053406,
-0.24804465472698212,
0.6254502534866333,
-0.0914357528090477,
0.35259851813316345,
-0.04061368107795715,
0.08583572506904602,
-0.5848905444145203,
-0.17906473577022552,
-0.018350137397646904,
-0.1889304220676422,
0.039218515157699585,
-1.0290230512619019,
-0.8317328691482544,
-0.8521201014518738,
0.19906236231327057,
0.7249482274055481,
0.06478718668222427,
0.06895504146814346,
-0.7254370450973511,
0.2965715825557709,
0.26216647028923035,
0.6080759763717651,
-0.2121436893939972,
-0.36402982473373413,
-1.040143609046936,
0.3786167800426483,
-0.4178350269794464,
-0.39890995621681213,
-0.007531452924013138,
-0.3127169907093048,
-0.3526601195335388,
-0.2549121081829071,
0.1875244379043579,
0.41663870215415955,
0.2448996901512146,
-0.12415318936109543,
0.21441785991191864,
-0.3760983943939209,
-0.8867707252502441,
0.6386795043945312,
-0.1706911325454712,
0.0841604694724083,
-0.4215300381183624,
-0.9475270509719849,
-0.46096375584602356,
0.7969874739646912,
0.08191695809364319,
-0.32038959860801697,
-0.2928909361362457,
-0.08707670122385025,
0.020514050498604774,
0.14355282485485077,
-0.1677493005990982,
0.11307835578918457,
-0.04159395769238472,
-0.758843183517456,
-0.23863589763641357,
-0.4178057014942169,
-0.14109782874584198,
0.16026180982589722,
-0.29855093359947205,
-0.3741690218448639,
-0.44418343901634216,
-0.1462792009115219,
-0.5077623724937439,
-0.1549481898546219,
0.09025940299034119,
0.42526596784591675,
-0.5825894474983215,
0.14075826108455658,
-0.28770530223846436,
-1.0368809700012207,
-0.23626932501792908,
0.059882063418626785,
-0.23417755961418152,
-0.4587281048297882,
-0.4575199484825134,
0.5230521559715271,
-0.7265979051589966,
0.46129685640335083,
-0.28946977853775024,
-0.2146819829940796,
0.6071949005126953,
0.17639632523059845,
-0.8137784600257874,
1.0941377878189087,
-0.37093156576156616,
-0.7334365844726562,
0.007715319283306599,
0.9125470519065857,
-0.6842395663261414,
0.2392563819885254,
-0.16428695619106293,
-0.013369491323828697,
-0.6469249129295349,
-0.16490772366523743,
-0.44082382321357727,
-0.3661857545375824,
-0.3504559397697449,
-0.3052081763744354,
-0.6011772751808167,
0.7320751547813416,
0.45809614658355713,
-1.0246591567993164,
0.44264739751815796,
-0.08967915922403336,
-0.054084111005067825,
-0.14517289400100708,
0.8320369720458984,
0.06093377247452736,
-0.22544878721237183,
0.11516302078962326,
0.44796520471572876,
-0.22867150604724884,
-0.07880634814500809,
0.774915337562561,
0.5714119076728821,
0.2892264723777771,
-0.029071157798171043,
-0.5456687211990356,
0.7954829335212708,
0.7008445858955383,
-0.17498847842216492,
-0.38332808017730713,
-0.4451117515563965,
-0.09563286602497101,
-0.0881277397274971,
0.2686217129230499,
-0.8258041739463806,
-0.23655928671360016,
0.9211950898170471,
-0.31549569964408875,
0.035982076078653336,
0.07318910211324692,
0.3473840057849884,
0.35467877984046936,
0.46229779720306396,
-0.051803238689899445,
-0.1951109915971756,
0.4328170120716095,
0.29872462153434753,
0.13532254099845886,
0.35048720240592957,
-0.30972036719322205,
0.45911210775375366,
-0.1330338716506958,
0.17180393636226654,
-0.5881062150001526,
0.4495140016078949,
0.6323036551475525,
-0.302880197763443,
-0.10018118470907211,
0.44109493494033813,
-0.6113669276237488,
0.47615930438041687,
-0.4838981330394745,
-0.6756548881530762,
-0.30315157771110535,
-0.13688871264457703,
-0.29570940136909485,
-0.4404694139957428,
-0.6085205078125,
-0.08108837157487869,
0.7817314267158508,
-0.13110369443893433,
0.5790606737136841,
-0.42001497745513916,
-0.47203195095062256,
-0.04994037002325058,
0.2495424598455429,
0.21245478093624115,
0.12039410322904587,
-0.5329539179801941,
0.2793287932872772,
-0.11301913857460022,
-0.03227097913622856,
-0.8362136483192444,
0.6273068189620972,
-0.1348484456539154,
-0.4081399738788605,
-0.2857326567173004,
0.23311197757720947,
0.09998351335525513,
-0.37596815824508667,
0.487459659576416,
0.08419770002365112,
-0.1805468201637268,
-0.31199324131011963,
0.2438386082649231,
0.973553478717804,
0.0014363399241119623,
0.02867969498038292,
0.7112870812416077,
-0.1689935028553009,
-0.3888586163520813,
0.49139875173568726,
0.09244465082883835,
0.12429425120353699,
0.2521139979362488,
0.30144503712654114,
-0.13953854143619537,
0.8628662824630737,
-0.5442813038825989,
-0.5306310057640076,
0.20407775044441223,
0.4135366976261139,
-0.06348366290330887,
-0.11788631230592728,
-1.0304886102676392,
0.6917648315429688,
-0.27439454197883606,
-0.570846438407898,
0.20314247906208038,
-0.969794511795044,
0.5290310382843018,
0.26538413763046265,
-0.021950550377368927,
0.37955066561698914,
-0.1618330478668213,
0.06821583956480026,
-0.4404304623603821,
0.911115825176239,
-0.6022573709487915,
0.04101778566837311,
0.19736967980861664,
-0.49993059039115906,
0.20006480813026428,
0.24675868451595306,
-0.14923447370529175,
0.15739873051643372,
0.27341747283935547,
0.6266213059425354,
0.23410777747631073,
0.09479835629463196,
-0.5458136200904846,
-0.06538154184818268,
0.04341452196240425,
-0.1732560396194458,
0.5468958616256714,
-0.4527568519115448,
-0.29829999804496765,
0.40321916341781616,
-0.18119241297245026,
-0.9850968718528748,
-0.1985902190208435,
0.1659606248140335,
0.2404208928346634,
0.017067361623048782,
-0.1546992063522339,
0.09421668201684952,
0.5459603667259216,
0.5162578225135803,
0.27023518085479736,
0.8657903671264648,
0.16513299942016602,
-0.17312109470367432,
-0.1122613325715065,
0.7093839645385742,
0.18562093377113342,
-0.5218848586082458,
-0.20371557772159576,
-0.9749759435653687,
-0.3411962687969208,
-0.5382609963417053,
0.060190968215465546,
-0.479555606842041,
-0.2353212833404541,
-0.8116082549095154,
-0.6716300249099731,
-0.2639729976654053,
-0.6230013966560364,
0.17094647884368896,
-0.04994942247867584,
0.9861243367195129,
0.14479969441890717,
-0.4345201849937439,
0.08721981197595596,
0.4590427875518799,
-0.18277744948863983,
0.2094590812921524,
-0.1712225079536438,
0.5425167083740234,
-0.0955662801861763,
0.541911780834198,
-0.16243931651115417,
0.47091713547706604,
-0.002897081198170781,
-0.222518652677536,
-0.19303195178508759,
0.23940134048461914,
-0.5777254104614258,
-0.03325581178069115,
0.4388022720813751,
-0.664066731929779,
-0.14037081599235535,
-0.28832337260246277,
0.011552519164979458,
-0.058699291199445724,
-0.31935060024261475,
0.0016697798855602741,
0.09683625400066376,
-0.23107245564460754,
0.13914801180362701,
-0.006047679577022791,
-0.4006461799144745,
0.07876072824001312,
0.24181409180164337,
0.314231812953949,
-0.17675508558750153,
-0.8502626419067383,
-0.772756040096283,
0.24271811544895172,
0.7876720428466797,
0.2511430084705353,
0.8077495098114014,
-0.1952175498008728,
0.8433190584182739,
-0.36280950903892517,
0.7196235060691833,
-0.05838947743177414,
-0.7785677313804626,
-0.41381940245628357,
-0.3062606751918793,
-0.6296208500862122,
0.007566205225884914,
0.8217722773551941,
-0.23698368668556213,
0.46966680884361267,
0.8674362897872925,
-0.4631718695163727,
0.3953956663608551,
-0.24873171746730804,
0.01445820927619934,
-0.6135209798812866,
0.35900241136550903,
0.4649282693862915
] |
206188
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20World-Telegram
|
New York World-Telegram
|
The New York World-Telegram, later known as the New York World-Telegram and The Sun, was a New York City newspaper from 1931 to 1966.
History
Founded by James Gordon Bennett Sr. as The Evening Telegram in 1867, the newspaper began as the evening edition of The New York Herald, which itself published its first issue in 1835. Following Bennett's death, newspaper and magazine owner Frank A. Munsey purchased The Telegram in June 1920. Munsey's associate Thomas W. Dewart, the late publisher and president of the New York Sun, owned the paper for two years after Munsey died in 1925 before selling it to the E. W. Scripps Company for an undisclosed sum in 1927. At the time of the sale, the paper was known as The New York Telegram, and it had a circulation of 200,000.
The newspaper became the World-Telegram in 1931, following the sale of the New York World by the heirs of Joseph Pulitzer to Scripps Howard. More than 2,000 employees of the morning, evening and Sunday editions of the World lost their jobs in the merger, although some star writers, like Heywood Broun and Westbrook Pegler, were kept on the new paper.
The World-Telegram enjoyed a reputation as a liberal paper for some years after the merger, based on memories of the Pulitzer-owned World. However, under Scripps Howard the paper moved steadily to the right, eventually becoming a conservative bastion described by the press critic A.J. Liebling as "Republican, anti-labor, and suspicious of anything European." (Liebling also called the paper "the organ of New York's displaced persons (displaced from the interior of North America.)")
In 1940, the paper carried a series of articles entitled "The Rape of China," which used Walter Judd's experiences with Japanese soldiers as the basis of support for a campaign to boycott Japanese goods. Publisher Roy Howard, an expert of sorts after travelling to Manchuria and Japan in the early 1930s, gave extensive coverage of Japanese atrocities in China. The paper's headline of December 8, 1941, read "1500 Dead in Hawaii" in its coverage of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.
New York World-Telegram and The Sun
In 1950, the paper became the New York World-Telegram and The Sun after Dewart and his family sold Scripps the remnants of another afternoon paper, the New York Sun. (Liebling once described The Sun on the combined publication's nameplate as resembling the tail feathers of a canary on the chin of a cat.)
New York World Journal Tribune
Early in 1966, a proposal to create New York's first joint operating agreement led to the merger of the World-Telegram and The Sun with Hearst's Journal American. The intention was to produce a joint afternoon edition, with a separate morning paper to be produced by the Herald Tribune. The last edition of the World-Telegram and The Sun was published on April 23, 1966. But when strikes prevented the JOA from taking effect, the papers instead united in August 1966 to become the short-lived New York World Journal Tribune, which lasted only until May 5, 1967. Its closure left New York City with three daily newspapers: The New York Times, the New York Post and the New York Daily News.
The archives of the paper are not available online, but they can be accessed at the Library of Congress, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and several research facilities in the state of New York.
Gallery
See also
Media of New York City
References
External links
Library of Congress New York World Telegram and Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection
Defunct newspapers published in New York City
Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers
Pulitzer Prize for Public Service winners
Newspapers established in 1867
Publications disestablished in 1966
1931 establishments in New York City
1966 disestablishments in New York (state)
New York Herald
Daily newspapers published in New York City
|
[
-0.16373765468597412,
-0.29057735204696655,
-0.10835544019937515,
0.18059800565242767,
-0.31823208928108215,
0.013147413730621338,
-0.19027480483055115,
0.48215875029563904,
0.009688027203083038,
-0.2468574196100235,
0.09126569330692291,
0.4681631326675415,
-0.4764958620071411,
0.2589884102344513,
-0.6259990930557251,
-0.6822870373725891,
0.04264865443110466,
0.30254435539245605,
-0.22149866819381714,
-0.6650490760803223,
-0.7017531394958496,
0.024496158584952354,
0.7177349328994751,
-0.14268308877944946,
-0.14259709417819977,
0.1003355011343956,
-0.049760110676288605,
-0.21368731558322906,
-0.042753878980875015,
0.5740155577659607,
-0.5632218718528748,
0.24778558313846588,
-0.15480120480060577,
-0.18295498192310333,
-0.8947792053222656,
-0.435354083776474,
-0.12319617718458176,
-0.10493016988039017,
-0.29964691400527954,
-0.3718206584453583,
-0.4773658514022827,
0.19769108295440674,
0.10163228958845139,
0.6990405917167664,
0.48380500078201294,
-0.351857453584671,
-1.4228298664093018,
0.2689337432384491,
-1.2550135850906372,
-0.20388630032539368,
-0.4661846160888672,
0.6013152599334717,
0.09796444326639175,
0.8760865926742554,
-0.12215855717658997,
0.6080127358436584,
-0.24796737730503082,
0.45129838585853577,
-0.13126572966575623,
-0.37880462408065796,
-0.09684457629919052,
-0.4666389226913452,
0.9394254088401794,
0.38499343395233154,
0.32176104187965393,
0.01951182633638382,
0.15896831452846527,
0.5126553177833557,
0.35890939831733704,
-0.3670472502708435,
-0.11141753196716309,
0.3238782286643982,
0.2727866768836975,
0.1421927511692047,
0.2807374596595764,
-0.07140687853097916,
-0.11689203977584839,
-0.29317528009414673,
-0.33935195207595825,
0.011023836210370064,
-0.37962883710861206,
0.08659308403730392,
0.7304360270500183,
-0.08327410370111465,
0.03807952627539635,
-0.4230324327945709,
-0.6090997457504272,
-0.2753485441207886,
0.5093480944633484,
0.3562125861644745,
-0.5497997403144836,
0.28800466656684875,
0.45739954710006714,
0.14561833441257477,
-0.34171590209007263,
-0.44423720240592957,
0.08018755912780762,
0.3215036392211914,
-0.0015151590341702104,
-0.11515219509601593,
-0.14866061508655548,
0.23378261923789978,
0.7006296515464783,
-0.14554627239704132,
-0.48169606924057007,
0.016695668920874596,
0.6756887435913086,
-0.4613320231437683,
1.0909754037857056,
0.3220646381378174,
-0.17603857815265656,
0.013242073357105255,
0.22722657024860382,
-0.15384937822818756,
0.0071397582069039345,
0.12789922952651978,
0.1613321155309677,
-0.4447295665740967,
-0.632134199142456,
-0.627208411693573,
-0.24215766787528992,
0.5699432492256165,
0.15624168515205383,
-0.09462723135948181,
0.2354072481393814,
0.6462453007698059,
0.35734060406684875,
-0.13996954262256622,
-0.13650786876678467,
-0.15524819493293762,
-0.0020729361567646265,
1.0162614583969116,
-0.28635868430137634,
-0.0508701354265213,
0.1681518852710724,
-0.044227052479982376,
0.05505289509892464,
0.5094701647758484,
0.24078737199306488,
-0.1366930902004242,
-0.44122377038002014,
0.12138353288173676,
-0.1886405199766159,
-0.4937666654586792,
0.4869263768196106,
-0.30928781628608704,
0.5025210976600647,
-0.7064598202705383,
-0.07035882025957108,
-0.7107917666435242,
0.3825749158859253,
-0.5222696661949158,
-0.1264033019542694,
0.4398697018623352,
0.31944066286087036,
-0.22613346576690674,
0.24484264850616455,
0.15281783044338226,
0.16105350852012634,
0.36914902925491333,
0.01650300994515419,
0.35657668113708496,
0.10827953368425369,
0.17565669119358063,
-0.25685691833496094,
-0.16600856184959412,
-0.42865410447120667,
-0.12853193283081055,
0.4821759760379791,
-0.05307481810450554,
-0.1836630254983902,
-0.14901818335056305,
0.414523720741272,
0.42496582865715027,
-0.29923275113105774,
0.29283803701400757,
0.8600713014602661,
-0.18837644159793854,
-0.14445966482162476,
-0.6514085531234741,
-0.5636630654335022,
0.6342500448226929,
0.3160480856895447,
-0.01874551735818386,
0.34694844484329224,
-0.18245357275009155,
0.6140748858451843,
0.17692957818508148,
-0.044502437114715576,
-0.094569630920887,
-0.10352930426597595,
-0.40471071004867554,
-0.23424310982227325,
-0.33468717336654663,
0.7767967581748962,
-0.008112596347928047,
-0.4923095107078552,
1.1281788349151611,
0.14041154086589813,
0.057327721267938614,
0.05836646631360054,
0.06043630838394165,
0.684162437915802,
0.08994080871343613,
-0.05644708871841431,
0.16338223218917847,
0.09063806384801865,
0.2566756010055542,
0.4362815022468567,
0.546334981918335,
0.12075526267290115,
-0.37585917115211487,
0.18761444091796875,
0.5542870759963989,
-0.027104321867227554,
-0.7289745807647705,
-0.18422026932239532,
0.5690034627914429,
-0.11223358660936356,
-0.22202685475349426,
1.433095097541809,
0.06149161234498024,
0.1448342204093933,
0.08618573099374771,
0.32737118005752563,
0.6786094307899475,
-0.28423169255256653,
-0.1884230077266693,
-0.05014772713184357,
0.18838316202163696,
0.4102509319782257,
0.08267822861671448,
0.23821203410625458,
-0.574737548828125,
-0.016998492181301117,
-0.3433992266654968,
0.0659182071685791,
-0.5545690655708313,
0.16515927016735077,
-0.442111611366272,
0.4659840166568756,
-0.07458237558603287,
-0.130979984998703,
0.5868244171142578,
-0.18301153182983398,
0.5669506192207336,
-0.3938181400299072,
0.10010313987731934,
-0.36656007170677185,
0.18681009113788605,
0.28896960616111755,
-0.02429347299039364,
0.12870381772518158,
-0.0991617888212204,
0.19736456871032715,
0.13066734373569489,
-0.40750637650489807,
-0.05732713267207146,
1.0071585178375244,
0.6427252292633057,
0.1735982596874237,
-0.13723988831043243,
-0.3331965506076813,
-0.2383696734905243,
-0.4145221710205078,
-0.3785560727119446,
-0.5638272166252136,
-0.5980503559112549,
0.04003356024622917,
-0.1076413244009018,
0.8556964993476868,
0.16641247272491455,
-0.516126811504364,
-0.28411364555358887,
0.5991382002830505,
-0.14524908363819122,
0.2708299160003662,
0.028498943895101547,
-0.3620395064353943,
-0.6597142815589905,
-0.11173317581415176,
0.6516740918159485,
0.20344507694244385,
-0.26621103286743164,
0.2614727318286896,
-0.08948566019535065,
0.299551397562027,
-0.15278205275535583,
-0.490498811006546,
-0.21717454493045807,
-0.5507044792175293,
-0.2898043692111969,
-0.3385128080844879,
0.4492970108985901,
0.07869566977024078,
0.3471324145793915,
0.17232468724250793,
-0.1295756995677948,
-0.5933717489242554,
-0.606865406036377,
-0.21258972585201263,
0.2586458921432495,
-0.07715991884469986,
-0.35954153537750244,
0.19269397854804993,
-0.467528760433197,
0.07262948900461197,
-0.4953327178955078,
-5.813643932342529,
0.2075238823890686,
-0.33270880579948425,
-0.7308706641197205,
-0.2019641101360321,
-0.6881471276283264,
0.0705602765083313,
0.03446687385439873,
0.03594508394598961,
0.24701474606990814,
-0.08090411871671677,
-0.5175784230232239,
-0.0020226857159286737,
0.2111537754535675,
0.15548744797706604,
0.05415212735533714,
-0.2330574244260788,
-0.20998935401439667,
0.31706294417381287,
-0.0010944220703095198,
0.04221012070775032,
-0.44758161902427673,
0.3899727761745453,
0.3297797739505768,
0.31851568818092346,
0.7294392585754395,
0.3093635141849518,
-0.3096911311149597,
-0.428796648979187,
-0.4021090865135193,
0.025906244292855263,
-0.04788634926080704,
0.3501751720905304,
-0.06667299568653107,
0.30785080790519714,
-1.064473032951355,
0.44509828090667725,
0.17122580111026764,
0.11501672863960266,
-0.4003949463367462,
0.04565506801009178,
0.5895405411720276,
0.10956615209579468,
-0.675624430179596,
0.566192626953125,
0.17158755660057068,
-0.4431147277355194,
0.234625905752182,
-0.8672850728034973,
0.6235909461975098,
0.8121629953384399,
-0.10499401390552521,
-0.12498579919338226,
0.18411794304847717,
-0.34595149755477905,
-0.3568170368671417,
-0.3570570647716522,
-0.6334981918334961,
-0.606003999710083,
0.06983302533626556,
0.3768726885318756,
0.035930659621953964,
0.06154314801096916,
0.045428674668073654,
-0.27960601449012756,
-0.2005917876958847,
-0.6067023873329163,
0.43608149886131287,
0.7859971523284912,
-0.06531548500061035,
-0.07602814584970474,
0.22251132130622864,
0.06090418994426727,
-0.8367123603820801,
0.0863247662782669,
-0.3491831123828888,
0.07792223989963531,
-0.020172584801912308,
-0.009265383705496788,
0.25664952397346497,
0.016190914437174797,
-0.31199291348457336,
0.04596801474690437,
0.5152109861373901,
0.1811269372701645,
-0.6998394727706909,
-0.2229740172624588,
0.733139157295227,
-1.308894157409668,
-0.48508623242378235,
0.9116318821907043,
-0.4284861981868744,
0.8676438927650452,
0.06619742512702942,
0.0018093244871124625,
0.4266741871833801,
-0.29633814096450806,
0.5486596822738647,
0.052159011363983154,
0.4678374230861664,
-0.1452552229166031,
-0.04037237912416458,
0.0023193005472421646,
-0.6102757453918457,
-0.003084528027102351,
-0.3241657316684723,
0.04495169594883919,
-0.1838935911655426,
0.3271956145763397,
-0.37336406111717224,
-0.40608328580856323,
-0.18505842983722687,
-0.5811126232147217,
-0.39803367853164673,
0.7017196416854858,
-0.07021752744913101,
-0.05483021214604378,
0.06693018972873688,
-0.01972378045320511,
0.2115338146686554,
-0.06451381742954254,
0.7024183869361877,
0.0071303145959973335,
-0.26897063851356506,
-0.3744928538799286,
-0.21254774928092957,
-0.1401825249195099,
-0.24712075293064117,
0.29186344146728516,
0.18861693143844604,
-0.041740238666534424,
0.1344001740217209,
0.4338007867336273,
0.20103053748607635,
-0.13661837577819824,
0.29016971588134766,
-0.5585334300994873,
-0.3621775805950165,
0.01054750569164753,
0.17086541652679443,
-0.2155856341123581,
0.5130054950714111,
0.0849505290389061,
0.11479991674423218,
0.3816485106945038,
0.3880097568035126,
-0.22660154104232788,
-0.6397402286529541,
-0.48642516136169434,
0.4089948832988739,
-0.39544978737831116,
-0.17706620693206787,
0.08034679293632507,
-0.33726561069488525,
-0.6825578212738037,
-0.053929492831230164,
0.16766966879367828,
0.22979195415973663,
-0.3936290740966797,
0.4614175260066986,
-0.5299204587936401,
-0.9395464658737183,
-0.3221808969974518,
0.3777485191822052,
0.10742570459842682,
0.2605631351470947,
0.024011734873056412,
-0.25820040702819824,
0.15163061022758484,
0.5238765478134155,
0.2977258861064911,
0.07890394330024719,
-0.4038328230381012,
-0.3695554733276367,
0.3476308584213257,
0.7197088003158569,
0.3606773614883423,
-0.5557755827903748,
0.03597534820437431,
-0.20275446772575378,
0.2675003409385681,
-0.4274570047855377,
-0.7711037397384644,
0.19010697305202484,
0.8797879219055176,
-0.38276955485343933,
-0.17452634871006012,
0.09336132556200027,
0.0073089986108243465,
0.12819169461727142,
0.5856452584266663,
0.09431950002908707,
-0.1336589753627777,
0.12019003927707672,
-0.4154385030269623,
0.10249371081590652,
0.15879791975021362,
0.3131749927997589,
-0.08988658338785172,
-0.029850510880351067,
-0.18156170845031738,
0.13608139753341675,
-0.4866662919521332,
-0.498172789812088,
-0.5500891804695129,
-0.5157930254936218,
0.41500160098075867,
-0.15868835151195526,
-0.07324596494436264,
0.5510432720184326,
0.26415202021598816,
0.1727648824453354,
-0.059205226600170135,
-0.30449095368385315,
0.23067916929721832,
0.06701073795557022,
0.1292794793844223,
-0.5040358304977417,
-0.42144709825515747,
-0.7537127137184143,
0.16052579879760742,
0.38735494017601013,
-0.7127158641815186,
-0.375617116689682,
-0.0862412080168724,
0.37967318296432495,
0.007443259470164776,
-0.2331707626581192,
0.2012704759836197,
-0.29762670397758484,
0.03081563487648964,
0.2092229574918747,
-0.27073198556900024,
0.2696930170059204,
-0.08548730611801147,
-0.06719192862510681,
0.20888541638851166,
-0.24795228242874146,
-0.03294763341546059,
0.4481746256351471,
0.48323243856430054,
0.5483422875404358,
-0.12131274491548538,
-0.04428619518876076,
0.00914724450558424,
0.6481494903564453,
0.5501255989074707,
0.03233279287815094,
-0.4779021143913269,
0.26479923725128174,
0.45643916726112366,
-0.856176495552063,
-1.0793049335479736,
0.18107736110687256,
0.48725441098213196,
-0.419416218996048,
-0.3257460296154022,
0.5485900044441223,
-0.23029719293117523,
-0.033864572644233704,
0.07284710556268692,
0.13938848674297333,
-0.475759893655777,
0.9495478868484497,
0.3673286736011505,
0.9503234028816223,
-0.01829618774354458,
-0.37198692560195923,
-0.04054750129580498,
-0.2975597381591797,
0.09507580101490021,
-0.25809553265571594,
-0.17996317148208618,
0.20377880334854126,
-0.027530115097761154,
0.22493451833724976,
-0.21819469332695007,
-0.4537944793701172,
0.049251824617385864,
-0.4401879608631134,
-0.23961353302001953,
0.13570263981819153,
-0.39973655343055725,
-0.016980618238449097,
-0.5339465737342834,
-0.5027347803115845,
0.11703048646450043,
0.11291710287332535,
-0.49144577980041504,
0.002067821566015482,
-0.07801590859889984,
0.14313702285289764,
0.43014541268348694,
-0.2039133459329605,
-0.4300217032432556,
-0.2398899644613266,
0.6574879288673401,
0.5022130608558655,
0.003535742638632655,
0.09166500717401505,
-0.542056679725647,
-0.06914064288139343,
0.14152227342128754,
-0.04494428634643555,
0.19077247381210327,
0.00897891540080309,
-0.11216789484024048,
0.2747398316860199,
-0.6882874965667725,
0.07217361778020859,
-0.0453377366065979,
-0.5834681987762451,
0.3820370137691498,
0.4378625452518463,
-0.9970030784606934,
0.11338209360837936,
0.6578043699264526,
-0.04561566933989525,
-0.29869070649147034,
-0.5374248027801514,
-0.05917847529053688,
0.4727797508239746,
0.08010280877351761,
0.26992562413215637,
-0.13494481146335602,
0.43891310691833496,
-0.07500045746564865,
0.007459471933543682,
-0.0030185191426426172,
-0.4104490578174591,
0.011629755608737469,
0.3128783404827118,
-0.8009250164031982,
0.3172796964645386,
0.10491528362035751,
-0.7227228283882141,
0.07840736955404282,
-0.6131894588470459,
-0.5975803732872009,
0.4778595268726349,
0.4254509508609772,
0.14028730988502502,
0.4214167594909668,
0.21899300813674927,
0.09575488418340683,
-0.03390095755457878,
0.4728602170944214,
0.4359939992427826,
0.4649510085582733,
0.2818607687950134,
0.26844507455825806,
0.07345303148031235,
-0.20619158446788788,
-0.5081419348716736,
0.33464860916137695,
-0.36626508831977844,
0.35255536437034607,
-0.12855662405490875,
0.17815542221069336,
-0.10362368077039719,
-0.7092728018760681,
0.9062235951423645,
0.8987472653388977,
-0.6193788051605225,
-0.14605148136615753,
0.08314671367406845,
0.42249152064323425,
-0.38403353095054626,
0.04861467704176903,
0.555162787437439,
-0.2286815047264099,
0.3064420223236084,
-0.44442829489707947,
0.0697239562869072,
-0.292554646730423,
0.5182915925979614,
0.612396776676178,
0.2917061150074005,
0.36559924483299255,
0.5669231414794922,
-0.16562151908874512,
-0.10324974358081818,
-0.7006081938743591,
-0.3003717064857483,
-0.3450873792171478,
-0.30210867524147034,
-0.2593541145324707,
-0.058687660843133926,
-0.04552772641181946,
-0.7329085469245911,
0.2769891023635864,
-0.6550030708312988,
0.08405742049217224,
0.44448941946029663,
0.21878992021083832,
0.5136528611183167,
-0.34805095195770264,
0.6585944294929504,
-0.14290232956409454,
0.5486433506011963,
0.13911382853984833,
0.19646567106246948,
0.3475816547870636,
0.2672915756702423,
-0.30221205949783325,
0.45454883575439453,
-0.13727861642837524,
-0.5198824405670166,
-0.5074805617332458,
0.5365903973579407,
0.1407906413078308,
0.20292791724205017,
-0.1700732409954071,
0.8713067173957825,
0.1335606575012207,
0.2559661269187927,
0.9520719647407532,
0.21579918265342712,
-0.6302562355995178,
-0.05936961621046066,
0.028115272521972656,
-0.44182920455932617,
0.0032435886096209288,
0.22754023969173431,
-0.21301138401031494,
0.06890368461608887,
0.08545160293579102,
-0.029586052522063255,
-0.1325272172689438,
-0.3266226351261139,
-0.05349057912826538,
-0.3085724413394928,
-0.2856070399284363,
-0.20324824750423431,
-0.6213211417198181,
0.6832640171051025,
-0.20213116705417633,
0.33766186237335205,
0.6911402940750122,
-0.4693460166454315,
0.0791124776005745,
-0.23078303039073944,
0.19479569792747498,
-0.3851330876350403,
0.4985421597957611,
0.2894587814807892,
0.10236624628305435,
0.050540175288915634,
-0.7144873142242432,
0.7026578783988953,
0.00004171788532403298,
-0.3995891511440277,
0.3047294616699219,
0.07741837203502655,
0.18167367577552795,
-0.011697154492139816,
-0.3193647563457489,
-0.22226010262966156,
0.7647994756698608,
-0.12375231087207794
] |
206190
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Dorman-Smith
|
Eric Dorman-Smith
|
Brigadier Eric Edward "Chink" Dorman-Smith (24 July 1895 – 11 May 1969), who later changed his name to Eric Edward Dorman O'Gowan, was an Irish officer whose career in the British Army began in the First World War and closed at the end of the Second World War. In the 1950s, Dorman-Smith (then, Dorman O’Gowan) became an officer in the Irish Republican Army (IRA).
In the 1920s, during the interwar period, he was one of the military thinkers in various countries, like Heinz Guderian in Germany and Charles de Gaulle in France, who realised that technology and motorisation were changing the way that wars and battles were fought. Influenced by J. F. C. Fuller, Archibald Wavell, B. H. Liddell Hart, and many others, Dorman-Smith tried to change the culture of the British Army and held a number of teaching and training roles in various parts of the British Empire. Although he made several contributions in advisory roles during the campaigns in the Western Desert from 1940 to 1941, it was not until May 1942 that he went on active service again. His service in the Second World War is shrouded in controversy and ended when he was fired from his command in August 1944.
Early life
Dorman-Smith was born to a mixed-religion couple in Bellamont Forest, Cootehill, County Cavan, Ireland. He was received into the Catholic Church four days after his birth as a result of his Catholic mother's pleading. His younger brothers, Victor and Reggie, were baptised Protestant (though all three boys are listed as Catholic in the 1901 Census). His best friend as a child in Cootehill was John Charles McQuaid, the local doctor's son, who was later appointed Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin.
At the age of 12, he was sent to St Anthony's, a Catholic school in Eastbourne, Sussex. His Cavan accent and buck teeth made him stand out and, in the effort to modify his accent, he developed a stutter. While there, his parents moved to Maidenhead, Berkshire in England and, after a year, he was moved to Lambrook, which was a school attended by his younger brothers, whereupon his stutter vanished. In 1910, he went to Uppingham School, Rutland, where he befriended Brian Horrocks, a future general. During his school days he showed that he had strong principles: in particular there were episodes of casual anti-semitism towards friends of his which he reportedly took steps to address.
Dorman-Smith's father insisted he take the entrance exam for the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in December 1912 and he scored 6969/12600, being placed 69th in the order of merit, thus obtaining one of the 172 available places. Horrocks also succeeded, ranked 171. After two terms, he passed out in exemplary fashion, leaving Horrocks to complete a third term, achieving 515/600 in military history and 2031/2800 in general military subjects. His overall score was 7976/10,500, placing him 10th. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the 1st Battalion of the Northumberland Fusiliers (later the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers) on 25 February 1914, just six months before the outbreak of the First World War. Dorman-Smith gained his nickname "Chink" on his first night in the officers' mess when his fellow subaltern, Richard Vachell, noted his resemblance to the Chinkara antelope mascot that the regiment had had to leave behind when they moved back to England from India.
First World War
"Chink", along with the rest of his battalion, then serving as part of the 9th Brigade of the 3rd Division, was sent to France on 13 August 1914, nine days after Britain entered the First World War. He was among the first troops of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to arrive. The battalion, and Dorman-Smith himself, were involved in the Battle of Mons, where he was wounded in the retreat. Later that year he was involved in the battles of Messines, Armentières and Ypres and, after being promoted on 15 November to the temporary rank of lieutenant, received another wound on 9 December. He was promoted to substantive lieutenant on 2 January 1915.
In May 1915 the battalion was involved in fighting at Railway Wood, near Ypres, during the Second Battle of Ypres. Although he had received a shrapnel wound and four lesser injuries from rifle bullets, he organised, under heavy fire, a withdrawal of the survivors of his battalion, for which he was awarded one of the first batch of the Military Cross (MC). Promoted to temporary captain on 26 June 1915, he was mentioned in dispatches on 1 January 1916 and his rank of captain was made permanent on 26 August 1916. After a difficult period of convalescence, he was sent to teach trench warfare to new recruits and in January 1917 he was posted to the Northern School of Instruction. He returned to active service in July 1917 and was temporarily promoted to the acting rank of major on 16 October; he was subsequently made second-in-command (2IC) of the 10th (Service) Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers, a Kitchener's Army battalion, then serving on the Western Front as part of the 68th Brigade of the 23rd Division.
In November 1917, Dorman-Smith was posted as a captain to the Italian Piave Front on attachment to the 68th Brigade School, and from 4 April until 6 July 1918 he served as adjutant to the 12th (Service) Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, another Kitchener's Army unit, serving in the same 68th Brigade of the 23rd Division. He was mentioned in dispatches a second time on 30 May 1918 and was again promoted to the temporary rank of major on 7 July 1918. He served as 2IC to the battalion and finished the war in Genoa, recovering from an attack of gastroenteritis, with a bar added to his MC. Upon his discharge from hospital he was appointed Commandant of the British Troops and sent to Milan. In Milan on 3 November 1918, he met Ernest Hemingway, who had been wounded at the Italian front and decorated with the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery while serving with the Red Cross. He was posted to the Military Landing Staff at Taranto before returning to England as adjutant to the Northumberland Fusiliers. He was mentioned in dispatches a third time on 9 January 1919.
In June 1921, the regiment was posted to his native Ireland as part of the effort to repress the rebellion. His battalion was part of the Curragh 5th Division and from its headquarters in Carlow, its role was to patrol the county of Kilkenny. He discovered that his childhood nurse had married the local IRA brigadier and on one occasion, helped her bury a cache of hand grenades on the grounds of Bellamont Forest prior to a raid by the Black and Tans but otherwise remained politically neutral.
Between the wars
His period of duty in Ireland ended in February 1922 and he moved to the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR), still as adjutant of his regiment. He witnessed the breakdown of transport and communications after the French sent troops into the Ruhr basin in January 1923 to enforce war reparations.
In 1924, he left his regiment to become an instructor at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, where he became acquainted with Richard O'Connor; the duo went on a walking tour of the Austro-Italian Alps at the end of 1924. In 1927, Dorman-Smith sat the entrance examination for the Staff College, Camberley. In the Strategy paper the examiner, J. F. C. Fuller, awarded him 1,000 marks out of a possible 1,000. The advantage of gaining the p.s.c. (passed Staff College) was that the two-year course provided a network of 180 highly trained officers for help afterwards. By arriving with such a splash, it is probable that Dorman-Smith became regarded with suspicion by people who would one day be his peers and superior officers. Many of Dorman-Smith's fellow students there included the future general officers of the Second World War, including Philip Christison, Evelyn Barker, Oliver Leese, Eric Hayes, John Hawkesworth, Ronald Penney, John Whiteley, Robert Bridgeman, 2nd Viscount Bridgeman, Eric Nares, Charles Norman, Stanley Kirby, Wilfrid Lloyd, Reginald Savory and Clement West.
On 28 December 1928 he passed out Grade A in the top four and publicly burned his lecture notes, including those from Bernard Montgomery, one of the instructors. They had already clashed on numerous occasions and "Chink" had also failed to attend his class on The Registering of Personality, which he regarded as unnecessary for the formulation of successful tactics. He then became the first infantryman to hold the post of instructor of tactics at Chatham, the Royal Engineers' equivalent of the Staff College. In 1929 he was commissioned to write a textbook on military tactics, which became an official army handbook, Infantry Section Leaders' Training, within two years.
Promoted to the brevet rank of major on 1 January 1931, in July he was appointed brigade major to the 6th Experimental Brigade at Blackdown, under Archibald Wavell, who, along with Richard O'Connor and Claude Auchinleck, were the most significant influences on his career and his most prominent supporters. Wavell aimed to increase the mobility of the army and led exercises to this aim, in which Dorman-Smith assisted. He encouraged Dorman-Smith to ignore the standard manuals and devise new tactical approaches. Promoted to substantive major on 23 November 1933, in 1934, on the recommendation of O'Connor, he was appointed to the War Office at the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel, which he was promoted to on 1 July 1934. He allied himself with Liddell Hart in a crusade against the use of horses in the army. He devised an estimate of British casualties over the first year of a big war into three categories; 25 percent caused by enemy action, 25 percent by indifferent generalship and accidents of war, 50 percent by the Treasury.
It was at that time Dorman-Smith began to clash with Alan Brooke, whom he viewed as the epitome of a traditional Royal Horse Artillery officer, with little interest in the requirements of modern mechanised warfare. On a return to the Staff College, Camberley in 1936, he had to deliver lectures on tactics which he considered already outdated. He spent his leisure time devising with Philip Christison, one of his fellow students at the Staff College almost a decade before and then a fellow instructor, more up-to-date theories of supply, staff duties and tactical handling, only to be reprimanded by Major-General Lord Gort, the Commandant of the Staff College.
After sixteen months, rather than the customary three years, Dorman-Smith was promoted to substantive lieutenant colonel on 26 April 1937 and was appointed Commanding Officer (CO) of the 1st Battalion of his regiment, now retitled the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers, then serving in Egypt. His farewell speech to the Staff College on the success of Benito Mussolini's Abyssinian campaign was not well received, probably because of its emphasis on the more mechanised approach of the Italian Army compared with the British Army. In Egypt, Dorman-Smith clashed with his new command about his disregard for polo training and he was far from impressed by their military ability. He tried, without success, to break down barriers between British and Egyptian companies, probably another campaign that would be held against this unconventional officer.
Late in 1937, he went to Mersa Matruh to re-design the fortifications. His assessment of the terrain was to colour his estimate of Neil Ritchie's generalship when facing Erwin Rommel's assault in mid-1942, and he seems to have realised that El Alamein was going to be the decisive battleground in Egypt. In March 1938, he was offered the post of Director of Military Training for India, a major-general's appointment, and he left Egypt in May. He was promoted to brevet colonel and to the temporary rank of brigadier on 10 May and his permanent rank was advanced to colonel on 1 July (with seniority backdated to 10 May 1937). The later Regimental History thanks Dorman-Smith for his modernising efforts in helping the battalion to survive the desert campaign, although it appears that they were glad to see the back of him.
In India, he soon got to know the Commander-in-Chief's loyal aide, "Bunny" Careless, who developed an antipathy that might have re-surfaced when Dorman-Smith was his brigade commander in Italy in 1944. The occupant of the office next door to Dorman-Smith was the Deputy Chief, General Staff, Claude Auchinleck. They became close companions and went on hill-walks before breakfast each day. They developed a plan to transform the Indian Army but the outbreak of the Second World War put paid to them. In January 1940, Auchinleck was appointed to command IV Corps in England. In August of that year, Wavell asked Dorman-Smith to take over command of the Staff College, Haifa in Palestine, taking over the position from Brigadier Alexander Galloway.
Second World War
The Middle East and North Africa
In October 1940, over a year after the outbreak of the Second World War, Wavell, the C-in-C of Middle East Command, asked Dorman-Smith to look into the feasibility of taking the offensive against the Italian forces who had invaded Egypt from Libya. On delivery of his report, he was sent as an adviser to Major-General Richard O'Connor and the Western Desert Force (WDF).
Dorman-Smith is credited by historian Correlli Barnett with planning Operation Compass and with the discovery of a gap in the Italian lines south of Sidi Barrani. He was then sent back to Haifa while the WDF carried out his daring plan with great success. In January 1941, Wavell again asked him to report to O'Connor and assess the progress of the campaign in order to distil what could be learned from its success. He stayed with the army until, in early February, the Italian 10th Army surrendered near Benghazi. O'Connor sent him back to Cairo to ask Wavell's permission to advance on Tripoli but in the meantime Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, had instructed Wavell to send troops to the aid of Greece, ending Operation Compass. "Chink" returned to Haifa on 13 February 1941.
In April 1941, he was temporarily appointed Brigadier General Staff (BGS) and watched from a distance while Erwin Rommel won back all the territory that O'Connor had gained and the Allied forces were pushed out of the Balkans and Greece. He conveyed several messages to Major-General Bernard Freyberg who was preparing the defence of Crete. His temporary appointment ended at the end of May and he again returned to the Staff College, Haifa. When the news arrived that Wavell was going to be replaced by Auchinleck as C-in-C in the Middle East in July, Dorman-Smith probably thought that he stood a chance of getting a permanent role closer to the action but no job offer was made. By December, he had decided to resign from the army. Despite this, Dorman-Smith accepted an offer from Auchinleck, to be appointed British Army liaison officer for Persia and Iraq – even though he realised it was a largely meaningless sinecure. In February 1942, Auchinleck sent him to assess the condition of the Eighth Army, commanded by Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie. Dorman-Smith's conclusion, following wide consultations, was that Ritchie was an excellent staff officer, but unsuited to his post and should be replaced. Auchinleck took no action upon this. After a few more unproductive months – during which Dorman-Smith offered his resignation, which was rejected by Auchinleck – he worked on a proposal for a Higher Command School with Field Marshal Jan Smuts. He was offered on 8 May a choice of major-general positions, an unspecified role under Wavell in India or Deputy Chief of the General Staff in Cairo. "Chink" accepted the latter and was promoted to acting major-general on 16 June.
Until 6 August 1942, when he was sacked, Dorman-Smith, a full colonel but holding the acting rank of major-general, served as chief of staff to Auchinleck, the C-in-C Middle East. Auchinleck took over command of the Eighth Army on 25 June after the failure of Ritchie to provide effective resistance to the Axis forces and took Dorman-Smith along to act as his staff officer. Dorman-Smith's novel use of intelligence derived from Ultra decrypts, led them to formulate tactics based on systematic attacks on the weak points of the German forces, notably the Italian formations, which proved successful in slowing down and finally disrupting the German advance. The stream of bad news from this war zone in the weeks prior to Auchinleck's assumption of personal command, had led to a crisis of confidence in Whitehall. Churchill and Alan Brooke, now the Chief of the General Staff, the professional head of the British Army, visited Cairo in August 1942 to take stock of the situation. They were not impressed by Auchinleck's poor grasp of public relations work and decided that a change of command was required.
The key moment of the entire desert war saw Dorman-Smith and Auchinleck finally stop Rommel in a few days of desperate fighting in the First Battle of El Alamein in and around Ruweisat Ridge in early July, where their direct and centralized control of the ragged 8th Army defeated the panzers. General Montgomery used the Auchinleck and Dorman-Smiths concepts to conduct and win the defensive battle at the Battle of Alam el Halfa a few weeks later.
Brooke had spoken to his former protégé Ritchie and various other senior officers whom he knew from his days with the horse artillery and came to the conclusion that Dorman-Smith was a poor advisor to Auchinleck,
Major St J. Oswald, a G2 Staff Officer at Eighth Army HQ who eventually rose to the rank of major-general, said of Dorman-Smith, "He really was as near being a lunatic as you can get". For his services in the Middle East Dorman-Smith was twice mentioned in dispatches, on 30 December 1941, and on 24 June 1943.
Service in Britain and Italy
Dorman-Smith never held any important military positions after this date. He reverted to the rank of brigadier on 11 September 1942 and was soon appointed to command the 160th Infantry Brigade. part of the 53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division, a first line Territorial Army (TA) formation, commanded by Major-General Robert Ross. The 53rd Division was serving in Kent, preparing and training for the invasion of Normandy, as part of XII Corps, then commanded by Lieutenant-General James Gammell, who was replaced in mid-November by Lieutenant-General Montagu Stopford. Another unfortunate meeting took place on 20 November, when Churchill paid a visit to the 53rd Division and invited "Chink" to the official lunch party. The latter found himself in an argument with the Prime Minister and gave him a patronising lecture on military tactics. Six months later, in May 1943, Exercise Spartan took place and although his brigade performed well, however, there was no official recognition. To compound his misfortune, on 11 November 1943, Dorman-Smith learned that the new XII Corps commander, in succession to Stopford who was being posted to India, was going to be Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie, who he had been so critical of in North Africa. Believing that it would be too embarrassing to serve directly under Ritchie, Dorman-Smith wrote to Major-General Ross, with the request that he be moved to a new post. As a result, on 21 November he was ordered to vacate his command and stay on leave of absence until further notice, although Ross made it clear to Dorman-Smith that this was in no way a reflection on his efficiency.
Remaining virtually unemployed for the next few months, in late April 1944 Dorman-Smith learned that he was to be given command of the 3rd Infantry Brigade, part of the 1st Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Ronald Penney, then fighting on the Italian Front in the Anzio beachhead. By now, however, his reputation was such that all the senior British commanders in Italy, from General Sir Harold Alexander, C-in-C of the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), who had succeeded General Auchinleck as C-in-C Middle East in August 1942, along with his chief of staff, Lieutenant-General John Harding, and Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, the Eighth Army commander, all wished to turn him down, but were overruled by Brooke, who made it clear to Dorman-Smith that this was his "sink or swim" moment. Alexander, Harding and Leese had all been fellow students at Camberley in the late 1920s, Alexander in the year senior, Harding − "independent of mind and short of stature" − and one who Dorman-Smith greatly respected, in the year below, whereas Leese had been in Dorman-Smith's year.
However, Penney, his new divisional commander, who had been a fellow student at the Staff College, Camberley in the late 1920s, was not at all happy with his new brigade commander, greeting him with the words "I didn't want you before and I don't want you now". There was some history behind this. At the Staff College the two men had clashed, Dorman-Smith frequently deriding him while Penney then believed that "Chink" would be a staff officer and one who should not command troops in battle, and refused to change his opinion. Furthermore, Dorman-Smith's predecessor, Brigadier J. G. James, had been hugely popular in his brigade, causing some resentment among the battalion commanders.
When Dorman-Smith arrived in the Anzio beachhead, the fighting was reminiscent of the fighting on the Western Front almost 30 years before, with static warfare replacing the mobility that had existed in the Western Desert. Soon after his arrival, Major General Lucian Truscott, commanding the U.S. VI Corps (under which the 1st Division had been serving since January), received orders from his superior, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commanding the American Fifth Army, to break out of the Anzio beachhead. This was to coincide with the Allied forces further south in their successful attempt in breaching the Gustav Line. Dorman-Smith's brigade spearheaded the 1st Division's advance up the western flank of Italy, along the way becoming engaged in numerous small-scale fights while trying to reach the River Tiber. During most of this period Penney was away, having been badly injured in February by a shell in some of the fiercest fighting at Anzio. He was replaced on a temporary basis by Major-General John Hawkesworth, yet another of Dorman-Smith's fellow students at Camberley, and a close friend, but he returned to his 46th Division in Palestine in late May, and was replaced by Brigadier Charles Loewen, the Commander, Royal Artillery (CRA) of X Corps who, unlike Hawkesworth, was a total stranger to "Chink", but one who he respected. Penney returned to the division, now advancing forwards to the Gothic Line defences, in mid-June, but his injuries rendered him unfit to continue in command and relinquished control of the division to Loewen, now a major general, in late July. Soon afterwards, however, Dorman-Smith himself was relieved of command of the 3rd Brigade.
Despite his brigade having performed well thus far, he was sacked again after it was alleged that his battalion commanders had complained about his leadership. Penney, reporting to Leese, the Eighth Army commander, declared him "unfit for brigade command". The circumstances behind his demotion are controversial. He was in command of three battalions. James Hackett wrote in 1984 that Dorman-Smith was summoned by the divisional commander to give his opinion of his superior officer, a procedure that annoyed and offended him. Neither of the other two officers left accounts of the episode, however. The only evidence rests on the report of the divisional commander, which is tainted by inaccuracies in that at least one of the three officers did not lay a complaint. Greacen's biography includes a summary of the differences between the three accounts of this episode made by Penney on various occasions. Nevertheless, he was relieved on 13 August and returned to the United Kingdom, retiring from the army, after almost 30 years' service, on 14 December, and was granted the honorary rank of brigadier.
Richard Mead states that "Even for a British Army which had advanced beyond recognition between 1939 and 1944, Dorman-Smith was too clever and he compounded this sin by being intolerant of those with lesser intellects and, moreover, of letting it show. It was his misfortune to be associated with failure in the Western Desert, but his antagonism of the military establishment meant that he would probably never have advanced to the heights to which his intellectual gifts would otherwise have qualified him."
Life in Ireland
Four years after he was forcibly retired from the British Army, he changed his name from Dorman-Smith to Dorman O'Gowan, having long been aware that his father was descended from the O'Gowans, who had once been a ruling family in Ulster. In 1945 he had contested the safe Tory seat of Wirral, Cheshire for the Liberal Party. He won 14,302 votes and retained his deposit, coming third, with Selwyn Lloyd easily retaining the seat for the Conservatives with 51% of the votes of those who cast ballots. "Chink" retired to Dublin. Eve joined him in November 1945, gave birth to Christopher on 10 May 1946 and to Rionagh in December 1947. He began to study in the library at University College, Dublin, after his application to read for a degree was rejected.
Throughout his military career, Dorman-Smith had retained contacts with Ireland. He did not inherit Bellamont Forest until his father died in March 1948 and his parents had long ceased to reside there, leading to the estate becoming run-down by the time he took it over but he had paid regular visits during the 20s and 30s. The estate was from the Ulster border and at times it became a place of interest to the Republicans. During one of Dorman-Smith's stays, Éamon de Valera who seems to have been interested in learning of "Chink's" views on the state of the Irish army, made an informal and unannounced visit. During his time at the Staff College, Camberley in 1927 to 1928, two Irish Army officers paid an official visit – after rebukes from the United Kingdom for visiting Fort Leavenworth in the United States - and Bernard Montgomery, the senior lecturer, ordered a boycott so the welcoming party consisted only of the Commandant and Dorman-Smith.
In 1950, he joined Clann na Poblachta, a new party led by Seán MacBride, who had been an Irish Republican Army officer in Carlow during Dorman O'Gowan's posting there. His ties and allegiance to the UK were fading fast. In May 1951 he stood for election to the Dáil as an independent candidate in Cavan, since Clann were already supporting another candidate. He polled just 495 votes – the lowest of the eight candidates. He later became an IRA advisor to the IRA Executive during the 1950s Border Campaign.
His first contact with the IRA seems to have been in the aftermath of their raid on the Gough Barracks in Armagh on 12 June 1954. Chief of Staff Tony Magan visited him for discussions at Bellamont Forest. In July 1954, he spoke at a reunification rally in Manchester, making it clear that he was distancing himself from the policies of the UK. He grew frustrated at not being made part of the decision-making process of the IRA and, when a raid on Omagh went wrong, he began to realise that the IRA did not meet his ideals of efficiency.
During 1955–56, his estate was used as a training-ground by the IRA two weekends a year, but he was excluded from playing a role despite his eagerness to assist. He does not appear to have kept these contacts secret. Daphne du Maurier, wife of his former Sandhurst adjutant Frederick "Boy" Browning, wrote a story about this side of his life, "A Border-Line Case".
The British establishment appears to have dismissed him as a harmless crank. On 15 December 1956, after the failure of Operation Harvest and the introduction of the Special Powers Act, Seán Cronin visited to convey the message that his usefulness to the IRA was over.
Characteristics and reputation
Dorman-Smith was an unorthodox commander and has attracted contrasting opinions. To some, such as B. H. Liddell Hart, he was "the outstanding soldier of his generation". To others, such as Field Marshals Michael Carver and Alanbrooke, he was a "sinister influence" and the major cause of Auchinleck's dismissal. Montgomery called him "a menace" but despite his antipathy, the Battle of Alam el Halfa was fought on a plan very close to that conceived by Dorman-Smith for Auchinleck. Montgomery made skilful use of the defensive system which he had been instrumental in planning and laying out. Carver, however, points out that Montgomery did make a decisive alteration to this plan by bringing up troops that were to have been held in reserve in the Nile Delta to form a continuous line of defence. The effect of this was to reduce the need for mobility for which the British Army in terms of organisation, training and communications was not highly skilled − despite the efforts of people such as Dorman-Smith to reform it.
The key characteristic of Dorman-Smith's career is that he was not politically astute and made a number of enemies in the 1920s and 1930s who worked against him, including Penney, Montgomery and most significantly in view of his fall from grace, Brooke, "I had been worried for some time by Auchinleck's handling of armoured formations, mainly due to his listening to the advice of 'Chink' Dorman-Smith." Montgomery finally initiated battle at El Alamein at a date one month later than had previously been envisaged in the Auchinleck-Dorman-Smith plan, which was mainly responsible for their dismissals.
He sued Churchill, forcing him to amend The Hinge of Fate, part of his history of the Second World War, so that an implied slur on the fighting mettle of Auchinleck was removed. Less acrimoniously, Montgomery was forced to tone down his criticisms of his predecessors in the Eighth Army, when he published his memoirs in August 1958. When Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander brought out his memoirs in 1961, "Chink" was preparing his case but his legal team advised him to withdraw.
Cultural contacts
His next meeting with Hemingway after the latter's departure from Genoa in 1919, was in Paris in 1922, where "Chink" was spending his vacation with his parents. Hemingway was living there with his wife Hadley and working as a freelance journalist. He invited Dorman-Smith to accompany them to Montreux. They spent their days fishing and climbing mountains and Hemingway alluded to this holiday in Green Hills of Africa. They decided to show Hadley around Milan and crossed the St Bernard Pass on foot – an adventure commemorated by Hemingway in A Moveable Feast.
They met up over Christmas 1922, again in Montreux and spent the visit luging and skiing. In early 1923, Hemingway visited Dorman-Smith in Cologne on behalf of the Toronto Star newspaper. During the following summer, he visited them in Paris where Hemingway introduced him to the intelligentsia, including John Dos Passos, Gertrude Stein, James Joyce, Ford Madox Ford and Ezra Pound. Hemingway's first book, in our time, was dedicated to Dorman-Smith and includes some anecdotes from "Chink's" memories of the Mons campaign. In March 1924, he paid another visit to Paris and became godfather to Ernest Hemingway's eldest son John.
That summer, in company with Dos Passos, Donald Ogden Stewart and Robert McAlmon, they visited the San Fermin festival in Pamplona in July and participated in the bull-running. Proof of the high esteem in which Hemingway held Dorman-Smith is contained in his 1924 poem, To Chink Whose Trade is Soldiering. However, after their next meeting in April 1926, when Dorman-Smith was accompanying an army rugby team to Paris, they gradually drifted apart because of the stresses of Dorman-Smith's military career and the changes in Hemingway's life. They did not meet again until Dorman-Smith was touring the US in April 1950.
Personal life
He did not marry young and conducted a series of affairs until on 29 December 1927, he married Estelle Irene(née Dawson)- the first wife of Thomas Reedham Berney; their union was childless. During his period in Haifa in 1940, he met Eve Nott (first wife of Brigadier Donald Harley Nott 1908–1996, who was captured at Tobruk), with whom he began an affair. They wed on 17 May 1949 at Westminster Registry Office. He had a son and a daughter, Christopher and Rionagh and seven grandchildren and five great grandchildren. Dorman-Smith's youngest brother, Reginald, was Governor of Burma at the time of the Japanese invasion during the Second World War. His other brother Victor, was a Royal Navy Captain.
Death
Dorman-Smith died from stomach cancer on 11 May 1969 at Lisdarne hospital, Cavan, at the age of 73.
References
Bibliography
Dorman-Smith, Eric "Chink" (1895–1969) History and the Headlines. Abc-clio.com. Retrieved 2010-03-23.
Profile Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. King's College London. University of London. Retrieved 2010-03-23.
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
Generals of World War II
The Brigadier. RTÉ Radio. Documentary on One. August 2017.
1895 births
1969 deaths
20th-century Anglo-Irish people
Academics of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
British Army generals of World War II
British Army brigadiers of World War II
British Army personnel of World War I
British military personnel of the Irish War of Independence
Clann na Poblachta politicians
Deaths from cancer in the Republic of Ireland
Deaths from stomach cancer
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Irish generals
People educated at Uppingham School
People from County Cavan
Recipients of the Military Cross
Royal Northumberland Fusiliers officers
British Army brigadiers
Academics of the Staff College, Camberley
|
[
-0.46444106101989746,
0.7577284574508667,
-0.6518303155899048,
-0.6371860504150391,
-0.12958396971225739,
0.36318910121917725,
0.9562056064605713,
-0.1570635288953781,
-0.03213612362742424,
-0.07939053326845169,
-0.7025089859962463,
0.17252422869205475,
0.007838875986635685,
0.22103716433048248,
0.2198948860168457,
0.18577396869659424,
0.24142694473266602,
-0.061005622148513794,
-0.7378329038619995,
-0.31671416759490967,
-0.030952606350183487,
-0.1497446447610855,
0.006668168120086193,
0.24049358069896698,
-0.1043364629149437,
0.514899730682373,
0.09472072869539261,
0.02241990901529789,
0.29517605900764465,
-0.28061234951019287,
-0.2090000957250595,
-0.07868202030658722,
0.739369809627533,
-0.4982278645038605,
-0.4487840235233307,
0.1845724731683731,
-0.16812734305858612,
-0.5125917792320251,
0.039567239582538605,
0.08983773738145828,
-0.2866717278957367,
-0.0618942491710186,
0.2571461796760559,
-0.007128695026040077,
-0.26480865478515625,
-0.2412687987089157,
-1.220836877822876,
0.12407425791025162,
-0.45873868465423584,
-0.31768321990966797,
-0.041846081614494324,
0.01862061396241188,
0.5691997408866882,
-0.536329984664917,
0.289908766746521,
-0.24431674182415009,
-0.38820579648017883,
-0.4356428384780884,
0.21447426080703735,
-0.6127185821533203,
0.6105132699012756,
-0.1349889487028122,
0.2687940001487732,
0.06613432615995407,
-0.18702708184719086,
-0.04415328428149223,
-0.0035651696380227804,
0.3676670491695404,
-0.32603612542152405,
-0.11162396520376205,
0.2632530927658081,
0.6618143320083618,
0.6310533881187439,
0.3366643786430359,
-0.2306368052959442,
-0.19766832888126373,
-0.06946932524442673,
0.3135501742362976,
-0.4082294702529907,
0.12463762611150742,
-0.1103932186961174,
-0.4013691544532776,
0.7027273178100586,
-0.005935292690992355,
-0.11476542055606842,
-0.017511650919914246,
-0.6829429268836975,
0.3813323676586151,
-0.07964714616537094,
0.40908971428871155,
-0.4858461618423462,
-0.510088324546814,
0.1473715752363205,
0.11712577193975449,
-0.1666092723608017,
-0.03387242928147316,
0.10464290529489517,
0.4543246924877167,
0.11952956020832062,
-0.35874277353286743,
0.5891479849815369,
-0.023720618337392807,
0.17068825662136078,
-0.12576593458652496,
-1.2669535875320435,
0.3529556691646576,
-0.8065066933631897,
-0.22944681346416473,
-0.08803384006023407,
0.001776358112692833,
-0.9124818444252014,
-0.19191384315490723,
-0.20592330396175385,
0.1319139301776886,
0.29312577843666077,
-0.12004395574331284,
0.14773593842983246,
-0.578316867351532,
-0.3500704765319824,
-0.23224882781505585,
-0.44466549158096313,
0.6860873699188232,
-0.09906667470932007,
0.7000751495361328,
-0.46989044547080994,
-0.04163671284914017,
0.27516937255859375,
0.09129159152507782,
-0.3495548963546753,
0.7649545669555664,
0.2773664593696594,
1.1474592685699463,
-0.6017245054244995,
0.10801152884960175,
-0.3721811771392822,
-0.5342357754707336,
0.13767772912979126,
0.3428933918476105,
-0.2532918155193329,
-0.06574712693691254,
-0.9721440672874451,
0.23449671268463135,
-0.12668126821517944,
0.6148726344108582,
0.39421525597572327,
0.1937747746706009,
-0.5176323652267456,
-0.2383817434310913,
-0.2024780660867691,
-0.6068649888038635,
0.02843240462243557,
-0.5644354224205017,
0.5565922260284424,
-0.26373258233070374,
-0.40059053897857666,
0.8687230944633484,
0.515597939491272,
0.060672882944345474,
0.5639350414276123,
-0.05892582982778549,
-0.036384373903274536,
0.2530730664730072,
-0.10200969874858856,
0.6829107403755188,
0.5258839130401611,
0.6297569870948792,
-0.43777814507484436,
-0.3861907720565796,
-0.49693727493286133,
-0.1337994933128357,
0.00701197050511837,
0.09801556915044785,
0.32706278562545776,
-0.261096328496933,
-0.5061864256858826,
0.7975283265113831,
0.1948961615562439,
0.21816898882389069,
0.1390874832868576,
-0.8579694032669067,
-0.6768771409988403,
-0.07276421040296555,
0.43440499901771545,
-0.14707575738430023,
0.025410523638129234,
0.1413680762052536,
0.13501301407814026,
-0.9136895537376404,
0.07416024059057236,
0.17041070759296417,
-0.6459310054779053,
-0.18008661270141602,
0.35179364681243896,
-0.7090266346931458,
0.7201070189476013,
-0.15620000660419464,
0.33589884638786316,
0.5356327295303345,
0.41341838240623474,
0.8434632420539856,
0.4751731753349304,
-0.22666868567466736,
0.6721634864807129,
-0.354686439037323,
-0.36144089698791504,
0.748968780040741,
0.7180980443954468,
0.6727486848831177,
0.20912502706050873,
0.8137025237083435,
0.6693794131278992,
-0.34379827976226807,
-0.23932170867919922,
0.6561148762702942,
0.3829105794429779,
0.07317796349525452,
-0.4959190785884857,
-0.8915287256240845,
0.43186309933662415,
-0.7900863885879517,
-0.05526898056268692,
0.1438286155462265,
-0.02796808071434498,
0.7825349569320679,
0.2900216579437256,
0.6778783798217773,
0.2903319299221039,
-0.13386309146881104,
-0.08871351927518845,
-0.9176282286643982,
-0.09422747045755386,
0.030100110918283463,
0.1806648075580597,
0.22754515707492828,
0.7609727382659912,
-0.4551186263561249,
0.22141341865062714,
-0.37366124987602234,
0.09479895979166031,
-0.43933722376823425,
0.12907086312770844,
-0.3837539851665497,
-0.22261609137058258,
0.1556205153465271,
0.3959030508995056,
0.2977598011493683,
0.1665314882993698,
0.31811878085136414,
-0.15810935199260712,
-0.16149406135082245,
0.9316226840019226,
0.6198228597640991,
0.5262326598167419,
-0.12961961328983307,
0.005176665261387825,
-0.4325940012931824,
0.11008081585168839,
0.08880618959665298,
-0.017462393268942833,
0.3440873920917511,
0.09501541405916214,
0.5760232210159302,
0.4620984196662903,
0.359134316444397,
0.16495871543884277,
-0.4327026307582855,
0.09463267773389816,
-0.2865888178348541,
0.5072655081748962,
0.021070821210741997,
0.24515162408351898,
-0.7627314329147339,
-0.18886230885982513,
0.20633724331855774,
-0.33590754866600037,
-0.0435941219329834,
-0.5803501009941101,
0.01892455294728279,
-0.3307935893535614,
-0.4548247456550598,
0.32694095373153687,
0.6722102165222168,
-0.20110565423965454,
-0.38189566135406494,
-0.000886440509930253,
0.1976940631866455,
-0.5506493449211121,
0.5083969235420227,
0.20847560465335846,
-0.5107476115226746,
-0.23784911632537842,
0.4965379238128662,
-0.12786343693733215,
0.4527131915092468,
-0.28998902440071106,
-0.19552718102931976,
0.16397428512573242,
-0.7022687196731567,
0.3580062985420227,
-0.0015233542071655393,
-0.3648815453052521,
0.5025113224983215,
0.2070062905550003,
0.13715484738349915,
0.2593581974506378,
0.11242054402828217,
-0.0836385041475296,
-0.17376890778541565,
-5.571065425872803,
0.0716354176402092,
0.38935256004333496,
-0.3556687533855438,
0.14811597764492035,
-0.09850186854600906,
0.24294579029083252,
-0.5019310712814331,
-0.2525726556777954,
-0.6430273652076721,
0.20496989786624908,
0.14895467460155487,
0.30479833483695984,
0.23943346738815308,
0.8159984946250916,
0.2553253769874573,
0.9128124117851257,
-0.11773321032524109,
0.5110299587249756,
0.5753282308578491,
-0.24062684178352356,
0.41747382283210754,
0.27830132842063904,
-0.024180103093385696,
-0.4696902632713318,
0.34679701924324036,
0.044478654861450195,
0.153426855802536,
-0.9816823601722717,
-0.1847120225429535,
0.25205105543136597,
-0.0361008457839489,
-0.24355143308639526,
0.2770181894302368,
-1.034164547920227,
-0.6912489533424377,
0.3269435465335846,
0.6282867789268494,
0.07841399312019348,
-0.10599216818809509,
0.20821067690849304,
-0.19722408056259155,
-0.3179270923137665,
0.09172017127275467,
0.6572259068489075,
-0.16617318987846375,
-0.7284380197525024,
0.37480419874191284,
-0.14998532831668854,
-0.010204000398516655,
0.24978850781917572,
-0.1271064728498459,
0.2900114953517914,
0.0727735236287117,
-0.2520684599876404,
0.21532326936721802,
0.16308119893074036,
0.16205328702926636,
-0.7583084106445312,
0.6600419878959656,
-0.1568545252084732,
-0.8240740299224854,
0.016429906710982323,
-0.09329588711261749,
-0.1304822415113449,
0.16596408188343048,
-0.055049341171979904,
0.03863679617643356,
0.2886797785758972,
-0.2840099632740021,
0.018596326932311058,
0.4372105300426483,
0.49849778413772583,
-0.9519586563110352,
0.004095392767339945,
-0.7025029063224792,
0.014619437046349049,
0.02811737358570099,
-0.5525470972061157,
0.12043450772762299,
0.32578399777412415,
-0.4658481180667877,
-0.12817716598510742,
0.18345029652118683,
0.19157437980175018,
-0.18411459028720856,
-0.5680195093154907,
0.8320567011833191,
0.4026520848274231,
-0.1234392300248146,
-0.06922540813684464,
-0.05673564225435257,
-0.007034699432551861,
0.4920097589492798,
0.7488363981246948,
0.31531545519828796,
-0.11596709489822388,
0.36759501695632935,
0.27806562185287476,
0.17322860658168793,
-0.5309433937072754,
-0.5207958221435547,
0.03010166622698307,
-0.5396229028701782,
-0.09676837921142578,
0.0975537896156311,
-0.014711478725075722,
0.4900892972946167,
0.3564917743206024,
0.0364394374191761,
0.007533569820225239,
0.12488498538732529,
-0.46224460005760193,
0.04895069822669029,
0.0714341402053833,
-0.3502962291240692,
-0.1101301982998848,
0.4630260169506073,
0.8037210702896118,
0.33673086762428284,
-0.4241836369037628,
0.530144989490509,
-0.16041481494903564,
-0.09457910060882568,
0.005307354964315891,
-0.008839993737637997,
0.3369710147380829,
-0.6347782611846924,
-0.2003062516450882,
-0.09253398329019547,
-0.177692711353302,
1.0426523685455322,
0.05169530585408211,
0.5258017778396606,
-0.21874894201755524,
-0.5991185307502747,
-0.2016683965921402,
-0.3151807487010956,
-0.13060669600963593,
0.14390252530574799,
0.08770789206027985,
-0.40194275975227356,
0.05144088342785835,
0.05756452679634094,
0.4847719669342041,
0.4878304898738861,
-0.20076239109039307,
-0.41119399666786194,
-0.1578805297613144,
0.8031749725341797,
-0.5007309317588806,
-0.8586348295211792,
0.5543875098228455,
-0.30617716908454895,
-0.8853516578674316,
0.41286158561706543,
-0.8954629302024841,
0.2204243242740631,
-0.17808499932289124,
-0.08114150911569595,
0.1842903345823288,
-0.19886651635169983,
-0.7136224508285522,
-0.13761602342128754,
0.40874889492988586,
0.24686740338802338,
0.1246381551027298,
0.017054999247193336,
-0.38195955753326416,
0.5445048809051514,
-0.4005155861377716,
-0.34029704332351685,
-0.5325024724006653,
-0.2081872671842575,
0.1090771034359932,
0.3258121609687805,
-0.2135746031999588,
-0.03455817699432373,
0.15765726566314697,
-0.06720130145549774,
0.14304997026920319,
0.4953559339046478,
-0.2642245888710022,
0.27312642335891724,
0.7034464478492737,
-0.1957043558359146,
-0.6879819631576538,
-0.4506475031375885,
-0.2999805510044098,
0.04297133907675743,
0.030853847041726112,
-0.37917378544807434,
0.48165109753608704,
0.8639680743217468,
-0.3202745318412781,
-0.03293370455503464,
-0.3852284550666809,
0.004529991187155247,
0.39019066095352173,
-0.1765030324459076,
0.4140785038471222,
-0.061894990503787994,
-0.4057801365852356,
-0.13089460134506226,
0.35813841223716736,
-0.6674628853797913,
0.02096465975046158,
-0.5319291949272156,
-0.2783409059047699,
0.41600003838539124,
0.02654528059065342,
-0.8086010813713074,
-0.23916928470134735,
0.5359512567520142,
-0.2964804768562317,
-0.5280959010124207,
-0.20717525482177734,
0.15358968079090118,
-0.028593750670552254,
-0.42209291458129883,
-0.7104445099830627,
-0.34288856387138367,
-0.2185550481081009,
0.17468176782131195,
-0.767928957939148,
0.06500063091516495,
0.114512138068676,
-0.2384711503982544,
0.6638883948326111,
0.11617040634155273,
-0.727947473526001,
-0.01090168859809637,
0.21862386167049408,
0.2901352345943451,
-0.21152056753635406,
0.09018605202436447,
0.6989835500717163,
0.0714031383395195,
-0.5648429989814758,
0.45118439197540283,
0.3206162750720978,
1.3996832370758057,
0.4966307580471039,
-1.0029131174087524,
-0.2138073444366455,
-0.1155795231461525,
0.4897283613681793,
-0.9769526720046997,
-0.3374808728694916,
0.5295751690864563,
0.3757845461368561,
-0.2714768052101135,
-0.47040414810180664,
-0.2805555760860443,
0.9336045980453491,
-0.2850080728530884,
-0.08776522427797318,
-0.4198468327522278,
0.4137064516544342,
0.17084184288978577,
0.08238538354635239,
0.26898518204689026,
0.2963730990886688,
0.15229392051696777,
0.19721896946430206,
0.24756397306919098,
-0.7915727496147156,
-0.21629859507083893,
0.32342827320098877,
-0.36032190918922424,
-0.26725295186042786,
-0.5847594738006592,
0.04893537983298302,
0.18171508610248566,
-0.15312759578227997,
0.11018198728561401,
0.0051307701505720615,
-0.4954386055469513,
0.6598604321479797,
-0.7058604955673218,
-0.5067145228385925,
-0.19175505638122559,
0.3970772325992584,
-0.14050953090190887,
0.1361340433359146,
-0.7207369208335876,
0.01435720082372427,
-0.23802590370178223,
-0.34773534536361694,
0.2607060670852661,
-0.48238494992256165,
0.1756175458431244,
-0.21638065576553345,
0.024623842909932137,
-0.02030995860695839,
0.22475281357765198,
-0.6832111477851868,
0.852067232131958,
-0.22825857996940613,
0.10446462780237198,
0.03371097147464752,
0.5857172012329102,
0.26917657256126404,
0.1307099461555481,
0.13409103453159332,
0.24700665473937988,
-0.006458864081650972,
-0.7219398617744446,
-0.19649486243724823,
-0.38792362809181213,
-0.27427810430526733,
0.06465451419353485,
-0.01637941598892212,
-0.20330286026000977,
-0.252790629863739,
-0.38658368587493896,
0.5852686166763306,
-0.501115620136261,
0.025754069909453392,
-0.09159786254167557,
0.43703630566596985,
0.2631547451019287,
0.27930018305778503,
0.3058166205883026,
-0.1920972615480423,
0.8043674230575562,
-0.028681866824626923,
-0.8930519819259644,
0.3188455104827881,
0.19243361055850983,
0.1021503135561943,
-0.34232619404792786,
-0.3143741190433502,
0.7588831782341003,
-0.6222074031829834,
0.12782545387744904,
0.005123498849570751,
-0.5801522731781006,
0.29779407382011414,
0.3724703788757324,
0.060234732925891876,
1.3369101285934448,
-0.16957725584506989,
-0.10189373791217804,
0.07423721998929977,
0.08693235367536545,
-0.34108319878578186,
0.17399699985980988,
0.09917811304330826,
0.14381448924541473,
0.178008571267128,
-0.09861095249652863,
0.008291883394122124,
-0.6518533825874329,
-0.24226127564907074,
0.6540465354919434,
0.2238684594631195,
-0.26355016231536865,
-0.3345278203487396,
-0.02756398729979992,
-0.5178332328796387,
-0.29060477018356323,
0.6634553074836731,
0.0551968552172184,
-0.05213262513279915,
-0.128376767039299,
-0.02350335568189621,
-0.7046912312507629,
0.23703324794769287,
0.5758472681045532,
0.049397606402635574,
-0.022427136078476906,
-0.017925577238202095,
-0.1944940984249115,
0.029152659699320793,
0.151702880859375,
0.6561583280563354,
0.40250521898269653,
-0.05530991032719612,
0.2441525012254715,
-0.10505659133195877,
-0.34615179896354675,
-0.1282232254743576,
-0.20202520489692688,
0.4778604507446289,
-0.38729771971702576,
-0.3596092462539673,
0.6189999580383301,
-0.1409045308828354,
-0.03061986155807972,
0.9101853966712952,
-0.3215773105621338,
-0.5590826869010925,
0.4612727761268616,
-0.03911229223012924,
0.2550291419029236,
0.042219605296850204,
0.7465219497680664,
1.2140603065490723,
-0.3927054703235626,
-0.7057700753211975,
0.2509705126285553,
-0.06797279417514801,
-0.2498885840177536,
-0.2897863984107971,
0.6066896915435791,
0.03665388748049736,
0.02982718124985695,
-0.8901594281196594,
0.8049362897872925,
0.21352723240852356,
0.30975544452667236,
-0.5927976369857788,
0.3494347929954529,
-0.6230892539024353,
-0.24219271540641785,
0.4071238934993744,
-0.13385458290576935,
0.025623401626944542,
-0.6022648811340332,
-0.24220800399780273,
-0.6139326691627502,
0.31631240248680115,
0.1693294793367386,
-0.12186995893716812,
0.1225028932094574,
-0.4185043275356293,
0.24918054044246674,
-0.13419388234615326,
0.39137688279151917,
0.19375012814998627,
-0.34753111004829407,
0.005928593222051859,
-0.2519749402999878,
-0.3945830762386322,
0.32205286622047424,
0.2218450903892517,
0.6605651378631592,
-0.036661602556705475,
-0.23334114253520966,
0.4598536789417267,
-0.4366547167301178,
-0.28008905053138733,
-0.16683454811573029,
0.38447463512420654,
-0.019583310931921005,
0.07554630935192108,
-0.7617069482803345,
0.24000859260559082,
0.2859373390674591,
0.30920201539993286,
-0.4509545862674713,
0.6395887136459351,
-1.1765564680099487,
0.08790833503007889,
-0.0942474976181984,
-0.730399489402771,
0.394426167011261,
0.10323885828256607,
0.1610163003206253
] |
206191
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda%20II
|
Matilda II
|
The Infantry Tank Mark II, best known as the Matilda, was a British infantry tank of the Second World War.
The design began as the A12 specification in 1936, as a gun-armed counterpart to the first British infantry tank, the machine gun armed, two-man A11 Infantry Tank Mark I. The Mark I was also known as Matilda, and the larger A12 was initially known as the Matilda II or Matilda senior. The Mark I was abandoned in 1940, and from then on the A12 was almost always known simply as "the Matilda".
With its heavy armour, the Matilda II was an excellent infantry support tank but with somewhat limited speed and armament. It was the only British tank to serve from the start of the war to its end, although it is particularly associated with the North Africa Campaign. Only two were available for service by the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. It was replaced in front-line service by the lighter and less costly Infantry Tank Mk III Valentine beginning in late 1941.
Development history
The split between the infantry tank and cruisers had its origins in the World War I division between the first British heavy tanks and the faster Whippet Medium Mark A and its successors the Medium Mark B and Medium Mark C. During the interbellum, British tank experiments generally followed these basic classifications, which were made part of the overall doctrine with the work of Major-General Percy Hobart and the influence of Captain B.H. Liddell Hart.
In 1934 Hobart, the then "Inspector, Royal Tank Corps", postulated in a paper two alternatives for a tank to support the infantry. One was a very small, heavily armoured, machine gun-armed model that would be fielded in large numbers to overwhelm the enemy defences. The other was a larger vehicle with a cannon as well as machine guns and heavier armour proof against enemy field artillery. Vickers designed a tank to a General Staff specification based on the first option as the A11 Matilda. Within the limitations of military finances, the Master-General of the Ordnance, Hugh Elles, went for the smaller machine gun tank and the larger cannon-armed version did not proceed. This requirement was passed to Vickers-Armstrongs which had a prototype (A11E1) but with armour proof against current anti-tanks guns ready by September 1936.
The first suggestion for a larger Infantry Tank was made in 1936, with specification A12. The design was produced by the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and Vulcan Foundry was selected as the manufacturer. A12 used a number of design elements of the A7, a medium tank that was built in limited numbers in the early 1930s whose mechanical layout was used for many following designs. With its greatly increased armour, a lack of power was seen as a problem. The solution was to use two AEC straight-six water-cooled diesel engines, used in London buses, providing up to 87 hp each. These were linked along a common shaft. Suspension was to use the 'Japanese Type' bell crank suspension used on the A7.
Vulcan received a contract for two wooden mock-ups and two mild-steel prototypes in November 1936. The first mock-up was delivered in April 1937 and the A12E1 prototype in April 1938. The prototypes proved excellent in a test, resulting in only a few changes to improve the gearbox, suspension and cooling. When war was recognised as imminent, production of the Matilda II was ordered and that of the Matilda I curtailed. The first order was placed shortly after trials were completed, with 140 ordered from Vulcan in June 1938.
Design
The Matilda Senior weighed around , more than twice as much as its predecessor, and was armed with an Ordnance QF 2-pounder (40 mm) tank gun in a three-man turret. The turret traversed by hydraulic motor or by hand through 360 degrees; the gun could be elevated through an arc from −15 to +20 degrees. One of the most serious weaknesses of the Matilda II was the lack of a high-explosive round for its main gun. A high-explosive shell was designed for the 2-pounder but was rarely issued, as the bursting charge was so small. The main weapon against un-armoured targets was its machine gun.
The Matilda II had a conventional layout, with the driver's compartment located at the front of the tank's hull, the fighting compartment with the turret in the centre and the engine and transmission housed in the rear. The driver's position was normally accessed by a single hatch in the roof of the hull, and protected by a rotating armoured cover which could be held locked in either fully open or closed positions; emergency egress was made possible by a large escape hatch under the driver's seating position. The driver also had a direct vision viewing port with manually operated armoured shield and a single Mk IV periscope to use when buttoned up.
Like many other British infantry tanks, it was heavily armoured. The front glacis was up to thick; the nose plates top and bottom were thinner but angled. The sides of the hull were and the rear armour, protecting the engine to sides and rear, was .
The cast, cylindrical three-man turret was seated on ball-bearing ring mount and its armour was all round. The turret was laid out such that the gunner and commander were seated in a laddered arrangement on the left side of the gun, and the loader - on the right. The commander was given a rotating cupola with a two-piece hatch and a single panoramic Mk IV periscope installed in the forward-facing hatch door. The same device was also mounted in a fixed position in the turret roof, forward of the commander's cupola, and giving the gunner some situational awareness and target finding capabilities. The loader used a single, rectangular hatch in the turret's roof on the right side. The turret was equipped with a basket around which much of the ammunition stowage was contained. The turret had a power traverse system used under normal conditions, and a manually-operated mechanical emergency assist.
The turret roof, hull roof and engine deck were . The armour varied in strength from IT.80 to IT.100
The armour of the Matilda was the heaviest of its era. Contemporary German Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks had hull armour, while the T-34 had (angled at 60 degrees). Matilda's side and rear armour was relatively heavy even at the end of the war when tanks like the M4 Sherman carried about 40 mm, and late models of the Panther carried 50 mm. The shape of the nose armour was based on Christie's designs and came to a narrow point with storage lockers added on either side. The heavy armour of the Matilda's cast turret became legendary; for a time in 1940–1941, the Matilda earned the nickname "Queen of the Desert".
While the Matilda possessed a degree of protection that was unmatched in the North African theatre, the sheer weight of the armour on the vehicle contributed to a very low average speed of about on desert terrain and on roads. At the time, this was not thought to be a problem, since British infantry tank doctrine valued heavy armour and trench-crossing ability over speed and cross-country mobility (which was considered to be characteristic of cruiser tanks such as the Crusader). The slow speed of the Matilda was further exacerbated by a troublesome suspension and a comparatively weak power unit, which was created from two AEC 6-cylinder bus engines linked to a single shaft. This arrangement was complicated and time-consuming to maintain, as it required mechanics to work on each engine separately and subjected automotive components to uneven wear-and-tear. It did provide some mechanical redundancy, since failure in one engine would not prevent the Matilda from using the other. The combined power of the engines went through a six-speed Wilson epicyclic gearbox, operated by compressed air.
The tank's suspension system was that which had been developed by Vickers for their Medium C prototype in the mid-1920s The tank was carried by five double wheels bogies on each side. Four of the bogies were on bellcranks in pairs, with a common horizontal coil spring. The fifth bogie at the rear was sprung against a hull bracket. Between the first bogie and the idler wheel, was a larger diameter vertically sprung "jockey wheel". The first Matildas had return rollers; these were replaced in later models by track skids, which were far easier to manufacture and to service in the field.
The turret carried the main armament, with the machine gun to the right in a rotating internal mantlet. Traverse was by a hydraulic system. As the gun was balanced for ease of movement by the gunner, much of the breech end was behind the trunnions. Two smoke grenade launchers were carried on the right side of the turret. The grenade launcher mechanisms were cut down Lee–Enfield rifles, each loaded with a smoke grenade. Its camouflage scheme was designed by Major Denys Pavitt of the Camouflage Development And Training Centre based on the dazzle patterns of First World War ships. The design incorporated block colours, visually breaking the tank in half.
Production history
The first Matilda was produced in 1937, but only two were in service when war broke out in September 1939. Following the initial order from Vulcan Foundry, a second order was placed shortly after with Ruston & Hornsby. Some 2,987 tanks were produced by the Vulcan Foundry, John Fowler & Co. of Leeds, Ruston & Hornsby, and later by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway at Horwich Works; Harland and Wolff, and the North British Locomotive Company Glasgow. The last were delivered in August 1943.
Peak production was 1,330 in 1942, the most common model being the Mark IV.
The Matilda was difficult to manufacture. For example, the pointed nose was a single casting that, upon initial release from the mould, was thicker than required in some areas. To avoid a needless addition to the tank's weight, the thick areas were ground away. This process required highly skilled workers and additional time. The complex suspension and multi-piece hull side coverings also added time to manufacturing.
Combat history
Battle of France 1940
The Matilda was first used in combat by the 7th Royal Tank Regiment in France in 1940. Only 23 of the unit's tanks were Matilda IIs; the rest of the British infantry tanks in France were the smaller machine-gun armed A11 Matilda. Its 2-pounder gun was comparable to other tank guns in the 37 to 45 mm range. Due to the thickness of its armour, it was largely immune, but not impervious, to the guns of the German tanks and anti-tank guns in France. The Germans found the 88 mm anti-aircraft guns were the only effective counter-measure. In the counter-attack at Arras of 21 May 1940, 18 British Matilda IIs (and Matilda Is) were able to briefly disrupt German progress, but, being unsupported, they sustained heavy losses (30 tanks lost) after breaking through to the rear area of 7th Panzer Division. A gun line of artillery and later 88mm flak guns, personally organised by General Rommel was needed to repel the attack. All vehicles surviving the battles around Dunkirk were abandoned when the BEF evacuated.
North Africa 1940 to 1942
Up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda proved highly effective against Italian and German tanks, although vulnerable to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti-tank guns.
In late 1940, during Operation Compass, Matildas of the British 7th Armoured Division wreaked havoc among the Italian forces in Egypt. The Italians were equipped with L3 tankettes and M11/39 medium tanks, neither of which had any chance against the Matildas. Italian gunners were to discover that the Matildas were impervious to a wide assortment of artillery. Matildas continued to confound the Italians as the British pushed them out of Egypt and entered Libya to take Bardia and Tobruk. Even as late as November 1941, German infantry combat reports show the impotence of ill-equipped infantry against the Matilda.
Ultimately, in the rapid manoeuvre warfare often practised in the open desert of North Africa, the Matilda's low speed and unreliable steering mechanism became major problems. Another snag was the lack of a high-explosive shell (the appropriate shell existed but was not issued). When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the 88 mm anti-aircraft gun was again pressed into service against the Matilda, causing heavy losses during Operation Battleaxe, when sixty-four Matildas were lost. The arrival of the more powerful 5 cm Pak 38 and 7.5 cm Pak 40 anti-tank guns also provided a means for the German infantry to engage Matilda tanks at combat ranges. Nevertheless, during Operation Crusader Matilda tanks of 1st and 32nd Army Tank Brigades were instrumental in the break-out from Tobruk and the capture of the Axis fortress of Bardia. The operation was decided by the infantry tanks, after the failure of the cruiser tanks of the 7th Armoured Division to overcome the Axis tank forces in the open desert.
As the German army received new tanks with more powerful guns, as well as more powerful anti-tank guns and ammunition, the Matilda proved less and less effective. Firing tests conducted by the Afrika korps showed that the Matilda had become vulnerable to a number of German weapons at ordinary combat ranges. Due to the small size of the turret and the need to balance the gun in it, up-gunning the Matilda, without developing a larger turret, was impractical. There was at least one instance of the turret from the A24/A27 cruiser tank series being fitted to a Matilda, complete with 6-pounder gun. As the size of the Matilda's turret ring was 54 inches (1.37 m) vs. the 57 inches of the A27, it was possible that a larger turret ring had been superimposed on the hull. The Churchill Mark III also had a 54-inch turret ring but was armed with a 6-pounder and that might have offered an alternative route. It was also somewhat expensive to produce. Vickers proposed an alternative, the Valentine tank, which had the same gun and a similar level of armour protection but on a faster and cheaper chassis derived from that of their "heavy cruiser" Cruiser Mk II. With the arrival of the Valentine in autumn 1941, the Matilda was phased out by the British Army through attrition, with lost vehicles no longer being replaced. By the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein (October 1942), few Matildas were in service, with many having been lost during Operation Crusader and then the Gazala battles in early summer of 1942. Around twenty-five took part in the battle as mine-clearing Matilda Scorpion mine flail tanks.
Minor campaigns
In early 1941, a small number of Matildas were used during the East Africa Campaign at the Battle of Keren. However, the mountainous terrain of East Africa did not allow the tanks of B Squadron 4th Royal Tank Regiment to be as effective as the tanks of the 7th Royal Tank Regiment had been in Egypt and Libya.
A few Matildas of the 7th RTR were present during the Battle of Crete and all of them were lost.
Australian use in the Pacific theatre
A total of 409 Matilda IIs were supplied by Britain to the Australian army between 1942 and 1944, and a further 33 close-support Matildas were transferred from New Zealand to the Australian army in 1944, as New Zealand made the decision to use only close-support Valentine tanks in the Pacific theatre, to minimise supply problems. The Australian 4th Armoured Brigade used them against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific Area, first in the Huon Peninsula campaign in October 1943. Matilda II tanks remained in action until the last day of the war in the Wewak, Bougainville and Borneo campaigns, which made the Matilda the only British tank to remain in service throughout the war.
The tanks were often employed in dense jungle with limited visibility, and could be subject to point-blank fire from hidden Japanese heavy artillery pieces. The Matilda's heavy armour (enhanced by the crews with spare track links) proved to be reasonably effective protection against this. In this fighting, the close-support version of the Matilda, armed with an Ordnance QF 3-inch howitzer, was preferred by the Australians as it was more effective against Japanese bunkers. Local modifications to the tanks included improving the waterproofing, and adding an outside infantry telephone so supporting troops could more easily communicate with the tank crew. Guards were fitted to the suspension to stop it from being tangled with jungle undergrowth, and metal panels fitted to make it harder for Japanese soldiers to attach adhesive demolition charges to the hull.
The Matilda Frog, an Australian-modified version of the tank that replaced the gun with a flamethrower saw some successful use against the Japanese on Borneo. Another Australian version, the Matilda Hedgehog, which could fire seven mortar shells, was successfully tested but was developed too late to see combat service.
Matilda IIs remained in service with the Australian Citizen Military Forces until about 1955.
Soviet use
The Red Army received 918 of the 1,084 Matildas sent to the USSR. The Soviet Matildas saw action as early as the Battle of Moscow and became fairly common during 1942. Unsurprisingly, the tank was found to be too slow and unreliable. Crews often complained that snow and dirt were accumulating behind the "skirt" panels, clogging the suspension. The heavy armour on the Matilda was comparable to that of the Red Army's KV-1 heavy tanks, but the Matilda had nowhere near the firepower of the KV. Most Soviet Matildas were expended during 1942 but a few served on as late as 1944. The Soviets modified the tanks with the addition of sections of steel welded to the tracks to give better grip.
Captured use
Following Operation Battleaxe a dozen Matildas left behind the Axis lines were repaired and put into service by the Germans. Several vehicles were transported to Kummersdorf where they were evaluated, including trials by live fire. The German designation was Infanterie Panzerkampfwagen Mk.II 748(e) translating roughly as "Infantry Tank Mk.II Number 748 (English)". The Matildas were well-regarded by their German users although their use in battle caused confusion to both sides, despite extra-prominent German markings. Czech historian writes that the Romanians had also captured some Soviet Matildas, but no other source mentions this, so it may be a confusion.
Egyptian use
Egypt used Matildas against Israel during 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Variants
Major variants
Infantry Tank Mark II (Matilda II)
First production model armed with a Vickers machine gun.
Infantry Tank Mark II.A. (Matilda II Mk II)
Vickers machine gun replaced by Besa machine gun. The "A" denoted a change in armament.
Infantry Tank Mark II.A.* (Matilda II Mk III)
New Leyland diesel engine used in place of AEC engines.
Infantry Tank Mark II (Matilda II Mk IV)
With improved engines, rigid mounting and no turret lamp
Matilda II Mk IV Close Support (CS)
Variant with QF 3 inch (76 mm) howitzer, firing high explosive or smoke shells. In British service these were generally used by HQ units (usually a single command vehicle), whereas entire Australian squadrons often appear to have used them – frequently in a direct fire role, against Japanese strong points.
Infantry Tank Mark II (Matilda II Mk V)
Improved gear box. Westinghouse air servo used.
Other variants, field modifications and prototypes
UK
Baron I, II, III, IIIA
Experimental Matilda chassis with mine flail – never used operationally.
Matilda Scorpion I / II
Matilda chassis with a mine flail. Used in North Africa, during and after the battle of El Alamein.
Matilda II CDL/Matilda V CDL Canal Defence Light
The normal turret was replaced by a cylindrical one containing a searchlight (projected through a vertical slit) and a BESA machine gun. The searchlight was intended to disorientate and confuse enemy at night.
(Prototype) Matilda with A27 turret
Matilda II with modified chassis and Ordnance QF 6 pounder in an A27 turret. One produced, no documentation other than photographs of it remain.
(Prototype) Matilda II "Black Prince"
Radio-controlled prototype produced in 1941 using A12E2 with Wilson transmission. Planned uses included use as a mobile target, for drawing fire and so reveal hidden anti-tank guns, or for demolition missions. Planned order for 60 cancelled as it would require conversion of Rackham clutch transmission to the Wilson type. Used a QF 6-pdr Mk. V A gun.
USSR
Field modification of Matilda Mark III with 76mm ZiS-5 (redesignated as F-96) gun
One Matilda Mk.III supplied to the USSR was refitted with the 76.2mm ZiS-5 gun as used on the KV-1. This modification was found to be unsuccessful due to the space taken up by the breech of the ZiS-5 in the Matilda's turret, no production was started.
Australia
Matilda Frog (25)
A flamethrower tank, this was fitted with a flame projector in place of the main gun, disguised with a tube to make the Frog resemble a normal, gun-tank. To avoid the complication of engineering a rotating, high-pressure joint, the flamethrower's fuel was in an tank inside the turret along with the tank of high-pressure air, which propelled the fuel. This left space for only a single crewman who operated the flamethrower. Several other flame-fuel tanks, totalling were fitted in the hull and used to replenish the turret tank. The flame projector had a range of and fired about with each shot. A problem with the system was that it required a thirty-second interval between shots to build up pressure. The Frog tanks saw action on Borneo and were considered very effective.
Murray and Murray FT
Flamethrower tank. Similar to the Frog but with a larger turret fuel tank - . It used cordite instead of compressed air as a flame-fuel propellant. The type never saw action.
Matilda Tank-Dozer
Bulldozer tank. A hydraulic operated bulldozer blade of similar design to those fitted to the American M3s.
(6)
Officially known as the "Matilda Projector, Hedgehog, No. 1 Mark I", this fitted a Hedgehog 7-chambered spigot mortar in an armoured box on the rear hull of several Australian Matilda tanks. The projector was elevated by hydraulics adapted from the Logan traversing mechanism used in M3 Medium tank turrets. The mortars were fired electrically either individually or as a salvo of six (from the 12 o'clock position; the fifth tube could not be fired unless the turret was traversed to move the radio antenna out of the bomb's flightpath. Each bomb weighed and contained of high explosive. The range was up to . Aiming was accomplished by pointing the entire tank; the mounting had no independent traverse, so accuracy was not spectacular, but adequate for the task. Trials at Southport, Queensland, in May 1945 were pronounced a complete success, and the Projector would have been impressive against enemy bunkers, but the war ended before it was used operationally.
Surviving tanks
Around 70 Matilda IIs survive in various degrees of preservation. Around 30 are in Australia, either in museums, displayed as public monuments or in private ownership. A notable collection is that of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps Memorial and Army Tank Museum, at Puckapunyal, Australia, which has five Matilda IIs on display, including a Matilda Frog flame tank, a Matilda Hedgehog and a Matilda Bulldozer.
Tanks in running condition are owned by The Tank Museum Bovington in the United Kingdom, the American Heritage Museum in the United States, and several private owners in Australia. The Tank Museum completely restored a Matilda II tank from 2015 to 2018, with updates provided through YouTube. While a gearbox fault prevented it running at the 2018 Tankfest (its first advertised running event since 2013), the issue was corrected and the tank has run at several events since. The Tank Museum at Bovington also displays the only surviving Matilda Canal Defence Light, currently housed in the Vehicle Conservation Centre. The WW2 Tank Stories display has a Matilda in desert Caunter camouflage scheme In the UK, the Imperial War Museum also has a Matilda - listed as a Mk V - with additional turret ring armour on display in the Land Warfare Hall at their Duxford site.
Other examples are displayed at the Kubinka Tank Museum in Russia, the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Belgium, the Yad La-Shiryon museum in the Latrun, the Musée des Blindés in France, and the Cavalry Tank Museum at Ahmednagar in India.
See also
List of tanks of the United Kingdom
Tanks in the British Army
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
OnWar - Matilda III
Photo Gallery of Matilda Tanks in Soviet service (armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2)
PDF document listing surviving Matilda tanks.
video of Matilda II at Bovington Tankfest 2008
Popular Mechanics, March 1943, Tank Crew Rub Elbows In British Fortress cutaway drawing of Matilda II
Infantry tanks
Interwar tanks of the United Kingdom
World War II tanks of the United Kingdom
Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s
History of the tank
|
[
-0.5848987102508545,
-0.28103727102279663,
-0.11893400549888611,
-0.23003053665161133,
-0.4684039354324341,
0.4289127588272095,
0.6165805459022522,
-0.5261638164520264,
0.09700930118560791,
0.23122473061084747,
-0.23352038860321045,
0.26641130447387695,
0.12310568243265152,
0.23645398020744324,
-0.08219585567712784,
0.24277950823307037,
0.38252222537994385,
0.04697984457015991,
-0.03264590725302696,
-0.394737184047699,
0.27932363748550415,
0.1620122641324997,
0.13942186534404755,
0.2644802927970886,
-0.23135507106781006,
0.24899806082248688,
1.181654930114746,
0.08660422265529633,
0.06011153757572174,
-0.1478702872991562,
-0.10799822956323624,
0.4008041322231293,
-0.19507145881652832,
-0.007275748066604137,
-0.5934461355209351,
-0.3490617871284485,
-0.15188203752040863,
-0.5680524706840515,
-0.4347164034843445,
-0.8081917762756348,
-0.3045835793018341,
0.24323847889900208,
0.19108609855175018,
0.6662817597389221,
-0.5306696891784668,
0.3248036801815033,
-1.6009858846664429,
-0.23475757241249084,
0.07755213230848312,
-0.30135056376457214,
0.07648461312055588,
0.1932373195886612,
0.5578792095184326,
-0.0851685032248497,
0.30130288004875183,
0.4886486828327179,
-0.6550318598747253,
-0.05820232629776001,
-0.010725121945142746,
-0.15305612981319427,
0.6829971671104431,
0.14166831970214844,
0.544165849685669,
0.1948840320110321,
-0.016790978610515594,
-0.1627713441848755,
-0.43657606840133667,
0.5141131281852722,
-0.39078909158706665,
-0.35686755180358887,
-0.4126063287258148,
-0.5811105370521545,
-0.0181901678442955,
0.12263581156730652,
-0.40529194474220276,
-0.5601543188095093,
0.21817098557949066,
-0.40082937479019165,
0.07195332646369934,
0.2635560631752014,
0.21132902801036835,
0.186817929148674,
0.6086063981056213,
0.189115971326828,
0.13716177642345428,
0.03474372625350952,
-0.29962044954299927,
0.22421298921108246,
-0.4212513864040375,
0.5529680848121643,
-0.6871340274810791,
-0.36963775753974915,
0.1732831597328186,
0.3542705476284027,
-0.5271109342575073,
0.32555854320526123,
-0.19172583520412445,
0.29912739992141724,
0.3941221237182617,
-0.17351360619068146,
-0.21030424535274506,
0.3883431553840637,
-0.005274536088109016,
-0.19393348693847656,
-1.3641397953033447,
-0.13039244711399078,
-0.7043315172195435,
-0.40984514355659485,
-0.6498183608055115,
0.3053707182407379,
-0.7227426767349243,
-0.452851265668869,
-0.021028833463788033,
0.03393096849322319,
0.1547302007675171,
-0.4797433614730835,
-0.4974256157875061,
-0.6598706245422363,
-0.3649904131889343,
0.27595216035842896,
0.752406895160675,
0.25138360261917114,
-0.3983291685581207,
0.45192113518714905,
0.021491987630724907,
0.09460677206516266,
0.6183143854141235,
0.7307347059249878,
-0.4008112847805023,
0.133205384016037,
0.7840262651443481,
1.0126591920852661,
-0.29839250445365906,
-0.17084455490112305,
-0.6336641907691956,
-0.09714530408382416,
0.17151841521263123,
0.4562337398529053,
-0.15627925097942352,
0.31425848603248596,
-0.21594977378845215,
-0.18815185129642487,
-0.1873731017112732,
0.04281901568174362,
0.3568379580974579,
-0.07694806903600693,
-0.01270600687712431,
0.33109134435653687,
-0.6197724938392639,
-0.926581084728241,
-0.03545308858156204,
-0.27107781171798706,
-0.07914764434099197,
0.3047332763671875,
-0.363525390625,
0.05404975637793541,
0.168533593416214,
-0.6259292364120483,
0.5537205338478088,
0.21307839453220367,
-0.5072334408760071,
0.03480195254087448,
-0.34684139490127563,
0.3352556824684143,
0.3905479907989502,
0.0564582496881485,
0.42121344804763794,
-0.3556605279445648,
0.20352323353290558,
-0.4098588824272156,
-0.39927971363067627,
-0.10411768406629562,
0.20840799808502197,
0.5897694826126099,
-0.06379085779190063,
-0.3367335796356201,
1.199719786643982,
0.18268343806266785,
0.8981792330741882,
-0.42510664463043213,
-0.5466835498809814,
-0.581021249294281,
0.4404452443122864,
0.28280767798423767,
0.6767585873603821,
0.7243309617042542,
0.27538278698921204,
-0.02452849969267845,
-0.709517776966095,
-0.19011037051677704,
-0.35151660442352295,
-0.781074583530426,
-0.03115020878612995,
-0.30658793449401855,
1.0298837423324585,
-0.41011661291122437,
-0.35040193796157837,
-0.29819291830062866,
0.24090462923049927,
0.44096437096595764,
0.5275520086288452,
-0.32162293791770935,
0.26046937704086304,
0.07151582837104797,
-0.08940528333187103,
-0.42794886231422424,
0.5699414610862732,
0.07082846760749817,
0.2772179841995239,
1.1136795282363892,
-0.322177529335022,
-0.3835209906101227,
0.0564044788479805,
-0.06583641469478607,
-0.15476863086223602,
0.31849244236946106,
-0.3429079055786133,
0.038313936442136765,
0.16992658376693726,
-0.5297079682350159,
0.2067040652036667,
0.017274538055062294,
-0.613857626914978,
-0.17342807352542877,
-0.0562506839632988,
0.10954639315605164,
-0.0986136645078659,
0.01629936322569847,
0.16691231727600098,
-0.5457622408866882,
-0.19567042589187622,
0.834568977355957,
-0.10164555162191391,
0.02125438116490841,
0.09016354382038116,
0.3823024034500122,
0.04761150851845741,
-0.05051212012767792,
0.18941161036491394,
-0.08740061521530151,
0.01095479167997837,
0.13609932363033295,
-0.6467082500457764,
0.5117177367210388,
-0.0014683513436466455,
-0.2083800882101059,
0.28943148255348206,
0.3784055709838867,
-0.2639448046684265,
-0.612103283405304,
0.20621058344841003,
0.5097258687019348,
0.696392297744751,
-0.3250730037689209,
-0.027428049594163895,
-0.1912171095609665,
-0.591117799282074,
-0.45149606466293335,
0.6404464840888977,
0.2680249810218811,
-0.0366877056658268,
0.36474844813346863,
0.12986938655376434,
0.2874227464199066,
0.5645734071731567,
0.05042478069663048,
-0.8676626086235046,
-0.04558046534657478,
-0.11905792355537415,
0.33164364099502563,
0.40473970770835876,
-0.12860794365406036,
-0.2742767632007599,
-0.44093459844589233,
-0.21444237232208252,
-0.49657461047172546,
-0.22363227605819702,
0.5674027800559998,
-0.22353366017341614,
-0.5707105994224548,
0.31157535314559937,
1.251784324645996,
0.2940381169319153,
-0.6689316034317017,
-0.6525434255599976,
0.2490798532962799,
0.21211926639080048,
-0.695099413394928,
-0.1321539729833603,
-0.6160613298416138,
-0.5003936290740967,
0.28285685181617737,
-0.7011398673057556,
-0.001838594558648765,
-0.35763439536094666,
0.5260117053985596,
-0.8286285400390625,
-0.012711098417639732,
0.14118309319019318,
0.06763408333063126,
-0.5393480062484741,
0.4049423933029175,
-0.054497528821229935,
0.10263294726610184,
0.4007907509803772,
-0.1879933774471283,
-0.5567762851715088,
0.11188679933547974,
-5.543635845184326,
-0.4343842566013336,
-0.048446476459503174,
0.06948841363191605,
0.7586510181427002,
0.5631749033927917,
-0.04196140915155411,
0.28038445115089417,
-0.3623203933238983,
-0.5793585181236267,
0.42472609877586365,
-0.03191981837153435,
-0.10460998117923737,
0.02210371568799019,
0.1585032045841217,
0.5237236618995667,
0.7448015809059143,
-0.22355706989765167,
0.8389577269554138,
-0.04698871076107025,
-0.031967710703611374,
0.0943102017045021,
-0.20381136238574982,
0.35973435640335083,
0.22746354341506958,
0.02867743745446205,
-0.38274654746055603,
0.038878366351127625,
-0.5804582834243774,
0.07469985634088516,
-0.05407119169831276,
0.023761577904224396,
-0.1765364110469818,
0.26876717805862427,
0.25123390555381775,
0.12516824901103973,
0.35181093215942383,
0.28437501192092896,
0.4165044128894806,
-0.4055888056755066,
0.08636986464262009,
0.23674538731575012,
0.35222557187080383,
0.38749662041664124,
0.527278482913971,
-0.4336492419242859,
-0.13012836873531342,
-0.22628210484981537,
-0.10474071651697159,
0.819674551486969,
-0.18108044564723969,
0.2740066647529602,
0.6346785426139832,
0.1856580376625061,
0.5605130791664124,
-0.09978064894676208,
-0.5375328660011292,
0.02319195121526718,
0.5336422324180603,
0.018003197386860847,
-0.4898115396499634,
-0.4007064402103424,
-0.09748781472444534,
-0.15943224728107452,
-0.2517246603965759,
0.30635330080986023,
-0.33036619424819946,
0.12218737602233887,
0.23898085951805115,
-0.1610538512468338,
-0.6114450097084045,
0.7888072729110718,
0.08932600170373917,
-1.122666358947754,
0.5256341695785522,
-0.1206226572394371,
0.10137965530157089,
-0.028691193088889122,
-0.055178385227918625,
-0.0024314068723469973,
0.1790017932653427,
-0.9483879804611206,
-0.5312613248825073,
0.20790337026119232,
-0.011656098067760468,
-0.7167259454727173,
-0.010708008892834187,
-0.015652988106012344,
0.09724285453557968,
-0.15805180370807648,
0.5599991083145142,
-0.3439345955848694,
0.3575337529182434,
0.28784698247909546,
0.934675395488739,
0.39562609791755676,
-0.3207094967365265,
0.22221703827381134,
0.17731553316116333,
0.06677774339914322,
-0.24869564175605774,
-0.09096217900514603,
-0.21103370189666748,
-0.042695123702287674,
-0.04801405966281891,
-0.20256830751895905,
-0.10041169822216034,
0.19467630982398987,
0.7675182819366455,
-0.35933637619018555,
-0.098174087703228,
-0.36443185806274414,
-0.6368749141693115,
-0.7087970972061157,
0.5815986394882202,
-0.1157296895980835,
-0.26647359132766724,
-0.04666678607463837,
0.2170482575893402,
0.18306109309196472,
-0.25609028339385986,
0.5252955555915833,
-1.0820879936218262,
-0.23217912018299103,
-0.0623176135122776,
0.006797811947762966,
0.3480079472064972,
-0.39617180824279785,
-0.32204094529151917,
0.03637475147843361,
0.24944870173931122,
0.6296946406364441,
-0.46988770365715027,
0.4690113663673401,
-0.35505688190460205,
-0.5944023728370667,
-0.14122144877910614,
0.1087350845336914,
-0.039355844259262085,
-0.42754119634628296,
-0.8537258505821228,
-0.3236410915851593,
0.0969957634806633,
-0.2666585147380829,
0.6098131537437439,
-0.16256669163703918,
0.7015367150306702,
-0.49144697189331055,
0.16709089279174805,
0.3354286551475525,
-0.2654467821121216,
-0.5766190886497498,
0.7688167095184326,
-0.2848817706108093,
-0.21145789325237274,
-0.04311274364590645,
0.49482032656669617,
0.6093425750732422,
-0.46978485584259033,
-0.6523417830467224,
-0.004378283396363258,
-0.3507575988769531,
-0.37299150228500366,
0.1892494261264801,
0.7354729771614075,
0.11872334778308868,
0.3320319950580597,
-0.9908945560455322,
0.3144975006580353,
0.48307302594184875,
0.6444664001464844,
-0.6378988027572632,
-0.40895983576774597,
0.14058777689933777,
0.3565332591533661,
0.17368581891059875,
-0.6055052280426025,
-0.2611526548862457,
-0.44262728095054626,
-0.16207771003246307,
0.2119564712047577,
0.359535813331604,
-0.3077213168144226,
0.4725355803966522,
0.09420949965715408,
-0.07094928622245789,
-0.6009930372238159,
0.1086624339222908,
0.14935433864593506,
-0.08684549480676651,
-0.06454156339168549,
-0.3753126561641693,
0.7928909659385681,
0.47089216113090515,
-0.8447574973106384,
0.06966295838356018,
-0.008347484283149242,
0.31659263372421265,
0.15066958963871002,
-0.973544180393219,
0.2743953466415405,
0.6031703948974609,
-0.5727917551994324,
-0.29272350668907166,
0.5983670949935913,
-0.3524433970451355,
0.4971332550048828,
-0.3695985972881317,
-0.04558057337999344,
0.49088260531425476,
-0.19102653861045837,
-0.8677423596382141,
-0.017888078466057777,
0.4430306553840637,
-0.6014495491981506,
0.37745770812034607,
-0.3298671245574951,
0.2616233825683594,
-0.3833187520503998,
-0.4125359356403351,
-0.2841729521751404,
-0.042412079870700836,
-0.24267128109931946,
0.2996077239513397,
-1.127463936805725,
0.1263991743326187,
0.3361634314060211,
-0.4616489112377167,
-0.35668811202049255,
-0.13143287599086761,
0.16431371867656708,
0.1556406021118164,
0.19578322768211365,
0.1691829115152359,
0.41730058193206787,
-0.5071315169334412,
0.4548715651035309,
0.2649419903755188,
-0.23797772824764252,
0.44197818636894226,
0.5536621809005737,
1.143609881401062,
0.14879213273525238,
-0.6030921936035156,
0.23323000967502594,
-0.11831486970186234,
0.19950813055038452,
-0.6298199892044067,
-0.677471399307251,
0.3296593427658081,
0.08968102186918259,
-0.16177599132061005,
-0.8627329468727112,
-0.11303988844156265,
0.5310389995574951,
-1.2453449964523315,
-0.13746069371700287,
-0.43841230869293213,
0.38055434823036194,
0.563629686832428,
0.12463777512311935,
0.5395236015319824,
-0.4816526770591736,
-0.23581598699092865,
0.21660475432872772,
0.3882581293582916,
0.058035582304000854,
-0.3210570812225342,
0.15975114703178406,
-0.4753178656101227,
0.2240857630968094,
0.3604547083377838,
0.24828685820102692,
-0.0699547603726387,
0.07823815196752548,
-0.26029032468795776,
-0.13335135579109192,
-0.32320860028266907,
0.697245717048645,
0.39666295051574707,
-0.17677251994609833,
0.11255696415901184,
0.44221124053001404,
-0.7145917415618896,
-0.5855929851531982,
-0.6457515358924866,
-0.16065779328346252,
-0.33262231945991516,
0.047825757414102554,
0.3686494529247284,
0.5702567100524902,
-0.25110968947410583,
0.010330491699278355,
-0.06451070308685303,
-0.07041331380605698,
0.2855505645275116,
-0.721886396408081,
-0.3035305440425873,
-0.3760804235935211,
0.42798665165901184,
0.16393724083900452,
0.8905626535415649,
0.23604914546012878,
0.388528048992157,
0.2692182958126068,
0.22943590581417084,
0.03630528599023819,
-0.7115294933319092,
0.0073987217620015144,
-0.15177084505558014,
-0.21841281652450562,
-0.49983856081962585,
0.15005701780319214,
0.563602089881897,
-0.9953775405883789,
0.4611896574497223,
0.5329602360725403,
0.31953850388526917,
-0.21934005618095398,
-0.48358485102653503,
0.012621848843991756,
0.4846404790878296,
0.14878949522972107,
0.3418898284435272,
-0.5640261769294739,
0.3824566900730133,
-0.7610856294631958,
-0.12268096208572388,
0.3396209180355072,
0.319568008184433,
0.4133092761039734,
-0.06734361499547958,
0.06452831625938416,
0.9505347609519958,
-0.16552379727363586,
-0.03395393118262291,
0.5288092494010925,
-0.3825494945049286,
0.3762993812561035,
0.9501133561134338,
0.07254723459482193,
-0.11506697535514832,
-0.30548974871635437,
-0.3353419899940491,
-0.3175010085105896,
0.8883113861083984,
-0.359192818403244,
-0.6921555399894714,
0.30733317136764526,
0.8839454650878906,
0.24923492968082428,
0.6998330354690552,
0.1069161668419838,
0.4493480324745178,
-0.5672607421875,
0.35150089859962463,
0.5776498913764954,
-0.44742903113365173,
-0.11452371627092361,
0.11408227682113647,
0.49121221899986267,
0.10565795004367828,
0.2079392373561859,
-0.12544581294059753,
-0.5147705674171448,
0.35010549426078796,
-0.06587487459182739,
-0.3899587094783783,
0.2927781343460083,
0.2871520519256592,
0.4188700318336487,
0.1422116458415985,
-0.1358005702495575,
-0.21720322966575623,
0.8968008160591125,
0.273616224527359,
0.7918608784675598,
-0.25676998496055603,
0.042693354189395905,
-0.19360248744487762,
-0.284964919090271,
0.3788057565689087,
-0.32646045088768005,
-1.0240553617477417,
-0.009214604273438454,
-0.17334452271461487,
-0.3199075758457184,
0.20020468533039093,
-0.32271528244018555,
-0.18013958632946014,
-0.18769973516464233,
-0.5164310336112976,
-0.49530792236328125,
-0.6038283109664917,
-1.0156654119491577,
-0.349075049161911,
0.3326648771762848,
0.1701502650976181,
0.4946730434894562,
0.6797890663146973,
-0.3617156147956848,
0.24615859985351562,
-0.0616006925702095,
0.02261222153902054,
-0.05669066309928894,
0.6620903611183167,
-0.2140902280807495,
-0.021491466090083122,
-0.4400654435157776,
0.20241686701774597,
0.278646320104599,
-0.29373419284820557,
0.007274657022207975,
-0.0931876003742218,
-0.15621478855609894,
-0.2230459302663803,
0.4254170060157776,
-0.3968278467655182,
-0.2253589779138565,
-0.17893250286579132,
0.4229050576686859,
-0.5608082413673401,
0.35747992992401123,
-0.18400362133979797,
-0.8373832702636719,
0.23930615186691284,
0.7095780968666077,
-0.401093065738678,
-0.32114356756210327,
0.42319443821907043,
0.16529862582683563,
0.30049702525138855,
-0.5130671858787537,
-0.17293532192707062,
-0.19865307211875916,
0.3141915202140808,
0.7581656575202942,
0.13274767994880676,
0.3231821358203888,
0.11385282129049301,
0.5038062930107117,
-0.5826948285102844,
0.7993820905685425,
0.2348209023475647,
0.16055187582969666,
-0.17793148756027222,
0.06049864739179611,
-0.23047396540641785,
0.0390302836894989,
0.49269726872444153,
0.19345073401927948,
0.5312789678573608,
0.18338154256343842,
-0.23634445667266846,
0.44836148619651794,
0.18845947086811066,
0.47878026962280273,
-0.5148400664329529,
0.03526022285223007,
0.2083914428949356
] |
206195
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAR%20and%20CDR
|
CAR and CDR
|
In computer programming, CAR (car) and CDR (cdr) ( or ) are primitive operations on cons cells (or "non-atomic S-expressions") introduced in the Lisp programming language. A cons cell is composed of two pointers; the car operation extracts the first pointer, and the cdr operation extracts the second.
Thus, the expression (car (cons x y)) evaluates to x, and (cdr (cons x y)) evaluates to y.
When cons cells are used to implement singly linked lists (rather than trees and other more complicated structures), the car operation returns the first element of the list, while cdr returns the rest of the list. For this reason, the operations are sometimes given the names first and rest or head and tail.
Etymology
Lisp was originally implemented on the IBM 704 computer, in the late 1950s.
The popular explanation that CAR and CDR stand for "Contents of the Address Register" and "Contents of the Decrement Register" does not quite match the IBM 704 architecture; the IBM 704 does not have a programmer-accessible address register and the three address modification registers are called "index registers" by IBM.
The 704 and its successors have a 36-bit word length and a 15-bit address space. These computers had two instruction formats, one of which, the Type A, had a short, 3-bit, operation code prefix and two 15-bit fields separated by a 3-bit tag. The first 15-bit field was the operand address and the second held a decrement or count. The tag specified one of three index registers. Indexing was a subtractive process on the 704, hence the value to be loaded into an index register was called a "decrement". The 704 hardware had special instructions for accessing the address and decrement fields in a word. As a result it was efficient to use those two fields to store within a single word the two pointers needed for a list.
Thus, "CAR" is "Contents of the Address part of the Register". The term "register" in this context refers to "memory location".
Precursors to Lisp included functions:
car ("contents of the address part of register number"),
cdr ("contents of the decrement part of register number"),
cpr ("contents of the prefix part of register number"), and
ctr ("contents of the tag part of register number"),
each of which took a machine address as an argument, loaded the corresponding word from memory, and extracted the appropriate bits.
704 macros
The 704 assembler macro for car was:
LXD JLOC 4 # C( Decrement of JLOC ) → C( C ) # Loads the Decrement of location JLOC into Index Register C
CLA 0,4 # C( 0 - C( C ) ) → C( AC ) # The AC register receives the start address of the list
PAX 0,4 # C( Address of AC ) → C( C ) # Loads the Address of AC into Index Register C
PXD 0,4 # C( C ) → C( Decrement of AC ) # Clears AC and loads Index Register C into the Decrement of AC
The 704 assembler macro for cdr was:
LXD JLOC 4 # C( Decrement of JLOC ) → C( C ) # Loads the Decrement of location JLOC into Index Register C
CLA 0,4 # C( 0 - C( C ) ) → C( AC ) # The AC register receives the start address of the list
PDX 0,4 # C( Decrement of AC ) → C( C ) # Loads the Decrement of AC into Index Register C
PXD 0,4 # C( C ) → C( Decrement of AC ) # Clears AC and loads Index Register C into the Decrement of AC
A machine word could be reassembled by cons, which took four arguments (a,d,p,t).
The prefix and tag parts were dropped in the early stages of Lisp's design, leaving CAR, CDR, and a two-argument CONS.
Compositions
Compositions of car and cdr can be given short and more or less pronounceable names of the same form. In Lisp, (cadr '(1 2 3)) is the equivalent of (car (cdr '(1 2 3))); its value is 2. Similarly, (caar '((1 2) (3 4))) is the same as (car (car '((1 2) (3 4)))); its value is 1. Most Lisps, for example Common Lisp and Scheme, systematically define all variations of two to four compositions of car and cdr.
Other computer languages
Many languages (particularly functional languages and languages influenced by the functional paradigm) use a singly linked list as a basic data structure, and provide primitives or functions similar to car and cdr. These are named variously first and rest, head and tail, etc. In Lisp, however, the cons cell is not used only to build linked lists but also to build pair and nested pair structures, i.e. the cdr of a cons cell need not be a list. In this case, most other languages provide different primitives as they typically distinguish pair structures from list structures either typefully or semantically. Particularly in typed languages, lists, pairs, and trees will all have different accessor functions with different type signatures: in Haskell, for example, car and cdr become fst and snd when dealing with a pair type. Exact analogues of car and cdr are thus rare in other languages. Clojure uses first instead of car and next or rest instead of cdr.
References
Notes
Lisp (programming language)
|
[
0.09072665870189667,
0.47094595432281494,
-0.40025484561920166,
0.11363383382558823,
0.05037230998277664,
0.03795459121465683,
-0.62529057264328,
-0.24787403643131256,
0.09600081294775009,
0.2017529457807541,
-0.45664700865745544,
0.6744788289070129,
-0.43784865736961365,
0.12046892195940018,
-0.14613251388072968,
0.2042282521724701,
0.10478461533784866,
0.12664982676506042,
-0.3003007173538208,
-0.617496907711029,
0.20731434226036072,
0.07254394888877869,
-0.6353871822357178,
-0.5093159675598145,
0.44764572381973267,
0.2906911075115204,
-0.21400853991508484,
-0.6631506681442261,
-0.17527514696121216,
0.361350953578949,
0.3071919083595276,
0.5088178515434265,
0.23272918164730072,
-0.10852884501218796,
0.0983261838555336,
-0.1314576417207718,
-0.2676268219947815,
-0.1947360336780548,
-0.015043137595057487,
-0.34514907002449036,
0.3013005554676056,
-0.6026825904846191,
0.4280270040035248,
0.17146751284599304,
-0.4523318111896515,
0.2169724553823471,
-1.3896758556365967,
0.04080565646290779,
-0.3709182143211365,
0.05176681652665138,
-0.6547936797142029,
0.4865366518497467,
-0.11896826326847076,
0.5720522403717041,
-0.3814091384410858,
0.4247155785560608,
-0.41033023595809937,
-0.2861699163913727,
0.5894356966018677,
-0.6929006576538086,
0.5142256021499634,
0.23518972098827362,
-0.0036561093293130398,
0.37847062945365906,
0.30454957485198975,
0.38478925824165344,
-0.1489201933145523,
0.008640778250992298,
-0.6632956266403198,
-0.5033352971076965,
-0.07432302832603455,
-0.1771007627248764,
-0.2813307046890259,
0.06482403725385666,
0.15185251832008362,
0.09043638408184052,
-0.7642834186553955,
-0.2151552438735962,
-0.08179543167352676,
0.1760050356388092,
-0.4729354679584503,
0.6257510185241699,
0.6444184184074402,
-0.14875267446041107,
0.9275487065315247,
-0.11308076977729797,
-0.642137348651886,
0.23948249220848083,
-0.6634748578071594,
0.532997727394104,
0.04458732530474663,
0.20383122563362122,
-0.018917175009846687,
0.02961011417210102,
-0.29246076941490173,
0.11365648359060287,
0.2620134949684143,
-0.29760682582855225,
0.1876305490732193,
0.3534564673900604,
-0.5595212578773499,
0.08428411930799484,
0.3291286528110504,
-0.05710107088088989,
-0.5813354253768921,
-0.028484519571065903,
-0.6046761274337769,
-0.4170083999633789,
0.47837191820144653,
0.1910777986049652,
-0.43934836983680725,
0.12425527721643448,
0.1255928874015808,
0.3952717185020447,
-0.6872116923332214,
-0.6086776256561279,
-0.36089640855789185,
0.03370507061481476,
-0.12562452256679535,
0.13156190514564514,
0.05059510096907616,
1.2787339687347412,
0.3863656222820282,
0.5131922364234924,
0.20231102406978607,
0.09335910528898239,
0.20116131007671356,
0.9362157583236694,
-0.469434529542923,
-0.13051356375217438,
0.03744010627269745,
1.1737632751464844,
0.4259048104286194,
-0.07189459353685379,
-0.21722917258739471,
-0.030834179371595383,
-0.21255110204219818,
-0.0262997318059206,
0.44446125626564026,
0.5886682868003845,
-0.34382906556129456,
-0.21082720160484314,
0.5153524875640869,
0.30626222491264343,
0.1678973138332367,
-0.21364347636699677,
-0.012792963534593582,
-0.33602988719940186,
-0.20979629456996918,
0.15358756482601166,
0.2880583107471466,
0.10418760776519775,
-0.4942759573459625,
-0.10367678850889206,
-0.07518783956766129,
0.5085726380348206,
0.11939982324838638,
0.22696413099765778,
-0.44637423753738403,
0.12036231905221939,
-0.05537763610482216,
0.13955369591712952,
-0.7588868141174316,
-0.14790968596935272,
0.1203741654753685,
-0.4106142520904541,
0.25538697838783264,
0.43659549951553345,
-0.24868692457675934,
0.10877324640750885,
-0.42325711250305176,
-0.5137251019477844,
0.0494333915412426,
-0.24378594756126404,
-0.5449854731559753,
0.1767987757921219,
0.21601366996765137,
-0.3226344585418701,
0.6230791211128235,
0.45259103178977966,
-0.7208432555198669,
0.45533156394958496,
-0.007990486919879913,
-0.19934092462062836,
0.1789005547761917,
-0.12293113023042679,
0.1427164524793625,
-0.6301236748695374,
-0.15448549389839172,
-0.02702806144952774,
-0.8694254159927368,
-0.1350998878479004,
-0.2610928416252136,
-0.6093010306358337,
1.101222038269043,
0.2553349435329437,
-1.0184441804885864,
0.40254825353622437,
-0.24229787290096283,
0.11115060746669769,
-0.8136153221130371,
-0.003353130305185914,
0.6121598482131958,
-0.0507921427488327,
-0.06001059710979462,
0.3281678557395935,
0.22902481257915497,
0.26885396242141724,
-0.7587170600891113,
0.25437092781066895,
-0.037683624774217606,
0.570065975189209,
0.6628130078315735,
-0.15481051802635193,
0.2555455267429352,
-0.49184152483940125,
-0.43475428223609924,
-0.09705426543951035,
0.20812276005744934,
-0.3648691773414612,
0.5458343625068665,
-0.3165518045425415,
-0.3182966709136963,
0.48726943135261536,
-0.7497729063034058,
0.7439797520637512,
0.7585059404373169,
0.556851327419281,
1.0171613693237305,
-0.5732268691062927,
0.4335859715938568,
-0.31536561250686646,
0.33302852511405945,
-0.33899977803230286,
0.0003789542242884636,
0.5491712093353271,
0.4132826328277588,
0.2053559273481369,
0.042471349239349365,
-0.12102729082107544,
0.09460797905921936,
0.6329876184463501,
-0.2900753915309906,
-0.17676444351673126,
0.21636423468589783,
-0.3442886173725128,
-0.42702752351760864,
-0.10533755272626877,
-0.22899261116981506,
0.34817394614219666,
-0.2690249979496002,
0.2831391990184784,
0.16266465187072754,
-0.5401670336723328,
-0.05887984111905098,
0.07331468909978867,
0.15568871796131134,
0.08910945057868958,
0.10636585205793381,
0.8253205418586731,
-0.6456195712089539,
-0.4177834391593933,
-0.4141511619091034,
-0.40827348828315735,
-0.4952513575553894,
-0.7624674439430237,
-0.6452279090881348,
0.4225348234176636,
0.6218926906585693,
0.5397799015045166,
-0.4418259561061859,
-0.4131333827972412,
-0.42522838711738586,
0.030061865225434303,
-0.6112567186355591,
-0.6730490326881409,
-0.21253784000873566,
0.11546393483877182,
-0.7273738980293274,
-0.2733302712440491,
-0.3526570796966553,
-0.02155877836048603,
0.3531251549720764,
-0.5704808235168457,
-0.07632441073656082,
-0.06930601596832275,
-0.15122275054454803,
-0.7770174741744995,
-0.37015828490257263,
-0.7752541899681091,
-0.17890703678131104,
0.14195489883422852,
-0.23981209099292755,
0.31284090876579285,
0.676923930644989,
0.49061471223831177,
0.2501469552516937,
0.08742839843034744,
-0.12671194970607758,
-0.4681093096733093,
-0.6409755349159241,
-0.15206927061080933,
-0.2513182461261749,
-0.13030841946601868,
0.07567109167575836,
-0.15958574414253235,
-0.48418378829956055,
0.3396832048892975,
-5.779512405395508,
0.37263697385787964,
-0.6839261651039124,
0.03694935888051987,
-0.11620941758155823,
-0.007599357515573502,
0.14274917542934418,
-0.37840259075164795,
-0.30515310168266296,
0.25390109419822693,
-0.4046890437602997,
-0.3776034414768219,
-0.8538285493850708,
0.9144912958145142,
0.680155336856842,
0.28704944252967834,
-0.0654948353767395,
-0.2429923415184021,
-0.06789799779653549,
0.6705672740936279,
-0.026135846972465515,
-0.3016763925552368,
0.048694051802158356,
0.08508718013763428,
0.0369955450296402,
0.39622682332992554,
-0.3672626316547394,
-0.2712760269641876,
-0.10250258445739746,
-0.18557512760162354,
-0.013506080955266953,
-0.020105920732021332,
0.29730838537216187,
-0.5318654179573059,
-0.39236125349998474,
0.11815160512924194,
0.6283875107765198,
-0.00838611088693142,
0.008897347375750542,
-0.39240825176239014,
0.07623767107725143,
0.6337722539901733,
0.4923292398452759,
-0.48279809951782227,
0.12568627297878265,
0.07887973636388779,
-0.3785344064235687,
0.26548823714256287,
-0.5072243809700012,
0.5617855787277222,
-0.48695483803749084,
0.059170980006456375,
0.21565555036067963,
-0.22942309081554413,
0.26159679889678955,
-0.1348925679922104,
-0.12531496584415436,
-0.20307812094688416,
-0.3384481966495514,
0.2325117588043213,
0.35285308957099915,
-0.8313906192779541,
0.1435317099094391,
-0.44733336567878723,
-0.25139614939689636,
0.06056201085448265,
-0.8134846687316895,
-0.3810705840587616,
0.9659013748168945,
0.5155634880065918,
-0.07002805173397064,
-0.27258947491645813,
0.025859441608190536,
-0.8020327091217041,
-0.11171068251132965,
-0.456036776304245,
0.13906565308570862,
-0.08510475605726242,
0.16856592893600464,
0.7729257941246033,
0.040831636637449265,
-0.23150749504566193,
-0.6629669070243835,
-0.020570451393723488,
0.16492857038974762,
-0.0881345123052597,
-0.4636000692844391,
0.4213446378707886,
-0.10840959846973419,
0.1250160038471222,
0.409882515668869,
0.014069884084165096,
0.5441585779190063,
0.26285868883132935,
0.3617965579032898,
-0.007232374045997858,
0.3734849691390991,
0.1938057690858841,
-0.001282825949601829,
-0.013844398781657219,
0.22167447209358215,
0.11668162047863007,
0.2962559163570404,
-0.22027048468589783,
-0.12010236084461212,
0.05285416916012764,
-0.30095934867858887,
0.47569113969802856,
0.16957354545593262,
0.32272598147392273,
-0.34008491039276123,
0.4763442873954773,
0.023612769320607185,
-0.3711680471897125,
0.24906225502490997,
0.7914752960205078,
-0.21438400447368622,
-0.06212230026721954,
0.7532151937484741,
-0.17861813306808472,
0.030010120943188667,
0.12721706926822662,
-0.6828640103340149,
-0.49951133131980896,
-0.6706852316856384,
-0.43058985471725464,
0.20696090161800385,
-0.07860623300075531,
0.38718363642692566,
-0.05898310989141464,
-0.3062867522239685,
0.1908346563577652,
0.23570166528224945,
-0.10748621076345444,
0.1666962057352066,
-0.22243371605873108,
-0.2251606434583664,
0.5844088792800903,
-0.2418435662984848,
-0.8448886871337891,
1.117659568786621,
-0.3639257848262787,
0.49565643072128296,
-0.3490929901599884,
0.07032296061515808,
0.4837096631526947,
-0.15601864457130432,
-0.4171164929866791,
0.3546099364757538,
0.20856040716171265,
0.3125423491001129,
-0.30495285987854004,
0.2420002520084381,
-0.023450061678886414,
-0.35050222277641296,
0.044566139578819275,
0.05174390226602554,
0.1853186935186386,
0.5829375386238098,
-0.5410191416740417,
0.22700399160385132,
0.17483940720558167,
-0.8726342916488647,
-0.778164803981781,
-0.025807183235883713,
0.1022663488984108,
-0.1563441902399063,
-0.469392865896225,
-0.5839497447013855,
0.3007512092590332,
-0.6278688311576843,
-0.22774404287338257,
0.298157274723053,
-0.062496367841959,
0.11986549943685532,
0.009332777000963688,
0.7317466735839844,
-0.07708882540464401,
0.6094346046447754,
-0.009513474069535732,
0.24642005562782288,
-0.03185659646987915,
0.12583838403224945,
0.5125731229782104,
0.7424716353416443,
-0.30509787797927856,
0.03126489371061325,
0.7469078898429871,
-0.2507673501968384,
-0.19335804879665375,
0.3359895944595337,
-0.12288784235715866,
0.6892067790031433,
0.12253107130527496,
-0.41940629482269287,
-0.12778788805007935,
-0.14573347568511963,
0.7554007172584534,
0.21029920876026154,
-0.8913347721099854,
-0.329227477312088,
0.33746853470802307,
-0.11773882806301117,
0.07241924852132797,
0.05436655506491661,
-0.26513272523880005,
0.07911798357963562,
0.04698522388935089,
-0.2874264419078827,
0.47279343008995056,
-0.13306088745594025,
-0.3502447009086609,
-0.01406813319772482,
-0.14416702091693878,
0.007273231167346239,
0.6044283509254456,
0.306091845035553,
-0.15869276225566864,
-0.22471001744270325,
-0.4669038653373718,
0.2275119125843048,
-0.408067524433136,
0.17128857970237732,
0.12143869698047638,
0.005039780866354704,
0.08368448168039322,
-0.033683497458696365,
-0.4735507369041443,
0.3275891840457916,
0.37507620453834534,
-0.11595404893159866,
0.03238002955913544,
0.11505325138568878,
-0.17248865962028503,
-0.16886453330516815,
-0.5963747501373291,
-0.24307291209697723,
0.42470911145210266,
0.06758271902799606,
-0.7106792330741882,
0.5500370264053345,
0.49596107006073,
0.2089640498161316,
-0.3079655170440674,
0.0548221655189991,
0.5651373267173767,
0.041697483509778976,
-0.4964107573032379,
-0.07117046415805817,
0.17609722912311554,
0.07315818220376968,
0.046848367899656296,
-0.6265291571617126,
0.03648325055837631,
0.7288417220115662,
0.9576205015182495,
-0.06916671246290207,
-0.21653012931346893,
-0.30802828073501587,
0.47966691851615906,
-0.07607988268136978,
-0.24481557309627533,
-0.10581157356500626,
0.14774318039417267,
0.018057269975543022,
0.692934513092041,
0.1097848191857338,
-0.19215275347232819,
0.4778025150299072,
-0.045490700751543045,
0.5918872356414795,
0.18500609695911407,
0.5106896758079529,
0.8335408568382263,
0.5183561444282532,
-0.08723896741867065,
-0.07852160930633545,
-0.18562786281108856,
-0.22856134176254272,
-0.1388767510652542,
-0.19341810047626495,
0.16861099004745483,
0.08029139786958694,
-0.04806966707110405,
0.09543948620557785,
0.009040236473083496,
0.19166184961795807,
-0.0143502838909626,
0.14558786153793335,
0.3369612395763397,
-0.5142496228218079,
0.4174997806549072,
0.06465180963277817,
-0.2743491530418396,
-0.14743077754974365,
-0.2820829451084137,
0.31422996520996094,
0.22177498042583466,
-0.33951279520988464,
0.10078971087932587,
-0.6577612161636353,
0.39977648854255676,
0.1896604597568512,
-0.8489013910293579,
0.2630397379398346,
0.19527646899223328,
0.35865309834480286,
0.06120249629020691,
-0.605510413646698,
0.1298251748085022,
0.5216830372810364,
0.03115605190396309,
-0.03582105040550232,
0.14782892167568207,
-0.2667059898376465,
-0.20268955826759338,
0.32935887575149536,
-0.4833917021751404,
0.6382870078086853,
0.2378695160150528,
0.3920981287956238,
-0.06603977084159851,
0.6021041870117188,
-0.5110146403312683,
-0.5959501266479492,
0.4172709882259369,
-0.014669951051473618,
-0.21167775988578796,
-0.29868853092193604,
0.06566198170185089,
0.747624933719635,
0.2021072506904602,
-0.4855329394340515,
0.085566945374012,
-0.45067423582077026,
-0.39967766404151917,
-0.05691928416490555,
-0.007355642504990101,
0.16165514290332794,
0.19616270065307617,
0.187224343419075,
0.9328803420066833,
-0.3056030571460724,
-0.060302652418613434,
-0.16073976457118988,
0.3170056939125061,
0.10123414546251297,
0.1681337058544159,
-0.5635458827018738,
0.6496301889419556,
0.25448569655418396,
-0.0065866014920175076,
0.3191858232021332,
-0.04699460417032242,
-0.03808166831731796,
-0.3249375820159912,
0.12068388611078262,
0.27971506118774414,
0.29966381192207336,
0.44610702991485596,
-0.1749500334262848,
0.9536269903182983,
0.29779449105262756,
-0.289837121963501,
0.25976961851119995,
-0.05226563662290573,
0.5907266736030579,
0.08635679632425308,
0.07232806086540222,
0.10200763493776321,
-0.5778341889381409,
0.27899599075317383,
-0.15010301768779755,
0.5410723686218262,
-0.28138551115989685,
-0.5493919849395752,
0.5418038368225098,
0.6831435561180115,
-0.46260660886764526,
0.1995261013507843,
-0.2421751320362091,
-0.15857896208763123,
-0.3406651020050049,
-0.780681848526001,
0.23728223145008087,
-0.12390778213739395,
0.0933835431933403,
-0.21961037814617157,
-0.019798075780272484,
0.1382768303155899,
0.27818939089775085,
-0.6304918527603149,
0.15712371468544006,
-0.3565567135810852,
0.5600525140762329,
0.422134131193161,
-0.72118079662323,
0.9411271214485168,
0.6729679107666016,
-0.4377363622188568,
-0.0748174637556076,
-0.2871634066104889,
0.16024835407733917,
-0.30783912539482117,
-0.9888840317726135,
0.21684272587299347,
-0.3391997218132019,
0.17659471929073334,
0.05135241523385048,
0.36095666885375977,
0.4815642833709717,
-0.2513042390346527,
-0.05803326517343521,
0.5625463724136353,
-0.4562128484249115,
0.3776186406612396,
0.6811659336090088,
-0.10703956335783005,
0.4827321469783783,
-0.12156379967927933,
-0.30956703424453735,
0.776806652545929,
0.4507713317871094,
0.34526386857032776,
-0.047034770250320435,
0.1530223786830902,
0.46745797991752625,
-0.1853543221950531,
-0.19752287864685059,
0.1440795361995697,
0.38578155636787415,
-0.10489166527986526,
-0.010258716531097889,
0.733428955078125,
-0.19675111770629883,
-0.9521540403366089,
-0.3956640958786011,
-0.01883806847035885,
-0.09515729546546936,
0.016930637881159782,
0.04147731512784958,
0.3809123635292053,
-0.7928311228752136,
-0.09757709503173828,
0.015455224551260471,
0.27231892943382263,
-0.5946093797683716,
-0.7015977501869202,
-0.3396061062812805,
0.10462316870689392,
0.08786313235759735,
-0.34166255593299866,
-0.5055424571037292,
0.16070556640625,
-0.36290764808654785,
0.05299493297934532,
0.17941124737262726,
-0.6621574759483337,
-0.3926944434642792,
-0.17079930007457733
] |
206199
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic%20Adventure
|
Sonic Adventure
|
is a 1998 platform game for Sega's Dreamcast and the first main Sonic the Hedgehog game to feature 3D gameplay. The story follows Sonic the Hedgehog, Miles "Tails" Prower, Knuckles the Echidna, Amy Rose, Big the Cat, and E-102 Gamma in their quests to collect the seven Chaos Emeralds and stop series antagonist Doctor Robotnik from unleashing Chaos, an ancient evil. Controlling one of the six characters—each with their own special abilities—players explore a series of themed levels to progress through the story. Sonic Adventure retains many elements from prior Sonic games, such as power-ups and the ring-based health system. Outside the main game, players can play minigames like racing and interact with Chao, a virtual pet.
Sonic Team began developing Sonic Adventure in 1997, after the cancellation of the Sega Saturn game Sonic X-treme. Led by director Takashi Iizuka and producer Yuji Naka, the team strove to reinvent Sonic for the 3D era of video games. Adventure features a stronger emphasis on storytelling and role-playing elements in contrast to previous Sonic games, while Yuji Uekawa redesigned the series' characters for their transition to 3D. Sonic Team attempted to demonstrate the technical prowess of the Dreamcast with realistic graphics and drew inspiration from locations in Peru and Guatemala. The soundtrack was primarily composed by Jun Senoue, who preferred rock music over the electropop of previous Sonic games.
Following its unveil at the Tokyo International Forum in August 1998, Sonic Adventure was highly anticipated, and it was released in Japan in December 1998 and worldwide in September 1999. It received critical acclaim and became the Dreamcast's bestseller, with 2.5 million copies sold by August 2006. Reviewers considered Adventure a major technical advancement and praised the visuals and gameplay. Though critics noted glitches and camera problems, and reactions to the audio were mixed, critics considered Sonic Adventure an exceptional game; some speculated that it could help re-establish Sega as the dominant console manufacturer after the unsuccessful Saturn.
Journalists have retrospectively ranked Sonic Adventure among the best Sonic games, and it is recognized as an important release in both the series and the platform genre. Many characters and concepts introduced in Adventure recur in later Sonic games. A sequel, Sonic Adventure 2, was released in 2001. Adventure was ported to the GameCube and Windows with altered graphics and more challenges in 2003, while a high-definition version was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2010 and for Windows in 2011. Reviews for these releases were less positive; critics felt the game had not aged well and ran at an inconsistent frame rate.
Gameplay
Sonic Adventure is a 3D platform game with action and role-playing elements. Players control one of six anthropomorphic protagonists as they venture to defeat Doctor Robotnik and his robot army, who seek the seven magical Chaos Emeralds and the evil entity Chaos. Six player characters are unlocked as the game progresses, each with their own story and attributes. Sonic the Hedgehog performs a spin dash, homing attack, and light-speed dash; Miles "Tails" Prower flies, swims, and attacks robots using his tails; Knuckles the Echidna glides, climbs walls, and punches; Amy Rose can defeat enemies using her hammer; Big the Cat is slow and carries a fishing rod he can cast; and E-102 Gamma can shoot laser beams.
At the start of the game, the player is placed in one of several Adventure Fields, open-ended hub worlds inhabited by advice-giving non-player characters. The player character is guided and instructed by the voice of Tikal the Echidna. Through exploration, the player discovers entrances to levels called Action Stages, some of which must be opened using keys hidden in the Adventure Field. Once the player accesses an Action Stage, they are tasked with a specific objective, which is different for each character. Sonic must reach the level's end like in prior Sonic the Hedgehog games; Tails must reach the end before Sonic; Knuckles must find three hidden shards of the Master Emerald; Amy must solve puzzles and avoid being caught by a robot; Big must fish for his pet frog; and Gamma must fight his way through stages using projectiles as a defense.
Some levels include minigames separate from the main story. These feature different styles of gameplay, among them rail shooting, racing, and sandboarding. Some minigames can only be accessed with particular characters. Fulfilling certain objectives allows the player to obtain bonus items. Unlocked minigames and stages the player has completed can be accessed from a Trial Mode on the title screen.
Like previous Sonic the Hedgehog games, players collect golden rings as a form of health: if the player character is in possession of rings when they are hit by an enemy or other hazard, they will survive, but their rings will scatter and blink before disappearing. Canisters containing power-ups such as speed shoes, additional rings, invincibility, and elemental shields are also hidden in levels. In several stages, the player engages Robotnik or Chaos in a boss fight and must deplete the boss's health meter to proceed. Each character starts with a limited number of lives, and the player loses a life if the character drowns, gets crushed, or is hit without any rings in their possession. The game ends when the player runs out of lives. Lives can be replenished by collecting 100 rings or a 1-up.
Players may also discover Chao Gardens, hidden, protective environments inhabited by Chao, a virtual pet. Players can hatch, name, and interact with a Chao, and raise the status of their Chao by giving it small animals found by defeating robots. The Dreamcast's handheld Visual Memory Unit (VMU) allows the player to download the minigame Chao Adventure, in which their Chao walks through a course to evolve and improve its skills. Evolving one's Chao improves its performance in competitions called Chao Races. Eggs that can produce special types of Chao are hidden throughout the Adventure Fields. Players can earn emblems by playing through Action Stages, searching through the Adventure Fields, or winning Chao Races. Each Action Stage has three emblems that can be earned by replaying the stages and fulfilling objectives, such as beating the level within a time limit.
Plot
Doctor Robotnik seeks a new way to defeat his longtime nemesis Sonic and conquer the world. During his research, he learns about an entity called Chaos—a creature that, thousands of years ago, helped to protect the Chao and the all-powerful Master Emerald, which balances the power of the seven Chaos Emeralds. When a tribe of echidnas sought to steal the power of the Emeralds, breaking the harmony they had with the Chao, Chaos retaliated by using the Emeralds' power to transform into a monstrous beast, Perfect Chaos, and wipe them out. Tikal, a young echidna who befriended Chaos, imprisoned it in the Master Emerald along with herself. Robotnik shatters the Master Emerald to release Chaos and tests the creature's natural form on the city of Station Square.
When Sonic sees local police fail to defeat Chaos, he and Tails work to stop Robotnik from empowering it with the Chaos Emeralds. Knuckles, the only remaining echidna, sets out to find the shards of the Master Emerald and repair it. Robotnik activates a new series of robots, including one named Gamma, and orders them to find Froggy, an amphibian who ate a Chaos Emerald. Froggy's owner, Big, seeks to find him as well. In Station Square, Sonic's friend Amy finds a Flicky being pursued for a Chaos Emerald in its possession, and decides to protect it. When both are captured, Amy convinces Gamma not to work for Robotnik; Gamma helps her to escape before seeking out and destroying the other robots in his series, sacrificing himself in the process.
Although Sonic disrupts Robotnik's plans, Chaos manages to absorb all the Chaos Emeralds and transforms into Perfect Chaos; it rebels against Robotnik and destroys Station Square. Through flashbacks from Tikal (who was also released from the Master Emerald), Sonic realizes that Chaos has been in constant torment and sorrow, and that imprisoning it again will not stop it. He uses the Chaos Emeralds to transform into Super Sonic and defeats Perfect Chaos. Chaos calms down when it sees the Chao living peacefully in Station Square, and Tikal takes it somewhere safe to live in peace. Afterward, Sonic pursues a fleeing Robotnik.
Development
Background
During the early 1990s, Sega was one of the most successful video game companies due to the rise of its Genesis console. Genesis sales were driven by the popularity of Sega's flagship franchise of 2D platform games, Sonic the Hedgehog. During this time, series co-creator Yuji Naka worked with Sega Technical Institute (STI) in the United States to develop Sonic games. After the completion of Sonic & Knuckles in 1994, Naka returned to Japan to work with Sonic Team. STI began developing Sonic X-treme for the Sega Saturn, planned as the first Sonic the Hedgehog game to feature full 3D gameplay. X-treme suffered a series of setbacks and was canceled in 1997. The cancellation is an important factor in the Saturn's commercial failure, leaving it with no original Sonic platform game. Meanwhile, Naka and Sonic Team developed original Saturn games, such as Nights into Dreams.
Naka still wanted to make a 3D Sonic game, and felt that only Sonic Team should do it; for this reason, he refused to let STI use the Nights game engine for X-treme, a factor in that game's cancellation. Due to the lack of Sonic games on the Saturn, according to Retro Gamer, Sonic became part of the "background" by mid-1997, so "it was astonishing to see that, just six years after his debut, Sonic was already retro." Nights into Dreams designer Takashi Iizuka felt that Sonic fans had been let down because Sonic Team was not focusing on the series. Additionally, Kazuyuki Hoshino, who would serve as art director on Sonic Adventure, said he thought during the Saturn era Sonic had become outdated.
Concept
In August 1996, shortly after the completion of Nights into Dreams, Iizuka proposed Sonic Adventure as a role-playing-style Sonic game with a greater emphasis on storytelling. Sonic Team started to work on it in April 1997 on the Saturn with a 20-strong team. Sonic Team created the first prototype using the Nights engine, but the Saturn's limited capabilities made development difficult. Sega president Hayao Nakayama informed Naka of the Saturn's successor, the Dreamcast, and he believed the new console would allow Sonic Team to create the ultimate Sonic game. When the team learned the Dreamcast was nearing completion, they moved development to take advantage of its greater quantity of RAM, stronger CPU, and the VMU. Not wanting to waste their completed work, they placed it as a bonus in the compilation game Sonic Jam, the final Sonic game for the Saturn. Development on the Dreamcast began in July 1997.
Iizuka served as director on Sonic Adventure, while Naka produced. One of the largest video games created at the time, the team had grown to 60 after 10 months. Sonic Team undertook development in conjunction with the Dreamcast, aiming to release the game in December 1998, even if it meant making improvements after release. Developing Sonic Adventure at the same time as the system, which was not completed until two months before the game's release, gave Iizuka influence over the console's development; for example, he was able to request more RAM for the console specifically for Sonic Adventure.
Characters and art
Sonic Team felt challenged by the new hardware to recreate Sonic and his world in a new way. They began development using the character designs from the Genesis games, but quickly discovered the characters' bodies were too short and their heads too big, making them difficult to see. Retro game characters, such as Pac-Man, were also being reborn in a more "urban" fashion around the same time, something that made Sonic Team jealous and feel the original character designs were dated. As such, Yuji Uekawa redesigned each character to suit the transition to 3D and to give them "new, edgy, more Western" design. Looking to the animation of Walt Disney and Looney Tunes for inspiration, he made Sonic more mature, taller and slimmer, and gave him longer quills. He darkened his blue color and gave him green irises in reference to Green Hill Zone. Uekawa tried to make Sonic look like a comic book character and compared the style to graffiti. After redesigning Sonic, he made the other characters fit this new art style. Hoshino noted that the characters' longer limbs made it easier to recreate their 2D poses in 3D.
Sonic Adventure features two new playable characters, Big and Gamma. Sonic Team had already implemented an in-game fishing rod with no context or use, leading to the creation of Big. Big was designed to be giant and relaxed so the player would not expect something more intense. Gamma and his playstyle were created in response to fans who wanted elements of a shoot 'em up in Sonic and because of Iizuka's desire to include "some type of satisfying gameplay that couldn't be done with Sonic". Neither Big nor Gamma were intended to play a large role, thus both of their campaigns were short. Iizuka also wanted to create a villain who would have been impossible to make on older hardware. He settled on something liquid and transparent and created Chaos. Iizuka presented the concept to Naka, who was impressed. Chaos was originally intended to have realistic blue scales in his final form, but this was abandoned because of the technological constraints of the Dreamcast.
While some Sonic games, such as 1993's Sonic CD, contained limited voice work, Sonic Adventure was the first Sonic game to feature extensive voice acting. The decision was made early in development as the game was more story-focused than previous Sonic games. Sonic Team's staff had differing opinions about how Sonic should sound. Iizuka recalled that the only element they agreed on was to avoid using an anime voice actor, favoring a film actor with an "over-the-top" voice. Sonic Team cast Jun'ichi Kanemaru as Sonic. In an interview celebrating his 30th anniversary as a voice actor, Kanemaru said one reason he was cast was because of his ability to speak English. After Sonic Team USA was formed, they hired American actors to translate the Japanese script. The English-language voice cast consists of Ryan Drummond as Sonic, Corey Bringas as Tails, Michael McGaharn as Knuckles, Jennifer Douillard as Amy, Jon St. John as Big and E-102 Gamma, and Deem Bristow as Robotnik. Iizuka used Sonic Adventure to introduce Robotnik's Japanese name, "Dr. Eggman", to western audiences; he accomplished this by having Sonic insult Robotnik when they meet for the first time in-game. Similarly, he avoided referring to Tails as "Miles", which he was commonly called in Japan.
Because Sonic Adventure was a Dreamcast launch game, the team strove to demonstrate the console's capabilities with realistic graphics. To achieve a more realistic feel for the environments, the core members of Sonic Team visited temples, jungles, and ancient ruins in Mesoamerican landscapes, including Cancún, Guatemala, and Peru. While Sonic Team members had to draw artwork by hand for games in the past, for Sonic Adventure they were able to use photographs taken during their visits as textures. The greatest influences were the Tikal ruin in Guatemala and Machu Picchu in Peru. The character Tikal was inspired by Peru and took her name from the Guatemalan ruins. The 3D visuals were created using a Voodoo2 graphics chip.
Design
The levels were designed to feature gameplay similar to the original Genesis games and to take at least five minutes to complete. One of the biggest challenges the Adventure designers faced was transitioning Sonic 2D style to 3D. In the Genesis Sonic games, the player simply had to go right to reach the end of a level, but in Sonic Adventure they could move in every direction. The designers created models for the stages before testing it as the player character, resulting in trial and error. This made Iizuka realize the importance of the game's camera. Some levels, such as the Lost World, were rebuilt dozens of times. Sonic Team split levels into parts to save memory. One particular difficulty was defeating enemies; in the 2D games, enemies were beaten simply by jumping on them, but this was harder to achieve in a 3D game. Therefore, Sonic was given the ability to target enemies in mid-air.
Iizuka said the cinematic sequences were conceived to take advantage of the environments, "giving the player an element of discovery in addition to the platforming". The team also wanted to add elements unexpected in a platform game; for example, the level in which Tails sandboards was inspired by a group of sandboarders in Ica, Peru. Some levels reference past Sega games, such as Ice Cap (1994's Sonic the Hedgehog 3) and the Tornado levels (1995's Panzer Dragoon). When seeing the completed level designs, Iizuka and Naka decided to re-purpose them for other player characters. Iizuka said they felt it would be "a waste if Sonic just quickly ran through the levels that we spent so much time creating". The first characters besides Sonic added to the game were Tails and Knuckles; Tails' stages turned portions of Sonic's levels into races, while Knuckles' treasure-hunting missions were designed as a contrast to the others' straightforward ones. Sonic Adventure was the first time Amy was playable in a Sonic platformer, and Iizuka aimed to use her to add tension, such as hiding from pursuers, that Sonic's gameplay could not offer.
Because Sonic Adventure had a stronger emphasis on storytelling than previous games in the series, the team implemented hub worlds to "draw the players deeper into the world." The hub worlds' emphasis on exploring to find new areas and power-ups was inspired by The Legend of Zelda. When seeing the completed level designs, Iizuka and Naka decided to re-purpose them for other player characters. According to Iizuka, the team tried to include as much content as possible. One addition was the Chao-raising system, which Iizuka conceived to take advantage of the VMU. Sonic Team had used a similar virtual pet system, the "A-Life", in Nights into Dreams; Iizuka used the A-Life as a base, while improving it with the VMU and the option to improve its skills. Iizuka hoped it would be made into a character players could touch and raise. It was also designed to appeal to casual gamers not familiar with games like Sonic, and to add replay value. The design took considerable time to finalize and had to be made as simple as possible because the virtual pet's look changes form as it evolves.
Music
Sonic Adventures score was primarily composed by Jun Senoue, with additional music by Fumie Kumatani, Kenichi Tokoi, and Masaru Setsumaru. Adventure was Senoue's first project as sound director and its scope meant he had many more responsibilities, including schedule management, compared to his previous games. Despite this, Senoue said he did not feel much pressure, as he was a Sonic fan and had contributed to previous games' soundtracks.
In contrast to previous Sonic games, which featured electropop soundtracks, the Adventure sound team preferred "hot, funky, and rock 'n' roll" music. Iizuka noted that Sonic Team's primary goal with Adventure was "to evoke the essence of Sonic by going from 2D to 3D", and felt the music needed to exceed fan expectations due to previous Sonic soundtracks' popularity. He stated a new style was adopted because the Dreamcast's sound was a significant advance from that of the Genesis; Senoue added he felt more comfortable composing rock music and wanted to create music everyone could enjoy. Despite the different styles, Senoue did retain some music from the Genesis Sonic games: the music for the Windy Valley and Twinkle Park levels were rearranged from Sonic 3D Blast (1996), while the level clear jingle was taken from Sonic 3. He chose to reuse his 3D Blast tracks because he felt they were strong enough to be more widely heard, as they were only used the Genesis version (which was not released in Japan).
Senoue composed several songs with English lyrics to highlight the various characters' personalities, and collaborated with Tokoi and Kumatani to polish them. The main theme, "Open Your Heart", was performed by Hardline's Johnny Gioeli; other songs were performed by Gioeli, Marlon Saunders, Dred Foxx, Ted Poley, Nikki Gregoroff, and Tony Harnell. Sonic Adventure marked Senoue's first collaboration with Gioeli; the two later formed the band Crush 40 (originally known as Sons of Angels), and continue to make music together. Iizuka was inspired to use "Open Your Heart" as the final boss music by films, which he noted often use main themes during dramatic events. Iizuka also felt that the songs helped define Knuckles and Amy's personalities, as they had not received much character development in Sonic games until Adventure.
A two-disc soundtrack, Sonic Adventure "Digi-LOG Conversation" Original Sound Track, was released in Japan in January 1999. In May 2011, the soundtrack was rereleased to commemorate the Sonic franchise's 20th anniversary. A two-volume digital soundtrack was also released on iTunes and Spotify in September 2014 and January 2017, respectively. Brave Wave Productions released a vinyl LP version of the soundtrack including interviews with Senoue and Iizuka in 2018.
Release
Sonic Adventure was kept a secret during production, though screenshots were leaked in mid-1998 and plans for a 3D Sonic game had long been rumored. It was unveiled by Naka and the rest of Sonic Team on August 22, 1998, at the Tokyo International Forum. The team showed off several dynamic elements, such as a chase sequence from the first level and Tails' sandboarding sequence. Naka described the debut as intense, having "[given his] all" to make it fit for release.
On December 23, 1998, Sonic Adventure was released in Japan. The Japanese version shipped with many glitches; according to Iizuka, this was because the game was produced on a tight schedule, so Sonic Team did not have time to fix them. Several members of Sonic Team flew to Sega of America to establish Sonic Team USA and patch and translate the game. Iizuka felt that the Dreamcast was going to launch in several months and the game needed to be localized. The localized version was released in North America on September 9, 1999 as a launch title, and in Europe on September 23, 1999. It includes Japanese and English-language audio tracks, as well as Japanese, English, Spanish, French and German subtitles. Online features—including Chao daycare and downloadable content (DLC) such as minigames and new level assets—were also added. The localized version was later released in Japan as Sonic Adventure International.
Prior to the launch of the Dreamcast in the United States, Sega made an exclusive deal with Hollywood Video to allow customers to rent the Dreamcast console along with a non-retail version of the game, Sonic Adventure: Limited Edition. The promotion began on July 15, 1999 and took place at 1,055 Hollywood Video stores across the country. Additionally, the American release of Studio Pierrot's Sonic the Hedgehog (1996) original video animation coincided with the Western release of Sonic Adventure, while DIC Entertainment's Sonic Underground (1999–2000) was commissioned to help promote the game.
Upon its North American launch, there were complaints of a number of Sonic Adventure discs refusing to load. Sega America explained that this was a software problem due to errors at one manufacturing facility and that they were able to track the faulty software, adding that most copies of the game were unaffected and that customers could trade defective copies for working ones at retailers.
Reception
As the first fully 3D Sonic platform game, Sonic Adventure was highly anticipated. It received critical acclaim, and Computer and Video Games (CVG) called it one of the greatest video games of all time. In Europe, Sonic Adventure sold 86,000 copies during its first five days on sale. It is the bestselling Dreamcast game; by August 4, 2006, it had sold 2.5 million copies, including 440,000 in Japan and 1.27 million in the US.
The visuals and presentation attracted wide acclaim. Arcade magazine described it as a "quantum leap forward" in aesthetics and visual detail in video games, and Hyper estimated they even exceeded what was possible on high-end personal computers. IGN called it the most graphically impressive platform game released up to that date, praising its cinematic sequences and describing it as "engrossing, demanding, and utterly awe-inspiring". GameSpot agreed and said only Soulcaliburs graphical quality surpassed that of Sonic Adventure. Edge felt the graphical features showed off the Dreamcast's potential to the fullest and that the game was "perfect" as a showcase for the system.
The audio received mixed responses. GameSpot and Game Revolution called the full-motion video (FMV) cutscenes and voice acting well-produced and fitting, though GameSpot noted poor lip-synching. IGN thought the cutscenes were repetitive and voiced strong disapproval of the voice acting, declaring it "a complete joke" and "downright awful". IGN had a particular distaste for Tails' voice, and retrospectively called it among the most annoying to feature in a video game. AllGame was conflicted; they appreciated Tails' portrayal but found Sonic's and Knuckles' voices unfitting. GameSpot and AllGame praised the rock-style music, but Game Revolution described the score as "absolutely horrible".
The gameplay was generally praised. GameSpot admired the straightforward, linear approach to the 3D platform genre and particularly praised it for keeping the basic gameplay of the original Genesis games. IGN said the game would keep players busy even after completion, noting its internet connectivity and other extras. On the other hand, Game Revolution said apart from being quicker, it did not advance the platform genre's design. Retrospectively, 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die called its environments vast and twisted, stating it "brilliantly" captured traditional Sonic elements. The Chao minigame was noted as a major departure from the gameplay of the series. GameSpot wrote that "while really just a diversion", the Chao were an interesting, fun addition, singling out their internet functions as a highlight. AllGame said the Chao helped increase the replay value, although it was "strange", required patience, and did not provide bonuses in the main game. Game Revolution called the Chao "a neat addition" and praised its use of the VMU.
Some critics compared Sonic Adventure to Super Mario 64—Nintendo's "groundbreaking" 1996 game that propelled the Nintendo 64 and the 3D platform genre. Edge said Sonic Adventure was a worthy rival to Super Mario 64, but AllGame wrote that Sonic Adventure was not as ambitious and that those looking for exploration would be disappointed with its linear gameplay. They compared it to the similarly linear Crash Bandicoot but felt Sonic Adventure was more confined. Still, they praised the gameplay as varied and said its replay value was strong. Game journalists Rusel DeMaria and Johnny L. Wilson retrospectively wrote Sonic Adventure was not as strong as Super Mario 64 and "failed to catch on with players in nearly the way that [Mario] had done", though it had fascinating features, such as "the use of the Tamagotchi-like memory card to incubate eggs for little pet creatures" and "some good action segments".
The camera system and glitches were criticized by many reviewers. IGN called the camera "incredibly" frustrating and inconsistent, and GameSpot noted it caused problems with collision detection. Edge complained the camera sometimes goes behind walls. Authors from GamesRadar retrospectively wrote that Sonic Adventure was "horrendously buggy", singling out falling through floors and getting stuck, but also said the sheer amount of content made up for this.
GameSpot thought Sonic Adventure redefined the possibilities of the platform genre, and according to CVG, "many things you thought were impossible to see and experience in computer games are now here". According to Next Generation, "Expert gamers may beat the game in only a day or two but, even then, the ride is worth the price of admission." AllGame wrote that the game was an impressive showing of the Dreamcast's potential and that it was among the best of the series. Edge said its criticisms such as scenery pop-up and instances of poor collision detection are "minor flaws in an otherwise very fine piece of work". Arcade and CVG speculated the game could save the Dreamcast, which had not sold well by the end of 1998. CVG also thought it could re-establish Sega as the dominant console manufacturer after the relatively unsuccessful Saturn.
Sonic Adventure won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award in the "Favorite Sega Dreamcast Game" category, and it was a runner-up for GameSpots annual "Best Console Platform Game" award, which went to Rayman 2: The Great Escape.
Rereleases
Sonic Adventure DX: Director's Cut
In 2001, Sega announced it would transition from a first-party to a third-party software publisher, in response to the international failures of the Saturn and Dreamcast. Wanting to reach new players by creating an enhanced version of one of its older games, in June 2003 Sega released Sonic Adventure DX: Director's Cut, a port of Sonic Adventure for the GameCube and Windows. While mostly identical to the original release, Sonic Adventure DX features updated graphics, including higher-resolution textures and more detailed character models, aims for a frame rate of 60 instead of 30, and sports a redesigned Chao-raising system that uses connectivity with the Game Boy Advance (GBA). It includes 60 new missions and the option to unlock all 12 Sonic games released for the Game Gear. Additionally, Metal Sonic can be unlocked as a playable character if all 130 emblems are collected. These features were added to appeal to players of the original game.
Sonic Adventure DX received mixed reviews. GameSpot was disappointed the rerelease did not address the problems of the original version, irritated the graphics were only marginally different, and dissatisfied with its collision detection. GameSpot offered some praise for the extra features, such as the missions, but concluded players were better off playing the Dreamcast version. IGN agreed, calling it "a sloppy port of a game that has long been undeserving of its high praise." IGN noted its frequent frame rate drops and described its camera one of the worst in a video game. IGN said the connectivity to the GBA Sonic games added depth but concluded this was not enough to compensate for the port's problems. Nintendo World Report was more positive, praising the Game Gear games for retaining their multiplayer support and finding Sonic and Tails’ gameplay enjoyable.
HD version
In September 2010, Sega rereleased Sonic Adventure as a downloadable game for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, followed by a Windows release in March 2011 via Steam. This version is based on Sonic Adventure DX and supports high-definition visuals at a 4:3 aspect ratio. Sonic Adventure DX's additional content was removed, but the mission mode and Metal Sonic can be reimplemented by purchasing additional DLC. The game was also included in the Dreamcast Collection compilation in 2011, and is backwards-compatible with the Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S.
Reviews of the 2010 rerelease were generally unfavorable, with criticism directed at the perceived lack of effort put into the port. IGN called it "so fundamentally flawed that it borders on unplayable", observing that the sections that worked best required the least input from the player. IGN criticized the lack of widescreen support but offered minor praise for its steady frame rate. 1UP.com lambasted the port for what they called its slapdash quality, criticizing its display, controls, and dated design, and saying it "feels like it wasn't even tuned for the Xbox 360 controller and its analog sticks". Destructoid was less harsh, writing that fans of the franchise would be able to enjoy the game but warned casual players that "all you'll find is a relic that was once considered greatness".
Legacy
With most contemporary 3D platform games focusing on exploration and collecting items, Sonic Adventure stood out with its linear gameplay. According to GamesRadar, as one of the first sixth-generation console games, it changed the industry "forever". Joystiq wrote that both Adventure and the original Sonic the Hedgehog had innovated—in 3D and 2D games, respectively—through effective linear level design and by feeling "good to play". In 2009, GamePro listed Sonic Adventure as the seventh-best platform game of all time, saying it had not aged well in certain aspects but its core gameplay remained among the best of the Sonic series. Several journalists ranked the game among the series' best, but Kotaku argued the addition of voice acting and greater focus on plot changed Sonic into "a flat, lifeless husk of a character, who spits out slogans and generally has only one personality mode, the radical attitude dude, the sad recycled image of vague '90s cultural concept".
Many of Sonic Adventures designs and concepts were reused in later Sonic games. The direction, basic gameplay, and Uekawa's modernized character designs became series staples. The first level in the 2006 Sonic the Hedgehog reboot heavily references Sonic Adventures Emerald Coast stage. To celebrate the Sonic series' 20th anniversary in 2011, Sega released Sonic Generations, which reused aspects from past games in the franchise. The Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Windows versions contain reimagined versions of the Speed Highway level and the Perfect Chaos boss fight, and the Nintendo 3DS version contains a remake of Emerald Coast.
Several characters that first appeared in Sonic Adventure appeared in later games. As well as appearing in Sonic Generations, Chaos is an antagonist in the 2017 entry Sonic Forces; it and Gamma are playable characters in the 2004 fighting game Sonic Battle; and a recreation of its boss fight appears in Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games. The Chao creatures also feature predominantly in later games. One of the characters introduced in Adventure, Big the Cat, became infamous for his negative reception. Game Informer considered his gameplay painful and boring, while Destructoid decried his portrayal as a "mentally handicapped imbecile" and his voice actor's incoherent performance. Big is widely considered by video game journalists the worst character in the Sonic franchise, and was named one of the worst game characters in a poll conducted by 1UP.com.
On October 4, 1999, Sega announced that a sequel to Sonic Adventure was in development. Sonic Adventure 2 made its debut at E3 2000 and was released in June 2001. The sequel was designed to be more action-oriented than the slower-paced, story-centric Adventure and to give all the characters equal playtime. Like its predecessor, Sonic Adventure 2 received positive reviews. A concept for Sonic Adventure 3 was reworked into the 2008 game Sonic Unleashed. In 2017, Iizuka stated there were no plans for a third Sonic Adventure game, saying it would not advance the series' design. He did not rule out the idea, saying "If we can get the gameplay to evolve and get to a place where Adventure 3 makes sense, then you might see an Adventure 3 come out". In December 2018, Iizuka expressed interest in remaking Sonic Adventure.
The plot of Sonic Adventure was adapted in the second season of the 2003 Sonic the Hedgehog anime series Sonic X. American licensing corporation 4Kids Entertainment hired a new voice cast for the English-language dub but the Japanese cast from the games reprised their roles in the original version of the show. Archie Comics also adapted the game in its Sonic the Hedgehog comic book series. The comic offered an explanation for the altered character designs and established that Station Square was hidden beneath Sonic's planet, Mobius.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Sonic Adventure DX at Sega's official website (archive)
1998 video games
3D platform games
Cancelled Sega Saturn games
Dreamcast games
GameCube games
Interactive Achievement Award winners
Now Production games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation Network games
Sega Studio USA games
Sega video games
Single-player video games
Sonic Team games
Sonic the Hedgehog video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games developed in the United States
Video games produced by Yuji Naka
Video games set in amusement parks
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games scored by Jun Senoue
Video games scored by Fumie Kumatani
Video games with alternative versions
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
Video games scored by Kenichi Tokoi
Video games scored by Masaru Setsumaru
|
[
-0.4978559613227844,
-0.07971672713756561,
0.0393875427544117,
0.30515745282173157,
-0.14115504920482635,
-0.4096206724643707,
-0.16893324255943298,
-0.16872157156467438,
-0.03029751218855381,
0.2737477421760559,
-0.1713542938232422,
0.5078600645065308,
-0.2638097405433655,
-0.18581002950668335,
0.05794171988964081,
-0.18733850121498108,
0.2217840701341629,
-0.1647356152534485,
-0.7539551854133606,
-0.6100270748138428,
-0.32676979899406433,
-0.4224866032600403,
0.5538352727890015,
0.19371606409549713,
0.10083696991205215,
0.2719649076461792,
0.43079686164855957,
0.9426895976066589,
-0.14724251627922058,
0.019178710877895355,
0.03810286521911621,
0.1475033313035965,
0.4312627613544464,
-0.2517712116241455,
-0.19759996235370636,
0.35721534490585327,
-0.4110914468765259,
-0.10536595433950424,
-0.4984685182571411,
-0.5627303123474121,
1.0392712354660034,
0.5074961185455322,
-0.03133988752961159,
0.4048312306404114,
0.49567824602127075,
-0.3493378758430481,
-1.7602863311767578,
0.19082099199295044,
-0.7597363591194153,
-0.14626578986644745,
-0.41523513197898865,
0.6010290384292603,
-0.05079980194568634,
0.31291186809539795,
0.06309824436903,
0.8597863912582397,
-0.32528984546661377,
-0.026878613978624344,
-0.3093731999397278,
-0.08169165253639221,
0.3572852611541748,
-0.2955280840396881,
0.05943930149078369,
-0.1450047791004181,
-0.06593766808509827,
0.15127350389957428,
-0.10811172425746918,
0.29696425795555115,
0.4080628454685211,
-0.6028214693069458,
0.41807714104652405,
-0.23204432427883148,
-0.21563361585140228,
0.45642203092575073,
-0.17834383249282837,
-0.1147289052605629,
0.7113409638404846,
0.11504727602005005,
-0.17250195145606995,
0.3347327709197998,
-0.17855903506278992,
-0.27406156063079834,
0.9722096920013428,
0.29999667406082153,
-0.03156820312142372,
-0.6177582144737244,
-0.04079344496130943,
0.0071806274354457855,
-0.6134875416755676,
0.5138242244720459,
-0.3100586533546448,
-1.057116985321045,
0.41855183243751526,
0.16275885701179504,
0.2276993989944458,
0.035386331379413605,
-0.39797744154930115,
0.6037523746490479,
0.4982735216617584,
0.03301503509283066,
-0.1363724023103714,
0.5806464552879333,
-0.037255726754665375,
-0.15538592636585236,
-0.5364305377006531,
0.010225576348602772,
0.2199711799621582,
-1.0284591913223267,
-0.5898388624191284,
0.28790536522865295,
-0.5604110360145569,
-0.07260090112686157,
0.14029306173324585,
-0.16333213448524475,
0.38806286454200745,
0.2375677078962326,
0.010443810373544693,
0.179331973195076,
-0.2360004484653473,
0.24753877520561218,
0.17905226349830627,
-0.09654621034860611,
-0.07439824193716049,
0.26073116064071655,
0.5005744099617004,
0.36673563718795776,
0.2882160544395447,
0.3455750346183777,
-0.4980888068675995,
-0.05737385153770447,
0.29095810651779175,
0.542118489742279,
-0.07426659017801285,
-0.14405344426631927,
0.04889431968331337,
-0.2148681879043579,
0.3897784948348999,
-0.06581074744462967,
-0.42719411849975586,
-0.2451511174440384,
-0.7477135062217712,
0.2838638722896576,
-0.10493060201406479,
-0.4256756603717804,
-0.4559214115142822,
-0.15819595754146576,
-0.05936890468001366,
-0.8436121940612793,
-0.4596790075302124,
-0.3718351423740387,
-0.11406669020652771,
0.07003585249185562,
-0.6557697057723999,
-0.6362946629524231,
-0.09448596090078354,
0.698492169380188,
0.021727140992879868,
-0.2381247580051422,
-0.12789186835289001,
-0.252149373292923,
-0.21560890972614288,
-0.29986655712127686,
-0.6489503383636475,
0.11227976530790329,
0.005521502811461687,
-0.3245934844017029,
0.6828289031982422,
-0.028177281841635704,
0.4387224018573761,
-0.13709862530231476,
-0.296419233083725,
0.1068306639790535,
0.15614791214466095,
0.2970420718193054,
-0.02607286535203457,
-0.23513230681419373,
1.056267261505127,
0.922813892364502,
0.0509011335670948,
-0.4492329955101013,
-0.6244333982467651,
-0.5363371968269348,
-0.14739076793193817,
0.05243270471692085,
0.5069776773452759,
0.21279434859752655,
0.3015120327472687,
-0.05617962032556534,
-0.10094544291496277,
0.068771131336689,
-0.009294174611568451,
-0.15013034641742706,
0.31384754180908203,
-0.7142759561538696,
1.115026593208313,
0.13408423960208893,
-0.5580615401268005,
-0.2502613663673401,
0.2976180911064148,
0.44060537219047546,
-0.13820002973079681,
-0.02393670380115509,
0.7136050462722778,
-0.12507793307304382,
-0.31476449966430664,
-0.34929925203323364,
-0.05353492498397827,
0.0877009853720665,
-0.5155385732650757,
0.2026662528514862,
-0.39384061098098755,
0.25422611832618713,
-0.06202901527285576,
0.03117593191564083,
0.13196781277656555,
0.023392537608742714,
-0.811346709728241,
0.4876560866832733,
-0.08248808979988098,
-0.2382507175207138,
0.046968672424554825,
0.009681878611445427,
-0.8640477061271667,
0.3961479067802429,
-0.07421435415744781,
1.2679191827774048,
0.2330089807510376,
0.06349027156829834,
0.6590328812599182,
-0.31819894909858704,
-0.6744118332862854,
0.6583355069160461,
0.1340850293636322,
-0.19768977165222168,
0.24519139528274536,
0.018476739525794983,
0.8231498599052429,
-0.26225796341896057,
0.3661985993385315,
0.13251997530460358,
0.3138009011745453,
0.21349196135997772,
-0.7375078797340393,
0.07474914938211441,
0.7002513408660889,
0.0401151068508625,
-0.17466174066066742,
0.31107455492019653,
-0.4877854883670807,
-0.3209485709667206,
0.5839724540710449,
0.2829663157463074,
0.5452761650085449,
0.2784173786640167,
0.37516725063323975,
-0.2756691873073578,
-0.3095325529575348,
-0.7897295355796814,
0.3586599826812744,
-0.030965816229581833,
0.2810313105583191,
0.10470756143331528,
-0.15733037889003754,
0.3222174346446991,
0.10419180989265442,
-0.9175578951835632,
-0.2570069134235382,
-0.1107989102602005,
0.3340301513671875,
0.5462884902954102,
-0.25866183638572693,
0.30547940731048584,
-0.15655045211315155,
0.22476917505264282,
-0.1258884221315384,
-0.3598487973213196,
-0.2599988877773285,
-0.20626431703567505,
0.1956067830324173,
-0.7123594284057617,
0.2592155337333679,
0.6925528645515442,
0.2728951871395111,
0.28463590145111084,
-0.6465357542037964,
0.6361867189407349,
0.018689477816224098,
-0.6648309230804443,
-0.13745911419391632,
-0.19498540461063385,
-0.11343201994895935,
-0.0005084752338007092,
-0.33523881435394287,
0.34007886052131653,
0.06554926186800003,
0.8112664222717285,
-0.5656256675720215,
0.010620652697980404,
0.4868977963924408,
-0.09728631377220154,
0.2386787086725235,
-0.08252471685409546,
-0.5811534523963928,
-0.3115391731262207,
0.011604130268096924,
-0.1595466285943985,
-0.46435222029685974,
-0.3325948417186737,
-5.79731559753418,
0.09101738780736923,
-0.6464084386825562,
0.09865878522396088,
-0.5289201140403748,
0.30107447504997253,
-0.13147184252738953,
-0.12633992731571198,
0.1916983723640442,
-0.2565835118293762,
-0.5618324875831604,
-0.35262852907180786,
0.14755401015281677,
0.13167625665664673,
0.10170991718769073,
-0.35487106442451477,
0.3479378819465637,
-0.08409121632575989,
-0.28323471546173096,
-0.34789857268333435,
0.49911266565322876,
-0.3701915442943573,
-0.18497584760189056,
0.47866371273994446,
0.5096707940101624,
0.5170902609825134,
-0.14506112039089203,
-0.15494893491268158,
-0.08597559481859207,
0.06983843445777893,
0.18164727091789246,
-0.39477166533470154,
-0.012085453607141972,
0.45339372754096985,
0.10883914679288864,
0.20485520362854004,
0.4164597690105438,
0.09665023535490036,
1.0940545797348022,
-0.16827991604804993,
-0.10476332902908325,
0.20361794531345367,
0.029437124729156494,
0.10402557998895645,
0.6944149732589722,
-0.8527191877365112,
-0.06828133016824722,
0.26872518658638,
0.18517206609249115,
0.6351631283760071,
0.3309710621833801,
-0.06035151332616806,
-0.03004039078950882,
0.08992677181959152,
0.07179910689592361,
-0.18920248746871948,
-0.25149187445640564,
-0.27975425124168396,
-0.3010757863521576,
0.343513160943985,
0.31050625443458557,
-0.5813464522361755,
-0.37604427337646484,
-0.5029816031455994,
-0.19063514471054077,
-0.0036167434882372618,
-0.06338689476251602,
-0.29744818806648254,
-0.08747965097427368,
0.5947242379188538,
-0.2956951856613159,
0.4783555567264557,
0.14055389165878296,
-0.8216045498847961,
0.32514673471450806,
0.6206256151199341,
-0.21228623390197754,
0.14198102056980133,
-0.1411058008670807,
-0.055642805993556976,
-0.0414917953312397,
-0.6055822372436523,
0.09333007782697678,
0.12487336248159409,
-0.7395491003990173,
-0.22538405656814575,
-0.2569245994091034,
-0.29614168405532837,
-0.0389188714325428,
0.6997008919715881,
1.1284866333007812,
-0.5875864028930664,
0.09131049364805222,
0.265555202960968,
0.3482015132904053,
0.35728904604911804,
0.4711582064628601,
-0.08477897942066193,
0.8254449963569641,
-0.04528549686074257,
0.044137608259916306,
0.07605572044849396,
0.06748530268669128,
-0.007532269228249788,
-0.41031110286712646,
-0.5071860551834106,
0.24853546917438507,
0.12443675845861435,
0.7499651312828064,
0.0005106893950141966,
0.019494352862238884,
-0.17827177047729492,
-0.6784340143203735,
0.458492249250412,
0.5620560646057129,
-0.2899721562862396,
-0.22541247308254242,
0.24803660809993744,
0.7021238803863525,
-0.008520574308931828,
-0.06679414212703705,
-0.0133254025131464,
-0.22861802577972412,
-0.15783721208572388,
-0.1921701431274414,
0.7924703359603882,
0.33376646041870117,
0.17832902073860168,
0.18487843871116638,
-0.22034025192260742,
-0.20524708926677704,
0.09335555881261826,
-0.021678028628230095,
-0.21203739941120148,
0.14599823951721191,
-0.7280904650688171,
-0.816902220249176,
-0.21597735583782196,
-0.19899217784404755,
-0.2816055417060852,
0.05636102333664894,
-0.1012086421251297,
0.8046612739562988,
-0.08069783449172974,
0.09147720038890839,
-0.45451703667640686,
-0.12445047497749329,
-0.6582246422767639,
0.3715178966522217,
-0.04188274219632149,
-0.17917123436927795,
-0.48365509510040283,
0.7864067554473877,
-0.08124466240406036,
-0.6574566960334778,
-0.002249552635475993,
-0.3182145357131958,
-0.21269729733467102,
-0.16321048140525818,
-0.5521835684776306,
0.9053352475166321,
-0.5602484345436096,
-0.769328236579895,
0.39698266983032227,
0.017634451389312744,
0.8601316809654236,
-0.03996110334992409,
-0.5360281467437744,
-0.4361463785171509,
-0.12408462166786194,
0.662246823310852,
0.18407513201236725,
-0.38120922446250916,
-0.2439335137605667,
0.29350602626800537,
-0.1300753802061081,
-0.3286675214767456,
-0.40653786063194275,
0.34522250294685364,
-0.2634986937046051,
-0.031462207436561584,
-0.4298690855503082,
0.15406985580921173,
0.39832803606987,
0.2548089325428009,
-0.5821922421455383,
-0.26573118567466736,
0.20313206315040588,
-0.11222008615732193,
0.31055495142936707,
-0.08694210648536682,
0.6269324421882629,
0.44775980710983276,
0.23903079330921173,
-0.4643397331237793,
-0.24288353323936462,
0.15469619631767273,
0.2641324996948242,
-0.4348496198654175,
-0.48844635486602783,
-0.46254798769950867,
-0.08164657652378082,
0.20403265953063965,
-0.21561896800994873,
0.7584433555603027,
-0.2621837854385376,
-0.009210491552948952,
-0.2040254771709442,
-0.023073578253388405,
0.12163585424423218,
-0.49389031529426575,
-0.3716171681880951,
0.25688692927360535,
-0.4685560166835785,
0.05443497374653816,
0.3331586718559265,
-0.06287118047475815,
-0.17138144373893738,
-0.5050576329231262,
0.14743287861347198,
-0.23637889325618744,
0.07619594037532806,
-0.37793025374412537,
-0.345621258020401,
-0.9120219945907593,
-0.026981471106410027,
0.336436927318573,
-0.4646809995174408,
-0.4579629600048065,
0.10979653149843216,
-0.3534950315952301,
0.22410830855369568,
-0.2642229497432709,
0.28917574882507324,
0.1435050517320633,
-0.03748359531164169,
0.16904279589653015,
0.49600329995155334,
0.3381976783275604,
0.18022768199443817,
0.3962029814720154,
0.3329882323741913,
0.39103326201438904,
0.3920418620109558,
0.1480482518672943,
0.8543993830680847,
-0.061370860785245895,
-0.5187789797782898,
-0.7638200521469116,
0.11604660749435425,
0.11296770721673965,
-0.07805079966783524,
-0.3734782636165619,
0.04082518443465233,
0.7060556411743164,
-1.0096803903579712,
-0.3373447060585022,
0.08605679124593735,
-0.2684868574142456,
-0.1358308345079422,
0.047299325466156006,
0.44014716148376465,
-0.7154040336608887,
-0.2334880828857422,
0.6368192434310913,
0.26897138357162476,
-0.12471342831850052,
-0.42470574378967285,
-0.33827176690101624,
0.014336402527987957,
-0.12922975420951843,
-0.308369904756546,
0.49473100900650024,
0.5502965450286865,
-0.2606338858604431,
0.11056537181138992,
-0.20787347853183746,
-0.030217166990041733,
-0.03384644538164139,
-0.05569665506482124,
-0.38888266682624817,
0.48244670033454895,
0.1017809808254242,
-0.602842390537262,
-0.4590057134628296,
-0.4937858283519745,
-0.08022254705429077,
-0.06804201006889343,
0.4322594702243805,
0.13010922074317932,
-0.12784096598625183,
0.18021170794963837,
-0.14228743314743042,
0.008421740494668484,
-0.04762805998325348,
-0.265394389629364,
0.2725123167037964,
-0.22093459963798523,
-0.6617379784584045,
0.013776354491710663,
0.03998500108718872,
0.6057584881782532,
0.8621851205825806,
-0.8724125027656555,
0.4891369044780731,
0.02809719741344452,
0.23182569444179535,
0.17557494342327118,
-0.2450665533542633,
0.10074149817228317,
0.5639853477478027,
0.05977015569806099,
-0.6261400580406189,
0.7257142066955566,
-0.3895872235298157,
0.5601922273635864,
0.6719778776168823,
-0.28777754306793213,
0.029855379834771156,
0.10027734935283661,
0.08482640236616135,
0.6477333903312683,
0.32551735639572144,
0.16189967095851898,
-0.2805856466293335,
-0.6285039186477661,
0.16531620919704437,
-0.06586483120918274,
0.8801941275596619,
0.611680805683136,
0.3137708008289337,
-0.19707423448562622,
0.07493459433317184,
0.7892568111419678,
-0.15025007724761963,
-0.3096773326396942,
-0.230402410030365,
-0.5849825143814087,
0.06307785212993622,
0.555020809173584,
0.62465500831604,
0.06304074823856354,
-0.3830782175064087,
-0.053774986416101456,
-0.04435094818472862,
0.4283488392829895,
0.6418843865394592,
-0.3348696529865265,
-0.15557998418807983,
0.5963433980941772,
0.2909952402114868,
0.43718385696411133,
0.11063890904188156,
0.2651839554309845,
-0.0935606062412262,
-0.7360919117927551,
-0.28921106457710266,
0.3041379451751709,
0.33386051654815674,
0.3850235044956207,
0.5535274147987366,
0.19678719341754913,
0.10641209781169891,
-0.5078536868095398,
0.291138619184494,
0.35559332370758057,
-0.33364802598953247,
0.22254052758216858,
0.2123936414718628,
0.4388393461704254,
-0.3439895212650299,
0.3907804787158966,
-0.07852937281131744,
-0.20362162590026855,
-0.2562296688556671,
-0.05311781167984009,
0.3453911244869232,
0.13977323472499847,
0.07859554141759872,
0.2659129798412323,
-0.6786202192306519,
0.5996012091636658,
-0.6423075795173645,
-0.10325107723474503,
-0.018772723153233528,
-0.13235336542129517,
0.3557206690311432,
0.11242253333330154,
0.29980143904685974,
-0.5452494621276855,
0.15327808260917664,
-0.9969202280044556,
-0.5965349078178406,
0.039859991520643234,
0.11666066944599152,
-0.5671600699424744,
0.011415647342801094,
0.21846896409988403,
0.23828668892383575,
0.7827528715133667,
0.24222908914089203,
-0.09894657135009766,
0.18419472873210907,
0.20800304412841797,
-0.25788137316703796,
0.14986552298069,
-0.490070641040802,
-0.3212604522705078,
-0.7211777567863464,
0.3894839882850647,
0.3878389596939087,
0.2394675761461258,
-0.25864797830581665,
-0.11878611892461777,
-0.20742376148700714,
-0.505617082118988,
0.42381978034973145,
0.18653389811515808,
0.36481109261512756,
-0.3949388861656189,
-0.3035736680030823,
-0.18916288018226624,
-0.13974633812904358,
0.23025095462799072,
0.11127112805843353,
0.12414036691188812,
0.3061979115009308,
-0.8242491483688354,
-0.3822038471698761,
0.72869473695755,
0.01975421980023384,
-0.25372520089149475,
-0.46560999751091003,
0.4897392690181732,
0.01957722008228302,
-0.6639472246170044,
0.7867662906646729,
-0.475728303194046,
0.524086058139801,
-0.2275148332118988,
0.014497012831270695,
-0.1856892853975296,
0.1481313407421112,
-0.06500133872032166,
-0.6313259601593018,
-0.14731520414352417,
0.3909046947956085,
0.46868860721588135,
-0.5327426195144653,
0.18513894081115723,
0.11458442360162735,
0.1790388971567154,
0.430730402469635,
-0.4180055260658264,
0.2637512683868408,
0.3425651788711548,
0.3722118139266968,
-0.21444205939769745,
0.09386993944644928,
-0.08486699312925339
] |
206201
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot-tube%20ignitor
|
Hot-tube ignitor
|
A hot-tube ignitor was an early device that fit onto the cylinder head of an internal-combustion engine, used to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by means of a flame heating part of the tube red-hot. A hot-tube ignitor consisted of a metal or porcelain tube, closed at one end and attached to the cylinder head at the other and an adjustable burner that could be moved to position its flame at any point along the length of the tube.
Operation
The compression stroke in the cylinder pushed some left over combustion products in the tube, followed by fresh (unburned) fuel/air mixture. When the compression was enough that the fuel reached the red-hot area of the tube, ignition occurred. On early designs, ignition timing was adjusted by adjusting the position of the red-hot spot on the tube—this was accomplished by moving the burner along the length of the tube. Most later styles used a fixed burner and varied tube lengths to change ignition timing.
Disadvantages
Hot-tube ignitors had many problems, most caused by the sudden pressure changes in the tube because of the operation of the engine and the high temperature of the tube. It was extremely difficult to find materials that were both durable enough for these conditions and inexpensive.
Also important was never setting the burner flame where it would heat the tube white hot, which would rapidly damage the tube and could cause it to burst explosively. This mistake was made often.
The tubes used were typically 6 to 12 inches long, which tended to make them impractical for use on anything but large engines (e.g., stationary motors in factories). Tubes rarely lasted longer than a year before needing replacement, especially when the engines were fueled with high sulfur gases like unpurified producer gas or natural gas.
See also
Hot bulb engine
Hot tube engine
References
Ignition systems
|
[
0.04858941212296486,
0.4685014486312866,
-0.23559264838695526,
0.3296636641025543,
-0.4065770208835602,
0.024978794157505035,
-0.18081945180892944,
-0.5097821950912476,
0.4254859983921051,
0.09512977302074432,
-0.12888260185718536,
0.7149096727371216,
-0.16925354301929474,
0.42713025212287903,
-0.05597621947526932,
0.04163878411054611,
0.34640437364578247,
0.4866132140159607,
-0.2753542363643646,
-0.08093806356191635,
-0.19741196930408478,
-0.25970813632011414,
0.417921245098114,
0.21014389395713806,
-0.038396205753088,
0.050619978457689285,
0.10479399561882019,
-0.44725266098976135,
0.02418866753578186,
0.34531888365745544,
0.4401405155658722,
1.0664108991622925,
0.10840920358896255,
-0.5976966023445129,
0.24891342222690582,
0.1620718389749527,
0.005101170856505632,
-0.381707102060318,
0.17008012533187866,
-0.34226441383361816,
-0.26314684748649597,
0.299530953168869,
0.4827153980731964,
0.3408876061439514,
0.17140766978263855,
0.0025044733192771673,
-1.4293524026870728,
-0.11070869863033295,
-0.5315022468566895,
-0.14538322389125824,
-0.15486915409564972,
0.249787837266922,
0.5411476492881775,
1.0192307233810425,
-0.05531761050224304,
0.8707825541496277,
-0.3160238564014435,
0.10940925031900406,
0.20480704307556152,
-0.3479856550693512,
-0.07707862555980682,
-0.11532966047525406,
-0.4735097289085388,
0.5898272395133972,
0.1903192102909088,
-0.012285279110074043,
-0.45225295424461365,
0.3048343360424042,
-0.23403581976890564,
0.23294644057750702,
-0.33163321018218994,
-0.6863279342651367,
-0.1442115306854248,
-0.22475886344909668,
0.19850625097751617,
0.20653881132602692,
-0.39521104097366333,
-0.8071863055229187,
-0.34811240434646606,
0.5408909916877747,
0.013935918919742107,
-0.01952730305492878,
0.3678102195262909,
0.12707644701004028,
0.5428078174591064,
0.20159560441970825,
-0.30533483624458313,
0.46003755927085876,
-0.12204843014478683,
0.5818160772323608,
-0.18576732277870178,
-0.5082677602767944,
0.5403044819831848,
-0.16317109763622284,
-0.29060468077659607,
-0.2908848524093628,
0.4583066403865814,
0.5067520141601562,
0.3169216215610504,
0.018755367025732994,
0.3151867687702179,
-0.02945382334291935,
0.4620274007320404,
-0.2152477353811264,
-0.5837225317955017,
-0.37498146295547485,
-0.5478309392929077,
-0.5098171234130859,
0.1933610439300537,
0.2780565619468689,
-0.1071588322520256,
-0.21966718137264252,
0.2635590434074402,
0.13739235699176788,
-0.445213258266449,
0.08729670196771622,
-0.2602645456790924,
0.007910335436463356,
0.5306690335273743,
0.24620303511619568,
0.39310625195503235,
0.8403940796852112,
-0.06158442795276642,
0.02623898908495903,
-0.3448305130004883,
0.6100953221321106,
0.7228647470474243,
1.2173244953155518,
-0.29152217507362366,
-0.27690887451171875,
-0.014497717842459679,
1.0618668794631958,
0.04423944652080536,
-0.21077144145965576,
-0.6290295124053955,
0.18827399611473083,
-0.12662091851234436,
0.21332716941833496,
0.30481332540512085,
0.684059202671051,
-0.07304074615240097,
-0.016592178493738174,
-0.21501894295215607,
-0.27137133479118347,
-0.08409357815980911,
0.06455247104167938,
-0.6557082533836365,
-0.45226699113845825,
-0.3609652817249298,
-0.40597981214523315,
0.12129191309213638,
-0.2829298675060272,
0.2930096685886383,
0.40531766414642334,
-0.7434589266777039,
-0.14424067735671997,
-0.07350403815507889,
-0.3348764181137085,
0.09593095630407333,
-0.33264124393463135,
-0.01847895234823227,
-0.12738917768001556,
-0.4108152687549591,
0.5320376753807068,
-0.06902056932449341,
0.272483766078949,
0.646331250667572,
-0.12664851546287537,
0.13342194259166718,
0.28907790780067444,
-0.2961220443248749,
-0.10167701542377472,
0.08720555156469345,
0.13956530392169952,
0.3349807858467102,
0.01492201816290617,
0.9059169888496399,
0.4182611107826233,
0.8077346086502075,
-0.00030372972832992673,
-0.9039672613143921,
-0.048254549503326416,
0.13549436628818512,
-0.12965679168701172,
0.08293651044368744,
0.005529229063540697,
0.25565579533576965,
-0.44778019189834595,
-0.1438295692205429,
0.27743613719940186,
-0.5238900184631348,
-0.38090187311172485,
0.03922610729932785,
-0.6304951906204224,
1.8228451013565063,
-0.3234911262989044,
0.31412744522094727,
-0.24523833394050598,
0.42274194955825806,
0.17192678153514862,
-0.15218932926654816,
0.4068765640258789,
0.3364405632019043,
-0.544258713722229,
-1.0095261335372925,
0.26402604579925537,
0.22188019752502441,
0.02920948714017868,
0.4172850549221039,
-0.11358290165662766,
0.4390937089920044,
-0.09993872046470642,
0.884028434753418,
-0.320267915725708,
-0.43024498224258423,
0.013423570431768894,
-0.2873797118663788,
0.8129328489303589,
0.3154395520687103,
-0.34623831510543823,
0.52605140209198,
-0.0010895667364820838,
-0.3066461682319641,
0.5658664107322693,
-0.2097610980272293,
0.3343886435031891,
0.7092724442481995,
-0.3040713965892792,
0.5162380337715149,
-0.2671096920967102,
0.5801918506622314,
-0.12111325562000275,
0.3471895754337311,
-0.3537089228630066,
-0.5246359705924988,
0.17114925384521484,
-0.011113542132079601,
-0.43434271216392517,
-0.2237599790096283,
-0.091098852455616,
0.3407963216304779,
0.767482340335846,
-0.5707584023475647,
0.43133866786956787,
0.4315323829650879,
-0.4171728789806366,
0.2103150337934494,
0.21639838814735413,
0.6032394766807556,
-0.13669635355472565,
0.01504364050924778,
0.47776055335998535,
0.18258386850357056,
-0.8534360527992249,
0.18189573287963867,
0.08251260966062546,
-0.6379389762878418,
-0.03963633254170418,
0.18545381724834442,
0.09912324696779251,
-0.16298754513263702,
-0.24810385704040527,
-0.0002834805054590106,
0.15394294261932373,
0.26112857460975647,
-0.6155099868774414,
-0.06013958156108856,
0.16161249577999115,
-0.40746524930000305,
0.27805864810943604,
0.5650661587715149,
0.29272106289863586,
-0.2867467403411865,
-0.3462853729724884,
0.16304971277713776,
-0.5382225513458252,
-0.7707334756851196,
0.6332679986953735,
-0.44071802496910095,
0.0939580574631691,
-0.028253134340047836,
0.5612815618515015,
0.18867076933383942,
-0.4912186563014984,
-0.7752640843391418,
0.4738022983074188,
0.08198447525501251,
-0.332250714302063,
-0.2955629527568817,
-0.3075915277004242,
-0.36057499051094055,
-0.6297290325164795,
-0.04222624748945236,
0.42228084802627563,
-0.15957824885845184,
0.640479326248169,
-0.41069909930229187,
0.18439093232154846,
0.522070586681366,
-0.2576170563697815,
-0.461177259683609,
-0.27171024680137634,
-0.8480348587036133,
-0.4319782555103302,
-0.10861098021268845,
-0.20302510261535645,
-0.33042165637016296,
-0.11093585193157196,
-5.610527038574219,
0.33890849351882935,
-0.06892837584018707,
-0.5013789534568787,
0.58002108335495,
0.46675220131874084,
0.36667439341545105,
-0.2807254195213318,
-0.33263924717903137,
0.3823952376842499,
0.01883251592516899,
0.5327419638633728,
0.2863939106464386,
0.16744841635227203,
0.3339294195175171,
0.22066734731197357,
0.38885512948036194,
-0.15627089142799377,
0.24294133484363556,
-0.7937467098236084,
0.26824745535850525,
0.010801583528518677,
-0.3590192198753357,
0.6032547950744629,
0.48863446712493896,
-0.214299738407135,
-0.10802839696407318,
0.5256984829902649,
-0.38942989706993103,
0.46883755922317505,
0.07860952615737915,
-0.18626511096954346,
-0.08365049213171005,
0.5367943048477173,
-0.05275445431470871,
-0.010994862765073776,
0.6056992411613464,
-0.05438152700662613,
0.013798166997730732,
0.08463490754365921,
-0.44065961241722107,
0.6304282546043396,
0.15704935789108276,
0.059103623032569885,
0.3436664342880249,
-0.7417950630187988,
-0.0024638259783387184,
0.03599066659808159,
0.30262187123298645,
0.43467259407043457,
0.1619480848312378,
0.22856178879737854,
0.19299304485321045,
-0.21458753943443298,
0.10107530653476715,
0.1155286654829979,
0.21863128244876862,
0.13996641337871552,
-0.4022696912288666,
-0.49785950779914856,
-0.13852976262569427,
-0.17364372313022614,
-0.6053876876831055,
-0.20986013114452362,
0.013101331889629364,
-0.058031413704156876,
-0.5812337398529053,
-0.5831217765808105,
0.5938805937767029,
-0.13271407783031464,
-0.5746394395828247,
0.7232245206832886,
0.2010829597711563,
-1.0674549341201782,
0.4041209816932678,
-0.10435662418603897,
0.7373473644256592,
-0.026291921734809875,
0.028887351974844933,
-0.10961970686912537,
-0.6470004320144653,
0.4688171446323395,
-0.5005011558532715,
0.24594150483608246,
0.18568451702594757,
0.3804361820220947,
-0.43774327635765076,
-0.324468195438385,
0.2752024233341217,
-0.3306577503681183,
1.4477955102920532,
0.017133526504039764,
0.050793129950761795,
0.06292515993118286,
-0.04013938829302788,
0.5772418975830078,
-0.09601159393787384,
0.607172966003418,
0.23282490670681,
-0.2688745856285095,
-0.2678571939468384,
-0.11739995330572128,
-0.3717711865901947,
-0.5182305574417114,
-0.13573552668094635,
-0.41926008462905884,
-0.2813677489757538,
0.04467234015464783,
0.4495081603527069,
0.11484356224536896,
0.18708886206150055,
0.17494875192642212,
-0.6513199210166931,
-0.37573909759521484,
0.4313727021217346,
0.01642591506242752,
-0.3055286407470703,
0.36557847261428833,
0.5994687080383301,
-0.07831129431724548,
0.6687290072441101,
-0.020689116790890694,
-0.7132517099380493,
-0.6844712495803833,
-0.05821467936038971,
-0.10288172960281372,
0.40138402581214905,
0.0943712368607521,
0.46115800738334656,
0.02631230466067791,
0.32252150774002075,
0.0810360535979271,
-0.17219509184360504,
0.22670042514801025,
0.23750664293766022,
-0.7220374345779419,
-0.834681510925293,
-0.19681192934513092,
-0.23580966889858246,
0.18010662496089935,
-0.06300152093172073,
0.04652147740125656,
0.02687234617769718,
-0.6979267001152039,
1.0003242492675781,
0.8359971642494202,
-0.6356242299079895,
0.014622371643781662,
-0.05528062954545021,
0.4935729205608368,
-0.32232949137687683,
-0.3350938558578491,
-0.19852709770202637,
-0.7953238487243652,
-0.40213024616241455,
0.3337540626525879,
0.2123752236366272,
0.4207872450351715,
-0.3163108825683594,
-0.4860262870788574,
0.4461538791656494,
0.1887514442205429,
-1.0673816204071045,
0.05499326437711716,
0.007601100951433182,
0.12017783522605896,
-0.1335981786251068,
-0.5108863115310669,
0.04713371768593788,
0.708597719669342,
-0.30243128538131714,
-0.13767148554325104,
-0.8303290605545044,
-0.2313947230577469,
0.9758616089820862,
0.2095622569322586,
0.2006199210882187,
0.20487618446350098,
-0.026252996176481247,
-0.846001386642456,
0.0075804246589541435,
0.16847527027130127,
-0.45401731133461,
0.18407483398914337,
0.2810414433479309,
-0.8766364455223083,
-0.9952394366264343,
0.0388529933989048,
-0.3121860921382904,
-0.28656888008117676,
-0.1089143380522728,
-0.21458706259727478,
0.18450236320495605,
0.05327697843313217,
-0.48189637064933777,
-0.8722344040870667,
-0.5482388734817505,
0.5572364330291748,
-0.10851474851369858,
-0.8240922689437866,
-0.46986985206604004,
0.21493807435035706,
-0.6934646964073181,
0.10265254974365234,
-0.39349129796028137,
-0.5777472853660583,
0.15855029225349426,
-0.05359756201505661,
-0.03446463122963905,
0.560573160648346,
0.5447632074356079,
-0.5102990865707397,
-0.18969689309597015,
0.8930663466453552,
0.12541501224040985,
0.09533970057964325,
0.26709771156311035,
0.25928863883018494,
0.04131137579679489,
-0.48592692613601685,
-0.17656905949115753,
0.22415697574615479,
-0.19294299185276031,
0.24015061557292938,
-0.03822697326540947,
0.3547288477420807,
0.43045201897621155,
-0.532020628452301,
0.1083282083272934,
-0.3155122399330139,
-0.359514981508255,
0.23909665644168854,
-0.0722280964255333,
-0.43127405643463135,
0.45298343896865845,
-0.41009843349456787,
-0.074045330286026,
0.2608051002025604,
-0.6673937439918518,
0.14219598472118378,
0.6326316595077515,
0.6673325300216675,
0.18604081869125366,
-0.18179868161678314,
-0.21687039732933044,
-0.5163853168487549,
0.5040093064308167,
-0.6343587636947632,
-0.8166415095329285,
-0.1615738719701767,
0.4017990827560425,
-0.4817720055580139,
-1.0635188817977905,
-0.8433789610862732,
0.4910565912723541,
-0.23281696438789368,
-0.3626340925693512,
0.034938059747219086,
0.2618052363395691,
0.7484298944473267,
-0.017555387690663338,
0.18165096640586853,
-0.676184356212616,
0.22914406657218933,
0.3523544669151306,
0.602607786655426,
-0.3180430233478546,
-0.9706618785858154,
-0.09174740314483643,
-0.6212981343269348,
0.40772706270217896,
0.4739416837692261,
0.7659286260604858,
0.2169571965932846,
0.5430951714515686,
0.3829382061958313,
0.011111975647509098,
-0.4853673279285431,
0.15251483023166656,
0.003653066698461771,
-0.282807856798172,
0.014517825096845627,
0.3498552143573761,
0.3413023352622986,
0.12698282301425934,
0.20891396701335907,
-0.24763375520706177,
-0.4554716646671295,
-0.32809361815452576,
-0.011212456971406937,
-0.2967166602611542,
0.024604186415672302,
-0.2796372175216675,
0.1061207577586174,
-0.03538624197244644,
0.4982772767543793,
-0.050822872668504715,
0.06831666082143784,
-0.3720652461051941,
0.4679860770702362,
-0.1476587951183319,
0.5195711255073547,
0.3435078561306,
-0.5205021500587463,
0.694305956363678,
-0.10549037158489227,
0.05939192324876785,
-0.31069889664649963,
-0.4302882254123688,
-0.1154671162366867,
0.22741714119911194,
0.10447808355093002,
-0.6068833470344543,
0.507243275642395,
-0.6725913286209106,
-0.17536143958568573,
0.7807716131210327,
-0.2291247844696045,
0.18368275463581085,
-0.08646298944950104,
0.39455243945121765,
0.000006286575171543518,
0.5268383026123047,
-0.1298629194498062,
-0.4368741512298584,
0.06613998860120773,
-0.6328593492507935,
-0.20421171188354492,
0.2711923122406006,
0.07270754873752594,
1.1883645057678223,
0.2296101301908493,
-0.2525698244571686,
0.3648173213005066,
-0.24436882138252258,
-0.02602826990187168,
0.0076367114670574665,
-0.9366143345832825,
-0.5798723697662354,
0.08850054442882538,
0.18500444293022156,
0.3655097186565399,
0.21480028331279755,
-0.285695344209671,
-0.3075309991836548,
0.8554831743240356,
0.012078044936060905,
0.2685590088367462,
-0.21232089400291443,
0.16146253049373627,
-0.3906433880329132,
-0.026454228907823563,
0.03943893685936928,
-0.06262381374835968,
-0.2381996363401413,
-0.37550705671310425,
0.7772428393363953,
0.04996609687805176,
0.4517224431037903,
0.3043895363807678,
0.20340372622013092,
0.49827420711517334,
0.20449773967266083,
-0.3151785731315613,
0.2396250218153,
0.1616549789905548,
-0.08045101910829544,
-0.9569704532623291,
0.09119577705860138,
0.022097870707511902,
-0.02342432551085949,
0.1166810393333435,
-0.21559064090251923,
-0.1439741551876068,
-0.2652389109134674,
-0.17696471512317657,
0.8741039633750916,
0.3466491401195526,
0.2692839205265045,
0.18469205498695374,
-0.41891855001449585,
0.5557345747947693,
-0.7543665170669556,
-0.5347864627838135,
-0.02511918544769287,
-0.14136193692684174,
-0.2756206691265106,
0.20904113352298737,
0.286167174577713,
-0.16096006333827972,
-0.1798076629638672,
-0.4138087332248688,
0.01908770576119423,
-0.604875385761261,
-0.04977614805102348,
-0.2362309843301773,
0.14968246221542358,
-0.11202443391084671,
0.22698728740215302,
0.3953656852245331,
-0.04995471611618996,
0.5095793604850769,
0.026600101962685585,
0.0077106766402721405,
-0.2957836091518402,
0.5703293085098267,
-0.061578188091516495,
0.5309183597564697,
-0.21553681790828705,
0.3344442546367645,
0.24651360511779785,
-0.26374876499176025,
0.3470709025859833,
-0.0720062181353569,
-0.4216954708099365,
-0.3555827736854553,
0.7399296760559082,
-0.22193117439746857,
0.24150238931179047,
-0.5449432730674744,
-0.42591592669487,
-0.4058608114719391,
0.1511704921722412,
-0.2126578688621521,
-0.21025747060775757,
-0.04485252499580383,
0.47964033484458923,
-0.502789318561554,
0.15269531309604645,
0.4310377240180969,
-0.3086244761943817,
0.21962997317314148,
-0.9903624057769775,
0.0808081105351448,
-0.5590653419494629,
-0.2143046259880066,
-0.13828611373901367,
0.4752730131149292,
0.13688984513282776,
0.06364507973194122,
0.757342517375946,
-0.06135784089565277,
-0.31250932812690735,
-0.2005128562450409,
-0.02749638259410858,
0.2702941596508026,
-0.5294592976570129,
-0.44171494245529175,
-0.31621691584587097,
0.980484664440155,
0.2842061519622803,
-0.5732905268669128,
-0.5331445336341858,
-0.5399268865585327,
0.02072473242878914,
-0.334443062543869,
0.14400871098041534,
-0.8221641778945923,
-0.24613375961780548,
0.43148136138916016
] |
206205
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentary%20%28magazine%29
|
Commentary (magazine)
|
Commentary is a monthly American magazine on religion, Judaism, and politics, as well as social and cultural issues. Founded by the American Jewish Committee in 1945 under Elliot E. Cohen, editor from 1945 to 1959, Commentary magazine developed into the leading postwar journal of Jewish affairs. The periodical strove to construct a new American Jewish identity while processing the events of the Holocaust, the formation of the State of Israel, and the Cold War. Norman Podhoretz edited the magazine in its heyday from 1960 to 1995. Besides its coverage of cultural issues, Commentary provided a voice for the anti-Stalinist left. As Podhoretz shifted from his original ideological beliefs as a liberal Democrat to neoconservatism in the 1970s and 1980s, he moved the magazine with him to the right and toward the Republican Party
American-Israeli journalist Benjamin Balint described Commentary as the "contentious magazine that transformed the Jewish left into the neoconservative right". Historian and literary critic Richard Pells said that "no other journal of the past half century has been so consistently influential, or so central to the major debates that have transformed the political and intellectual life of the United States."
History
Founding and early years
Commentary was the successor to the Contemporary Jewish Record, which was published by the American Jewish Committee (AJC) and ran from 1938 to 1945. When the Records editor died in 1944, the AJC consulted with New York intellectuals including Daniel Bell and Lionel Trilling: they recommended that the AJC hire Elliot Cohen, who had been the editor of a Jewish cultural magazine and was then a fundraiser, to start a new journal. Cohen designed Commentary to reconnect assimilated Jews and Jewish intellectuals with the broader, more traditional and very liberal Jewish community. At the same time the magazine would bring the ideas of the young Jewish New York intellectuals to a wider audience. It demonstrated that Jewish intellectuals, and by extension all American Jews, had turned away from their past political radicalism to embrace mainstream U.S. culture and values. Cohen stated his grand design in the first issue:
As Podhoretz put it, Commentary was to lead the Jewish intellectuals "out of the desert of alienation ... and into the promised land of democratic, pluralistic, and prosperous America". Cohen brought on board strong editors who themselves wrote important essays, including Irving Kristol; art critic Clement Greenberg; film and cultural critic Robert Warshow; and sociologist Nathan Glazer. Commentary published such rising stars as Hannah Arendt, Daniel Bell, Sidney Hook, and Irving Howe.
Although many or even most of the editors and writers had been socialists, Trotskyites, or Stalinists in the past, that was no longer tolerated. Commentary articles were anti-Communist and also anti-McCarthyite; it identified and attacked any perceived weakness among liberals on Cold War issues, backing President Harry Truman's policies such as the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and NATO. The "soft-on-Communism" position of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and Henry A. Wallace came under steady attack. Liberals who hated Joseph McCarthy were annoyed when Irving Kristol wrote at the height of the controversy that "there is one thing that the American people know about Senator McCarthy: he, like them, is unequivocally anti-Communist. About the spokesmen for American liberalism, they feel they know no such thing."
Norman Podhoretz
In the late 1950s the magazine sagged, as Cohen suffered from mental illness and committed suicide. A protégé of Lionel Trilling, Norman Podhoretz took over in 1960, running the magazine with an iron hand until his retirement in 1995. Podhoretz reduced the space given to Jewish issues and moved Commentarys ideology to the left. Circulation rose to 60,000 as the magazine became a mainstay of the Washington liberal elite in the heyday of Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.
The emergence of the New Left, which was bitterly hostile to Johnson, to capitalism and to universities, angered Podhoretz for what he perceived as its shallowness and hostility to Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Articles attacked the New Left on questions ranging from crime, the nature of art, drugs, poverty, to the new egalitarianism; Commentary said that the New Left was a dangerous anti-American, anti-liberal, and anti-Semitic force. Daniel Patrick Moynihan used Commentary to attack the Watts riots and liberals who defended it as a just revolution. The shift helped define the emerging neoconservative movement and gave space to disillusioned liberals.
As the readership base shifted to the right, Commentary filled a vacuum for conservative intellectuals, who otherwise were reliant on William F. Buckley Jr.'s National Review. In March 1975 Moynihan's article "The United States in Opposition" urged America to vigorously defend liberal democratic principles when they were attacked by Soviet Bloc and Third World dictatorships at the United Nations. Moynihan was appointed ambassador to the UN by President Gerald Ford in 1975 and was elected to the United States Senate in 1976. Jeane Kirkpatrick's November 1979 denunciation of the foreign policy of President Jimmy Carter, "Dictatorships and Double Standards", impressed Ronald Reagan, who defeated Carter in 1980. In 1981 Reagan appointed Kirkpatrick ambassador to the United Nations and Commentary reached the apogee of its influence.
Recent years
Norman Podhoretz, who served as editor-in-chief until 1995, was editor-at-large until January 2009. Neal Kozodoy, at Commentary since 1966, was editor between 1995 and January 2009; he is the magazine's current editor-at-large. Since January 2009 the journal has been edited by John Podhoretz, Norman's son.
The magazine ceased to be affiliated with the AJC in 2007, when Commentary, Inc., an independent 501(c)(3) non-profit enterprise, took over as publisher.
In 2011 the journal announced plans to give its archives from 1945 to 1995 to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
Commentary prints letters to the editor that comment on various articles three issues earlier. The more critical and lengthy letters tend to be printed first and the more praiseful letters last. The author of the article being discussed almost always replies in a follow-up to his critics. Each issue has several reviews of books on varying topics. Commentary usually assigns a review to books written by notable contributors to the magazine.
Popular culture
Commentary has been referred to in several Woody Allen films. In Annie Hall (1977), Allen (as character Alvy Singer) makes a pun by saying that he heard that Dissent and Commentary had merged to form "Dysentery." In Bananas (1971), as an old lady is threatened on a subway car, Allen hides his face by holding up an issue of Commentary. This image is featured at the New York Transit Museum in Brooklyn Heights. In Crimes and Misdemeanors, an issue of Commentary lies on a character's bedside table.
In his sitcom Anything But Love, stand-up comedian Richard Lewis was often shown holding or reading a copy of Commentary.
Contributors
Over the decades the magazine has attracted top American intellectuals—many of them Jewish. The magazine's home page lists 1,072 different authors, including:
S. Y. Agnon
Elliott Abrams
Hannah Arendt
Robert Alter
Paul Auster
James Baldwin
Daniel Bell
Saul Bellow
William Bennett
David Berger
Peter Ludwig Berger
Allan Bloom
Harold Bloom
Max Boot
Robert Bork
Peter Brimelow
David Brooks
William Buckley
Mona Charen
Gordon Chang
Linda Chavez
Eliot A. Cohen
Frederick Crews
Seth Cropsey
David G. Dalin
Lucy Dawidowicz
Midge Decter
James Delingpole
Alan Dershowitz
Dinesh D'Souza
Joseph Epstein
Douglas J. Feith
Leslie Fiedler
David Frum
Francis Fukuyama
Frank Gaffney
Herbert J. Gans
Sir Martin Gilbert
Nathan Glazer
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
Allegra Goodman
Paul Goodman
Clement Greenberg
John Gross
Boris Gulko
Ernest van den Haag
Hillel Halkin
Albert Halper
Oscar Handlin
Victor Davis Hanson
Michael Harrington
Jeffrey Hart
David Hazony
Joseph Heller
Richard Herrnstein
Arthur Hertzberg
Gertrude Himmelfarb
Milton Himmelfarb
Richard Hofstadter
Sidney Hook
David Horowitz
Irving Howe
H. Stuart Hughes
Samuel P. Huntington
Carol Iannone
Tamar Jacoby
Josef Joffe
Daniel Johnson
Paul Johnson
Donald Kagan
Frederick Kagan
Robert Kagan
Efraim Karsh
Leon Kass
Jacob Katz
Alfred Kazin
Alan Keyes
Jeane Kirkpatrick
Martin Kramer
Charles Krauthammer
Irving Kristol
Bill Kristol
Walter Laqueur
Christopher Lasch
F. R. Leavis
Michael Ledeen
Michael Levin
Bernard Lewis
Guenter Lewy
Seymour Martin Lipset
John Lukacs
Dwight Macdonald
Heather MacDonald
Norman Mailer
Bernard Malamud
Thomas Mann
Leo Marx
Andrew C. McCarthy
Scott McConnell
Hans J. Morgenthau
Daniel Patrick Moynihan
Joshua Muravchik
Charles Murray
Richard John Neuhaus
Jacob Neusner
Reinhold Niebuhr
Robert Nisbet
Michael Novak
Michael B. Oren
George Orwell
John O'Sullivan
Amos Oz
Cynthia Ozick
Martin Peretz
Richard Perle
Joan Peters
William Pfaff
Daniel Pipes
Richard Pipes
Steven Plaut
John Podhoretz
Norman Podhoretz
Norman Ravitch
Mordecai Richler
Paul Craig Roberts
Peter W. Rodman
Henry Roth
Philip Roth
Noah Rothman
Giuseppe Sacco
Jean-Paul Sartre
Arthur Meier Schlesinger Jr.
Gabriel Schoenfeld
Sam Schulman
Delmore Schwartz
Stephen Schwartz
Daniel Seligman
Nathan Sharansky
Fred Siegel
Isaac Bashevis Singer
Susan Sontag
Thomas Sowell
Bret Stephens
Leo Strauss
George Szamuely
Philip Taft
Amir Taheri
Terry Teachout
Judd L. Teller
Dorothy Thompson
Nathan Thrall
Jonathan S. Tobin
Michael J. Totten
Hugh Trevor-Roper
Diana Trilling
Lionel Trilling
Robert C. Tucker
Robert W. Tucker
Leopold Tyrmand
David Twersky
Ron Unz
John Updike
Ben J. Wattenberg
George Weigel
Elie Wiesel
James Q. Wilson
Ruth Wisse
Robert S. Wistrich
A. B. Yehoshua
Karl Zinsmeister
Notes
References
Podhoretz, Norman. Breaking Ranks (1979), memoir
Nathan Glazer, Thomas L. Jeffers, Richard Gid Powers, Fred Siegel, Terry Teachout, Ruth R. Wisse et al. in Commentary in American Life, ed. Murray Friedman. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005
Bibliography
Balint, Benjamin. Running Commentary: The Contentious Magazine That Transformed the Jewish Left Into the Neoconservative Right (PublicAffairs; 2010) 290 pages
Ehrman, John. "Commentary, the Public Interest, and the Problem of Jewish Conservatism", American Jewish History 87.2&3 (1999) 159–181. online in Project MUSE, scholarly article by conservative historian
Franczak, Michael. "Losing the Battle, Winning the War: Neoconservatives versus the New International Economic Order, 1974–82," Diplomatic History, Volume 43, Issue 5, November 2019, Pages 867–889, Losing the Battle, Winning the War: Neoconservatives versus the New International Economic Order, 1974–82.
Jeffers, Thomas L. Norman Podhoretz: A Biography (Cambridge University Press, 2010)
External links
The New York Sun article on who attends the annual Commentary-hosted gathering
More bio bits on Cohen and Commentary history
Vallentine Mitchell Publishers Forthcoming Titles Nathan Abrams, Commentary Magazine 1945–1959: 'A Journal of Significant Thought and Opinion. Bio on Cohen and Commentary'''s early history]
Weekly Standard article on Commentary
"What Does Reform Judaism Stand For?". Commentary''. Published June 2008.
Commentary Finding Aid at the Harry Ransom Center
1945 establishments in New York (state)
Conservative magazines published in the United States
Jewish magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1945
Magazines published in New York City
Neoconservatism
Political magazines published in the United States
|
[
0.6677507162094116,
0.38271796703338623,
-0.29655325412750244,
0.03768928349018097,
-0.7020363807678223,
-0.1256028562784195,
0.1248316839337349,
0.0625893771648407,
-0.031341612339019775,
0.045176856219768524,
-0.2237446904182434,
0.10741444677114487,
-0.30933260917663574,
-0.02065390720963478,
-0.09093485027551651,
0.02524319291114807,
0.3161959648132324,
0.1609390527009964,
-0.27275460958480835,
-0.2705771327018738,
-0.08815307170152664,
-0.19579124450683594,
0.7778963446617126,
-0.4645264744758606,
0.16022899746894836,
0.19954641163349152,
0.4012512266635895,
0.0912773609161377,
-0.8828971982002258,
0.11862913519144058,
-0.1956217736005783,
0.7106618285179138,
0.1828368455171585,
0.08042909950017929,
0.17279888689517975,
0.2738734185695648,
0.1262836903333664,
-0.06612715870141983,
0.10349840670824051,
0.22003173828125,
0.30619508028030396,
-0.6844664216041565,
0.46615278720855713,
0.6980357766151428,
0.2663925290107727,
-0.47705334424972534,
-1.5468924045562744,
0.5044226050376892,
-1.139950156211853,
0.11038236320018768,
-0.34922677278518677,
0.6600550413131714,
0.48318925499916077,
0.4837692677974701,
0.06193976104259491,
0.8565670251846313,
-0.5888240337371826,
0.11539828777313232,
-0.2620278596878052,
-0.2944372594356537,
0.15204012393951416,
0.2728339731693268,
0.988593339920044,
-0.5343601107597351,
0.460340291261673,
-0.2928048372268677,
-0.5879566073417664,
-0.087757907807827,
0.22685573995113373,
-0.5946011543273926,
-0.4037245512008667,
-0.6975371837615967,
-0.10481226444244385,
0.4295240342617035,
0.47305312752723694,
0.07183103263378143,
-0.01051308587193489,
0.19226481020450592,
0.36623096466064453,
-0.052005741745233536,
-0.15099431574344635,
0.6528141498565674,
0.3991769850254059,
0.5479471683502197,
0.4058797359466553,
-0.43281233310699463,
-0.14128722250461578,
-0.3227555751800537,
0.09960290044546127,
0.15319420397281647,
0.011458728462457657,
-0.03542246297001839,
0.5092176795005798,
0.5664165616035461,
-0.22431890666484833,
-0.1515248864889145,
0.8825380802154541,
-0.2868480086326599,
-0.48909419775009155,
-0.13129736483097076,
0.45923277735710144,
0.4366689622402191,
0.7930943965911865,
-0.24003024399280548,
-0.3494311273097992,
-0.3186917304992676,
0.2875896692276001,
-0.9296953678131104,
0.8377349972724915,
0.4729030430316925,
-0.29148977994918823,
0.8117254376411438,
0.05949897691607475,
-0.283149778842926,
0.10082367807626724,
0.8029369115829468,
-0.22843056917190552,
-0.7154190540313721,
-0.5901551246643066,
-0.034897226840257645,
-0.1668773889541626,
1.0428024530410767,
0.2107328474521637,
0.06881465017795563,
-0.0012936060084030032,
-0.11179269105195999,
0.507817804813385,
0.472025603055954,
-0.1868526041507721,
0.18943770229816437,
-0.14907728135585785,
-0.0407128781080246,
0.3320687413215637,
-0.28291603922843933,
-0.07036320865154266,
-0.04356014356017113,
1.0936616659164429,
-0.4868690073490143,
0.3764062821865082,
0.41593387722969055,
-0.26094645261764526,
-0.7273955941200256,
-0.8925617933273315,
-1.1776857376098633,
0.6846131682395935,
-0.3019581437110901,
0.13066533207893372,
-0.39121466875076294,
-0.35862997174263,
-0.35576823353767395,
-0.015332710929214954,
0.04224975034594536,
-0.054132089018821716,
-0.1235930547118187,
-0.10483930259943008,
-0.45761850476264954,
0.8195959329605103,
0.2024204134941101,
0.4096415638923645,
-0.04558654502034187,
0.06554907560348511,
-0.34409987926483154,
0.12053637951612473,
-0.4472303092479706,
-0.5467791557312012,
-0.06543111801147461,
0.20316649973392487,
0.01482254546135664,
0.28610557317733765,
-0.25946640968322754,
-0.36957114934921265,
-0.037186410278081894,
0.4788981080055237,
0.04889042675495148,
0.45726531744003296,
-0.010074902325868607,
1.3509230613708496,
0.3818437159061432,
0.42606881260871887,
0.025625033304095268,
-0.6744215488433838,
-0.08999201655387878,
0.04485037550330162,
-0.2696954309940338,
0.3252519965171814,
-0.43531328439712524,
0.3226330578327179,
-0.24936722218990326,
0.1010574996471405,
0.5995340347290039,
-0.8339126706123352,
-0.47125759720802307,
-0.034631941467523575,
0.007274379953742027,
0.8760104179382324,
-0.2592696249485016,
-0.28064751625061035,
0.6914893984794617,
0.23128052055835724,
0.25974828004837036,
-0.34558671712875366,
0.14750996232032776,
0.017349248751997948,
0.2717379927635193,
-0.7960401773452759,
0.4393314719200134,
-0.051931511610746384,
0.41423338651657104,
-0.08567390590906143,
0.11381518095731735,
0.4652887284755707,
-0.5612389445304871,
0.1931106299161911,
0.3983376622200012,
-0.3985650837421417,
-0.47048529982566833,
-0.36761796474456787,
0.6320302486419678,
-0.6611441969871521,
0.10366223752498627,
1.2475216388702393,
0.0853242427110672,
0.02560633234679699,
-0.002074189018458128,
-0.537932276725769,
0.020727630704641342,
0.060328930616378784,
0.3675146698951721,
-0.08863396942615509,
-0.16715237498283386,
0.48434415459632874,
0.7435934543609619,
-0.10722925513982773,
-0.9324489235877991,
-0.16398032009601593,
-0.10134457796812057,
-0.10255640745162964,
-0.5981813669204712,
0.7452768087387085,
-0.08800873160362244,
0.31056806445121765,
-0.17412926256656647,
0.08257642388343811,
-0.025507040321826935,
-0.017393959686160088,
0.3230377733707428,
0.18980087339878082,
0.3987421691417694,
-0.276048868894577,
0.26902657747268677,
0.5893166065216064,
0.5051136016845703,
0.4164307713508606,
-0.5243715047836304,
-0.05195823684334755,
0.024704014882445335,
-0.24659137427806854,
-0.27474135160446167,
0.6646312475204468,
0.07449032366275787,
0.05337701365351677,
-0.1820286512374878,
0.06713516265153885,
-0.5309877395629883,
-0.24123646318912506,
-0.42327913641929626,
-0.126829594373703,
-0.3575384318828583,
-0.30553963780403137,
-0.1939655989408493,
0.6889565587043762,
0.14430883526802063,
-0.5032486915588379,
0.10368572920560837,
0.08961667120456696,
-0.20662152767181396,
0.05333089455962181,
-0.013936386443674564,
-0.4890311658382416,
-0.41927987337112427,
-0.23601089417934418,
0.6100130677223206,
0.32510772347450256,
0.13836057484149933,
-0.4565669596195221,
-0.1705923080444336,
0.4344322085380554,
-0.5225890278816223,
0.308858722448349,
-0.36749765276908875,
0.1762136071920395,
-0.07376967370510101,
0.6727334856987,
-0.03501274064183235,
0.9932813048362732,
0.3855712115764618,
0.5992962718009949,
-0.34060776233673096,
-0.9528416395187378,
0.11292359232902527,
0.032878048717975616,
0.43607810139656067,
-0.09982337057590485,
0.5145954489707947,
0.10586057603359222,
-0.3575901687145233,
-0.5088038444519043,
-0.249179407954216,
-5.485104084014893,
-0.017871489748358727,
-0.589612603187561,
-0.3822421729564667,
-0.2052057981491089,
-0.045805566012859344,
0.960917055606842,
-0.5667293071746826,
-0.44012656807899475,
-0.14423924684524536,
-0.2234272062778473,
-0.19212207198143005,
0.29692018032073975,
0.6671717762947083,
0.6398710012435913,
0.533576488494873,
0.07150527834892273,
0.2513187527656555,
0.14970850944519043,
0.2597942650318146,
-0.024065474048256874,
-0.04159180819988251,
0.12253794074058533,
0.7004876732826233,
0.5806218385696411,
0.32165148854255676,
0.0465579628944397,
0.5140073299407959,
-0.4027872383594513,
-0.030207283794879913,
0.22643133997917175,
-0.04356970265507698,
-0.3259039521217346,
-0.45498326420783997,
0.4609474837779999,
0.33274632692337036,
0.8208323121070862,
-0.24810472130775452,
0.7329341769218445,
-0.06604166328907013,
-0.08891071379184723,
0.4515807628631592,
0.4610772728919983,
-0.7688804864883423,
0.6779825687408447,
-0.06622962653636932,
-0.7289441823959351,
-0.35621052980422974,
-0.6065187454223633,
0.26197850704193115,
0.648440957069397,
-0.4218387305736542,
0.14750166237354279,
0.03990010544657707,
-0.32743626832962036,
-0.2723097801208496,
0.5461717247962952,
-0.053337644785642624,
-0.07207828760147095,
-0.29287999868392944,
0.2599972188472748,
-0.39928171038627625,
0.21413005888462067,
-0.14282579720020294,
-0.4540940523147583,
-0.37327367067337036,
-0.48370644450187683,
0.05865977704524994,
0.904333233833313,
0.32339784502983093,
-0.4833695590496063,
0.7677203416824341,
-0.21337085962295532,
-0.8488425612449646,
0.20063285529613495,
-0.27992746233940125,
0.5438733100891113,
0.25512221455574036,
-0.36498743295669556,
0.5347849130630493,
-0.012969338335096836,
-0.14703994989395142,
0.05859636515378952,
-0.13168944418430328,
0.03637395799160004,
-1.0258173942565918,
-0.005888788495212793,
0.3338417708873749,
-1.2043651342391968,
-0.43356990814208984,
0.478217214345932,
-0.34654346108436584,
0.5417075753211975,
0.44878247380256653,
0.2228173315525055,
0.4914196729660034,
0.6418516039848328,
0.47696101665496826,
0.826197624206543,
-0.2187560796737671,
0.06294860690832138,
-0.17920945584774017,
0.04898805543780327,
-0.9696919322013855,
-0.28098222613334656,
0.12322565913200378,
-0.592018723487854,
0.3219129741191864,
0.32573798298835754,
-0.24969203770160675,
-0.6596964001655579,
-0.1704544872045517,
-0.3105766177177429,
-0.7940463423728943,
0.6834937930107117,
0.05609491094946861,
-0.30822399258613586,
0.1573035567998886,
-0.06374382972717285,
0.7647817730903625,
-0.12530456483364105,
-0.4158673882484436,
-0.6614137291908264,
-0.08926089107990265,
-0.8608437180519104,
-0.10313062369823456,
-0.22640268504619598,
0.07560797035694122,
-0.14505694806575775,
0.3616546094417572,
0.40483471751213074,
-0.028454570099711418,
0.08964724838733673,
0.2524566054344177,
0.10093101114034653,
-0.3479308784008026,
-0.21459998190402985,
0.018868539482355118,
-0.5157596468925476,
0.307068407535553,
-0.0006082932814024389,
-0.08026879280805588,
0.13788728415966034,
0.2564908564090729,
0.4746605455875397,
0.7201713919639587,
-0.4266425371170044,
0.3557654619216919,
-0.4561580717563629,
1.0831618309020996,
0.004807008896023035,
-0.40638983249664307,
0.4554993510246277,
-0.2905624210834503,
0.3291570544242859,
0.10400396585464478,
0.2909521460533142,
0.5857321619987488,
-0.21761053800582886,
-0.09977014362812042,
-0.19008508324623108,
-0.5142838358879089,
-0.8794018626213074,
-0.14510372281074524,
0.06921406090259552,
-0.14932748675346375,
0.05909133702516556,
-0.6595562696456909,
-0.6373750567436218,
0.3276834189891815,
0.11337664723396301,
0.2227308601140976,
-0.0567462258040905,
-0.25274017453193665,
0.917250394821167,
0.203353613615036,
0.06356896460056305,
-0.460850328207016,
0.2644695043563843,
-0.5530317425727844,
0.3113590478897095,
-0.700688362121582,
0.12442245334386826,
0.3127382695674896,
0.731878936290741,
-0.40380334854125977,
-0.016207868233323097,
-0.15367351472377777,
-0.11155195534229279,
0.5223278999328613,
0.20552228391170502,
0.06739959865808487,
-0.15137308835983276,
-0.1220419853925705,
-0.28084394335746765,
-0.4416501820087433,
0.5008785128593445,
0.058940447866916656,
-0.8139642477035522,
-0.4827752709388733,
0.7149773836135864,
0.6901306509971619,
-0.6804777979850769,
0.45038047432899475,
0.2552110254764557,
-0.7951778173446655,
0.23399469256401062,
-0.025552980601787567,
-0.6111437082290649,
0.6726643443107605,
0.21612022817134857,
-0.028752190992236137,
-0.27755993604660034,
-0.32395243644714355,
-0.775765597820282,
0.31429731845855713,
-0.08663326501846313,
-0.3673592805862427,
-0.48342812061309814,
-0.016044097021222115,
0.16387930512428284,
-0.1352962851524353,
-0.34582704305648804,
0.1887914538383484,
-0.2784191966056824,
0.2578652799129486,
0.3680700957775116,
-0.39386823773384094,
-0.46234387159347534,
-0.43198496103286743,
-0.13048449158668518,
0.040000058710575104,
-0.18714217841625214,
0.05013631284236908,
-0.16077448427677155,
-0.07220899313688278,
-0.5951396226882935,
0.06871653348207474,
-0.3145331144332886,
-0.12850084900856018,
-0.2554403245449066,
0.3225040137767792,
0.13220319151878357,
-0.3363080620765686,
-0.10385799407958984,
0.4472165107727051,
0.019853297621011734,
-0.2152951955795288,
-0.9393508434295654,
-0.05848456174135208,
0.2952500283718109,
-0.6192064881324768,
-0.5546458959579468,
-0.44049230217933655,
0.4439752995967865,
-0.7171502709388733,
-0.4314761459827423,
0.07937522232532501,
-0.16146300733089447,
-0.059248294681310654,
0.09477714449167252,
-0.35727664828300476,
-0.7637090086936951,
0.5699368715286255,
0.5047717094421387,
-0.00938074104487896,
0.7038827538490295,
-0.60447758436203,
0.15507441759109497,
-0.4356270730495453,
-0.6822904348373413,
0.02542809583246708,
0.39041057229042053,
0.470319926738739,
-0.050103794783353806,
-0.021748388186097145,
-0.24522246420383453,
-0.6166858673095703,
-0.2311137467622757,
-0.04583936184644699,
0.13899622857570648,
0.0038230158388614655,
-0.1458093672990799,
-0.205094575881958,
0.641604483127594,
-0.7984685301780701,
0.030338142067193985,
0.1853054314851761,
-0.14311225712299347,
-0.27378618717193604,
0.1571776568889618,
-0.21176384389400482,
0.05178304761648178,
0.268198162317276,
-0.352043092250824,
-0.25966882705688477,
0.9383401870727539,
-0.30615299940109253,
-0.0013442829949781299,
-0.1900423765182495,
-0.19300910830497742,
0.27810439467430115,
0.35754621028900146,
-0.14548157155513763,
0.5067843794822693,
-0.44148823618888855,
-0.5418804883956909,
0.04287299886345863,
-0.254805326461792,
0.06094413995742798,
0.2164999097585678,
-0.049425892531871796,
0.522718071937561,
0.6228501200675964,
-0.3661593496799469,
0.22371740639209747,
0.3317408263683319,
-0.4151827096939087,
0.316236674785614,
0.293608158826828,
-0.2035657912492752,
0.28553175926208496,
0.3868944048881531,
0.08954659849405289,
-0.363494336605072,
-0.34989407658576965,
-0.1298004686832428,
0.031020820140838623,
0.11765289306640625,
-0.47600507736206055,
0.545939028263092,
0.7499358057975769,
-0.23004543781280518,
0.16401781141757965,
-0.23014377057552338,
-0.6712632775306702,
-0.21268855035305023,
-0.47443461418151855,
-0.9711676836013794,
0.46412888169288635,
0.20702475309371948,
0.0865890309214592,
0.1191641241312027,
0.3356459438800812,
0.014017648994922638,
0.3223292827606201,
0.24867218732833862,
-0.08275281637907028,
-0.18480737507343292,
0.40955400466918945,
0.2193574756383896,
0.2826400697231293,
0.05533699691295624,
-0.3537377417087555,
0.43579474091529846,
-0.6875253915786743,
0.22234466671943665,
-0.2863413095474243,
-0.054333481937646866,
-0.2439049333333969,
-0.4866151511669159,
0.40859079360961914,
-0.2028450220823288,
-0.26178836822509766,
-0.1342354565858841,
-0.010552342049777508,
0.1718904972076416,
-1.2664473056793213,
0.3813038170337677,
0.3267911374568939,
-0.23916271328926086,
0.14895926415920258,
-0.6926364302635193,
0.057555168867111206,
0.4975837767124176,
-0.27180215716362,
0.6327399015426636,
-0.03259755298495293,
0.35542505979537964,
0.5925179123878479,
-0.16387785971164703,
-0.03900068998336792,
-0.7934113144874573,
-0.2697020471096039,
0.14982108771800995,
0.33178871870040894,
-0.020690126344561577,
-0.086202472448349,
-0.5530003309249878,
-0.3355974853038788,
-0.1701287031173706,
-0.624927818775177,
-0.16141696274280548,
0.07607780396938324,
-0.4706236720085144,
0.14885231852531433,
-0.409710168838501,
0.8600789904594421,
-0.2629051208496094,
0.29224902391433716,
0.1448267251253128,
0.29885491728782654,
0.7495080828666687,
-0.15858575701713562,
-0.5381121039390564,
-0.11472305655479431,
-0.5740984678268433,
-0.928065836429596,
-0.9297987222671509,
0.054203081876039505,
0.09174870699644089,
0.44352203607559204,
-0.08695487678050995,
0.9447219371795654,
0.19417014718055725,
0.1564343422651291,
0.8047896027565002,
-0.28229743242263794,
0.002270030789077282,
-0.12245185673236847,
0.3176952004432678,
0.23215129971504211,
0.008545142598450184,
0.33584895730018616,
-0.13937345147132874,
-0.2032448947429657,
0.4213731288909912,
-0.15951254963874817,
0.25963884592056274,
0.06286833435297012,
-0.4973243474960327,
-0.5284176468849182,
-0.38202965259552,
0.568315863609314,
-0.04591839760541916,
0.2371341735124588,
0.3781262934207916,
0.8813570141792297,
0.7295809984207153,
-0.7210737466812134,
0.0271892286837101,
-0.16091398894786835,
-0.390634149312973,
-0.4569477140903473,
-0.5481961965560913,
0.3694027066230774,
-0.25013113021850586,
-0.759426474571228,
-0.29069140553474426,
0.8588172793388367,
-0.11606467515230179,
-0.6019654870033264,
-0.09746602177619934,
-0.32046642899513245,
0.2896622121334076,
-0.5577520132064819,
0.3086385428905487,
0.025942036882042885,
1.142646312713623,
-0.15178585052490234
] |
206206
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region%20Gotland
|
Region Gotland
|
Region Gotland, officially Gotlands kommun (), is a municipality that covers the entire island of Gotland in Sweden. The city of Visby is the municipality's seat.
History
On 31 December 1951 there were 93 local government units on the island of Gotland, among them one city (Visby), one market town (Slite), one county council and a lot of rural municipalities, many of them with fewer than 100 inhabitants.
Twenty years later the situation was totally different.
The first of the two nationwide local government reforms in Sweden during the 20th century was implemented on 1 January 1952. From that date on, the rural municipalities on the island were regrouped into twelve new enlarged municipalities, which together with Visby, Slite and the Gotland County Council formed the new administrative pattern.
After ten years it was clear that this reform had not been radical enough and the work began preparing for the next one.
On 1 January 1971 the second and last local government reform was implemented in Sweden. All administrative and judicial differences between rural and urban areas were abolished. Only one type of municipality (kommun) existed from that date on. In the case of Gotland all the former entities were united into one single unit. As there was only one municipality in the county, also the County Council was abolished and merged into the new unitary municipality.
As the municipality has both local and regional functions, normally provided by the Municipalities of Sweden and the County councils of Sweden respectively, Gotland has a special status as a municipality and is officially called Region Gotland as of 2011.
Localities
There are 16 urban areas (also called a Tätort or locality) in Gotland Municipality.
In the table the localities are listed according to the size of the population. The municipal seat is in bold characters.
Politics
Riksdag
These are the results of the elections to the Riksdag held in Gotland since 1973. The results only include parties that have won representation in the Riksdag assembly at least once during this timeframe. The results of the Sweden Democrats were not listed at a municipal level by the SCB between 1988 and 1998 due to the party's small size at the time.
Blocs
This lists the relative strength of the socialist and centre-right blocs since 1973, but parties not elected to the Riksdag are inserted as "other", including the Sweden Democrats results from 1988 to 2006, but also the Christian Democrats pre-1991 and the Greens in 1982, 1985 and 1991. The sources are identical to the table above. The coalition or government mandate marked in bold formed the government after the election. New Democracy got elected in 1991 but are still listed as "other" due to the short lifespan of the party. "Elected" is the total number of percentage points from the municipality that went to parties who were elected to the Riksdag.
Local
Election results:
Region
When Gotland was made into a single municipality in the 1970s, the county council was abolished and its responsibilities transferred to the municipality, making it a unitary authority. During a trial period some of the authority normally held by the Gotland County Administrative Board, an agency of the national government, has also been devolved to the Gotland Municipality, as well as to two mainland councils. The municipality of Gotland is therefore in this respect also a region. It has responsibility for the public healthcare system and public transport.
Events organised by the municipality
The municipality coordinates the annual Almedalen Week (Almedalsveckan), an important meetingplace for everyone involved in Swedish politics. During the week, representatives from the political parties in the Riksdag take turns to hold speeches in the Almedalen park in Visby.
See also
Politics of Sweden
Elections in Sweden
List of Gotland Governors
References
Statistics Sweden
External links
Gotland Municipality – Official site
Coat of arms
Municipalities of Gotland County
Gotland
1971 establishments in Sweden
|
[
0.2167321741580963,
-0.5962160229682922,
0.868311882019043,
0.29767701029777527,
-0.3973519802093506,
-0.7306054830551147,
0.36801326274871826,
0.29583054780960083,
-0.819879412651062,
-0.42167970538139343,
-0.32502469420433044,
-0.002694446127861738,
0.10131709277629852,
0.31442418694496155,
-0.546768307685852,
0.903725266456604,
0.17212806642055511,
0.6941131353378296,
-0.21403615176677704,
-0.19509832561016083,
-0.36918044090270996,
-0.03233925998210907,
0.44551530480384827,
0.2869513928890228,
0.0899447351694107,
-0.28839555382728577,
0.5070646405220032,
0.6110863089561462,
0.16256508231163025,
0.5148481130599976,
-0.5602616667747498,
0.4621151089668274,
-0.3077382445335388,
-0.15447406470775604,
-0.03127533569931984,
-0.2512796223163605,
-0.40615466237068176,
-0.6536054611206055,
-0.370502769947052,
0.1675068885087967,
-0.33447960019111633,
-0.005398796405643225,
-0.6887039542198181,
-0.13572701811790466,
0.29355350136756897,
-0.7507531046867371,
-1.0171791315078735,
0.7923629283905029,
-0.4273059070110321,
0.9076899290084839,
-1.1645936965942383,
0.30695652961730957,
-0.25957590341567993,
0.7749096155166626,
-0.030385106801986694,
-0.006237500812858343,
-0.6913812756538391,
0.3302714228630066,
-0.0034491114784032106,
0.2998891770839691,
-0.16364507377147675,
0.29045671224594116,
-0.47873082756996155,
0.1179429292678833,
0.3380565345287323,
0.1032809391617775,
0.22510454058647156,
0.44681280851364136,
0.06029238924384117,
-1.0047065019607544,
-0.37352368235588074,
0.29072821140289307,
0.181183859705925,
0.1800350397825241,
0.09664437919855118,
-0.47255611419677734,
0.4574478566646576,
-0.4931149482727051,
0.1791713684797287,
-0.08776737749576569,
-0.27904802560806274,
0.017362669110298157,
0.6929717063903809,
0.1778980791568756,
0.44389253854751587,
-0.11953587085008621,
-0.7505807876586914,
-0.698880136013031,
-0.7409659624099731,
0.6019989252090454,
0.6143937110900879,
0.2330900877714157,
0.8041452765464783,
-0.16453994810581207,
0.5539760589599609,
-0.22918380796909332,
-0.09427746385335922,
0.5324560403823853,
-0.2648501694202423,
0.5503627061843872,
-0.7855245471000671,
0.8529544472694397,
0.2883088290691376,
-0.11974645406007767,
-0.21216361224651337,
-0.28432342410087585,
-0.19194340705871582,
-0.2510544955730438,
-0.2857174575328827,
0.4250413477420807,
-0.8272064924240112,
-0.10371435433626175,
0.40719228982925415,
0.43144509196281433,
0.38065826892852783,
0.2501908838748932,
0.2153332233428955,
-0.10198687762022018,
0.0065284534357488155,
-0.06483591347932816,
0.3689936697483063,
0.5428224802017212,
0.3843570053577423,
-0.1810172200202942,
-0.008340501226484776,
-0.2626398801803589,
0.5455514788627625,
0.09301778674125671,
-0.27311110496520996,
-0.2956586182117462,
0.49219441413879395,
0.8223555684089661,
-0.6120061874389648,
0.401525616645813,
-0.03525057062506676,
-0.10069442540407181,
0.3876372277736664,
0.49777525663375854,
0.3786736726760864,
0.13418352603912354,
-0.7474156618118286,
-0.006599890999495983,
-0.815512478351593,
-0.2890922427177429,
0.0945005714893341,
-0.5079089403152466,
-0.049609120935201645,
-0.584247887134552,
-0.8154402375221252,
-0.24639728665351868,
0.35144829750061035,
0.6263442635536194,
0.24362164735794067,
0.05788910761475563,
-0.24658769369125366,
0.4882597327232361,
0.04023764654994011,
0.024656275287270546,
0.8949320316314697,
0.4139949679374695,
0.19641517102718353,
-0.020041530951857567,
0.7529827356338501,
-0.41075316071510315,
0.2341919094324112,
-0.10538288205862045,
0.2786891758441925,
0.7995824813842773,
0.30888429284095764,
-0.1867886483669281,
-0.6567457318305969,
-0.03858856484293938,
0.8551543354988098,
-0.08164717257022858,
0.17990528047084808,
0.1596745252609253,
-0.06675770878791809,
0.28307539224624634,
-0.12015914171934128,
-0.40945878624916077,
-0.6463857889175415,
0.08883938193321228,
0.2751190960407257,
-0.3491787910461426,
-0.4530782401561737,
0.46813589334487915,
0.17383798956871033,
0.5799270868301392,
0.09484801441431046,
0.22669632732868195,
-0.3521083891391754,
-0.7506546378135681,
0.8297981023788452,
0.4317304790019989,
0.8446569442749023,
0.3987925946712494,
-0.0888984426856041,
0.4821389317512512,
-0.3414619565010071,
0.6624615788459778,
-0.35399141907691956,
-0.7866050004959106,
-0.10151797533035278,
-0.25029096007347107,
0.3141501843929291,
0.10158964991569519,
-0.4236191511154175,
-0.13745182752609253,
0.04555227607488632,
0.058829955756664276,
-0.09787694364786148,
-1.116194486618042,
0.6430186033248901,
-0.17762041091918945,
-0.2256566435098648,
0.02875959686934948,
0.24112822115421295,
0.04292101040482521,
0.5374789237976074,
-0.43781474232673645,
0.4256640672683716,
0.1922301948070526,
-0.13728897273540497,
0.36301708221435547,
0.04040514677762985,
0.42788949608802795,
0.41717565059661865,
1.1392147541046143,
0.615890383720398,
-0.3749334216117859,
0.0305843036621809,
-0.33883145451545715,
0.04188504070043564,
0.0911267101764679,
0.14661622047424316,
-0.37693020701408386,
0.1708996444940567,
0.7463172674179077,
0.06739969551563263,
-0.6616223454475403,
0.15571191906929016,
0.14815212786197662,
-0.3188576102256775,
-0.009692512452602386,
0.7149839401245117,
0.7148552536964417,
-0.3903878927230835,
-0.082308329641819,
-0.22967380285263062,
-0.07704196125268936,
-0.3923295736312866,
0.02359638176858425,
-0.3075765371322632,
-0.6501619219779968,
-0.2779752016067505,
-0.10614403337240219,
0.6083913445472717,
0.2643643021583557,
0.42794913053512573,
0.21079054474830627,
-0.6811004281044006,
0.1711740642786026,
-0.49567386507987976,
0.1946638822555542,
-0.4593864381313324,
-0.3180062770843506,
0.07717591524124146,
-0.5488055348396301,
0.5697792172431946,
0.38819435238838196,
-0.1687328964471817,
-0.0630306750535965,
-0.03348366171121597,
-0.04700729250907898,
-0.25759217143058777,
-0.6711602210998535,
0.2571181356906891,
0.021480297669768333,
-0.23996524512767792,
-0.3431462049484253,
-0.34889838099479675,
0.5565826296806335,
0.31902480125427246,
-0.6375138759613037,
-0.6899886131286621,
-0.4116768538951874,
0.2948301434516907,
0.3470081686973572,
-0.557866632938385,
0.2522760331630707,
-0.2550794780254364,
0.08116604387760162,
-0.2719850540161133,
0.06877827644348145,
-0.469271719455719,
0.008335945196449757,
-0.4051384925842285,
0.3518161177635193,
0.7777945399284363,
-0.6798454523086548,
-1.2333089113235474,
0.23185932636260986,
-0.05874982476234436,
0.024371538311243057,
-0.26957714557647705,
-0.0884639173746109,
-0.6139564514160156,
0.35037386417388916,
-5.091119766235352,
-0.025619423016905785,
-0.834999680519104,
-0.14380860328674316,
-0.15570437908172607,
-0.12256129831075668,
0.3784995675086975,
-0.3943767845630646,
0.22749122977256775,
-0.4372828006744385,
0.498596727848053,
-0.08768349140882492,
0.027447331696748734,
0.9469485878944397,
0.5183990001678467,
0.8577530384063721,
0.02384973131120205,
0.8237252831459045,
0.12917876243591309,
-0.07492214441299438,
-0.6023318767547607,
-0.41605842113494873,
-0.4128950834274292,
0.5956161618232727,
0.34526151418685913,
0.22540515661239624,
-0.13934385776519775,
-0.5350672602653503,
-0.7447454929351807,
-0.645193338394165,
0.02159668132662773,
-0.2637659013271332,
-0.10637194663286209,
-0.02325035072863102,
0.07946664094924927,
0.15543054044246674,
0.2571491003036499,
0.6736471056938171,
-0.307533860206604,
-0.7423321008682251,
0.2830556035041809,
0.852088987827301,
0.2460460662841797,
-0.1457435041666031,
0.4579664170742035,
-0.4012773931026459,
-0.6875193119049072,
0.3252660036087036,
-0.9247704744338989,
0.8363945484161377,
0.5322756171226501,
-0.6106459498405457,
0.1255902200937271,
-0.2547015845775604,
-0.27654367685317993,
-0.5347635746002197,
0.6975567936897278,
0.02656080573797226,
-0.19428211450576782,
0.2271643728017807,
0.43016985058784485,
0.31035616993904114,
-0.23417454957962036,
-0.6944716572761536,
-0.2357831746339798,
0.12632469832897186,
-0.6470665335655212,
0.06204037368297577,
0.7579367756843567,
-0.08848942816257477,
-0.09764166176319122,
0.041736453771591187,
-0.6867049932479858,
-0.6556581258773804,
-0.5577847957611084,
-0.7350066900253296,
-0.9467635154724121,
-0.3456525504589081,
0.28681573271751404,
0.3137635290622711,
-0.6942347884178162,
-0.34850743412971497,
0.0714077427983284,
0.5211164951324463,
-0.13406793773174286,
-0.7732371687889099,
-0.1417544186115265,
-0.3041318953037262,
0.036213602870702744,
-0.45030245184898376,
-0.03894586116075516,
-0.43828684091567993,
0.621721625328064,
0.028537360951304436,
-0.804897129535675,
0.680203914642334,
-0.3724347651004791,
0.00659286929294467,
-0.1630348116159439,
-1.0523269176483154,
1.5514295101165771,
-0.3815022110939026,
0.19660939276218414,
0.2471013367176056,
-0.1690489649772644,
0.4642062783241272,
0.24752236902713776,
0.18442979454994202,
0.4720827341079712,
0.12476836889982224,
0.35936787724494934,
-0.041312769055366516,
-0.22132620215415955,
-0.7730501890182495,
0.6687964797019958,
-0.7005047798156738,
-0.3574143350124359,
1.0137163400650024,
0.2423424869775772,
-0.15162311494350433,
0.046761684119701385,
-0.07079187780618668,
0.07907820492982864,
0.38854697346687317,
-0.07611186802387238,
-0.40110063552856445,
-0.3431502878665924,
0.06792847067117691,
0.2703523635864258,
1.0086190700531006,
0.8856449127197266,
0.20561590790748596,
0.4991551339626312,
-0.40070223808288574,
0.5833871960639954,
-0.17204664647579193,
-0.22721335291862488,
-0.14323154091835022,
-0.33582058548927307,
-0.4725087285041809,
0.3690328299999237,
-0.5037132501602173,
0.28539344668388367,
1.0316556692123413,
0.07827181369066238,
-0.14581634104251862,
-0.2507764399051666,
-0.049726419150829315,
-1.2140706777572632,
-0.16289293766021729,
-0.5368871688842773,
-0.16376760601997375,
-0.19186745584011078,
-0.8025513291358948,
-0.05896412581205368,
-0.34789445996284485,
-0.005639608949422836,
0.24614830315113068,
0.05843682214617729,
-0.54808109998703,
-0.016793958842754364,
-0.9655690789222717,
-0.7924123406410217,
0.18155790865421295,
0.3477950394153595,
-0.5679900050163269,
-1.2975538969039917,
-0.23447641730308533,
-0.04403198882937431,
0.8992480039596558,
-0.20058441162109375,
-1.1364898681640625,
-0.5489615201950073,
-0.4853319823741913,
0.25958913564682007,
-0.2628640830516815,
0.2851780951023102,
0.41011473536491394,
-0.6331580877304077,
0.23879964649677277,
0.28526777029037476,
-0.07610678672790527,
-0.5798719525337219,
0.3389293849468231,
0.6278752684593201,
-0.20419225096702576,
-0.4927963614463806,
0.15181881189346313,
0.02111000008881092,
0.0041180504485964775,
0.6783996224403381,
-0.009611442685127258,
-0.006850535050034523,
0.3653654456138611,
-0.043198857456445694,
-0.6099521517753601,
0.20965346693992615,
0.26312825083732605,
-0.20743077993392944,
-0.23091165721416473,
0.507925271987915,
0.3978675305843353,
-0.09150374680757523,
0.5810683369636536,
0.33766970038414,
0.10200942307710648,
0.6299678087234497,
0.5200275778770447,
-0.48525381088256836,
0.09648507088422775,
-1.2347663640975952,
-0.36434417963027954,
-0.33028945326805115,
0.6868790984153748,
-0.6201580166816711,
-0.19360771775245667,
0.5149738788604736,
-0.8429246544837952,
-0.26266711950302124,
-0.22654631733894348,
-0.5101373195648193,
-0.3247976303100586,
-0.31257057189941406,
-0.19041138887405396,
-0.7983631491661072,
0.5090675950050354,
0.4447453022003174,
-0.9750245213508606,
0.49862805008888245,
0.030164210125803947,
1.5483132600784302,
-0.1706748753786087,
0.18148668110370636,
0.08471580594778061,
-0.04967573657631874,
-0.009552331641316414,
-0.05099382996559143,
0.330685555934906,
0.38170328736305237,
1.0691273212432861,
0.586750864982605,
0.8412324786186218,
0.008940775878727436,
-0.37427425384521484,
-0.09542954713106155,
-0.2305813729763031,
0.7917113304138184,
-0.4381571114063263,
-0.5491583943367004,
0.27392107248306274,
-0.23355387151241302,
-0.7202054858207703,
-0.1325206607580185,
-0.04739731550216675,
1.434131383895874,
-0.4177732467651367,
-0.054263271391391754,
0.5758501887321472,
0.1942988485097885,
0.4453059732913971,
0.27371254563331604,
-0.41254207491874695,
0.44423961639404297,
0.08112852275371552,
0.35959503054618835,
-0.22680000960826874,
-0.6788346767425537,
-0.30554404854774475,
0.5292472839355469,
-0.19845998287200928,
-0.18623800575733185,
0.19919408857822418,
0.4790802597999573,
-0.09893828630447388,
-0.30109351873397827,
-0.08799601346254349,
0.09347472339868546,
-0.38618412613868713,
0.19106405973434448,
-0.5519726276397705,
-0.5874740481376648,
0.05736871063709259,
0.10943518579006195,
-0.18377013504505157,
-0.3427506983280182,
-0.3874951899051666,
-0.4806499779224396,
0.06610500067472458,
-0.7076018452644348,
0.44343289732933044,
0.39352235198020935,
-0.6113184094429016,
0.01341144647449255,
0.1207047551870346,
0.0107856011018157,
0.30324551463127136,
0.3672298192977905,
0.3876975178718567,
0.18731534481048584,
0.14990639686584473,
-0.5786360502243042,
0.11510457843542099,
-0.32396379113197327,
-0.2529063820838928,
0.4424395263195038,
0.22969096899032593,
-0.268100768327713,
0.006259658373892307,
0.02015678398311138,
-0.023599550127983093,
0.5140553116798401,
0.11893374472856522,
0.3388552665710449,
0.8129100203514099,
-0.5382660627365112,
0.07380203157663345,
0.46294155716896057,
-0.45699599385261536,
0.13581043481826782,
0.5693532228469849,
0.5129914879798889,
0.258733332157135,
-0.2473984658718109,
0.345398485660553,
0.312439501285553,
1.2140721082687378,
0.18644742667675018,
-0.18422125279903412,
0.33546456694602966,
0.0112374946475029,
-0.1026645228266716,
-0.30910077691078186,
-0.6694390177726746,
0.9554493427276611,
-0.4899542033672333,
0.004441463854163885,
0.18772801756858826,
-0.49893760681152344,
-0.2516833543777466,
0.40189194679260254,
0.4758501350879669,
0.5604028701782227,
0.11955966055393219,
0.14556050300598145,
-0.04343397170305252,
-0.2963872253894806,
0.7856436371803284,
-0.3745005428791046,
0.436342716217041,
-0.61832195520401,
0.6769543886184692,
-0.28656691312789917,
0.23429565131664276,
-0.13725349307060242,
0.24341678619384766,
0.177652046084404,
-0.40461334586143494,
-0.4512645900249481,
-0.7321235537528992,
0.06029336526989937,
-0.02211177349090576,
-0.39247727394104004,
-0.18301311135292053,
0.42757919430732727,
0.043574992567300797,
-0.43856269121170044,
0.06406319886445999,
-0.19779051840305328,
-0.3559514582157135,
0.18167860805988312,
0.07816977798938751,
-0.010602573864161968,
0.24226726591587067,
-0.16374607384204865,
-0.2574303448200226,
0.3121824860572815,
0.5898991823196411,
0.625313937664032,
0.36055639386177063,
0.24445612728595734,
-0.1621105819940567,
0.4101514220237732,
0.4034227430820465,
-1.0234049558639526,
-0.217304527759552,
-0.1871446818113327,
0.0723956823348999,
-0.1131359413266182,
0.2208268940448761,
0.01830349676311016,
0.2662199139595032,
-0.4893988370895386,
0.18873803317546844,
0.0786186084151268,
-0.823196291923523,
-0.21153192222118378,
-0.5641239881515503,
0.8692957758903503,
0.8327089548110962,
-0.463603138923645,
0.007952528074383736,
0.32171574234962463,
-0.013750079087913036,
0.40965789556503296,
-0.23740021884441376,
0.34442204236984253,
0.35051602125167847,
-0.4105917513370514,
0.25821200013160706,
0.6586766242980957,
0.45900997519493103,
0.33431246876716614,
-0.37721988558769226,
-0.1556241810321808,
-0.23973239958286285,
-0.14445270597934723,
0.8762635588645935,
-0.4878702163696289,
0.47122102975845337,
-0.4965830445289612,
0.20007146894931793,
-0.34312424063682556,
0.34972822666168213,
0.5484882593154907,
0.3829787075519562,
-0.3807341754436493,
0.1287916600704193,
0.7328492999076843,
-0.4203462600708008,
0.5824851989746094,
-0.07943374663591385,
-0.17590075731277466,
-0.810186505317688,
0.04479232802987099,
-0.5238034725189209,
0.05287653207778931,
-0.16204968094825745,
0.5431782603263855,
0.23857447504997253,
-0.24475033581256866,
-0.31842443346977234,
-0.30381450057029724,
-0.28738465905189514,
0.07264775782823563,
-0.020707927644252777,
0.3562135398387909,
-0.5134204030036926,
-0.1601058393716812,
-1.4734165668487549,
0.23305758833885193,
-0.474160373210907,
-1.1221649646759033,
0.7179120779037476,
-0.3260536789894104,
-0.37605080008506775,
-0.20473448932170868,
0.7143473625183105,
-0.21743451058864594,
0.28610697388648987,
0.16604408621788025
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.