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206423	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basildon	Basildon	Basildon ( ) is the largest town in the borough of Basildon, within the county of Essex, England. It has a population of 107,123. In 1931 the parish had a population of 1159. It lies east of Central London, south of the city of Chelmsford and west of Southend-on-Sea. Nearby smaller towns include Billericay to the north-west, Wickford to the north-east and South Benfleet to the south-east. It was created as a new town after World War II in 1948, to accommodate the London population overspill from the conglomeration of four small villages, namely Pitsea, Laindon, Basildon (the most central of the four) and Vange. The local government district of Basildon, which was formed in 1974 and received borough status in 2010, encapsulates a larger area than the town itself; the two neighbouring towns of Billericay and Wickford, as well as rural villages and smaller settlements set among the surrounding countryside, fall within its borders. Basildon Town is one of the most densely populated areas in the county. The parish of Basildon was abolished to create Billericay on 1 January 1937. Some of Basildon's residents work in Central London, due to the town being well connected in the county to the City of London and the Docklands financial and corporate headquarters districts, with a 36–58 minute journey from the three Basildon stations to London Fenchurch Street. Basildon also has access to the City via road, on the A127 and A13. History The first historical reference to Basildon is in records from 1086. It is mentioned in the Domesday Book as 'Belesduna'. The name 'Basildon' may be derived from the Anglo-Saxon personal name 'Boerthal' and the Anglo-Saxon word 'dun', meaning hill. In historical documents, this name had various forms over the centuries, including Berdlesdon, Batlesdon and Belesduna. Railway service started in the 19th century to Pitsea (1856) and Laindon (1888) but it was only later that proposals to provide service to the new town of Basildon, shelved for many years because of concerns that it would simply become a commuter suburb of London, were eventually forced through. A significant number of modern-day residents do commute to London. By the beginning of the 1900s, Basildon had evolved with much of the land having been sold in small plots during a period of land speculation and development taking placed haphazardly with building by plot owners ranging from shelters created from recycled materials to brick-built homes and with amenities such as water, gas, electricity and hard-surfaced roads lacking. In the 1940s, Billericay Urban District Council and Essex County Council, concerned by lack of amenities in the area and by its development, petitioned the Government to create a New Town. Basildon was one of eight 'New Towns' created in the South East of England after the passing of the New Towns Act. On 4 January 1949 Lewis Silkin, Minister of Town and Country Planning, officially designated Basildon as a 'New Town'. Basildon Development Corporation was formed in February 1949 to transform the designated area into a modern new town. The New Town incorporated Laindon and Pitsea and was laid out around small neighbourhoods with the first house being completed in June 1951. The first tenants moved into homes in Redgrave Road in Vange. A large, illuminated town sign "Basildon Town Centre Site" at was erected in 1956 by the railway and stood until early construction was completed. The Basildon Centre, which incorporates the local council offices, was officially opened by Jack Cunningham on 14 November 1989. Since March 2010 Basildon has a miniature famous white Hollywood sign, reading "Basildon": at five feet tall, the new sign is one-ninth of the height of the Hollywood original. part of a plan of landscaping and infrastructure improvements funded by £400,000 from the Prescott-spearheaded Thames Gateway. Opponents from all parties believe spending could have been directed toward social problems. Politics The former constituency of Basildon was considered a barometer of public opinion in general elections. The results of the constituency elections were the same as the overall result of general elections from 1983 to its abolition in 2010. Basildon was said to epitomise the working class conversion to Thatcherism during the 1980s, though the town did not vote Conservative in 1979. Nor did the Conservative Party ever hold an absolute majority in the town – its success was due to the split between the SDP and the Labour Party. "Basildon Man" or "Essex Man" was coined to describe an aspirational working class voter. Boundary changes which came into force from the 2010 general election mean that the area is politically represented by two MPs, from the constituencies of Basildon and Billericay and South Basildon and East Thurrock. The current MPs are John Baron and Stephen Metcalfe, both of the Conservative party. In terms of local politics, Basildon District elects five councillors to Essex County Council. Following the 2017 election the seats were split 2 to the Conservatives, 2 to Labour and 1 Independent. Noak Bridge has a parish council. Communities Basildon was built like many new towns with each area being a planned community. These communities are now the local areas of the town: Pitsea - one of the original four villages that were incorporated into the new town. Pitsea itself is split into 7 distinct communities - Pitsea, Pitsea Mount, Eversley, Chalvedon, Northlands (formerly Felmores), Burnt Mills and Nevendon. Laindon - one of the original four villages that were incorporated into the new town. Vange - one of the original four villages that were incorporated into the new town. Fryerns - an area of Basildon which is located along Whitmore Way. The name came from a nearby farm (reputedly the first farm compulsory purchased by the Basildon Development Corporation) and was formerly the home of Fryerns Comprehensive School. Craylands - an area between Fryerns and Pitsea, and was named after the former Craylands County Secondary School. The area is under redevelopment by Swan Housing and has been renamed by them as Beechwood Village. Barstable - an area situated along Timberlog Lane. The area is named after the former Barstable Hundred and known for its local shopping parade Stacey's Corner. It was formerly home to both Barstable School and Timberlog Secondary School with the former being now part of the Basildon Academies. Kingswood - an area situated at the west end of Clay Hill Road. Ghyllgrove - an area situated between the Town centre and Fryerns. Lee Chapel South - an area situated between the Town centre and Basildon University Hospital. Lee Chapel North - an area situated between Gloucester Park, Lee Chapel South and Laindon Langdon Hills - an area situated south of Laindon. Dry Street - a small hamlet situated just south of Laindon and west of Vange. Great Berry - declared a village by Essex County Council in 2015, the area is situated west of Laindon. Noak Bridge - an area just north of Pipps Hill and east of Steeple View. Steeple View - an area just north of Laindon and West of Noak Bridge. It is so named because the steeples of Great Burstead Church, St. Mary the Virgin Church and St Nicholas Church, Basildon are visible from the area. Pipps Hill - an industrial area just north of Gloucester Park and west of Cranes. Cranes - an industrial area east of Pipps Hill. The name comes from the former Cranes Farm which stood on the site. Industry Basildon has a heavily developed industrial base. During the construction of the New Town, government grants were given to companies to set up their businesses in Basildon. Amongst the companies that took up these grants were Ford Motor Company (opened 1964), Carreras Tobacco Company (1959–1984), Yardley of London (1966–1998), Gordon's Gin (1984–1998), GEC-Marconi (now home to Leonardo MW). Basildon has industrial areas situated in Laindon, Cranes Farm Road and Burnt Mills. Cranes Farm Road is currently home to CNH Tractor Plant, formerly owned by Ford. Argos opened a regional warehouse on Pipps Hill Industrial Estate in the 1990s. In 2015, an Amazon delivery base was opened in Christopher Martin Road. A datacentre hosting the European matching engine of the Intercontinental Exchange is located in Gardiners Lane, Basildon on the site of the former York International factory. In 2017, Costa Coffee opened their new coffee roastery in Basildon. It is said to be Europe's biggest coffee roastery – quadrupling Costa's roasting capacity from 11,000 tonnes per year to 45,000 tonnes. The facility, which is dubbed "Paradise Street" can handle around 24 tonnes of coffee beans per hour. Transport Road The two main roads from London to Southend, the A13 and A127, pass to the south and north of the town respectively. Both are important commuter trunk roads, allowing easy access to the M25 and the rest of the motorway network. Locally, the A13 gives access to Pitsea and Vange; the A127 gives access to the town centre and Laindon. Within the town are six main roads which link to and from the A13 and A127; all of them include 'mayne' in their names. Nether Mayne runs from the town centre to the A13 at Five Bells junction, just west of Vange. Upper Mayne runs from the town centre to the A127 in the north-east corner of Laindon. Both this road and Nether Mayne form part of the A176, which continues north to Billericay. South Mayne runs from Northlands Park to the A13 at Pitsea. East Mayne runs from Northlands Park to the A127 near Noke Wood. Both this road and South Mayne form part of the A132, which continues north to Wickford. Broadmayne runs from the town centre to Northlands Park, connecting the four aforementioned roads. It forms the A1321. West Mayne runs from the centre of Laindon to the A127 at Dunton Wayletts. It forms part of the B148, which continues east from Laindon to Upper Mayne. Rail The town has three stations on the London, Tilbury and Southend line: Pitsea, Basildon and Laindon. All are served by c2c trains running between Fenchurch Street and Southend/Shoeburyness; trains serving Basildon and Laindon stations run via Upminster. Bus Most bus services are provided by First Essex, connecting the town to Billericay, Wickford, and other nearby towns. Other providers are Stephensons of Essex and NIBS Buses. Major transport investments A127, Basildon Enterprise Corridor As part of Basildon's redevelopment Essex County Council had proposed that the A127 undergo significant development at a cost of £15 million which was expected to be finished by March 2011. It was funded via the Community Infrastructure Fund (CIF). The project was completed, and was divided into three sections: Section 1 – Eastmayne. Implementation of an additional lane northbound (600 metres approx.) and new drainage and footpath realignment. Section 2 – Cranes Farm Road. Included dualling of the existing carriageway of which was already there (1500m approx.) and enhancing and upgrading junctions – with the creation of a dedicated left turn lane at the roundabout at Eastmayne to help ease traffic flows during busy hours at the junction. Section 3 – Introduction of a new A176 junction at Pipps Hill. This included upgrading the east and westbound off slips to increase the capacity of vehicles and ease traffic flows. The implementation of queue detection and advanced warning signs was also added to this section of the road. Part of section 3 also saw the introduction of the new Hollywood sign for Basildon at the A176 junction. Education There are several secondary schools in the Basildon district: Basildon Academies De La Salle School James Hornsby School Woodlands School Basildon also has two FE colleges: South Essex College which is located in the town centre. It was originally located at Nethermayne (formerly Thurrock and Basildon College) near Basildon University Hospital. PROCAT – an engineering and construction FE college (formerly Prospects College) based at Pipps Hill. New Campus Basildon – formerly part of SEEVIC and was based in Church Walk. It was announced in January 2017 that the college would be closing from September 2017. Essex County Council's Adult Community Learning service, ACL is based at Ely House, Churchill Avenue, while there are several private providers delivering apprenticeship, traineeship and business training. Sport Basildon has three senior men's football clubs: Basildon United and Bowers & Pitsea F.C., which both play in the Isthmian League North Division; and Basildon Town, who play in the Essex Olympian Football League. Basildon also has a senior ladies team, AFC Basildon Women, who play in the National League Southern Premier. In rugby, the town is represented in the London 2 North East League by Basildon R.F.C., while there is only local cricket played at Basildon and Pitsea C.C. in the Shepherd Neame Essex League Division 3. Basildon is home to the South Essex Gymnastics Club, where Olympic champion Max Whitlock trains. The town's main sporting facility is the Basildon Sporting Village, that opened in 2011 and is based in Gloucester Park. The Village consists of an Olympic-sized swimming pool, 8 court sports hall, a climbing wall, athletics track and is home to the South Essex Gymnastics Club. It was revealed in 2014 that more people swim in Basildon than anywhere else in the county and that 3.5 million people had visited the centre since it had opened. There are also smaller leisure centres, named The Place and Eversley Centre, located in Pitsea which opened during the 1980s. Basildon golf course is based in the Kingswood district of the town. Entertainment and culture Shopping The town centre has a variety of high street stores. As well as shops and coffee houses in the open air East Walk and Town Square, there is the covered Eastgate Shopping Centre which is home to over 100 retailers. When Eastgate was completed in 1985, it was the largest covered shopping centre in Europe until the opening of the Metro Centre. Eastgate has undergone a number of facelifts since 1985, with its most recent substantial refurbishment in 2007 at a cost of more than £10m. Further shopping facilities in the town can be found at Westgate Shopping Park, while there is a pavement market selling fresh fruit and vegetables as well as household goods, which in 2018 moved to a new location in St. Martins Square. Outside of the town centre there are retail parks at Pipps Hill and Mayflower on the A127, while there are smaller shopping centres in Laindon and Pitsea, which is home to a famous market that opened in the 1920s. There are several smaller shopping areas located in each of the communities. Festival Leisure Park Festival Leisure Park is a trading leisure park located in the north of Basildon and owned by Aviva. The Festival Leisure Park, includes 15 restaurants, a bowling and arcade centre, a family and entertainment centre with play frame and dodgem car track, two hotels, a bar, a sixteen screen Cineworld cinema, two health clubs and a nightclub called Unit 7. The Festival Leisure Park is colloquially known as "Bas Vegas". The name originated from a proposed Casino development on the site. The site was previously home to the Aquatels park which hosted a zoo, ski slope and golf range that opened in 1972, which was replaced in 1982 by a conference venue called the Festival Hall which was home to the MFI World Matchplay darts championship. A wakeboarding complex also opened in 2012, attracting both professionals and amateurs alike Theatre The Arts Centre was the first theatre in Basildon, opening in 1968 in a temporary facility behind the then temporary council offices, on the site of the current Westgate shopping park. This was renamed 'The Towngate Theatre and Arts Centre' in 1976, before being replaced by a new purpose built theatre as part of the new Basildon Centre, on the opposite side for the former Towngate Road. In 1989, the culture and history of the town was documented by the newly re-opened Towngate Theatre, when it commissioned a community play from Arnold Wesker for the town's 40th anniversary. The potted history that Wesker called "Boerthel's Hill" was acted out by a 125 members of the community recording a fascinating history of London's East Enders, who were the first Basildon residents. Cinema Basildon currently has one cinema, Cineworld, which is located at the Festival Leisure Park. This was previously owned by Empire Cinemas but was purchased as part of $124m deal to purchase 5 cinemas. It had opened originally as a UCI. Previously, Basildon had an ABC Cinema, which was built in 1971 and was based in North Gunnells. This changed hands several times becoming a Cannon and a Robins cinema before closing in 1999. The building is now home to the British Heart Foundation store. Prior to this, a cinema in Pitsea, originally called The Broadway from 1930, before changing its name in 1955 as The Century, operated until its closure in 1966 when it was converted to a Bingo hall. In 2018, planning permission was granted for a new ten screen Empire cinema, along with new restaurants on the site of Freedom House in Basildon town centre, with demolition of the current buildings on site starting in 2019. Libraries and museums Basildon Central Library is now based in the Basildon Centre (since 1989), but had previously been in prefabs next to the temporary council offices on Fodderwick. There are also numerous smaller libraries across Basildon: Clay Hill Road in Vange, Pitsea Centre in Pitsea, Fryerns Library in Whitmore Way, and Laindon Library on New Century Road Laindon. Basildon is home to the Haven Plotlands Museum and was previously home to the National Motorboat Museum, which had been based at Wat Tyler Park. Currently there is not a museum dedicated to the history of Basildon, though plans had previously been made to site one at Wat Tyler Park. As of 2018 there is still a campaign to have a museum created. Parks and recreations grounds Basildon was designed with large amounts of green spaces with Gloucester Park dominating the centre of Basildon. Kent View Recreation ground in Vange and Northlands Park in Pitsea are the other large green spaces. Other formal parks include Mopsies Park in Timberlog Lane, and Howards Park in Pitsea. Basildon is also home to Wat Tyler Country Park which opened in 1984; Marks Hill Nature Reserve (opened 1981); Vange Hill; One Tree Hill Country Park; Langdon Hill Country Parks and the RSPCA Nature Reserve at Bowers Marshes. Essex Wildlife Trust run a large reserve at Langdon. Heritage Even though Basildon is a new town, there are still traces of its historical past visible. Old roads that once connected the villages have been incorporated into the new town: Clay Hill Road, Timberlog Lane, Rectory Road, Pound Lane, Church Road and Dry Street. Dry Street is a perfect example of old Basildon, as it is an undeveloped country lane that runs through One Tree Hill and Langdon Hill Country Parks and is home to several listed properties. Other than St Martin's Church, most of the historical parish churches still exist. St Nicholas (13th century and Grade 1 listed) sits proudly over Laindon, from where Basildon can be seen clearly, however St Peter's (13th century Grade II* listed) at Nevendon is hidden behind Sainsbury's and is little known by its residents. St Michael's at Pitsea is said to be 13th century, but was rebuilt in 1870 and now only its Bell Tower remains on Pitsea Mount. The village of Basildon's parish church, Holy Cross (Grade II listed) can still be seen in Church Road, while Vange's 14th-century church All Saints was remodelled in the 19th century and is set back from the London Road and is Grade II listed. Other buildings of note are: the Barge Inn at Vange; the Broadway at Pitsea, with its mock Tudor architecture built by Harold Howard in 1929; Cromwell Manor, formerly Pitsea Hall Grade II listed, by Pitsea railway station that dates from the 15th century; and Great Chalvedon Hall, Grade II listed and now a pub in Tyefields, which is reputed to date from the 16th century. Nevendon Hall was built in 1789 and is Grade II listed. The moat at the former site of Boetlers, a Tudor house demolished in the 1960s, is located near to Holy Cross Church. One notable building is Little Coopers Farmhouse, which was originally located in Takeley. It was designated a Grade II building in 1980. In the late 1980s, due to redevelopment, the whole structure was dismantled and re-built at the Wat Tyler Country Park. On the west side of town, the Dunton Plotlands area was occupied by small rural dwellings in the mid twentieth century. Today, it forms Langdon Nature Reserve. In 2008, a National Lottery funded heritage trail was started to highlight the 1960s architecture. Media Basildon has its own community radio station, which is aimed towards the residents of Basildon, East Thurrock and its surrounding areas called Gateway 97.8 which broadcasts from the Eastgate Shopping Centre. BBC London and ITV London are the local television regions received in the town. Basildon Development Corporation had installed a Cable Television service into many of its home, called Rediffusion, but this service stopped during the 1990s. The service was replaced by United Artists Cable which were based in the town; this is now Virgin Media, although the customer service operation closed in the 2000s. Since 1969, The Evening Echo newspaper offices have been based on the Pipps Hill Industrial Estate. The town has been home to The Yellow Advertiser since 1976. Television Basildon was the setting for the BBC programme White Gold with filming taking place in Basildon Town Centre. Channel 5 programme Extreme Hair Wars was set at JET training academy in Basildon. The fictional character Nellie Bertram, played by Catherine Tate in the U.S. comedy television series The Office was said to have been born in Basildon. Music Basildon had a great influence on the 1980s music scene with bands Depeche Mode and Yazoo, and later by Alison Moyet in her solo career and Vince Clarke in his role with Erasure. Film The documentary film New Town Utopia by Christopher Ian Smith was made about Basildon. Basildon also hosts Europe's only Underwater film studio that can be inside or out, as it has a removable roof. The studios have been used to film scenes in the Anglo-French drama The Tunnel and for the film 47 Meters Down. Art Basildon was the focus of Magic Party Place by photographer CJ Clarke. " a largely white working class community, the town is one of the most statistically average places in England", he said. Modern architecture and design St. Martin's Church in Basildon town centre is a modern structure. The church was consecrated in 1962 by the Bishop of Chelmsford. A freestanding glass Bell Tower was built in 1999 and opened by Her Majesty the Queen. Although there are a number of tall buildings in central Basildon, there are also many newly constructed buildings closer to the 'Basildon Enterprise Corridor' situated in North Basildon. The largest structure in the new town's town centre is Brooke House, a 14-story residential tower block that fronts the west side of the town centre's East Square. Dating from 1962, it was designed by Sir Basil Spence and Anthony B Davies, with Ove Arup and Partners as the structural engineers. It has a 1960s Brutalist design, elevated on 8 massive V-shaped concrete pylons. The building was chosen to have a residential function, as opposed to commercial office space, to retain life in the town centre after the shops had closed. Shops were positioned to the rear of the building, with Brooke House acting as a covered forecourt. It was conceived as a structure to define Basildon's urban status and to act as marker to identify the town centre's location within a largely low-rise settlement set in a flat landscape. It was named after the then Minister of Housing and Local Government, Henry Brooke MP. The building was given Grade II listing in 1998. East of Brooke House is East Square, a sunken open-air public plaza accessed from Brooke House by a monumental staircase and a curved ramp which was listed in 1998 as Grade II. Formerly the east side of the square was fronted by Freedom House, containing shops on two levels, and the north side by the Post Office building, a 5-story structure. Formerly on the wall of Freedom House is the oldest piece of public sculpture in the new town: installed in 1957, it is a wire and aluminium relief by the sculptor A. J. Poole titled "Man Aspires". The whole ensemble was designed to create a formal setting for Brooke House, and had a similar Brutalist design, though softened by other architectural features. Freedom House was demolished, along with the Post Office building as part of the new cinema construction in 2019. The town centre extends from East Square towards the south-west. Down the middle of this zone runs a rectangular raised pool. Within the pool is a bronze sculpture and fountain, titled "Mother and Child", by the sculptor Maurice Lambert and dating from 1959 which was listed as Grade II in 1998. On the Upper level of Eastgate is the Cats Cradle Pussiwillow III Clock. It was created by Rowland Emett in 1981 and was originally placed outside what is now ASDA on the Lower Mall of the shopping centre. It was officially unveiled by Michael Bentine. The Barstable School building first opened on 1 March 1962 and was designed by the Finnish architect Cyril Leonard Sjöström Mardall (of YRM Architects, Yorke, Rosenberg and Mardall). The building was listed in 1993 and is Grade II listed. It is now home to the lower school of the Basildon Academies. Regeneration Basildon has gone through several regenerations - a few highlights are:. Investment in the Basildon Enterprise Corridor, a large business area. The creation of a new wetland nature reserve in the Thames Marshes by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), the Land Restoration Trust, Basildon District Council and Veolia. A review of the district's housing, with investment in housing estates such as Craylands, Five Links and Felmores which will be re-designed to allow for less trouble and having more streets with roads, rather than a street with just pavement. The regeneration of Pitsea town centre. Some future plans include: The regeneration of Basildon and Laindon town centres. The creation of a health and education research centre near Basildon University Hospital. There is a proposal for creating Dunton Garden Suburb on land between Basildon and Brentwood. This proposal may have 6,000 homes, together with retail, commercial and leisure uses. This is a joint proposal of the two councils and a public consultation ended in March 2015. The proposal has been met with criticism from all political parties and the residents group Residents Against Inappropriate Development In 2018 planning permission was granted for a new 10 screen Empire Cinema along with new restaurants on the site of Freedom House in Basildon town centre. Twinning Basildon's twin towns include: Heiligenhaus (Germany) Meaux (France) Healthcare Notable people Perry Bamonte – ex-guitarist, The Cure Andy Barcham – footballer Jay Howard - Racecar Driver Brian Belo – winner of Big Brother 2007 Stuart Bingham – former World champion snooker player. Emma Blackery – singer-songwriter and YouTuber Daniel Brooks golfer on the European Tour Darren Caskey – ex-Tottenham Hotspur F.C. and Reading F.C. footballer Keith Chapman – creator of Bob The Builder Mark Crick – photographer and author Depeche Mode – electronic music band, formed in 1980 in Basildon. Martin Gore Andrew Fletcher David Gahan Vince Clarke – currently a member of Erasure Bob Downs – former professional cyclist Josh Dubovie – singer, Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo, Norway Justin Edinburgh – ex-Tottenham Hotspur F.C. Portsmouth F.C. and Southend United F.C. Sophie Hinchliffe - cleaning Michael Kightly – footballer, Wolverhampton Wanderers, Southend United and Grays Athletic Kunt and the Gang - musical comedian Robert Marlow – singer Terry Marsh – boxer Eamonn Martin – Athlete and winner of the 1993 London Marathon elite men's race. Alison Moyet – singer QBoy – rapper Gemma Ray – musician, singer, composer and producer Scott Robinson, singer from Five Simon Segars – CEO ARM Holdings, born in Basildon, went to Woodlands School Joan Sims – actress Ellie Taylor - British comedian Kara Tointon – actress, Dawn Swann in EastEnders and film The Football Factory James Tomkins – footballer, West Ham United FC Denise Van Outen – actress Climate Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate). See also New Holland Agriculture References External links Basildon Council Basildon Heritage Basildon Borough History – Basildon Basildon History Online Gateway 97.8 – Community Radio station Basildon Radio – Basildon local Internet Radio station Towns in Essex New towns started in the 1940s Unparished areas in Essex Former civil parishes in Essex Borough of Basildon	[ -0.2866762578487396, 0.4508570432662964, 0.3267469108104706, -0.7532597184181213, -0.032731033861637115, 0.1564929187297821, 0.09438759833574295, 0.33158960938453674, -0.40813249349594116, 0.3699744939804077, -0.39652156829833984, 0.20979543030261993, -0.09452982246875763, -0.2088344395160675, -0.5561645030975342, 0.09811044484376907, 0.46359193325042725, 0.3521762192249298, 0.7533010244369507, -0.34487342834472656, 0.28090259432792664, -0.3225409686565399, -0.18359696865081787, 0.6835910677909851, 0.158935084939003, -0.007457418367266655, 0.34463247656822205, 0.00622686417773366, -0.2735585868358612, 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206425	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash%20halakha	Midrash halakha	Midrash halakha () was the ancient Judaic rabbinic method of Torah study that expounded upon the traditionally received 613 Mitzvot (commandments) by identifying their sources in the Hebrew Bible, and by interpreting these passages as proofs of the laws' authenticity. Midrash more generally also refers to the non-legal interpretation of the Tanakh (aggadic midrash). The term is applied also to the derivation of new laws, either by means of a correct interpretation of the obvious meaning of scriptural words themselves or by the application of certain hermeneutic rules. The Midrashim are mostly derived from, and based upon, the teachings of the Tannaim. Terminology The phrase "Midrash halakha" was first employed by Nachman Krochmal, the Talmudic expression being "Midrash Torah" = "investigation of the Torah". These interpretations were often regarded as corresponding to the real meaning of the Scriptural texts; thus it was held that a correct elucidation of the Torah carried with it the proof of the halakha and the reason for its existence. Types of midrash In the Midrash halakha three divisions may be distinguished: The midrash of the older halakha, that is, the midrash of the Soferim and the Tannaim of the first two generations; The midrash of the younger halakha, or the midrash of the Tannaim of the three following generations; The midrash of several younger tannaim and of many Amoraim who did not interpret a Biblical passage as an actual proof of the halakha, but merely as a suggestion or a support for it ("zekher le-davar"; "asmakhta"). The Midrash of the older halakha The older halakha sought only to define the compass and scope of individual laws, asking under what circumstances of practical life a given rule was to be applied and what would be its consequences. The older Midrash, therefore, aims at an exact definition of the laws contained in the Scriptures by an accurate interpretation of the text and a correct determination of the meaning of the various words. The form of exegesis adopted is frequently one of simple lexicography, and is remarkably brief. A few examples will serve to illustrate the style of the older Midrash halakha. It translates the word "ra'ah" (Exodus 21:8) "displease" (Mekhilta, Mishpatim), which is contrary to the interpretation of Rabbi Eliezer. From the expression "be-miksat" (Exodus 12:4), which, according to it, can mean only "number," the older halakha deduces the rule that when killing the Passover lamb the slaughterer must be aware of the number of persons who are about to partake of it. The statement that the determination of the calendar of feasts depends wholly on the decision of the Nasi and his council is derived from Leviticus 23:37, the defectively written "otam" (them) being read as "attem" (you) and the interpretation, "which you shall proclaim," being regarded as conforming to the original meaning of the phrase. When two different forms of the same word in a given passage have been transmitted, one written in the text (ketib), and the other being the traditional reading (qere), the halakha, not wishing to designate either as wrong, interprets the word in such a way that both forms may be regarded as correct. Thus it explains Leviticus 25:30-where according to the qere the meaning is "in the walled city," but according to the ketib, "in the city that is not walled"-as referring to a city that once had walls, but no longer has them. In a similar way it explains Leviticus 11:29. According to Krochmal, the ketib was due to the Soferim themselves, who desired that the interpretation given by the halakha might be contained in the text; for example, in the case of "otam" and "attem" noted above, they intentionally omitted the letter vav. The Midrash of the younger halakha The younger halakha did not confine itself to the mere literal meaning of single passages, but sought to draw conclusions from the wording of the texts in question by logical deductions, by combinations with other passages, etc. Hence its midrash differs from the simple exegesis of the older halakha. It treats the Bible according to certain general principles, which in the course of time became more and more amplified and developed (see Talmud); and its interpretations depart further and further from the simple meaning of the words. A few examples will illustrate this difference in the method of interpretation between the older and the younger halakhah. It was a generally accepted opinion that the first Passover celebrated in Egypt, that of the Exodus, differed from those that followed it, in that at the first one the prohibition of leavened bread was for a single day only, whereas at subsequent Passovers this restriction extended to seven days. The older halakha represented by R. Jose the Galilean, bases its interpretation on a different division of the sentences in Exodus 13 than the one generally received; connecting the word "ha-yom" (= "this day", the first word of verse 13:4) with verse 13:3 and so making the passage read: "There shall no leavened bread be eaten this day." The younger halakha reads "ha-yom" with verse 13:4, and finds its support for the traditional halakha by means of the principle of "semukot" (collocation); that is to say, the two sentences, "There shall no leavened bread be eaten," and "This day came ye out," though they are separated grammatically, are immediately contiguous in the text, and exert an influence over each other. What the older halakha regarded as the obvious meaning of the words of the text, the younger infers from the collocation of the sentences. The wide divergence between the simple exegesis of the older halakha and the artificiality of the younger is illustrated also by the difference in the method of explaining the Law, cited above, in regard to uncleanness. Both halakhot regard it as self-evident that if a man is unclean, whether it be from contact with a corpse or from any other cause, he may not share in the Passover. The younger halakha, despite the dot over the ה, reads "rechokah" and makes it refer to "derekh" ("road" or "way") even determining how far away one must be to be excluded from participation in the feast. However, to find a ground for the halakha that those who are unclean through contact with other objects than a corpse may have no share in the Passover, it explains the repetition of the word "ish" in this passage (Leviticus 9 10) as intending to include all other cases of defilement. Despite this difference in method, the midrashim of the older and of the younger halakha alike believed that they had sought only the true meaning of the Scriptures. Their interpretations and deductions appeared to them to be really contained in the text; and they wished them to be considered correct Biblical expositions. Hence they both have the form of Scriptural exegesis, in that each mentions the Biblical passage and the halakha that explains it, or, more correctly, derives from it. Abstract and Midrash halakha It is to a law stated in this form—i.e., together with the Biblical passage it derives from—that the name midrash applies, whereas one that, though ultimately based on the Bible, is cited independently as an established statute is called a halakha. Collections of halakhot of the second sort are the Mishnah and the Tosefta; compilations of the first sort are the halakhic midrashim. This name they receive to distinguish them from the haggadic midrashim, since they contain halakhot for the most part, although there are haggadic portions in them. In these collections the line between independent halakha and Midrash halakha is not sharply drawn. Many mishnayot (single paragraph units) in the Mishnah and in the Tosefta are midrashic halakhot. On the other hand, the halakhic midrashim contain independent halakhot without statements of their Scriptural bases. This confusion is explained by the fact that the redactors of the two forms of halakhot borrowed passages from one another. The schools of R. Akiva and R' Ishmael Since the halakhic Midrashim had for their secondary purpose the exegesis of the Bible, they were arranged according to the text of the Pentateuch. As Genesis contains very little matter of a legal character, there was probably no halakhic midrash to this book. On the other hand, to each of the other four books of the Pentateuch there was a midrash from the school of R. Akiva and one from the school of R. Ishmael, and these midrashim are still in great part extant. The halakhic midrash to Exodus from the school of R. Ishmael is the Mekilta, while that of the school of R. Akiva is the Mekilta of R. Shimon bar Yochai, most of which is contained in Midrash ha-Gadol. A halakhic midrash to Leviticus from the school of R. Akiva exists under the name "Sifra" or "Torat Kohanim." There was one to Leviticus from the school of R. Ishmael also, of which only fragments have been preserved. The halakhic midrash to Numbers from the school of R. Ishmael is the "Sifre"; while of that of the school of R. Akiva, the Sifre Zutta, only extracts have survived in Yalkut Shimoni and Midrash ha-Gadol. The middle portion of the Sifre to Deuteronomy forms a halakhic midrash on that book from the school of R. Akiva, while another from the school of R. Ishmael has been shown by Hoffmann to have existed. This assignment of the several midrashim to the school of R. Ishmael and to that of R. Akiva respectively, however, is not to be too rigidly insisted upon; for the Sifre repeats in an abbreviated form some of the teachings of the Mekilta, just as the Mekilta included in the Midrash ha-Gadol has incorporated many doctrines from Akiba's midrash. Midrashic halakhot found also scattered through the two Talmuds; for many halakhic baraitot (traditions in oral law) that occur in the Talmuds are really midrashic, recognizable by the fact that they mention the Scriptural bases for the respective halakhot, often citing the text at the very beginning. In the Jerusalem Talmud the midrashic baraitot frequently begin with "Ketib" (= "It is written"), followed by the Scriptural passage. From the instances of midrashic baraitot in the Talmud that are not found in the extant midrashim, the loss of many of the latter class of works must be inferred. The Midrash of Several Younger Tannaim and of many Amoraim The Midrash which the Amoraim use when deducing tannaitic halakhot from the Scriptures is frequently very distant from the literal meaning of the words. The same is true of many explanations by the younger tannaim. These occur chiefly as expositions of such halakhot as were not based on Scripture but which it was desired to connect with or support by a word in the Bible. The Talmud often says of the interpretations of a baraita: "The Biblical passage should be merely a support" (asmachta). Of this class are many of the explanations in the Sifra and in the Sifre. The tanna also often says frankly that he does not cite the Biblical word as proof ("re'aya"), but as a mere suggestion ("zecher"; lit. "reminder") of the halakah, or as an allusion ("remez") to it. See also Halakha Midrash Rabbinic literature References Bibliography: Z. Frankel, Hodegetica in Mischnam, pp. 11-18, 307-314, Leipsic, 1859; A. Geiger, Urschrift, pp. 170-197, Breslau, 1857; D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung in die Halachischen Midraschim, Berlin, 1888; Nachman Krochmal, Moreh Nebuke ha-Zeman, section 13, pp. 143-183, Lemberg, 1863; H. M. Pineles, Darkah shel Torah, pp. 168-201, Vienna, 1861; I. H. Weiss, Dor, i. 68-70 et passim, ii. 42-53. Further reading Jay M. Harris, Midrash Halachah, in: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Volume IV: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press (2006). 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206426	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toni%20Sailer	Toni Sailer	Anton Engelbert "Toni" Sailer (17 November 1935 – 24 August 2009) was an Austrian alpine ski racer, considered among the best in the sport. At age 20, he won all three gold medals in alpine skiing at the 1956 Winter Olympics. He nearly duplicated the feat at the 1958 World Championships with two golds and a silver. He also won world titles both years in the combined, then a "paper" race, but awarded with medals by the International Ski Federation (FIS). Career Born and raised in Kitzbühel in Tyrol, Sailer was nicknamed "Blitz from Kitz" (Blitz = German word for "bolt of lightning" or "flash"). A phenomenon as a teenager, he won the downhill and combined at the Grand Prix at Megève in 1952 at age 16. A broken leg caused him to miss the 1953 season and kept him from performing well at the World Championships in 1954. He returned to championship form in 1955 at age 19 and the following year became the first to win all three alpine skiing events at the Olympics, taking gold in the downhill, slalom, and giant slalom by 3.5, 4.2 and 6.2 seconds, respectively. He was the fifth athlete to win three gold medals in the same Olympic games, and became the most successful athlete at the 1956 Winter Olympics. The Super-G event did not exist until the 1980s. It was added to the Olympics in 1988. Through 2014, Sailer remains the youngest male gold medalist in Olympic alpine skiing. From 1948 through 1980, Olympic alpine ski events doubled as the FIS World Championships, therefore the Olympic champion in any event was also the world champion. The combined event was dropped after 1948 to make way for the giant slalom in 1950. No Olympic medals were awarded for the combined event from 1952 through 1984, but it was an FIS world championship from 1954 through 1980. During this era, it was conducted as a "paper" race, using the results of the three events. A stand-alone combined event returned to the world championships in 1982 and to the Olympics in 1988, with one run of downhill and two runs of slalom. Two years after the 1956 Olympics, Sailer won three gold medals and one silver at the 1958 World Championships in Bad Gastein, Austria. He won five of six possible Olympic/World Championship races, missing a perfect record with a silver in the Bad Gastein slalom, seven-tenths of a second back. Sailer also repeated as champion in the combined for a seventh world title in two years. Due to controversy over his amateur status after receiving compensation for acting (and skiing) in movies, he retired from ski racing competition in 1959. After racing Sailer's business interests included ski clothing and equipment, including the first successful fiberglass skis, made in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. In 1957–71, he appeared in a handful of movies, most of them shallow comedies at least partly set in alpine regions, with Sailer showing off his talent. In 1972–76, he was chief trainer and technical director of the Austrian Skiing Association (ÖSV). During the 1960s and 1970s, he ran a summer ski camp at Whistler in western Canada. Occasionally, as late as 2003 he was noted for appearing in a number of TV episodes or made for TV movies. He also sang professionally for a time, making 18 record albums. Sailer, although not associated with any political party, announced in January 2004 that he would run for Mayor of Kitzbühel. A few weeks later he withdrew his candidature, saying he had only now realized that being mayor was a full-time job. In 2006 he announced his retirement as chief of race of the Hahnenkamm Race, a position which he had occupied for 20 years. Honors Sailer was named Austrian Sportspersonality of the year in 1956, 1957, and 1958, and "Austrian Sportspersonality of the Century" in 1999. On 16 September 1958, he was featured on the cover of Bravo magazine. For his contribution to the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee awarded him the Olympic Order in 1985. Personal life Sailer married Gaby Rummeny in 1976 in Vancouver; she died of cancer in 2000. His second marriage, to Hedwig Fischer, lasted from 2006 until his death. His son Florian (by Rummeny) also survives him. Death It was announced in January 2008 that Sailer had laryngeal cancer, for which he had been undergoing chemotherapy in the preceding months. He died of cancer in Innsbruck, aged 73, in 2009, and was buried in Kitzbühel. His funeral ceremonies took place near the Hahnenkamm finish line. Selected filmography A Piece of Heaven (1957) A Thousand Stars Aglitter (1959) Twelve Girls and One Man (1959) Kauf dir einen bunten Luftballon (1961) Sein bester Freund (1962) Sansone e il tesoro degli Incas (1964) (1966) Aunt Trude from Buxtehude (1971) Holidays in Tyrol (1971) Wenn das die Nachbarn wüßten (1991) Almenrausch und Pulverschnee (1993, TV series) References External links Toni Sailer (1935–2009) – AustrianInformation.org Toni Sailer, skier, actor and singer (with images) – NevaSport.com Toni Sailer – Kitzbühel legends – Hahnenkamm.com Toni Sailer clothing 1935 births 2009 deaths Austrian male alpine skiers Olympic alpine skiers of Austria Olympic gold medalists for Austria Olympic medalists in alpine skiing Medalists at the 1956 Winter Olympics Alpine skiers at the 1956 Winter Olympics Austrian male film actors Austrian male television actors 20th-century Austrian male actors People from Kitzbühel Sportspeople from Tyrol (state) Recipients of the Olympic Order Deaths 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206427	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Ranger%20%28CV-4%29	USS Ranger (CV-4)	USS Ranger (CV-4) was an interwar United States Navy aircraft carrier, the only ship of its class. As a Treaty ship, Ranger was the first U.S. vessel to be designed and built from the keel up as a carrier. She was relatively small, just long and under , closer in size and displacement to the first US carrier——than later ships. An island superstructure was not included in the original design, but was added after completion. Deemed too slow for use with the Pacific Fleet's carrier task forces against Japan, she spent most of World War II in the Atlantic Ocean, where the German fleet, the Kriegsmarine, was a weaker opponent. Ranger saw combat in that theatre and provided air support for Operation Torch. In October 1943, she fought in Operation Leader, air attacks on German shipping off Norway. She was sold for scrap in 1947. Design and development Work began in 1925 on the design of a fourth aircraft carrier for the US Navy, as a follow-on to the small , converted from a collier, and the large and , which were in the process of being converted from incomplete battlecruisers. Carrier number four was the Navy's first opportunity to design a purpose-built aircraft carrier. Preliminary design work occurred before extensive operation of the preceding three. Having limited experience to draw on, key characteristics of the design were derived from wargaming experience at the U.S. Naval War College. During design and construction many alterations would occur as a result of increasing experience with Langley, Lexington, and Saratoga. The major limitation constraining any design was the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. After Lexington and Saratoga, there were remaining for construction of aircraft carriers. This resulted in modeling for three 23,000 long ton carriers, four 17,250 ton carriers, and five 13,800 ton carriers. Of the three sizes, the smaller 13,800 was selected because the five hulls would have the largest aggregate aircraft capacity. Wargames had indicated that severe attrition to airframes and hulls would occur in any war. The college's solution was to maximize the number of aircraft and hulls allowable under the treaty. Initially, Ranger was designed as a flush-decker, like Langley, with nothing extending above the flight deck. Keeping the flightdeck clear of obstacles complicated the arrangement of machinery. The smoke from her six boilers was vented up six small stacks, with three on each side of the aft hangar. The stacks were hinged and were rotated to a position parallel with the hangar deck during flight operations. The unusual stack arrangement is a carry-over from her flush-deck design. When an island was added midway through construction, rebuilding the uptakes into the island was rejected as too costly. Concerns about smoke dispersion impacted propulsion design. Size of the plant influenced both the placement of the boilers and the amount of smoke generated. A moderate 53,000shp power plant could be placed further aft than a 100,000shp plant without affecting trim. The further aft the boilers were placed the further aft the stacks could be too, dispersing smoke over less of the deck. The smaller plant also produced less gasses than a 100,000shp plant. Due to space limits, the carrier was equipped with geared turbines. Nearly her entire upper deck was devoted to the hangar. The large height and open girders of the flight deck structure allowed for stowage of spare fuselages. The hangar deck was semi-open and had large roll-up metal curtain doors which could be closed in bad weather. The open hangar was adopted to allow the installation of two catapults on the hangar deck for the launching of observation aircraft. The catapults were dropped to save cost. Ranger also incorporated a gallery deck between the flight deck and hangar deck. The flight deck was a light superstructure sheathed in wood. Designed as a weight-saving measure, the light wood deck was found to be easily repairable. Three elevators were provided to move aircraft between the flight deck and hangar deck. Outriggers at the edge of the flight deck provided extra stowage for aircraft on deck. The carrier operated 76 aircraft as constructed; equal to Lexington with half the displacement. The carrier was one of the first U.S. Navy ships mounted with light automatic weapons to defend against dive-bombing attacks, and was initially armed with forty .50 cal machine guns. Complementing the machine guns were eight dual-purpose 5-inch (127 mm)/25 caliber guns controlled by two Mark 33 directors. The machine guns were arrayed along the gallery and the 5-inch guns arrayed with one at each corner of the gallery, two at the bow, and two on the fantail. Construction, refit, and modernization Authorized by Congress on 13 February 1929, the U.S. Navy opened bids for the construction of the aircraft carrier on 3 September 1930. Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company outbid Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation and New York Shipbuilding Company for the contract. In November, Newport News Shipbuilding received the contract to build her. The contract price was 15.2 million dollars. On 10 December, the name Ranger was assigned to the planned aircraft carrier. Ranger was laid down on 26 September 1931 by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., Newport News, Virginia, and launched on 25 February 1933, sponsored by Lou Henry Hoover, First Lady of the United States. Late in construction the design was modified to include an island, increasing her displacement to 14,500 tons. Commencing trials on 1 May 1934, Ranger made 30.35 kn and generated 58,700 shp. She was commissioned at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 4 June 1934, with Captain Arthur L. Bristol in command. To save money, Ranger was initially designed and commissioned without torpedo stowage or a torpedo bomber squadron. Wasp was designed and commissioned to match. On 17 October 1941 approval was given to install torpedo stowage during the next overhaul in conjunction with the activation of a torpedo squadron. On 10 January 1942 Torpedo Squadron 4 (VT-4) was activated on Ranger. Across the years many alterations were made to her armament. The first change was to consolidate the 5-in gun battery by pairing the four main deck guns with the four gallery deck guns. The anti-aircraft armament received a major upgrade when six 1.1-in quadruple mounts were installed; the 1.1-in battery replaced a battery of 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns installed months before as placeholders. In March 1942, the .50 cal machine guns were exchanged for much more capable Oerlikon 20mm cannons. Similarly, the 1.1-in battery was swapped with quadruple Bofors 40mm guns in December 1942. Ranger's ultimate armament was six 40mm quadruple mounts and forty-six 20mm mounts. On 13 December 1943, Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Ernest King had approved an extensive modernization. Since Rangers commissioning, the size of carrier aircraft had grown enormously. Her flight deck supports were no longer capable of supporting the weight of a complete, modern air group. Other aircraft operating improvements were contemplated. The aft elevator was to be enlarged, the amidship elevator was to be replaced with a deck-edge elevator, and two flight deck catapults were to be installed. Weight and protection issues were to be solved by blistering the hull. Armament was to be increased with six additional 40mm quadruple mounts. Admiral King favored having the conversions done, but the Bureau of Ships insisted that allocating the manpower and resources required to accomplish this would considerably delay the completion of new aircraft carriers under construction. The full project was indefinitely postponed on 5 April 1944 after the third, increasing estimate. After arriving at New York Harbor on 16 May, Ranger entered the Norfolk Navy Yard to have her flight deck strengthened, new aircraft catapults installed, and radar equipment updated. This provided her with the capability of night fighter-interceptor training. Service history Inter-war period Ranger conducted her initial flight operations off the Virginia Capes on 21 June 1934 and departed Norfolk on 17 August for a shakedown training cruise that took her to Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Montevideo. She returned to Norfolk on 4 October for operations off the Virginia Capes and two stints in dry dock for post trial repairs until 1 April 1935, when she sailed for the Pacific. Transiting the Panama Canal on 7 April, she arrived in San Diego on 15 April. For nearly four years, she participated in fleet problems reaching to Hawaii, the first-ever carrier cold weather test trials in Alaska, and in western seaboard operations that took her as far south as Callao, Peru, and as far north as Seattle, Washington. On 4 January 1939, she departed San Diego for winter fleet operations in the Caribbean based at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. She then steamed north to Norfolk, arriving on 20 April. Ranger cruised along the eastern seaboard out of Norfolk and into the Caribbean Sea. In the fall of 1939, she commenced Neutrality Patrol operations, operating out of Bermuda along the trade routes of the middle Atlantic and up the eastern seaboard up to NS Argentia, Newfoundland. In December 1940, Ranger's VF-4 became one of the first units to receive the newer Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats. World War II 1942 In December 1941, she was returning to Norfolk from an ocean patrol extending to Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Arriving in Norfolk on 8 December, she sailed on 21 December for patrol in the South Atlantic. She then entered the Norfolk Navy Yard for repairs on 21 March 1942. Ranger was one of 14 ships to receive the early RCA CXAM-1 radar. Ranger served as flagship of Rear Admiral Arthur B. Cook, Commander, Carriers, Atlantic Fleet—until 6 April 1942, when he was relieved by Rear Admiral Ernest D. McWhorter, who also broke his flag in Ranger. On 15 April 1942, Prime Minister Winston Churchill cabled President Franklin Delano Roosevelt requesting North Carolina and Ranger reinforce the Eastern Fleet in the wake of the Indian Ocean Raid. The day before in response to advance notice of the reinforcement request routed through General George Marshall, who was then visiting London, Admiral Ernest King had already definitely stated that Ranger and any other major fleet unit could not be made available for the Indian Ocean. He stated the only manner at all in which the Navy could assist was by using Ranger to ferry the pursuit planes necessary to bring the 10th Air Force up to full operational strength. King's draft response to Churchill's insistence displayed a lack of tact. Roosevelt supported King, but toned down King's draft by playing up Ranger's faults to steer the British towards accepting the ferry mission. Steaming to Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island, Ranger loaded 68 Curtiss P-40Es and put to sea on 22 April, launching the Army planes on 10 May to land at Accra, on the Gold Coast of Africa (Ghana). The P-40s were a general reinforcement for the American Volunteer Group Flying Tigers (soon to be redesignated as the Army Air Forces' 23rd Fighter Group) in China, to replenish their losses as well as forming a second unit, the 51st Fighter Group. Although no difficulties were encountered in flying off Ranger'''s deck, errors in crossing Africa led to the loss of 10 or so en route. Upon return to Quonset Point on 28 May, she made a patrol to Argentia, Newfoundland. After Rommel's victories in May and June, most notably the fall of Tobruk during the Battle of Gazala, the United States agreed to commit to the North African theater a total of nine combat groups, of which seven groups were to be in operation by the end of 1942. Rangers contribution to the establishment of the Ninth Air Force was to ferry another 72 Army P-40s. This time she ferried a complete combat unit, 57th Fighter Group, which she launched off the coast of Africa for Accra on 19 July. Lessons learned from the previous ferry mission resulted in negligible losses, for which the 57th received commendations. The Group was operational with the Desert Air Force in time to participate in the Second Battle of El Alamein. After calling at Trinidad, she returned to Norfolk for local battle practice until 1 October, then based her training at Bermuda, in the company of four new s, ships converted from oil tankers to increase U.S. air power in the Atlantic Ocean. As the largest carrier in the Atlantic Fleet, Ranger led the task force that comprised herself and the four escort carriers. These provided air superiority during the amphibious invasion of Vichy-ruled French Morocco. On 8 November 1942, Allied landings in French North Africa (Operation Torch) began. Vichy French government forces attacked the Allied forces in defense of the neutrality of French Morocco, in what became known as the Naval Battle of Casablanca. It was still dark at 06:15 that day, when Ranger—stationed northwest of Casablanca—began launching her aircraft to support the landings made at three points on the Atlantic coast of North Africa (Operation Torch). Nine of her Wildcat fighters attacked the Rabat and Rabat-Sale aerodromes, headquarters of the French air forces in Morocco. Without loss to themselves, they destroyed seven planes at one field, and 14 bombers at the other. Another flight destroyed seven planes on the Port Lyautey field. Some of Rangers planes strafed four French destroyers in Casablanca Harbor, while others strafed and bombed nearby shore batteries. The Vichy French battleship opened fire with the four guns of her one operational turret on U.S. warships covering the landings. She was hit and moderately damaged by Rangers dive bombers, then silenced by the fifth hit from the guns of the American battleship , which jammed the rotating mechanism of the one working turret.Jean Barts 15 in. turret was quickly repaired. On 10 November, Jean Bart opened fire again, and almost hit the heavy cruiser , the Task Force 34 flagship. In retaliation, bombers from Ranger inflicted severe damage on Jean Bart with two heavy bombs hitting the bow and the stern, causing the French battleship to sink into the harbor mud with decks awash. In addition to damaging and sinking Jean Bart, Rangers attack aircraft scored two direct bomb hits on the French destroyer leader , completely wrecking her forward half and causing 300 casualties. They also attacked the French cruiser as she sortied from Casablanca Harbor and dropped depth charges within killing range of two submarines. Rangers planes also knocked out coastal defense and anti-aircraft batteries, destroyed more than 70 enemy aircraft on the ground, and shot down 15 aircraft in aerial combat. It was estimated that 21 enemy light tanks were immobilized and some 86 military vehicles destroyed – most of them troop-carrying trucks. Ranger had launched 496 combat sorties in the three-day operation, with 16 planes lost or damaged beyond repair. Casablanca capitulated to the American forces on 11 November. Ranger departed from the Moroccan coast on 12 November, returning to Hampton Roads on 24 November and Norfolk on 14 December 1942. On 2 December 1942, Ranger was again requested for in a cable from Churchill to Roosevelt, this time in connection to American misfortunes. The loss of Hornet in the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands kicked off a confused series of messages seeking British carrier reinforcement in the Pacific. To meet the request, Churchill offered both Illustrious and Victorious in exchange for Ranger replacing Victorious in the Home Fleet. King accepted one carrier but retained Ranger to use in the Atlantic or the Pacific at his discretion. 1943 Following training in Chesapeake Bay, Ranger underwent an overhaul at the Norfolk Navy Yard from 16 December 1942 – 7 February 1943. By December 33 Fighter Group had taken heavy losses in Tunisia and need reinforcement. Responding to Eisenhower's request, Ranger departed Norfolk on 8 January with the 325th Fighter Group aboard for delivery to Casablanca. She repeated the mission with another load, 75 P-40L fighters of the Army Air Forces' 58th Fighter Group to Africa, arriving at Casablanca on 23 February. On 25 April 1943, German radio announced "Achtung! Achtung! We are proud to announce that a German submarine has sunk the United States aircraft carrier Ranger in the North Atlantic!" Following this broadcast, German news releases reported that Commander Otto von Bülow of the U-boat , personally decorated by Adolf Hitler with Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross, had "in addition to torpedoing four steamers, caught and sank the American aircraft carrier Ranger." The US Navy, concerned about the impact of the German announcement on families of Ranger crewmen, issued a denial of the German claim. In the radio broadcast dated 15 February 1944, Captain Gordon Rowe, Commander of USS Ranger, stated:The story that we were sunk was a coward's trick—spreading anxiety and fear among the innocent.... The next day we issued a denial and ... on October 4 we spread panic and chaos in the Norwegian shipping lanes. Only one thing we regret. We kept looking for the Tirpitz but either she wouldn't or couldn't come out.... Meanwhile, the Ranger, still very much afloat, is doing her job.She patrolled and trained pilots along the New England coast steaming as far north as Halifax, Nova Scotia. Departing from Halifax on 11 August, she joined the British Home Fleet at Scapa Flow, Scotland, on 19 August, with which she patrolled the approaches to the British Isles.Ranger departed from Scapa Flow with the Home Fleet on 2 October to attack German shipping in Norwegian waters (Operation Leader). The objective of the force was the northern Norwegian port of Bodø. The task force reached launch position off Vestfjorden before dawn on 4 October completely undetected. At 06:18, Ranger launched 20 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers and an escort of eight Wildcats. One division of dive bombers attacked the freighter La Plata, while the rest continued north to attack a German ship convoy. The bombers severely damaged a tanker and a smaller troop transport. They also sank two of four small German merchant ships in the Bodø roadstead. A second attack group from Ranger—consisting of 10 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and six Wildcats—destroyed a German freighter and a small coastal ship, and bombed a troop-laden transport. Three of the aircraft were lost to anti-aircraft fire. On the afternoon of 4 October, Ranger was located by three German aircraft; her combat air patrol shot down two of the enemy planes and chased away the third.Ranger returned to Scapa Flow on 6 October. She patrolled with the British 2nd Battle Squadron in waters extending northwestward to Iceland, and then she departed from Hvalfjord on 26 November, arriving at Boston on 3 December. 1944–1945 On 3 January 1944, Ranger became a training carrier out of Quonset Point, Rhode Island. This duty was interrupted on 20 April when she steamed to Staten Island, New York, to take on 76 Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters—together with Army, Navy, and French Navy personnel—for transportation to Casablanca. Steaming out on 24 April for her fifth and final transatlantic ferry mission, she arrived at Casablanca on 4 May. The new aircraft were exchanged with damaged U.S. Army aircraft marked for repair in the U.S., while military passengers were embarked for the return to New York City. After New York City, she moved to Norfolk for refit on 19 May 1944. On 11 July, she departed from Norfolk and headed for Panama. She transited the Panama Canal five days later, embarked several hundred U.S. Army passengers at Balboa, Panama, then sailed to San Diego, arriving there on 25 July. After embarking the men and aircraft of Night Fighting Squadron 102 and nearly 1,000 U.S. Marines, Ranger steamed for Hawaiian waters on 28 July, reaching Pearl Harbor on 3 August. During the next three months, Ranger conducted night carrier flight training operations out of Pearl Harbor.Ranger departed from Pearl Harbor on 13 October to train new naval pilots for combat duty. Operating out of San Diego under the Commander, Fleet Air, Alameda, California, Ranger continued training air groups and squadrons along the California coast throughout the remainder of the war. Ranger was the only pre-war U.S. carrier never to have engaged Japanese forces in battle. Post war Departing San Diego on 30 September 1945, she embarked civilian and military passengers at Balboa and then steamed for New Orleans, Louisiana, arriving on 18 October. Following Navy Day celebrations there, she sailed on 30 October for brief operations at Pensacola, Florida, as a training carrier, later relieved in that role by . After calling at Norfolk, she entered the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 19 November for overhaul. She remained on the eastern seaboard until decommissioned at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 18 October 1946. Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 October, she was sold for scrap to Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Chester, Pennsylvania, on 31 January 1947. Awards For her service Ranger was awarded two Service stars and the following ribbons/awards. The two Service stars awarded to Ranger were awarded based on her participation in the operations detailed below. Notes Citations References Friedman, Norman (2017). Winning a Future War: War Gaming and Victory in the Pacific War''. Washington, District of Columbia, USA: Naval History and Heritage Command. . External links Navy photographs of Ranger (CV-4) General Plan for USS Ranger (CV-4) Updated through 7-24-1944, hosted by the Historical Naval Ships Association (HNSA) Digital Collections Additional photographs of Ranger (CV-4) before World War II, including postcards and airplanes U.S. Newsmap featuring USS Ranger (CV-4), hosted by the UNT Libraries Digital Collections "Home On The Range(r)" – A shipboard parody song written about 1939. War Service Fuel Consumption of U.S. Naval Surface Vessels FTP 218 Air Group 4 (AG-4), stationed aboard USS Ranger (CV-4) until July 1944 contains extensive crew member accounts of actions and photographs Commanders of USS Ranger (CV-4) on U-Boat.net Commanders of USS Ranger (CV-4) on NavSource.org USS Ranger (CV-4) refit information Navy and Marine Corps Award Manual, NAVPERS 15,790 (REV. 1953) PART IV. CAMPAIGN AND SERVICE MEDALS for USS Ranger (CV-4) Navy and Marine Corps Award Manual, NAVPERS 15,790 (REV. 1953) American Service Medal Atlantic "A" Device for USS Ranger (CV-4) USS Ranger (CV-4) Crewmembers History – Search by Duty Station USS Ranger CV 4 Royal Navy, Home Fleet, Admiralty War Diary September to October 1943 – USS Ranger CV 4 Royal Navy, Home Fleet, Admiralty War Diary November to December 1943 – USS Ranger CV 4 Royal Navy, Home Fleet Destroyer Command, Admiralty War Diary July to December 1943 – USS Ranger CV 4 HMS Duke of York, SERVICE HISTORIES of ROYAL NAVY WARSHIPS in WORLD WAR 2 – USS Ranger CV 4 references 1943 September and October Beals Historical Society Newsletter, Vol XI, No. 1 (Winter 2011) My Life Aboard The U.S.S. Ranger CV-4 by Arthur Blackburn Beal Universal Newsreel, 72 P-40Fs of the 57th Fighter Group fly off of the Aircraft Carrier Ranger (CV-4) on July 19, 1942 National Archives Online FLIGHT OPERATIONS ABOARD USS RANGER (CV-4), 07/1942, Flight Operations on the Aircraft Carrier Ranger (CV-4) including Crew and Marine Detachment formations USS Ranger at World War II Database Aircraft carriers of the United States Navy Ships built in Newport News, Virginia 1933 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States	[ -0.42582690715789795, -0.18134014308452606, -0.019595883786678314, 0.38263288140296936, -0.029904529452323914, 0.06298399716615677, 0.3820967376232147, -0.4233846366405487, -0.627817690372467, 0.43583837151527405, -0.15677094459533691, 0.7220839262008667, -0.4256046712398529, 0.16470256447792053, 0.0356157124042511, 0.27348846197128296, 0.8249288201332092, 0.6666975617408752, -0.012316787615418434, -0.8358730673789978, -0.37218403816223145, -0.18891394138336182, 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206428	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Burgon	John Burgon	John William Burgon (21 August 18134 August 1888) was an English Anglican divine who became the Dean of Chichester Cathedral in 1876. He is remembered for his poetry and his defence of the historicity and Mosaic authorship of Genesis and of biblical inerrancy in general. Biography Burgon was born at Smyrna (now İzmir), on 21 August 1813, the son of Thomas Burgon an English merchant trading in Turkey who was also a skilled numismatist and afterwards became an assistant in the antiquities department of the British Museum. His mother is often said to have been Greek but was in fact the daughter of the Austrian consul at Smyrna and his English wife. During his first year the family moved to London, where he was sent to school. After a few years of business life, working in his father's counting-house, Burgon went to Worcester College, Oxford, in 1841, and took his degree in 1845. Burgon was elected to an Oriel fellowship in 1846. He was much influenced by his brother-in-law, the scholar and theologian Henry John Rose (1800–1873), a conservative Anglican churchman with whom he used to spend his long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his headquarters, while holding a living at some distance. In 1863 he was made vicar of the University Church of St Mary the Virgin, having attracted attention by his vehement sermons against Essays and Reviews, a series of messages on biblical inspiration in which he defended against the findings of textual criticism and higher criticism the historicity and Mosaic authorship of Genesis, and biblical inerrancy in general: "Either, with the best and wisest of all ages, you must believe the whole of Holy Scripture; or, with the narrow-minded infidel, you must disbelieve the whole. There is no middle course open to you." In 1867 Burgon was appointed Gresham Professor of Divinity. In 1871 he published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve last verses of the Gospel of Mark. He then began an attack on the proposal for a new lectionary for the Church of England, based largely upon his objections to the principles for determining the authority of manuscript readings in the Greek New Testament adopted by Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort. Westcott and Hort led the team producing the Revised Version of the Bible. Burgon assailed Westcott & Hort in a memorable 1881 article in the Quarterly Review, and collected his Quarterly Review articles and pamphlets into books, such as "The Revision Revised", in which he denounced Westcott and Hort for elevating "one particular manuscript,—namely the C (Vatican Codex (B)), which, for some unexplained reason, it is just now the fashion to regard with superstitious deference". He found their primary manuscript to be "the reverse of trustworthy." Protests against the inclusion of Unitarian Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the nomination of Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the University of Oxford, and against the address in favour of toleration in the matter of ritual, followed in succession. In 1876 Burgon was made the Dean of Chichester. Burgon's two-volume biography was written by Meyrick Goulburn and published in 1892. He has been described as a high churchman of the type prevalent before the rise of the Tractarian school. His collection of transcripts from the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of the New Testament, was bequeathed to the British Museum. Burgon died unmarried at the deanery, Chichester, on 4 August 1888. He was buried in the family grave at Holywell Cemetery in Oxford on 11 August. He is commemorated by a plaque set in the floor of Chichester Cathedral's south transept and by a window in the lady chapel. Literary Works In 1845, Burgon won the Newdigate Prize for his poem Petra, about the city of the same name, now in Jordan, which he had never seen. An excerpt describing the buildings has often been reprinted: The poem is chiefly remembered for the famous final line above, which quotes the phrase "half as old as time" from Samuel Rogers. This fourteen-line excerpt is often referred to as a "sonnet," but the poem is 370 lines long, in rhymed couplets. Burgon published it, apparently in a small pamphlet, in around 1845. A "Second Edition", "To Which a Few Short Poems Are Now Added," was published in 1846, and the text above follows that version. It contained some revisions: "sanctifies" had been "consecrates"; "call'd" had been "deemed"; "But rosy-red,—as if the blush of dawn" had been "But rose-red as if the blush of dawn", and so on. There was also an 1885 book containing the poem. Hugh Kenner commented on the precision of Burgon's language: Though romantic, Burgon was being workmanlike. To his generation the age of Time was quite definite; for since Adam was created in the year 4004 B.C. on 23 October, Time in the year Burgon wrote, 1845, was exactly 5849 years old, going back through half of which we locate the founding of Petra at 1080 B.C. His biographical essays on Henry Longueville Mansel and others were also collected, and published under the title of Twelve Good Men (1888). Burgon in modern times The name of Burgon is now known in connection with the Burgon Society, which was founded in 2000 to promote the use and study of academical dress, so named because Burgon is the only person to have a hood shape named after him. Another society which takes his name is the Dean Burgon Society. Burgon was outspoken about the Revised Version and maintained the position that the Bible is the inspired Word of God, but some of his views have differed from the more recent King James Only Movement. The phrase 'match me such marvel' taken from Burgon's poem Petra serves as the fictional title of a novel by the character St John Clarke in Anthony Powell's twelve-volume work A Dance to the Music of Time. Theological Works Inspiration and Interpretation (1861) The Last Twelve Verses of Mark (1871) The Revision Revised (1881) The Traditional Text Causes of Corruption of the Traditional Text of the Holy Gospels Other Publications Notes References External links "John William Burgon, late dean of Chichester : a biography with extracts from his letters and early journals, Vol. 1" by Edward Meyrick Goulburn, 1892 "John William Burgon, late dean of Chichester : a biography with extracts from his letters and early journals, Vol. 2" by Edward Meyrick Goulburn, 1892 "What did John William Burgon really believe about the Textus Receptus and the King James Version?" Researcher Doug Kutilek reconstructs Burgon's original views. The Causes of the Corruption of the Traditional Text of the Holy Gospels at CCEL. The Revision Revised (London 1883). Memorandum relating to the parish of Houghton Conquest in Bedfordshire. First published 1903–1904 in the Houghton Conquest Parish Magazine, Edited by Herbert W. Macklin. 1813 births 1888 deaths Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford Alumni of Worcester College, Oxford 19th-century English Anglican priests Deans of Chichester 19th-century English theologians 16th-century English poets King James Only movement English male poets Burials at Holywell Cemetery	[ -0.12121811509132385, 0.48190954327583313, 0.06446629762649536, -0.84818035364151, -0.04931773617863655, 1.078733205795288, 0.7704963088035583, 0.001005026395432651, -0.22068631649017334, -0.1335715502500534, -0.21579989790916443, 0.4129270911216736, -0.34222444891929626, 0.39647847414016724, 0.03468578681349754, 0.09936778247356415, -0.011796731501817703, -0.23814216256141663, -0.522427499294281, -0.6086549758911133, -0.21698297560214996, -0.3242395520210266, 0.13187773525714874, 0.0547209233045578, 0.025021012872457504, 0.5005599856376648, -0.05412786826491356, -0.6049923896789551, -0.2517548203468323, -0.1798953264951706, 0.446392297744751, 1.0218027830123901, 0.5084967613220215, 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206430	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyrcania	Hyrcania	Hyrcania () ( Hyrkania, Old Persian: 𐎺𐎼𐎣𐎠𐎴 Varkâna, Middle Persian: 𐭢𐭥𐭫𐭢𐭠𐭭 Gurgān, Akkadian: Urqananu)is a historical region composed of the land south-east of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan, bound in the south by the Alborz mountain range and the Kopet Dag in the east. The region served as a satrapy (province) of the Median Empire, a sub-province of the Achaemenid Empire, and a province within its successors, the Seleucid, Arsacid and Sasanian empires. Hyrcania bordered Parthia to the east (later known as Abarshahr), Dihistan to the north, Media to the south and Mardia to the west. Etymology Hyrcania () is the Greek name for the region, a borrowing from the Old Persian Verkâna as recorded in Darius the Great's Behistun Inscription (522 BC), as well as in other Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions. Verkā means "wolf" in Old Iranian, cf. Avestan vəhrkō, Gilaki and Mazandarani verk, Modern Persian gorg, and Sanskrit vŗka (). Consequently, Hyrcania means "Wolf-land". The name was extended to the Caspian Sea and underlies the name of the city Sari (Zadracarta), the then-largest city and the capital of ancient Hyrcania. Another archaic name, Dahistān (not to be confused with dehestan – a modern Iranian word for "district" or "county") is sometimes used interchangeably with Hyrcania. Dahistān refers, strictly speaking to the "place of the Dahae": an extinct people who lived immediately north of Hyrcania, as early as the 5th century BC. Apart from the geographical proximity of the Dahae, their ethnonym may have etymological similarities to "Hyrcanians"; for example, religious historian David Gordon White, reiterating a point made by previous scholars, suggests that Dahae resembles the Proto-Indo-European *dhau "strangle", which was apparently also a euphemism for "wolf". History Pre-Hellenistic Period Hyrcania formed part of the Median Empire by 600 BC, and according to Nicolaus Damascenus, was administered as a satrapy by the time of the last Median king, Astyages, who appointed a certain Artasyras as satrap (governor). Upon the fall of the Median Empire, the region willingly submitted to the Achaemenid Empire and was occupied by Cyrus the Great in 549-548 BC, and for a time Artasyras continued as satrap under Cyrus, prior to his replacement by Astyages himself. According to Ctesias, Astyages' grandson Megabernes also served as satrap of Hyrcania. Hyrcanians gave their name to the Hyrcanian plain in the middle Hermus valley in Lydia where they were settled, most likely during the reign of Cyrus the Great, as part of a policy to establish military colonies in Asia Minor. Under the Achaemenid Empire, Hyrcania served as a sub-province of the satrapy of Parthia, which was also known as the satrapy of Parthia and Hyrcania. At times, Cadusia may have been administered as part of Hyrcania. Fortifications to protect Hyrcania against nomadic incursions were constructed during the Achaemenid period. Following Darius the Great's victory over the Magian usurper, Gaumata, in September 522 BC, revolts spread throughout the empire. In December 522 BC, a revolt in support of the Median leader Phraortes erupted in Hyrcania, and in March 521 BC, the Hyrcanian rebels unsuccessfully attacked Hystaspes, satrap of Parthia. In May, Phraortes was defeated and Hyrcania returned to Achaemenid rule. Darius later settled Hyrcanians in the settlement of Dareionkome () in the Hyrcanian Plain in Lydia. Other Hyrcanian settlements in the Hermus valley include Ormoita and Tyanolla. According to Herodotus, Hyrcanian soldiers participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC under the command of Megapanus. After the war, a garrison composed of Hyrcanian soldiers was posted in the valleys of the rivers Hermus and Caicus. Under Xerxes I, Hyrcania was likely detached from the satrapy of Parthia and administered separately. Some sources imply Hyrcania was later administered as a sub-province of Media. According to Ctesias, Artaxerxes I appointed his illegitimate son Ochus as satrap of Hyrcania in c. 425 BC, who later assumed the throne as Darius II and appointed Idernes as satrap. Idernes' son Terituchmes succeeded him as satrap of Hyrcania following his death and was married to Amestris, daughter of Darius II, but Terituchmes was murdered by Udiastes, a henchman of Terituchmes, for conspiring to murder Amestris and revolt against Darius so he could wed his half-sister Roxana. By the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire in 334 BC, Hyrcania was reattached to the satrapy of Parthia and administered as a sub-province. Hyrcanian soldiers are mentioned in the Battle of Gaugamela against Alexander in 331 BC. After the death of Darius III in 330 BC, many Persian noblemen fled to Hyrcania. Alexander reached Hyrcania in 330 BC, where he accepted the surrender of Phrataphernes, satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, and chiliarch Nabarzanes. Alexander seized Zadracarta, the capital of Hyrcania, hereafter known as Syrinx, later that year and received the surrender of other satraps and nobles. Whilst in Hyrcania, Alexander appointed his general Amminapes as satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, but was succeeded as satrap of Hyrcania by Autophradates, satrap of Mardia and Tapuria, not long after. In 328 BC, Autophradates rebelled against Alexander and Phrataphernes, who had been reinstated as satrap of Parthia, was sent to quell the revolt. Autophradates was defeated and executed by Alexander at Pasargadae in 324 BC and Phrataphernes was granted the satrapies of Hyrcania, Tapuria, and Mardia. Hellenistic Period Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his empire was divided amongst the Diadochi in the Partition of Babylon, which confirmed Phrataphernes' control of Hyrcania and Parthia. The Partition of Triparadisus in 321 BC granted Parthia and Hyrcania to Philip, however, Philip was killed by Peithon, satrap of Media, in 318 BC and Peithon appointed his brother Eudemus as satrap. Eudemus was driven from Parthia and Hyrcania in 317 BC by Peithon, satrap of the Indus, who was subsequently defeated in 315 BC by Antigonus, allowing Antigonus to take control of the Asian territories of the empire. Antigonus appointed Nicanor satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, also known as the upper satrapies, in 315 BC and continued in this office until his death during the Babylonian War in battle against Seleucus in 310 BC which allowed Seleucus to conquer the eastern territories of the empire and form the Seleucid Empire. Seleucus' son, Antiochus I, appointed Andragoras as satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania at an unknown date prior to 266 BC, but rebelled against his successor Antiochus II in c. 245 BC. Andragoras may have founded the city of Dehestān during his tenure as satrap. Andragoras was killed in 238 BC during the Parni conquest of Parthia, led by Arsaces, who went on to conquer Hyrcania in 235 BC, thereafter forming part of the Arsacid Empire. Seleucus II attempted to reassert Seleucid control of Hyrcania and Parthia in 231 BC, but was unsuccessful as he was forced to return to Asia Minor to quell unrest. Following the Battle of Mount Labus in 209 BC, Antiochus III invaded Hyrcania and seized the cities of Tambrax and Syrinx, forcing Arsaces II, who was permitted to continue his rule over Hyrcania and Parthia, to become a vassal of the Seleucid Empire. During the siege of Syrinx, when the wall was breached, the garrison slaughtered the Greek inhabitants and attempted to flee. Arsaces II may have reasserted his independence in 189 BC, following Antiochus' defeat at the hands of the Romans at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. During the reign of Antiochus IV, in the late 2nd century BC, Hyrcania still formed part of the Seleucid Empire. After Mithridates' conquest of Media in 148 BC, Hyrcanians launched an unsuccessful revolt, which was crushed by Mithridates shortly afterwards. Hyrcania served as a royal retreat and Mithridates retired there in 141 BC. In 139 BC, Demetrius II launched an invasion of the Arsacid Empire only to be defeated and captured, following which he was provided a princely residence in Hyrcania and married to Rhodogune, daughter of Mithridates. In 129 BC, the Saka tribes invaded and pillaged Hyrcania, alongside other eastern provinces, and defeated and killed two successive Arsacid kings. Soon after his ascension to the throne in 124 BC, Mithridates II, recovered Hyrcania and re-established Arsacid control. Post-Hellenistic period Artabanus, king of Hyrcania, belonging to a collateral branch of the Arsacid dynasty, led a revolt against the Roman-backed Vonones I in 10 AD and successfully usurped the throne, becoming Artabanus III. Roman interference in the Arsacid Empire resulted in the ascension of Tiridates III in 36 AD, exiling Artabanus III to Hyrcania for a short time. During his exile in Hyrcania, Artabanus III adopted Gotarzes, son of Ardawan, satrap of Hyrcania. Artabanus III retrieved the throne and was succeeded by his son Vardanes I in 38 AD, however, Gotarzes unsuccessfully attempted to usurp the throne and was forced into exile amongst the Dahae. Gotarzes invaded Hyrcania in 46 AD with the support of the Hyrcanians and Dahae to press his claim to the throne, however, upon Gotarzes' discovery of a plot amongst the nobles to remove both Gotarzes and Vardanes I and place another upon the throne, the two brothers made peace. Gotarzes agreed to not press his claim to the throne and was appointed satrap of Hyrcania, only to revolt with the support of a number of nobles and attempt to press his claim once more. Gotarzes was defeated in Hyrcania and forced into exile amongst the Dahae until the death of Vardanes I in 47 AD, thus becoming Gotarzes II. Under the Arsacid Empire, the Great Wall of Gorgan, a series of forts and outposts with the plains of Hyrcania, was constructed to aid in the defence of Hyrcania against raids undertaken by the neighbouring Dahae tribes. At the beginning of the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, a rebellion erupted in Hyrcania and rebels sent envoys to Emperor Nero requesting aid. The rebellion raged until 60 AD when Vologases I hastily concluded a peace treaty with the rebels to allow him to deal with the threat posed by the Romans. However, the peace treaty did not last and the Hyrcanians launched another revolt that continued until at least 75 AD. In 75 AD, the Hyrcanian rebels allied with nomadic Alan tribes and granted them safe passage through Hyrcania into Media, allowing the Alans to pillage Media and Armenia. In the time of the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161), Hyrcania had made itself independent and was not considered part of the Arsacid Empire. Hyrcania is mentioned as Li-chien (or Li-kan, 黎幹) in the 2nd century AD Book of Han. Hyrcania was annexed to the Sasanian Empire in 225 AD by Ardashir I, after which the provincial centre was moved to Gurgān, which lent its name to the province during this period. The House of Aspahbadh, one of the Seven Great Houses, held lands principally within the region. Whilst staying in Hyrcania in 420 AD, Yazdegerd I was assassinated by the nobility who alleged that he had been killed by a white horse that emerged from and disappeared into a stream. The myth propagated by the nobility led people to believe the white horse was an angel sent by Ahura Mazda to end Yazdegerd's tyranny. Gurgān is known to have held a mint as early as the reign of Yazdegerd II. An unsuccessful revolt led by Vahan Amatuni, assistant governor of Armenia, led to his, and other members of the Amatuni noble family, exile in Hyrcania in 451 AD. Priests and other nobles who had led the revolt against Yazdegerd II were also deported to Hyrcania where they stayed until they were moved to the city of New-Shapur in Abarshahr in 453 AD. During the reign of Peroz I, the Hepthalites invaded Hyrcania and quartered at Gurgan in 465/469 AD. Peroz and his son Kavadh rallied against the Hepthalites and were defeated and captured in battle near Gurgan. At the time of the usurper Bahrām Chōbin's movement eastward into Abarshahr in 591 AD, Hyrcania was governed by the House of Karen, one of the Seven Great Houses. Following the defeat of the usurper Bahrām Chōbin in 591 AD, Khosrow II appointed Vistahm marzban (governor) of Hyrcania as a reward for his support during the rebellion, however, Khosrow's mistrust for Vistahm led him to attempt to execute him by luring him to the royal court. Vistahm was informed of Khosrow's intentions and rose in revolt, conquering much of the eastern provinces of the Sasanian Empire prior to his death and defeat in battle against Smbat Bagratuni in 596 AD. Smbat was rewarded and appointed marzban of Hyrcania, which he served as until 602 AD, during which time the region is known to have prospered. Religion Hyrcania, and the rest of Iran in Antiquity, was dominated by Zoroastrianism which was practised by the majority of the population. Christianity and Judaism was also practised in the region, and, Barshabba, the apocryphal 4th century AD bishop of Merv, is attributed to the foundation of Christian monasteries in Hyrcania. A diocese of Gurgan of the Church of the East is known to have existed from 424 AD. According to Paulus Orosius, following the suppression of a revolt in Phoenicia and the conquest of Egypt in 343 BC, Artaxerxes III deported Phoenician and Egyptian Jews to Hyrcania as punishment for opposing him. Some Hyrcanian Jews returned to Palestine, however, they maintained a presence within the region as late as the 4th century AD. Literary references In Latin literature, Hyrcania is often mentioned in relationship to tigers, which were apparently particularly abundant there during the Classical Age (though extinct in the area since the early 1970s). Virgil, in the Aeneid, had the abandoned Dido accuse Aeneas: Nec tibi diva parens generis nec Dardanus auctor, perfide, sed duris genuit te cautibus horrens Caucasus Hyrcanaeque admorunt ubera tigres. (IV.365-7) "You had neither a goddess for a parent, nor was Dardanus the author of your race, faithless one, but the horrible Caucasus produced you from hard crags, and Hyrcanian tigers nursed you." Following its geographical listing by Isidore of Seville in the early 7th century Etymologiae (a standard Mediaeval textbook), the name of Hyrcania became known and taught as far off as Ireland, where it was included in poems such as Cú-cen-máthair by Luccreth moccu Chiara (665 AD), the Auraicept na n-Éces, and Lebor Gabála Érenn (11th century). Hyrcania is mentioned in the short story "Rinconete y Cortadillo" by Miguel de Cervantes, and constitutes one of his exemplary stories which were published in 1613. Cervantes uses this reference to portray the illiteracy of Juliana la Cariharta, a member of Monipodio's guild. She is intending to make reference to Ocaña, a provincial town in Toledo, Spain; but she has misheard it and does not realise the difference. Shakespeare, relying on his Latin sources, makes repeated references in his plays to the "Hyrcan tiger" (Macbeth, III.iv.1281) or "th' Hyrcanian beast" (Hamlet, II.ii.447) as an emblem of bloodthirsty cruelty. In Henry VI, Part 3, the Duke of York compares Queen Margaret unfavorably to "Tygers of Hyrcania" (I.iv.622) for her inhumanity. Even in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, the Prince of Morocco also made references to Hyrcania. He said (an excerpt), "The Hyrcanian deserts and the vasty wilds/Of wild Arabia are as thoroughfares now." Sir Walter Scott in an epigraph to the thirty-fifth chapter of Ivanhoe refers to "the tiger of the Hyrcanian deserts" as a "lesser [...] risk than [...] the slumbering fire of wild fanaticism" (the epigraph is cited as being written by an anonymous author). The comic book heroine Red Sonja is described as coming from Hyrkania, an imaginary locale bordering an inland sea based loosely on Hyrcania and set in Robert E. Howard's fictional Hyborian Age. Howard's Conan the Barbarian also has various adventures set in this locale, including as a pirate on the inland sea. List of governors Although the below list is incomplete, they are the known governors of Hyrcania. Artasyras Astyages Megabernes Ochus (c. 425-423 BC) Idernes (423 BC-?) Terituchmes Phrataphernes (?-330 BC) Amminapes (330 BC) Autophradates (330-324 BC) Phrataphernes (324-321 BC) Philip (321-318 BC) Eudemus (318-317 BC) Nicanor (315-310 BC) Andragoras (?-238 BC) Artabanus (?-10 AD) Ardawan Gotarzes (46-47 AD) Vistahm (591-596 AD) Smbat Bagratuni (596-602 AD) See also Gorgan Gonbad-e Kavus Golestan Province Mazandaran Gilan Name of Georgia (country) Amol Sari References Sources Tacitus (1876). Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, ed. Annals. 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206431	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southend-on-Sea	Southend-on-Sea	Southend-on-Sea (), commonly referred to simply as Southend (), is a coastal city and unitary authority area with borough status in southeastern Essex, England. It lies on the north side of the Thames Estuary, east of central London. It is bordered to the north by Rochford and to the west by Castle Point. It is home to the longest pleasure pier in the world, Southend Pier. London Southend Airport is located north of the town centre. Southend-on-Sea originally consisted of a few poor fishermen's huts and farms at the southern end of the village of Prittlewell. In the 1790s, the first buildings around what was to become the High Street of Southend were completed. In the 19th century, Southend's status of a seaside resort grew after a visit from Princess Caroline of Brunswick, and Southend Pier was constructed. From the 1960s onwards, the town declined as a holiday destination. Southend redeveloped itself as the home of the Access credit card, due to its having one of the UK's first electronic telephone exchanges. After the 1960s, much of the town centre was developed for commerce and retail, and many original structures were lost to redevelopment. An annual seafront airshow, which started in 1986 and featured a flypast by Concorde, used to take place each May until 2012. On 18 October 2021, it was announced that Southend would be granted city status, as a memorial to the Member of Parliament for Southend West, Sir David Amess, a long-time supporter of city status for the town, who was fatally stabbed on 15 October 2021. Amess' successor, Anna Firth, confirmed that this would be implemented in March 2022. On 1st March, Charles, Prince of Wales presented letters patent from Elizabeth II to Southend Borough Council, granting the borough city status. History Originally the "south end" of the village of Prittlewell, Southend was home to a few poor fishermens' huts and farms at the southern extremity of Prittlewell Priory land. In the 1790s, landowner Daniel Scratton sold off land on either side of what was to become the High Street. The Grand Hotel (now Royal Hotel) and Grove Terrace (now Royal Terrace) were completed by 1794, and stagecoaches from London made it accessible. Due to the bad transportation links between Southend and London, there was not rapid development during the Georgian Era as there was in Brighton. But after the coming of the railways in the 19th century and the visit of Princess Caroline of Brunswick, Southend's status as a seaside resort grew. During the 19th century Southend's pier was first constructed and the Clifftown development built, attracting many summer tourists to its seven miles of beaches and sea bathing. Good rail connections and proximity to London mean that much of the economy has been based on tourism, and that Southend has been a dormitory town for city workers ever since. Southend Pier is the world's longest pleasure pier at . It has suffered fires and ship collisions, most recently in October 2005, but the basic pier structure has been repaired each time. As a holiday destination, Southend declined from the 1960s onwards, as holidaying abroad became more affordable. Southend became the home of the Access credit card, as it had one of the UK's first electronic telephone exchanges (it is still home to RBS Card Services – one of the former members of Access), with offices based in the former EKCO factory, Maitland House (Keddies), Victoria Circus and Southchurch Road. Since then, much of the town centre has been developed for commerce and retail, and during the 1960s many original structures were lost to redevelopment – such as the Talza Arcade and Victoria Market (replaced by what is now known as The Victoria Shopping Centre) and Southend Technical College (on the site of the ODEON Cinema, now a campus of South Essex College). However, about 6.4 million tourists still visit Southend per year, generating estimated revenues of £200 million a year. H.M. Revenue & Customs (HMRC), (formerly H.M. Customs and Excise), are major employers in the town, and the central offices for the collection of VAT are located at Alexander House on Victoria Avenue. An annual seafront airshow, started in 1986 when it featured a flypast by Concorde whilst on a passenger charter flight, used to take place each May and became one of Europe's largest free airshows. The aircraft flew parallel to the seafront, offset over the sea. The RAF Falcons parachute display team and RAF Red Arrows aerobatics team were regular visitors to the show. The last show was held in 2012; an attempt to revive the show for September 2015, as the Southend Airshow and Military Festival, failed. On 15 October 2021, the Member of Parliament for Southend West, Sir David Amess, was fatally stabbed during a constituency meeting in Leigh-on-Sea. On 18 October 2021, the Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, announced that the Queen had agreed to grant Southend-on-Sea with city status as a memorial to Amess, who had long campaigned for this status to be granted. Preparations, led by Amess, for Southend to enter a competition for city status in 2022 as part of the Queen's Platinum Jubilee were underway at the time of his death. A "City Week" was held throughout the town between 13–20 February 2020, beginning with the inaugural "He Built This City" concert named in honour of Amess. The concert was held at the Cliffs Pavilion and included performers such as Digby Fairweather, Lee Mead, and Leanne Jarvis. Other events such as a city ceremony and the Southend LuminoCity Festival of Light were held during the week. Sam Duckworth, who knew Amess personally, performed at some of the events. On 17 February, politician and political commentator Nigel Farage visited Southend to interview Lee Mead and Sir David Amess' successor, Anna Firth, on his GB News talk show Talking Pints. Farage praised Amess for his sincerity and called his death "truly truly shocking". Anna Firth announced in her interview with Farage that city status would officially be granted to Southend in March 2022. On 1st March, Southend Borough Council was presented letters patent from the Queen, by Charles, Prince of Wales, officially granting the town city status. Southend became the second city in the ceremonial county of Essex, after Chelmsford, which was granted city status in 2012. Governance Local government district Southend-on-Sea was formed as a municipal borough in 1892 with the functions of local government shared with Essex County Council. In 1913, the borough was enlarged by the former area of Leigh on Sea Urban District. In 1914 the enlarged Southend gained the status of county borough, exempt from county council control and a single-tier of local government. The county borough was enlarged in 1933 by the former area of Shoeburyness Urban District and part of Rochford Rural District. On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, Southend became a district of Essex with borough status and its civil parish was abolished. However, in 1998 it again became the single tier of local government when it became a unitary authority. Upon receiving city status on 1st March 2022, the council voted to formally rename itself 'Southend-on-Sea City Council'. Council Seventeen wards each return three councillors, a total of 51. Councillors serve four years and one third of the council is elected each year, followed by one year without election. Following the 2019 election results, the composition of the council is: The Council was controlled by the Conservative Party after they gained control in the 2000 election. They maintained a minority administration after the 2012 local elections, however the council was run by a coalition of Lib Dems, Labour and Independents after June 2014, with the Conservatives gaining overall control again in 2018. In 2019, the coalition regained control. Most day-to-day decisions are by an eight-member executive headed by the council leader. The Latin motto, 'Per Mare Per Ecclesiam', emblazoned on the municipal coat of arms, translates as 'By [the] Sea, By [the] Church', reflecting Southend's position between the church at Prittlewell and the sea as in the Thames estuary. The town has been twinned with the resort of Sopot in Poland since 1999 and has been developing three-way associations with Lake Worth Beach, Florida. Southend Borough Council was criticised as one of the worst financially managed local authorities in England by the Audit Commission report for 2006–07 one of three to gain only one of four stars, the others being Liverpool and the Isles of Scilly. Areas of criticism were the use of consultants and the spending of £3.5 million on taxis during the 2006–07 financial year. However, in March 2012, Southend Borough Council was awarded the title of 'Council of the Year 2012' by the Local Government Chronicle. During the 2015 general and local election there was a turnout of 62.17%, equating to 80,899 votes cast. Southend Civic Centre was designed by borough architect, Patrick Burridge, and officially opened by the Queen Mother on 31 October 1967. Members of Parliament Southend is represented by two Members of Parliament (MPs) at Westminster. The MP for Southend West was Sir David Amess (Conservative), who served from 1997 until his murder in 2021. Anna Firth has served as the MP for the consituency since the following 2022 Southend West by-election. Since 2005 the MP for Rochford and Southend East has been James Duddridge (Conservative), who replaced Sir Teddy Taylor. Despite its name the majority of the constituency is in Southend, including the centre of the town; Rochford makes up only a small part and the majority of Rochford District Council is represented in the Rayleigh constituency. Demography Southend is the seventh most densely populated area in the United Kingdom outside of the London Boroughs, with 38.8 people per hectare compared to a national average of 3.77. By 2006, the majority, or 52% of the Southend population were between the ages of 16–54, 18% were below age 15, 18% were above age 65 and the middle age populace between 55 and 64 accounted for the remaining 12%. Save the Children's research data shows that for 2008–09, Southend had 4,000 children living in poverty, a rate of 12%, the same as Thurrock, but above the 11% child poverty rate of Essex as a whole. The Department for Communities and Local Government's 2010 Indices of Multiple Deprivation Deprivation Indices data showed that Southend is one of Essex's most deprived areas. Out of 32,482 Lower Super Output Areas in England, area 014D in the Kursaal ward is 99th, area 015B in Milton ward is 108th, area 010A in Victoria ward is 542nd, and area 009D in Southchurch ward is 995th, as well as an additional 5 areas all within the top 10% most deprived areas in England (with the most deprived area having a rank of 1 and the least deprived a rank of 32,482). Victoria and Milton wards have the highest proportion of ethnic minority residents – at the 2011 Census these figures were 24.2% and 26.5% respectively. Southend has the highest percentage of residents receiving housing benefit (19%) and the third highest percentage of residents receiving council tax benefit in Essex. The urban area of Southend spills outside of the borough boundaries into the neighbouring Castle Point and Rochford districts, including the towns of Hadleigh, Benfleet, Rayleigh and Rochford, as well as the villages of Hockley and Hullbridge. According to the 2011 census, it had a population of 295,310, making it the largest urban area solely within the East of England. Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Southend-on-Sea at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. In 2006, travel insurance company InsureandGo relocated its offices from Braintree to Maitland House in Southend-on-Sea. The company brought 120 existing jobs from Braintree and announced the intention to create more in the future. However the business announced the plan to relocate to Bristol in 2016. The building is now home to Ventrica, a customer service outsourcing company. Southend has industrial parks located at Progress Road, Comet and Aviation Ways in Eastwood and Stock Road in Sutton. Firms located in Southend include Olympus Keymed, Hi-Tec Sports and MK Electric. Southend has declined as a centre for credit card management with only Royal Bank of Scotland card services (now branded NatWest) still operating in the town. A fifth of the working population commutes to London daily. Wages for jobs based in Southend were the second lowest among UK cities in 2015. It also has the fourth highest proportion of people aged over 65. This creates considerable pressures on the housing market. It is the 11th most expensive place to live in Britain. Southend-on-Sea County Borough Corporation had provided the borough with electricity since the early twentieth century from Southend power station. Upon nationalisation of the electricity industry in 1948 ownership passed to the British Electricity Authority and later to the Central Electricity Generating Board. Electricity connections to the national grid rendered the 5.75 megawatt (MW) power station redundant. Electricity was generated by diesel engines and by steam obtained from the exhaust gases. The power station closed in 1966; in its final year of operation it delivered 2,720 MWh of electricity to the borough. Transport Airport London Southend Airport was developed from the military airfield at Rochford, opened as a civil airport in 1935, and now offers scheduled flights to destinations across Europe, corporate and recreational flights, aircraft maintenance and training for pilots and engineers. Bus Local public transport is provided by two main bus companies, Arriva Southend (formerly the council-owned Southend Corporation Transport) and First Essex Buses (formerly NBC/Eastern National/Thamesway). Minor companies include Stephensons of Essex. Southend has a bus station in Chichester Road which was developed from a temporary facility added in the 1970s. Southend Bus station had sat on the London Road and was run by Eastern National, but it was demolished in the 1980s to make way for a Sainsbury's Supermarket. Arriva Southend is the only bus company based in Southend, with their depot being located in Short Street (previously on the corner of London Road and Queensway and also a small facility in Tickfield Road). First Essex buses are based out of the depot in Hadleigh, but prior to the 1980s Eastern National had depots on the London Road (at the Bus Station) and Fairfax Drive. Rail Southend is served by two lines on the National Rail network: Running from Southend Victoria north out of the town is the Shenfield–Southend line, a branch of the Great Eastern Main Line, operated by Abellio Greater Anglia. The services operate to London Liverpool Street via . Running from in the east of the borough is the London, Tilbury and Southend line operated by c2c. It runs west through , , to London Fenchurch Street via and or and . Additionally, one service from Southend Central each weekday evening terminates at Liverpool Street. From 1910 to 1939 the London Underground's District line's eastbound service ran as far as Southend and Shoeburyness. Besides its main line railway connections, Southend is also the home of two smaller railways. The Southend Pier Railway provides transport along the length of Southend Pier, whilst the nearby Southend Cliff Railway provides a connection from the promenade to the cliff top above. Road Two A-roads connect Southend with London and the rest of the country, the A127 (The Southend Arterial Road), via Basildon and Romford, and the A13, via Tilbury and London Docklands. Both are major routes, however, within the borough, the A13 is now a single carriageway local route, whereas the A127 is entirely dual carriageway. Both connect to the M25 and eventually London. Climate Southend-on-Sea is one of the driest places in the UK. It has a marine climate with summer highs of around and winters highs being around . Summer temperatures are generally slightly cooler than those in London. Frosts are occasional. During the 1991–2020 period there was an average of 29.6 days of air frost. Rainfall averaged . Weather station data is available from Shoeburyness, which is adjacent to Southend in the eastern part of the urban area. Education Secondary schools All mainstream secondary schools are mixed-sex comprehensives, including Belfairs Academy; Cecil Jones Academy; Chase High School; Southchurch High School; Shoeburyness High School and The Eastwood Academy. In 2004, Southend retained the grammar school system and has four such schools: Southend High School for Boys; Southend High School for Girls; Westcliff High School for Boys and Westcliff High School for Girls. Additionally there are two single-sex schools assisted by the Roman Catholic Church: St Bernard's High School (girls) and St Thomas More High School (boys). Both, while not grammar schools, contain a grammar stream; entrance is by the same exam as grammar schools. Further and higher education The main higher education provider in Southend is the University of Essex which has a campus in Elmer Approach on the site of the former Odeon cinema. In addition to a number of secondary schools that offer further education, the largest provider is South Essex College in a purpose-built building in the centre of town. Formerly known as South East Essex College, (and previously Southend Municipal College) the college changed name in January 2010 following a merger with Thurrock and Basildon College. Additionally there is PROCAT that is based at Progress Road, while learners can travel to USP College (formerly SEEVIC College) in Thundersley. The East 15 Acting School, a drama school has its second campus in Southend, while the Southend Adult Community College is in Ambleside Drive. Southend United Futsal & Football Education Scholarship, located at Southend United's stadium Roots Hall, provides education for sports scholarships. Sport Southend has two football teams, one of league stature, Southend United. The other, Southend Manor, play in the Essex Senior League. Southend United currently compete in the Vanarama National League. There are two rugby union clubs Southend RFC which play in London 1 North and Westcliff R.F.C. who play in London & South East Premier. Southend was formerly home to the Essex Eels rugby league team. Southend was home to the Essex Pirates basketball team that played in the British Basketball League between 2009 and 2011. Essex County Cricket Club play in Southend one week a season. Previously the festival was held at Chalkwell Park and most recently Southchurch Park, but it has now moved to Garons Park next to the Southend Leisure & Tennis Centre. The only other cricket is local. The Old Southendians Hockey Club is based at Warner's Bridge in Southend. The eight-lane, floodlit, synthetic athletics track at Southend Leisure and Tennis Centre is home to Southend-on-Sea Athletic Club. The facilities cover all track and field events. The centre has a 25m swimming pool and a world championship level diving pool with 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10m boards, plus springboards with the only 1.3m in the UK. Entertainment and culture Southend Pleasure Pier Southend-on-Sea is home to the world's longest pleasure pier, built in 1830 and stretching some from shore. Kursaal The Kursaal was one of the earliest theme parks, built at the start of the 20th century. It closed in the 1970s and much of the land was developed as housing. The entrance hall, a listed building, used to house a bowling alley arcade operated by Megabowl and casino, however the bowling alley closed in 2019 and the casino closed in 2020. The building currently stands unused. Southend Carnival Southend Carnival has been an annual event since 1906, where it was part of the annual regatta, and was setup to raise funds for the Southend Victoria Cottage Hospital. In 1926 a carnival association was formed, and by 1930 they were raising fund for the building of the new General Hospital with a range of events including a fete in Chalkwell Park. The parades, which included a daylight and torchlight parades were cut down to just a torchlight parade during the 1990s. Cliff Lift A short funicular railway, constructed in 1912, links the seafront to the High Street level of the town. The lift re-opened to the public in 2010, following a period of refurbishment. Other seafront attractions An amusement park Adventure Island, formerly known as Peter Pan's Playground, straddles the pier entrance. The seafront houses the "Sea-Life Adventure" aquarium. The cliff gardens, which included Never Never Land and a Victorian bandstand were an attraction until slippage in 2003 made parts of the cliffs unstable. The bandstand has been removed and re-erected in Priory Park. Beaches include Three Shells and Jubilee Beach. A modern vertical lift links the base of the High Street with the seafront and the new pier entrance. The older Southend Cliff Railway, a short funicular, is a few hundred metres away. The London to Southend Classic Car run takes place each summer. It is run by the South Eastern Vintage and Classic Vehicle Club and features classic cars which line the seafront. The Southend Shakedown, organised by Ace Cafe, is an annual event featuring motorbikes and scooters. There are other scooter runs throughout the year, including the Great London Rideout, which arrives at Southend seafront each year. Festival events The Southend-on-Sea Film Festival is an annual event that began in 2009 and is run by the White Bus film and theatrical company based at The Old Waterworks Arts Center located inside a Victorian era Old Water Works plant. Ray Winstone attended the opening night gala in both 2010 and 2011, and has become the Festival Patron. Since 2008 Chalkwell Park becomes home to the Village Green Art & Music Festival for a weekend every July. Shopping Southend High Street runs from the top of Pier Hill in the South, to Victoria Circus in the north. It currently has two shopping centres – the Victoria (built during the 1960s and a replacement for the old Talza Arcade, Victoria Arcade and Broadway Market) and The Royals Shopping Centre (built late 1980s and opened in March 1988 by actor Jason Donovan, replacing the bottom part of High Street, Grove Road, Ritz Cinema and Grand Pier Hotel). Southend High Street has many chain stores, with Boots in the Royals, and Next anchoring the Victoria. This was not always the case with many independent stores closing in the 1970s and 1980s – Keddies (department store), J L Dixons (department store), Brightwells (department store), Garons (grocers, caterers and cinema), Owen Wallis (ironmongers and toys), Bermans (sports and toys), J Patience (photographic retailers) & R. A. Jones (jewellers) being the most notable. One of Southend's most notable business, Schofield and Martin, was purchased by Waitrose in 1944 with the name being used until the 1960s. The Alexandra Street branch was the first Waitrose store in 1951 to be made self-service. Southend is home to the largest store in the Waitrose portfolio. The longest surviving independent retail business in Southend was Ravens which operated from 1897 to 2017. A Southend family business started in 1937 that was still active in 2014 was Dixons Retail. The borough of Southend has shopping in other areas. Leigh Broadway and Leigh Road in Leigh-on-Sea, Hamlet Court Road in Westcliff-on-Sea, Southchurch Road and London Road are where many of Southend's independent business now reside. Hamlet Court Road was home to one of Southend's longest-standing business, Havens, which opened in 1901. In May 2017 the store announced they would be closing their store to concentrate as an online retailer. There are regular vintage fairs and markets in Southend, held at a variety of locations including the Leigh Community Centre, the Kursaal and the Railway Hotel. A record fair is frequently held at West Leigh Schools, Ronald Hill Grove, Leigh on Sea. Parks Southend is home to many recreation grounds. Its first formal park to open was Prittlewell Square in the 19th century. Since then Priory Park and Victory Sports Grounds were donated by the town benefactor R A Jones, who also has the sports ground Jones Corner Recreation Ground named after his wife. Other formal parks that have opened since are Chalkwell Park and Southchurch Hall along with Southchurch Park, Garon Park and Gunners Park. Conservation areas Southend has various Conservation areas across the borough, with the first being designated in 1968. Art, galleries, museums and libraries Focal Point Gallery is South Essex's gallery for contemporary visual art, promoting and commissioning major solo exhibitions, group and thematic shows, a programme of events including performances, film screenings and talks, as well as offsite projects and temporary public artworks. The organisation is funded by Southend-on-Sea Borough Council and Arts Council England. Southend Museums Service, part of Southend on Sea Borough Council, operates a number of historic attractions, an art gallery and a museum in the town. These include: The Beecroft Art Gallery, Southchurch Hall, Prittlewell Priory, Southend Pier Museum and the Central Museum on Victoria Avenue. The Old Waterworks Arts Center operates in North Road, Westcliff in the former Victorian water works building. It holds art exhibitions, talks and workshops. Metal, the art organisation set up by Jude Kelly OBE has been based in Chalkwell Hall since 2006. The organisation offers residency space for artists and also organises the Village Green Art & Music Festival. Southend has several small libraries located in Leigh, Westcliff, Kent Elms and Southchurch. The central library has moved from its traditional location on Victoria Avenue to the Forum in Elmer Approach, a new facility paid for by Southend Council, South Essex College and The University of Essex. It replaced the former Farringdon Multistorey Car Park. The old Central Library building (built 1974) has become home to the Beecroft Gallery. This building had replaced the former Carnegie funded free library which is now home to the Southend Central Museum. Theatres There are a number of theatres. The Edwardian Palace Theatre is a Grade II listed building dating from 1912. It shows plays by professional troupes and repertory groups, as well as comedy acts. The theatre has two circles and the steepest rake in Britain. Part of the theatre is a smaller venue called The Dixon Studio. The Cliffs Pavilion is a large building to host concerts and performances on ice, as well as pantomimes at Christmas opening in 1964. They are both owned by Southend Council and run by Southend Theatres Ltd. The most recent closed theatre was the New Empire Theatre. It was, unlike the other two, privately owned. It was used more by amateur groups. The theatre was converted from the old ABC Cinema, which had been the Empire Theatre built in 1896. The New Empire theatre closed in 2009 after a dispute between the trust that run the theatre and its owners. The building was badly damaged by fire on Saturday 1 August 2015 and was demolished in 2017. The Clifftown Theatre is located in the former Clifftown United Reformed Church and as well as regular performances is part of the East 15 Acting School campus. Cinema Southend has one cinema – the Odeon Multiplex at Victoria Circus which has eight screens. The borough of Southend had at one time a total of 18 cinema theatres, with the most famous being the Odeon (formerly the Astoria Theatre), which as well as showing films hosted live entertainers including the Beatles and Laurel and Hardy. This building no longer stands having been replaced by the Southend Campus of the University of Essex. There are plans to build a new 10 screen cinema and entertainment facility on the site of the Seaway Car Park. Southend has appeared in films over the years, with the New York New York arcade on Marine Parade being used in the British gangsta flick Essex Boys, and its airport being used for the filming of James Bond's Goldfinger. Music Southend has three major venues; Chinnerys, the Riga Club (formerly at the Cricketers Pub London Road) at The Dickens, and the Cliffs Pavilion. The Railway Hotel is a live music pub, which features a variety of acts, and curates the Southend Pier Festival. Concerts are also shown at the Plaza, a Christian community centre and concert hall based on Southchurch Road, which was formerly a cinema. Junk Club, at one time a centre of Southend's music scene, was predominantly held in the basement at the Royal Hotel during the period of 2001–06. Co-run by Oliver "Blitz" Abbott & Rhys Webb, of The Horrors, the underground club night played an eclectic mix from Post Punk to Acid House, 1960s Psychedelia to Electro. It was noted as spearheading what became known as the Southend Scene and was featured in the NME, Dazed & Confused, ID, Rolling Stone, Guardian and Vogue. Acts associated with the scene included: The Horrors; These New Puritans; The Violets; Ipso Facto; Neils Children and The Errorplains. There have also been a number of popular music videos filmed in Southend, by such music artists as Oasis; Morrissey; George Michael. Bands and musicians originating from Southend include Busted; Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly; Danielle Dax; Eddie and the Hot Rods; Eight Rounds Rapid; The Horrors; The Kursaal Flyers; Nothing But Thieves; Procol Harum; Scroobius Pip; These New Puritans and Tonight. Radio In 1981, Southend became the home of Essex Radio, which broadcast from studios below Clifftown Road. The station was formed by several local companies including Keddies, Garons & TOTS nightclub with David Keddie, owner of the Keddies department store in Southend becoming its chairman. In 2004, the renamed Essex FM, then Heart Essex moved to studios in Chelmsford. It is now part of Heart East. On 28 March 2008, Southend got its own radio station for the first time which is also shared with Chelmsford Radio (formerly known as Dream 107.7 FM and Chelmer FM before that), Southend Radio started broadcasting on 105.1FM from purpose built studios adjacent to the Adventure Island theme park. The station merged with Chelmsford Radio in 2015 and became Radio Essex. Television Southend has appeared in several television shows and advertisements. It has been used on numerous occasions by the soap EastEnders with its most recent visit in 2013. Southend Pier was used by ITV show Minder for its end credits in season 8, 9 and 10, and since 2014 has been home to Jamie & Jimmy's Friday Night Feast. Advertisements have included Abbey National, CGU Pensions, National Lottery, the 2015 Vauxhall Corsa adverts featuring Electric Avenue, a seafront arcade the 2018 Guide Dogs for the Blind campaign and for the promo for David Hasselhoff's Dave programme Hoff the Record. In fiction Southend is the seaside vacation place chosen by the John Knightley family in Emma by Jane Austen, published 1816. The family arrived by stage coach, and strongly preferred it to the choice of the Perry family, Cromer, which was 100 miles from London, compared to the easier distance of 40 miles from the London home of the John and Isabella Knightley, as discussed at length with Mr Woodhouse in the novel in Chapter XII of volume one. In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, after being saved from death in the vacuum of space, Arthur Dent and Ford Prefect find themselves in a distorted version of Southend (a consequence of the starship Heart of Gold'''s Infinite Improbability Drive). Dent briefly feared that both he and Prefect did in fact die, based on a childhood nightmare where his friends went to either Heaven or Hell but he went to Southend.Dance on My Grave, a book by Aidan Chambers, is set in Southend. Chambers had worked as a teacher in the town's Westcliff High School for Boys for three years. Places of worship There are churches in the borough catering to different Christian denominations, such as Our Lady Help of Christians and St Helen's Church for the Roman Catholic community. There are two synagogues; one for orthodox Jews, in Westcliff, and a reform synagogue in Chalkwell. Three mosques provide for the Muslim population; one run by the Bangladeshi community, and the others run by the Pakistani community. York Road Market Demolition of the historic covered market began on 23 April 2010. The site became a car park. A temporary market was held there every Friday until 2012 after the closure of the former Southend market at the rear of the Odeon. As of 2013, a market is now held in the High Street every Thursday with over 30 stalls. Twin towns Southend-on-Sea is twinned with: Sopot, Poland, since October 1999 Notable people David Amess (1952-2021), British politician and local MP who was stabbed to death in 2021; Southend was named a city in his honour. Martyn Andrews, TV presenter and broadcaster Jasmine Armfield, actress Trevor Bailey, cricketer John Barber (1919–2004), former Finance Director of Ford of Europe & Managing Director of British Leyland. Mathew Baynton, musician, writer, actor David Bellos, professor/translator Angie Best, ex-wife of George Best Brinn Bevan, artistic gymnast James Booth, actor James Bourne, musician, singer Busted Tim Bowler, children's author Kevin Bowyer, concert organist Gary Brooker, lead singer of Procol Harum Dave Brown, comedian and actor Dean Chalkley, photographer Aidan Chambers, Author Jeannie Clark, former professional wrestling manager Brian Cleeve, author and broadcaster Dick Clement, screenwriter Dorothy Coke, artist Eric Kirkham Cole, businessman Peter Cook, architect Phil Cornwell, actor and impressionist Tina Cousins, singer Gemma Craven, actress Matthew Cutler, ballroom dancer Trevor Dawkins, footballer Danielle Dax, musician, actress and performance artist Warwick Deeping, author Richard de Southchurch, knight and landowner. Sam Duckworth, musician Warren Ellis, novelist and comic writer Nathalie Emmanuel, actress Digby Fairweather, jazz musician, author. Mark Foster, swimmer John Fowles, author Becky Frater, first female helicopter commander in the Royal Navy and female member of the Black Cats display team John Georgiadis, violinist and conductor Edward Greenfield (3 July 1928 – 1 July 2015) chief music writer in The Guardian from 1977 to 1993 and biographer of Andre Previn Benjamin Grosvenor, pianist Daniel Hardcastle, author Roy Hay, musician Joshua Hayward, guitarist for The Horrors John Hodge, aerospace engineer John Horsley, actor John Hutton, politician Wilko Johnson, singer, guitarist and songwriter; Games of Thrones actor Daniel Jones, musician, producer R. A. Jones, store owner and town benefactor Phill Jupitus, comedian Mickey Jupp, musician Russell Kane, comedian Dominic Littlewood, TV presenter John Lloyd, tennis player Robert Lloyd, opera singer Ron Martin, Southend United chairman, 1998–present Frank Matcham, English theatre designer, retired and died in Southend Lee Mead, musical theatre actor Jon Miller, TV presenter Helen Mirren, actress Jack Monroe, blogger, campaigner Peggy Mount, actress Tris Vonna Michell, artist Dicky Moore, singer-songwriter, guitarist Maajid Nawaz, former Islamist activist who now campaigns against extremism Michael Osborne, first-class cricketer Annabel Port, broadcaster Stephen Port, serial killer Spencer Prior, footballer Lara Pulver, actress Rachel Riley, Countdown'' co-presenter Simon Schama, historian / TV presenter Jack Sims, football goalkeeper Anne Stallybrass, actress Vivian Stanshall, musician Sam Strike, actor Keith Taylor, politician Peter Taylor, football manager Theoretical Girl, singer-songwriter Steve Tilson, footballer – voted Southend United's greatest ever player Kara Tointon, actress Hannah Tointon, actress Robin Trower, rock-blues guitarist Gary Vandermolen, footballer David Webb, football manager Paul Webb, musician, bassist for Talk Talk Rhys "Spider" Webb, bassist of The Horrors Michael Wilding, actor David Witts, actor Ian Yearsley, local historian and author Nothing But Thieves, musicians References External links Southend Punk Rock History 1976 – 1986, a detailed site containing information on the Punk Rock explosion as experienced by Southend-on-Sea, Essex, UK Towns in Essex Beaches of Essex Local government districts of the East of England Local government in Essex Populated coastal places in Essex Port cities and towns of the North Sea Seaside resorts in Essex Unitary authority districts of England Former civil parishes in Essex	[ 0.2737410068511963, -0.16303037106990814, 0.3830287456512451, -0.9352712035179138, 0.23804205656051636, 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206432	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20%26%20Language	Art & Language	Art & Language is a conceptual artists' collaboration that has undergone many changes since it was created in the late 1960s. The group was founded by artists who shared a common desire to combine intellectual ideas and concerns with the creation of art. The first issue of the group's journal, Art-Language, was published in November 1969 in England. First years The Art & Language group was founded around 1967 in the United Kingdom by Terry Atkinson (b. 1939), David Bainbridge (b. 1941), Michael Baldwin (b. 1945) and Harold Hurrell (b. 1940). The group was critical of what was considered mainstream modern art practices at the time. In their work conversations, they created gallery art and presented these ideas in a journal as part of their discussions. Between 1968 and 1982, the group grew to nearly fifty people. Among the first to join were critic and art historian, Charles Harrison, and artist Mel Ramsden. In the early 1970s, individuals including Ian Burn, Michael Corris, Preston Heller, Graham Howard, Joseph Kosuth, Andrew Menard, and Terry Smith joined the group. Two collaborators from Coventry, Philip Pilkington and David Rushton, followed. The first issue of Art-Language The Journal of conceptual art(Volume 1, Number 1, May 1969) is subtitled The Journal of Conceptual Art. Art-Language had, however, brought to light the beginning of a new art movement. While that community was far from a unanimous agreement as to how to define the nature of conceptual art, the editors and most of its historic contributors shared similar opinions about other art movements. Conceptual art was critical of modernism for its bureaucracy and its historicism, and of minimalism for its philosophical conservatism. The practice of conceptual art, especially in its early years of origin, was primarily based on theory, and its form, predominately textual. As the distribution of the journal and the teaching practices of the editors and others contributors expanded, the conversation grew to include more people. In England, by 1971, artists and critics including Charles Harrison, Philip Pilkington, David Rushton, Lynn Lemaster, Sandra Harrison, Graham Howard and Paul Wood had joined. Around the same time in New York, Michael Corris joined, followed by Paula Ramsden, Mayo Thompson, Christine Kozlov, Preston Heller, Andrew Menard and Kathryn Bigelow. The name "Art & Language" remained precarious due to the various interpretations of both the many pieces of art and the purpose of the group. Its significance, or instrumentality, varied from person to person, alliance to alliance, discourse to discourse, and from those in New York who produced The Fox (1974–1976), for example, to those engaged in music projects and those who continued the Journal's edition. There was disagreement among members, and by 1976, there was a growing sense of divide that eventually led to competing individualities and varied concerns. Throughout the 1970s, Art & Language dealt with questions about art production and attempted a shift from conventional "nonlinguistic" forms of art, such as painting and sculpture, to more theoretically text-based works. The group often took argumentative positions against such prevailing views of critics like Clement Greenberg and Michael Fried. The Art & Language group that exhibited in the international Documenta 5 exhibitions of 1972 included Atkinson, Bainbridge, Baldwin, Hurrell, Pilkington, Rushton, and Joseph Kosuth, the American editor of Art-Language. The work consisted of a filing system of material published and circulated by Art & Language members. New York Art and Language Burn and Ramsden co-founded The Society for Theoretical Art and Analysis in New York in the late 1960s. They joined Art & Language in 1970–71. New York Art & Language became fragmented after 1975 because of disagreements concerning principles of collaboration. Karl Beveridge and Carol Condé, who had been peripheral members of the group in New York, returned to Canada where they worked with trade unions and community groups. In 1977, Ian Burn returned to Australia and Mel Ramsden to the United Kingdom. Late 1970s By the end of the 1970s, the group was essentially reduced to Baldwin, Harrison, and Ramsden with the occasional participation of Mayo Thompson and his group Red Crayola. The political analysis and development within the group resulted in several members leaving the group to work in more activist-oriented political occupations. Ian Burn returned to Australia, joining Ian Milliss, a conceptual artist who had begun work with trade unions in the early 1970s, in becoming active in Union Media Services, a design studio for social and community initiatives and the development of trade unions. At the beginning of the 1970s, there were about thirty members. The Art & Language group emphasized the use of language on the theory that language is the basis from which ideas and concepts are built. Their philosophy was that language permits index words which appear, disappear, and for some even persist, thus allowing viewers and artists alike to analyze the evolution of a word through the proposal of different definitions. Exhibitions and awards Awards and critics In 1986, Art & Language was nominated for the Turner Prize. In 1999, Art & Language exhibited at PS1 MoMA in New York, with a major installation entitled The Artist Out of Work. This was a recollection of Art & Language's dialogical and other practices, curated by Michael Corris and Neil Powell. This exhibition closely followed the revisionist exhibition of Global Conceptualism: Points of Origin at the Queens Museum of Art, also in New York. The Art & Language show at PS1 offered an alternative account of the antecedents and legacy of '"classic" conceptual art and reinforced a transatlantic rather than nationalistic version of events from 1968 to 1972. In a negative appraisal of the exhibition, art critic Jerry Saltz wrote, "A quarter century ago, 'Art & Language' forged an important link in the genealogy of conceptual art, but next efforts have been so self-sufficient and obscure that their work is now virtually irrelevant." Permanent collections Other exhibits around the world include the works of Atkinson and Baldwin (working as Art & Language) held in the collection of the Tate in the United Kingdom. Papers and works relating to "New York Art & Language" are held at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles. Theoretical installations Art & Language and the collaborated for the first time in January 1995, during the "Art & Language & Luhmann" symposium, organized by the Contemporary Social Considerations Institute (Institut für Sozial Gegenwartsfragen) of Freiburg. The 3-day symposium saw the intervention of speakers including Catherine David, who prepared the Documenta X, and Peter Weibl, artist and curator. There was also a theoretical installation of an Art & Language text produced in playback by the Jackson Pollock Bar. The installation was interpreted by five German actors playing the roles of Jack Tworkow, Philip Guston, Harold Rosenberg, Robert Motherwell and Ad Reinhardt. Using lip sync, the actors used pre-recorded text for a "New Conceptual" conversation. Ever since this collaboration, each new Art & Language exhibition has been joined by a Jackson Pollock Bar theoretical installation. Past members and associates References External links Interview with Michael Baldwin and Mel Ramsden about Art & Language (2011) MP3 Art & Language: Blurting in A & L online Hypertext version of a complete print work of 1973 by American members of Art & Language, with articles and a discussion forum. Thomas Dreher: Intermedia Art: Konzeptuelle Kunst with four German articles on Art & Language and a chronology with illustrated works. Artists group page in Artfacts.Net with actual major exhibitions. Andrew Hunt, Art & Language, Frieze, October 2005. Tom Morton, Art & Language, Frieze, April 2002. El análisis crítico de la modernidad de Art & Language Works by Art & Language at the Mulier Mulier Gallery Art & Language page at Lisson Gallery Art & Language at René Schmitt Druckgraphik Official site of Taddeus Ropac Gallery Official site of Kadel Willborn Gallery British conceptual artists English artist groups and collectives English contemporary artists Conceptual art Art movements Postmodern artists	[ 0.4565969705581665, 0.4152263104915619, -0.044883206486701965, -0.12805263698101044, -0.28174081444740295, 0.4284270107746124, 0.09097141027450562, 0.0698443353176117, -0.24688011407852173, -0.5294108986854553, -0.358161598443985, 0.5385645627975464, 0.09265394508838654, -0.060290973633527756, 0.05305033549666405, -0.15877476334571838, 0.2733445167541504, -0.24418459832668304, 0.06295138597488403, 0.018026702105998993, -0.15038809180259705, -0.2986999750137329, -0.15913447737693787, -0.26942500472068787, 0.20780973136425018, -0.37029829621315, 0.31851276755332947, 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206438	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1849%20in%20literature	1849 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1849. —Dickens, opening of David Copperfield Events March–November – La Tribune des Peuples, a pan-European romantic nationalist periodical, is published by Adam Mickiewicz. April 22 – Fyodor Dostoyevsky and fellow members of the literary Petrashevsky Circle in Russia are arrested for expressing their progressive views. Sentenced to death on November 16 and facing a firing squad on December 23, he and some others are reprieved at the last moment and exiled to the katorga prison camps in Siberia. May 1 – Charles Dickens's Bildungsroman David Copperfield begins serial publication by Bradbury and Evans in London. May 10 – The Astor Place Riot takes place in Manhattan over a dispute between two Shakespearean actors, the American Edwin Forrest and the Englishman William Macready. Over 20 people are killed. May 28 – Anne Brontë dies of tuberculosis aged 29 at Scarborough on the Yorkshire coast of England, where she is buried. Until 2013, her headstone mistakenly gives her age as 28. September 20 – Honoré de Balzac travels to Poland to meet Eveline Hanska, whom he will marry shortly before his death next year. October 3 – Death of Edgar Allan Poe: Edgar Allan Poe is found in Baltimore delirious, "in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance". He dies on October 7 aged 40, of an uncertain cause, in Washington College Hospital. October–December – Thomas De Quincey's essay The English Mail-Coach appears in issues of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. November – The English scholarly correspondence magazine Notes and Queries is first published. November 14 – A public festival is held in Denmark to mark the 70th birthday of Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger. Uncertain dates J. A. Froude's semi-autobiographical, epistolary philosophical novel of religious doubt The Nemesis of Faith is published by John Chapman in London. A copy is burned by William Sewell, Dean of Exeter College, Oxford, himself a novelist. The Leipzig publisher B. G. Teubner begins publishing the Bibliotheca Teubneriana series of editions of the Classics. Who's Who is published for the first time in the United Kingdom. Philip Massinger's play Believe as You List receives its first publication, 218 years after its theatrical première. New books Fiction William Harrison Ainsworth – The Lancashire Witches Charlotte Brontë (as Currer Bell) – Shirley François-René de Chateaubriand – Memoirs from Beyond the Grave Charles Dickens – David Copperfield (begins serialization) Fyodor Dostoevsky – Netochka Nezvanova Alexandre Dumas, père – The Queen's Necklace Paul Féval – Les Belles-de-nuit ou Les Anges de la famille J. A. Froude – The Nemesis of Faith Catherine Gore – The Diamond and the Pearl Charles Kingsley – Alton Locke Herman Melville Mardi Redburn Mayne Reid – The Rifle Rangers G. W. M. Reynolds – The Bronze Statue George Sand – La Petite Fadette (Little Fadette) Theodor Storm – Immensee Children and young people Charlotte Mary Yonge – The Railroad Children Drama Christian Friedrich Hebbel – Der Rubin Gaspar Núñez de Arce – Amor y Orgullo Eugène Scribe and Ernest Legouvé – Adrienne Lecouvreur Poetry Matthew Arnold – The Strayed Reveller Petrus Augustus de Genestet – De Sint-Nicolaasavond (Saint Nicholas's Eve) Elias Lönnrot (compiler) – Kalevala (new version) Edgar Allan Poe – "Annabel Lee", "Eldorado", "The Bells", "A Dream Within a Dream" Non-fiction John Mitchell Kemble – History of the Saxons in England Søren Kierkegaard (as Anti-Climacus) – The Sickness Unto Death (Sygdommen til Døden) Francis Parkman – The Oregon Trail Thomas Phillips – Wales, the Language, Social Condition, Moral Character, and Religious Opinions of the People, considered in their relation to Education... John Ruskin – The Seven Lamps of Architecture William Smith – Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Henry David Thoreau – Resistance to Civil Government George Ticknor – A History of Spanish Literature Chandos Wren-Hoskyns – A Short Inquiry into the History of Agriculture in Mediæval and Modern Times Births January 9 – Laura Kieler (née Petersen), Norwegian novelist and dramatic inspiration (died 1932) January 22 – August Strindberg, Swedish dramatist (died 1912) February 18 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian novelist (died 1906) February 27 – Václav Beneš Třebízský, Czech novelist (died 1884) June 9 – Karl Tanera, German military writer and novelist (died 1904) July 22 – Emma Lazarus, American poet (died 1887) August 8 – Hume Nisbet, Scottish thriller writer, poet and artist (died 1923) August 9 – Amy Catherine Walton (née Deck, writing as Mrs. O. F. Walton), English writer of Christian children's books (died 1939) August 23 – W. E. Henley, English poet (died 1903) August 30 – J. M. Dent, English publisher (died 1926) September 3 – Sarah Orne Jewett, American writer (died 1909) October 7 – James Whitcomb Riley, American writer and poet (died 1916) December 16– Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (died 1902) November 24 – Frances Hodgson Burnett, English children's writer and playwright (died 1924) Deaths January 6 – Hartley Coleridge, English poet and critic (alcohol-related, born 1796) February 8 – France Prešeren, Slovenian poet (liver disease, born 1800) February 19 – Bernard Barton, English Quaker poet (born 1784) May 22 – Maria Edgeworth, Anglo-Irish novelist (born 1768) May 28 – Anne Brontë, English novelist and poet (tuberculosis, born 1820) June 4 – Marguerite Gardiner, Countess of Blessington, Irish novelist and literary hostess (born 1789) July 7 – Goffredo Mameli, Italian poet (infection from bayonet wound, born 1827) July 12 – Horace (Horatio) Smith, English poet and novelist (born 1799) July 25 – James Kenney, English dramatist (born 1780) July 27 – Charlotte von Ahlefeld, German novelist (born 1781) July 31 – Sándor Petőfi, Hungarian poet and revolutionary (probably killed in Battle of Segesvár, born 1823) August 25 – Adele Schopenhauer, German novelist and paper-cut artist (born 1797) October 7 – Edgar Allan Poe, American poet, short story writer and critic (born 1809) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.20906780660152435, 0.18671132624149323, -0.9119387865066528, -0.08465001732110977, -0.4277902841567993, 0.35202524065971375, 0.893385112285614, 0.6483603715896606, -0.7917928695678711, -0.8908270597457886, -0.020718561485409737, -0.24004247784614563, -0.013241379521787167, 0.3146927058696747, 0.11921476572751999, -0.08735779672861099, 0.02743084914982319, 0.06578996777534485, 0.16905780136585236, -0.4769304394721985, -0.5340693593025208, 0.12111803889274597, 0.45380720496177673, -0.45583686232566833, 0.4979114234447479, -1.2067371606826782, 0.1872970312833786, -0.4538286030292511, 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206440	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Moffitt	Donald Moffitt	Donald Moffitt (July 20, 1931December 10, 2014) was an American author who wrote a number of science fiction novels. Most famous among these are The Genesis Quest and Second Genesis. While he was the author of many titles under his own name he also used the pseudonyms Paul Kenyon, Victor Sondheim, and Paul King. In the 1950s, Moffitt published approximately 100 short stories under 15 or more pen names (Wilson MacDonald, James D’Indy, and an assortment of others), in magazines like Man's Action, Wildcat, Gent, and Monsieur, while editing trade magazines by day. Known for his science fiction, Moffitt later turned his attention to historical mysteries. Bibliography (incomplete) As Donald Moffitt Short fiction The Devil's Due (Fantastic Science Fiction Stories, May 1960; reprinted in Strange Fantasy, Fall 1969) The Scroll (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, May 1972) The Man Who Was Beethoven (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, December 1972) Literacy (Analog Science Fiction and Fact, April 1994) The Beethoven Project (Analog Science Fiction and Fact, April 2008) Feat of Clay (Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, September 2008) The Affair of the Phlegmish Master (Analog Science Fiction and Fact, June 2009) Deadly Passage (Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, November 2009) A Death in Samoa (Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, October 2011) A Snitch in Time (Analog Science Fiction and Fact, January–February 2011) The Color of Gold (Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, March 2015) A Handful of Clay (Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, July–August 2015) Novels The Jupiter Theft (1977) Jovian (2003) Children of the Comet (2015, published posthumously) Genesis Series The Genesis Quest (1986) Second Genesis (1986) Mechanical Sky Series Crescent in the Sky (1989) A Gathering of Stars (1990) As Paul Kenyon Also, writing as "Paul Kenyon", a house pseudonym of Book Creations, Inc., he wrote The Baroness, an adult spy thriller series. The Baroness: The Ecstacy Connection (Pocket Books, 1974, #1) The Baroness: Diamonds are for Dying (Pocket Books, 1974, #2) The Baroness: Death is a Ruby Light (Pocket Books, 1974, #3) The Baroness: Hard-core Murder (Pocket Books, 1974, #4) The Baroness: Operation Doomsday (Pocket Books, 1974, #5) The Baroness: Sonic Slave (Pocket Books, 1974, #6) The Baroness: Flicker of Doom (Pocket Books, 1974, #7) The Baroness: Black Gold (Pocket Books, 1975, #8) (unpublished) The Baroness: A Black Hole to Die In (unpublished) The Baroness: Death is a Copycat As Victor Sondheim Inheritors of the Storm (1981) (unpublished) Swimmers in the Tide As Paul King Dreamers Trilogy Dreamers (1992) The Voyagers (1993) The Discoverers (1994) Notes External links http://www.donaldmoffitt.com Donald Moffitt Papers, MS 360 at the Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas 1931 births 2014 deaths Writers from Boston 20th-century American novelists American male novelists American science fiction 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206441	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848%20in%20literature	1848 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1848. Events January 22 – The second edition of Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre is dedicated to William Makepeace Thackeray. It is also first published in the United States this year. February 21 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) in London. March 15 – Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire: Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – The poet Sándor Petőfi with Mihály Táncsics and other young men lead the bloodless revolution in Pest, reciting Petőfi's "Nemzeti dal" (National song) and the "12 points" and printing them on the presses of Landerer és Heckenast, so forcing Ferdinand I of Austria to abolish censorship. March 18 – The Boston Public Library is founded by an act of the Great and General Court of Massachusetts. April 1 – Charles Dickens's novel Dombey and Son concludes its serial publication. April 10 – John Ruskin marries Effie Gray. May 5 – Poet Alfred de Musset is dismissed as librarian of the Ministry of the Interior under the French Second Republic. c. June 27 – The second and final novel of Anne Brontë (as Acton Bell), The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is published in London. It sells out in six weeks, requiring a reissue. July – Serial publication of William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair by Punch magazine concludes. It appears in book format (from the same typesetting) by Bradbury and Evans in London, with illustrations by the author. October 1 – At the funeral of Branwell Brontë, his younger sister Emily begins to show symptoms of a cold, soon revealed to be tuberculosis. October 18 – Elizabeth Gaskell's first novel, Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life is published anonymously by Chapman & Hall in London in two volumes. c. October – The first frescoes of scenes from English literature in the Poets' Hall of the Palace of Westminster are completed: Charles West Cope's Griselda's first Trial of Patience (based on Chaucer's The Clerk's Tale) and John Callcott Horsley's Satan touched by Ithuriel's Spear while whispering evil dreams to Eve (based on Milton's Paradise Lost). November William Makepeace Thackeray's novel The History of Pendennis begins its serial publication. The London publisher George Routledge begins issuing the Railway Library series of cheap reprint novels, pioneering the yellow-back genre, with an edition of James Fenimore Cooper's The Pilot. December 22 – Three days after her death from tuberculosis at Haworth Parsonage, aged 30, Emily Brontë is buried in her father's St Michael and All Angels' Church, Haworth. The funeral procession is led by her father and her dog, Keeper. unknown date – The first issue of the penny dreadful Gentleman Jack, or Life on the Road, probably by James Malcolm Rymer, is published in London by Edward Lloyd. Inspired by the life of the highwayman Claude Duval (hanged 1670), but opening in 1780, the series will reach over 200 parts by 1852 and be popular on both sides of the Atlantic. New books Fiction W. Harrison Ainsworth – The Lancashire Witches (serialised in The Sunday Times) Willibald Alexis – Der Werwulf R. M. Ballantyne – Life in the Wilds of North America Anne Brontë – The Tenant of Wildfell Hall Edward Bulwer-Lytton – Harold, the Last of the Saxons William Carleton – The Emigrants of Ahadarra Charles Dickens Dombey and Son The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain Fyodor Dostoevsky – White Nights Alexandre Dumas, fils – La Dame aux caméllias Elizabeth Gaskell – Mary Barton Geraldine Jewsbury – The Half Sisters Julia Kavanagh – Madeleine, a Tale of Auvergne Charles Kingsley – Yeast Eliza Lynn Linton – Amymone: a romance of the days of Pericles Frederick Marryat The Little Savage Valerie Henri Murger – Scènes de la vie de Bohème John Henry Newman – Loss and Gain: the story of a convert G. W. M. Reynolds The Coral Island, or the Hereditary Curse Wagner the Wehr-Wolf George Sand – François le champi (François the Waif) Adele Schopenhauer – Eine dänische Geschichte (A Danish Story) William Makepeace Thackeray – The Book of Snobs Anthony Trollope – The Kellys and the O'Kellys Children and young people Cecil Frances Alexander – Hymns for Little Children (includes "All Things Bright and Beautiful" and "Once in Royal David's City" Catherine Crowe – Pippie's Warning, or, Mind Your Temper Drama Émile Augier – L'Aventurière Alfred de Musset – André del Sarto Poetry William Edmonstoune Aytoun – Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers Edward Bulwer-Lytton – King Arthur (1848-9) James Russell Lowell – A Fable for Critics, The Biglow Papers Charles Masson – Legends of the Afghan countries, in verse Johan Ludvig Runeberg – The Tales of Ensign Stål Non-fiction Ivar Aasen – Det norske Folkesprogs Grammatik (Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects) George Catlin – Eight Years' Travels and Residence in Europe Wilkie Collins – Memoirs of the Life of William Collins, Esq., R.A. Catherine Crowe – The Night-side of Nature Jacob Grimm – Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (History of the German Language) Benjamin Randell Harris – The Recollections of Rifleman Harris Søren Kierkegaard – The Point of View of My Work as an Author (Om min Forfatter-Virksomhed) Thomas Babington Macaulay – The History of England from the Accession of James the Second, Vols 1–2 Harriet Martineau – Household Education Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels – The Communist Manifesto Charles Delucena Meigs – Females and Their Diseases; A Series of Letters to His Class John Stuart Mill – Principles of Political Economy Monckton Milnes – Life, Letters and Literary Remains of John Keats Edgar Allan Poe – Eureka: A Prose Poem George Ayliffe Poole – A History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England Percy Bolingbroke St John – French Revolution in 1848: The three days of February, 1848; with sketches of Lamartine, Guizot, etc. Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis – Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley Harriet Ward – Five years in Kaffirland: with sketches of the late war in that country to the conclusion of peace, written on the spot John Collins Warren – Etherization: with Surgical Remarks Births January 6 – Hristo Botev, Bulgarian poet and journalist (died 1876) January 28 – Mary Elizabeth Hawker, Scottish-born English fiction writer (died 1908) February 5 – Joris Karl Huysmans (Charles-Marie-Georges Huysmans), French novelist (died 1907) February 16 – Octave Mirbeau, French travel writer, novelist and playwright (died 1917) February 24 – Grant Allen, Canadian novelist and science writer (died 1899) March 9 – George Panu, Romanian memoirist, critic, and politician (died 1910) May – Bonifaciu Florescu, Wallachian and Romanian polygraph (died 1899) July 15 – Vilfredo Pareto, Italian economist, political scientist and philosopher (died 1923) August 14 – Mary E. Mann (Mary Rackham), English novelist and short story writer (died 1929) August 16 – Francis Darwin, English botanist and academic (died 1925) October 25 – Karl Emil Franzos, Austrian novelist (died 1904) unknown date – Maryana Marrash, Syrian writer and salonist (died 1919 in literature) probable year – Bithia Mary Croker, Irish novelist (died 1920) Deaths January 19 – Isaac D'Israeli, English scholar and man of letters (born 1766) February 9 – Ann Batten Cristall, English poet (born 1769) February 13 – Sophie von Knorring, Swedish novelist (born 1797) July 4 – François-René de Chateaubriand, French historian, politician and diplomat (born 1768) July 6 – He Changling (賀長齡), Chinese scholar and writer on governance (born 1785) August 9 – Frederick Marryat (Captain Marryat), English novelist and children's writer (born 1792) September 24 – Branwell Brontë, English painter, writer and poet, brother of Emily, Charlotte and Anne (tuberculosis; born 1817) November 23 – John Barrow, English writer, geographer and linguist (born 1764) December 19 – Emily Brontë, English novelist and poet (tuberculosis, born 1818) December 23 – James Cowles Prichard, English ethnologist and psychiatrist References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ 0.026228519156575203, 0.2644844055175781, -0.83101886510849, -0.07930208742618561, -0.4573220908641815, 0.2726880609989166, 0.8938730359077454, 0.5856303572654724, -0.6974835395812988, -0.9814000725746155, -0.034920383244752884, -0.25009357929229736, 0.1539430171251297, 0.46006178855895996, 0.1452983319759369, -0.12229803949594498, 0.08295056223869324, -0.11794131994247437, 0.2343100607395172, -0.506389856338501, -0.5467056035995483, 0.04110691696405411, 0.6919265389442444, -0.30151352286338806, 0.24415691196918488, -1.1222443580627441, 0.3021519184112549, -0.5561733245849609, 0.3411010801792145, -0.1937807947397232, -0.2385176569223404, 0.17718665301799774, 0.29021066427230835, 0.5208359956741333, -0.29107990860939026, 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206442	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron%20Sorkin	Aaron Sorkin	Aaron Benjamin Sorkin (born June 9, 1961) is an American playwright, screenwriter, and film director. Born in New York City, Sorkin developed a passion for writing at an early age. His works include the Broadway plays A Few Good Men, The Farnsworth Invention, and To Kill a Mockingbird, as well as the television series Sports Night (1998–2000), The West Wing (1999–2006), Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip (2006–07), and The Newsroom (2012–14). He wrote the film screenplay for the legal drama A Few Good Men (1992), the comedy The American President (1995), and several biopics including Charlie Wilson's War (2007), Moneyball (2011), and Steve Jobs (2015). For writing 2010's The Social Network, he won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay. Sorkin made his feature film debut as a director in 2017 with the crime drama Molly's Game, which garnered mostly positive reviews and earned him a third Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay. His follow-up directorial film was the historical legal drama The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020) which earned six Oscar nominations including Sorkin's first nomination for Best Original Screenplay. As a writer, Sorkin is recognized for his trademark fast-paced dialogue and extended monologues, complemented by frequent collaborator Thomas Schlamme's storytelling technique called the "walk and talk". These sequences consist of single tracking shots of long duration involving multiple characters engaging in conversation as they move through the set; characters enter and exit the conversation as the shot continues without any cuts. Early life Sorkin was born in Manhattan, New York City, to a Jewish family, and was raised in the New York suburb of Scarsdale. His mother was a schoolteacher and his father a copyright lawyer who had fought in WWII and put himself through college on the G.I. Bill; both his older sister and brother went on to become lawyers. His paternal grandfather was one of the founders of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU). Sorkin took an early interest in acting. During childhood, his parents took him to the theatre to see shows such as Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? and That Championship Season. Sorkin attended Scarsdale High School where he became involved in the drama and theatre club. In the eighth grade, he played General Bullmoose in the musical Li'l Abner. At Scarsdale High, he served as vice president of the drama club in his junior and senior years, and graduated in 1979. In 1979, Sorkin attended Syracuse University. In his freshman year, he failed a class that was a core requirement, which caused a setback because he wanted to be an actor, and the drama department did not allow students to take the stage until they completed the core classes. Determined to do better, he returned for his sophomore year, and graduated in 1983 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Musical Theatre. Recalling the influence of theatre teacher Arthur Storch, Sorkin said: "Arthur's reputation as a director, and as a disciple of Lee Strasberg, was a big reason why a lot of us went to S.U. [Syracuse University]... 'You have the capacity to be so much better than you are', he started saying to me in September of my senior year. He was still saying it in May. On the last day of classes, he said it again, and I said, 'How?', and he answered, 'Dare to fail'. I've been coming through on his admonition ever since". Career 1983–1990: Early work and breakthrough Sorkin moved to New York City where he spent much of the 1980s as a struggling, sporadically-employed actor who worked odd jobs, such as delivering singing telegrams, driving a limousine, touring Alabama with the children's theatre company Traveling Playhouse, handing out fliers promoting a hunting-and-fishing show, and bartending at Broadway's Palace Theatre. One weekend, while house-sitting for a friend, he found an IBM Selectric typewriter, started typing, and "felt a phenomenal confidence and a kind of joy that [he] had never experienced before in [his] life". He continued writing and eventually put together his first play, Removing All Doubt, which he sent to his former theatre teacher, Arthur Storch, who was impressed. In 1984, Removing All Doubt was staged for drama students at his alma mater, Syracuse University. After that, he wrote Hidden in This Picture which debuted off-off-Broadway at Steve Olsen's West Bank Cafe Downstairs Theatre Bar in New York City in 1988. The quality of his first two plays earned him a theatrical agent. Producer John A. McQuiggan saw the production of Hidden in This Picture and commissioned Sorkin to turn the one-act into a full-length play called Making Movies. Sorkin was inspired to write his next play, a courtroom drama called A Few Good Men, from a phone conversation with his sister Deborah, who had graduated from Boston University Law School and signed up for a three-year stint with the U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps. Deborah told Sorkin that she was going to Guantanamo Bay to defend a group of Marines who came close to killing a fellow Marine in a hazing ordered by a superior officer. Sorkin took that information and wrote much of his story on cocktail napkins while bartending at the Palace Theatre. He and his roommates had purchased a Macintosh 512K; when he returned home, he would transcribe the story and notes onto the computer, forming a basis from which he wrote many drafts for A Few Good Men. In 1988, Sorkin sold the film rights for A Few Good Men to producer David Brown before it premiered, in a deal that was reportedly "well into six figures". Brown had read an article in The New York Times about Sorkin's one-act play Hidden in This Picture, and found out Sorkin had a play called A Few Good Men that was having Off Broadway readings. Brown produced A Few Good Men on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre. It starred Tom Hulce and was directed by Don Scardino. After opening in late 1989, it ran for 497 performances. Sorkin continued writing Making Movies and in 1990 it debuted Off-Broadway at the Promenade Theatre, produced by John A. McQuiggan, and again directed by Don Scardino. Meanwhile, Brown was producing for TriStar Pictures, and tried to interest them in adapting A Few Good Men into a film, but his proposal was declined due to the lack of star actor involvement. Brown later received a phone call from Alan Horn at Castle Rock Entertainment who was anxious to make the film. Rob Reiner, a Castle Rock producing partner, opted to direct. 1991–1997: Writing for Castle Rock Entertainment Sorkin worked under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment, where he befriended colleagues William Goldman and Rob Reiner, and met his future wife Julia Bingham, who was one of Castle Rock's business affairs lawyers. Sorkin wrote several drafts of the script for A Few Good Men in his Manhattan apartment, learning the craft from a book about screenplay format. He then spent several months at the Los Angeles offices of Castle Rock, working on the script with director Rob Reiner. William Goldman (who regularly worked under contract at Castle Rock) became his mentor and helped him to adapt his stage play into a screenplay. The film, directed by Reiner, starred Tom Cruise, Jack Nicholson, Demi Moore and Kevin Bacon, and was produced by Brown. A Few Good Men was released in 1992 and was a box office success, grossing $243 million worldwide. Goldman also approached Sorkin with a story premise, which Sorkin developed into the script for the thriller Malice. Goldman oversaw the project as creative consultant while Sorkin wrote the first two drafts. However, he had to leave the project to finish the script for A Few Good Men, so screenwriter Scott Frank stepped in and wrote two drafts of the Malice screenplay. When production on A Few Good Men was completed, Sorkin resumed working on Malice right through the final shooting script. Harold Becker directed the 1993 thriller, which starred Nicole Kidman and Alec Baldwin. Malice had mixed reviews; Vincent Canby in The New York Times described the film as "deviously entertaining from its start through its finish". Critic Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars, and Peter Travers in a 2000 Rolling Stone review summarized it as having "suspense but no staying power". Sorkin's last screenplay under Castle Rock was The American President; once again he worked with William Goldman who served as a creative consultant. It took Sorkin several years to write the screenplay for The American President, which started off at 385-pages; it was eventually reduced to a standard shooting script of around 120 pages. The film, also directed by Reiner, was critically acclaimed; Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described it as "genial and entertaining if not notably inspired", and believed its most interesting aspects were the "pipe dreams about the American political system and where it could theoretically be headed". A Few Good Men, Malice and The American President grossed approximately $400 million worldwide. In the second half of the 1990s, Sorkin worked as a script doctor. He wrote some quips for Sean Connery and Nicolas Cage in 1996's The Rock. He worked on Excess Baggage, a 1997 comedy about a girl who stages her own kidnapping to get her father's attention, and rewrote some of Will Smith's scenes in Enemy of the State. Sorkin collaborated with Warren Beatty on several scripts, one of which was 1998's Bulworth. Beatty, known for occasionally personally financing his film projects through pre-production, also hired Sorkin to rewrite a script titled Ocean of Storms which never went into production. At one point, Sorkin sued Beatty for proper compensation for his work on the Ocean of Storms script; once the matter was settled, he resumed working on the script. 1998–2006: Television series and theatre work Sports Night Sorkin conceived the idea to write about the behind-the-scenes happenings on a sports show while residing at the Four Seasons Hotel in Los Angeles writing the screenplay for The American President. He would work late, with the television tuned into ESPN, watching continuous replays of SportsCenter. The show inspired him to try to write a feature film about a sports show but he was unable to structure the story for film, so instead he turned his idea into a television comedy series. Sports Night was produced by Disney and debuted on the ABC network in fall of 1998. Sorkin fought with ABC during the first season over the use of a laugh track and a live studio audience. The laugh track was widely decried by critics as jarring, with Joyce Millman of Salon magazine describing it as "the most unconvincing laugh track you've ever heard". Sorkin commented that: "Once you do shoot in front of a live audience, you have no choice but to use the laugh track. Oftentimes [enhancing the laughs] is the right thing to do. Sometimes you do need a cymbal crash. Other times, it alienates me." The laugh track was gradually dialed down and was removed by the end of the first season. Sorkin was triumphant in the second season when ABC agreed to his demands, unburdening the crew of the difficulties of staging a scene for a live audience and leaving the cast with more time to rehearse. Although Sports Night was critically acclaimed, ABC canceled the show after two seasons due to low ratings. Sorkin entertained offers to continue the show on other television channels, but declined all the offers because they were dependent on his involvement and he was already working on The West Wing. The West Wing Sorkin conceived the political drama The West Wing in 1997 when he went unprepared to a lunch with producer John Wells; in a panic he pitched to Wells a series centered on the senior staff of the White House, using leftover ideas from his script for The American President. He told Wells about his visits to the White House while doing research for The American President, and they found themselves discussing public service and the passion of the people who serve. Wells took the concept and pitched it to NBC, but was told to wait due to the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal. There was a concern that television audiences would not be able to take a series about the White House seriously. A year later, other networks started showing interest in The West Wing. NBC decided to give the project the green-light despite their previous reluctance. The pilot debuted in the fall of 1999 and was produced by Warner Bros. Television. The West Wing garnered nine Primetime Emmy Awards for its debut season, making the series a record holder for most Emmys won by a series in a single season at the time. Following the awards ceremony, there was a dispute about the acceptance speech for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. The West Wing episode "In Excelsis Deo" won, which was awarded to Sorkin and Rick Cleveland, but The New York Times reported that Sorkin ushered Cleveland off the stage before he could say a few words. The story behind "In Excelsis Deo" is based on Cleveland's father, a Korean War veteran who spent the last years of his life on the street, as Cleveland explained in an essay titled "I Was the Dumb Looking Guy with the Wire-Rimmed Glasses". Sorkin and Cleveland continued their dispute in a public web forum at Mighty Big TV in which Sorkin explained that he gives his writers "Story By" credit on a rotating basis "by way of a gratuity" and that he had thrown out Cleveland's script and started from scratch. Sorkin eventually apologized to Cleveland. Cleveland and Sorkin also won the Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Drama at the 53rd Writer Guild of America Awards for "In Excelsis Deo". In 2001, after completing the second season of The West Wing, Sorkin suffered a drug relapse, and was arrested at Hollywood Burbank Airport for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms, marijuana, and crack cocaine. He was ordered by a court to attend a drug diversion program. There was huge media interest but he did make a successful recovery. In 2002, Sorkin criticized NBC News anchor Tom Brokaw's television special about a day in the life of a president, "The Bush White House: Inside the Real West Wing", comparing it to the act of sending a valentine to President George W. Bush instead of real news reporting. The West Wing aired on the same network, and so at the request of NBC's Entertainment President Jeff Zucker, Sorkin apologized, but later said, "there should be a difference between what NBC News does and what The West Wing TV series does." Sorkin wrote 87 screenplays for The West Wing, which is nearly every episode during the show's first four Emmy-winning seasons. Sorkin described his role in the creative process as "not so much [that of] a showrunner or a producer. I'm really a writer." He admitted that this approach can have its drawbacks, saying "Out of 88 [West Wing] episodes that I did we were on time and on budget never, not once." In 2003, at the end of the fourth season, Sorkin and fellow executive producer Thomas Schlamme left the show due to internal conflicts at Warner Bros. Television, causing John Wells to serve as showrunner. Sorkin never watched any episodes beyond his writing tenure apart from a minute of the fifth season's first episode, describing the experience as "like watching somebody make out with my girlfriend." Sorkin later returned in the series finale for a cameo appearance as a member of President Bartlet's staff. Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip In 2005, Sorkin returned to theatre; he revised his play A Few Good Men for a production at London's West End. The play opened at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in the fall of the same year and was directed by David Esbjornson, with Rob Lowe of The West Wing in the lead role. Sorkin told The Charlie Rose Show that he was developing a television series based on a late-night sketch comedy show similar to Saturday Night Live. In October 2005, a pilot script dubbed Studio 7 on the Sunset Strip, written by him and Schlamme as producer, started circulating in Hollywood and online. In that same month, NBC bought the rights from Warner Bros. Television to air the series on their network for a near-record license fee after a bidding war with CBS. The show's name was later changed to Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip. Sorkin described the show as having "autobiographical elements" to it and "characters that are based on actual people" but said that it departs from those beginnings to look at the backstage maneuverings at a late night sketch comedy show. On September 18, 2006, the pilot for Studio 60 aired on NBC, directed by Schlamme. The pilot was critically acclaimed and viewed by an audience of over 12 million, but the show experienced a significant drop in viewership mid-season. Even before the first episode aired, there was a large amount of thoughtful and scrupulous criticism in the press, as well as negative analysis from bloggers. In January 2007, Sorkin spoke out against the press for reporting heavily on the low ratings, and for using blogs and unemployed comedy writers as sources. After two months hiatus, Studio 60 resumed airing the last episodes of season one, which would be its only season. The Farnsworth Invention As early as 2003, Sorkin was writing a spec script about inventor Philo Farnsworth; he was approached by producer Fred Zollo in the 1990s about adapting Elma Farnsworth's memoir into a biographical film. The following year, he completed the film screenplay, The Farnsworth Invention, which was acquired by New Line Cinema with Schlamme as director. The story is about the patent battle between Farnsworth and RCA tycoon David Sarnoff for the technology that allowed the first television transmissions in the United States. No additional details were released about the film. Shortly, Sorkin was contacted by Jocelyn Clarke of the Abbey Theatre in Dublin, requesting he write a play for them, a commission which he accepted. Sorkin decided to rewrite The Farnsworth Invention as a play. He delivered a first draft of the play to the Abbey Theatre in early 2005, and a production was planned for 2007 with La Jolla Playhouse deciding to stage a workshop production of the play in collaboration with the Abbey Theatre. In 2006, Abbey Theatre's new management quit involvement with The Farnsworth Invention. Despite this, La Jolla Playhouse carried on with Steven Spielberg serving as a producer. The production opened under La Jolla's signature Page To Stage program which allowed Sorkin and director Des McAnuff to develop the play from show-to-show according to audience reactions and feedback; the play ran from February 20, 2007 through March 25, 2007. A Broadway production followed soon after, beginning in previews, and opening on November 14, 2007; however, the play was delayed by the 2007 Broadway stagehand strike. The Farnsworth Invention eventually opened at the Music Box Theatre on December 3, 2007, and closed on March 2, 2008. 2007–2015: Return to film and The Newsroom In 2007, Sorkin was commissioned by Universal Pictures to adapt George Crile's non-fiction book Charlie Wilson's War for Tom Hanks' production company Playtone. The biographical comedy, Charlie Wilson's War, is about the colorful Texas congressman Charlie Wilson who funded the CIA's secret war against the former Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Directed by Mike Nichols, and written by Sorkin, the film was released in 2007 and starred Tom Hanks, Julia Roberts and Philip Seymour Hoffman. The film earned five nominations at the Golden Globes, including Best Screenplay for Sorkin. In August 2008, Sorkin announced that he had agreed to write a script for Sony Pictures and producer Scott Rudin about the beginnings of Facebook. David Fincher's The Social Network, based on Ben Mezrich's novel The Accidental Billionaires, was released on October 1, 2010. It was a critical and commercial success; Sorkin won an Academy Award, BAFTA and a Golden Globe for the screenplay. A year later, Sorkin received nominations in the same award categories for co-writing Moneyball. It is based on Michael Lewis's 2003 non-fiction book of the same name, an account of the Oakland Athletics baseball team's 2002 season and their general manager Billy Beane's attempts to assemble a competitive team. The film was directed by Bennett Miller, and starred Brad Pitt, Jonah Hill, and Philip Seymour Hoffman. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the script "dynamite", in which Sorkin's "sharply witty touch is everywhere". In 2011, Sorkin played himself on the series 30 Rock, episode "Plan B", where he did a "walk and talk" with Liz Lemon played by Tina Fey. While still working on the screenplay for The Social Network, Sorkin was contemplating a television drama about the behind-the-scenes events at a cable news program. Talks had been ongoing between Sorkin and HBO since 2010. To research the news industry, Sorkin observed the production crew at MSNBC's Countdown with Keith Olbermann, and quizzed Parker Spitzers staff. He also spent time shadowing Hardball with Chris Matthews, as well as other programs on Fox News and CNN. Sorkin told TV Guide that he intended to take a less cynical view of the media: "They're going to be trying to do well in a context where it's very difficult to do well when there are commercial concerns and political concerns and corporate concerns." Sorkin decided that rather than have his characters react to fictional news events as on his earlier series, it would be set in the recent past and track real-world stories largely as they unfolded, to give a greater sense of realism. HBO ordered a pilot episode in January 2011 with the working title More as This Story Develops, with Scott Rudin serving as an executive producer. In September, HBO ordered a 10-episode series of The Newsroom with a premiere date of June 2012. A day after the second episode aired, HBO renewed the series for a second season. Sorkin said The Newsroom "is meant to be an idealistic, romantic, swashbuckling, sometimes comedic but very optimistic, upward-looking look at a group of people who are often looked at cynically. The same as with The West Wing, where ordinarily in popular culture our leaders are portrayed either as Machiavellian or dumb; I wanted to do something different and show a highly competent group of people." The series concluded after its third season. In 2015, Danny Boyle's biographical drama Steve Jobs was released. The screenplay by Sorkin was based on Walter Isaacson's biography of Steve Jobs, and starred Michael Fassbender as Jobs, Kate Winslet as Joanna Hoffman, Jeff Daniels as John Sculley, and Seth Rogen as Steve Wozniak. Sorkin expressed hesitation for tackling the film, saying "it was a little like writing about the Beatles—that there are so many people out there who know so much about him [Jobs] and who revere him that I just saw a minefield of disappointment. [...] Hopefully, when I'm done with my research, I'll be in the same ball park of knowledge about Steve Jobs". He won a Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay, although some journalists were surprised that he did not receive an Academy Award nomination in the same category. While the critic from South China Morning Post thought it was the best-written film of the year, Ashley Clark of Little White Lies magazine criticized the script for its "overly verbose dialogue". 2016–present: Venture into directing In February 2016, it was announced that Sorkin would adapt Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird for the stage, and work alongside Bartlett Sher. His Broadway adaptation opened on December 13, 2018 to positive reviews at the Shubert Theatre. Next, Sorkin made his directorial debut with Molly's Game, an adaptation of entrepreneur Molly Bloom's memoir. He also wrote the script for it, which starred Jessica Chastain and Idris Elba. Production began in 2016 and the film was released in December 2017 to mostly positive reviews; Sorkin received his third Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Molly's Game garnered an approval rating of 81% based on 297 reviews, with an average rating of 7.07/10. Sorkin told Vanity Fair in July 2020 that Steven Spielberg offered him a job in 2006 about "a movie about the riots at the 1968 Chicago Democratic Convention and the trial that followed". However, after meeting at Spielberg's home, Sorkin said, "I left not knowing what the hell he was talking about." On July 12, 2007, Variety magazine reported that Sorkin had signed a deal with DreamWorks to write three scripts. The first was The Trial of the Chicago 7, which Sorkin was already developing with Spielberg, and Walter Parkes and Laurie MacDonald. In March 2010, Sorkin's agent, Ari Emanuel, had stated that the project was proving "tough to get together". In late July 2013, it was announced that Paul Greengrass would be directing, but Sorkin eventually both wrote and directed the film. Focusing on the Chicago Seven (and Bobby Seale), the film began a limited release on September 25, 2020, before streaming on Netflix. At the 78th Golden Globes, Sorkin won Best Screenplay, and was nominated for Best Director. In September 2015, Entertainment Weekly reported that Sorkin was writing a biopic that will focus on the twenty-year marriage of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz, and their work on a comedy series, I Love Lucy. Cate Blanchett was originally to star as Ball. In 2017, Amazon Studios acquired the rights to the film. In January 2021, it was announced that Blanchett had been replaced by Nicole Kidman, and Javier Bardem had been cast as Desi Arnaz. Titled Being the Ricardos (2021), it was directed by Sorkin and received a limited release on December 10, 2021, followed by a wide release on Prime Video on December 21. Paul Byrnes of The Sydney Morning Herald praised the film's dialogue, while the critic from The Irish Times opined that the film lacked "spark or insight". Prospective projects In March 2007, it was reported that Sorkin had signed on to write a musical adaptation of the hit 2002 record Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots by psychedelic-rock band The Flaming Lips, collaborating with director Des McAnuff who had been developing the project. In August 2008, McAnuff announced that Sorkin had been commissioned by the Stratford Shakespeare Festival to write an adaptation of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard. In 2010, Sorkin reportedly obtained the film rights to Andrew Young's book The Politician (about Senator John Edwards), and announced that he would make his debut as a film director while adapting the book for the screen. In November 2010, it was reported that Sorkin will write a musical based on the life of Houdini, with music by Danny Elfman. In January 2012, Stephen Schwartz was reported to be writing the music and lyrics, with Sorkin making his debut as a librettist. The musical was expected for release in 2013–14; Sorkin said: "The chance to collaborate with Stephen Schwartz [the director], Jack O'Brien, and Hugh Jackman on a new Broadway musical is a huge gift." In January 2013, he quit the project, citing film and television commitments. In March 2016, it was announced that Sorkin would adapt A Few Good Men for a live production on NBC, originally slated to air in 2017; , "Sorkin is still mulling the project". Writing process and style Sorkin has written for the theater, film, and television, and in each medium his level of collaboration with other creators has varied. He began in theater, which involved a largely solitary writing process, then moved into film, where he collaborated with director Rob Reiner and screenwriter William Goldman, and eventually worked in television, where he collaborated very closely with director Thomas Schlamme for nearly a decade on the shows Sports Night, The West Wing and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip; he now moves between all three media. He has a habit of chain smoking while he spends countless hours cooped up in his office plotting out his next scripts. He describes his writing process as physical because he will often stand up and speak the dialogue he is developing. A New York Times article by Peter de Jonge explained that "The West Wing is never plotted out for more than a few weeks ahead and has no major story lines", which De Jonge believed was because "with characters who have no flaws, it is impossible to give them significant arcs". Sorkin has stated: "I seldom plan ahead, not because I don't think it's good to plan ahead, there just isn't time." Sorkin has also said, "As a writer, I don't like to answer questions until the very moment that I have to." The Seattle Post-Intelligencer's TV critic John Levesque has commented that Sorkin's writing process "can make for ill-advised plot developments". Further complicating the matter, in television, Sorkin will have a hand in writing every episode, rarely letting other writers earn full credit on a script. De Jonge reported that ex-writers of The West Wing have claimed that "even by the spotlight-hogging standards of Hollywood, Sorkin has been exceptionally ungenerous in his sharing of writing credit". In a comment to GQ magazine in 2008, Sorkin said, "I'm helped by a staff of people who have great ideas, but the scripts aren't written by committee." Sorkin's long-term collaboration with Schlamme began in early 1998 when they found they shared common creative ground on the soon to be produced Sports Night. Their successful partnership in television is one in which Sorkin focuses on writing the scripts while Schlamme executive produces and occasionally directs; they have worked together on Sports Night, The West Wing, and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip. Schlamme will create the look of the shows, work with the other directors, discuss the scripts with Sorkin as soon as they are turned in, make design and casting decisions, and attend the budget meetings; Sorkin tends to stick strictly to writing. In response to what he perceived as unfair criticism of The Newsroom, Jacob Drum of Digital Americana wrote, "The essential truth that the critics miss is that The Newsroom is Sorkin being Sorkin as he always has been and always will be: one part pioneer; one part self-conscious romantic; two parts actual Lewis & Clark-style pioneer, trapping his way across an old, old idea of an America that can always stand to raise its game—but most importantly, spinning a good yarn while he does so." Sorkin is known for writing memorable lines and fast-paced dialogue, such as "You can't handle the truth!" from A Few Good Men and the partly Latin tirade against God in The West Wing episode "Two Cathedrals". For television, one hallmark of Sorkin's writer's voice is the repartee that his characters engage in as they small talk and banter about whimsical events taking place within an episode, and interject obscure popular culture references into conversation. Although his scripts are lauded for being literate, Sorkin has been criticized for often turning in scripts that are overwrought. His mentor William Goldman has commented that normally in visual media speeches are avoided, but that Sorkin has a talent for dialogue and gets away with breaking this rule. In August 2016, Sorkin launched a screenwriting course on MasterClass. The course includes dialogue, character development, story pacing, plot, and his process of working. Students can watch videos, download workbooks, and share their observations and progress through discussion boards and social media groups. Personal life Sorkin married Julia Bingham in 1996 and divorced in 2005, with his workaholic habits and drug abuse reported to be a partial cause. Sorkin and Bingham have one daughter, Roxy. He dated Kristin Chenoweth for several years, who played Annabeth Schott on The West Wing (after Sorkin had left the show). He has also reportedly dated columnist Maureen Dowd and actress Kristin Davis. In 2021, Sorkin and Paulina Porizkova dated for a few months. A consistent supporter of the Democratic Party, Sorkin has made substantial political campaign contributions to candidates between 1999 and 2011, according to CampaignMoney.com. During the 2004 US presidential election campaign, the liberal advocacy group MoveOn's political action committee enlisted Sorkin and Rob Reiner to create one of their anti-Bush campaign advertisements. In August 2008, Sorkin was involved in a Generation Obama event at the Fine Arts Theater in Beverly Hills, California, participating in a panel discussion subsequent to a screening of Frank Capra's Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. However, Sorkin does not consider himself a political activist: "I've met political activists, and they're for real. I've never marched anyplace or done anything that takes more effort than writing a check in terms of activism". In 2016, after President Donald Trump won the election, Sorkin wrote an open letter to his daughter Roxy and her mother Julia. In 1987, Sorkin started using marijuana and cocaine. He said cocaine gave him relief from certain nervous tensions that occur on a regular basis. In 1995, he sought rehabilitation at the Hazelden Institute in Minnesota, on the advice of Bingham to combat his addiction. In early 2001, Sorkin and his colleagues John Spencer and Martin Sheen received the Phoenix Rising Award for overcoming their drug abuse. However, on April 15, 2001, Sorkin was arrested when security guards at Hollywood Burbank Airport found that he was in possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms, marijuana, crack cocaine, and a metal crack pipe. He was court-ordered to a drug diversion program, while still working on The West Wing. In a commencement speech for Syracuse University on May 13, 2012, Sorkin said he has not used cocaine for eleven years. Filmography Films Television Plays Acting credits Awards and nominations Sorkin has been recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the following films: 83rd Academy Awards: Best Adapted Screenplay, win, The Social Network (2010) 84th Academy Awards: Best Adapted Screenplay, nomination, Moneyball (2011) 90th Academy Awards: Best Adapted Screenplay, nomination, Molly's Game (2017) 93rd Academy Awards: Best Original Screenplay, nomination, The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020) Sorkin has been nominated for ten Golden Globe Awards, winning three for Best Screenplay for: The Social Network (2011), Steve Jobs (2015), and The Trial of the Chicago Seven (2020). He has also received five British Academy Film Awards nominations, winning one for The Social Network (2010). He has also received fourteen Writers Guild of America Award nominations winning twice for The West Wing, and The Social Network (2010). He has received seven Critics' Choice Movie Awards nominations winning consecutively for Best Screenplay for The Social Network and Moneyball. For his work on television Sorkin has received nine Primetime Emmy Award nominations winning four awards for Outstanding Drama Series for The West Wing in 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003. He also won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for The West Wing episode: "In Excelsis Deo" in 2000. References Further reading External links Aaron Sorkin at Moviefone Blog Entries by Aaron Sorkin at HuffPost 1961 births 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American screenwriters 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American screenwriters American male dramatists and playwrights American male film actors American male screenwriters American male television writers American television writers Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award winners Best Screenplay Golden Globe winners Film directors from New York City Jewish American writers Living people People from Scarsdale, New York Primetime Emmy Award winners Scarsdale High School alumni Screenwriters from New York (state) Screenwriting instructors Showrunners Syracuse University alumni Television producers from New York City Writers Guild of America Award winners Writers from Manhattan 21st-century American Jews	[ 0.029903145506978035, 0.3259566128253937, 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206445	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1847%20in%20literature	1847 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1847. Events January – Vanity Fair: Pen and Pencil Sketches of English Society begins serial publication in Punch magazine (London) in yellow covers, with illustrations by the author, William Makepeace Thackeray, writing for the first time in his own name. March–April – Ivan Goncharov's debut novel A Common Story («Обыкновенная история», Obyknovennaya istorya) is published in Sovremennik (Saint Petersburg). April – Robert Browning settles with his wife and fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning in Florence. June Elizabeth Gaskell's first published work of fiction, the story "Life in Manchester: Libbie Marsh's Three Eras", appears in Howitt's Journal of Literature and Popular Progress under the pen name Cotton Mather Mills. Hans Christian Andersen begins his first visit to Britain, during which he meets Charles Dickens. June 10 – The fictional date at the end of Anne Brontë's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is presumed to be that of the novel's completion. July – The London publisher Thomas Cautley Newby accepts for publication Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey. August 7–24 – Charlotte Brontë completes Jane Eyre at Haworth and sends the manuscript to her publisher, who has rejected The Professor. September 16 – William Shakespeare's house of birth in Stratford-upon-Avon in England is bought by the United Shakespeare Company for preservation. This year also, Schiller's house in Weimar is opened to the public as a museum. October 19 – Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre is published (as "an autobiography, edited by Currer Bell") in London by Smith, Elder & Co. in 3 volumes. November – Dmitry Grigorovich's anti-serfdom novel Anton Goremyka («Антон-горемыка», "Luckless Anton") is published in Sovremennik with its politically sensitive last scene rewritten by a censor. November 1 – John Maddison Morton's one-act farce Box and Cox (adapted from the French) opens at the Lyceum Theatre, London (under the new management of Madame Vestris and her husband Charles James Mathews) with John Pritt Harley and John Baldwin Buckstone in the title roles. December 14 – Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey are published in a three-volume set under the pen names of Ellis and Acton Bell respectively, in London by T. C. Newby. Wuthering Heights will be Emily's only published novel, as she dies a year later, aged 30. unknown date – The London publisher E. Churton brings out the first six of George Sand's books to be issued in English, as translated by Matilda Hays, Eliza Ashurst and Rev. Edmund Larken. New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac – Le Cousin Pons Anne Brontë (as Acton Bell) – Agnes Grey Charlotte Brontë (as Currer Bell) – Jane Eyre Emily Brontë (as Ellis Bell) – Wuthering Heights Benjamin Disraeli – Tancred Alexandre Dumas – The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later (Le Vicomte de Bragelonne, ou Dix ans plus tard; serialization begins; in English usually in three parts, The Vicomte of Bragelonne, Louise de la Vallière, The Man in the Iron Mask) Ivan Goncharov – A Common Story Catherine Gore – Castles in The Air Dmitry Grigorovich – Anton Goremyka Eliza Lynn Linton – Azeth, The Egyptian Herman Melville – Omoo G. W. M. Reynolds – Faust: A Romance of the Secret Tribunals George Sand – Le Péché de M. Antoine (The Sin of M. Antoine) Harriet Anne Scott – The Hen-Pecked Husband The Sobieski Stuarts – Tales of the Century: or Sketches of the romance of history between the years 1746 and 1846 Eugène Sue Martin l'enfant trouvé ou Mémoires d'un valet de chambre (Martin the Foundling, publication completed) Les Sept pêchés capitaux (The Seven Deadly Sins, publication begins) William Makepeace Thackeray – Vanity Fair (serialisation) Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna – The System Anthony Trollope – The Macdermots of Ballycloran Children and young people Frederick Marryat – The Children of the New Forest Drama John Baldwin Buckstone The Flowers of the Forest The Green Bushes Gustav Freytag – Graf Waldemar Richard Brinsley Peake – Gabrielli The Title Deeds Poetry Heinrich Heine – Atta Troll Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Evangeline Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, Prince-Bishop of Montenegro – The Mountain Wreath (Горски вијенац, Gorski vijenac), Serbian epic verse drama Edgar Allan Poe – Ulalume Raja Ali Haji or his sister Saleha – Syair Abdul Muluk Christina Rossetti – Verses by Christina G. Rossetti Alfred Tennyson – The Princess Non-fiction Hans Christian Andersen – The Fairy Tale of My Life (Das Märchen meines Lebens ohne Dichtung, autobiography) William Wells Brown – Narrative of William W. Brown, a Fugitive Slave, Written by Himself Andrew Jackson Davis – The Principles of Nature Søren Kierkegaard – Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger) Karl Marx – The Poverty of Philosophy (Misère de la philosophie) William H. Prescott – A History of the Conquest of Peru Births January 6 – Milovan Glišić, Serbian dramatist and translator (died 1908) January 9 – Oyyarathu Chandu Menon, Indian Malayalam-language novelist (died 1899) April 2 – Flora Annie Steel (Flora Annie Webster), English writer (died 1929) April 7 – Jens Peter Jacobsen, Danish novelist (died 1885) April 10 – Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian American newspaperman (died 1911) August 20 – Bolesław Prus (Aleksander Głowacki), Polish novelist (died 1912) September 2 – George R. Sims, English writer (died 1922) September 22 – Alice Meynell (Alice Thompson), English poet (died 1922) November 8 – Bram Stoker, Irish novelist and theater manager (died 1912) December 26 – Hugh Conway, English novelist (died 1885) unknown date – Maria Fetherstonhaugh, English novelist (died 1918) Deaths February 8 – George Walker, English Gothic novelist (born 1772) April 23 – Erik Gustaf Geijer, Swedish historian, poet, philosopher, and composer (born 1783) May 4 – Alexandre Vinet, Swiss critic and theologian (born 1797) August 14 – Frans Michael Franzén, Swedish writer (born 1772) August 28 – Eugène Bourgeois, French dramatist (born 1818) September 16 – Grace Aguilar, English novelist (born 1816) October 13 – Johann Heinrich van Ess, German theologian (born 1772) October 22 – Henriette Herz, German salon hostess (born 1764) December 14 – Dorothy Ann Thrupp, hymnwriter and translator (born 1779) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ 0.04138132184743881, 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206447	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1846%20in%20literature	1846 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1846. Events January 3 – The American author Edgar Allan Poe issues the final edition of the Broadway Journal, a journal he owned for just a few months. January 15 – Fyodor Dostoevsky's first original novel, Poor Folk (Бедные люди, Bednye Lyudi), is published in the St. Petersburg Collection. January 21 – The Daily News, edited by Charles Dickens, first appears in London. After 17 issues Dickens hands over as editor to his friend John Forster. It continues until 1930. April – Poe's essay "The Philosophy of Composition" is published in Graham's Magazine. c. May 22 – The Brontë sisters' first published work, the collection Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, appears in London. It sells only two copies in the first year. June 27 – Charlotte Brontë completes the manuscript of her novel The Professor. It is offered to several publishers during the year but rejected. August 15 – The Scott Monument to Sir Walter Scott in Edinburgh (Scotland) is inaugurated. September 12 – The poets Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning marry privately in St Marylebone Parish Church, London, and depart for the continent a week later. October 1 – Serial publication of Charles Dickens's Dombey and Son begins. November 21 – The String of Pearls: a Romance, probably written by James Malcolm Rymer and Thomas Peckett Prest, begins serialization in Britain. This is the first literary appearance of Sweeney Todd. unknown dates Mary Howitt's Wonderful Stories for Children is the first English translation of works by Hans Christian Andersen to be published in book format. Isaac D. Baker and Charles Scribner form the New York City publisher Baker & Scribner, predecessor of Charles Scribner's Sons. New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac – Cousin Bette (La Cousine Bette) Edward Bulwer-Lytton – The Children of the Night James Fenimore Cooper – The Redskins Charles Dickens The Battle of Life (novella) Dombey and Son (serialization begins) Fyodor Dostoevsky The Double: A Petersburg Poem (Двойник, Dvoynik; novella) Poor Folk (Бедные люди, Bednye Lyudi) Alexandre Dumas, père Le Chevalier de Maison-Rouge (The Knight of the Maison-Rouge: A Novel of Marie Antoinette) The Count of Monte Cristo (Le Comte de Monte-Cristo, serialization concluded; first English translation) La Dame de Montsoreau Mémoires d'un médecin: Joseph Balsamo ("Memoirs of a Physician: vol. 1, Joseph Balsamo") Dmitry Grigorovich – The Village (Деревня, Derevnya) Nathaniel Hawthorne – Mosses from an Old Manse Mór Jókai – Weekdays (Hétköznapok) Frederick Marryat – The Privateersman Herman Melville – Typee George Sand – (The Devil's Pond) Children Anne Knight – School-Room Lyrics Hannah and Mary Townsend – The Anti-Slavery Alphabet Drama Paul Bocage – Échec et mat Carolina Coronado – El cuadro de la esperanza Gustav Freytag – Die Valentine Eugène Marin Labiche and Auguste Lefranc – Frisette Martins Pena – first performances A Barriga do Meu Tio Os Ciúmes de um Pedestre, ou O Terrível Capitão do Mato Os Meirinhos Um Segredo de Estado O Usurário Joseph Isidore Samson – La Famille poisson Poetry Gottfried Keller – Gedichte (Poems) Edward Lear – Book of Nonsense Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – The Belfry of Bruges Non-fiction Selim Aga – Incidents Connected with the Life of Selim Aga, A Native of Central Africa Mary Anne Atwood (as Θυος Μαθος) – Early Magnetism in its Higher Relations to Humanity Curtis H. Cavender (as H.C. Decanver) – Catalogue of Works in Refutation of Methodism Charles Dickens – Pictures from Italy F. W. Fairholt – Costume in England George Grote – A History of Greece (publication begins) George W. Johnson – A Dictionary of Gardening Søren Kierkegaard – Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift til de philosophiske Smuler) David Strauss – The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, translated by George Eliot from Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet Theodor Waitz – Grundlegung der Psychologie (Foundation of Psychology) William Whewell – Elements of Morality Births March 17 – Kate Greenaway, English book illustrator and writer (died 1901) March 25 – Helen Zimmern, German-born English writer and translator (died 1934) April 4 – Comte de Lautreamont (pen name of Isidore Lucien Ducasse), Uruguayan-born French poet and writer (died 1870) April 24 – Marcus Clarke, Australian novelist and poet (died 1881) May 5 – Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish novelist (died 1916) May 25 – Naim Frashëri, Albanian poet (died 1900) June 30 – Frances Margaret Milne, Irish-born American author and librarian (died 1910) July 5 – Christian Reid (pen name of Frances Christine Fisher Tiernan), American author (died 1920) August 2 – Lucy Clifford (née Lucy Lane), English novelist, dramatist and screenwriter (died 1929) August 5 Louise Manning Hodgkins, American educator, author, and editor (died 1935) Alvilde Prydz, Norwegian novelist (died 1922) October 1 – John Cadvan Davies, Welsh poet and Wesleyan Methodist minister (died 1923) October 21 – Edmondo De Amicis, Italian novelist, journalist, poet and short-story writer (died 1908) unknown date – Mary Foot Seymour, American businesswoman and writer (died 1893) Deaths January 6 – Lewis Goldsmith, Anglo-French journalist (born c. 1763) February 9 – Henry Gally Knight, English writer and traveler (born 1786) March 10 – Harriette Wilson, English memoirist (born 1786) June 24 – Jan Frans Willems, Flemish poet and political activist (born 1793) July 12 – Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna, English novelist (born 1790) September 4 – Victor-Joseph Étienne de Jouy, French dramatist (born 1764) November 23 – George Darley, Irish poet, novelist, and critic (born 1795) December 13 – Pasquale Galluppi, Italian philosopher (born 1770) Awards Chancellor's Gold Medal – Edward Henry Bickersteth Newdigate Prize – G. O. 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206448	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Burgin	Victor Burgin	Victor Burgin (born 1941) is a British artist and writer. Burgin first came to attention as a conceptual artist in the late 1960s (Harrison & Wood, 1992; Walker, 2001) and at that time was most noted for being a political photographer of the left, who would fuse photographs and words in the same picture. He has worked with photography and film, calling painting "the anachronistic daubing of woven fabrics with coloured mud" (Burgin, 1976). His work is influenced by a variety of theorists and philosophers, most especially thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Henri Lefebvre, André Breton, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Michel Foucault and Roland Barthes. (European Graduate School Staff Page) Education Burgin was born in Sheffield in England. He studied art at the Royal College of Art, in London, from 1962 to 1965 (A.R.C.A., 1st Class, 1965) before going to the United States to study at Yale University (M.F.A. 1967). Academic career Burgin taught at Trent Polytechnic from 1967 to 1973 and at the School of Communication, Polytechnic of Central London from 1973 to 1988. From 1988 to 2001 Burgin lived and worked in San Francisco. He taught in the History of Consciousness program at the University of California, Santa Cruz, where he became Professor Emeritus of History of Consciousness. In 2000 he was Robert Gwathmey Chair in Art and Architecture, The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New York. From 2001 to 2006 he was Millard Professor of Fine Art at Goldsmiths College, University of London. He is currently Professor of Visual Studies, Winchester School of Art, University of Southampton. In 2005 he received an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Sheffield Hallam University (Hon. DUniv). In 2010 he received a Doctorat Honoris Causa from the Université de Liège. Honours and awards In 1986, Burgin was nominated for the Turner Prize for his exhibitions at the Institute of Contemporary Arts and Kettle's Yard Gallery in Cambridge and for a collection of his theoretical writings (The End of Art Theory) and a monograph of his visual work (Between). Public commissions 1976 'What does possession mean to you?,' color poster, 1000 copies posted in the streets in the center of Newcastle upon Tyne, summer; other poster works, various dates. 1987 Fall, Video-wall (36 monitors), two-minute videodisk programme, Mississauga Shopping Mall, and other locations, Toronto. 1989 Fall, Video-wall [Edited version (9 monitors)], two-minute videodisk programme, Tate Gallery, London. 1989 Original print for ‘Estampes et Revolution: 200 Ans Après,’ Centre National des Arts Plastiques, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, France (100 sets of prints, commissioned from an international selection of artists, and distributed throughout France as part of the Bicentennial Celebration of the French Revolution). 1993 Poster for 'Images pour la lutte contre le sida', Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, France/Agence française de lutte contre le sida: national poster campaign with posters commissioned from an international selection of 35 artists. 1993 Venise, 30 min video, Ville de Marseille, France. 1994 Design for permanent video installation for the Hotel Furkablick, Furkapasshöhe, Switzerland. 1994 Permanent video installation for the Médiatheque d'Orléans, Ville d'Orléans, France. 2004 Restored, Permanent video installation for London Symphony Orchestra, St. Luke's, Old Street, London. 2021 'Division/Revision', poster project curated by Uta Kögelsberger, Newcastle University Books and monographs on or by Burgin 1973 Work and Commentary, London, Latimer 1976 Two Essays on Art, Photography and Semiotics, London, Robert Self Publications 1977 Victor Burgin, Eindhoven, Stedelijk van abbemuseum 1977 Family, New York, Lapp Princess Press, Ltd., in association with Printer Matter, Inc. 1982 Hôtel Latône, Calais, Edition Musée de Calais 1982 Thinking Photography, Victor Burgin (ed.), [Burgin: Introduction, three essays, bibliography], The Macmillan Press Ltd., London and Basingstoke, and Humanities Press International, New Jersey (1982), reprinted 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987 (twice), 1988, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994 1986 Formations of Fantasy, (co-edited with Donald, J. and Kaplan, C.), Methuen, London 1986 Between, Basil Blackwell, Oxford and New York 1986 The End of Art Theory: Criticism and Postmodernity, Macmillan Press, London and Basingstoke, and Humanities Press International, New Jersey (1986), reprinted 1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1996 1988 Victor Burgin: Office at Night and Danaïdes/Dames, Charlotte, North Carolina, Knight Gallery, City of Charlotte 1988 Victor Burgin, Opere 1982–1986, Milan, Le Case d’Arte 1989 Taideteorian Loppu, Helsinki, Suomen Valokuvataiteen Museon Säätiö, Literos, collection of essays by Burgin in Finnish translation 1991 Passages, Lille, Musée d’art moderne de la Communaté Urbaine de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq 1995 History Painting, Buffalo, University at Buffalo Art Gallery/Research Center in Art + Culture 1995 Japanese translation of The End of Art Theory: Criticism and Postmodernity, Tokyo, Keiso Shobo Publishers 1996 Some Cities, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, and London, Reaktion Books 1996 In/Different Spaces: place and memory in visual culture, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press 1997 Szerelmes Levelek/Love Letters, Mücsarnok Museum, Budapest 2000 Victor Burgin: Robert Gwathmey Lectures, New York, Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art 1997 Venise, London, Black Dog Publishing 2000 Shadowed, London, Architectural Association 2001 Victor Burgin, Barcelona, Fundació Antoni Tàpies 2002 Relocating, London and Bristol, Arnolfini 2004 Ensayos, Barcelona, Gustavo Gili 2004 The Remembered Film, London, Reaktion Books 2006 Victor Burgin — Voyage to Italy, Hatje Cantz 2007 Objets Temporels, Boulouch, Nathalie; Mavridorakis, Valérie; Perreau, David (Eds.), Presses Universitaires de Rennes 2008 Components of a Practice, Skira 2009 Situational Aesthetics, Leuven University Press 2013 Palmanova, Victor Burgin, Teresa Castro, Evgenia Giannouri, Lucia Monteiro, Clara Schulmann, Form[e]s, Paris 2014 Five Pieces for Projection, Museum für Gegenwartskunst, Seigen 2014 Projective - Essays on the works of Victor Burgin, Victor Burgin, Gülru Çakmak, David Campany, Homay King, David Rodowick, Anthony Vidler, Musée d'Art Moderne et Contemporain, Geneva 2014 ''Projectif – Essais sur l’oeuvre de Victor Burgin, French translation of Projective 2016 Scripts, Musée d'Art Moderne et Contemporain, Geneva 2016 Barthes/Burgin - Research notes for an exhibition, Ryan Bishop and Sunil Manghani (eds),Edinburgh University Press 2017 Victor Burgin's Parzival in Leuven - Reflections on the "Uncinematic", Stéphane Symons (ed.), Leuven University Press 2018 The Camera - Essence and Apparatus, Mack, London 2019 Mandarin, Juxta Press, Milan 2019 Afterlife, Galerie Thomas Zander & Walther König 2019 Le Film qui me reste en mémoire, French translation of The Remembered Film, Mimesis, Paris 2019 Seeing Degree Zero, Barthes/Burgin and Political Aesthetics, Ryan Bishop and Sunil Manghani (eds), Edinburgh University Press 2020 Alexander Streitberger, Psychical Realism - The work of Victor Burgin, Leuven University Press 2020 Between (second edition), Mack, London References General references Harrison, C. and Wood, P. (Eds.). (1992). Art in theory, 1900-1990: an anthology of changing ideas (Vol. 3). Oxford, UK & Malden, MA: Blackwell. Walker, J. A. (2001). Left Shift: Radical Art in 1970s Britain. IB Tauris. External links Victor Burgin in conversation with David Campany, Leslie Dick and Cristin Tierney, December 2020 Afterlife (2019) Web based work, Chrome browser on desktop only 'Art is not a spectator sport': the confounding work of Victor Burgin – in pictures The Guardian, 16/12/2020 Lia Rumma Gallery, Milan and Naples Thomas Zander Gallery, Cologne Cristin Tierney Gallery, New York Victor Burgin and Ian Wallace in conversation, Vancouver Art Gallery, 2013 The Ubuweb-Anthology of Conceptual Writing Website The Separateness of Things on Tate Website Thomas Dreher: Intermedia Art: Konzeptuelle Kunst with two German articles on Victor Burgin (Memory Piece 1969, Park Edge 1987, Angelus Novus 1995 (English translation at PDF)) Victor Burgin Exhibition at Fundació Antoni Tàpies (2001). 1941 births Living people Academics of Goldsmiths, University of London Artists from Sheffield Photographers from Yorkshire Yale University alumni English contemporary artists British conceptual artists 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206449	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Genesis%20Quest	The Genesis Quest	The Genesis Quest is a 1986 science fiction novel by American writer Donald Moffitt. It is part of a two-part series, the conclusion of the story being offered in Second Genesis. Plot summary An alien race (The Nar) assemble humans from a stream of genetic information transmitted by radio from the Milky Way Galaxy. The resulting colony of humans spend some time integrated into the Nar society before growing restless, discovering the secret of human longevity, and embarking on the seemingly impossible millennia-long mission of a physical journey back to Earth. This epic journey is made in a gigantic space-grown semi-sentient Dyson tree known as Yggdrasil. 1986 novels 1986 science fiction novels Novels by Donald Moffitt	[ -0.6189560294151306, 0.7203556299209595, -0.49590685963630676, -0.023287717252969742, 0.2979048788547516, 0.29609259963035583, -0.03510819375514984, 0.023934021592140198, 0.3328610062599182, -0.3533385396003723, -0.3305476903915405, 0.29940328001976013, -0.24372097849845886, 0.12944291532039642, 0.10467595607042313, -0.1062079668045044, 0.3800291419029236, -0.12148409336805344, -0.7223477959632874, -0.5036083459854126, 0.15453238785266876, 0.17105667293071747, 0.4333805441856384, 0.26897183060646057, 0.17449535429477692, 0.47919031977653503, 0.13615156710147858, -0.29736828804016113, -0.0753936916589737, 0.1061435118317604, -0.1604432761669159, -0.25477156043052673, 0.03835364058613777, -0.720826268196106, -0.24656200408935547, 0.15254104137420654, -0.5667649507522583, -0.3656661808490753, -0.2951413691043854, 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206450	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1845%20in%20literature	1845 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1845. Events January 10 – Robert Browning begins his correspondence with his future wife, fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett. On May 20 they meet for the first time. She begins writing her Sonnets from the Portuguese. January 29 – Edgar Allan Poe first publishes the narrative poem "The Raven", under his own name in The Evening Mirror of New York, of which he is a staff critic until February. It is rapidly reprinted across the United States and appears in book form by the end of the year. March- Walt Whitman publishes a short story, "Arrow-Tip" (later renamed "The Half-Breed"). April – Nathaniel Hawthorne first publishes the short story "P.'s Correspondence", a pioneering example of alternate history, in which deceased writers and political figures (such as Keats, Shelley and Byron) are described as still living, and vice versa. The story appears in The United States Magazine and Democratic Review and features in Hawthorne's Mosses from an Old Manse (1846). April 24 – Alfred de Musset and Honoré de Balzac are awarded the French Legion of Honour. Spring–Summer – The essays in Thomas de Quincey's Suspiria de Profundis appear in Blackwood's Magazine. October 1 – Prosper Mérimée's novella Carmen appears in its original form in Revue des deux Mondes. Book publication follows in 1846. December – The future American President Brevet Second Lieutenant Ulysses S. Grant plays Desdemona in an amateur production of Othello at Corpus Christi, Texas. December 30 – The American actress Charlotte Cushman plays Romeo to her sister Susan's Juliet in a production of Romeo and Juliet at the Haymarket Theatre in London. unknown dates Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales are first translated into English, beginning with "The Little Mermaid" in Bentley's Miscellany. Benjamin Disraeli's "Young England" roman à thèse, Sybil; or, The Two Nations, is published in London; he receives a £10,000 advance. New books Fiction James Fenimore Cooper The Chainbearer Satanstoe Charles Dickens – The Cricket on the Hearth Benjamin Disraeli – Sybil Alexandre Dumas, père Le Chevalier de Maison-Rouge The Corsican Brothers The Count of Monte Cristo (book publication concluded) The Regent's Daughter La Reine Margot Twenty Years After József Eötvös – A falu jegyzője (The Village Notary) Catherine Gore – The Snowstorm: A Christmas Story Nathaniel Hawthorne – P.'s Correspondence Geraldine Jewsbury – Zoe, A History of Two Lives Joaquim Manuel de Macedo – O moço loiro Frederick Marryat – The Mission, or Scenes in Africa Prosper Mérimée – Carmen J. M. Rymer – Ada the Betrayed; or, The Murder at the Old Smithy Adele Schopenhauer – Anna: Ein Roman aus der nächsten Vergangenheit (Anna: a novel of the recent past) William Sewell – Hawkstone: a tale of and for England Robert Smith Surtees – Hillingdon Hall Children Ludwig Bechstein – Deutsches Märchenbuch (German Fairy-Tale Book) Heinrich Hoffmann – Der Struwwelpeter (Shock-headed Peter, original title: Lustige Geschichten und drollige Bilder mit 15 schön kolorierten Tafeln für Kinder von 3–6 Jahren, in verse) Hans Christian Andersen – New Fairy Tales. First Volume. Third Collection (Nye Eventyr. Første Bind. Tredie Samling) comprising "The Elf Mound" ("Elverhøi"), "The Red Shoes" ("De røde Skoe"), "The Jumpers" ("Springfyrene"), "The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep" ("Hyrdinden og Skorstensfejeren") and "Holger Danske" Drama Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch – La Jura en Santa Gadea Henrik Hertz – King René's Daughter (Kong Renés Datter) Anna Cora Mowatt – Fashion; or, Life in New York: a comedy Martins Pena – first performances As Casadas Solteiras O caixeiro da taverna O diletante Os dois ou O inglês maquinista Os três médicos José Zorrilla – Traidor, inconfeso y mártir Poetry Edgar Allan Poe – "The Raven" Non-fiction Eliza Acton – Modern Cookery for Private Families Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly – On Dandyism and George Brummell (Du dandyism et de George Brummell) Thomas Carlyle – Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches Frederick Douglass – Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave Encyclopædia Metropolitana Friedrich Engels – The Condition of the Working Class in England (Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England) Richard Ford – A Hand-Book for Travellers in Spain, and readers at home Margaret Fuller – Woman in the Nineteenth Century (book publication) François-Xavier Garneau – Histoire du Canada, vol. 1 Justinus Kerner – The Seeress of Prévorst: being revelations concerning the inner-life of man, and the inter-diffusion of a world of spirits in the one we inhabit (translated by Catherine Crowe) Søren Kierkegaard – Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vej) Domingo Sarmiento – Facundo (Civilización y Barbarie: vida de Juan Facundo Qiroga) Max Stirner – The Ego and Its Own (Der Einzige und sein Eigentum, dated 1844) Births January 8 – Minnie Willis Baines Miller, American author (unknown year of death) January 21 – Lepha Eliza Bailey, American author, lecturer, and social reformer (died 1924) March 21 – Emily Thornton Charles, American poet, journalist, editor, and newspaper founder (died 1895) April 4 – Emma B. Alrich, American journalist, author, and educator (died 1925) April 17 – Lucy Bethia Walford, Scottish novelist and artist (died 1915) April 24 – Carl Spitteler, Swiss poet (died 1924) April 30 – Alexander Anderson, Scottish poet (died 1909) May 9 – Georgina Castle Smith (pseudonym Brenda), English children's writer (died 1933) May 14 – L. S. Bevington, English anarchist poet and essayist (died 1895) May 16 – Amy Dillwyn, Welsh novelist (died 1935) May 17 – Jacint Verdaguer, Catalan poet (died 1902) June 3 – Estelle Mendell Amory, American educator and author (unknown year of death) June 13 – Alphonse-Jules Wauters, Belgian writer and editor (died 1916) June 15 – Jennie McCowen, American physician, writer, and medical journal editor (died 1924) June 17 – Emily Lawless, Irish modernist novelist and poet (died 1913) July 18 – Tristan Corbière, French poet (died 1875) July 26 – Martina Swafford, American poet (died 1913) August 10 – Abai Qunanbaiuly, Kazakh poet, philosopher and cultural reformer (died 1904) August 11 – Addie C. Strong Engle, American author and publisher (died 1926) August 27 – Martha Capps Oliver, American poet and hymnwriter (died 1917) September 3 – Louise Herschman Mannheimer, Czech-American author, school founder, and inventor (died 1920) September 20 – Sarah Dyer Hobart, American author (died 1921) October 14 – Olindo Guerrini, Italian poet (died 1916) October 25 – Rebecca Agatha Armour, Canadian novelist (died 1891) November 19 – Agnes Giberne, English children's writer (died 1939) November 25 – José Maria de Eça de Queirós, Portuguese novelist (died 1900) Deaths January 22 – Pierre Hyacinthe Azaïs, French philosopher (born 1766) February 22 – Rev. Sydney Smith, English writer and wit (born 1771) May 3 – Thomas Hood, English poet and humorist (born 1799) May 12 János Batsányi, Hungarian poet and anti-Habsburg activist (born 1763) August Wilhelm Schlegel, German poet and translator (born 1767) May 26 – Jónas Hallgrímsson, Icelandic poet (accident, born 1807) June 17 – Rev. Richard Harris Barham (Thomas Ingoldsby) English comic poet (ulcerated larynx, born 1788) July 12 – Henrik Wergeland, Norwegian poet and dramatist (tuberculosis; born 1808) August 3 – Charlotte Ann Fillebrown Jerauld, American poet and story writer (born 1820) October 26 – Carolina Oliphant, Lady Nairne, Scottish songwriter and collector (born 1766) November 11 – Maria Gowen Brooks, American poet (tropical fever, born c. 1794) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.014552226290106773, 0.2856923043727875, -0.8998145461082458, -0.14487524330615997, -0.3912922739982605, 0.21406808495521545, 0.6660038828849792, 0.6647329926490784, -0.8250187039375305, -0.8059614896774292, -0.020816216245293617, -0.20275218784809113, -0.12149205803871155, 0.3474540710449219, -0.008984281681478024, 0.14504854381084442, 0.04006703570485115, -0.14445529878139496, 0.1185649111866951, -0.459456205368042, -0.44761916995048523, 0.1310718059539795, 0.49602144956588745, -0.48911216855049133, 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206453	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1844%20in%20literature	1844 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1844. Events February 5 – The first three of many theatrical adaptations of A Christmas Carol open in London. March–July – Alexandre Dumas père's historical adventure story The Three Musketeers (Les Trois Mousquetaires) is serialised in the Paris newspaper Le Siècle. August 28 – Alexandre Dumas père's near-recent historical adventure story The Count of Monte Cristo (Le Comte de Monte-Cristo) begins serialization in the Paris newspaper Journal des débats, and continues through to January 1846). Book publication also begins this year. October – George W. M. Reynolds begins publication of the bestselling "penny dreadful" city mysteries series The Mysteries of London. Autumn – Margaret Fuller joins Horace Greeley's New-York Tribune as literary critic, becoming the first full-time female book reviewer in American journalism. December 2 – Emily Brontë writes the poem "A Death-Scene". unknown date – The first volumes of Patrologia Latina, a 217-volume collection of works in Latin, are published in Paris by Jacques Paul Migne. These include the writings of Tertullian and Cyprian, among other authors. New books Fiction José de Alencar – Os contrabandistas (unpublished, lost) Honoré de Balzac – Les Paysans Charles Dickens The Chimes Martin Chuzzlewit (serial publication ends) Benjamin Disraeli – Coningsby Alexandre Dumas The Count of Monte Cristo The Three Musketeers Charles Lever – Tom Burke of Ours Joaquim Manuel de Macedo – A Moreninha Edgar Allan Poe – The Angel of the Odd G. W. M. Reynolds – The Mysteries of London Eugène Sue – Le Juif Errant William Makepeace Thackeray – The Luck of Barry Lyndon Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna – The Wrongs of Women Charlotte Mary Yonge – Abbeychurch, or, Self Control and Self Conceit Edgar Allan Poe - The Premature Burial Children and young people Heinrich Hoffmann – Struwwelpeter Frederick Marryat – Settlers in Canada Elizabeth Missing Sewell – Amy Herbert Hans Christian Andersen – New Fairy Tales. First Volume. Second Collection (Nye Eventyr. Første Bind. Anden Samling) comprising "The Fir-Tree" ("Grantræet") and "The Snow Queen" ("Snedronningen") Drama Émile Augier – La Ciguë Gustav Freytag – Die Brautfahrt, oder Kunz von der Rosen Christian Friedrich Hebbel – Maria Magdalene William H. Smith – The Drunkard José Zorilla – Don Juan Tenorio Poetry Elizabeth Barrett Browning – Poems Heinrich Heine – Neue Gedichte James Russell Lowell – Poems Coventry Patmore – Poems Non-fiction Robert Chambers (anonymously) – Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation Friedrich Engels – Condition of the Working Classes in England Joseph Ennemoser – Geschichte der Magie (History of Magic) Søren Kierkegaard – The Concept of Anxiety Karl Marx – On the Jewish Question John Stuart Mill – Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy William Smith (editor) – Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Arthur Penrhyn Stanley – Life of Arnold Max Stirner – The Ego and Its Own Henry Fox Talbot – The Pencil of Nature (first book illustrated with photographs from a camera) Births January 2 – Emeline Harriet Howe, American writer and social activist (died 1934) January 8 – Sarah Carmichael Harrell, American educator, reformer, and writer (died 1929) January 14 – Susan Frances Nelson Ferree, American writer and activist (died 1910) February 25 – Alice Diehl (née Mangold), English novelist and concert pianist (died 1912) March 30 – Paul Verlaine, French lyric poet (died 1896) April 2 – George Haven Putnam, American author, publisher (died 1930) April 16 – Anatole France, French writer (died 1924) April 12 – Mollie Evelyn Moore Davis, American poet, writer, and editor (died 1909) May 9 – Sarah Newcomb Merrick, American teacher, writer, and physician (unknown year of death) July 8 – Janet Milne Rae, Scottish novelist (died 1933) July 21 – Matilda Maranda Crawford, American-Canadian writer and poet (died 1920) July 22 – William Archibald Spooner, English academic and instigator of spoonerisms (died 1930) July 28 – Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet (died 1889) August 29 – Edward Carpenter, English socialist poet and philosopher (died 1929) September 9 – Maurice Thompson, American novelist (died 1901) October 1 – H. Maria George Colby, American author of novelettes and juvenile literature (died 1910) October 15 – Friedrich Nietzsche, German philosopher (died 1900) October 22 or 23 – Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (died 1923) October 23 – Robert Bridges, English poet (died 1930) October 25 – Joseph Marmette, Canadian novelist and historian (died 1895) October 27 – Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Swedish writer and pacifist (died 1916) November 21 – Ada Cambridge, English/Australian writer and poet (died 1926) December 13 – Catharine Hitchcock Tilden Avery, American author, editor, and educator (died 1911) unknown dates Mrs. Lovett Cameron (Caroline "Emily" Sharp), English romantic novelist (died 1921) Evelyn Whitaker, English children's writer (died 1929) Deaths January 4 – Maria Hack, English educational writer (born 1777) January 27 – Charles Nodier, French novelist (born 1780) February 11 – Tamenaga Shunsui, Japanese novelist (born 1790) February 12 – Jan Nepomuk Štěpánek, Czech dramatist (born 1783) May 2 – William Thomas Beckford, English novelist and travel writer (born 1760) June 11 – Urban Jarnik, Slovene poet and historian (born 1784) June 15 – Thomas Campbell, Scottish poet (born 1777) July 11 – Evgeny Baratynsky, Russian poet and philosopher (born 1800) August 14 – Henry Cary, Gibraltar-born Irish author and translator (born 1772) September 18 – John Sterling, Scottish novelist and poet (born 1806) October 28 – Sándor Kisfaludy, Hungarian poet and dramatist (born 1772) November 4 – Barbara Hofland, English children's and schoolbook author (born 1770) November 21 – Ivan Krylov, Russian fabulist (born 1769) December 27 – Ioan Caragea, Greek Prince of Wallachia, translator and theatrical promoter (born 1754) Awards Chancellor's Gold Medal – Edward Bickersteth, "The Tower of London" Newdigate Prize – Evgeny Baratynsky References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ 0.0967286229133606, 0.36600378155708313, -0.8978057503700256, -0.22915825247764587, -0.5206040143966675, 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206454	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1843%20in%20literature	1843 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1843. Events January Serial publication begins of Charles Dickens' picaresque novel The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit by Chapman & Hall in London. In the July chapters, he lands his hero in the United States. Edgar Allan Poe's Gothic short story "The Tell-Tale Heart" appears in The Pioneer in Boston and his poem "The Conqueror Worm" in Graham's Magazine in Philadelphia. February – Macmillan Publishers is founded in London by the Scottish brothers Daniel and Alexander Macmillan. April 4 – William Wordsworth accepts the office of Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, after the death of Robert Southey on March 21. He is reassured that it is seen as a purely honorific position. June 21 – Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Gold-Bug" begins to be serialized in the Philadelphia Dollar Newspaper as the winning entry in a competition, earning Poe a $100 prize. It will be widely reprinted and adapted for theater. It popularizes cryptography. July – Margaret Fuller's "The Great Lawsuit. Man versus Men. Woman versus Women" appears in The Dial magazine in the United States. It will later be expanded into a book, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845). August 19 – Edgar Allan Poe's Gothic short story "The Black Cat" is first published in The Saturday Evening Post. August 22 – The Theatres Act in the United Kingdom ends a virtual monopoly of theatrical performances held by the patent theatres and encourages development of popular entertainment. September – Ada Lovelace (Byron's daughter) translates and expands Menabrea's notes on Charles Babbage's analytical engine, including an algorithm for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, seen as the world's first computer program. October – Anna Atkins begins publishing Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions, a collection of contact printed cyanotype photograms of algae, to form the first book illustrated with photographs. December 17 – Publication of Charles Dickens' novella A Christmas Carol. In Prose. Being a Ghost Story of Christmas by Chapman & Hall is made at his expense. It introduces the character Ebenezer Scrooge. Released on December 19, the first printing sells out by Christmas Eve. Christmas – Thomas Hood's poem "The Song of the Shirt" appears in Punch. unknown dates The Routledge publishing firm is founded in London by the Cumberland-born bookseller George Routledge. The steam-powered rotary printing press is invented by Richard March Hoe in the United States. New books Fiction W. Harrison Ainsworth – Windsor Castle Edward Bulwer-Lytton – The Last of the Barons James Fenimore Cooper – Le Mouchoir; an Autobiographical Romance Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol Martin Chuzzlewit Alexandre Dumas, père – Georges Catherine Gore – The Banker's Wife Léon Gozlan – Aristide Froissart Victor Hugo – Les Burgraves Søren Kierkegaard – Diary of a Seducer (literary novel included in Either/Or) John Neal — Ruth Elder Frederick Marryat – Monsieur Violet Eugène Sue – The Mysteries of Paris Robert Smith Surtees – Handley Cross Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna – Perils of the Nation Children and young people Hans Christian Andersen – New Fairy Tales. First Volume. First Collection (Nye Eventyr. Første Bind. Første Samling) comprising "The Angel" ("Engelen"), "The Nightingale" ("Nattergalen"), "The Sweethearts; or, The Top and the Ball" ("Kjærestefolkene [Toppen og bolden]") and "The Ugly Duckling" ("Den grimme ælling") Drama Eusebio Asquerino – Casada, vírgen y mártir V. A. Bhave – Sita Swayamvar Théophile Gautier – Un Voyage en Espagne Nikolai Gogol – The Gamblers W. T. Moncrieff – The Scamps of London Poetry Thomas Hood – "The Song of the Shirt" Richard Henry Horne – Orion: an epic poem Edgar Allan Poe – "The Conqueror Worm" Non-fiction Leon Battista Alberti – I Libri della famiglia Anna Atkins – Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions Paul Rudolf von Bilguer – Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess) George Borrow – The Bible in Spain; or, the Journey, Adventures, and Imprisonment of an English-man in an Attempt to Circulate the Scriptures in the Peninsula James Braid – Neurypnology: or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Thomas Carlyle – Past and Present Marquis de Custine – La Russie en 1839 (Russia in 1839) Benjamin Hall Kennedy – Elementary Latin Primer Søren Kierkegaard (as Johannes de Silentio) – Fear and Trembling (Frygt og Bæven) Thomas Babington Macaulay – Critical and Historical Essays Moses Margoliouth – The Fundamental Principles of Modern Judaism Investigated John Stuart Mill – A System of Logic William H. Prescott – History of the Conquest of Mexico John Ruskin – Modern Painters, vol. 1 Wei Yuan and others (comp.) – Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms (海國圖志, Hǎiguó Túzhì) Births January 14 – Hans Forssell, Swedish historian (died 1901) January 17 – Florence Montgomery, English novelist and children's writer (died 1923) January 28 – Mihkel Veske, Estonian poet and linguist (died 1890) February 24 Teófilo Braga, Portuguese poet, playwright and politician (died 1924) Violet Fane (Mary Montgomerie Lamb), English novelist, poet and essayist (died 1905) March 5 – Hugh Antoine d'Arcy, French writer (died 1925) March 29 – Paul Ferrier, French dramatist and librettist (died 1920) March 30 – Florence Ashton Marshall, English composer and conductor, biographer of Handel (died 1922) April 15 Elizabeth Boynton Harbert, American author, reformer, and philanthropist (died 1915) Henry James, American-born fiction writer (died 1916) April 25 – Constance Cary Harrison, American playwright and novelist (died 1920) May 10 – Benito Pérez Galdós, Spanish novelist (d. 1920) May 3 – Edward Dowden, Irish poet and critic (died 1913) May 10 – Benito Pérez Galdós, Spanish novelist (died 1920) May 25 – Christabel Rose Coleridge, English novelist and editor (died 1921) June 9 – Bertha von Suttner, Austrian pacifist writer (died 1914) June 26 – Paul Arène, French poet and author (died 1896) July 5 – Mandell Creighton, English bishop and historian (died 1901) September 26 – James Rice, English novelist (died 1882) October 25 – Gleb Uspensky, Russian writer (died 1902) November – Lucy M. Hall, American physician and writer (died 1907) December 7 – Helena Nyblom, née Roed, Danish-born poet and writer of fairy tales (died 1926) December 10 – Isabella Fyvie Mayo, Scottish poet, novelist, and reformer (died 1914) December 21 – Thomas Bracken, Irish-born New Zealand poet (died 1898) December 23 – Ada Langworthy Collier, American author (died 1919) December 24 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet (died 1886) December 29 – Princess Elisabeth of Wied ("Carmen Sylva"), German-born queen consort and writer (died 1916) unknown dates Mary Bathurst Deane, English novelist (died 1940) Lillian Rozell Messenger, American poet (died 1921) Deaths January 11 – Francis Scott Key, American poet (born 1779) February 10 – Richard Carlile, English writer and agitator for suffrage and freedom of the press (born 1790) February 22 – Mary Hays, English feminist writer (born 1759) March 21 – Robert Southey, English poet and Poet Laureate (born 1774) May 12 – Charlotte von Kalb, German writer (born 1761) May 19 – Charles James Apperley ("Nimrod"), English sporting writer (born 1777) May 28 – Noah Webster, American lexicographer (born 1758) June 6 – Friedrich Hölderlin, German poet, novelist, and dramatist (born 1770) July 4 – John Basset, writer on Cornish mining (born 1791) July 9 – Karoline Pichler, Austrian novelist (born 1769) July 31 – William Thomas Lowndes, English bibliographer (born c.1798) August 10 – Jakob Friedrich Fries, German philosopher (born 1773) September 4 – Léopoldine Hugo, daughter of French novelist Victor Hugo (b. 1824) October 21 – William Pinnock, English writer, publisher and bookseller (born 1782) November 25 – Ellen Pickering, English novelist (born 1801 or 1802) November 28 – József Ficzkó, Burgenland Croatian writer (born 1772) December 11 – Casimir Delavigne, French poet and dramatist (born 1793) Awards Newdigate Prize – Matthew Arnold, "Cromwell" References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.024130746722221375, 0.3847784399986267, 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206455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842%20in%20literature	1842 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1842. Events January 3 – Charles Dickens sets sail for the United States. February 14 – Washington Irving is one of the hosts at a public dinner for Charles Dickens in New York. March – The Book of Abraham by Joseph Smith is presented as being "a translation of some ancient records... purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus." It is published in two installments in the Mormon periodical Times and Seasons. c. March 7 – Charles Dickens meets Edgar Allan Poe in Philadelphia. March 28 – The Teatr Skarbkowski in Lviv opens with the performance of a play by Franz Grillparzer. May 14 Alfred, Lord Tennyson, publishes a volume called Poems. The publication of Poems boosted Tennyson's reputation, and in 1850 Queen Victoria named him poet laureate. Illustrated London News, the world's first illustrated weekly newspaper, begins publication June 7 – Charles Dickens leaves New York to return to Britain. June 19 – Eugène Sue's fictional The Mysteries of Paris (Les Mystères de Paris) begins to be serialized in the newspaper Journal des débats. July 1 – The Copyright Act in the United Kingdom provides for authors' copyrights in books to endure for the remainder of the author's life and a further seven years; if this period is less than 42 years from the date of first publication, then the copyright will persist for a full 42 years. unknown dates Portions of Fanny Burney's diary and letters are posthumously published. Julius Springer establishes a bookshop in Berlin which is the origin of Springer Science+Business Media. New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac – La Rabouilleuse (The Black Sheep) Edward Bulwer – Zanoni James Fenimore Cooper – The Two Admirals Nikolai Gogol Dead Souls («Мёртвые души», Mjórtvyje dúshi) "The Overcoat" («Шинель», Shinel, short story) Catherine Gore – The Ambassador's Wife Jeremias Gotthelf – The Black Spider (Die schwarze Spinne) Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch – Primero, yo (First, Myself) Samuel Lover – Handy Andy George Sand – Consuelo Albert Smith – The Adventures of Mr Ledbury Walt Whitman – Franklin Evans; or The Inebriate Children Frederick Marryat – Percival Keene Drama Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac – Les Ressources de Quinola (premieres in Paris, March 19) Nikolai Gogol The Gamblers («Игроки», Igroki, approximate date of completion) Marriage («Женитьба», Zhenit'ba, published) Johann Nestroy – Einen Jux will er sich machen (He Will Go on a Spree, musical adaptation) Eugène Scribe Une Chaine Le Verre d'eau Poetry Aloysius Bertrand – Gaspard de la Nuit Robert Browning – Dramatic Lyrics (includes "My Last Duchess" and "The Pied Piper of Hamelin") Thomas Babington Macaulay – Lays of Ancient Rome Alfred Tennyson – Poems (includes "Locksley Hall", "Morte d'Arthur", etc.) Non-fiction Charles Dickens – American Notes Ralph Waldo Emerson – The Transcendentalist Victor Hugo – Le Rhin Udney Hay Jacob – Peace Maker George Sand – Un Hiver à Majorque (A Winter in Majorca) William Smith – A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Henry David Thoreau – A Walk to Wachusett Births January 26 François Coppée, French author, le poète des humbles (died 1908) Hattie Tyng Griswold, American author (died 1909) February 4 – Arrigo Boito, Italian poet (died 1918) February 25 – Karl May, German popular novelist (died 1912) March 4 – Evelyn Magruder DeJarnette, American author (died 1914) March 17 – Belle C. Greene, American humor writer (died 1926) March 18 – Stéphane Mallarmé, French Symbolist poet (died 1898) March 25 – Antonio Fogazzaro, Italian novelist (died 1911) June 24 – Ambrose Bierce, American writer (presumed died 1914) July 7 – William Hastie, Scottish scholar (died 1903) July 11 – Henry Abbey, American poet (died 1911) December 23 – Frances Augusta Hemingway Conant, American journalist and editor (died 1903) December 31 – Iacob Negruzzi, Romanian poet, columnist and memoirist (died 1932) Deaths March 23 – Stendhal, French novelist (stroke, born 1783) May 23 – José de Espronceda, Spanish poet (diphtheria, born 1808) June 5 – Thomas Henry Lister, English novelist and Registrar General (born 1800) June 17 – Frances Jacson, English novelist (born 1754) July 28 – Clemens Brentano, German poet and novelist (born 1778) October 23 – Wilhelm Gesenius, German Biblical commentator (born 1786) November 6 – William Hone, English satirist and bookseller (born 1780) December 7 – Thomas Hamilton, Scottish novelist and philosopher (born 1789) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.07919500768184662, 0.324570894241333, -0.9896876811981201, -0.18317851424217224, -0.6254898905754089, 0.010760352946817875, 0.7888859510421753, 0.447147399187088, -0.5393760800361633, -0.8380441069602966, 0.022467175498604774, -0.22029635310173035, -0.08870287239551544, 0.37747547030448914, -0.016815219074487686, 0.1683688461780548, 0.09089464694261551, -0.2118145078420639, 0.1482667773962021, -0.34572380781173706, -0.48023855686187744, 0.03725544363260269, 0.5960537791252136, -0.5962216854095459, 0.49755701422691345, -1.1392170190811157, 0.32760167121887207, -0.29540354013442993, 0.2699562609195709, -0.19230012595653534, -0.025852691382169724, 0.38230669498443604, 0.4637727737426758, 0.4198516011238098, -0.2644898295402527, -0.3788198232650757, -0.3966737389564514, -0.29896020889282227, 0.3887377679347992, -0.6950773596763611, -0.5837161540985107, -0.19351907074451447, 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206456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1841%20in%20literature	1841 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1841. Events January – The poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning is given a golden cocker spaniel, "Flush", by the writer Mary Russell Mitford. March 4 – Dion Boucicault's first London première, the comedy London Assurance (originally Out of Town), opens at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. It is presented by the husband-and-wife team Charles Matthews and Elizabeth Vestris. April 10 – Horace Greeley begins publication of the New-York Tribune. April 20 – Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" appears in Graham's Magazine (Philadelphia), where he has become editor in February. It will be recognized as the first significant work of detective fiction. May – The London Library is founded in Pall Mall, London on the initiative of Thomas Carlyle. June 23 – London publisher Edward Moxon is tried and convicted of blasphemous libel for an edition of Shelley's poem Queen Mab (1813) with its atheistic passages restored. July 17 – Punch magazine, founded in London by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, is edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon. July 20 – The English "peasant poet" John Clare absconds from an asylum for the insane at High Beach in Essex and walks 90 miles (140 km) to his home at Northborough in the East Midlands. In late December he is admitted to Northampton General Lunatic Asylum where he will spend the remaining 23 years of his life. July 28 – Mary Rogers, the "Beautiful Cigar Girl", is found murdered in New York City. This will inspire Edgar Allan Poe's story "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" of the following year, as a sequel to "The Murders in the Rue Morgue". unknown dates Anthony Panizzi and his staff at the British Museum Library in London devise "Ninety-One Cataloguing Rules". Tauchnitz publishers of Leipzig begin their Collection of British and American Authors with Dickens' The Pickwick Papers and Bulwer-Lytton's Pelham. This authorized series of cheap reprints will become popular with Anglophone travelers in continental Europe. New books Fiction Khachatur Abovian (posthumous) – Wounds of Armenia ( Verk Hayastani; first Armenian novel) W. Harrison Ainsworth – Old St. Paul's (serialized) Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe (collected anonymously) – Norwegian Folktales (Norske folkeeventyr) Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda – Sab Honoré de Balzac – Le Curé de village Edward Bulwer – Night and Morning James Fenimore Cooper – The Deerslayer Catherine Crowe – The Adventures of Susan Hopley Charles Dickens Master Humphrey's Clock (serialization including full-length novels) The Old Curiosity Shop Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty Catherine Gore Greville, or a Season in Paris Cecil, or Adventures of a Coxcomb Cecil, A Peer Jeremias Gotthelf – Uli der Knecht (Uli the Farmhand) Theodor Mundt – Thomas Münzer Edgar Allan Poe – short stories "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" "A Descent into the Maelström" "Eleonora" "Never Bet the Devil Your Head" "Three Sundays in a Week" Eugène Sue – Mathilde A. K. Tolstoy – The Vampire («Упырь», Oupyr, novella) Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna Conformity Falsehood and Truth Helen Fleetwood: Tales of the Factories Samuel Warren – Ten Thousand a Year Children Frederick Marryat Joseph Rushbrook, or The Poacher Masterman Ready, or the Wreck of the Pacific Agnes Strickland – Alda, the British Captive Hans Christian Andersen – Fairy Tales Told for Children. New Collection. Third Booklet (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Ny Samling. Tredie Hefte) comprising "Ole Lukoie" ("Ole Lukøje"), "The Rose Elf" ("Rosen-Alfen"), "The Swineherd" ("Svinedrengen") and "The Buckwheat" ("Boghveden") Drama Dion Boucicault – London Assurance Robert Browning – Pippa Passes Mary Russell Mitford – Inez de Castro George Dibdin Pitt (adapted from Catherine Crowe) – Susan Hopley; or, The Vicissitudes of a Servant Girl Jules-Édouard Alboize de Pujol – Le Tribut des cent vierges Juliusz Słowacki – Fantazy (published posthumously in 1866) John Watkins – John Frost: a Chartist play Poetry Mikhail Lermontov – The Demon: An Eastern Tale Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Excelsior James Russell Lowell – A Year's Life Alexander Pushkin – The Bronze Horseman Non-fiction George Borrow – The Zincali; or an Account of the Gypsies of Spain Thomas Carlyle – On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History Ralph Waldo Emerson – Essays Ludwig Feuerbach – Das Wesen des Christentums (The Essence of Christianity) Washington Irving – Biography and Poetical Remains of the Late Margaret Miller Davidson Søren Kierkegaard – On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates Edgar Allan Poe – "A Few Words on Secret Writing" Augustus Pugin – The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture Births January 15 – Sarah Doudney, English novelist, hymnist and children's writer (died 1926) February 28 – Jean Mounet-Sully, French actor (died 1904) March 21 – Mathilde Blind, German-born English poet (died 1896) March 31 – Iosif Vulcan, Romanian poet, playwright and novelist (died 1907) April 6 – Ivan Surikov, Russian poet (died 1898) April 18 – Georges de Peyrebrune (Mathilde-Marie Georgina Élisabeth Johnston of Pierrebrune), French novelist (died 1917) April 30 – Laura Jacinta Rittenhouse, American author and poet (died 1911) May 20 – Sara Louisa Oberholtzer, American poet and economist (died 1930) May 22 – Catulle Mendès, French poet (died 1909) June 19 – Hermann Eduard von Holst, German historian (died 1904) June 21 – Charitie Lees Smith, American hymnwriter (died 1923) July 4 – Susan Marr Spalding, American poet (died 1908) August 3 – Juliana Horatia Ewing, English children's writer (died 1885) August 4 – William Henry Hudson, Argentinian-born English writer and naturalist (died 1922) August 18 – Robert Williams Buchanan, Scottish author (died 1901) September 20 – Walter Bradford Woodgate, English boating writer and oarsman (died 1920) September 24 – Kate Brownlee Sherwood, American poet, journalist, and translator (died 1914) September 27 – Aubertine Woodward Moore, American musician and writer (died 1929) October 6 – Clement Scott, English critic and travel writer (died 1916) November 3 – Isabella Macdonald Alden, American author (died 1930) November 8 – John Charles Dent, English-born Canadian journalist and historian (died 1888) November 13 – William Black, Scottish novelist (died 1898) December 29 – Henrietta A. Bingham, American writer and editor (died 1877) unknown dates Emily Pitts Stevens, American editor, publisher, educator, and activist (died 1906) Emily Elizabeth Veeder, American novelist and poet (died after 1896) probable – Liu Qingyun (闹元宵), Chinese playwright and poet (died 1900 or later) Deaths January 12 – Märta Helena Reenstierna, Swedish diarist (born 1753) February 21 – Dorothea Tieck, German translator (born 1799) April 8 – James Browne, Scottish man of letters (born 1793) May 7 – Thomas Barnes, English editor of The Times (born 1785) May 20 – Joseph Blanco White, Spanish-born English poet and theologian (born 1775) July 27 – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian poet (duel, born 1814) August 11 – Johann Friedrich Herbart, German philosopher (born 1776) September 16 – Thomas John Dibdin, English playwright (born 1771) October 31 – Georg Anton Friedrich Ast, German philologist and philosopher (born 1778) December 12 – Denis-Luc Frayssinous, French theologian and bishop (born 1765) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.15655523538589478, 0.15848055481910706, -1.035252571105957, -0.17050835490226746, -0.47415345907211304, 0.10843129456043243, 0.6669716835021973, 0.5707680583000183, -0.6414457559585571, -0.7907823920249939, 0.056481897830963135, -0.1430530548095703, -0.07270712405443192, 0.3065212666988373, -0.13565969467163086, 0.1361268311738968, 0.04400243982672691, -0.3117537200450897, 0.201734259724617, -0.2673884332180023, -0.3698578178882599, 0.029175542294979095, 0.555840790271759, -0.570680558681488, 0.4335166811943054, -1.1188747882843018, 0.31695112586021423, -0.2838830351829529, 0.2849690318107605, -0.055612023919820786, -0.2551853656768799, 0.3869628608226776, 0.4949992895126343, 0.2945146858692169, -0.3548242449760437, -0.4075796604156494, -0.342535138130188, -0.31226950883865356, 0.42371514439582825, -0.6123883724212646, -0.4501684904098511, -0.16928845643997192, 0.5772944092750549, 0.5576991438865662, 0.13525547087192535, 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206457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency%20%28project%20management%29	Dependency (project management)	In a project network, a dependency is a link among a project's terminal elements. The A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) does not define the term dependency, but refers for this term to a logical relationship, which in turn is defined as dependency between two activities, or between an activity and a milestone. Standard types of dependencies There are four standard types of dependencies: Finish to start (FS) A FS B means "activity A must finish before activity B can begin" (or "B can't start until A has finished"). (Foundations dug) FS (Concrete poured) Finish to finish (FF) A FF B means "activity A must finish before activity B can finish" (or "B can't finish before A is finished") . (Last chapter written) FF (Entire book written) Start to start (SS). A SS B means "activity A must start before activity B can start" (or "B can't start until A has started"). (Project work started) SS (Project management activities started) Start to finish (SF) A SF B means "activity A must start before activity B finishes" (or "B can't finish until A has started") (New shift started) SF (Previous shift finished) Finish-to-start is considered a "natural dependency". The Practice Standard for Scheduling recommends, that "Typically , each predecessor activity would finish prior to the start of its successor activity (or activities)(known as finish-to-start (FS) relationship). Sometimes it is necessarily to overlap activities; an option may be selected to use start-to-start (SS), finish-to-finish (FF) or start-to-finish (SF) relationships....Whenever possible, the FS logical relationship should be used. If other types of relationships are used, they shall be used sparingly and with full understanding of how the relationships have been implemented in the scheduling software being used. Ideally, the sequence of all activities will be defined in such a way that the start of every activity has a logical relationship from a predecessor and the finish of every activity has a logical relationship to a successor". SF is rarely used, and should generally be avoided. Microsoft recommends to use SF dependency for just-in-time scheduling. It can be easily shown however, that this would only work if resource levelling is not used, because resource levelling can delay a successor activity (an activity, which shall be finished just-in-time) in such a way, that it will finish later than the start of its logical predecessor activity, thus not fulfilling the just-in-time requirement. There are three kinds of dependencies with respect to the reason for the existence of dependency: Causal (logical) It is impossible to edit a text before it is written It is illogical to pour concrete before you dig the foundations of a building Resource constraints It is logically possible to paint four walls in a room simultaneously but there is only one painter Discretionary (preferential) I want to paint the living room before painting the dining room, although I could do it the other way round, too Early critical path-derived schedules often reflected only on causal (logical) or discretionary (preferential) dependencies because the assumption was that resources would be available or could be made available. Since at least the mid-1980s, competent project managers and schedulers have recognized that schedules must be based on resource availability. The critical chain method necessitates taking into account resource constraint-derived dependencies as well. Leads and lags Dependencies can be modified by leads, and lags. Both leads and lags can be applied to all 4 types of dependencies. PMBOK defines lag as "the amount of time whereby a successor activity will be delayed with respect to a predecessor activity". For example: When building two walls from a novel design, one might start the second wall 2 days after the first so that the second team can learn from the first. This is an example of a lag in a Start-Start relationship. In accordance to PMBOK a lead is "the amount of time whereby a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity For example, on a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping could be scheduled to start prior to the scheduled punch list completion. This would be shown as a finish-to-start with two-week lead". Example If you are building a building, you can't paint the walls before installing the water pipes into the walls. Advanced cases of activities dependencies Maximal-type relationships Activity A and Activity B are said to have a Maximal-Type Relationship, if Activity B can start after Activity A, but with the delay of no more than X. Real life examples, which are simulated by Maximal-Type Relation: Shoring of the trench has to be done not necessarily immediately after excavation, but within certain time, otherwise the trench will collapse. Vaccination of baby has to be done not immediately after birth, but within certain time Renewal of the passport has to be done some time after the current one has been issued, but before it expires. Invoice payment does not have to be done immediately, but within certain time after it has been issued. Maximal-type relationships are rarely implemented in the project management software, most probably because with this feature it is too easy to create contradictory dependencies. See also Dependency structure matrix Outline of project management Project network Project planning References Schedule (project management)	[ -0.08764542639255524, 0.00018299954535905272, -0.2530635893344879, 0.2937204837799072, -0.03932177647948265, -0.11149170249700546, 0.16455380618572235, 0.16205354034900665, -0.22055432200431824, -0.4644114077091217, -0.4199691712856293, 0.47617748379707336, -0.33935385942459106, 0.6763931512832642, -0.09434910863637924, 0.30158424377441406, 0.570091187953949, 0.28946229815483093, -0.25325724482536316, -0.44529804587364197, -0.57418292760849, -0.1444757878780365, -0.2327013611793518, -0.059635862708091736, 0.2431601881980896, -0.1047615185379982, 0.13459326326847076, 0.07536052912473679, -0.21602901816368103, 0.04555966705083847, 0.4474722445011139, 0.15376219153404236, -0.08337327092885971, 0.12826019525527954, 0.07537513226270676, -0.06277059763669968, 0.27685245871543884, -0.15629112720489502, -0.302016943693161, -0.9672765731811523, 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206458	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1840%20in%20literature	1840 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1840. Events June – An amnesty to mark the accession of King Frederick William IV of Prussia frees the novelist Fritz Reuter from the Dömitz Fortress after two years' imprisonment on a charge of high treason. July 6 – Novelists Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray independently attend the hanging outside Newgate Prison in London of the murderer François Benjamin Courvoisier, who blames the influence of W. Harrison Ainsworth's Newgate novel Jack Sheppard (which concluded serialization in Bentley's Miscellany in February) for his crime. August 10 – Fortsas hoax: Bibliophiles gather in Binche, Belgium for an auction of 52 unique, meticulously catalogued books from the collection of the late Comte de Fortsas. The Count, the books and the auction all prove fictitious. unknown dates The Percy Society is established in Britain to publish scholarly editions of early works in English. William Martin publishes the first edition of Peter Parley's Annual, a periodical imitating earlier American works by Samuel Griswold Goodrich. New books Fiction W. Harrison Ainsworth Guy Fawkes (serialization) The Tower of London (serialization) Henry Cockton – Valentine Vox James Fenimore Cooper – The Pathfinder, or The Inland Sea Charles Dickens – The Old Curiosity Shop (serialization in Master Humphrey's Clock) Alexandre Dumas, père – Otho the Archer Thomas Ingoldsby (Richard Harris Barham) – The Ingoldsby Legends (collected in book form) Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald – Plague of Wine Mikhail Lermontov – A Hero of Our Time Harriet Martineau – The Hour and the Man Prosper Mérimée – Colomba John Neal Seventy-Six; or, Love and Battle (London publication) Logan, the Mingo Chief: A Family History (London publication) Edgar Allan Poe – Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque William Makepeace Thackeray Catherine Children Esther Copley – Early Friendship. A Tale for Young People Frederick Marryat Olla Podrida Poor Jack Drama Namiki Gohei III – Kanjinchō (勧進帳) Christian Hebbel – Judith Andreas Munch – Donna Clara Jose Zorilla – El Zapatero y el Rey Poetry Victor Hugo – Les Rayons et les Ombres Mikhail Lermontov – Mtsyri (The Novice) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – "The Wreck of the Hesperus" Taras Shevchenko – Kobzar (The Bard) Non-fiction Louis Agassiz – Études sur les glaciers Richard Henry Dana Jr. – Two Years Before the Mast Pierre-Joseph Proudhon – What is Property? or, An Inquiry into the Principle of Right and of Government (Qu'est-ce que la propriété ? ou Recherche sur le principe du Droit et du Gouvernement) Anton Schindler – Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven Agnes Strickland – Lives of the Queens of England (begins publication) Alexis de Tocqueville – Democracy in America (De La Démocratie en Amérique) (vol. 2) Flora Tristan – Promenades dans Londres (Promenades in London) William Whewell – The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, founded upon their history Births January 18 – Henry Austin Dobson, English poet and essayist (died 1921) January 21 – Sophia Jex-Blake, English medical writer and pioneer female physician (died 1912) January 26 – Esther Tuttle Pritchard, American editor, educator, and missionary (died 1900) February 5 – Charlotte Carmichael Stopes, Scottish writer and women's rights activist (died 1929) February 15 – Titu Maiorescu, Romanian culture critic, philosopher, and political figure (died 1917) April 2 – Émile Zola, French novelist (died 1902) May 1 – Cynthia S. Burnett, American editor, educator, and reformer (died 1932) June 2 – Thomas Hardy, English novelist and poet (died 1928) June – Emma L. Shaw, American editor (died 1924) July 2 – Ludwig Rosenthal, German antiquarian bookseller (died 1928) August 6 – Mildred Amanda Baker Bonham, American travel writer (died 1907) August 17 – Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, English poet and radical (died 1922) August 20 – Seraph Frissell, American physician and writer (died 1915) September 2 Emilia, Lady Dilke as Emily Francis Strong, English art historian (died 1904) Giovanni Verga, Sicilian author (died 1922) September 19 – Helen Ekin Starrett, American author, magazine founder, and school founder (died 1920) September 27 – Rosa Nouchette Carey, English children's novelist (died 1909) October 23 – Mary Mathews Adams, Irish-born American writer and philanthropist (died 1902) November 8 – Esther E. Baldwin, American missionary and writer (died 1910) November 29 – Rhoda Broughton, Welsh novelist and short-story writer (died 1920) December 28 – Ioan Kalinderu, Romanian classical scholar, jurist and agriculturalist (died 1913) Deaths January 6 – Frances Burney (Fanny Burney, Mme d'Arblay), English novelist and diarist (born 1752) February 4 – Angélique de Rouillé, Belgian letter-writer (born 1756) February 11 – Ivan Kozlov, Russian poet and translator (born 1779) March 3 – Charles Reece Pemberton, British actor and dramatist (born 1790) May 25 – Louisa Capper, English writer, philosopher and poet (born 1776) May 30 – Mary Boyle, Countess of Cork and Orrery, Irish literary hostess (born 1746) June 7 – Népomucène Lemercier, poet and dramatist (born 1771) July 7 – Nikolai Stankevich, Russian philosopher and poet (born 1813) August 25 – Karl Leberecht Immermann, German novelist and dramatist (born 1796) September – Emma Roberts, English travel writer and poet (born 1794) December 8 – Eliza Fenwick, English novelist and children's writer (born (born 1766) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.19393469393253326, 0.27895188331604004, -0.8647966980934143, -0.024766787886619568, -0.38042330741882324, 0.10962403565645218, 0.6205729246139526, 0.5690056681632996, -0.7133399844169617, -0.9227775931358337, -0.03998652100563049, -0.0016515904571861029, -0.07958570122718811, 0.31780219078063965, -0.07396845519542694, 0.18571385741233826, -0.02091570571064949, -0.15692496299743652, -0.023923179134726524, -0.4309401214122772, -0.5495319366455078, 0.050523702055215836, 0.6152158379554749, -0.5524544715881348, 0.4016072452068329, -1.1244679689407349, 0.2587067186832428, -0.3023374378681183, 0.23995132744312286, -0.07920617610216141, -0.13177470862865448, 0.4409717321395874, 0.41164079308509827, 0.48321014642715454, -0.4254908561706543, -0.30763742327690125, -0.3060716986656189, -0.4158785045146942, 0.4864012897014618, -0.5372125506401062, -0.36056265234947205, 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206463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochtaunuskreis	Hochtaunuskreis	The Hochtaunuskreis is a Kreis (district) in the middle of Hesse, Germany and is part of the Frankfurt/Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region. Neighbouring districts are Lahn-Dill, Wetteraukreis, district-free Frankfurt, Main-Taunus, Rheingau-Taunus, Limburg-Weilburg. The Hochtaunuskreis and the Landkreis Starnberg regularly compete for the title of the wealthiest district in Germany. History The district was created in 1972 when the previous districts Obertaunus and Usingen were merged. Geography Geographically it covers the Taunus mountains. The highest elevation of the Taunus, the 881 meter high Großer Feldberg, is in the district. Lowest elevation of the district with 130m is the village Ober Erlenbach. The wealthy towns in the district's densely populated southern part belong to the Frankfurt urban area. Coat of arms The coat of arms is a dimidiation of the arms of the Obertaunus district in the left half and the Usingen district in the right half. It shows a lion, the left half in the red-white striped style of the Hesse lion, the right side the golden color lion of Nassau. Additionally in the left four bells which were taken from the counts of Kronberg, and in the right four trefoils from the coat of arms of the city of Usingen. 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206464	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonbow	Moonbow	A moonbow (also known as a moon rainbow or lunar rainbow) is a rainbow produced by moonlight rather than direct sunlight. Other than the difference in the light source, its formation is the same as for a solar rainbow: It is caused by the refraction of light in many water droplets, such as a rain shower or a waterfall, and is always positioned in the opposite part of the sky from the Moon relative to the observer. Moonbows are much fainter than solar rainbows, due to the smaller amount of light reflected from the surface of the Moon. Because the light is usually too faint to excite the cone color receptors in human eyes, it is difficult for the human eye to discern colors in a moonbow. As a result, a moonbow often appears to be white. However, the colors in a moonbow do appear in long exposure photographs. Moonbows have been mentioned at least since Aristotle's Meteorology (circa 350 BC). Viewing Moonbows are most easily viewed when the Moon is at or nearest to its brightest phase full moon. For moonbows to have the greatest prospect of appearing, the Moon must be low in the sky (at an elevation of less than 42 degrees, preferably lower) and must not be obscured by cloud. In addition, the night sky must be very dark. Since the sky is not completely dark on a rising/setting full moon, this means they can only be observed two to three hours before sunrise (a time with few observers), or two to three hours after sunset. And, of course, there must be water droplets (e.g. from rain or spray) opposite the Moon. This combination of requirements makes moonbows much rarer than rainbows produced by the daytime sunlight. Moonbows may also be visible when rain falls during full moonrise at extreme latitudes during the winter months when the prevalence of the hours of darkness gives more opportunity for the phenomenon to be observed. It is said that the definition of the colours depends upon the size of the moisture drops present in the air: the smaller they are the less vivid the colours. Below 1/500 inch diameter they usually refract more or less white light as the component colours are merged. Locations Numerous places in the world feature spray-, fog- or mist-induced bows. In the United States such bows may be seen in relation to various waterfalls including Niagara Falls, New York, Yosemite National Park, California and Cumberland Falls, near Corbin, Kentucky. Victoria Falls, in Africa on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe is also widely known for spray moonbows. Spray moonbows are also seen with some regularity in the cloud forests of Costa Rica, in mountain towns like Monteverde and Santa Elena. These occur when clouds of mist are blown in from the Caribbean by the Christmas Winds. The Christmas Winds happen from the end of December through late January or early February. These clouds of mists create a streaming pattern of stripes giving rise to their popular name in Spanish, pelo de gato ("cat's hair). Moonbows happen in this part of Costa Rica almost every full moon in the months of December through February. The bows that are caused by Pelo de Gato are not limited to just before dawn but can happen after sunset too, but it does need a full or nearly full moon. Moonbows are also found in Kauai, Hawaii, with the moon rising in the east during light rain. Similar bows are occasionally seen from the Big Island of Hawaii. See also Moon ring Moon dog References External links "Maui's Night Sky" Time elapse photography by Wally Pacholka. Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol.14, No.3 (May 2010) Lunar Rainbow photos from Victoria Falls Moonbow picture Moonbow picture made with long exposure Zambezi Guide on taking photos of Lunar Rainbows from Victoria Falls Moonbow in New Zealand Moonbow photo at Brandywine Falls, Whistler, Canada Moving rainbow over Patagonia, all night time-lapse movie Kentucky State Park Moonbow Dates At the bottom of the page under the "Moonbow" tab Moon Light Effects: Moon Rings, Moon Dogs And Other Moon Light Phenomena... Moonbow on Big Island Hawaii Moonbow over Yosemite Falls from Cook's Meadow Atmospheric optical phenomena Moon Rainbow	[ 0.11196468770503998, 0.19691665470600128, 0.0669524222612381, 0.08743599057197571, -0.6681073904037476, 0.3091590404510498, -0.025261925533413887, 0.13146980106830597, -0.6364575624465942, -0.3125390112400055, -0.3585454523563385, 0.1415562480688095, 0.04218333959579468, 0.44808077812194824, -0.39979663491249084, 0.10843168944120407, 0.5029916763305664, 0.3517775237560272, -0.3318776488304138, -0.17277494072914124, -0.15903164446353912, -0.033471476286649704, 0.27246835827827454, -0.2855170965194702, -0.12983739376068115, 0.1370067447423935, 0.3344176411628723, 0.25178062915802, 0.19408121705055237, 0.4095326364040375, -0.2907244861125946, 0.8320599794387817, 0.04648768901824951, -0.3799275755882263, 0.20236395299434662, 0.06878584623336792, -0.34848859906196594, -0.42076975107192993, -0.4237774610519409, -0.0675831213593483, 0.07979492843151093, 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206465	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20the%20World%27s%20a%20Stage%20%28album%29	All the World's a Stage (album)	{{Album reviews \|rev1 = AllMusic \|rev1score = [ link] \| rev2 = The Encyclopedia of Popular Music\| rev2Score = \|rev3 = The Rolling Stone Album Guide\|rev3score = link }}All the World's a Stage is a double live album by Canadian rock band Rush, released in 1976. The album was recorded at Massey Hall in Toronto on June 11, 12, and 13, 1976, during the band's breakthrough 2112 tour. The title of the album alludes to William Shakespeare's play As You Like It, which would again be referenced by Rush in the 1981 song "Limelight". Content According to lead vocalist and bassist Geddy Lee, the release of a live album in late 1976 "was definitely something we used to buy us more time" as Rush worked on the studio followup to their commercial breakthrough album 2112, released earlier that same year. This album captures the entire setlist that was regularly performed during headlining shows of the 2112 tour. However, due to technological limits of approximately 20 minutes per side on vinyl, the positions of "Lakeside Park" and "2112" were swapped with "Fly By Night / In The Mood" and "Something For Nothing". Due to stage time restraints during the 2112 tour of 1976, this performance of the song "2112" omits the "Discovery" and "Oracle: The Dream" sections of the studio recording. Although the final 32 seconds of "Discovery" are played as a lead-in to "Presentation", the liner notes and track listing do not indicate this. While the entirety of "Discovery" would be performed during the A Farewell To Kings tour of 1977-78 and Hemispheres tour of 1978-79, Rush would not perform the entire suite live until the Test for Echo tour of 1996-97, as documented on the live album Different Stages. Alternate recordings of "2112" and "Something For Nothing" from the June 11-13 performances were released as part of the 2112: 40th Anniversary box set in 2016. According to the liner notes, All the World's a Stage marks the end of the "first chapter of Rush" and would begin a trend of Rush releasing a live album after every four studio albums. This lasted until 2003, when the band released a live album and DVD of each subsequent studio album's tour. Toronto rock band Max Webster was the opening act for all 3 performances of the recording of the album. ReceptionAll the World's a Stage was Rush's first US Top 40-charting album and went gold, alongside A Farewell to Kings and 2112 on November 16, 1977. It was certified platinum in the United States in 1981 after the release of Moving Pictures. In Canada, Gold certification came on December 1, 1976, and platinum on August 1, 1978. Reissues A remaster was issued in 1997. The tray has a picture of the star with man painting (mirroring the cover art of Retrospective I) with "The Rush Remasters" printed in all capital letters just to the left. All remasters from Rush through Permanent Waves are like this. The original CD omitted "What You're Doing" and the post-show chatter due to recording length constraints (CDs could hold only 75 minutes at the time). By 1997, however, advances in recording technology had increased that maximum time to 80 minutes; the missing song and chatter are included in the remaster. Prior to its release, the same live version of "What You're Doing" was included on the compilation Chronicles in 1990. The album's original triple gatefold artwork with concert pictures is included with the remaster.All the World's a Stage was remastered again in 2011 by Andy VanDette for the "Sector" box sets, which re-released all of Rush's Mercury-era albums. All the World's a Stage is included in the Sector 1 set.All the World's a Stage'' was remastered for vinyl in 2015 by Sean Magee at Abbey Road Studios as a part of the official "12 Months of Rush" promotion. The high definition master prepared for this release was also made available for purchase in 24-bit/96 kHz and 24-bit/192 kHz formats, at several high-resolution audio online music stores. These masters have significantly less dynamic range compression than the 1997 remasters and the "Sector" remasters by Andy VanDette. Track listing Personnel Geddy Lee – lead vocals, bass guitar Alex Lifeson – guitar, vocals Neil Peart – drums, percussion Keith Reid from Cicero - electric glockenspiel, bicycle horn, kazoo, dancer Bowser from Sha Na Na - bongos, triangle and muscle flexing Terry Brown – engineer Hugh Syme – design George Graves – mastering on original album Bob Ludwig – remastering Charts References External links 1976 live albums Anthem Records live albums Rush (band) live albums Mercury Records live albums Albums recorded at Massey Hall	[ 0.08109600841999054, 0.30798444151878357, -0.2638451159000397, -0.03358420357108116, -0.4285394251346588, -0.11456099897623062, 0.3343783915042877, 0.07099105417728424, -0.16479812562465668, -0.17919129133224487, 0.5768738985061646, 0.8466081619262695, -0.1087852269411087, -0.22535070776939392, 0.055752482265233994, -0.07066921144723892, 0.3058970868587494, -0.25381752848625183, -0.07446837425231934, -0.6407527923583984, 0.6350327730178833, -0.08765114843845367, 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206466	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.%20J.%20A.%20Hort	F. J. A. Hort	Fenton John Anthony Hort (23 April 1828 – 30 November 1892), known as F. J. A. Hort, was an Irish-born theologian and editor, with Brooke Foss Westcott of a critical edition of The New Testament in the Original Greek. Life He was born in Dublin, the great-grandson of Josiah Hort, Archbishop of Tuam in the eighteenth century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby School to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. Benson, B. F. Westcott and Joseph B. Lightfoot. The four men became lifelong friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his degree, being third in the classical tripos. In 1851 he also took the recently established triposes in moral science and natural science, and in 1852 he became fellow of his college. In 1854, in conjunction with John E. B. Mayor and Lightfoot, he established the Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology, and plunged eagerly into theological and patristic study. He had been brought up in the strictest principles of the evangelical movement, but at Rugby, under the influence of Thomas Arnold and Archibald Campbell Tait, and through his acquaintance with Frederick Denison Maurice and Charles Kingsley, he finally moved towards liberalism. In 1857 he was married, and accepted the college living of St Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, where he remained for fifteen years. During his time there he took part in discussions on university reform, continued his studies, and wrote essays for various periodicals. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee for revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 he delivered the Hulsean Lectures before the university. Their title was The Way, the Truth, and the Life, but they were not prepared for publication until many years after their delivery. In 1872 he accepted a fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.. In 1873 he became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. In 1878 he was made Hulsean Professor of Divinity and in 1887 Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity. Hort died on 30 November 1892 in Cambridge. He is buried in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge. Works In 1881 he published, with his friend Westcott, an edition of the text of the New Testament based on their text critical work. The Revision Committee had largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a basis for their translation of the New Testament. Its appearance created a sensation among scholars, and it was attacked in many quarters, but on the whole it was received as being much the nearest approximation yet made to the original text of the New Testament. The introduction was the work of Hort. His first principle was, "Knowledge of Documents should precede Final Judgments upon Readings". Next to his Greek Testament his best-known work is The Christian Ecclesia (1897). Other publications are: Judaistic Christianity (1894); Village Sermons (two series); Cambridge and other Sermons; Prolegomena to ... Romans and Ephesians (1895); The Ante-Nicene Fathers (1895); and two Dissertations, (1876) on the reading of a Greek word in John i.18, and on The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century. All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials. His Life and Letters was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart, in two volumes published in 1896: Volume 1, Volume 2. Other Hort was a member of the Cambridge Apostles and is credited with writing the oath of secrecy taken by new members, in or around 1851. See also Conflation of Readings Textus Receptus References External links The Way, the Truth, the Life: Hulsean Lectures for 1871 (first printed 1893) Greek Text of Hort's "The New Testament in the Original Greek", Vol. 1 with variants 1828 births 1892 deaths 19th-century biblical scholars Writers from Dublin (city) English Anglican theologians British biblical scholars New Testament scholars People educated at Rugby School Presidents of the Cambridge Union Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of Emmanuel College, Cambridge Anglican biblical scholars Lady Margaret's Professors of Divinity 19th-century Christian biblical scholars 19th-century Anglican theologians	[ -0.6071933507919312, 1.0932432413101196, -0.592820405960083, -0.2867076098918915, -0.6053923964500427, 0.8101218938827515, 0.8401015996932983, 0.44820913672447205, 0.1311233937740326, -0.23503632843494415, -0.21224217116832733, 0.0036095408722758293, 0.05420216917991638, 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206467	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Adams%20%28pilot%29	William Adams (pilot)	(24 September 1564 – 16 May 1620), known in Japanese as , was an English navigator who, in 1600, was the first Englishman to reach Japan leading a five-ship expedition for a private Dutch fleet. Of the few survivors of the only ship that reached Japan, Adams and his second mate Jan Joosten were not allowed to leave the country while Jacob Quaeckernaeck and Melchior van Santvoort were permitted to go back to the Dutch Republic to invite them to trade. Adams, along with former second mate Joosten, then settled in Japan, and the two became some of the first (of very few) Western samurai. Soon after Adams' arrival in Japan, he became a key advisor to the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu. Adams directed construction for the shōgun of the first Western-style ships in the country. He was later key to Japan's approving the establishment of trading factories by the Netherlands and England. He was also highly involved in Japan's Red Seal Asian trade, chartering and serving as captain of four expeditions to Southeast Asia. He died in Japan at age 55. He has been recognised as one of the most influential foreigners in Japan during this period. Early life Adams was born in Gillingham, Kent, England. When Adams was twelve his father died, and he was apprenticed to shipyard owner Master Nicholas Diggins at Limehouse for the seafaring life. He spent the next twelve years learning shipbuilding, astronomy, and navigation before entering the Royal Navy. With England at war with Spain, Adams served in the Royal Navy under Sir Francis Drake. He saw naval service against the Spanish Armada in 1588 as master of the Richarde Dyffylde, a resupply ship. Adams was recorded to have married Mary Hyn in the parish church of St Dunstan's, Stepney on 20 August 1589 and they had two children: a son John and a daughter named Deliverance. Soon after, Adams became a pilot for the Barbary Company. During this service, Jesuit sources claim he took part in an expedition to the Arctic that lasted about two years, in search of a Northeast Passage along the coast of Siberia to the Far East. The veracity of this claim is somewhat suspect, because he never referred to such an expedition in his autobiographical letter written from Japan; its wording implies that the 1598 voyage was his first involvement with the Dutch. The Jesuit source may have misattributed to Adams a claim by one of the Dutch members of Mahu's crew who had been on Rijp's ship during the voyage that discovered Spitsbergen. Expedition to the Far East Attracted by the Dutch trade with India, Adams, then 34 years old, shipped as pilot major with a five-ship fleet dispatched from the isle of Texel to the Far East in 1598 by a company of Rotterdam merchants (a voorcompagnie, predecessor of the Dutch East India Company). His brother Thomas accompanied him. The Dutch were allied with England and as well as fellow Protestants, they too were also at war with Spain fighting for their independence. The Adams brothers set sail from Texel on the Hoope and joined with the rest of the fleet on 24 June. The fleet consisted of: the Hoope ("Hope"), under Admiral Jacques Mahu (d. 1598), he was succeeded by Simon de Cordes (d. 1599) and Simon de Cordes Jr. This ship was lost near the Hawaiian Islands; the Liefde ("Love" or "Charity"), under Simon de Cordes, 2nd in command, succeeded by Gerrit van Beuningen and finally under Jacob Kwakernaak; this was the only ship which reached Japan the Geloof ("Faith"), under Gerrit van Beuningen, and in the end, Sebald de Weert; the only ship which came back in Rotterdam. the Trouw ("Loyalty"), under Jurriaan van Boekhout (d. 1599) and finally, Baltazar de Cordes; was captured in Tidore the Blijde Boodschap ("Good Tiding" or "The Gospel"), under Sebald de Weert, and later, Dirck Gerritz was seized in Valparaiso. Jacques Mahu and Simon de Cordes were the leaders of an expedition with the goal to achieve the Chile, Peru and other kingdoms (in New Spain like Nueva Galicia; Captaincy General of Guatemala; Nueva Vizcaya; New Kingdom of León and Santa Fe de Nuevo México). The fleet's original mission was to sail for the west coast of South America, where they would sell their cargo for silver, and to head for Japan only if the first mission failed. In that case, they were supposed to obtain silver in Japan and to buy spices in the Moluccas, before heading back to Europe. Their goal was to sail through the Strait of Magellan to get to their destiny, which scared many sailors because of the harsh weather conditions. The first major expedition around South America was organized by a voorcompagnie, the Rotterdam or Magelhaen Company. It organized two fleets of five and four ships with 750 sailors and soldiers, including 30 English musicians. After leaving Goeree on 27 June 1598 the ships sailed to the Channel, but anchored in the Downs till mid July. When the ships approached the shores of North Africa Simon de Cordes realized he had been far too generous in the early weeks of the voyage and instituted a 'bread policy'. At the end of August they landed on Santiago, Cape Verde and Mayo off the coast of Africa because of a lack of water and need for fresh fruit. They stayed around three weeks in the hope to buy some goats. Near Praia they succeeded to occupy a Portuguese castle on the top of a hill, but came back without anything substantial. At Brava, Cape Verde half of the crew of the "Hope" caught fever there, with most of the men sick, among them Admiral Jacques Mahu. After his death the leadership of the expedition was taken over by Simon de Cordes, with Van Beuningen as vice admiral. Because of contrary wind the fleet was blown off course (NE in the opposite direction) and arrived at Cape Lopez, Gabon, Central Africa. An outbreak of scurvy forced a landing on Annobón, on 9 December. Several men became sick because of dysentery. They stormed the island only to find that the Portuguese and their native allies had set fire to their own houses and fled into the hills. They put all the sick ashore to recover and left early January. Because of starvation the men fell into great weakness; some tried to eat leather. On 10 March 1599 they reached the Rio de la Plata, in Argentina. Early April they arrived at the Strait, 570 km long, 2 km wide at its narrowest point, with an inaccurate chart of the seabed. The wind turned out to be unfavorable and this remained so for the next four months. Under freezing temperatures and poor visibility they caught penguins, seals, mussels, duck and fish. About two hundred crew members died. On 23 August the weather improved. On the Pacific When finally the Pacific Ocean was reached on 3 September 1599, the ships were caught in a storm and lost sight of each other. The "Loyalty" and the "Believe" were driven back in the strait. After more than a year each ship went its own way. The Geloof returned to Rotterdam in July 1600 with 36 men surviving of the original 109 crew.) De Cordes ordered his small fleet to wait four weeks for each other on Santa María Island, Chile, but some ships missed the island. Adams wrote "they brought us sheep and potatoes". From here the story becomes less reliable because of a lack of sources and changes in command. In early November, the "Hope" landed on Mocha Island where 27 people were killed by the people from Araucania, including Simon de Cordes. (In the account given to Olivier van Noort it was said that Simon der Cordes was slain at the Punta de Lavapie, but Adams gives Mocha Island as the scene of his death.) The "Love" hit the island, but went on to Punta de Lavapié near Concepción, Chile. A Spanish captain supplied the "Loyalty" and "Hope" with food; the Dutch helped him against the Araucans, who had killed 23 Dutch, including Thomas Adams (according to his brother in his second letter) and Gerrit van Beuningen, who was replaced by Jacob Quaeckernaeck. During the voyage, before December 1598, Adams changed ships to the Liefde (originally named Erasmus and adorned by a wooden carving of Erasmus on her stern). The statue was preserved in the Ryuko-in Buddhist temple in Sano City, Tochigi-ken and moved to the Tokyo National Museum in the 1920s. The Trouw reached Tidore (Eastern Indonesia). The crew were killed by the Portuguese in January 1601. In fear of the Spaniards, the remaining crews determined to leave the island and sail across the Pacific. It was 27 November 1599 when the two ships sailed westward for Japan. On their way, the two ships made landfall in "certain islands" where eight sailors deserted the ships. Later during the voyage, a typhoon claimed the Hope with all hands, in late February 1600. Arrival in Japan In April 1600, after more than nineteen months at sea, a crew of twenty-three sick and dying men (out of the 100 who started the voyage) brought the Liefde to anchor off the island of Kyūshū, Japan. Its cargo consisted of eleven chests of trade goods: coarse woolen cloth, glass beads, mirrors, and spectacles; and metal tools and weapons: nails, iron, hammers, nineteen bronze cannon; 5,000 cannonballs; 500 muskets, 300 chain-shot, and three chests filled with coats of mail. When the nine surviving crew members were strong enough to stand, they made landfall on 19 April off Bungo (present-day Usuki, Ōita Prefecture). They were met by Japanese locals and Portuguese Jesuit missionary priests claiming that Adams' ship was a pirate vessel and that the crew should be executed as pirates. The ship was seized and the sickly crew were imprisoned at Osaka Castle on orders by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the daimyō of Edo and future shōgun. The nineteen bronze cannon of the Liefde were unloaded and, according to Spanish accounts, later used at the decisive Battle of Sekigahara on 21 October 1600. Adams met Ieyasu in Osaka three times between May and June 1600. He was questioned by Ieyasu, then a guardian of the young son of the Taikō Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the ruler who had just died. Adams' knowledge of ships, shipbuilding and nautical smattering of mathematics appealed to Ieyasu. Coming before the king, he viewed me well, and seemed to be wonderfully favourable. He made many signs unto me, some of which I understood, and some I did not. In the end, there came one that could speak Portuguese. By him, the king demanded of me of what land I was, and what moved us to come to his land, being so far off. I showed unto him the name of our country, and that our land had long sought out the East Indies, and desired friendship with all kings and potentates in way of merchandise, having in our land diverse commodities, which these lands had not… Then he asked whether our country had wars? I answered him yea, with the Spaniards and Portugals, being in peace with all other nations. Further, he asked me, in what I did believe? I said, in God, that made heaven and earth. He asked me diverse other questions of things of religions, and many other things: As what way we came to the country. Having a chart of the whole world, I showed him, through the Strait of Magellan. At which he wondered, and thought me to lie. Thus, from one thing to another, I abode with him till mid-night. (from William Adams' letter to his wife) Adams wrote that Ieyasu denied the Jesuits' request for execution on the ground that: we as yet had not done to him nor to none of his land any harm or damage; therefore against Reason or Justice to put us to death. If our country had wars the one with the other, that was no cause that he should put us to death; with which they were out of heart that their cruel pretence failed them. For which God be forever praised. (William Adams' letter to his wife) Ieyasu ordered the crew to sail the Liefde from Bungo to Edo where, rotten and beyond repair, she sank. Japan's first western-style sailing ships In 1604, Tokugawa ordered Adams and his companions to help Mukai Shōgen, who was commander-in-chief of the navy of Uraga, to build Japan's first Western-style ship. The sailing ship was built at the harbour of Itō on the east coast of the Izu Peninsula, with carpenters from the harbour supplying the manpower for the construction of an 80-ton vessel. It was used to survey the Japanese coast. The shōgun ordered a larger ship of 120 tons to be built the following year; it was slightly smaller than the Liefde, which was 150 tons. According to Adams, Tokugawa "came aboard to see it, and the sight whereof gave him great content". In 1610, the 120-ton ship (later named San Buena Ventura) was lent to shipwrecked Spanish sailors. They sailed it to New Spain, accompanied by a mission of twenty-two Japanese led by Tanaka Shōsuke. Following the construction, Tokugawa invited Adams to visit his palace whenever he liked and "that always I must come in his presence." Other survivors of the Liefde were also rewarded with favours, and were allowed to pursue foreign trade. Most of the survivors left Japan in 1605 with the help of the daimyō of Hirado. Although Adams did not receive permission to leave Japan until 1613, Melchior van Santvoort and Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn engaged in trade between Japan and Southeast Asia and reportedly made a fortune. Both of them were reported by Dutch traders as being in Ayutthaya in early 1613, sailing richly cargoed junks. In 1609 Adams contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who wished to establish direct trade contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain. Adams is also recorded as having chartered Red Seal Ships during his later travels to Southeast Asia. (The Ikoku Tokai Goshuinjō has a reference to Miura Anjin receiving a shuinjō, a document bearing a red Shogunal seal authorising the holder to engage in foreign trade, in 1614.) Samurai status Taking a liking to Adams, the shōgun appointed him as a diplomatic and trade advisor, bestowing great privileges upon him. Ultimately, Adams became his personal advisor on all things related to Western powers and civilization. After a few years, Adams replaced the Jesuit Padre João Rodrigues as the Shogun's official interpreter. Padre Valentim Carvalho wrote: "After he had learned the language, he had access to Ieyasu and entered the palace at any time"; he also described him as "a great engineer and mathematician". Adams had a wife Mary Hyn and two children back in England, but Ieyasu forbade the Englishman to leave Japan. He was presented with two swords representing the authority of a Samurai. The Shogun decreed that William Adams the pilot was dead and that Miura Anjin (三浦按針), a samurai, was born. According to the shōgun, this action "freed" Adams to serve the Shogunate permanently, effectively making Adams' wife in England a widow. (Adams managed to send regular support payments to her after 1613 via the English and Dutch companies.) Adams also was given the title of hatamoto (bannerman), a high-prestige position as a direct retainer in the shōgun's court. Adams was given generous revenues: "For the services that I have done and do daily, being employed in the Emperor's service, the emperor has given me a living" (Letters). He was granted a fief in Hemi (Jpn: 逸見) within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka City, "with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be my slaves or servants" (Letters). His estate was valued at 250 koku (a measure of the yearly income of the land in rice, with one koku defined as the quantity of rice sufficient to feed one person for one year). He finally wrote "God hath provided for me after my great misery" (Letters), by which he meant the disaster-ridden voyage that had initially brought him to Japan. Adams' estate was located next to the harbour of Uraga, the traditional point of entrance to Edo Bay. There he was recorded as dealing with the cargoes of foreign ships. John Saris related that when he visited Edo in 1613, Adams had resale rights for the cargo of a Spanish ship at anchor in Uraga Bay. It is rumored that William had a child born in Hirado with another Japanese woman. Adams' position gave him the means to marry Oyuki (お雪), the adopted daughter of Magome Kageyu. He was a highway official who was in charge of a packhorse exchange on one of the grand imperial roads that led out of Edo (roughly present-day Tokyo). Although Magome was important, Oyuki was not of noble birth, nor high social standing. Adams may have married from affection rather than for social reasons. Adams and Oyuki had a son Joseph and a daughter Susanna. Adams was constantly traveling for work. Initially, he tried to organise an expedition in search of the Arctic passage that had eluded him previously. Adams had a high regard for Japan, its people, and its civilisation: The people of this Land of Japan are good of nature, courteous above measure, and valiant in war: their justice is severely executed without any partiality upon transgressors of the law. They are governed in great civility. I mean, not a land better governed in the world by civil policy. The people be very superstitious in their religion, and are of diverse opinions. Establishment of the Dutch East India Company in Japan In 1604 Ieyasu sent the Liefde'''s captain, Jacob Quaeckernaeck, and the treasurer, Melchior van Santvoort, on a shōgun-licensed Red Seal Ship to Patani in Southeast Asia. He ordered them to contact the Dutch East India Company trading factory, which had just been established in 1602, in order to bring more western trade to Japan and break the Portuguese monopoly. In 1605, Adams obtained a letter of authorization from Ieyasu formally inviting the Dutch to trade with Japan. Hampered by conflicts with the Portuguese and limited resources in Asia, the Dutch were not able to send ships to Japan until 1609. Two Dutch ships, commanded by Jacques Specx, De Griffioen (the "Griffin", 19 cannons) and Roode Leeuw met Pijlen (the "Red lion with arrows", 400 tons, 26 cannons), were sent from Holland and reached Japan on 2 July 1609. The men of this Dutch expeditionary fleet established a trading base or "factory" on Hirado Island. Two Dutch envoys, Puyck and van den Broek, were the official bearers of a letter from Prince Maurice of Nassau to the court of Edo. Adams negotiated on behalf of these emissaries. The Dutch obtained free trading rights throughout Japan and to establish a trading factory there. (By contrast, the Portuguese were allowed to sell their goods only in Nagasaki at fixed, negotiated prices.) The Hollandes be now settled (in Japan) and I have got them that privilege as the Spaniards and Portingals could never get in this 50 or 60 years in Japan. After obtaining this trading right through an edict of Tokugawa Ieyasu on 24 August 1609, the Dutch inaugurated a trading factory in Hirado on 20 September 1609. The Dutch preserved their "trade pass" (Dutch: Handelspas) in Hirado and then Dejima as a guarantee of their trading rights during the following two centuries that they operated in Japan. Establishment of an English trading factory In 1611, Adams learned of an English settlement in Banten Sultanate, present-day Indonesia. He wrote asking them to convey news of him to his family and friends in England. He invited them to engage in trade with Japan which "the Hollanders have here an Indies of money." In 1613, the English captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship Clove, intending to establish a trading factory for the British East India Company. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) already had a major post at Hirado. Saris noted Adams praise of Japan and adoption of Japanese customs: He persists in giving "admirable and affectionated commendations of Japan. It is generally thought amongst us that he is a naturalized Japaner." (John Saris) In Hirado, Adams refused to stay in English quarters, residing instead with a local Japanese magistrate. The English noted that he wore Japanese dress and spoke Japanese fluently. Adams estimated the cargo of the Clove was of little value, essentially broadcloth, tin and cloves (acquired in the Spice Islands), saying that "such things as he had brought were not very vendible". Adams traveled with Saris to Suruga, where they met with Ieyasu at his principal residence in September. The Englishmen continued to Kamakura where they visited the noted Kamakura Great Buddha. (Sailors etched their names of the Daibutsu, made in 1252.) They continued to Edo, where they met Ieyasu's son Hidetada, who was nominally shōgun, although Ieyasu retained most of the decision-making powers. During that meeting, Hidetada gave Saris two varnished suits of armour for King James I. As of 2015, one of these suits of armour is housed in the Tower of London, the other is on display in the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds. The suits were made by Iwai Yozaemon of Nanbu. They were part of a series of presentation armours of ancient 15th-century Dō-maru style. On their return, the English party visited Tokugawa again. He conferred trading privileges to the English by a Red Seal permit, giving them "free license to abide, buy, sell and barter" in Japan. The English party returned to Hirado on 9 October 1613. At this meeting, Adams asked for and obtained Tokugawa's authorisation to return to his home country. But, he finally declined Saris' offer to take him back to England: "I answered him I had spent in this country many years, through which I was poor... [and] desirous to get something before my return". His true reasons seem to lie rather with his profound antipathy for Saris: "The reason I would not go with him was for diverse injuries done against me, which were things to me very strange and unlooked for." (William Adams letters) Adams accepted employment with the newly founded Hirado trading factory, signing a contract on 24November 1613, with the East India Company for the yearly salary of 100 English Pounds. This was more than double the regular salary of 40 Pounds earned by the other factors at Hirado. Adams had a lead role, under Richard Cocks and together with six other compatriots (Tempest Peacock, Richard Wickham, William Eaton, Walter Carwarden, Edmund Sayers and William Nealson), in organising this new English settlement. Adams had advised Saris against the choice of Hirado, which was small and far away from the major markets in Osaka and Edo; he had recommended selection of Uraga near Edo for a post, but Saris wanted to keep an eye on the Dutch activities. During the ten-year operations of the East Indian Company (1613 and 1623), only three English ships after the Clove brought cargoes directly from London to Japan. They were invariably described as having poor value on the Japanese market. The only trade which helped support the factory was that organised between Japan and South-East Asia; this was chiefly Adams selling Chinese goods for Japanese silver: Were it not for hope of trade into China, or procuring some benefit from Siam, Pattania and Cochin China, it were no staying in Japon, yet it is certen here is silver enough & may be carried out at pleasure, but then we must bring them commodities to their liking. (Richard Cocks' diary, 1617) Religious rivalries The Portuguese and other Catholic religious orders in Japan considered Adams a rival as an English Protestant. After Adams' power had grown, the Jesuits tried to convert him, then offered to secretly bear him away from Japan on a Portuguese ship. The Jesuits' willingness to disobey the order by Ieyasu prohibiting Adams from leaving Japan showed that they feared his growing influence. Catholic priests asserted that he was trying to discredit them. In 1614, Carvalho complained of Adams and other merchants in his annual letter to the Pope, saying that "by false accusation [Adams and others] have rendered our preachers such objects of suspicion that he [Ieyasu] fears and readily believes that they are rather spies than sowers of the Holy Faith in his kingdom." Ieyasu, influenced by Adams' counsels and disturbed by unrest caused by the numerous Catholic converts, expelled the Portuguese Jesuits from Japan in 1614. He demanded that Japanese Catholics abandon their faith. Adams apparently warned Ieyasu against Spanish approaches as well. Character After fifteen years spent in Japan, Adams had a difficult time establishing relations with the English arrivals. He initially shunned the company of the newly arrived English sailors in 1613 and could not get on good terms with Saris. But Richard Cocks, the head of the Hirado factory, came to appreciate Adams' character and what he had acquired of Japanese self-control. In a letter to the East India Company Cocks wrote: Participation in Asian trade Adams later engaged in various exploratory and commercial ventures. He tried to organise an expedition to the legendary Northwest Passage from Asia, which would have greatly reduced the sailing distance between Japan and Europe. Ieyasu asked him if "our countrimen could not find the northwest passage" and Adams contacted the East India Company to organise manpower and supplies. The expedition never got underway. In his later years, Adams worked for the English East Indian Company. He made a number of trading voyages to Siam in 1616 and Cochinchina in 1617 and 1618, sometimes for the English East India Company, sometimes for his own account. He is recorded in Japanese records as the owner of a Red Seal Ship of 500 tons. Given the few ships that the company sent from England and the poor trading value of their cargoes (broadcloth, knives, looking glasses, Indian cotton, etc.), Adams was influential in gaining trading certificates from the shōgun to allow the company to participate in the Red Seal system. It made a total of seven junk voyages to Southeast Asia with mixed profit results. Four were led by William Adams as captain. Adams renamed a ship he acquired in 1617 as Gift of God; he sailed it on his expedition that year to Cochinchina. The expeditions he led are described more fully below. 1614 Siam expedition In 1614, Adams wanted to organise a trade expedition to Siam to bolster the company factory's activities and cash situation. He bought and upgraded a 200-ton Japanese junk for the company, renaming her as Sea Adventure; and hired about 120 Japanese sailors and merchants, as well as several Chinese traders, an Italian and a Castilian (Spanish) trader. The heavily laden ship left in November 1614. The merchants Richard Wickham and Edmund Sayers of the English factory's staff also joined the voyage. The expedition was to purchase raw silk, Chinese goods, sappan wood, deer skins and ray skins (the latter used for the hilts of Japanese swords). The ship carried £1250 in silver and £175 of merchandise (Indian cottons, Japanese weapons and lacquerware). The party encountered a typhoon near the Ryukyu Islands (modern Okinawa) and had to stop there to repair from 27 December 1614 until May 1615. It returned to Japan in June 1615 without having completed any trade. 1615 Siam expedition Adams left Hirado in November 1615 for Ayutthaya in Siam on the refitted Sea Adventure, intent on obtaining sappanwood for resale in Japan. His cargo was chiefly silver (£600) and the Japanese and Indian goods unsold from the previous voyage. He bought vast quantities of the high-profit products. His partners obtained two ships in Siam in order to transport everything back to Japan. Adams sailed the Sea Adventure to Japan with 143 tonnes of sappanwood and 3700 deer skins, returning to Hirado in 47 days. (The return trip took from 5 June and 22 July 1616). Sayers, on a hired Chinese junk, reached Hirado in October 1616 with 44 tons of sappanwood. The third ship, a Japanese junk, brought 4,560 deer skins to Nagasaki, arriving in June 1617 after the monsoon. Less than a week before Adams' return, Ieyasu had died. Adams accompanied Cocks and Eaton to court to offer company presents to the new ruler, Hidetada. Although Ieyasu's death seems to have weakened Adams' political influence, Hidetada agreed to maintain the English trading privileges. He also issued a new Red Seal permit (Shuinjō) to Adams, which allowed him to continue trade activities overseas under the shōgun's protection. His position as hatamoto was also renewed. On this occasion, Adams and Cocks also visited the Japanese Admiral Mukai Shōgen Tadakatsu, who lived near Adams' estate. They discussed plans for a possible invasion of the Catholic Philippines. 1617 Cochinchina expedition In March 1617, Adams set sail for Cochinchina, having purchased the junk Sayers had brought from Siam and renamed it the Gift of God. He intended to find two English factors, Tempest Peacock and Walter Carwarden, who had departed from Hirado two years before to explore commercial opportunities on the first voyage to South East Asia by the Hirado English Factory. Adams learned in Cochinchina that Peacock had been plied with drink, and killed for his silver. Carwarden, who was waiting in a boat downstream, realised that Peacock had been killed and hastily tried to reach his ship. His boat overturned and he drowned. Adams sold a small cargo of broadcloth, Indian piece goods and ivory in Cochinchina for the modest amount of £351. 1618 Cochinchina expedition In 1618, Adams is recorded as having organised his last Red Seal trade expedition to Cochinchina and Tonkin (modern Vietnam), the last expedition of the English Hirado Factory to Southeast Asia. The ship, a chartered Chinese junk, left Hirado on 11 March 1618 but met with bad weather that forced it to stop at Ōshima in the northern Ryukyus. The ship sailed back to Hirado in May. Those expeditions to Southeast Asia helped the English factory survive for some time—during that period, sappanwood resold in Japan with a 200% profit—until the factory fell into bankruptcy due to high expenditures. Death and family legacy Adams died at Hirado, north of Nagasaki, on 16 May 1620, at the age of 55. He was buried in Nagasaki, where his grave marker may still be seen. His gravesite is next to a memorial to Saint Francis Xavier. In his will, he left his townhouse in Edo, his fief in Hemi, and 500 British pounds to be divided evenly between his family in England and his family in Japan. Cocks wrote: "I cannot but be sorrowful for the loss of such a man as Capt William Adams, he having been in such favour with two Emperors of Japan as never any Christian in these part of the world." (Cocks' diary) Adams' daughter Deliverance married Ratcliff mariner Raph Goodchild at St Dunstan's, Stepney on 30 September 1618. They had two daughters, Abigail in October 1619 who died on the same month, and Jane in April 1621. Deliverance would later marry for a second time, to John Wright at St Alfege Church, Greenwich on 13 October 1624. Cocks remained in contact with Adams' Japanese family, sending gifts; in March 1622, he offered silks to Joseph and Susanna. On the Christmas after Adams' death, Cocks gave Joseph his father's sword and dagger. Cocks records that Hidetada transferred the lordship from William Adams to his son Joseph Adams with the attendant rights to the estate at Hemi: He (Hidetada) has confirmed the lordship to his son, which the other emperor (Ieyasu) gave to the father. (Cocks's diary) Cocks administered Adams' trading rights (the shuinjō) for the benefit of Adams' children, Joseph and Susanna. He carried this out conscientiously. In 1623, three years after Adams' death, the unprofitable English trading factory was dissolved by the East India Company. The Dutch traded on Adams' children's behalf via the Red Seal ships. Joseph Adams had since inherited the title of Miura Anjin, became a trader and made five voyages to Cochinchina and Siam between 1624 and 1635. By 1629 only two of Adams' shipmates from 1600 survived in Japan. Melchior van Santvoort and Vincent Romeyn lived privately in Nagasaki. In 1635, Tokugawa Iemitsu enforced the Sakoku Edict for Japan to be closed against foreign trading, by then both Joseph and Susanna disappeared from historical records at that time. Adams has a second memorial monument at the location of his residence in Hemi. Consisting of a pair of hōkyōintō, the tuff memorial on the right is that of Adams, and the andesite one of the left is for his wife. The monuments were erected by his family in accordance with his will, and the site was designated as a National Historic Site in 1923. Honours for Adams A town in Edo (modern Tokyo), Anjin-chō (in modern-day Nihonbashi) was named for Adams, who had a house there. He is annually celebrated on 15 June. A village and a railroad station in his fiefdom, Hemi, in modern Yokosuka, were named for him. In the city of Itō, Shizuoka, the Miura Anjin Festival is held annually on 10 August. On the seafront at Itō is a monument to Adams. Next to it is a plaque inscribed with Edmund Blunden's poem, "To the Citizens of Ito", which commemorates Adams' achievement. Adams' birth town, Gillingham, has held a Will Adams Festival every September since 2000. Since the late 20th century, both Itō and Yokosuka have become sister cities of Gillingham. A monument to Adams was installed in Watling Street, Gillingham (Kent), opposite Darland Avenue. The monument was unveiled 11 May 1934 by Tsuneo Matsudaira GCVO, Japanese ambassador to the Court of St James. A roundabout named Will Adams Roundabout with a Japanese theme just along from the Gillingham monument to Adams with two roads named after the Gillingham sister cities "Ito Way" and "Yokosuka Way" The townhouse of Will Adams still exists in Hirado. It is currently a sweet shop called Tsutaya at 431 Kihikidacho. It is known as Anjin no Yakata (Anjin's House). Analysis of skeletal remains William Adams (Miura Anjin) was buried in 1620, in Hirado, Nagasaki Prefecture. However, a few years later foreign cemeteries were destroyed and there was prosecution of Christians by the Tokugawa shogunate. The bones of Anjin were taken for safekeeping and reburied. In 1931, skeletal remains were first discovered there and assumed to be of Anjin, but it could not be confirmed due to technological limitations, the remains was later placed in a Showa period ceramic funerary urn and reburied back to where it was discovered. In July 2017, the excavation of the skeletal remains began at the William Adams Memorial Park on Sakigata Hill, Hirado. In 2019, Japanese archaeologists announced the discovery of bones at the site believed to be those of Adams. These remains match the 1931 description. The subsequent biomolecular anthropological investigation of the genetic background showed the mtDNA analysis indicates Anjin's mitochondrial DNA likely belongs to haplogroup H. The analysis also showed aspects such as the dietary habits and burial style matched with Anjin. In April 2020, the University of Tokyo conducted conclusive forensic tests on the bones and confirmed it was William Adams' grave. Confirmation of the identity of the remains may have been possible with DNA data from living relatives of Adams. However, even if living relatives had been identified, there would probably have been the equivalent of about eight generations of genetic difference between them and Adams. Thus there may not have been sufficient similarities to establish with sufficient certainty whether such a relationship existed. Representation in other media James Clavell based his best-selling novel Shōgun (1975) on Adams' life, changing the name of his protagonist to "John Blackthorne". This was adapted as a popular TV mini-series, Shōgun (1980). It was also adapted as a Broadway production, Shōgun: The Musical (1990), and the video game James Clavell's Shōgun (1989). Michel Foucault retold Adams' tale in The Discourse on Language. According to Foucault, the story embodies one of the "great myths of European culture," namely, the idea that a mere sailor could teach mathematics to the Japanese shogun shows the difference between the open exchange of knowledge in Europe as opposed to the secretive control of knowledge under "oriental tyranny." In fact, however, Adams was not a mere sailor but the chief navigator of the fleet, and his value to the Shogun was along the practical lines of shipbuilding. There were numerous earlier works of fiction based on Adams. William Dalton wrote Will Adams, The First Englishman in Japan: A Romantic Biography (London, 1861). Richard Blaker's The Needlewatcher (London, 1932) is the least romantic of the novels; he consciously attempted to de-mythologize Adams and write a careful historical work of fiction. James Scherer's Pilot and Shōgun dramatises a series of incidents based on Adams' life. American Robert Lund wrote Daishi-san (New York, 1960). Christopher Nicole's Lord of the Golden Fan (1973) portrays Adams as sexually frustrated in England and freed by living in Japan, where he has numerous encounters. The work is considered light pornography. In 2002, Giles Milton's historical biography Samurai William (2002) is based on historical sources, especially Richard Cocks's diary. The 2002 alternate history novel Ruled Britannia by Harry Turtledove features a brief appearance by Adams, piloting cargo and passengers between England and Ostend, both of which are puppet states of the Habsburg Empire in this timeline. In the second season of Heroes, a story set in samurai-era Japan features an Englishman who seems to be based on Adams. A book series called Young Samurai is about a young English boy who is ship wrecked in Japan, and is trained as a samurai. Adams also serves as the template for the protagonist in the PlayStation 4 and PC video game series Nioh (2017) and non-playable in its prequel/sequel hybrid game (2020), but with supernatural and historical fiction elements. As of the end of the second game, some time after managing to arrest the female Spaniard Maria, he married Okatsu instead and had an English-Japanese son who inherited her mother's guardian spirit. This version also appeared in the Warriors series' crossover game, Warriors All-Stars. Depiction According to Professor Derek Massarella of Chuo University: There is however one genuine contemporary image. "It is a derivative drawing of William Adams, which appears to be based in a sketch attributed to Dorothy Burmingham (from a description given by Melchior von Santvoort). The original drawing is to be found at the Rotterdam Maritime Museum [whose specialist Marcel Kroon considers it to be from Adams' time]. A copy is preserved at the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford." See also Anglo-Japanese relations Jan Joosten – known in Japanese as Yan Yōsuten, was a Dutch colleague of Adams, and the only known Dutch samurai. The Yaesu neighbourhood in Chūō, Tokyo was named for him. Henry Schnell – known in Japanese as Hiramatsu Buhei, was a Prussian arms dealer, who served the Aizu domain as a military instructor and procurer of weapons. Eugène Collache – French Navy officer, who fought for the shōgun during the Boshin War (1868–1869). Jules Brunet (1838–1911) – French officer who fought for the shōgun in the Boshin War Ernest Mason Satow (1843–1929) – British scholar, diplomat and Japanologist Hendrick Hamel (1630–1692) – first European to live in the Joseon-dynasty era in Korea (1666) and write about it Yasuke (b. c. 1556) – a black (African) retainer briefly in the service of the Japanese warlord Nobunaga Oda List of foreign-born samurai in Japan List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868 Notes References England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. Hillary (1905) Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, ed. by N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams' Letters reprinted from Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt Society, 1850) Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Murakami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883) Hildreth, Richard, Japan as it was and is (1855) John Harris, Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca (1764), i. 856 Voyage of John Saris, edited by Sir Ernest M. Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900) Asiatic Society of Japan Transactions, xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four formerly unpublished letters of Adams are printed; Collection of State Papers; East Indies, China and Japan. The MS. of his logs written during his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Samurai William: The Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan, by Giles Milton (UK 2002: ) William Adams and Early English Enterprise in Japan, by Anthony Farrington and Derek Massarella Adams the Pilot: The Life and Times of Captain William Adams: 1564–1620, by William Corr, Curzon Press, 1995 The English Factory in Japan 1613–1623, ed. by Anthony Farrington, British Library, 1991. (Includes all of William Adams' extant letters, as well as his will.) A World Elsewhere. Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, by Derek Massarella, Yale University Press, 1990. Recollections of Japan, Hendrik Doeff, Hardcopy The Needle-Watcher: The Will Adams Story, British Samurai by Richard Blaker Servant of the Shogun by Richard Tames. Paul Norbury Publications, Tenterden, Kent, England.. Samurai William: The Englishman Who Opened Japan,'' by Giles Milton; ; December 2003 External links Williams Adams- Blue Eyed Samurai, Meeting Anjin "Learning from Shogun. Japanese history and Western fantasy" William Adams and Early English enterprise in Japan William Adams – The First Englishman In Japan, full text online, Internet Archive Will Adams Memorial Samurai Foreign samurai in Japan 1564 births 1620 deaths 16th-century English people 17th-century English people 16th-century Japanese people 17th-century Japanese people Advisors to Tokugawa shoguns English emigrants to Japan English Anglicans English sailors Hatamoto Japan–United Kingdom relations People from Gillingham, Kent Royal Navy officers Sailors on ships of the Dutch East India Company Foreign relations of the Tokugawa shogunate	[ -0.7150892615318298, 0.4124318063259125, 0.01744929514825344, -0.009579557925462723, 0.7177438735961914, 0.4448450803756714, 0.5935695767402649, -0.3354446291923523, -0.4098810851573944, -0.2860778570175171, -0.3021200895309448, -0.43592703342437744, -0.13122020661830902, 0.07464128732681274, -0.330599844455719, 0.3505339026451111, -0.03186667338013649, 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206470	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maidenhead	Maidenhead	Maidenhead is a market town in Berkshire, England, on the southwestern bank of the River Thames. It has an estimated population of 70,374 (152,914 Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead). It is a town in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead and the part of the Berkshire county, forming part of the border with southern Buckinghamshire. Travelling by road, the town is situated west of Charing Cross, London and east-northeast of the county town of Reading. The town differs from the Parliamentary constituency of Maidenhead, which includes a number of outer suburbs and villages (including parts of Wokingham and Reading) such as Twyford, Charvil, Remenham, Ruscombe and Wargrave. History The antiquary John Leland claimed that the area around Maidenhead's present town centre was a small Roman settlement called Alaunodunum. He stated that it had all but disappeared by the end of the Roman occupation. Although his source is unknown, there is documented and physical evidence of Roman settlement in the town. There are two well known villa sites in the town, one being in the suburb of Cox Green, and the other just west of the town centre on Castle Hill. This villa sat on the route of the Camlet Way which was a Roman road linking Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) and Colchester (Camulodunum) via St Albans (Verulamium) and passes through the present town centre. Remnants of the road have been unearthed at various locations nearby, but its exact route is unclear. Maidenhead's name stems from the riverside area where the first "New wharf" or "Maiden Hythe" was built, as early as Saxon times. In the year 870, an army of Danes invaded the kingdom of Wessex. They disembarked from their longboats by the wharf and ferry crossing at Maidenhead and fought their way overland to Reading where they set up camp and made it their regional power base. The area of the present town centre was originally a small Anglo-Saxon town known as "South Ellington". The town would have likely developed on the Camlet Way on the site of Alaunodunum as the Bath Road was not re-routed until the 13th century. Maidenhead is recorded in the Domesday Book as the settlement of Ellington in the hundred of Beynhurst. A wooden bridge was erected across the river in about 1280 to replace the ferry in South Ellington. The Great West Road to Reading, Gloucester and Bristol was diverted over the new bridge. Previously, it had kept to the north bank and crossed the Thames by ford at Cookham, and the medieval town, later to become Maidenhead grew up on the site of Alaunodunum and South Ellington, between the new bridge and the bottom of Castle Hill. Within a few years a new wharf was constructed next to the bridge to replace the old Saxon wharf which needed replacing. At this time, the South Ellington name was dropped with the town becoming known as Maidenhythe. The earliest record of this name change is in the Bray Court manorial rolls of 1296. The new bridge and wharf led to the growth of medieval Maidenhead as a river port and market town. The present town was developed as a linear settlement in the 13th century along the newly diverted road with hostelries, a guildhall and a chapel dedicated to St Mary Magdalene was built in the middle of the road. The market was held outside the old guildhall which was set back from the High Street to form the market square. Maidenhead also became the first stopping point for coaches travelling from London to Gloucester and Bath and the town became populated with numerous inns. By the mid 18th century, Maidenhead was one of the busiest coaching towns in England with over ninety coaches a day passing through the town. The late 18th-century Bear Hotel on the High Street is the best of the town's old coaching inns surviving to this day. The current Maidenhead Bridge, a local landmark, dates from 1777 and was built at a cost of £19,000. King Charles I met his children for the last time before his execution in 1649 at the Greyhound Inn on the High Street, the site of which is now a branch of the NatWest Bank. A plaque commemorates their meeting. When the Great Western Railway came to the town, it began to expand. Muddy roads were replaced and public services were installed. The High Street began to change again, and substantial Victorian red brick architecture began to appear throughout the town. Maidenhead became its own entity in 1894, being split from the civil parishes of both Bray and Cookham. Maidenhead Citadel Corps of the Salvation Army was first opened in the town in the mid-1880s. Maidenhead Citadel Band was soon founded in 1886 by Bandmaster William Thomas, who later became mayor of the town. By Edwardian times, nearby Boulter's Lock became a favoured resort, especially on Ascot Sunday, and Skindles Hotel developed a reputation for illicit liaisons. Governance The town is part of the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead, with an urban population of around 150,000. Currently Cllr Andrew Johnson is the Leader of the Conservative held cabinet. It was previously an independent municipal borough. The town of Maidenhead was formerly part of the Windsor and Maidenhead Parliament constituency, a conservative safe seat. The Boundary Committee abolished this constituency after the 1992 general election since the electorate was growing too large, splitting it into Windsor and Maidenhead. Maidenhead has been held by the Conservative Party in every election since its foundation in 1997. Theresa May was elected MP in 1997 and has represented Maidenhead ever since. As MP, she took a series of ministerial positions, and was appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 13 July 2016. May stood down as Prime Minister on 24 July 2019, but will continue to serve as MP for Maidenhead. It is today one of the safest Conservative seats in the country, with the Conservatives having a 35 percentage point lead over the second largest party (Labour) in 2017. The mayor of Windsor & Maidenhead is Councillor Sayonara Luxton (Conservative). Geography The Maidenhead urban area includes urban and suburban regions within the bounds of the town, called Maidenhead Court, North Town, Furze Platt, Pinkneys Green, Highway, Tittle Row, Boyn Hill, Fishery and Bray Wick; as well as adjoining built-up areas in surrounding civil parishes: Cox Green and Altwood in Cox Green parish, Woodlands Park in White Waltham parish, and part of Bray Wick in Bray parish. Bray village is linked to Maidenhead by the exclusive Fishery Estate which lies on the west bank of the Thames. To the east, on the opposite side of the river from Maidenhead, is the large village of Taplow in Buckinghamshire which almost adjoins the suburban village of Burnham, Buckinghamshire, which itself nearly adjoins the urban area of the large, industrial town of Slough. To the north are the Cookhams, Cookham Village, Cookham Rise and Cookham Dean. To the west is the area of Pinkneys Green. These lie south of the Berkshire-Buckinghamshire border, which is formed by the River Thames (which then bends southwards to form the Maidenhead-Taplow border). Adjoining Bray and Bray Wick to the south is the suburban village of Holyport. Continuing by road to the South-East leads to the historic, royal twin towns of Windsor and Eton. Maidenhead was originally the planned western terminus for the Crossrail line (to and through London) until Reading station, situated southwest of Maidenhead, was chosen. Maidenhead lies immediately west of the Taplow ridge; a wooded spur of the Chilterns which rises dramatically above one of the most scenic stretches of the Thames. The ridge is crowned by the spectacular Cliveden House which can be seen from various parts of the town. Maidenhead has a site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in the northern outskirts of the town called Cannoncourt Farm Pit, where the largest hand axe of the paleolithic era in Britain was discovered. The town also has a local nature reserve called The Gullet. On 12 July 1901 Maidenhead entered the UK Weather Records with the Highest 60-min total rainfall at . As of July 2015, this record remains. Landmarks Maidenhead clock tower was built for Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee and is located outside the railway station. Maidenhead Bridge was built in 1777. It takes the A4 over the Thames to join Maidenhead to Taplow. All Saints' Church, Boyne Hill was completed in 1857 is one of the finest examples of the early work of the architect G. E. Street. The site is also regarded by many as the premier architectural site in the town. The church, consecrated on 2 December 1857 by Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, became the first ecclesiastical parish in the Borough of Maidenhead. Boulter's Lock is a lock on the river Thames on the east side of Maidenhead. It adjoins Ray Mill Island. In addition the town has a range of various statues which form part of a recognisable image of the town, including the 'Boy and the Boat' location at the top end of the High Street, near the Methodist Church. Character Maidenhead has a long history of settlement, going back to the Anglo-Saxon and Roman periods. Despite this, there are no visible architectural remains in the present day town to show this. Although there are attractive residential and green areas in and around Maidenhead, the historic heart of the town has been redeveloped, primarily with office space, high technology company headquarters and apartments, making it one of the key business and commuter towns of the Silicon Corridor. This has happened in piecemeal fashion over the last forty years and unfortunately, Maidenhead town centre has lost most many historic buildings and much of its traditional English market town character. The High Street and Bridge Street areas only possess one heavily restored Medieval building and a handful of Georgian buildings in the Chapel Arches area. Research by the New Economics Foundation rated Maidenhead as an example of a clone town and the town centre is regarded as in need of improvement. In December 2007, the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead set up the Partnership for the Regeneration of Maidenhead (PRoM), which in October 2008 launched a comprehensive 20 Year Vision and Action Plan for rejuvenating the town centre. Launch of the plan coincided with confirmation by central government that Maidenhead will be part of the new Crossrail project. PRoM's plans highlight five key developments which will help shape the town for the future. A large new retail and residential development called 'The Landing' is due for construction shortly. Additionally there will be an upgraded railway station and transport interchange, movement of the leisure centre to Braywick Park, relocating the bowls club and improved links between Kidwells Park and the High Street. There are also plans to demolish the 1960s Nicholsons shopping centre and replace it with a new retail and residential quarter built around a network of revived historic streets and a micro brewery. A new town square featuring shops, restaurants and apartments is currently under construction between the central library and town hall. The Chapel Arches retail and residential development is under construction. Part of the scheme involves restoring the old Thames tributaries which run through a historic section of the town centre. The redevelopment will bring an attractive waterfront quarter with new apartments, boutique stores, restaurants, bars, and cafes are to be a feature this new part of the town centre. The adjoining historic section of the High Street around the 18th century Chapel Arches Bridge has been restored as part of the development. Existing Georgian and Victorian buildings have been rejuvenated, and the adjoining new builds have been sensitively constructed in the same historic style to bring back a sense of history and lost heritage to this part of the town centre. Maidenhead was home to the conference that agreed on the Maidenhead Locator System standard in 1980. It is located in grid square . The average house price in Maidenhead in January 2021 was £540,940. Community facilities Maidenhead offers High Street shopping facilities including Nicholson's Centre, a shopping centre on the site of Nicholson's brewery. The town also offers an eight-screen Odeon multiplex cinema. The local authority also provides a Shopmobility service, where those with physical disabilities can borrow mobility scooters to navigate around the town. Maidenhead Heritage Centre and Museum was established in 1993 and moved to permanent premises in a former pub in Park Street in 2006. In the Boyne Hill area there is Norden Farm Centre for the Arts (an arts centre including a theatre). Waltham Place Estate on Church Hill includes an ornamental garden integrated within a organic and biodynamic farm estate. It is promoted by the Campaign to Protect Rural England. The Reitlinger Open Space on Guards Club Road is named after Henry Reitlinger, a leading collector of fine art. On his death in 1950, the collection was vested in a trust, the Henry Reitlinger Bequest. The trustees were his adopted daughter, Mrs. M. Cocke, and a Maidenhead solicitor, who chose to house the collection at Oldfield House, now a private residence; the building dates back to 1892. The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead has built a new leisure centre in the town to replace the outdated Magnet Leisure Centre which is located east of Kidwells Park. The new facility, Braywick Leisure Centre, opened in September 2020. The town also has various community centres, including 4 Marlow Road, a youth and community centre, located to the side of Kidwells Park near the town centre. Various activities take place here, including scheduled youth drop in times as well as classes in dance provided privately in its large sports and dance studios. There is a publicly open gym at Furze Platt school, in North Maidenhead. Transport The (Brunel-built) Great Western Main Line passes through the town, calling at Maidenhead railway station and offering frequent, direct services to London, Reading, Newbury, Didcot and Oxford. Additionally, there are less frequent direct services to Banbury, Hereford, Worcester and Great Malvern. It passes over Brunel's Maidenhead Railway Bridge (known locally as the Sounding Arch), famous for its flat brick arches. Maidenhead Station is the beginning of the Marlow Branch Line from Maidenhead to Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Furze Platt railway station on this branch also serves the northern area of Maidenhead. Rail services have been provided by Great Western since 2003–04. Local bus services are provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, Arriva Shires & Essex and Thames Valley Buses. The A4 runs through the town and crosses the Thames over Maidenhead Bridge. The town lies adjacent to junction 8/9 on the M4 motorway and is accessed via the A404(M) and A308(M). The A308(M), A404(M) and A404 form the Marlow and Maidenhead bypass which also acts as an important link between the M4, to the south of the town, and M40 at High Wycombe. The River Thames runs to the east of the town centre, and York Stream, which runs through the town centre, connects to the Thames via a system of disused waterways. A renewal scheme is in progress to reopen these waterways. The Jubilee River, part of the flood defence scheme, begins above Boulter's Lock nearby. The Crossrail project which is now expected to be fully opened in mid-2022, after previously being expected to be completed by December 2018. In the initial plan for Crossrail, Maidenhead was expected to become the terminus for the line, which is now known as the Elizabeth Line. However, after consultation Crossrail Limited and Transport for London decided to extend this to Reading, which also serves as a major hub for the Great Western route. The route will double the current timetable from four services an hour (operated by the existing Great Western Railway route) to eight services an hour (combining both Elizabeth Line and GWR services). Two services an hour from Paddington to Reading have been taken over by Crossrail's precursor company, TfL Rail. Employment Maidenhead is in England's Silicon Corridor along the M4 motorway west of London. Many residents commute to work in London, or to the nearby towns of Slough, Bracknell and Reading. Maidenhead's industries include software, plastics, pharmaceuticals, printing and telecommunications. The town also has an office for the Department for Work and Pensions, a local Jobcentre Plus which is located in Park Street. It is open 9am - 5pm Monday to Friday (10am on Wednesday) and offers help in finding employment, including the National Careers Service. In addition, as part of the UK Government roll out of the new social care benefit system, Maidenhead is now a Universal Credit Full Service area. Sport Situated on the River Thames, the town is a rowing centre. Maidenhead Rowing Club organises the Maidenhead Regatta which, along with Marlow Regatta and Henley Regatta, is often seen as a testing ground for olympic rowing athletes. Maidenhead has often seen winners go on to represent the United Kingdom at the Olympic games. The town's football team, Maidenhead United, play at York Road, which is the oldest football ground in the world continuously used by the same team. Maidenhead United were crowned champions of National League South at the end of the 2016/17 season. Due to this, the team were automatically promoted to the National League (fifth tier of English Football) for the 2017/18 season. The Maidenhead Rugby Club was founded in 1921 and is the largest organised sports team in the town. It consists of four men's teams, a women's team and a large youth programme. Institutions The local newspaper is The Maidenhead Advertiser. Maidenhead has been the home of Maidenhead Citadel Band of the Salvation Army since 1886. The head office of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is based in Maidenhead on Marlow Road. Furthermore, various private companies have their head offices located around the town including, Johnson & Johnson, the American multi-national pharmaceutical. The schools listed below consist of various types of schools including free schools and academies. Further educational institutions Berkshire College of Agriculture is based in Maidenhead. Although the town only has the one college, most students entering college level education travel to the various establishments in the area, including the Windsor Forest Colleges Group (formerly East Berkshire College) in both Windsor (Berkshire) and Langley, Slough as well as The Henley College in Oxfordshire and Reading College (Berkshire). Secondary schools Altwood Church of England School Cox Green School Desborough College (previously Maidenhead Grammar School) Furze Platt Senior School Holyport College (state boarding school) Newlands Girls' School (previously County High School for Girls, Maidenhead) Primary schools All Saints C of E Junior School Courthouse Junior School Furze Platt Infant School (caters for Reception - Year 2) Furze Platt Junior School (caters for Year 3–6) Holyport Primary School Larchfield Lowbrook Academy Oldfield Primary School Riverside Primary School St Edmund Campion Primary School St. Lukes C of E School St. Mary's Primary School Wessex Primary School White Waltham C of E Primary School Woodlands Park Primary School Independent schools Beech Lodge School (co-ed 7–17) Claires Court (all-through 3-18:- co-ed nursery [3-5]; girls [4-16] & boys [4-16] in a diamond shape; co-ed sixth form) Herries School (co-ed 3–11) Highfield School (boys 2–4; girls 2–11) St Piran's School (co-ed 3–11) Redroofs School for the Performing Arts (co-ed 9-18 full time and all ages for weekly classes) The closest higher education institution is Buckinghamshire New University in High Wycombe to the north. The University of Reading and University of West London (Berkshire Institute of Health-Reading) are both approximately to the south-west. Twin towns Maidenhead is twinned with: Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, France (since 1957) Bad Godesberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany (since 1960) Frascati, Lazio, Italy (since 1972) Kortrijk (Courtrai) West Flanders, Belgium (since 1981) Each year youths from the four towns and Berlin-Steglitz (twinned with Bad Godesberg) compete against one another in sports such as volleyball, football, athletics, and swimming in the Twin Towns Sports Competition, hosted in turn by each of the five towns. In Maidenhead town centre there are roads named after three of the twin towns (Bad Godesberg Way, Frascati Way and St Cloud Way). Local schools often participate in student exchanges with pupils being exchanged between schools within the twinned towns. Notable people and businesses A number of notable figures can be counted amongst Maidenhead's current and former residents. The actress Diana Dors (1931–1984) resided for much of her life in the town, in several properties The broadcaster Richard Dimbleby (1913–1965) lived for some time on Boulter's Island Maidenhead's riverside location has also drawn many celebrities, including former broadcaster Michael Parkinson (b. 1935) Spice Girls shared a house in Maidenhead for a year preceding their rise to stardom. Author Hugh Lofting (1886–1947), creator of Doctor Dolittle, was born in Maidenhead. Essayist and novelist Nick Hornby (b. 1957) was educated at Maidenhead Grammar School (now Desborough School), Children's television presenter and radio show host Toby Anstis (b. 1968), Author and broadcaster John O'Farrell (b. 1962), Athlete Mark Richardson (b. 1972) "Dragon" Peter Jones (b. 1966). The film director brothers Roy (1913–2001) and John Boulting (1913–1985) were born in Bray village on the outskirts of Maidenhead in November 1913. Andy King grew up in Maidenhead, and attended Furze Platt Senior School. He plays for Leicester City and helped them win the Premier League title in 2016. Pinkneys Green a small village near the town was home to Sir Nicholas Winton (1909–2015), whose heroic efforts rescued 669 Jewish children from Czechoslovakia just before the outbreak of World War II. There is a statue of him at Maidenhead Railway Station. Arthur and Ron Hacker formed the company Hacker Radio Ltd in Maidenhead in 1959, producers of fine transistor radios that for a time in the 1970s brandished the Royal Warrant of Appointment The town was also home to Colonel Sir Walter de Frece (1870–1935) and Lady Matilda de Frece, better known as Vesta Tilley (1864–1952). Former disabled London Marathon competitor Patrick Sheehy lived in the town for just over 3 years. Edd China (born 1971), an English TV presenter, mechanic, motor specialist and inventor lives and works here. Mary Ann Browne (1812–1845) was a British poet and writer of musical scores. 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206471	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20E.%20B.%20Mayor	John E. B. Mayor	John Eyton Bickersteth Mayor (28 January 1825 – 1 December 1910) was an English classical scholar and vegetarianism activist. Life Mayor was born at Baddegama, British Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) the son of Rev. John Major and Charlotte Bickersteth. His mother came from the prominent Bickersteth family and was the sister of Henry Bickersteth, 1st Baron Langdale and Rev. Edward Bickersteth. He was sent to England to be educated at Shrewsbury School and St John's College, Cambridge. Joseph Bickersteth Mayor was his younger brother. From 1863 to 1867, Mayor was librarian of the University of Cambridge, and in 1872 succeeded H. A. J. Munro in the professorship of Latin, which he held for 28 years. His best-known work, an edition of the thirteen Satires of Juvenal, is notable for an extraordinary wealth of illustrative quotations. His Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature (1875), based on Emil Hübner's Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die römische Litteraturgeschichte, was a valuable aid to the student, and his edition of Cicero's Second Philippic became widely used. He also edited the English works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1876); Thomas Baker's History of St John's College, Cambridge (1869); Richard of Cirencester's Speculum historiale de gestis regum Angliae 447–1066 (1863–69); Roger Ascham's Schoolmaster (new ed., 1883); the Latin Heptateuch (1889); and the Journal of Philology. According to the Enciklopedio de Esperanto, Mayor learned Esperanto in 1907, and gave a historic speech against Esperanto reformists at the World Congress of Esperanto held at Cambridge. His life and work are idiosyncratically and somewhat unsympathetically described in Juvenal's Mayor: The Professor Who Lived on 2d. a Day by J. G. W. Henderson. He is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge. Vegetarianism Mayor succeeded Francis William Newman as President of the Vegetarian Society in 1883. Mayor was a strict vegetarian and teetotaller but it was noted that "he never sought to impose his rule of abstinence on others." Mayor authored What is Vegetarianism?, in 1886. His vegetarian writings were published in the book, Plain Living and High Thinking in 1897. Selected publications Nicholas Ferrar: Two Lives (1855) Early statutes of the College of St. John at Cambridge in the University of Cambridge (1859) History of the College of St. John the Evangelist, Cambridge (with Thomas Baker, 1869) Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature (1875) Modicus Cibi Medicus Sibi, Or, Nature Her Own Physician (1880) What is Vegetarianism? (1886) The Church and the Life of the Poor (1889) The Latin Heptateuch (1889) Thirteen Satires of Juvenal (1889) Plain Living and High Thinking (1897) Mercy, Not Curiosity, the Mother of Medicine (1898) Cambridge Under Queen Anne (1911) Twelve Cambridge Sermons (1911) Notes References The Cambridge History of English and American Literature External links 1825 births 1910 deaths Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Bickersteth family Cambridge University Librarians Classical scholars of the University of Cambridge English classical scholars English Esperantists English male writers English temperance activists Fellows of the British Academy People associated with the Vegetarian Society People educated at Shrewsbury School Scholars of Latin literature Vegetarianism activists	[ 0.15129004418849945, 0.1966061145067215, -0.5857291221618652, -0.1327522248029709, -0.3100760281085968, 0.6831761598587036, 0.2965739071369171, 0.15713433921337128, -0.24057559669017792, -0.28265076875686646, 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206472	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color%20constancy	Color constancy	Color constancy is an example of subjective constancy and a feature of the human color perception system which ensures that the perceived color of objects remains relatively constant under varying illumination conditions. A green apple for instance looks green to us at midday, when the main illumination is white sunlight, and also at sunset, when the main illumination is red. This helps us identify objects. Color vision Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment. Object illuminance The phenomenon of color constancy occurs when the source of illumination is not directly known. It is for this reason that color constancy takes a greater effect on days with sun and clear sky as opposed to days that are overcast. Even when the sun is visible, color constancy may affect color perception. This is due to an ignorance of all possible sources of illumination. Although an object may reflect multiple sources of light into the eye, color constancy causes objective identities to remain constant. D. H. Foster (2011) states, "in the natural environment, the source itself may not be well defined in that the illumination at a particular point in a scene is usually a complex mixture of direct and indirect [light] distributed over a range of incident angles, in turn modified by local occlusion and mutual reflection, all of which may vary with time and position." The wide spectrum of possible illuminances in the natural environment and the limited ability of the human eye to perceive color means that color constancy plays a functional role in daily perception. Color constancy allows for humans to interact with the world in a consistent or veridical manner and it allows for one to more effectively make judgements on the time of day. Physiological basis The physiological basis for color constancy is thought to involve specialized neurons in the primary visual cortex that compute local ratios of cone activity, which is the same calculation that Land's retinex algorithm uses to achieve color constancy. These specialized cells are called double-opponent cells because they compute both color opponency and spatial opponency. Double-opponent cells were first described by Nigel Daw in the goldfish retina. There was considerable debate about the existence of these cells in the primate visual system; their existence was eventually proven using reverse-correlation receptive field mapping and special stimuli that selectively activate single cone classes at a time, so-called "cone-isolating" stimuli. Human brain imaging evidence strongly suggests that a critical cortical locus for generating color constancy is located in cortical area V4, damage in which leads to the syndrome of cerebral achromatopsia. Color constancy works only if the incident illumination contains a range of wavelengths. The different cone cells of the eye register different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths of the light reflected by every object in the scene. From this information, the visual system attempts to determine the approximate composition of the illuminating light. This illumination is then discounted in order to obtain the object's "true color" or reflectance: the wavelengths of light the object reflects. This reflectance then largely determines the perceived color. Neural mechanism There are two possible mechanisms for color constancy. The first mechanism is unconscious inference. The second view holds this phenomenon to be caused by sensory adaptation. Research suggests color constancy to be related changes in retinal cells as well as cortical areas related to vision. This phenomenon is most likely attributed to changes in various levels of the visual system. Cone adaptation Cones, specialized cells within the retina, will adjust relative to light levels within the local environment. This occurs at the level of individual neurons. However, this adaptation is incomplete. Chromatic adaptation is also regulated by processes within the brain. Research in monkeys suggest that changes in chromatic sensitivity is correlated to activity in parvocellular lateral geniculate neurons. Color constancy may be both attributed to localized changes in individual retinal cells or to higher level neural processes within the brain. Metamerism Metamerism, the perceiving of colors within two separate scenes, can help to inform research regarding color constancy. Research suggests that when competing chromatic stimuli are presented, spatial comparisons must be completed early in the visual system. For example, when subjects are presented stimuli in a dichoptic fashion, an array of colors and a void color, such as grey, and are told to focus on a specific color of the array, the void color appears different than when perceived in a binocular fashion. This means that color judgements, as they relate to spatial comparisons, must be completed at or prior to the V1 monocular neurons. If spatial comparisons occur later in the visual system such as in cortical area V4, the brain would be able to perceive both the color and void color as though they were seen in a binocular fashion. Retinex theory The "Land effect" is the capacity to see full color (if muted) images solely by looking at a photo with red and gray wavelengths. The effect was discovered by Edwin H. Land, who was attempting to reconstruct James Clerk Maxwell's early experiments in full-colored images. Land realized that, even when there were no green or blue wavelengths present in an image, the visual system would still perceive them as green or blue by discounting the red illumination. Land described this effect in a 1959 article in Scientific American. In 1977, Land wrote another Scientific American article that formulated his "retinex theory" to explain the Land effect. The word "retinex" is a blend of "retina" and "cortex", suggesting that both the eye and the brain are involved in the processing. Land, with John McCann, also developed a computer program designed to imitate the retinex processes taking place in human physiology. The effect can be experimentally demonstrated as follows. A display called a "Mondrian" (after Piet Mondrian whose paintings are similar) consisting of numerous colored patches is shown to a person. The display is illuminated by three white lights, one projected through a red filter, one projected through a green filter, and one projected through a blue filter. The person is asked to adjust the intensity of the lights so that a particular patch in the display appears white. The experimenter then measures the intensities of red, green, and blue light reflected from this white-appearing patch. Then the experimenter asks the person to identify the color of a neighboring patch, which, for example, appears green. Then the experimenter adjusts the lights so that the intensities of red, blue, and green light reflected from the green patch are the same as were originally measured from the white patch. The person shows color constancy in that the green patch continues to appear green, the white patch continues to appear white, and all the remaining patches continue to have their original colors. Color constancy is a desirable feature of computer vision, and many algorithms have been developed for this purpose. These include several retinex algorithms. These algorithms receive as input the red/green/blue values of each pixel of the image and attempt to estimate the reflectances of each point. One such algorithm operates as follows: the maximal red value rmax of all pixels is determined, and also the maximal green value gmax and the maximal blue value bmax. Assuming that the scene contains objects which reflect all red light, and (other) objects which reflect all green light and still others which reflect all blue light, one can then deduce that the illuminating light source is described by (rmax, gmax, bmax). For each pixel with values (r, g, b) its reflectance is estimated as (r/rmax, g/gmax, b/bmax). The original retinex algorithm proposed by Land and McCann uses a localized version of this principle. Although retinex models are still widely used in computer vision, actual human color perception has been shown to be more complex. See also Chromatic adaptation Memory color effect Shadow and highlight enhancement Trichromacy Tetrachromacy Theory of Colours References Retinex Here "Reprinted in McCann" refers to McCann, M., ed. 1993. Edwin H. Land's Essays. Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology. (1964) "The retinex" Am. Sci. 52(2): 247–64. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 53–60. Based on acceptance address for William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement, Cleveland, Ohio, December 30, 1963. with L.C. Farney and M.M. Morse. (1971) "Solubilization by incipient development" Photogr. Sci. Eng. 15(1):4–20. Reprinted in McCann, vol. I, pp. 157–73. Based on lecture in Boston, June 13, 1968. with J.J. McCann. (1971) "Lightness and retinex theory" J. Opt. Soc. Am. 61(1):1–11. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 73–84. Based on the Ives Medal lecture, October 13, 1967. (1974) "The retinex theory of colour vision" Proc. R. Inst. Gt. Brit. 47:23–58. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 95–112. Based on Friday evening discourse, November 2, 1973. (1977) "The retinex theory of color vision" Sci. Am. 237:108-28. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 125–42. with H.G. Rogers and V.K. Walworth. (1977) "One-step photography" In Neblette's Handbook of Photography and Reprography, Materials, Processes and Systems, 7th ed., J. M. Sturge, ed., pp. 259–330. New York: Reinhold. Reprinted in McCann, vol. I, pp. 205–63. (1978) "Our 'polar partnership' with the world around us: Discoveries about our mechanisms of perception are dissolving the imagined partition between mind and matter" Harv. Mag. 80:23–25. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 151–54. with D.H. Hubel, M.S. Livingstone, S.H. Perry, and M.M. Burns. (1983) "Colour-generating interactions across the corpus callosum" Nature 303(5918):616-18. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 155–58. (1983) "Recent advances in retinex theory and some implications for cortical computations: Color vision and the natural images" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 80:5136–69. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 159–66. (1986) "An alternative technique for the computation of the designator in the retinex theory of color vision" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 83:3078–80. External links Color constancy – McCann Color constancy – Illuminant Estimation Retinex Image Processing Retinex implemented via a partial differential equation and Fourier transform, with code and on-line demonstration BBC Horizon 21x08 Colourful notions 1985 Optical illusions Color Vision de:Farbwahrnehmung#Farbkonstanz	[ -0.13630034029483795, 0.032740529626607895, -0.4045170247554779, -0.01624194346368313, -0.3901720345020294, 0.05831935629248619, 0.7579203248023987, 0.3917381167411804, -0.000273050187388435, -0.5853947997093201, -0.5146657824516296, 0.7099478244781494, -0.4354943335056305, 0.4384891986846924, -0.21566995978355408, 0.5651307106018066, 0.9119668006896973, 1.0259281396865845, -0.1984178125858307, 0.03376716747879982, 0.2712004482746124, -0.168620303273201, -0.31618502736091614, -0.5889435410499573, -0.3437510132789612, -0.5189200043678284, 0.25248220562934875, 0.1856655776500702, 0.4064619243144989, 0.2494903951883316, 0.20080243051052094, 0.8408300280570984, 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206477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Andrew%20Johnstone%20Munro	Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro	Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro (29 October 1819 – 30 March 1885) was a British classical scholar. Biography Munro was born at Elgin, Moray, Scotland, the illegitimate son of Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro of Novar by Penelope Forbes, and educated at Shrewsbury School, where he was one of Benjamin Hall Kennedy's first pupils. He went on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1838, becoming a scholar in 1840, second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly founded chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The great work on which his reputation rests is his edition of Lucretius, the fruit of many years' efforts (text only, 1 vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols, 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and his judgment unrivalled; and he studied archaeology, being a frequent traveller in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by Charles William King. His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contributions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae corolla, are among the most remarkable of the collection. He communicated with Thomas Saunders Evans. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, these are characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease to be idiomatic. He died while visiting Rome. A Memoir by J. D. Duff was prefixed to a re-issue of the translation of Lucretius in "Bohn's Classical Library" (1908). References External links Lucretius On the Nature of Things at the Internet Archive Manuscripts relating to Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro at Trinity College, Cambridge 1819 births 1885 deaths People from Elgin, Moray Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge Scottish classical scholars People educated at Shrewsbury School Classical scholars of the University of Cambridge Scholars of Latin literature Burials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome British Latinists Hellenists Translators to Latin Translators to Greek 19th-century translators	[ -0.0297850351780653, 0.6291131973266602, -0.8830212354660034, -0.5034521222114563, -0.26223599910736084, 0.670726478099823, 1.2678364515304565, -0.06762317568063736, -0.2763960063457489, -0.2836076617240906, -0.7310211658477783, -0.010555449873209, -0.37187159061431885, 0.4493618607521057, 0.15688222646713257, 0.3446108102798462, 0.32132264971733093, -0.17304006218910217, -0.8290494680404663, -0.6055156588554382, 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206481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elam	Elam	Elam (; Linear Elamite: hatamti; Cuneiform Elamite: ; Sumerian: ; Akkadian: ; ʿēlām; hūja) was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a), along with the later Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. In classical literature, Elam was also known as Susiana ( ; Sousiānḗ), a name derived from its capital Susa. Elam was part of the early urbanization of the Near East during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered a language isolate unrelated to any other languages. In accordance with geographical and archaeological matches, some historians argue that the Elamites comprise a large portion of the ancestors of the modern day Lurs whose language, Luri, split from Middle Persian. Etymology The Elamite language endonym of Elam as a country appears to have been Haltamti, or Haltami. Exonyms included the Sumerian names NIM.MAki𒉏𒈠𒆠 and ELAM, the Akkadian Elamû (masculine/neuter) and Elamītu (feminine) meant "resident of Susiana, Elamite". In prehistory, Elam was centered primarily in modern Khuzestān and Ilam. The name Khuzestān is derived ultimately from (hūja) meaning Susa/Elam. This became (hūz) "Susiana", and in modern (xuz), compounded with the toponymic suffix -stån "place". Geography In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around the river Karun. In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area Susiana, referring to the country around Susa. Another ancient geographer, Strabo, viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographic regions. He referred to Elam ("land of the Elymaei") as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan. Disagreements over the location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts. Some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent. The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since the discovery of ancient Anshan, and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history, the definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars argued that the centre of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it, and not at Susa in lowland Khuzistan. Potts disagrees suggesting that the term 'Elam' was primarily constructed by the Mesopotamians to describe the area in general terms, without referring specifically either to the lowlanders or the highlanders, "Elam is not an Iranian term and has no relationship to the conception which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan is coterminous with Elam is to misunderstand the artificiality and indeed the alienness of Elam as a construct imposed from without on the peoples of the southwestern highlands of the Zagros mountain range, the coast of Fars and the alluvial plain drained by the Karun-Karkheh river system. History Prehistorically the area was well settled during the Ubaid period and shared many aspects of Ubaid cultures. Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian (Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian) sources. The history of Elam is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period: Proto-Elamite: c. 3200 – c. 2700 BC (Proto-Elamite script in Susa) Old Elamite period: c. 2700 – c. 1500 BC (earliest documents until the Sukkalmah Dynasty) Middle Elamite period: c. 1500 – c. 1100 BC (Anzanite dynasty until the Babylonian invasion of Susa) Neo-Elamite period: c. 1100 – 540 BC (characterized Assyrian and Median influence. 539 BC marks the beginning of the Achaemenid period.) Proto-Elamite (c. 3500 – c. 2700 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam: Anshan (modern Fars Province), Awan (modern Lorestan Province) and Shimashki (modern Kerman Province). References to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed the same territory, in different eras (see Hanson, Encyclopædia Iranica). To this core Shushiana (modern Khuzestan) was periodically annexed and broken off. In addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau; such as Warakshe, Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city of Kashan) and Jiroft in Kerman Province. The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as a response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure. The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of the river Karun. It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation. During its early history, it fluctuated between submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22—17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of the Uruk period. Proto-Elamite influence from Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty. The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the king Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to the Sumerian king list. Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards. The Proto-Elamite states in Jiroft and Zabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity. In ancient Luristan, bronze-making tradition goes back to the mid-3rd millennium BC, and has many Elamite connections. Bronze objects from several cemeteries in the region date to the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) I, and to Ur-III period c. 2900–2000 BC. These excavations include Kalleh Nisar, Bani Surmah, Chigha Sabz, Kamtarlan, Sardant, and Gulal-i Galbi. Old Elamite period (c. 2700 – c. 1500 BC) The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan; c. 2400 – c. 2100 BC) and Simashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam. Awan dynasty The Awan dynasty (2350–2150 BC) was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperor Sargon of Akkad, who not only defeated the Awan king Luh-ishan and subjected Susa, but attempted to make the East Semitic Akkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone, and metal) from the Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. With the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great great-grandson, Shar-kali-sharri, Elam declared independence under the last Awan king, Kutik-Inshushinak (c. 2240 – c. 2220 BC), and threw off the Akkadian language, promoting in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign, the Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Guti, another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke a language isolate. Shimashki dynasty About a century later, the Sumerian king Shulgi of the Neo-Sumerian Empire retook the city of Susa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from the Sumerians of Mesopotamia and also Gutians from northwestern Iran, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea. Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan. But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC, the Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by king Kindattu, the sixth king of Simashki, managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity, ending the third dynasty of Ur. The Akkadian kings of Isin, successor state to Ur, managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Nanna that the Elamites had plundered. Sukkalmah dynasty The succeeding dynasty, often called the Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770 BC) after "Great regents", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian Empire, and Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia, being younger by approximately sixty years than the Akkadian speaking Old Assyrian Empire in Upper Mesopotamia, and almost seventy-five years older than the Old Babylonian Empire. This period is confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BC Kudur-Mabuk, apparently king of another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin, succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa. Notable Eparti dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Sirukdukh (c. 1850 BC), who entered various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states; Siwe-Palar-Khuppak, who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari, Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, and even Hammurabi of Babylon; and Kudur-Nahhunte, who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of the Old Assyrian Empire. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short lived Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595 BC). Trade with the Indus Valley civilization Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago. Trade between the Indus Valley Civilization and the cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation at Susa. Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Trubinella Pyrum and Fasciolaria Trapezium, have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia and Susa dating from around 2500–2000 BC. Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Susa in the excavation of the tell of the citadel. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans. Exchanges seem to have waned after 1900 BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization. Middle Elamite period (c. 1500 – c. 1100 BC) Anshan and Susa The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. The Kidinuids (c. 1500 – 1400 BC) are a group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant of Kirwashir", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its founding Susa was known as a central power location for the Elamites and for later Persian dynasties. Susa's power would peak during the Middle Elamite period, when it would be the region's capital. Kassite invasions Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400 – 1210 BC), ten rulers are known, though their number was possibly larger. Some of them married Kassite princesses. The Kassites were also a Language Isolate speaking people from the Zagros Mountains who had taken Babylonia shortly after its sacking by the Hittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of Babylon Kurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne by Ashur-uballit I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230 BC) another Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV, fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kassite-Babylonian power waned, as they became dominated by the northern Mesopotamian Middle Assyrian Empire. Kiddin-Khutran of Elam repulsed the Kassites by defeating Enlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 BC and Adad-shuma-iddina around 1222–1217 BC. Under the Igehalkids, Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa. Elamite Empire Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100 BC), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Babylonia (which was also being ravaged by the empire of Assyria during this period), and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity—building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Babylonia, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues of Marduk and Manishtushu, the Manishtushu Obelisk, the Stele of Hammurabi and the stele of Naram-Sin. In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed by Ashur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte, the Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddin, and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years before being ejected by the native Akkadian speaking Babylonians. The Elamites then briefly came into conflict with Assyria, managing to take the Assyrian city of Arrapha (modern Kirkuk) before being ultimately defeated and having a treaty forced upon them by Ashur-Dan I. Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably of an incestuous relation of Kutir-Nakhkhunte's with his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned the statue of Marduk, but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I. He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of the Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, for after the death of this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries. Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BC) Neo-Elamite I (c. 1100 – c. 770 BC) Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians, Chaldeans and other peoples against the powerful Neo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC); the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979 BC) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought unsuccessfully with the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian forces under Shamshi-Adad V (823–811 BC). Neo-Elamite II (c. 770 – 646 BC) The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration of Indo-European speaking Iranians to the Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the "powerful Medes", i.e. the actual Medes, Persians, Parthians, Sagartians, Margians, Bactrians, Sogdians etc.. Among these pressuring tribes were the Parsu, first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah, but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Persia proper. These newly arrived Iranian peoples were also conquered by Assyria, and largely regarded as vassals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire until the late 7th century. More details are known from the late 8th century BC, when the Elamites were allied with the Chaldean chieftain Merodach-baladan to defend the cause of Babylonian independence from Assyria. Khumbanigash (743–717 BC) supported Merodach-baladan against Sargon II, apparently without success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II (716–699 BC), was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's son Sennacherib, who defeated the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians and dethroned Merodach-baladan for a second time, installing his own son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the Babylonian throne in 700. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II, the last Elamite to claim the old title "king of Anshan and Susa", was murdered by his brother Khallushu, who managed to briefly capture the Assyrian governor of Babylonia Ashur-nadin-shumi and the city of Babylon in 694 BC. Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor of Khumma-Menanu III (692–689 BC). Khumma-Menanu recruited a new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Assyrians at the battle of Halule in 691. Both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib only two years later, and its Elamite allies defeated in the process. The reigns of Khumma-Khaldash I (688–681 BC) and Khumma-Khaldash II (680–675 BC) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raided Sippar. At the beginning of Esarhaddon's reign in Assyria (681–669 BC), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besieged Ur, but was routed by the Assyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword. Urtaku (674–664 BC) for some time wisely maintained good relations with the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku was killed in battle during a failed Elamite attack on Assyria. His successor Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak (664–653 BC) attacked Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal following the battle of the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Susa itself was sacked and occupied by the Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassal Median state to the north fell to the invading Scythians and Cimmerians under Madyes, and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, the Parsu (Persians) to Anshan which their king Teispes captured that same year, turning it for the first time into an Indo-Iranian kingdom under Assyrian dominance that would a century later become the nucleus of the Achaemenid dynasty. The Assyrians successfully subjugated and drove the Scythians and Cimmerians from their Iranian colonies, and the Persians, Medes and Parthians remained vassals of Assyria. A brief respite to the Elamites was provided by the civil war between Ashurbanipal and his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin, whom their father Esarhaddon had installed as the vassal king of Babylon. The Elamites gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, but also engaged in fighting among themselves. Babylon was besieged in midsummer of 650 BC, and fell by 648 BC; Shamash-shum-ukin died in a fire. The Elamite kingdom was greatly weakened by rebellions and civil wars; kings from 651 to 640 had short reigns before being usurped, overthrown, or captured by the Assyrians. Having dealt with his brother, Ashurbanipal sensed an opportunity to devastate Elam. In 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. He installed several vassal kings such as Tammaritu, although these quickly broke off relations with Assyria over their pillages. The last Elamite king, Khumma-Khaldash III, was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who annexed and destroyed the country. In a tablet unearthed in 1854 by Henry Austin Layard, Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought: Neo-Elamite III (646–539 BC) The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada, a petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms, the united Elamite nation having been destroyed and colonised by the Assyrians. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak) still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of the kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance. The various Assyrian Empires, which had been the dominant force in the Near East, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, North Africa, Arabian peninsula and East Mediterranean for much of the period from the first half of the 14th century BC, began to unravel after the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC, descending into a series of bitter internal civil wars which also spread to Babylonia. The Iranian Medes, Parthians, Persians and Sagartians, who had been largely subject to Assyria since their arrival in the region around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule. The Medians took control of Elam during this period. Cyaxares the king of the Medes, Persians, Parthians and Sagartians entered into an alliance with a coalition of fellow former vassals of Assyria, including Nabopolassar of Babylon and Chaldea, and also the Scythians and Cimmerians, against Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria, who was faced with unremitting civil war in Assyria itself. This alliance then attacked a disunited and war weakened Assyria, and between 616 BC and 599 BC at the very latest, had conquered its vast empire which stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to Egypt, Libya and the Arabian Peninsula, and from Cyprus and Ephesus to Persia and the Caspian Sea. The major cities in Assyria itself were gradually taken; Arrapha (modern Kirkuk) and Kalhu (modern Nimrud) in 616 BC, Ashur, Dur-Sharrukin and Arbela (modern Erbil) in 613, Nineveh falling in 612, Harran in 608 BC, Carchemish in 605 BC, and finally Dur-Katlimmu by 599 BC. Elam, already largely destroyed and subjugated by Assyria, thus became easy prey for the Median dominated Iranian peoples, and was incorporated into the Median Empire (612–546 BC) and then the succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546–332 BC), with Assyria suffering the same fate. (see Achaemenid Assyria, Athura). The prophet Ezekiel describes the status of their power in the 12th year of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity in 587 BC: Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa. Elymais (187 BC - 224 AD) Elymaïs was the location of the death of Antiochus III the Great who was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel in 187 BC. Following the rise and fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Seleucid Empire, a new dynasty of Elamite rulers established Elymais from 147 BC to 224 AD, usually under the suzerainty of the Parthian Empire, until the advent of the unified Sasanian Empire in 224 AD. Art Statuettes Dated to approximately the 12th century BC, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which showed a ruler and his performance of a ritual action were intended to eternalize the effectiveness of such deeds. Found near the Temple of Inshushinak in Susa, these statuettes would have been considered charged with beneficial power. While archaeologists cannot be certain that the location where these figures were found indicates a date before or in the time of the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak, stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BC rather than to the first millennium. In general, any gold or silver statuettes which represent the king making a sacrifice not only served a religious function, but was also a display of wealth. Seals Elamite seals reached their peak of complexity in the 4th millennium BC when their shape became cylindrical rather than stamp-like. Seals were primarily used as a form of identification and were often made out of precious stones. Because seals for different time periods had different designs and themes, seals and seal impressions can be used to track the various phases of the Elamite Empire and can teach a lot about the empire in ways which other forms of documentation cannot. The seal pictured shows two seated figures holding cups with a man in front of them wearing a long robe next to a table. A man is sitting on a throne, presumably the king, and is in a wrapped robe. The second figure, perhaps his queen, is draped in a wide, flounced garment and is elevated on a platform beneath an overhanging vine. A crescent is shown in the field. Statue of Queen Napir-Asu This life-size votive offering of Queen Napir-Asu was commissioned around 1300 BC in Susa, Iran. It is made of copper using the lost-wax casting method and rests on a solid bronze frame that weighs 1750 kg (3760 lb). This statue is different from many other Elamite statues of women because it resembles male statues due to the wide belt on the dress and the patterns which closely resemble those on male statues. The inscription on the side of the statue curses anyone, specifically men, who attempts to destroy the statue: "I, Napir-Asu, wife of Untash-Napirisha. He who would seize my statue, who would smash it, who would destroy its inscription, who would erase my name, may he be smitten by the curse of Napirisha, of Kiririsha, and of Inshushinka, that his name shall become extinct, that his offspring be barren, that the forces of Beltiya, the great goddess, shall sweep down on him. This is Napir-Asu's offering." Stele of Untash Napirisha The stele of the Elamite king, Untash-Napirisha was believed to have been commissioned in the 12th century BC. It was moved from the original religious capital of Chogha Zanbil to the city of Susa by the successor king, Shutruk-Nahnante. Four registers of the stele are left. The remains depict the god Inshushinak validating the legitimacy of who is thought to be Shutruk-Nahnante. In the periphery are two priestesses, deity hybrids of fish and women holding streams of water, and two half-man half-mouflon guardians of the sacred tree. The names of the two priestesses are carved on their arms. King Untash Napirisha dedicated the stele to the god Ishushinak. Like other forms of art in the ancient Near East, this one portrays a king ceremonially recognizing a deity. This stele is unique in that the acknowledgement between king and god is reciprocal. Religion The Elamites practised polytheism. Due to scarcity of sources, past scholars assumed that Elamite religion must have been characterized by the "ill-defined character of the individual gods and goddesses. ...Most of them were not only ineffable beings whose real name was either not uttered or was unknown, but also sublime ideas, not to be exactly defined by the human race." Worship also varied between localities. However, more recent scholarship shows that Elamite deities most likely weren't any less defined than these of their Sumerian, Akkadian and Hurrian neighbors. Inscriptions of many Elamite kings indicate that a concept of a supreme triad consisting of Inshushinak (originally the civic protector god of Susa, eventually the leader of the triad and guarantor of the monarchy), Kiririsha (an earth/mother goddess in southern Elam), and Napirisha existed. In the Neo-Elamite period Humban, previously a deity of limited relevance in known sources, emerged as a divine source of royal power. Another significant deity was Pinikir (an astral goddess of love, similar to Ishtar. Some researchers, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, saw her as a mother goddess, and possibly originally chief deity, in northern Elam, later supplanted by or identified with Kiririsha, but this view is no longer supported by scholars. There were also imported deities, such as Beltiya, Nergal or Nanaya; some native Elamite deities had Akkadian or Sumerian names as well (ex. Manzat, Inshushinak and his attendants), indicating a long history of interchange. Some Elamite deities were also venerated outside Elam: Pinikir was known to the Hurrians and Hittites, Simut appeared in Babylonian personal names, and an Assyrian text mentions Khumban, Napirisha and Yabru (Jabru) as protectors of the king. List of Elamite gods {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Name !! Mesopotamian equivalent !! Functions !! Notes \|- \|Ashara \|\| \|\| \|\|Seemingly the same goddess as Eblaite Ishara. \|- \| Hišmitik\|\| \|\| A deity associated with Ruhurater who shared a temple with him in Chogha Zanbil \|\| \|- \| Humban \|\| Enlil \|\| Bestowed kittin upon kings. \|\| Worshiped by Persians in early Achaemenid times as well. \|- \| Inshushinak\|\| Ninurta \|\| Tutelary god of Susa; protector of monarchy; underworld god \|\| Also known in Mesopotamia as an underworld god in the entourage of Ereshkigal. \|- \| Ishmekarab \|\| \|\| Attendant of Inshushinak. Protector of oaths. \|\| The name has Akkadian origin. \|- \| Jabru\|\| Anu or Enlil \|\| \|\| Only known from Mesopotamian sources. \|- \| Kiririsha \|\| possibly Ninhursag \|\| Mother goddess; also an afterlife goddess as evidenced by the epithet "zana Liyan lahakra", "lady of death in Liyan"\|\| Incorrectly assumed to be a "taboo name" of Pinikir in the past. She and Napirisha were possibly regarded as a divine couple. \|- \| Kirmašir \|\| \|\| A deity from Awan. \|\| \|- \|Kunzibami, Šihhaš and Šennukušu \|Adad \|weather god(s) \|Adad, under the Akkadian name and alongside his wife Shala, was himself worshiped in Elam (ex. in Chogha Zanbil) and none of these 3 names are attested outside Mesopotamian god lists, unless the ideogram dIM refers to more than one weather god in Elamite sources (ex. in personal names). Wouter Henkelman proposes Kunzibami, Šihhaš and Šennukušu are either locally used Elamite epithets of Adad or local (rather than national) weather gods, and notes that Šennukušu is a Sumerian rather than Elamite name. \|- \| Lagamar \|\| Nergal \|\| Underworld god, associated with Inshushinak \|\| The name has Akkadian origin. \|- \| Manzat \|\| \|\| Goddess of the rainbow; possibly Belet/Nin-Ali, "lady of the city"\|\| Originally an Akkadian goddess \|- \| Mašti \|\| \|\| Mother goddess. \|\| \|- \| Nahhunte \|\| Utu \|\| Sun god. \|\| Never equated with Utu/Shamash directly though it's possible the ideographic writing "dUtu" of his name was used in personal names. \|- \| Narundi\|\| Ishtar or Nanaya \|\| A goddess known from Susa. \|\| Regarded as a sister of the so-called "Divine Seven of Elam" from Mesopotamian god lists. \|- \| Napir \|\| \|\| Moon god \|\| \|- \| Napirisha \|\| Enki \|\| One of the supreme gods, possibly linked to water. \|\| Formerly incorrectly believed to be a "taboo name" of Humban. There is some evidence that in Elam Inshushinak, rather than Napirisha, was associated with Ea, as well as with the god Enzag from Dilmun. \|- \| Pinikir \|\| Ishtar, Ninsianna \|\| Goddess of love and sex, "queen of heaven" \|\| Also incorporated into Hurrian religion. \|- \| Ruhurater \|\| Ninurta \|\| Possibly a god responsible for creation of humans. \|\| \|- \| Simut \|\| Nergal \|\| Herald of the gods \|\| Associated with Mars in Mesopotamia. \|- \| Tepti \|\| \|\| Known from Neo-Elamite sources. \|\| \|- \| Tirutur \|\| \|\| Known from Middle and Neo-Elamite sources.<ref>M. Krebernik, Tirumithir, Tirutur 'Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 14, 2014, p. 61</ref> \|\| \|- \| Upur-kubak \|\| \|\| A goddess described as "lady who dipenses the light" by Huteltush-Inshushinak\|\| \|- \|} Language Elamite is traditionally thought to be a language isolate, and completely unrelated to the neighbouring Semitic languages, Sumerian and Kassite, Hurrian (also isolates), and the later arriving Indo-European Iranian languages that came to dominate the region of Elam from the 6th century BC. It was written in a cuneiform adapted from the Semitic Akkadian script of Assyria and Babylonia, although the very earliest documents were written in the quite different "Linear Elamite" script. In 2006, two even older inscriptions in a similar script were discovered at Jiroft to the east of Elam, leading archaeologists to speculate that Linear Elamite had originally spread from further east to Susa. It seems to have developed from an even earlier writing known as "proto-Elamite", but scholars are not unanimous on whether or not this script was used to write Elamite or another language, as it has not yet been deciphered. Several stages of the language are attested; the earliest date back to the third millennium BC, the latest to the Achaemenid Empire. The Elamite language may have survived as late as the early Islamic period (roughly contemporary with the early medieval period in Europe). Among other Islamic medieval historians, Ibn al-Nadim, for instance, wrote that "The Iranian languages are Fahlavi (Pahlavi), Dari (not to be confused with Dari Persian in modern Afghanistan), Khuzi, Persian and Suryani (Assyrian)", and Ibn Moqaffa noted that Khuzi was the unofficial language of the royalty of Persia, "Khuz" being the corrupted name for Elam. Suggested relations to other language families While Elamite is viewed as a language isolate by the vast majority of linguists, a minority of scholars have proposed that the Elamite language could be related to the Dravidian languages. David McAlpine believes Elamite may be related to the living Dravidian languages. This hypothesis (which has been subject to serious criticism by linguists) is considered under the rubric of Elamo-Dravidian languages. Legacy The Assyrians had utterly destroyed the Elamite nation, but new polities emerged in the area after Assyrian power faded. Among the nations that benefited from the decline of the Assyrians were the Iranian tribes, whose presence around Lake Urmia to the north of Elam is attested from the 9th century BC in Assyrian texts. Some time after that region fell to Madius the Scythian (653 BC), Teispes, son of Achaemenes, conquered Elamite Anshan in the mid 7th century BC, forming a nucleus that would expand into the Persian Empire. They were largely regarded as vassals of the Assyrians, and the Medes, Mannaeans, and Persians paid tribute to Assyria from the 10th century BC until the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC. After his death, the Medes played a major role in the destruction of the weakened Assyrian Empire in 612 BC. The rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th century BC brought an end to the existence of Elam as an independent political power "but not as a cultural entity" (Encyclopædia Iranica, Columbia University). Indigenous Elamite traditions, such as the use of the title "king of Anshan" by Cyrus the Great; the "Elamite robe" worn by Cambyses I of Anshan and seen on the famous winged genii at Pasargadae; some glyptic styles; the use of Elamite as the first of three official languages of the empire used in thousands of administrative texts found at Darius’ city of Persepolis; the continued worship of Elamite deities; and the persistence of Elamite religious personnel and cults supported by the crown, formed an essential part of the newly emerging Achaemenid culture in Persian Iran. The Elamites thus became the conduit by which achievements of the Mesopotamian civilizations were introduced to the tribes of the Iranian plateau. Conversely, remnants of Elamite had "absorbed Iranian influences in both structure and vocabulary" by 500 BC, suggesting a form of cultural continuity or fusion connecting the Elamite and the Persian periods. The name of "Elam" survived into the Hellenistic period and beyond. In its Greek form, Elymais, it emerges as designating a semi-independent state under Parthian suzerainty during the 2nd century BC to the early 3rd century AD. In Acts 2:8–9 in the New Testament, the language of the Elamitēs is one of the languages heard at the Pentecost. From 410 onwards Elam (Beth Huzaye) was the senior metropolitan province of the Church of the East, surviving into the 14th century. Indian Carmelite historian John Marshal has proposed that the root of Carmelite history in the Indian subcontinent could be traced to the promise of restoration of Elam (Jeremiah 49:39). In modern Iran, Ilam Province and Khuzestan Province are named after Elam civilization. Khuzestan means land of the Khuzis and Khuzi itself is a Middle Persian name for Elamites. See also List of rulers of Elam Jiroft culture Jam Arjan References Sources Quintana Cifuentes, E., "Historia de Elam el vecino mesopotámico", Murcia, 1997. Estudios Orientales. IPOA-Murcia. Quintana Cifuentes, E., "Textos y Fuentes para el estudio del Elam", Murcia, 2000. Estudios Orientales. IPOA-Murcia. Quintana Cifuentes, E., La Lengua Elamita (Irán pre-persa), Madrid, 2010. Gram Ediciones. Khačikjan, Margaret: The Elamite Language, Documenta Asiana IV, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Istituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici, 1998 Persians: Masters of Empire, Time-Life Books, Alexandria, Virginia (1995) D. T. Potts, "Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf",Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 111–119, (April 2006) McAlpin, David W., Proto Elamo Dravidian: The Evidence and Its Implications, American Philosophy Society (1981) Vallat, François. 2010. "The History of Elam". The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS) External links Lengua e historia elamita, by Enrique Quintana History of the Elamite Empire Elamite Art Stele of King Untash Napirisha Statue of Queen Napir Asu Elamite Seals All Empires – The Elamite Empire Elam in Ancient Southwest Iran Persepolis Fortification Archive Project Iran Before Iranians Encyclopædia Iranica: Elam Modelling population dispersal and language origins during the last 120,000 years Hamid-Reza Hosseini, Shush at the foot of Louvre'' Shush dar dāman-e Louvre, in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009Audio slideshow (6 min 31 sec) https://web.archive.org/web/20160222154459/http://www.elamit.net/ States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC Civilizations Ancient history of Iran Chalcolithic states in Asia Bronze Age countries in Asia Iron Age countries in Asia 27th-century BC establishments Historical regions	[ -0.001495283329859376, 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206483	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20William%20King	Charles William King	Charles William King (5 September 1818 – 25 March 1888) was a British Victorian writer and collector of gems. Early life King was born in Newport, Monmouthshire, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1836. He graduated in 1840, and obtained a fellowship in 1842. He was a senior fellow by the time of his death in London. He took holy orders, but never held any parish position. Gem expert King spent much time in Italy, where he laid the foundation of his collection of engraved gems and gemstones, which, having been increased by subsequent purchases in London, was sold by him in consequence of his failing eyesight, and was presented in 1881 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He was recognized universally as one of the greatest authorities in this department of art. His chief works on the subject are: Antique Gems, their Origin, Uses and Value (1860), a complete and exhaustive treatise The Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems and of the Precious Metals (1865) Early Christian Numismatics (1873) The Handbook of Engraved Gems (2nd ed., 1885) The Gnostics and their Remains (2nd ed. by J Jacobs, 1887, which led to an animated correspondence in the Athenaeum) Classicist King was thoroughly familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially those of Pausanias and Pliny the Elder, which bore upon the subject in which he was most interested; but he had little taste for the minutiae of verbal criticism. In 1869, he brought out an edition of Horace, illustrated from antique gems. He also translated Plutarch's Moralia (1882) and the theosophical works of the Emperor Julian (1888), for Bohn's Classical Library. Death King died on 25 March 1888 and was buried in a family vault at Highgate Cemetery (east side). Notes References External links "The Gnostics and their Remains" - online text of the book Catalogue of the engraved gems collected between the years 1845 and 1877 by C.W. King: manuscript fully digitized and available online 1818 births 1888 deaths Burials at Highgate Cemetery Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge People from Newport, Wales	[ 0.2165708690881729, 0.3362842798233032, -0.7665650844573975, 0.22910946607589722, 0.6929194927215576, 0.9022794961929321, 0.6451718807220459, 0.0005274094291962683, -0.28968122601509094, 0.27581867575645447, -0.3340660333633423, 0.15134063363075256, -0.39216846227645874, 0.6340720057487488, 0.11837410181760788, 0.118872731924057, -0.5722429156303406, -0.35249075293540955, -0.33589446544647217, -0.2503189742565155, -0.1553436666727066, -0.170535609126091, 0.685539722442627, -0.4949667155742645, -0.12277558445930481, -0.2547004818916321, 0.08600777387619019, -0.6226176023483276, -0.11723358184099197, -0.22339507937431335, 0.06308825314044952, 0.31483983993530273, 0.3548123240470886, 0.21252745389938354, -0.8158518671989441, -0.25734347105026245, -0.5984185934066772, 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206485	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Ashley-Cooper%2C%207th%20Earl%20of%20Shaftesbury	Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury	Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury (28 April 1801 – 1 October 1885), styled Lord Ashley from 1811 to 1851 and then Lord Shaftesbury following the death of his father, was a British politician, philanthropist and social reformer. He was the eldest son of The 6th Earl of Shaftesbury and his wife, Lady Anne Spencer, daughter of The 4th Duke of Marlborough, and older brother of Henry Ashley, MP. As a social reformer who was called the "Poor Man's Earl", he campaigned for better working conditions, reform to lunacy laws, education and the limitation of child labour. He was also an early supporter of the Zionist movement and the YMCA and a leading figure in the evangelical movement in the Church of England. Early life Lord Ashley, as he was styled until his father's death in 1851, was educated at Manor House school in Chiswick (1812–1813), Harrow School (1813–1816) and Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained first class honours in classics in 1822, took his MA in 1832 and was appointed DCL in 1841. Ashley's early family life was loveless, a circumstance common among the British upper classes, and resembled in that respect the fictional childhood of Esther Summerson vividly narrated in the early chapters of Charles Dickens's novel Bleak House. G.F.A Best in his biography Shaftesbury writes that: "Ashley grew up without any experience of parental love. He saw little of his parents, and when duty or necessity compelled them to take notice of him they were formal and frightening." Even as an adult, he disliked his father and was known to refer to his mother as "a devil". This difficult childhood was softened by the affection he received from the family housekeeper Maria Millis, and his sisters. Millis provided for Ashley a model of Christian love that would form the basis for much of his later social activism and philanthropic work, as Best explains: "What did touch him was the reality, and the homely practicality, of the love which her Christianity made her feel towards the unhappy child. She told him bible stories, she taught him a prayer." Despite this powerful reprieve, school became another source of misery for the young Ashley, whose education at Manor House from 1808 to 1813 introduced a "more disgusting range of horrors". Shaftesbury himself shuddered to recall those years, "The place was bad, wicked, filthy; and the treatment was starvation and cruelty." By his teenage years, Ashley had become a committed Christian and whilst at Harrow he had two experiences which influenced his later life. "Once, at the foot of Harrow Hill, he was the horrified witness of a pauper’s funeral. The drunken pall-bearers, stumbling along with a crudely-made coffin and shouting snatches of bawdy songs, brought home to him the existence of a whole empire of callousness which put his own childhood miseries in their context. The second incident was his unusual choice of a subject for a Latin poem. In the school grounds, there was an unsavoury mosquito-breeding pond called the Duck Puddle. He chose it as his subject because he was urgently concerned that the school authorities should do something about it, and this appeared to be the simplest way of bringing it to their attention. Soon afterwards the Duck Puddle was inspected, condemned and filled in. This little triumph was a useful fillip to his self-confidence, but it was more than that. It was a foretaste of his skill in getting people to act decisively in face of sloth or immediate self-interest. This was to prove one of his greatest assets in Parliament." Political career Ashley was elected as the Tory Member of Parliament for Woodstock (a pocket borough controlled by the Duke of Marlborough) in June 1826 and was a strong supporter of the Duke of Wellington. After George Canning replaced Lord Liverpool as Prime Minister, he offered Ashley a place in the new government, despite Ashley having been in the Commons for only five months. Ashley politely declined, writing in his diary that he believed that serving under Canning would be a betrayal of his allegiance to the Duke of Wellington and that he was not qualified for office. Before he had completed one year in the Commons, he had been appointed to three parliamentary committees and he received his fourth such appointment in June 1827, when he was appointed to the Select Committee on Pauper Lunatics in the County of Middlesex and on Lunatic Asylums. Reform of the Lunacy Laws In 1827, when Ashley-Cooper was appointed to the Select Committee on Pauper Lunatics in the County of Middlesex and on Lunatic Asylums, the majority of lunatics in London were kept in madhouses owned by Dr Warburton. The Committee examined many witnesses concerning one of his madhouses in Bethnal Green, called the White House. Ashley visited this on the Committee's behalf. The patients were chained up, slept naked on straw, and went to toilet in their beds. They were left chained from Saturday afternoon until Monday morning when they were cleared of the accumulated excrement. They were then washed down in freezing cold water and one towel was allotted to 160 people, with no soap. It was overcrowded and the meat provided was "that nasty thick hard muscle a dog could not eat". The White House had been described as "a mere place for dying" rather than curing the insane and when the Committee asked Dr MacMichael whether he believed that "in the lunatic asylums in the neighbourhood of London any curative process is going on with regard to pauper patients", he replied: "None at all". The Committee recommended that "legislative measures of a remedial character should be introduced at the earliest period at the next session", and the establishment of a Board of Commissioners appointed by the Home Secretary possessing extensive powers of licensing, inspection and control. When in February 1828 Robert Gordon, Liberal MP for Cricklade, introduced a bill to put these recommendations into law, Ashley seconded this and delivered his maiden speech in support of the Bill. He wrote in his diary: "So, by God's blessing, my first effort has been for the advance of human happiness. May I improve hourly! Fright almost deprived me of recollection but again thank Heaven, I did not sit down quite a presumptuous idiot". Ashley was also involved in framing the County Lunatic Asylums (England) Act 1828 and the Madhouses Act 1828. Through these Acts, fifteen commissioners were appointed for the London area and given extensive powers of licensing and inspection, one of the commissioners being Ashley. In July 1845, Ashley sponsored two Lunacy Acts, 'For the Regulation of lunatic Asylums' and 'For the better Care and Treatment of Lunatics in England and Wales'. They originated in the Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy which he had commended to Parliament the year before. These Acts consolidated and amended previous lunacy laws, providing better record keeping and more strict certification regulations to ensure patients against unwarranted detention. They also ordered, instead of merely permitting, the construction of country lunatic asylums with and establishing an ongoing Lunacy Commission with Ashley as its chairman. In support of these measures, Ashley gave a speech in which he claimed that although since 1828 there had been an improvement, more still needed to be done. He cited the case of a Welsh lunatic girl, Mary Jones, who had for more than a decade been locked in a tiny loft with one boarded-up window with little air and no light. The room was extremely filthy and was filled with an intolerable smell. She could only squat in a bent position in the room and this had caused her to become deformed. In early 1858, a Select Committee was appointed over concerns that sane persons were detained in lunatic asylums. Lord Shaftesbury (as Ashley had become upon his father's death in 1851) was the chief witness and opposed the suggestion that the certification of insanity be made more difficult and that early treatment of insanity was essential if there was to be any prospect of a cure. He claimed that only one or two people in his time dealing with lunacy had been detained in an asylum without sufficient grounds and that commissioners should be granted more not fewer powers. The Committee's Report endorsed all of Shaftesbury's recommendations except for one: that a magistrate's signature on a certificate of lunacy be made compulsory. This was not put into law chiefly due to Shaftesbury's opposition to it. The Report also agreed with Shaftesbury that unwarranted detentions were "extremely rare". In July 1877, Shaftesbury gave evidence before the Select Committee on the Lunacy Laws, which had been appointed in February over concerns that it was too easy for sane persons to be detained in asylums. Shaftesbury feared that because of his advanced age he would be taken over by forgetfulness whilst giving evidence and was greatly stressed in the months leading up to this: "Shall fifty years of toil, anxiety and prayer, crowned by marvellous and unlooked-for success, bring me in the end only sorrow and disgrace?" When "the hour of trial" arrived Shaftesbury defended the Lunacy Commission and claimed he was now the only person alive who could speak with personal knowledge of the state of care of lunatics before the Lunacy Commission was established in 1828. It had been "a state of things such as would pass all belief". In the Committee's Report, the members of the Committee agreed with Shaftesbury's evidence on all points. In 1884, the husband of Mrs Georgina Weldon tried to have her detained in a lunatic asylum because she believed that her pug dog had a soul and that the spirit of her dead mother had entered into her pet rabbit. She commenced legal action against Shaftesbury and other lunacy commissioners although it failed. In May, Shaftesbury spoke in the Lords against a motion declaring the lunacy laws unsatisfactory but the motion passed Parliament. The Lord Chancellor Selborne supported a Lunacy Law Amendment Bill and Shaftesbury wanted to resign from the Lunacy Commission as he believed he was honour bound not to oppose a Bill supported by the Lord Chancellor. However, Selborne implored him not to resign so Shaftesbury refrained. However, when the Bill was introduced and it contained the provision which made it compulsory for a certificate of lunacy to be signed by a magistrate or a judge, he resigned. The government fell, however, and the Bill was withdrawn and Shaftesbury resumed his chairmanship of the Lunacy Commission. Shaftesbury's work in improving the care of the insane remains one of his most important, though lesser known, achievements. He wrote: "Beyond the circle of my own Commissioners and the lunatics that I visit, not a soul, in great or small life, not even my associates in my works of philanthropy, has any notion of the years of toil and care that, under God, I have bestowed on this melancholy and awful question". Child labour and factory reform In March 1833, Ashley introduced the Ten Hours Act 1833 into the Commons, which provided that children working in the cotton and woollen industries must be aged nine or above; no person under the age of eighteen was to work more than ten hours a day or eight hours on a Saturday; and no one under twenty-five was to work nights. However the Whig government, by a majority of 145, amended this to substitute "thirteen" in place of "eighteen" and the Act as it passed ensured that no child under thirteen worked more than nine hours, insisted they should go to school, and appointed inspectors to enforce the law. In June 1836, another Ten Hours act was introduced into the Commons and although Ashley considered this Bill ill-timed, he supported it. In July one member of the Lancashire committees set up to support the Bill wrote that: "If there was one man in England more devoted to the interests of the factory people than another, it was Lord Ashley. They might always rely on him as a ready, steadfast and willing friend". In July 1837, he accused the government of ignoring the breaches of the 1833 Act and moved the resolution that the House regretted the regulation of the working hours of children had been found to be unsatisfactory. It was lost by fifteen votes. The text of A Narrative of the Experience and Sufferings of William Dodd a Factory Cripple was sent to Lord Ashley and with his support was published in 1840. Ashley employed William Dodd at 45 shillings a week and he wrote "The Factory System: Illustrated" to describe the conditions of working children in textile manufacture. This was published in 1842. These books were attacked by John Bright in parliament who said that he had evidence that the books described Dodd's mistreatment but were in fact driven by Dodd's ingratitude as a disgruntled employee. Ashley sacked Dodd who emigrated to America. In 1842, Ashley wrote twice to the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, to urge the government to support a new Factory Act. Peel wrote in reply that he would not support one and Ashley wrote to the Short Time Committees of Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire who desired a Ten Hours Act: In March 1844, Ashley moved an amendment to a Factory Bill limiting the working hours of adolescents to ten hours after Sir James Graham had introduced a Bill aiming to limit their working hours to twelve hours. Ashley's amendment was passed by eight votes, the first time the Commons had approved of the Ten Hour principle. However, in a later vote his amendment was defeated by seven votes and the Bill was withdrawn. Later that month, Graham introduced another Bill which again would limit the employment of adolescents to twelve hours. Ashley supported this Bill except that he wanted ten hours not twelve as the limit. In May he moved an amendment to limit the hours worked to ten hours but this was lost by 138 votes. In 1846, whilst he was out of Parliament, Ashley strongly supported John Fielden's Ten Hours Bill, which was lost by ten votes. In January 1847, Fielden reintroduced his Bill and it finally passed through Parliament to become the Ten Hours Act. Miners Ashley introduced the Mines and Collieries Act 1842 in Parliament to outlaw the employment of women and children underground in coal mines. He made a speech in support of the Act and the Prince Consort wrote to him afterwards, sending him the "best wishes for your total success". At the end of his speech, his opponent on the Ten Hours issue, Cobden, walked over to Ashley and said: "You know how opposed I have been to your views, but I don't think I have ever been put into such a frame of mind in the whole course of my life as I have been by your speech". Climbing boys Ashley was a strong supporter of prohibiting the employment of boys as chimney sweeps. Many climbing boys were illegitimate who had been sold by their parents. They suffered from scorched and lacerated skin, their eyes and throats filled with soot, with the danger of suffocation and their occupational disease—cancer of the scrotum. In 1840, a Bill was introduced into the Commons outlawing the employment of boys as chimney sweeps, and strongly supported by Ashley. Despite being enforced in London, elsewhere the Act did not stop the employment of child chimney sweeps and this led to the foundation of the Climbing-Boys' Society with Ashley as its chairman. In 1851, 1853 and 1855, Shaftesbury introduced Bills into Parliament to deal with the ongoing use of boy chimney sweeps but these were all defeated. He succeeded in passing the Chimney Sweepers Regulation Act 1864 but, like its predecessors, it remained ineffectual. Shaftesbury finally persuaded Parliament to pass the Chimney Sweepers Act 1875 which ensured the annual licensing of chimney sweeps and the enforcement of the law by the police. This finally eradicated the employment of boys as chimney sweeps. After Shaftesbury discovered that a boy chimney sweep was living behind his house in Brock Street, London, he rescued the child and sent him to "the Union School at Norwood Hill, where, under God's blessing and special merciful grace, he will be trained in the knowledge and love and faith of our common Saviour". Education reform In 1844, Ashley became president of the Ragged School Union that promoted ragged schools. These schools were for poor children and sprang up from volunteers. Ashley wrote that "If the Ragged School system were to fail I should not die in the course of nature, I should die of a broken heart". Religion and Jewish restorationism Shaftesbury was a pre-millennial evangelical Anglican who believed in the imminent second coming of Christ. His belief underscored the urgency of immediate action. He strongly opposed Roman Catholic Church ritualism among High Church Anglicans. He also disapproved the Catholic features of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England. He denounced the Maynooth College Act 1845, which funded the Catholic seminary in Ireland that would train many priests. However, disagreeing with his father, he favored Catholic Emancipation. Shaftesbury was a leading figure within 19th-century evangelical Anglicanism. Shaftesbury was President of the British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) from 1851 until his death in 1885. He wrote, of the Bible Society, "Of all Societies, this is nearest to my heart... Bible Society has always been a watchword in our house." He was also president of the Evangelical Alliance for some time. Shaftesbury was also a student of Edward Bickersteth and the two men became prominent advocates of Christian Zionism in Britain. Shaftesbury was an early proponent of the Restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land, providing the first proposal by a major politician to resettle Jews in Palestine. The conquest of Greater Syria in 1831 by Muhammad Ali of Egypt changed the conditions under which European power politics operated in the Near East. As a consequence of that shift, Shaftesbury was able to help persuade Foreign Minister Palmerston to send a British consul, James Finn, to Jerusalem in 1838. Shaftesbury became president of the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, of which Finn was a prominent member. A committed Christian and a loyal Englishman, Shaftesbury argued for a Jewish return because of what he saw as the political and economic advantages Britain would gain from this and because he believed that it was God's will. In January 1839, Shaftesbury published an article in the Quarterly Review, which although initially commenting on the 1838 Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land (1838) by Lord Lindsay, provided the first proposal by a major politician to resettle Jews in Palestine: The lead-up to the Crimean War (1854), like the military expansionism of Muhammad Ali two decades earlier, signalled an opening for realignments in the Near East. In July 1853, Shaftesbury wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, that Greater Syria was "a country without a nation" in need of "a nation without a country... Is there such a thing? To be sure there is, the ancient and rightful lords of the soil, the Jews!" In his diary that year he wrote "these vast and fertile regions will soon be without a ruler, without a known and acknowledged power to claim dominion. The territory must be assigned to some one or other... There is a country without a nation; and God now in his wisdom and mercy, directs us to a nation without a country." This is commonly cited as an early use of the phrase, "A land without a people for a people without a land" by which Shaftesbury was echoing another British proponent of the restoration of the Jews to Palestine, Dr Alexander Keith. Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade Shaftesbury served as the first president of the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade: a lobbying group dedicated to the abolition of the opium trade. The Society was formed by Quaker businessmen in 1874, and Shaftesbury was president from 1880 until his death. The Society's efforts eventually led to the creation of the investigative Royal Commission on Opium. Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain The Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Piccadilly Circus, London, erected in 1893, was designed to commemorate his philanthropic works. The fountain is crowned by Alfred Gilbert's aluminium statue of Anteros as a nude, butterfly-winged archer. This is officially titled The Angel of Christian Charity, but has become popularly if mistakenly known as Eros. It appears on the masthead of the Evening Standard. Veneration Lord Shaftesbury is honoured together with William Wilberforce on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church on 30 July. Lord Shaftesbury was a member of the Canterbury Association, as were two of Wilberforce's sons, Samuel and Robert. Lord Ashley joined on 27 March 1848. Anthony Ashley Cooper is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 1 October. Family Lord Shaftesbury, then Lord Ashley, married Lady Emily Caroline Catherine Frances Cowper (died 15 October 1872), daughter of Peter Cowper, 5th Earl Cowper and Emily Lamb, Countess Cowper; Emily is likely in fact to have been the natural daughter of Lord Palmerston (later her official stepfather), on 10 June 1830. This marriage, which proved a happy and fruitful one, produced ten children. It also provided invaluable political connections for Ashley; his wife's maternal uncle was Lord Melbourne and her stepfather (and supposed biological father) Lord Palmerston, both Prime Ministers. The children, who mostly suffered various degrees of ill-health, were: Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 8th Earl of Shaftesbury (27 June 1831 – 13 April 1886), ancestor of all subsequent earls. He proved to be a disappointing heir apparent, constantly running up debts with his extravagant wife Harriet, born Lady Harriet Chichester. Hon. (Anthony) Francis Henry Ashley-Cooper, second son (b. 13 March 1833 – 13 May 1849) Hon. (Anthony) Maurice William Ashley-Cooper, third son (22 July 1835 – 19 August 1855), died aged 20, after several years of illness. Rt. Hon. (Anthony) Evelyn Melbourne Ashley (24 July 1836 – 15 November 1907), married 1stly 28 July 1866 Sybella Charlotte Farquhar (ca. 1846 – 31 August 1886), daughter of Sir Walter Rockcliffe Farquhar, 3rd Bt. by his wife Lady Mary Octavia Somerset, a daughter of the Duke of Beaufort and had one son Wilfred William Ashley, and one daughter. His granddaughter was Hon. Edwina Ashley, later Lady Mountbatten (1901–1960), who had two daughters Patricia, Countess Mountbatten of Burma (1924-2017) and Lady Pamela Hicks (b. 1929). Evelyn Ashley left several other descendants via his daughter and Edwina's younger sister. Evelyn Ashley married 2ndly 30 June 1891 Lady Alice Elizabeth Cole (4 February 1853 – 25 August 1931), daughter of William Willoughby Cole, 3rd Earl of Enniskillen by his 1st wife Jane Casamajor, no issue. The Rt Hon Evelyn Melbourne Ashley died 15 November 1907. Lady Victoria Elizabeth Ashley, later Lady Templemore (23 September 1837 – 15 February 1927), married 8 January 1873 (aged 35) St George's, Hanover Square, London Harry Chichester, 2nd Baron Templemore (4 June 1821 – 10 June 1906), son of Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Templemore and Lady Augusta Paget, and had issue. Hon (Anthony) Lionel George Ashley-Cooper (b. 7 September 1838 – 1914). He md 12 December 1868 Frances Elizabeth Leigh "Fanny (d. 12 August 1875), daughter of Capel Hanbury Leigh; apparently had no issue. Lady Mary Charlotte Ashley-Cooper, second daughter (25 July 1842 – 3 September 1861). Lady Constance Emily Ashley-Cooper, third daughter, or "Conty" (29 November 1845 – 16 December 1872 or 1871 of lung disease). Lady Edith Florence Ashley-Cooper, fourth daughter (1 February 1847 – 25 November 1913) Hon. (Anthony) Cecil Ashley-Cooper, sixth son and tenth and youngest child (8 August 1849 – 23 September 1932); apparently died unmarried. Legacy Although he was offered a burial at Westminster Abbey, Shaftesbury wished to be buried at St. Giles. George Williams (YMCA) chaired the organising committee of his funeral, and was a pall-bearer at it. A funeral service was held in Westminster Abbey during early morning of 8 October and the streets along the route from Grosvenor Square and Westminster Abbey were thronged with poor people, costermongers, flower-girls, boot-blacks, crossing-sweepers, factory-hands and similar workers who waited for hours to see Shaftesbury's coffin as it passed by. Due to his constant advocacy for the better treatment of the working classes, Shaftesbury became known as the "Poor Man's Earl". A white marble statue commemorates Shaftesbury near the west door of Westminster Abbey. One of his biographers, Georgina Battiscombe, has claimed that "No man has in fact ever done more to lessen the extent of human misery or to add to the sum total of human happiness". Three days after his death, Charles Spurgeon eulogised him, saying: See also London Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews – Shaftesbury was president of the society. A land without a people for a people without a land Christian Zionism YMCA - Shaftesbury served as YMCA's first president from 1851 until his death in 1885. Notes References Citations Sources Further reading Volume2; Volume 3 External links Details of Shaftesbury's four brothers and three surviving sisters 1801 births 1885 deaths 7 Anthony Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford Anglican saints British Christian Zionists British reformers British social reformers English philanthropists Evangelical Anglicans Commissioners in Lunacy History of mental health in the United Kingdom Knights of the Garter Lord-Lieutenants of Dorset Lords of the Admiralty Members of the Canterbury Association Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies People associated with the Royal National College for the Blind People educated at Harrow School Politics of Bath, Somerset Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society Tory MPs (pre-1834) UK MPs 1826–1830 UK MPs 1830–1831 UK MPs 1831–1832 UK MPs 1832–1835 UK MPs 1835–1837 UK MPs 1837–1841 UK MPs 1841–1847 UK MPs 1847–1852 Shaftesbury, E7 YMCA leaders	[ -0.4766853153705597, 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206486	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garsington%20Manor	Garsington Manor	Garsington Manor, in the village of Garsington, near Oxford, England, is a country house, dating from the 17th century. Its fame derives principally from its owner in the early 20th century, the "legendary Ottoline Morrell, who held court from 1915 to 1924". Members of the Bloomsbury Group, the aristocratic Ottoline, and her wealthy husband Philip, were friends with an array of artists, writers and intellectuals, D. H. Lawrence, T. S. Eliot, E. M. Foster, Bertrand Russell, Virginia Woolf and Siegfried Sassoon being among the visitors to their house. The manor was later owned by Leonard Ingrams and from 1989 to 2010 was the setting for an annual summer opera season, the Garsington Opera, which relocated to Wormsley Park in 2011. Garsington is a Grade II* listed building. History The manor house was built on land once owned by the son of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer, and at one time had the name "Chaucers". It was constructed in the 1630s by a William Wyckham. Lady Ottoline and her husband, Philip Morrell, bought the manor house in 1913, at which time it was in a state of disrepair, having been in use as a farmhouse. They paid £8,450. Their moving in was delayed until May 1915, due to the continuing occupancy by the former tenants. Garsington became a haven for the Morrells’ friends, including D. H. Lawrence, Siegfried Sassoon, Edward Sackville-West, Lord David Cecil, Lytton Strachey, Aldous Huxley, Mark Gertler, Bertrand Russell, Virginia Woolf, T. S. Eliot, E. M. Forster and Walter de la Mare. In 1916, they invited conscientious objectors, including Clive Bell and other members of the Bloomsbury Group, to come and work on the home farm for the duration of World War I, as civilian work classified as being of national importance was recognised as an alternative to military service. Aldous Huxley spent some time at Garsington before he wrote Crome Yellow, a book which contains a caricature based on Ottoline for which she never forgave him. His pen portrait of her, written after their first meeting in 1915, summarises the aspects of her character which both attracted and repelled; "[She] is quite an incredible creature - arty beyond the dreams of avarice and a patroness of literature and the modern. She is intelligent, but her affectation is overwhelming". Huxley was not the only one of Ottoline's friends to mock her in print. Her affair with a stonemason Lionel Gomme, known as "Tiger", who worked on the statuary at Garsington, has been cited by some critics as the basis for Lawrence's portrayal of Lady Chatterley's affair with the gamekeeper, Mellor in his novel of 1928. Lawrence portrayed her even more directly as Lady Hermione Roddice, in his novel Women in Love. The savagery of the depiction caused a decades-long breach in their friendship, and Philip Morrell threatened to sue Lawrence’s publishers. In Confidence, a short story by Katherine Mansfield, portrays the "wits of Garsington" some four years before Crome Yellow. Not everyone found the atmosphere congenial; the shy poet Cecil Day-Lewis, taken to Garsington by his tutor Maurice Bowra, found it "a tremendous ordeal" and sought refuge "slinking gloomily amongst the peacocks" in the Italianate gardens. Lytton Strachey complained that the constant coming and going of guests made work impossible: "I sit quivering among a surging mesh of pugs, peacocks, pianolas, and humans - if humans they can be called - the inhabitants of Circe's cave". David Garnett, a writer, and lover of a number of Ottoline's guests, recorded his impressions of Garsington in his autobiography; "Ottoline's pack of pug dogs trotted everywhere and added to the Beardsley quality, which was one half of her natural taste. The characteristic of every house in which Ottoline lived was its smell and the smell of Garsington was stronger than that of Bedford Square. It reeked of the bowls of potpourri and orris root which stood on every mantelpiece, side table and window-sill and of the desiccated oranges, studded with cloves, which Ottoline loved making". The Morrells restored the house in the 1920s, working with the architect Philip Tilden, and creating landscaped Italian-style gardens. The parterre has 24 square beds with Irish yews at the corners; the Italian garden has a large ornamental pool enclosed by yew hedges and set with statues. This was designed by Charles Edward Mallows; beyond, is a wild garden, with lime-tree avenues, shrubs, a stream and pond. Financial difficulties forced the Morrells to sell Garsington in 1928. The house was subsequently bought by Sir John Wheeler-Bennett, the historian, who lived there until his death in 1975. It was sold in 1981 to Leonard Ingrams, a banker and brother of Richard. Following Leonard Ingrams' death in 2012, the house was again sold. Architecture and description The house is a rectangular structure, of two storeys with attics. The building material is limestone rubble. In his memoirs, True Remembrances-the memoirs of an architect, Philip Tilden recorded the unobtrusive style he sought to achieve at Garsington; "I doubt whether the present-day visitor could spot these alterations, they were made out of odd bits, and the workmanship was carried out by men of the old school". Garsington is a Grade II* listed building, and its gardens are also grade II* on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. A number of other buildings on the estate, and landscaping features in the gardens have Grade II listings including the stables, the bakehouse, the gates at the forecourt to the manor, the pool, a summer house and statuary and an 18th century dovecote. 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206488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garsington	Garsington	Garsington is a village and civil parish about southeast of Oxford in Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 1,689. The village is known for the flamboyant social life at Garsington Manor when it was the home from 1914 to 1928 of Philip and Ottoline Morrell, and for the Garsington Opera which was staged here from 1989 until 2010. Buildings Garsington Manor Garsington Manor House was built in the 16th century and remodelled in the 17th century. It is a Grade II* listed building. It was the home of Lady Ottoline Morrell (1873–1938), doyenne of the Bloomsbury group of writers and artists who used to meet at the manor. By association it has connection with the philosopher Bertrand Russell, writers such as Aldous Huxley, W. B. Yeats, Virginia Woolf and D. H. Lawrence and artists like Mark Gertler, Eric Gill and Dora Carrington. Garsington Manor was bought in 1982 by Leonard Ingrams who established the Garsington Opera, an annual open air opera festival which was staged there each summer from 1989 until 2010. The opera moved to Wormsley Park, Buckinghamshire in 2011. Southend Manor House The Southend part of the village has its own manor house. It is an early 17th-century double-pile Jacobean building with a front of seven bays. It is a Grade II* listed building. Parish church The oldest part of the parish church of Saint Mary includes the tower, built towards the end of the 12th century in the transitional style between Norman and Early English. The chancel is pure Early English and was built or rebuilt in about 1300. St Mary's has Decorated Gothic north and south aisles, which were added in the 14th century and have four-bay arcades. St Mary's was restored in 1849 under the direction of the Gothic Revival architect Joseph Clarke. Clarke's alterations included rebuilding the chancel arch to match the north arcade, adding gargoyles to the south aisle and much remodelling of the north aisle. St Mary's is a Grade II* listed building. Inside, next to the entrance door, is a memorial to Garsington's most illustrious inhabitant, Ottoline Morrell, by Eric Gill. The west tower has a ring of six bells. Richard Keene of Woodstock cast the treble bell in 1696. Abraham II Rudhall of Gloucester cast the second bell in 1720. Henry III Bagley of Chacombe, Northamptonshire cast the third bell in 1733, presumably at his then foundry in Witney. John Rudhall of Gloucester cast the tenor bell in 1788. W&J Taylor cast the fifth bell in 1825, presumably at their then foundry in Oxford. The fourth bell was cast in 1732 but Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry recast it in 1929. The bells were restored in 2013. Thomas Thwaites of Clerkenwell in London built the turret clock for the tower in 1796 at a cost of £172 4s 0d. It is a 30-hour clock and it strikes the hours on the tenor bell. Its dials still have only an hour hand. St Mary's parish is now part of the Benefice of Garsington, Cuddesdon and Horspath. The wedding scene in the 2006 film Amazing Grace was filmed at the church. School A parish school was built in Garsington in 1840. It was reorganised as a junior school in 1923. It now occupies more modern premises and is a Church of England primary school. Village hall The village hall was built in 1911 and given to the village by the lord of the manor, Philip Morrell. For most of the 20th century it served the needs of the villagers and a number of small improvements were made over the years. It was renovated to bring it up to modern day standards. The building retains its original appearance as well as adding modern-day facilities. The Boundary : Jennings In 1926 Joseph William Jennings bought land in Garsington and originally established a poultry farming business. This site is now known as The Boundary. Joe and John Jennings (sons of J.W. Jennings) bought a further site in Chalgrove, which had previously been used by the USA air force, to develop this family run business. The Chalgrove site would become Monument Park. In the early 1980s, a growing number of crafts people looking for workshop space brought about the conversion of many of the farm buildings. Combined with a sympathetic ear and an understanding of being self-employed, Jennings became landlords with huge demand for their buildings. The vision evolved for a business community where people feel valued, relationships matter and small businesses are supported, across its sites at Garsington and Chalgrove. Jennings continues to positively impact local and business communities, with a values-led culture and passion for sustainable business growth. Amenities Garsington has a public house: the Three Horseshoes. Garsington Sports and Social Club is in Denton Lane. It has two men's football teams that play in the Oxfordshire Senior Football League and two youth teams that play in the Oxford Mail Youth League Garsington Cricket Club plays in the Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division Five. The Garsington Society seeks to expand the knowledge of Garsington and its surrounding areas historically and geographically with talks held from time to time. Garsington has a Women's Institute. 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206489	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Hall%20Kennedy	Benjamin Hall Kennedy	Benjamin Hall Kennedy (6 November 1804 – 6 April 1889) was an English scholar and schoolmaster, known for his work in the teaching of the Latin language. He was an active supporter of Newnham College and Girton College as Cambridge University colleges for women. Biography He was born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, the eldest son of Rann Kennedy (1772–1851), of a branch of the Ayrshire family which had settled in Staffordshire. Rann was a scholar and man of letters, several of whose sons rose to distinction. Benjamin was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, Shrewsbury School, and St John's College, Cambridge. He took frequent part in Cambridge Union debates and became president in 1825. In 1824 he was elected a member of the Cambridge Conversazione Society, better known as the Cambridge Apostles, and was a winner of a Browne medal. He was elected Fellow and lecturer in Classics at St John's College in 1828 and took Holy Orders the following year. In 1830, he became an assistant master at Harrow. In 1836, he, his wife and his first child Charlotte Amy May Kennedy returned to Shrewsbury when he became headmaster. While they were there Charlotte was joined by Marion, Julia, Edith and Arthur. In 1841 he became prebendary of Lichfield, and after leaving Shrewsbury he was rector of West Felton, Shropshire, from 1866 to 1868. He remained as headmaster of Shrewsbury School until 1866, the 30 years being marked by successes for his pupils, chiefly in Classics. When he retired, a large collection was made, and this was used on new school buildings and on founding a Latin professorship at Cambridge. The first holders of the Kennedy Professor of Latin chair were both former pupils of Kennedy, H. A. J. Munro and J. E. B. Mayor. In 1867, Kennedy was elected Regius Professor of Greek at Cambridge and canon of Ely Cathedral, serving in both posts until his death. From 1870 to 1880 he was a member of the committee for the revision of the New Testament. In 1870 he also became a member of the University Council. He supported the access of women to a university education, and took a prominent part in the establishment of Newnham and Girton colleges. When Mary Paley and Amy Bulley were among the first women to take tripos examinations they did it in the Kennedys' drawing room. Paley described him as excitable, but he would sometimes doze whilst nominally invigilating. He was nicknamed "the purple boy". In politics, he had liberal sympathies. He died near Torquay and is buried in Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge. Writings Kennedy wrote a number of classical and theological works, but he is most famous today for his primer of Latin grammar. This began as the Elementary Latin Primer (1843), which became the Public School Latin Primer (1866), the Public School Latin Grammar (1871), and finally the Revised Latin Primer (1888). The latter was further revised by J. F. Mountford in 1930 and is still widely used today. The medieval way of writing Latin noun tables, starting with the nominative and then proceeding to the genitive was used in England prior to Kennedy's Primer and is still widely used in America (e.g. in the Wheelock's Latin course). Kennedy changed the order of writing the noun endings so that the nominative was always followed by the vocative and accusative, in order to bring out more effectively the similarities between these cases in many nouns. Kennedy's Primer was so widely used and was so influential that this led to a permanent change in the way that Latin is taught in the UK. Modern books such as the Cambridge Latin Course still follow this approach. In 1913, there was a problem with the copyright on the Revised Latin Primer which had been published in 1888. His daughter Marion Kennedy, a Latin scholar, revealed that the book was written by herself, her sister Julia and two of her father's former students, G. H. Hallam and T. E. Page. It is unlikely that Kennedy had any hand in the revision of 1888, and the Shorter Latin Primer of the same year. The BBC Radio 4 programme in December 2018 Amo, Amas, Amusical, presented by Professor Mary Beard, explained the background to the primer and the sisters' significant part in writing it, as well as the resistance to women's higher education at Cambridge and elsewhere during their lifetime. Other works are: The Psalter in English Verse (1860) Elementary Greek Grammar (1862) Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus (2nd ed., 1885) Aristophanes, Birds (1874) Aeschylus, Agamemnon, with introduction, metrical translation and notes (2nd ed., 1882) A commentary on Virgil (3rd ed., 1881) Plato, Theaetetus, English translation (1881) He contributed largely to the collection known as Sabrinae Corolla (D. S. Colman, Shrewsbury, c. 1950), and published a collection of verse in Greek, Latin and English under the title of Between Whiles (2nd ed., 1882), with many autobiographical details. Family His brother Charles Rann Kennedy was a barrister and wrote original works as well as translating and editing classical works. His younger brother The Rev. William James Kennedy (1814-1891) was a prominent educator, and the father of Lord Justice Sir William Rann Kennedy (1846–1915), a distinguished Cambridge scholar. Notes External links References This work in turn cites: Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship (Vol. III, Cambridge, 1908) Page, Thomas E. "Benjamin Hall Kennedy". Article in the Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900, Volume 30 Stray, Christopher. "Marion Grace Kennedy". Article in the Dictionary of National Biography, 2004. 1804 births 1889 deaths English classical scholars Presidents of the Cambridge Union Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge Headmasters of Shrewsbury School People educated at Shrewsbury School 19th-century English Anglican priests Christian hymnwriters Classical scholars of the University of Cambridge Scholars of ancient Greek literature Scholars of Latin literature	[ -0.2985181212425232, 0.5327998399734497, -0.6510030031204224, -0.5806351900100708, 0.11292029172182083, 0.9295098781585693, 1.1569234132766724, 0.25219935178756714, -0.06577666848897934, -0.2504597306251526, -0.567997932434082, -0.13716904819011688, -0.14551906287670135, -0.05989069864153862, 0.05937225744128227, -0.25082460045814514, 0.024407392367720604, -0.45024919509887695, -0.37213197350502014, -0.17237882316112518, -0.3734839856624603, 0.11684304475784302, 0.33475029468536377, -0.0040109725669026375, -0.27480006217956543, 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206490	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hey%20Arnold%21	Hey Arnold!	Hey Arnold! is an American animated comedy television series created by Craig Bartlett. It originally aired on Nickelodeon from October 7, 1996, to June 8, 2004. The show centers on a fourth grader named Arnold Shortman, who lives with his grandparents in an inner-city tenement in Hillwood, Washington. Episodes center on his experiences navigating urban life while dealing with the problems he and his friends encounter. Many episodes however, focuses on other characters, including major, secondary, supporting, and even minor characters get their own episodes. Bartlett's idea for the show is based on a minor character named Arnold whom he created while working on Pee-wee's Playhouse. The executives enjoyed the character, and Bartlett completed the cast and setting by drawing inspiration from people and locations he grew up with in Seattle, Washington, Portland, Oregon, and Brooklyn, New York. Bartlett created the pilot episode in his living room in 1994 and official production began in 1995. The animators worked to transform Arnold from clay animation to cel animation, leading to the series premiere in 1996. Production on the show concluded on December 7, 2001, after 5 seasons and 100 episodes, and its last episode aired unannounced on June 8, 2004. A feature film based on the series, Hey Arnold!: The Movie, was released in theaters on June 28, 2002. All five seasons have been released on DVD. On March 2, 2016, a television film continuation of the series, Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie, was greenlit. It picks up from where the series ended and resolved the unanswered plotlines of the story. The film premiered on November 24, 2017 on Nickelodeon, Nicktoons, TeenNick, and on November 24, 2018 as an international theatrical release, wrapping up the series' storyline. Premise Setting Hey Arnold! takes place in a rundown neighborhood in the fictional American city of Hillwood, Washington. Bartlett described the city as "an amalgam of large northern cities I have loved, including Seattle (my hometown), Portland (where I went to art school) and Brooklyn (the bridge, the brownstones, the subway)." Evan Levine of the Houston Chronicle commented on the series' "backdrop of dark streets, nighttime adventures and rundown buildings, all seen from a child's point of view". Characters Hey Arnold! features nine-year-old Arnold Shortman (voiced by Toran Caudell; Phillip Van Dyke; Spencer Klein; and Alex D. Linz) and his neighborhood friends: Gerald Johanssen (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith), a street-smart character who generally serves as the leader of the group; and Helga Pataki (Francesca Marie Smith), a girl who bullies Arnold in order to hide the fact that she is in love with him. Bartlett drew inspiration from people he grew up with when creating the characters for the show. Arnold lives with his eccentric but loving paternal grandparents, Phil Shortman (Dan Castellaneta) and his wife Gertrude Shortman (Tress MacNeille), proprietors of the Sunset Arms boarding house, in the fictional city of Hillwood. In each episode, he often helps a schoolmate or boarding home tenant in solving a personal problem or encounters a predicament of his own. Many episodes involve urban legends usually told by Gerald, such as superheroes or the headless horsemen. Other characters include students and faculty at P.S. 118, Arnold's school, and citizens of Hillwood. Certain episodes focus on the lives of supporting characters, such as the tenants of the boarding house that Arnold's grandparents own. Episodes Production Craig Bartlett, the show's creator, was born in Seattle, Washington, which he used as inspiration. for the backdrop of Hey Arnold!. He graduated from Anacortes High School and obtained a degree in communications from The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington. During high school and college, he studied painting and sculpture at the Museum Art School in Portland. Originally, Bartlett intended to become a painter "in the 19th-century sense", but he became interested in animation during a trip to Italy. His first post-graduation job was at Will Vinton Productions, a claymation studio in Portland. In 1987, Barlett relocated to Los Angeles, where he joined a team developing claymation cutaways for the television program Pee-wee's Playhouse. The short segments centered on a character named Penny and her friend Arnold. Barlett later made three Arnold shorts: Arnold Escapes from Church (1988), The Arnold Waltz (1990), and Arnold Rides a Chair (1991), the latter aired as a filler short on Sesame Street in 1991. The same year, Arnold comic strips also appeared in Simpsons Illustrated magazine by Matt Groening, the creator of The Simpsons, who was also Craig Bartlett's brother-in-law. Barlett later joined the staff for Rugrats, where he served as story editor for three years. In 1993, he teamed up with five writers from Rugrats to develop animated projects for Nickelodeon. These meetings were generally difficult and the writers became frustrated; Bartlett recalled: "Our ideas were OK, but such a large and motley group couldn't get far at pitch meetings. Network execs got migraines just counting us coming in the door." As a last resort, Bartlett played the Penny tapes, intending to highlight the Penny character. However, the executives were more impressed by Arnold, despite his status as a minor character. After the meeting, the group began developing Arnold, creating his personality. Bartlett stated: "We did a lot of talking about who Arnold is. We came up with a reluctant hero who keeps finding himself responsible for solving something, making the right choices, doing the right thing." After creating ideas for Arnold, Bartlett began work on the supporting characters, drawing influence from his childhood: "A lot of the characters are an amalgam of people I knew when I was a kid. The girls in Hey Arnold! are girls that either liked or didn't like me when I was in school." In 1994, Bartlett began work on the pilot episode of Hey Arnold!. A year later, the network decided to begin work on the series. The ten-minute pilot episode, titled Arnold, was shown in theaters on July 10, 1996, before Nickelodeon's first feature-length film, its adaptation of Harriet the Spy. Apart from the animation style, Nick's Arnold wears a sweater, with his plaid shirt untucked (resembling a kilt). Only Arnold's cap remains unchanged from his original clay-animation wardrobe. Hey Arnold! was Nickelodeon's first animated series to feature kids voiced by actual children instead of adults. As a result of this, many of the boy characters, including Arnold himself, were recast at least once throughout the show's run, due to the child actors reaching puberty. One notable exception to this was Jamil Walker Smith, the voice of Gerald. After Smith's voice changed, auditions for a new actor were held, but the crew felt none of them were suitable replacements. As a result, Smith was kept on as the voice of Gerald, whose voice subsequently changed in-universe with the episode Gerald's Tonsils. This would last until The Jungle Movie, which featured Benjamin Flores Jr. as the voice of Gerald instead. Production of Hey Arnold! wrapped on December 7, 2001. A dispute over a second then-planned Hey Arnold! movie, The Jungle Movie, resulted in Bartlett leaving Nickelodeon. The last season's episodes were released over four years, beginning on March 4, 2000. The series aired its final episode, unannounced, on June 8, 2004. "The Jungle Movie" was eventually released as a television film on November 24, 2017. Broadcast United States Hey Arnold! originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States from October 7, 1996 until June 8, 2004, with reruns until 2007. In 2002, Nicktoons Network began broadcasting the show, and aired reruns of Hey Arnold! until May 30, 2007, when the show was taken off its nightly schedule. The show aired in reruns on the now-defunct Nick on CBS programming block for two years, from September 14, 2002, to September 4, 2004. International Hey Arnold! premiered on October 30, 1996, in the United Kingdom, originally on CITV. On September 5, 2011, the Canadian Nickelodeon channel began airing reruns of Hey Arnold!. In 2017, the Kenya Film Classification Board banned Hey Arnold!, together with the cartoon series The Loud House, The Legend of Korra, Steven Universe, Clarence and Adventure Time, from being broadcast in Kenya. According to the Board, the reason was that these series were "glorifying homosexual behavior". Home media Nickelodeon released all five seasons on DVD in Region 1 via Amazon.com through its CreateSpace Manufacture-on-demand program in 2008 and 2009. Season 1 was released on August 21, 2008, Season 2 on August 29, 2008, Season 3 on December 8, 2009, Season 4 on November 27, 2009, and Season 5 on December 4, 2009. On May 9, 2011, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series. They subsequently released Season 1 in a 4-disc set on August 9, 2011. Season 2, Part 1 was released in a 2-disc set on March 20, 2012, followed by Season 2, Part 2 in a 2-disc set on July 24, 2012. Season 3 was released in a 3-disc set on January 29, 2013, as a "Shout Select" title. On May 14, 2013, Season 4 was released in a 2-disc set as a Shout exclusive followed by Season 5 released in a 3-disc set on October 15, 2013, also as a Shout exclusive making the entire series available on DVD. On August 19, 2014, the complete series was released in a 16-disc set through Shout! Factory as a Walmart exclusive. On November 20, 2018, Paramount Home Entertainment released Hey Arnold!: The Ultimate Collection DVD containing all of the previously released episodes and movies now packaged into one set. In Australia, all five seasons have been released by Beyond Home Entertainment under license from Nickelodeon. A 16-disc collector's edition was released on September 1, 2016, containing all five seasons. ♦ – Shout! Factory select title sold exclusively through Shout's online store. Films 2002 feature film In this 2002 feature film, Arnold, Helga and Gerald set out on a quest to save their old neighborhood from a greedy developer who plans on converting it into a huge shopping mall. This film was directed by Tuck Tucker, and featured guest voice talents of Jennifer Jason Leigh, Paul Sorvino and Christopher Lloyd. In 1998, Nickelodeon gave Craig Bartlett the chance to develop a feature adaptation of the series. As work on the fifth season was completing, Bartlett and company engaged in the production of Arnold Saves the Neighborhood, which would eventually become Hey Arnold!: The Movie. The Neighborhood project was originally made for television and home video, but executives at Paramount Pictures decided to release it theatrically after successful test screenings. According to animation historian Jerry Beck (in his Animated Movie Guide), the decision was buoyed by the financial success of the first two Rugrats movies, The Rugrats Movie and Rugrats in Paris: The Movie. 2017 television film In an interview with Arun Mehta, Craig Bartlett announced that he was working with Nickelodeon on a Hey Arnold! revival. In September 2015, Nickelodeon president Russell Hicks announced that the company was considering revivals for a number of their older shows, including Hey Arnold!. According to an announcement by The Independent, a Hey Arnold! revival is "very much on the cards". On November 23, 2015, Nickelodeon announced that a TV movie is in the works and will pick up right where the series left off. The film will also answer unanswered questions about the fate of Arnold's parents. On March 1, 2016, it was announced that the TV film, The Jungle Movie, would be divided into two parts and would air in 2017. On March 6, 2016, voice actress Nika Futterman confirmed on Twitter that she and her character Olga Pataki would appear in the two-hour film. In June 2016, it was confirmed that the TV film would be titled The Jungle Movie, and that 19 of the original voice actors from the series would lend their voices in the film. New cast-members included Mason Vale Cotton as Arnold; Benjamin "Lil' P-Nut" Flores as Gerald; Gavin Lewis as Eugene; Jet Jurgensmeyer as Stinky; Aiden Lewandowski as Sid; Laya Hayes as Nadine; Nicolas Cantu as Curly; Wally Wingert as Oskar; Stephen Stanton as Pigeon Man; and Alfred Molina as the villain Lasombra. The film debuted on November 24, 2017, on Nickelodeon. Possible reboot Before the premiere of The Jungle Movie, Nickelodeon stated that if the ratings of the film would succeed they would consider rebooting the series. Unfortunately, even though the ratings were a success with older audiences, it ended up missing the mark with the young kids demographic so the idea of bringing back the show on Nickelodeon was scrapped. However, in August 2018, musical composer for the show Jim Lang revealed in a Tunes/Toons podcast that while Nick will not produce the show at the studio due to how poor ratings were with The Jungle Movie, he had this to say: "Netflix, Amazon, Apple were all people that they were going to go out to with the idea of trying to make a season six of Hey Arnold!. We haven't heard anything yet but we've got our fingers crossed." In October 2019, Craig Bartlett revealed in an interview with The Arun Mehta Show that Hey Arnold! could come back as a series with the characters aged up for season 6 if the Rugrats reboot is successful. Soundtrack Hey Arnold! The Music, Volume 1. was released on July 3, 2020. The soundtrack included 45 minutes of previously unreleased music that had been remastered from the original audio files by Emmy Award-winning sound engineer Dave Marino in conjunction with show composer Jim Lang, as well as new original exclusive artwork done by Bartlett. Released in vinyl format complete with A-side and B-side. The release marked the first ever release. References External links Hey Arnold! at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016. Hey Arnold! 1990s American animated television series 1990s American children's comedy television series 1990s American school television series 1990s American sitcoms 2000s American animated television series 2000s American children's comedy television series 2000s American school television series 2000s American sitcoms 1996 American television series debuts 2004 American television series endings 1990s Nickelodeon original programming 2000s Nickelodeon original programming American animated sitcoms American children's animated comedy television series English-language television shows Nickelodeon original programming Television series created by Craig Bartlett Television shows adapted into films Animated television series about children Television shows set in the United States Nicktoons Elementary school television series	[ -0.045106884092092514, 0.37991616129875183, 0.37431907653808594, -0.11024489253759384, 0.17947378754615784, -0.3234921991825104, 0.6857618689537048, 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206491	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bustard	Bustard	Bustards, including floricans and korhaans, are large, terrestrial birds living mainly in dry grassland areas and on the steppes of the Old World. They range in length from . They make up the family Otididae (, formerly known as Otidae). Bustards are omnivorous and opportunistic, eating leaves, buds, seeds, fruit, small vertebrates, and invertebrates. There are 26 species currently recognised. Description Bustards are all fairly large with the two largest species, the kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) and the great bustard (Otis tarda), being frequently cited as the world's heaviest flying birds. In both the largest species, large males exceed a weight of , weigh around on average and can attain a total length of . The smallest species is the little brown bustard (Eupodotis humilis), which is around long and weighs around on average. In most bustards, males are substantially larger than females, often about 30% longer and sometimes more than twice the weight. They are among the most sexually dimorphic groups of birds. In only the floricans is the sexual dimorphism the reverse, with the adult female being slightly larger and heavier than the male. The wings have 10 primaries and 16–24 secondary feathers. There are 18–20 feathers in the tail. The plumage is predominantly cryptic. Behaviour and ecology Bustards are omnivorous, feeding principally on seeds and invertebrates. They make their nests on the ground, making their eggs and offspring often very vulnerable to predation. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. Most prefer to run or walk over flying. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips, and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays, such as inflating throat sacs or elevating elaborate feathered crests. The female lays three to five dark, speckled eggs in a scrape in the ground, and incubates them alone. Evolution Genetic dating indicates that bustards evolved 30 million years ago in either southern or eastern Africa from where they dispersed into Eurasia and Australia. Taxonomy The family Otididae was introduced (as Otidia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Family Otididae Genus †Gryzaja Zubareva 1939 †Gryzaja odessana Zubareva 1939 Genus †Ioriotis Burchak-Abramovich & Vekua 1981 †Ioriotis gabunii Burchak-Abramovich & Vekua 1981 Genus †Miootis Umanskaya 1979 †Miootis compactus Umanskaya 1979 Genus †Pleotis Hou 1982 †Pleotis liui Hou 1982 Subfamily Lissotinae Verheyen 1957 non Benesh 1955 Genus Lissotis Reichenbach 1848 Hartlaub's bustard, Lissotis hartlaubii (Heuglin 1863) Black-bellied bustard, Lissotis melanogaster (Rüppell 1835) L. m. notophila Oberholser 1905 L. m. melanogaster (Rüppell 1835) Subfamily Neotinae Verheyen 1957 Genus Neotis Sharpe 1893 Nubian bustard, Neotis nuba Ludwig's bustard, Neotis ludwigii Denham's bustard, Neotis denhami N. d. denhami (Denham's bustard) N. d. jacksoni (Jackson's bustard) N. d. stanleyi (Stanley bustard) Heuglin's bustard, Neotis heuglinii Genus Ardeotis Le Maout 1853 Arabian bustard, Ardeotis arabs (Linnaeus 1758) A. a. lynesi (Bannerman 1930) (Moroccan bustard) A. a. stieberi (Neumann 1907) (great Arabian bustard) A. a. arabs (Linnaeus 1758) A. a. butleri (Bannerman 1930) (Sudan bustard) Australian bustard, Ardeotis australis (Gray 1829) Great Indian bustard, Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors 1831) Kori bustard, Ardeotis kori (Burchell 1822) A. k. struthiunculus (Neumann 1907) (Northern Kori bustard) A. k. kori (Burchell 1822) (Southern Kori bustard) Subfamily Otidinae Gray 1841 Genus Tetrax Forster 1817 †T. paratetrax (Bocheński & Kuročkin 1987) Little bustard, Tetrax tetrax (Linnaeus 1758) Forster 1817 Genus Otis Linnaeus 1758 †O. bessarabicus Kessler & Gal 1996 †O. hellenica Boev, Lazaridis & Tsoukala 2014 Great bustard, Otis tarda Linnaeus 1758 O. t. tarda Linnaeus 1758 (Western great bustard) O. t. dybowskii Taczanowski 1874 (Eastern great bustard) Genus Chlamydotis Lesson 1839 †C. affinis (Lydekker 1891a) Brodkorb 1967 †C. mesetaria Sánchez Marco 1990 Macqueen's bustard, Chlamydotis macqueenii (Gray 1832) Houbara bustard, Chlamydotis undulata (Jacquin 1784) C. u. fuertaventurae (Rothschild & Hartert 1894) (Canary Islands houbara bustard) C. u. undulata (Jacquin 1784) (North African houbara bustard) Genus Houbaropsis Sharpe 1893 Bengal florican, Houbaropsis bengalensis (Statius Müller 1776) Sharpe 1893 H. b. bengalensis (Statius Müller 1776) Sharpe 1893 H. b. blandini Delacour 1928 Genus Sypheotides Lesson 1839 Lesser florican, Sypheotides indicus (Miller 1782) Lesson 1839 Genus Lophotis Reichenbach 1848 Red-crested korhaan, Lophotis ruficrista (Smith 1836) Savile's bustard, Lophotis savilei Lynes 1920 Buff-crested bustard, Lophotis gindiana (Oustalet 1881) Genus Eupodotis Lesson 1839 Little brown bustard, Eupodotis humilis (Blyth 1855) Karoo korhaan, Eupodotis vigorsii (Smith 1831) E. v. namaqua (Roberts 1932) E. v. vigorsii (Smith 1831) Rüppell's korhaan, Eupodotis rueppellii (Wahlberg 1856) E. r. fitzsimonsi (Roberts 1937) E. r. rueppellii (Wahlberg 1856) Blue korhaan, Eupodotis caerulescens (Vieillot 1820) White-bellied bustard, Eupodotis senegalensis (Vieillot 1821) E. s. barrowii (Gray 1829) (Barrow's/southern white-bellied Bustard) E. s. canicollis (Reichenow 1881) (Somali white-bellied knorhaan) E. s. erlangeri (Reichenow 1905) E. s. mackenziei White 1945 E. s. senegalensis (Vieillot 1821) (Senegal bustard) Genus Afrotis Gray 1855 Southern black korhaan, Afrotis afra (Linnaeus 1758) Northern black korhaan, Afrotis afraoides (Smith 1831) A. a. etoschae (Grote 1922) A. a. damarensis Roberts 1926 A. a. afraoides (Smith 1831) Status and conservation Bustards are gregarious outside the breeding season, but are very wary and difficult to approach in the open habitats they prefer. Most species are declining or endangered through habitat loss and hunting, even where they are nominally protected. United Kingdom The birds were once common and abounded on the Salisbury Plain. They had become rare by 1819 when a large male, surprised by a dog on Newmarket Heath, sold in Leadenhall Market for five guineas. The last bustard in Britain died in approximately 1832, but the bird is being reintroduced through batches of chicks imported from Russia. In 2009, two great bustard chicks were hatched in Britain for the first time in more than 170 years. Reintroduced bustards also hatched chicks in 2010. Floricans Some Indian bustards are also called Floricans. The origin of the name is unclear. Thomas C. Jerdon writes in The Birds of India (1862) The Hobson-Jobson dictionary however casts doubt on this theory stating that Notes References Bota, Gerard, et al. Ecology and conservation of Steppe-Land birds''. International Symposium on Ecology and Conservation of Steppe-land birds. Lynx Edicions 2005. 343 pages. . 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206492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine%20of%20Braganza	Catherine of Braganza	Catherine of Braganza (; 25 November 1638 – 31 December 1705) was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland during her marriage to King Charles II, which lasted from 23 April 1662 to 6 February 1685. She was the daughter of King John IV of Portugal, who became the first king from the House of Braganza in 1640 after overthrowing the 60-year rule of the Spanish Habsburgs over Portugal and restoring the Portuguese throne which had first been created in 1143. Catherine served as regent of Portugal during the absence of her brother Peter II in 1701 and during 1704–1705, after her return to her homeland as a widow. Owing to her devotion to the Roman Catholic faith in which she had been raised, Catherine was unpopular in England. She was a special object of attack by the inventors of the Popish Plot. In 1678 the murder of Edmund Berry Godfrey was ascribed to her servants, and Titus Oates accused her of an intention to poison the king. These charges, the absurdity of which was soon shown by cross-examination, nevertheless placed the queen for some time in great danger. On 28 November Oates accused her of high treason, and the English House of Commons passed an order for the removal of her and of all Roman Catholics from the Palace of Whitehall. Several further depositions were made against her, and in June 1679 it was decided that she should stand trial, which threat however was lifted by the king's intervention, for which she later showed him much gratitude. Catherine produced no heirs for the king, having suffered three miscarriages. Her husband kept many mistresses, most notably Barbara Palmer, whom Catherine was forced to accept as one of her Ladies of the Bedchamber. By his mistresses Charles fathered numerous illegitimate offspring, which he acknowledged. Early life and family Catherine was born at the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa, as the second surviving daughter of John, 8th Duke of Braganza and his wife, Luisa de Guzmán. Following the Portuguese Restoration War, her father was acclaimed King John IV of Portugal, on 1 December 1640. With her father's new position as one of Europe's most important monarchs, Portugal then possessing a widespread colonial empire, Catherine became a prime choice for a wife for European royalty, and she was proposed as a bride for John of Austria, François de Vendôme, duc de Beaufort, Louis XIV and Charles II. The consideration for the final choice was due to her being seen as a useful conduit for contracting an alliance between Portugal and England, after the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 in which Portugal was arguably abandoned by France. Despite her country's ongoing struggle with Spain, Catherine enjoyed a happy, contented childhood in her beloved Lisbon. Commonly regarded as the power behind the throne, Queen Luisa was also a devoted mother who took an active interest in her children's upbringing and personally supervised her daughter's education. Catherine is believed to have spent most of her youth in a convent close by the royal palace where she remained under the watchful eye of her protective mother. It appears to have been a very sheltered upbringing, with one contemporary remarking that Catherine, "was bred hugely retired" and "hath hardly been ten times out of the palace in her life". Catherine's older sister, Joana, Princess of Beira, died in 1653, leaving Catherine as the eldest surviving child of her parents. Her husband was chosen by Luisa, who acted as regent of her country following her husband's death in 1656. Marriage Negotiations for the marriage began during the reign of King Charles I, and were renewed immediately after the Restoration. On 23 June 1661, in spite of Spanish opposition, the marriage contract was signed. England secured Tangier (in North Africa) and the Seven Islands of Bombay (in India), trading privileges in Brazil and the Portuguese East Indies, religious and commercial freedom for English residents in Portugal, and two million Portuguese crowns (about £300,000). In return Portugal obtained English military and naval support (which would prove to be decisive) in her fight against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine. She arrived at Portsmouth on the evening of 13–14 May 1662, but was not visited there by Charles until 20 May. The following day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies – a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service. On 30 September 1662, the married couple entered London as part of a large procession, which included the Portuguese delegation and many members of the court. There were also minstrels and musicians, among them ten playing shawms and twelve playing Portuguese bagpipes, those being the new Queen's favourite instruments. The procession continued over a large bridge, especially designed and built for the occasion, which led into the palace where Henrietta Maria, the Queen Mother, waited along with the English court and nobility. This was followed by feasting and firework displays. Catherine possessed several good qualities, but had been brought up in a convent, secluded from the world, and was scarcely a wife Charles would have chosen for himself. Her mother-in-law, the Queen Mother, was pleased with her, and wrote that she is "the best creature in the world, from whom I have so much affection, I have the joy to see the King love her extremely. She is a Saint!" In reality, Catherine's personal charms were not potent enough to wean Charles away from the society of his mistresses, and in a few weeks after her arrival she became aware of her painful and humiliating position as the wife of a licentious king. Little is known of Catherine's own thoughts on the match. While her mother plotted to secure an alliance with England and thus support in Portugal's fight for independence, and her future husband celebrated his restoration by dallying with his mistresses, Catherine's time had been spent in the sombre seclusion of her convent home, with little opportunity for fun or frivolity. Even outside the convent her actions were governed by the strict etiquette of the royal court of Portugal. By all accounts Catherine grew into a quiet, even-tempered young woman. Catherine became pregnant and miscarried at least three times, and during a severe illness in 1663, she imagined, for a time, that she had given birth. Charles comforted her by telling her she had indeed given birth to two sons and a daughter. Her position was a difficult one, and though Charles continued to have children by his many mistresses, he insisted she be treated with respect, and sided with her against his mistresses when he felt she was not receiving the respect she was due. After her three miscarriages, it seemed to be more and more unlikely that the queen would bear an heir. Royal advisors urged the monarch to seek a divorce, hoping that the new wife would be Protestant and fertile – but Charles refused. This eventually led to her being made a target by courtiers. Throughout his reign, Charles firmly dismissed the idea of divorcing Catherine, and she remained faithful to Charles throughout their marriage. Queen consort (1662–1685) Catherine was not a particularly popular choice of queen since she was a Roman Catholic. Her religion prevented her from being crowned, as Roman Catholics were forbidden to take part in Anglican services. She initially faced hardships due to the language barrier, the king's infidelities and the political conflicts between Roman Catholics and Anglicans. Over time, her quiet decorum, loyalty and genuine affection for Charles changed the public's perception of her. Although her difficulties with the English language persisted, as time went on, the once rigidly formal Portuguese Infanta mellowed and began to enjoy some of the more innocent pleasures of the court. She loved to play cards and shocked devout Protestants by playing on Sundays. She enjoyed dancing and took great delight in organising masques. She had a great love for the countryside and picnics; fishing and archery were also favourite pastimes. In a far cry from her convent days the newly liberated Catherine displayed a fondness for the recent trend of court ladies wearing men's clothing, which we are told, "showed off her pretty, neat legs and ankles"; and she was even reported to have considered leading the way in wearing shorter dresses, which would show off her feet. In 1670, on a trip to Audley End with her ladies-in-waiting, the once chronically shy Catherine attended a country fair disguised as a village maiden, but was soon discovered and, due to the large crowds, forced to make a hasty retreat. And when in 1664 her favourite painter, Jacob Huysmans, a Flemish Catholic, painted her as St Catherine, it promptly set a trend among court ladies. She did not involve herself in English politics, instead she kept up an active interest in her native country. Anxious to re-establish good relations with the Pope and perhaps gain recognition for Portuguese independence, she sent Richard Bellings, later her principal secretary, to Rome with letters for the pope and several cardinals. In 1669 she involved herself in the last-ditch effort to relieve Candia in Crete, which was under siege by the Turks and whose cause Rome was promoting, although she failed to persuade her husband to take any action. In 1670, as a sign of her rising favour with the pontiff she requested, and was granted, devotional objects. In 1670 Charles II ordered the building of a Royal yacht HMY Saudadoes for her, used for pleasure trips on the Thames and to maintain communications with the Queen's homeland of Portugal, making the journey twice. Catherine fainted when Charles's official mistress, Barbara Palmer was presented to her. Charles insisted on making Palmer Catherine's Lady of the Bedchamber. After this incident, Catherine withdrew from spending time with the king, declaring she would return to Portugal rather than openly accept the arrangement with Palmer. Clarendon failed to convince her to change her mind. Charles then dismissed nearly all the members of Catherine's Portuguese retinue, after which she stopped actively resisting, which pleased the king, however she participated very little in court life and activities. Catholicism Though known to keep her faith a private matter, her religion and proximity to the king made her the target of anti-Catholic sentiment. Catherine occupied herself with her faith. Her piety was widely known and was a characteristic in his wife that the King greatly admired; in his letters to his sister, Catherine's devoutness is described almost with awe. Her household contained between four and six priests, and in 1665, Catherine decided to build a religious house east of St James's to be occupied by thirteen Portuguese Franciscans of the order of St Peter of Alcantara. It was completed by 1667 and would become known as The Friary. In 1675 the stress of a possible revival of the divorce project indirectly led to another illness, which Catherine's physicians claimed and her husband cannot fail to have noted, was "due as much to mental as physical causes". In the same year, all Irish and English Catholic priests were ordered to leave the country, which left Catherine dependent upon foreign priests. As increasingly harsher measures were put in place against Catholics, Catherine appointed her close friend and adviser, the devoutly Catholic Francisco de Mello, former Portuguese Ambassador to England, as her Lord Chamberlain. It was an unusual and controversial move but "wishing to please Catherine and perhaps demonstrate the futility of moves for divorce, the King granted his permission. De Mello was dismissed the following year for ordering the printing of a Catholic book, leaving the beleaguered Catherine even more isolated at court". One consolation was that Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth, who replaced Barbara Palmer as reigning mistress, always treated the Queen with proper deference; the Queen in return showed her gratitude by using her own influence to protect Louise during the Popish Plot. Popish plot The Test Act of 1673 had driven all Catholics out of public office, and anti-Catholic feelings intensified in the years to come. Although she was not active in religious politics, in 1675 Catherine was criticised for supposedly supporting the idea of appointing a bishop to England who, it was hoped, would resolve the internal disputes of Catholics. Critics also noted the fact that, despite orders to the contrary, English Catholics attended her private chapel. As the highest-ranking Catholic in the country, Catherine was an obvious target for Protestant extremists, and it was hardly surprising that the Popish Plot of 1678 would directly threaten her position. However, Catherine was completely secure in her husband's favour ("she could never do anything wicked, and it would be a horrible thing to abandon her" he told Gilbert Burnet), and the House of Lords, most of whom knew her and liked her, refused by an overwhelming majority to impeach her. Relations between the royal couple became notably warmer: Catherine wrote of Charles' "wonderful kindness" to her and it was noted that his visits to her quarters became longer and more frequent. Later life and death At Charles' final illness in 1685, she showed anxiety for his reconciliation with the Roman Catholic faith, and she exhibited great grief at his death. When he lay dying in 1685, he asked for Catherine, but she sent a message asking that her presence be excused and "to beg his pardon if she had offended him all his life." He answered, "Alas poor woman! she asks for my pardon? I beg hers with all my heart; take her back that answer." Later in the same year, she unsuccessfully interceded with James II for the life of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Charles's illegitimate son and leader of the Monmouth Rebellion – even though Monmouth in rebellion had called upon the support represented by the staunch Protestants opposed to the Catholic Church. Catherine remained in England, living at Somerset House, through the reign of James and his deposition in the Glorious Revolution by William III and Mary II. She remained in England partly because of a protracted lawsuit against her former Lord Chamberlain, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, over money that she claimed as part of her allowance and that he claimed was part of the perquisite of his office. Catherine's fondness for money is one of the more unexpected features of her character: her brother-in-law James, who was himself notably avaricious, remarked that she always drove a hard bargain. Initially on good terms with William and Mary, her position deteriorated as the practice of her religion led to misunderstandings and increasing isolation. A bill was introduced to Parliament to limit the number of Catherine's Catholic servants, and she was warned not to agitate against the government. She finally returned to Portugal in March 1692. In 1703, she supported the Methuen Treaty between Portugal and England. She acted as regent for her brother, Peter II, in 1701 and 1704–05. She died at the Bemposta Palace in Lisbon on 31 December 1705 and was buried at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora Lisbon. Legacy Catherine is often credited with the introduction of tea drinking to Britain, although Samuel Pepys makes reference to drinking tea for the first time in his diary entry for 25 September 1660, prior to Catherine's emigration to England and marriage to Charles. It is more likely that she popularised the drink, which was unusual in Britain at the time. Beyond tea, her arrival brought and promulgated goods such as cane, lacquer, cottons, and porcelain. Queens, a borough of New York City, was supposedly named after Catherine of Braganza, since she was queen when Queens County was established in 1683. Queens' naming is consistent with those of Kings County (the borough of Brooklyn, originally named after her husband, King Charles II) and Richmond County (the borough of Staten Island, named after his illegitimate son, the 1st Duke of Richmond). However, there is no historical evidence that Queens County was named in her honour, neither is there a document from the time proclaiming it so. Some written histories of Queens skip over the monarch entirely and make no mention of her. After the tri-centennial of the establishment of Queens County in 1983, a group of Portuguese-Americans began raising money to erect a 35-foot statue of Queen Catherine on the East River waterfront in Long Island City. The sculptor of the proposed statue was Audrey Flack, and the project received support from several notable public figures. However, the project was well into development when opposition arose. Historians objected to the statue on the grounds that there was no evidence that Queens was actually named after her, and furthermore a British monarch was an inappropriate subject for a public monument in the United States. African-Americans objected to the statue on the grounds that the British and Portuguese royal houses benefited from the African slave trade. Irish-Americans objected to any statue of a British monarch. Various other groups raised their objections to the statue of Catherine, and the controversy forced Borough President Claire Shulman to withdraw her support, and the statue was never erected. A quarter-scale model survives at the site of Expo '98 in Lisbon, Portugal, facing west across the Atlantic. Catherine Street, formerly Brydges Street, in central London is named after her. Novelists, notably Margaret Campbell Barnes in With All My Heart, Jean Plaidy in her Charles II trilogy and Susanna Gregory in her Thomas Chaloner mystery novels, usually portray the Queen in a sympathetic light. So did Alison Macleod in her 1976 biography of the queen, The Portingale and Isabel Stilwell in her 2008 historical novel Catherine of Braganza - The courage of a Portuguese Infanta who became Queen of England. Catherine's marriage had an important result for the later history of India and of the British Empire, though the Queen personally had little to do with it: soon after acquiring the Seven Islands of Bombay as part of her dowry, Charles II rented them to the East India Company which moved its Presidency there – resulting in Bombay/Mumbai eventually growing to become one of the main cities of India. Arms The royal arms of the British monarch are impaled with the royal arms of her father. For supporters, she used the crowned lion of England on the dexter side, and on the sinister, the wyvern Vert of Portugal. Ancestry See also List of English consorts History of tea in the United Kingdom References Sources Further reading Plaidy, Jean. (2008). The Merry Monarch's Wife: The Story of Catherine of Braganza. Broadway. Plaidy, Jean. (2005). The Loves of Charles II: The Stuart Saga. Broadway. Koen, Karleen. (2006). Dark Angels. Broadway. Sousa, Manuel E. (1995). Catherine of Braganza. Howell Press Inc. Elsna, Hebe. (1967). Catherine of Braganza : Charles II's Queen. Hale. Mackay, Janet. (1937).Catherine of Braganza. J. Long, Limited; First Edition. Barnes, Margaret Campbell. (1951). With All My Heart: The Love Story of Catherine of Braganza. Macrae-Smith Company. External links \|- 1638 births 1705 deaths Court of Charles II of England 18th-century women rulers English people of Portuguese descent English Roman Catholics English royal consorts Scottish royal consorts Irish royal consorts House of Braganza House of Stuart People from Lisbon People from Vila Viçosa People associated with the Popish Plot Portuguese Roman Catholics Portuguese royalty Princesses of Portugal Regents of Portugal 17th-century Portuguese women 18th-century Portuguese women 17th-century English women 17th-century English people 18th-century English women 17th-century Portuguese people 18th-century Portuguese people 18th-century English people Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora	[ -0.7262303233146667, -0.2512788474559784, 0.734348714351654, -0.31362029910087585, 0.11455133557319641, 0.6069006323814392, 0.5746853947639465, -0.060118164867162704, -0.5517553091049194, 0.042508017271757126, -0.2745838165283203, 0.16304124891757965, -0.20741882920265198, 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206493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brak	Brak	Brak may refer to: Brak (title) (or Braque), former title for the kings of Waalo, part of present-day Senegal, West Africa Brak (character), a character on 1966 Hanna-Barbera cartoon Space Ghost The Brak Show, a 2000 animated series Brak, a barbarian character in a series of stories (1965–1980) by John Jakes Brak, a supporting character in the science fiction film This Island Earth (1955) Brak, Libya, a city in Libya Syd Brak, South African illustrator See also Brack (disambiguation)	[ -0.255387544631958, 0.1820816993713379, -0.321424663066864, -0.28127193450927734, -0.09478407353162766, 0.3473684787750244, 0.5714035630226135, 0.2749665677547455, -0.6208879947662354, 0.19086124002933502, -0.7549101710319519, 0.10505679249763489, -0.4167623221874237, 0.022015275433659554, -0.06114843860268593, 0.5164843201637268, 0.2998482584953308, 0.5733906030654907, -0.20544084906578064, -0.36872535943984985, -0.2401857227087021, -0.1015724241733551, 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206494	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iotapa	Iotapa	Iotapa may refer to: People A number of relatives, part of the Royal Family of Commagene: (1) Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (born in 43 BC), daughter of King Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, Queen consort of King Mithridates III of Commagene (2) Iotapa (spouse of Antiochus III) (born around 20 BC), a daughter of King Mithridates III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (1), who married her King brother Antiochus III (3) Iotapa (spouse of Sampsiceramus II) (born around 20 BC), another daughter of King Mithridates III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (1), who married Syrian king Sampsiceramus II of Emesa (4) Iotapa (daughter of Sampsiceramus II) (who lived in the 1st century), daughter of King Sampsiceramus II of Emesa and Queen Iotapa (spouse of Sampsiceramus II) (3), who married the Herodian Prince Aristobulus Minor (5) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (from before 17 to about 52), daughter of King Antiochus III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (spouse of Antiochus III) (2), who married her brother King Antiochus IV of Commagene (6) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (born around 45), daughter of King Antiochus IV of Commagene and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (5), who married Gaius Julius Alexander, son of Herodian prince Gaius Julius Tigranes, later crowned Queen of Cetis, a small region in Cilicia (7) Julia Iotapa (Cilician Princess) (born around 80), daughter of King Gaius Julius Alexander and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (6) of Cetis, who married Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, Galatian Roman Senator from Anatolia Places Iotapa in Isauria, a town of ancient Cilicia See also Euttob (given name)	[ 0.33157438039779663, 0.0013256942620500922, -0.3658936619758606, 0.2432851344347, -0.6709817051887512, 1.3467540740966797, 0.29436901211738586, -0.2669416666030884, -0.5612078905105591, -0.2794492542743683, 0.5304669737815857, 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206497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang%20Rai%20province	Chiang Rai province	Chiang Rai (, ; , ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces, which lies in upper northern Thailand and is Thailand's northernmost province. It is bordered by the Shan State of Myanmar to the north, Bokeo province of Laos to the east, Phayao to the south, Lampang to the southwest, and Chiang Mai to the west. The provinces is linked to Houayxay Laos by the Fourth Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge that spans the Mekong. Geography The average elevation of the province is . The north of the province is part of the so-called Golden Triangle, where the borders of Thailand, Laos and Burma converge, an area which prior to the rise of agricultural production of coffee, pineapple, coconuts, and banana plantations, was unsafe because of drug smuggling across the borders. The Mekong River forms the boundary with Laos, the Mae Sai and Ruak River with Burma. Through the town of Chiang Rai itself, flows the "Mae Kok" Kok River and south of it the Lao River, a tributary of the Kok. While the eastern part of the province is characterized by relatively flat river plains, the northern and western part consist of the hilly terrain of the Thai highlands with the Khun Tan Range and the Phi Pan Nam Range in the west and the Daen Lao Range in the north. While not the highest elevation of the province, the high Doi Tung (Flag Hill) is the most important terrain feature. Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong wat on top of the hill, according to the chronicles, dates back to the year 911. Nearby is Doi Tung Royal Villa, former residence of the late princess mother (mother of the present king) Somdej Phra Srinagarindra. Thanks to her activities the hills were reforested, and the hill tribes diverted from growing opium poppies to other crops including coffee, bananas, coconuts, and pineapples. The total forest area is or 39.9 percent of provincial area. History Mangrai established Chiang Rai in 1262 and reigned in Chiang Rai until 1296 he founded Chiang Mai and moved there. After Mangrai moved to Chiang Mai, Phaya Chaisongkhram son of Mangrai has ruled Chiang Rai and later Chiang Rai has depended on Chiang Mai. Lanna fell into the rule of Burma in 1558, Burma has established aristocracy to rule the city of Chiang Rai. Lanna became an area of power struggle between Siam and Burma. Later, Chiang Rai became an abandoned city. In 1843, King Rama III ordered the King of Chiang Mai to restored Chiang Rai again. Many years later, Chiang Rai became a province in 1910, after being part of the Lanna Kingdom for centuries. Chiang Rai province is a transit point for Rohingya refugees from Myanmar (Burma) who are transported there from Sangkhlaburi district in Kanchanaburi. Demographics The majority of the population are ethnic Thai who speak Kham Muang among themselves, but 12.5% are of hill tribes origin, a sizeable minority in the north provinces. A smaller number are of Chinese descent, mainly descendants of the Kuomintang soldiers who settled in the region, notably in Santikhiri. Ethnic groups Khon Muang are the city folk who originally came from Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, and Phrae. Culturally, they design their houses having only one floor with wooden gable decorations called "ka-lae". They are known for their craftsmanship in wood carving, weaving, lacquer ware, and musical instruments. Tai Yai (ไทใหญ่) (Shan) are a Tai ethnic group who primarily live in what is now Shan State in Burma, and also in Mae Hong Son province in Thailand. They grow rice, farm, raise cattle, and trade. Their craftsmanship lies in weaving, pottery, wood carving, and bronze ware. Akha have the largest population of any hill tribe in the region. Originating from Tibet and southern China, they dwell on high ground around 1,200 meters above sea level. Within their villages they build spirit gateways to protect them from evil spirits. Lahu (Musor) are also from the Yunnanese area and live in high areas. They are known as hunters and planters. Karen live in various areas of the region which have valleys and riverbanks. Chin Haw in Chiang Rai consist primarily of the former Kuomintang (KMT army) who took refuge in the area, mainly in Santikhiri (formerly Mae Salong). Hmong from southern China, inhabit high ground. They raise livestock and grow rice, corn, tobacco, and cabbage. They are also known for their embroidery and silver. Tai Lue (Dai) live in dwellings of usually only a single room wooden house built on high poles. They are skilled in weaving. Lisu from southern China and Tibet are renowned for their colorful dress and also build their dwellings on high stilts. They harvest rice and corn and their men are skilled in hunting. Yao (Mien) reside along mountain sides and grow corn and other crops. They are skilled blacksmiths, silversmiths, and embroiders. Symbols The seal of the province shows a white elephant, the royal symbol, recalling that Chiang Rai was founded by King Mengrai, according to legend because his elephant liked the place. The provincial tree is the tree jasmine (Radermachera ignea), and the provincial flower is the orange trumpet (Pyrostegia venusta). The former provincial slogan was "เหนือสุดในสยาม อร่ามดอยตุง ผดุงวัฒนธรรม รสล้ำข้าวสาร หอมหวานลิ้นจี่ สตรีโสภา ชาเลิศรส สัปปะรดนางแล", 'Northernmost of Siam, beautiful Doi Tung, repository of culture, most delicious rice, sweet and fragrant lychee, beautiful women, the finest flavoured tea, pineapple from Nang Lae, source of the giant catfish". The current slogan is "เหนือสุดในสยาม ชายแดนสามแผ่นดิน ถิ่นวัฒนธรรมล้านนา ล้ำค่าพระธาตุดอยตุง", 'Northernmost of Siam, frontier of three lands, the home of Lan Na culture and Doi Tung Temple'. Hospitals Kasemrad Sriburin General Hospital, Private hospital. Chiangrai Prachanukroh Hospital, Public hospital. Transport Air Chiang Rai International Airport has domestic flights to both Bangkok airports, which connect to regional and international flights. Boat There is daily boat service between Chiang Rai and Tha Ton. Rail There is no railway system in Chiang Rai. The nearest station is Chiang Mai Railway Station. Road Chiang Rai province is intersected by Asian Highway 2, which runs for over from Denpasar in Indonesia to Kosravi in Iran, and by Asian Highway 3, which runs for over from Kentung in Myanmar to Ulan-Ude in Russia. Decent bus services are available in the province. In more remote areas, songthaews are the norm. Administrative divisions Provincial government Chiang Rai is divided into 18 districts (amphoes). The districts are further divided into 124 subdistricts (tambons) and 1,751 villages (mubans). Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Chiang Rai Provincial Administration Organisation () and 73 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Chiang Rai has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Further 72 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 70 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. Gallery References External links Provincial Website(Thai) Chiang Rai page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand English News Chiang Rai province Provinces of Thailand Populated places on the Mekong River	[ 0.22857096791267395, 0.17167365550994873, 0.599301278591156, 0.1449778825044632, -0.09106669574975967, -0.19352975487709045, 0.5084607601165771, 0.3403302729129791, -0.26861435174942017, 0.04784943908452988, -0.1740798056125641, -0.4114971160888672, -0.5795081853866577, 0.09961646795272827, -0.5643467307090759, 0.9810314774513245, 0.5900394320487976, 0.1619635373353958, 0.13918809592723846, -0.5330730080604553, -0.28323623538017273, -0.37425974011421204, 0.4702907204627991, -0.3301745653152466, 0.3094567656517029, 0.04707556962966919, 0.2362135797739029, 0.9613087177276611, 0.6449207067489624, -0.07615729421377182, -0.34447649121284485, 0.2262028306722641, -0.33296674489974976, 0.17646723985671997, -0.014324926771223545, 0.16957683861255646, 0.39426156878471375, 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206502	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooke%20Foss%20Westcott	Brooke Foss Westcott	Brooke Foss Westcott (12 January 1825 – 27 July 1901) was a British bishop, biblical scholar and theologian, serving as Bishop of Durham from 1890 until his death. He is perhaps most known for co-editing The New Testament in the Original Greek in 1881. Early life and education He was born in Birmingham. His father, Frederick Brooke Westcott, was a botanist. Westcott was educated at King Edward VI School, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, where he became friends with Joseph Barber Lightfoot, later Bishop of Durham. The period of Westcott's childhood was one of political ferment in Birmingham and amongst his earliest recollections was one of Thomas Attwood leading a large procession of men to a meeting of the Birmingham Political Union in 1831. A few years after this Chartism led to serious disturbances in Birmingham and many years later Westcott would refer to the deep impression the experiences of that time had made upon him. In 1844, Westcott entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was invited to join the Cambridge Apostles. He became a scholar in 1846, won a Browne medal for a Greek ode in 1846 and 1847, and the Members' Prize for a Latin essay in 1847 and 1849. He took his BA degree in January 1848, obtaining double-first honours. In mathematics, he was twenty-fourth wrangler, Isaac Todhunter being senior. In classics, he was senior, being bracketed with Charles Broderick Scott, afterwards headmaster of Westminster School. Early teaching career After obtaining his degree, Westcott remained in residence at Trinity. In 1849, he obtained his fellowship; and in the same year he was made deacon by his old headmaster, Prince Lee, later Bishop of Manchester. In 1851 he was ordained and became an assistant master at Harrow School. As well as studying, Westcott took pupils at Cambridge; fellow readers included his school friend Lightfoot and two other men who became his attached and lifelong friends, Edward White Benson and Fenton Hort. The friendship with Lightfoot and Hort influenced his future life and work. He devoted much attention to philosophical, patristic and historical studies, but his main interest was in New Testament work. In 1851, he published his Norrisian prize essay with the title Elements of the Gospel Harmony. The Cambridge University Norrisian Prize for theology was established in 1781 by the will of John Norris Esq of Whitton, Norfolk for the best essay by a candidate between the ages of twenty and thirty on a theological subject. He combined his school duties with his theological research and literary writings. He worked at Harrow for nearly twenty years under C. J. Vaughan and Henry Montagu Butler, but he was never good at maintaining discipline among large numbers. Early theological writings In 1855, he published the first edition of his History of the New Testament Canon, which, frequently revised and expanded, became the standard English work on the subject. In 1859, there appeared his Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles. In 1860, he expanded his Elements of the Gospel Harmony essay into an Introduction to the Study of the Gospels. Westcott's work for Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, notably his articles on "Canon," "Maccabees", and "Vulgate," led to the composition of his subsequent popular books, The Bible in the Church (1864) and a History of the English Bible (1869). To the same period belongs The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866). It recognised the claims of historical science and pure reason. At the time when the book appeared, his method of apologetic showed originality, but was impaired by the difficulty of the style. In 1865, he took his B.D., and in 1870, his D.D. Later, he received honorary degrees of DC.L. from Oxford (1881) and of D.D. from Edinburgh (1883). In 1868, Westcott was appointed examining chaplain by Bishop Connor Magee (of Peterborough); and in the following year he accepted a canonry at Peterborough, which forced him to leave Harrow. Regius Professorship of Divinity, Cambridge For a time he was enthusiastic about a cathedral life, devoted to the pursuit of learning and to the development of opportunities for the religious and intellectual benefit of the diocese. But the Regius Professorship of Divinity at Cambridge fell vacant, and J. B. Lightfoot, who was then Hulsean Professor, refused it in favour of Westcott. It was due to Lightfoot's support almost as much as to his own great merits that Westcott was elected to the chair on 1 November 1870. Westcott now occupied a position for which he was suited. He played a leading part in raising the standard of theological study in the University. Supported by his friends Lightfoot and Hort, he reformed the regulations for degrees in divinity and was responsible for the formation and first revision of the new theology tripos. He planned lectures and organised the new Divinity School and Library. He worked hard and forwent many of the privileges of a university career so that his studies might be more continuous and that he might see more of his students. Lectures His lectures were generally on Biblical subjects. His Commentaries on St John's Gospel (1881), on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889), and the Epistles of St John (1883), resulted from his public lectures. One of his most valuable works, The Gospel of Life (1892), a study of Christian doctrine, incorporated the materials upon which he delivered a series of more private and esoteric lectures on week-day evenings. Lecturing was an intense strain to him, but his influence was immense: to attend one of Westcott's lectures was an experience which encouraged those to whom the references to Origen or Rupert of Deutz were unintelligible. New Testament textual studies Between 1870 and 1881, Westcott was also continually engaged in text critical work for an edition of the New Testament and, simultaneously, in the preparation of a new text in conjunction with Hort. The years in which Westcott, Lightfoot and Hort could thus meet frequently and naturally for the discussion of the work in which they were all three so deeply engrossed formed a happy and privileged period in their lives. In the year 1881, there appeared the famous Westcott and Hort text of the New Testament, upon which had been expended nearly thirty years of incessant labour. Educational reformer The reforms in the regulations for degrees in divinity, the formation and first revision of the new theological tripos, the inauguration of the Cambridge Mission to Delhi and the subsequent founding of St. Stephen's College, Delhi, the institution of the Church Society (for the discussion of theological and ecclesiastical questions by the younger men), the meetings for the divinity faculty, the organisation of the new Divinity School and Library and, later, the institution of the Cambridge Clergy Training School (renamed Westcott House in 1901 in his honour), were all, in a very real degree, the result of Westcott's energy and influence as Regius professor. To this list should also be added the Oxford and Cambridge preliminary examination for candidates for holy orders, with which he was from the first most closely identified. The departure of Lightfoot to become Bishop of Durham in 1879 was a great blow to Westcott. Nevertheless, it resulted in bringing him into still greater prominence. He was compelled to take the lead in matters where Lightfoot's more practical nature had previously been predominant. Canonry at Westminster Abbey In 1883, Westcott was elected to a professorial fellowship at King's. Shortly afterwards, having previously resigned his canonry at Peterborough, he was appointed by the crown to a canonry at Westminster Abbey, and accepted the position of examining chaplain to Archbishop Benson. His little edition of the Paragraph Psalter (1879), arranged for the use of choirs, and his lectures on the Apostles' Creed, entitled Historic Faith (1883), are reminiscences of his vacations spent at Peterborough. He held his canonry at Westminster in conjunction with the regius professorship. The strain of the joint work was very heavy, and the intensity of the interest and study which he brought to bear upon his share in the labours of the Ecclesiastical Courts Commission, of which he had been appointed a member, added to his burden. Preaching at Westminster Abbey gave him an opportunity of dealing with social questions. His sermons were generally portions of a series; and to this period belong the volumes Christus Consummator (1886) and Social Aspects of Christianity (1887). Westcott's presidency of the Christian Social Union from 1889 did much to draw mainstream, respectable churchgoers into calling for justice for the poor and unemployed in the face of the predominant laissez-faire economic policies. Bishop of Durham In March 1890, he was nominated to follow in the steps of his beloved friend Lightfoot, who had died in December 1889. His election was confirmed by Robert Crosthwaite, Bishop of Beverley (acting as commissioner for the Archbishop of York) on 30 April at York Minster and he was consecrated on 1 May at Westminster Abbey by William Thompson, Archbishop of York, Hort being the preacher, and enthroned at Durham Cathedral on 15 May. Contrary to his reputation as recluse and a mystic, he took a practical interest in the mining population of Durham and in the shipping and artisan industries of Sunderland and Gateshead. On occasion in 1892 he succeeded in bringing to a peaceful solution a long and bitter strike which had divided the masters and men in the Durham collieries. He has been described as a Christian socialist and was a staunch supporter of the co-operative movement. He was practically the founder of the Christian Social Union. He continually insisted upon the necessity of promoting the cause of foreign missions; four of his sons went on to do missionary work for the Church in India. He was energetic to the very end, but during the last two or three years of his life he aged considerably. His wife died suddenly in May 1901, and he dedicated to her memory his last book, Lessons from Work (1901). He preached a farewell sermon to the miners in Durham Cathedral at their annual festival on 20 July. Then came a short, sudden and fatal illness. He was buried in the chapel of Auckland Castle. Family Westcott married, in 1852, Sarah Louisa Mary Whithard (ca 1830–1901), daughter of Thomas Middlemore Whithard, of Bristol. Mrs Westcott was for many years deeply interested in foreign missionary work. She became an invalid in her later years, and died on 28 May 1901. They had seven sons and three daughters, including Frederick, who followed his father into the ministry in the Church of England, was headmaster of Sherborne School, Archdeacon of Norwich, and author of multiple books on the Letters of Saint Paul; George, Bishop of Lucknow; and Foss, who became Bishop of Calcutta and Metropolitan of India. Legacy and influence Westcott was not a narrow specialist. He loved poetry, music and art. His literary sympathies were wide. He would never tire of praising Euripides, and studied the writings of Robert Browning. He was also said to be a talented draughtsman, and used often to say that if he had not taken orders he would have become an architect. He followed with delight the development of natural science studies at Cambridge. He spared no pains to be accurate, or to widen the basis of his thought. Thus he devoted one summer vacation to the careful analysis of Auguste Comte's Politique positive. He studied assiduously The Sacred Books of the East, and earnestly contended that no systematic view of Christianity could afford to ignore the philosophy of other religions. The outside world was wont to regard him as a mystic; and the mystical, or sacramental, view of life enters, it is true, very largely into his teaching. He had in this respect many points of similarity with the Cambridge Platonists of the 17th century, and with F. D. Maurice, for whom he had profound regard. An amusing instance of his unworldliness was his observation that, "I never went to the Derby. Once, though, I nearly did: I happened to be passing through Derby, that very day". He was a strong supporter of Church reform, especially in the direction of obtaining larger powers for the laity. He kept himself aloof from all party strife. He describes himself when he says: His theological work assigned great importance to Divine Revelation in Holy Scripture and in the teaching of history. His own studies have largely contributed in England to their current understanding of the doctrines of the Resurrection and the Incarnation. His work in conjunction with Hort upon the Greek text of the New Testament will endure as what is thought to be one of the greatest achievements of English Biblical criticism. The principles which are explained in Hort's introduction to the text had been arrived at after years of elaborate investigation and continual correspondence and discussion between the two friends. The place which it almost at once took among scientific scholars in Britain and throughout Europe was a recognition of the great advance which it represented in the use and classification of ancient authorities. His commentaries rank with Lightfoot's as the best type of Biblical exegesis produced by the English Church in the 19th century. A portrait of Westcott by William Edwards Miller is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge. Brooke Foss Westcott is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 27 July. Controversy Some American fundamentalists have denounced Westcott's and Hort's Greek text of the Bible as corrupt. Most of these critics subscribe to the King James Only movement. King James Only author Gail Riplinger quotes them in her book New Age Bible Versions. In it, she accuses Westcott of being involved in the occult. However, Westcott himself wrote, Works The following is a bibliography of Westcott's more important writings, giving the date of the first editions: Elements of the Gospel Harmony (1851) A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament (1855; revised 1875) Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles (1859) Introduction to the Study of the Gospels (1860; revised 1866) The Bible in the Church (1864) The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866; revised 1879) A General View of the History of the English Bible (1868; revised by W A Wright 1905) Christian Life Manifold and One (1869) On the religious office of the universities (1873) Paragraph Psalter for the Use of Choirs (1879) Commentary on the Gospel of St John (1881) Commentary on the Epistles of St John (1883) The Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882) The Historic Faith : short lectures on the Apostles' Creed (1885) The Revelation of the Father: short lectures on the titles of the Lord in the Gospel of St John (1884) Some Thoughts from the Ordinal (1884) Christus Consummator (1886) Social Aspects of Christianity (1887) The Victory of the Cross: Sermons in Holy Week (1888) Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889) From Strength to Strength (1890) Essays in the History of Religious Thought in the West (1891) The Gospel of Life: thoughts introductory to the study of Christian doctrine (1892) The Incarnation and Common Life (1893) The Gospel According to St. John (1896) Some Lessons of the Revised Version of the New Testament (1897) Christian Aspects of Life (1897) Lessons from Work (1901) Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians: the Greek text (1906) The Two Empires : the Church and the World (1909) See also List of New Testament papyri List of New Testament uncials References Sources Further reading External links 1825 births 1901 deaths 19th-century Church of England bishops 19th-century Anglican theologians 19th-century English Christian theologians Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Anglo-Catholic 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206505	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Waldeck	Jean-Frédéric Waldeck	Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck (March 16, 1766? – April 30, 1875) was a French antiquarian, cartographer, artist and explorer. He was a man of talent and accomplishment, but his love of self-promotion and refusal to let the truth get in the way of a good story leave some aspects of his life in mystery. At various times Waldeck said that he was born in Paris, Prague, or Vienna, and at other times claimed to be a German, Austrian or British citizen. He often claimed the title of count and occasionally that of duke or baron, but these cannot be verified. Waldeck said he had traveled to South Africa at age 19 and thereafter had begun a career in exploration. He claimed to have returned to France and studied art as a student of Jacques-Louis David. He said he had traveled to Egypt with Napoleon's expedition. None of this has been independently verified; indeed most of Waldeck's autobiography before about 1820 (including his given birthdate) is undocumented and his name is absent from records of various early expeditions he claimed to have been on. Waldeck is remembered primarily for two actions. The first is republishing the notorious set of pornographic prints titled I Modi. The second is the exploration of Mexico and the publication of many examples of Maya and Aztec sculpture. Unfortunately, errors in his illustrations fostered misconceptions about Mesoamerican civilizations and contributed to Mayanism. He was active up until his death, at the claimed age of 109 years 45 days. He supposedly died of a heart attack while eying a beautiful woman near the Champs-Élysées in Paris. I Modi The I Modi prints are highly pornographic and accompanied sonnets by Pietro Aretino. The original prints were published by the engraver Marcantonio Raimondi in the 16th century allegedly from paintings by Giulio Romano. The publication caused a furor in Rome, and Pope Clement VII ordered that all copies be destroyed. As such, there is no known original printing of I Modi in existence. What has survived is a series of fragments in the British Museum, two copies of a single print, and a woodcut copy from the 16th century. Waldeck claimed to have found a set of tracings of the I Modi prints in a convent near Palenque in Mexico. His story is dubious because there is no such convent. However, we know that he saw the fragments now in the British Museum because the fragments can be matched to his drawings. Mexican illustrations Waldeck's first contact with the art of ancient Mesoamerica was when he was hired by the publisher Henry Berthoud to prepare some plates for an 1822 book entitled Description of the Ruins of an Ancient City. This book was an English translation of the 1787 report on Palenque by Antonio del Río which had been commissioned for Charles III of Spain and then sat unpublished in the National Archives of Spain. Waldeck's engravings were much more beautiful and artistic than the original drawings he worked from, and gave the monuments a decidedly Egyptian look, in line with his patron's views that the ancient Mesoamericans were the Lost Tribes of Israel. In 1825, he was hired as a hydraulic engineer by an English mining company and went to Mexico. He did not last long at this job, and after his failure he explored the Pre-Columbian ruins of the country, living in the ruined Palenque between May 1832 and July 1833. After that, in 1834, he was hired by Lord Kingsborough to travel to Uxmal and make drawings and architectural reconstructions. Some of these were "fanciful in the extreme." In 1838, Waldeck published Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan pendant les années 1834 et 1836 (Paris), a volume of illustrations of Mérida, Yucatán and Maya ruins, including those at Uxmal. Dedicated to Lord Kingsborough, this book provided what Waldeck believed was further support for connections between the ancient Maya and ancient Egypt. His illustration of the Pyramid of the Magician at Uxmal, for example, makes it look similar Egyptian pyramids. In 1839, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Waldeck's illustrations of Palenque were chosen to accompany Monuments anciens du Mexique (Palenque, et autres ruines de l'ancienne civilisation du Mexique) (1866) by Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg. However, just as his earlier illustrations had implied connections between the ancient Maya and ancient Egypt, the ones included with Brasseur de Bourbourg's text invoked the Classical antiquity of ancient Greece and Rome. His illustrations of panels of Maya script in the Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque included clear depictions of heads of elephants (now known to be erroneous embellishments). This fueled speculation about contact between the ancient Maya and Asia and the role of the mythical lost continent of Atlantis as a common link between ancient civilizations of the Old and New Worlds. Waldeck published numerous lithographs of what he had come across. His last set of prints was published in 1866 when he celebrated his centennial. References Further reading Baudez, C. F., 1993: Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, peintre: le premier explorateur des ruines mayas. Hazan, Paris. Brasseur de Bourbourg, É. C., 1866: Monuments anciens de Mexique: Palenqué et autres ruines de l'anc. civilisation du Mexique, Paris. (Illustrated by Waldeck.) Brunhouse, Robert L., 1973: In Search of the Maya: The First Archaeologists. University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque. (One chapter on Waldeck.) Cline, Howard F., 1947: The Apocryphal Early Career of J. F. de Waldeck, Pioneer Americanist. Acta Americana. Tome V, pp. 278–299. Del Rio, A., 1822: Report of Antonio Del Rio to Don Jose Estacheria, Brigadier, Governor and Commandant General of the Kingdom of Guatemala, Etc. In Description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near Palenque, in the kingdom of Guatemala, pp. 1–21. H. Berthoud and Suttaby Evance and Fox, London. (Illustrated by Waldeck.) Lawner, L., 1988: I Modi: the sixteen pleasures: an erotic album of the Italian Renaissance:Giulio Romano, Marcantonio Raimondi, Pietro Aretino, and Count Jean-Frederic-Maximilien de Waldeck. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Le Fur, Y., 2006: D'un regard l'autre: histoire des regards européens sur l'Afrique, l'Amérique et l'Océanie. Musée du quai Branly, Paris. (Exhibition catalog that includes paintings by Waldeck.) Parsons, L. A. and Jay I. Kislak Foundation., 1993: Columbus to Catherwood, 1494-1844 : 350 years of historic book graphics depicting the islands, Indians, and archaeology of the West Indies, Florida, and Mexico. Kislak bibliographic series ; publication 1. Jay I. Kislak Foundation Inc., Miami Lakes, Fla. (Includes book illustrations by Waldeck.) Smith, Mary Rebecca Darby., 1878: Recollections of two distinguished persons : la Marquise de Boissy and the Count de Waldeck. J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1878. (Memoir of encounters with Waldeck. Book digitized at Internet Archive.) Thompson, John Eric, 1927: The Elephant Heads in the Waldeck Manuscripts. Scientific Monthly, No. 25, pp. 392–398. New York. External links Waldeck on emuseum.mnsu.edu Reed College web site including all the images of Uxmal in Waldeck's 1838 "Voyage pittoresque et archeólogique" Waldeck's erotic drawings at the British Museum "Brief Encounters with Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck" at the Public Domain Review 1766 births 1875 deaths French centenarians Men centenarians French Mesoamericanists Mayanists Mesoamerican artists 19th-century Mesoamericanists Members of the American Antiquarian Society Longevity claims	[ -0.23864910006523132, 0.4639642834663391, -0.4773077964782715, 0.6133601069450378, 0.6364841461181641, 0.5669780373573303, 0.7693793177604675, 0.14608049392700195, -0.3438127040863037, -0.7326892018318176, -0.3796623945236206, -0.030320269986987114, 0.10702895373106003, 0.45215341448783875, 0.24019689857959747, -0.060826707631349564, -0.07562647759914398, -0.24192267656326294, -0.5785071849822998, -0.17561589181423187, -0.3799188435077667, -0.4587914049625397, 0.09742996841669083, 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206506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris%20Motors	Morris Motors	Morris Motors Limited was a British privately owned motor vehicle manufacturing company formed in 1919 to take over the assets of William Morris's WRM Motors Limited and continue production of the same vehicles. By 1926 its production represented 42 per cent of British car manufacture—a remarkable expansion rate attributed to William Morris's practice of buying in major as well as minor components and assembling them in his own factory. Self-financing through his enormous profits Morris did borrow some money from the public in 1926 and later shared some of Morris Motors' ownership with the public in 1936 when the new capital was used by Morris Motors to buy many of his other privately held businesses. Though it merged into larger organisations in 1952, the Morris name remained in use until 1984, when British Leyland's Austin Rover Group decided to concentrate on the more popular Austin brand as well as expanding the more upmarket Rover brand. Until 2014, Morris Oxford vehicles (based on the 1954-59 Oxford) were manufactured with periodic enhancements in India by Hindustan Motors, and sold well there, even being imported to Britain in small numbers during the 1990s. Part of Morris's manufacturing complex at Cowley, Oxford is now BMW Group's Plant Oxford, factory of the MINI marque since its launch in 2001. The Morris trademark is currently owned by the China-based automotive company SAIC after being transferred from bankrupt subsidiary Nanjing Automotive. The Morris Commercial JE, an electric van with a 1940s design, was unveiled in November 2019 ahead of a planned launch in 2021 under the re-launched Morris Commercial marque, well over 30 years after the Morris brand had disappeared. History Early history WRM Motors Ltd began in 1912 when bicycle manufacturer William Morris moved on from the sale, hire, and repair of cars to car manufacturing. He planned a new light car assembled from bought-in components. In this way he was able to retain ownership by keeping within the bounds of his own capital resources. A factory was opened in 1913 at former Oxford Military College at Cowley, Oxford, United Kingdom where Morris's first car, the 2-seat Morris Oxford "Bullnose" was assembled. Nearly all the major components were bought in. In 1914 a coupé and van were added to the line-up, but the Bullnose chassis was too short and the 1018 cc engine too small to make a much-needed 4-seat version of the car. White and Poppe, who made the engine, were unable to supply the volume of units that Morris required, so Morris turned to Continental of Detroit, Michigan for the supply of a 1548 cc engine. Gearboxes and axles were also sourced in the US. In spite of the outbreak of the First World War the orders were maintained and, from mid-1915 a new larger car, the 2-seat and 4-seat Morris Cowley was introduced. Inter-war years After the war the Continental engine was no longer available so Morris arranged for Hotchkiss of France to make a near copy in their Coventry factory. This was used to power new versions of the basic Cowley and more up-market Morris Oxford cars. With a reputation for producing high-quality cars and a policy of cutting prices, Morris's business continued to grow and increase its share of the British market overtaking Ford to become in 1924 the UK's biggest car manufacturer, holding a 51% share of the home market and remaining enormously profitable. Possessed of a very large cash income Morris had a policy of personally buying up suppliers' businesses. For example, in 1923 he bought Hotchkiss's Coventry business which later became Morris Engines branch. He also brought in F G Woollard which became Morris Commercial Cars to lead the re-organization of their engine production from batch to flow, thus increasing output from less than 300 units per week to 1200. By 1924 the factory was making 2000 units a week with only a small increase in work space and labour force. Cecil Kimber, head of Morris's own original 1909-founded Morris Garage sales hire and repair operation in Oxford, began building sporting versions of Morris cars in 1924 labelling them MG. They were so successful a separate MG factory was soon established south of Oxford in Abingdon, Oxfordshire. Having admired Budd's all-steel bodies Morris founded The Pressed Steel Company of Great Britain Limited in 1926 as a joint venture with Edward G Budd Manufacturing Company - Budd International of Philadelphia, USA. Pressed Steel's factory was located over the road from Morris's factory at Cowley and supplied Morris and many other motor manufacturers. Morris withdrew from the venture in mid-1930. Budd sold their share to British interests at the beginning of 1936. The small car market was entered in 1928 with the Leonard Lord-designed Morris Minor, using an 847 cc engine from Morris's newly acquired Wolseley Motors. Lord had been sent there to modernise the works and Wolseley's products. The Minor was to provide the base for the MG Midgets. This timely spread into the small car market helped Morris through the economic depression of the 1930s. At the 1934 London Motor Show the Minor was replaced by the Morris Eight, a direct response to the Ford Model Y and, though Leonard Lord's handiwork, heavily based on it. In 1932 W R Morris appointed Lord Managing Director of Morris Motors Limited and Lord swept through the Morris works, updating the production methods, introducing a proper moving assembly line and creating Europe's largest integrated car plant. But Morris and Lord fell out, and after 15 years Lord left in 1936—threatening to "take Cowley apart brick by brick". Lord moved to Austin and they were to meet again in BMC—Morris, as Lord Nuffield, its first chairman. Lord succeeded him. As of 1 July 1935 Morris Motors acquired from W R Morris, now Lord Nuffield, in exchange for a further issue of ordinary shares to him, the car manufacturing businesses of Wolseley Motors Limited and The MG Car Company Limited. A separate private company, Wolseley Aero Engines Limited, was then formed to continue the development of his aviation interests. In 1936 Lord Nuffield sold Morris Commercial Cars Limited, his commercial vehicle enterprise, to Morris Motors. In 1938 William Morris, Baron Nuffield was raised to Viscount Nuffield. The same year he transferred his newly acquired Riley car business to Morris Motors Limited for £100. Iron Lung Visiting London in 1938 during a polio epidemic Lord Nuffield saw a Both Iron Lung in use. He commissioned an improved design which could be produced using the techniques of car assembly and arranged production of approximately 1700 machines at the Cowley works, which he donated to hospitals throughout all parts of Britain and the British Empire. Both-Nuffield respirators were able to be produced by the thousand at about one-thirteenth the cost of the American design. Significant subsidiaries Second World War In the summer of 1938 Morris agreed to build equip and manage at government expense a huge new factory at Castle Bromwich specifically to manufacture Supermarine Spitfires. with intention to build bombers later. Nuffield's management failed, no Spitfires were delivered by May 1940 despite expectation of 60 a day. The Ministry of Aircraft Production took over the plant putting in managers from Supermarine and placing it under Vickers-Armstrongs (of which Supermarine was a part) supervision. After a major air raid damaged the Morris Bodies factory, the premises switched to the production of jerry cans, producing millions of these versatile containers for use during the rest of the war and following the ending of hostilities. The Cowley plant was turned over to aircraft repair and production of Tiger Moth pilot trainers, as well as "mine sinkers" based on a design produced at the same plant during the First World War. Post-Second World War production Production restarted after the Second World War, with the pre-war Eight and Ten designs. In 1948 the Eight was replaced by what is probably the most famous Morris car, the Morris Minor designed by Alec Issigonis (who later went on to design the Mini) and reusing the small car name from 1928. The Ten was replaced by a new 1948 Morris Oxford MO, styled like a larger version of the Minor. A later Morris Oxford (the 1956 Morris Oxford III) was the basis for the design of India's Hindustan Ambassador, which continued in production until 2014. They used six engines and five (and a half) car bodies, of which the "specialist" three were obsolescent, the rest very closely related if not identical. BMC In 1952 the Nuffield Organization merged with its old rival the Austin Motor Company to form the British Motor Corporation (BMC). Nuffield brought the Morris, MG, Riley and Wolseley marques into the merger. Leonard Lord was in charge, which led to Austin's domination of the organisation. Badge-engineering was important to BMC and for many years the various marques would be seen on several families of similar vehicles. British Leyland In 1966, BMC acquired Jaguar to create British Motor Holdings (BMH), which subsequently merged with Leyland Motors in 1968 to form the British Leyland Motor Corporation (BLMC), and subsequently, in 1975, the nationalised British Leyland Limited (BL). The Cowley complex remained the second largest single facility in the BL empire (after Longbridge), but BL's history was a turbulent one – BMC was close to financial ruin, and the newly installed Leyland management failed to turn its fortunes around. With the replacement for the Morris Marina and Leyland Princess being delayed into the 1980s, the Marina was restyled in 1980 to become the Morris Ital, while the Princess was restyled for 1982 to become the Austin Ambassador. British Leyland later confirmed that the Morris brand would be discontinued on the all-new replacement for these two cars, which was finally launched in April 1984 as the Austin Montego. The Morris Ital (essentially a facelifted Marina) was the last Morris-badged passenger car, with production ending in the summer of 1984. The last Morris of all was a van variant of the Austin Metro, before the Morris brand was finally completely abandoned in 1987. After much restructuring of BL in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the former Morris plant at Cowley and its sister site the former Pressed Steel plant were turned over to the production of Austin and Rover-badged vehicles. They continued to be used by BL's Austin Rover Group and its successor the Rover Group, which was eventually bought by BMW, and then by a management consortium, leading to the creation of MG Rover. None of the former Morris buildings now exist. British Aerospace sold the site in 1992; it was then demolished and replaced with the Oxford Business Park. The adjacent former Pressed Steel site (now known as Plant Oxford) is owned and operated by BMW, who use it to assemble the new MINI. The rights to the Morris marque are currently owned by Nanjing Automobile (Group) Corporation. The history of William Morris's business is commemorated in the Morris Motors Museum at the Oxford Bus Museum. Post-Morris cars to have been built at Cowley include the Austin/MG Maestro, Austin/MG Montego, Rover 600, Rover 800 and (for a short time) the Rover 75. Badge The Morris badge shows an ox fording the River Isis, the traditional emblem of William Morris's home town of Oxford, used in the coat of arms of Oxford. Car models (excludes light vans) 1913–1926 - Morris Oxford bullnose (12 or 14 hp) 1915–1931 - Morris Cowley bullnose and flatnose (12 or 14 hp) 1923–1924 - Morris Oxford Six F series (18 hp) 1926–1930 - Morris Oxford flatnose (12 or 14 hp) 1926–1929 - Morris Oxford 15.9 and 16/40 (16 hp) 1927–1929 - Morris Six (18 hp) 1929–1935 - Morris Isis (18 or 25 hp) 1928–1932 - Morris Minor (8 hp) 1929–1935 - Morris Oxford Six, Sixteen and Twenty (16 or 20 hp) 1931–1934 - Morris Cowley (12 or 14 hp) 1931–1933 - Morris Major (15 hp then 14 hp) 1932–1948 - Morris Ten (10 hp) 1933–1935 - Morris Ten Six (12 hp) 1933–1935 - Morris Cowley Six (14 hp) 1933–1939 - Morris "Big Six" Sixteen, Eighteen, Twenty-One, and Twenty-Five 1934–1939 - Morris Twelve (12 hp) 1935–1939 - Morris Fourteen (14 hp) 1935–1948 - Morris Eight (8 hp) 1948–1952 - Morris Minor MM (8 hp) 1952–1956 - Morris Minor 1956–1971 - Morris Minor 1000 1948–1954 - Morris Oxford MO (14 hp) 1948–1953 - Morris Six MS 1954–1956 - Morris Oxford Series II 1954–1959 - Morris Cowley 1955–1958 - Morris Isis 1956–1959 - Morris Oxford Series III 1957–1960 - Morris Marshal (BMC Australia) 1958–1964 - Morris Major (BMC Australia) 1959–1971 - Morris Oxford Farina 1959–1969 - Morris Mini Minor 1964–1968 - Morris Mini Moke (United Kingdom) 1966–1973 - Morris Mini Moke (Australia) 1962–1971 - Morris 1100 1967–1971 - Morris 1300 1968–???? - Morris 11/55 (South African market variant of Morris 1100) 1969–1972 - Morris 1500 (Australia) 1966–1975 - Morris 1800 1972–1975 - Morris 2200 1969–1972 - Morris Nomad (Australia) 1971–1980 - Morris Marina 1980–1984 - Morris Ital Morris-badged tractors See also MG List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom Note References External links Catalogue of the Morris Motors archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick Car manufacturers of the United Kingdom Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United Kingdom Former defence companies of the 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206507	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac%20Todhunter	Isaac Todhunter	Isaac Todhunter FRS (23 November 1820 – 1 March 1884), was an English mathematician who is best known today for the books he wrote on mathematics and its history. Life and work The son of George Todhunter, a Nonconformist minister, and Mary née Hume, he was born at Rye, Sussex. He was educated at Hastings, where his mother had opened a school after the death of his father in 1826. He became an assistant master at a school at Peckham, attending at the same time evening classes at the University College, London where he was influenced by Augustus De Morgan. In 1842 he obtained a mathematical scholarship and graduated as B.A. at London University, where he was awarded the gold medal on the M.A. examination. About this time he became mathematical master at a school at Wimbledon. In 1844 Todhunter entered St John's College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler in 1848, and gained the first Smith's Prize and the Burney Prize; and in 1849 he was elected to a fellowship, and began his life of college lecturer and private tutor. In 1862 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1865 a member of the Mathematical Society of London. In 1871 he gained the Adams Prize and was elected to the council of the Royal Society. He was elected honorary fellow of St John's in 1874, having resigned his fellowship on his marriage in 1864. In 1880 his eyesight began to fail, and shortly afterwards he was attacked with paralysis. He is buried in the Mill Road cemetery, Cambridge. Personal life Todhunter married 13 August 1864 Louisa Anna Maria, eldest daughter of Captain (afterwards Admiral) George Davies, R.N. (at that time head of the county constabulary force). He died on 1 March 1884, at his residence, 6 Brookside, Cambridge. A mural tablet and medallion portrait were placed in the ante-chapel of his college by his widow, who, with four sons and one daughter, survived him. He was a sound Latin and Greek scholar, familiar with French, German, Spanish, Italian, and also Russian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. He was well versed in the history of philosophy, and on three occasions acted as examiner for the moral sciences tripos. Selected writings Treatise on the Differential Calculus and the Elements of the Integral Calculus (1852, 6th ed., 1873) Treatise on Analytical Statics (1853, 4th ed., 1874) Treatise on the Integral Calculus (1857, 4th ed., 1874) Treatise on Algebra (1858, 6th ed., 1871) Treatise on differential Calculus Treatise on Plane Coordinate Geometry (1858, 3rd ed., 1861) Plane Trigonometry (1859, 4th ed., 1869) Spherical Trigonometry (1859) History of the Calculus of Variations (1861) Theory of Equations (1861, 2nd ed. 1875) Examples of Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions (1858, 3rd ed., 1873) Mechanics for Beginners (1867) A History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability from the Time of Pascal to that of Laplace (1865) Researches in the Calculus of Variations (1871) History of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and Figure of the Earth from Newton to Laplace (1873) Elementary Treatise on Laplace's, Lamé's and Bessel's Functions (1875) A history of the theory of elasticity and of the strength of materials from Galilei to the present time Vol I PtI Vol II Pt II Natural Philosophy for Beginners (1877). An unfinished work, The History of the Theory of Elasticity, was edited and published posthumously in 1886 by Karl Pearson. A biographical work on William Whewell was published in 1876, in addition to many original papers in scientific journals. Todhunter wrote textbooks on algebra and trigonometry, and a revision of the translation by Robert Simson of Euclid's Elements, which, with an introduction by Thomas Little Heath, was republished by Everyman in 1933. Todhunter's major historical works include a history of the Probability theory from the time of Blaise Pascal to that of Pierre-Simon Laplace first published in 1865. Some of these are available at Isaac Todhunter's publications at Google Books. References Attribution Further reading Obituary notices: Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. (1884) and Proc. Roy. Soc. 37, p. xxvvii (1884) A digital version of the above obituary is at the Gallica site. External links People from Rye, East Sussex 1820 births 1884 deaths Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Alumni of the University of London Fellows of the Royal Society Senior Wranglers 19th-century English mathematicians Historians of mathematics Euclid	[ 0.02974163182079792, 0.6829205751419067, -0.5974709391593933, -0.46490907669067383, 0.08991960436105728, 0.8848690986633301, 0.8571580648422241, -0.30913352966308594, 0.027089064940810204, -0.19551362097263336, -0.2639632821083069, -0.052245039492845535, -0.2915418744087219, 0.2246135026216507, -0.12356989830732346, 0.34434521198272705, -0.365743488073349, -0.6197656989097595, -0.6720924377441406, -0.12767812609672546, 0.041591063141822815, 0.022121479734778404, 0.2024366706609726, -0.37557917833328247, -0.33615511655807495, -0.08205205202102661, 0.17169880867004395, -0.38332170248031616, 0.009576416574418545, 0.3287707269191742, 0.26286348700523376, 0.33967503905296326, -0.07976310700178146, -0.037340834736824036, 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206508	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocytosis	Phagocytosis	Phagocytosis () is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte. In a multicellular organism's immune system, phagocytosis is a major mechanism used to remove pathogens and cell debris. The ingested material is then digested in the phagosome. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and small mineral particles are all examples of objects that may be phagocytized. Some protozoa use phagocytosis as means to obtain nutrients.The eating process of cell is called phagocytosis. History Phagocytosis was first noted by Canadian physician William Osler (1876), and later studied and named by Élie Metchnikoff (1880, 1883). In immune system Phagocytosis is one main mechanisms of the innate immune defense. It is one of the first processes responding to infection, and is also one of the initiating branches of an adaptive immune response. Although most cells are capable of phagocytosis, some cell types perform it as part of their main function. These are called 'professional phagocytes.' Phagocytosis is old in evolutionary terms, being present even in invertebrates. Professional phagocytic cells Neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, osteoclasts and eosinophils can be classified as professional phagocytes. The first three have the greatest role in immune response to most infections. The role of neutrophils is patrolling the bloodstream and rapid migration to the tissues in large numbers only in case of infection. There they have direct microbicidal effect by phagocytosis. After ingestion, neutrophils are efficient in intracellular killing of pathogens. Neutrophils phagocytose mainly via the Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1 and 3. The microbicidal effect of neutrophils is due to a large repertoire of molecules present in pre-formed granules. Enzymes and other molecules prepared in these granules are proteases, such as collagenase, gelatinase or serine proteases, myeloperoxidase, lactoferrin and antibiotic proteins. Degranulation of these into the phagosome, accompanied by high reactive oxygen species production (oxidative burst) is highly microbicidal. Monocytes, and the macrophages that mature from them, leave blood circulation to migrate through tissues. There they are resident cells and form a resting barrier. Macrophages initiate phagocytosis by mannose receptors, scavenger receptors, Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1, 3 and 4. Macrophages are long-lived and can continue phagocytosis by forming new lysosomes. Dendritic cells also reside in tissues and ingest pathogens by phagocytosis. Their role is not killing or clearance of microbes, but rather breaking them down for antigen presentation to the cells of the adaptive immune system. Initiating receptors Receptors for phagocytosis can be divided into two categories by recognised molecules. The first, opsonic receptors, are dependent on opsonins. Among these are receptors that recognise the Fc part of bound IgG antibodies, deposited complement or receptors, that recognise other opsonins of cell or plasma origin. Non-opsonic receptors include lectin-type receptors, Dectin receptor, or scavenger receptors. Some phagocytic pathways require a second signal from pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activated by attachment to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which leads to NF-κB activation. Fcγ receptors Fcγ receptors recognise IgG coated targets. The main recognised part is the Fc fragment. The molecule of the receptor contain an intracellular ITAM domain or associates with an ITAM-containing adaptor molecule. ITAM domains transduce the signal from the surface of the phagocyte to the nucleus. For example, activating receptors of human macrophages are FcγRI, FcγRIIA, and FcγRIII. Fcγ receptor mediated phagocytosis includes formation of protrusions of the cell called a 'phagocytic cup' and activates an oxidative burst in neutrophils. Complement receptors These receptors recognise targets coated in C3b, C4b and C3bi from plasma complement. The extracellular domain of the receptors contains a lectin-like complement-binding domain. Recognition by complement receptors is not enough to cause internalisation without additional signals. In macrophages, the CR1, CR3 and CR4 are responsible for recognition of targets. Complement coated targets are internalised by 'sinking' into the phagocyte membrane, without any protrusions. Mannose receptors Mannose and other pathogen-associated sugars, such as fucose, are recognised by the mannose receptor. Eight lectin-like domains form the extracellular part of the receptor. The ingestion mediated by the mannose receptor is distinct in molecular mechanisms from Fcγ receptor or complement receptor mediated phagocytosis. Phagosome Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome is the organelle formed by phagocytosis of material. It then moves toward the centrosome of the phagocyte and is fused with lysosomes, forming a phagolysosome and leading to degradation. Progressively, the phagolysosome is acidified, activating degradative enzymes. Degradation can be oxygen-dependent or oxygen-independent. Oxygen-dependent degradation depends on NADPH and the production of reactive oxygen species. Hydrogen peroxide and myeloperoxidase activate a halogenating system, which leads to the creation of hypochlorite and the destruction of bacteria. Oxygen-independent degradation depends on the release of granules, containing enzymes such as lysozymes, and cationic proteins such as defensins. Other antimicrobial peptides are present in these granules, including lactoferrin, which sequesters iron to provide unfavourable growth conditions for bacteria. Other enzymes like hyaluronidase, lipase, collagenase, elastase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease also play an important role in preventing the spread of infection and degradation of essential microbial biomolecules leading to cell death. Leukocytes generate hydrogen cyanide during phagocytosis, and can kill bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens by generating several other toxic chemicals. Some bacteria, for example Treponema pallidum, Escheria coli and Staphylococcus aureus, are able to avoid phagocytosis by several mechanisms. In apoptosis Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as calreticulin, phosphatidylserine (from the inner layer of the plasma membrane), annexin A1, oxidised LDL and altered glycans. These molecules are recognised by receptors on the cell surface of the macrophage such as the phosphatidylserine receptor or by soluble (free-floating) receptors such as thrombospondin 1, GAS6, and MFGE8, which themselves then bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and alpha-v beta-3 integrin. Defects in apoptotic cell clearance is usually associated with impaired phagocytosis of macrophages. Accumulation of apoptotic cell remnants often causes autoimmune disorders; thus pharmacological potentiation of phagocytosis has a medical potential in treatment of certain forms of autoimmune disorders. In protists In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition which takes place by absorption. In some, such as amoeba, phagocytosis takes place by surrounding the target object with pseudopods, as in animal phagocytes. In humans, the amoebozoan Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells. Ciliates also engage in phagocytosis. In ciliates there is a specialized groove or chamber in the cell where phagocytosis takes place, called the cytostome or mouth. As in phagocytic immune cells, the resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes(food vacuoles) containing digestive enzymes, forming a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, and the released nutrients are diffused or transported into the cytosol for use in other metabolic processes. Mixotrophy can involve phagotrophic nutrition and phototrophic nutrition. See also Active transport Antigen presentation Antigen-presenting cell Emperipolesis Endosymbionts in protists Paracytophagy Phagoptosis Pinocytosis Residual body Cell wall References External links Cellular processes Articles containing video clips Phagocytes	[ 0.3038961589336395, 0.390990287065506, 0.010113736614584923, -0.2784298062324524, -0.025797441601753235, -0.16704688966274261, 0.5342674255371094, -0.05604010075330734, -0.39699816703796387, -0.30969977378845215, -0.18889905512332916, -0.60516357421875, -1.400760293006897, 0.4226987063884735, 0.4616759717464447, 0.25475117564201355, 0.41327235102653503, 0.8207924365997314, -0.18486849963665009, -0.5082862377166748, 0.060185521841049194, -0.1889885663986206, 0.3151727318763733, 0.0660630613565445, 0.24965746700763702, -0.3044899106025696, -0.04370824992656708, -0.10082320868968964, 0.5066745281219482, 0.16395840048789978, -0.07321927696466446, 0.12128307670354843, 0.2831604480743408, 0.23759548366069794, 0.42839643359184265, 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206509	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple%20living	Simple living	Simple living encompasses a number of different voluntary practices to simplify one's lifestyle. These may include, for example, reducing one's possessions, generally referred to as minimalism, or increasing self-sufficiency. Simple living may be characterized by individuals being satisfied with what they have rather than want. Although asceticism generally promotes living simply and refraining from luxury and indulgence, not all proponents of simple living are ascetics. Simple living is distinct from those living in forced poverty, as it is a voluntary lifestyle choice. Adherents may choose simple living for a variety of personal reasons, such as spirituality, health, increase in quality time for family and friends, work–life balance, personal taste, financial sustainability, increase in philanthropy, frugality, environmental sustainability, or reducing stress. Simple living can also be a reaction to materialism and conspicuous consumption. Some cite sociopolitical goals aligned with the environmentalist, anti-consumerist or anti-war movements, including conservation, degrowth, deep ecology, and tax resistance (anti-war). History Religious and spiritual A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living. Early examples include the Śramaṇa traditions of Iron Age India, Gautama Buddha, and biblical Nazirites. Traditions of simple living stretch back to antiquity, finding resonance with leaders such as Laozi, Confucius, Zarathustra, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad. These traditions were heavily influenced by both Mediterranean culture and Abrahamic ethics. Diogenes, a major figure in the ancient Greek philosophy of Cynicism, claimed that a simple life was necessary for virtue, and was said to have lived in a wine jar. Jesus is said to have lived a simple life. He is said to have encouraged his disciples "to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics." Similar to Jesus' statement, many notable religious individuals, such as Benedict of Nursia, Francis of Assisi, Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, Rabindranath Tagore, Albert Schweitzer, and Mahatma Gandhi, have claimed that spiritual inspiration led them to a simple living lifestyle. Sufism in the Muslim world emerged and grew as a mystical, somewhat hidden tradition in the mainstream Sunni and Shia denominations of Islam, state Eric Hanson and Karen Armstrong, likely in reaction to "the growing worldliness of Umayyad and Abassid societies". Sufism was adopted and then grew particularly in the frontier areas of Islamic states, where the asceticism of its fakirs and dervishes appealed to populations already used to the monastic traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. Sufis were highly influential and greatly successful in spreading Islam between the 10th and 19th centuries, particularly to the furthest outposts of the Muslim world in the Middle East and North Africa, the Balkans and Caucasus, the Indian subcontinent, and finally Central, Eastern, and Southeast Asia. Some scholars have argued that Sufi Muslim ascetics and mystics played a decisive role in converting the Turkic peoples to Islam between the 10th and 12th centuries and Mongol invaders in Persia during the 13th and 14th centuries, mainly because of the similarities between the extreme, ascetic Sufis (fakirs and dervishes) and the Shamans of the traditional Turco-Mongol religion. Plain people typically belonged to Christian groups that have practised lifestyles with excluded forms of wealth or technology for religious or philosophical reasons. Such Christian groups include the Shakers, Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Amana Colonies, Bruderhof, Old German Baptist Brethren, Harmony Society, and some Quakers. A Quaker belief called Testimony of simplicity states that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Some tropes about complete exclusion of technology in these groups may not be accurate though. The Amish and other groups do use some modern technology, after assessing its impact on the community. The 18th-century French Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau strongly praised the simple way of life in many of his writings, especially in two books: Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750) and Discourse on Inequality (1754). Secular and political Epicureanism, based on the teachings of the Athens-based philosopher Epicurus, flourished from about the fourth century BC to the third century AD. Epicureanism upheld the untroubled life as the paradigm of happiness, made possible by carefully considered choices. Specifically, Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasure of partaking in it. He therefore concluded that what is necessary for happiness, bodily comfort, and life itself should be maintained at minimal cost, while all things beyond what is necessary for these should either be tempered by moderation or completely avoided. Henry David Thoreau, an American naturalist and author, is often considered to have made the classic secular statement advocating a life of simple and sustainable living in his book Walden (1854). Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of Walden Pond. In Victorian Britain, Henry Stephens Salt, an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of "Simplification, the saner method of living". Other British advocates of the simple life included Edward Carpenter, William Morris, and the members of the "Fellowship of the New Life". Carpenter popularised the phrase the "Simple Life" in his essay Simplification of Life in his England's Ideal (1887). C.R. Ashbee and his followers also practised some of these ideas, thus linking simplicity with the Arts and Crafts movement. British novelist John Cowper Powys advocated the simple life in his 1933 book A Philosophy of Solitude. John Middleton Murry and Max Plowman practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s. Irish poet Patrick Kavanagh championed a "right simplicity" philosophy based on ruralism in some of his work. George Lorenzo Noyes, a naturalist, mineralogist, development critic, writer, and artist, is known as the Thoreau of Maine. He lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Vanderbilt Agrarians of the Southern United States advocated a lifestyle and culture centered upon traditional and sustainable agrarian values as opposed to the progressive urban industrialism which dominated the Western world at that time. The Norwegian-American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen warned against the conspicuous consumption of the materialistic society with The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899); Richard Gregg coined the term "voluntary simplicity" in The Value of Voluntary Simplicity (1936). From the 1920s, a number of modern authors articulated both the theory and practice of living simply, among them Gandhian Richard Gregg, economists Ralph Borsodi and Scott Nearing, anthropologist-poet Gary Snyder, and utopian fiction writer Ernest Callenbach. E. F. Schumacher argued against the notion that "bigger is better" in Small Is Beautiful (1973); and Duane Elgin continued the promotion of the simple life in Voluntary Simplicity (1981). The Australian academic Ted Trainer practices and writes about simplicity, and established The Simplicity Institute at Pigface Point, some 20 km from the University of New South Wales to which it is attached. A secular set of nine values was developed with the Ethify Yourself project in Austria, having a simplified life style in mind and accompanied by an online book (2011). In the United States voluntary simplicity started to garner more public exposure through a movement in the late 1990s around a popular "simplicity" book, The Simple Living Guide City dwellers can also produce fresh home-grown fruit and vegetables in pot gardens or miniature indoor greenhouses. Tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, Swiss chard, peas, strawberries, and several types of herbs can all thrive in pots. Jim Merkel says "A person could sprout seeds. They are tasty, incredibly nutritious, and easy to grow... We grow them in wide-mouthed mason jars with a square of nylon window screen screwed under a metal ring". Farmer Matt Moore spoke on this issue: "How does it affect the consumer to know that broccoli takes 105 days to grow ahead? [...] The supermarket mode is one of plenty—it's always stocked. And that changes our sense of time. How long it takes to grow food—that's removed in the marketplace. They don't want you to think about how long it takes to grow, because they want you to buy right now". One way to change this viewpoint is also suggested by Mr. Moore. He placed a video installation in the produce section of a grocery store that documented the length of time it took to grow certain vegetables. This aimed to raise awareness in people of the length of time actually needed for gardens. The do it yourself ethic refers to the principle of undertaking necessary tasks oneself rather than having others, who are more skilled or experienced, complete them for you. Reconsidering technology People who practice simple living have diverse views on the role of technology. The American political activist Scott Nearing was skeptical about how humanity would use new technology, citing destructive inventions such as nuclear weapons. Those who eschew modern technology are often referred to as Luddites or neo-Luddites. Although simple living is often a secular pursuit, it may still involve reconsidering personal definitions of appropriate technology, as Anabaptist groups such as the Amish or Mennonites have done. Technological proponents see cutting-edge technologies as a way to make a simple lifestyle within mainstream culture easier and more sustainable. They argue that the internet can reduce an individual's carbon footprint through telecommuting and lower paper usage. Some have also calculated their energy consumption and have shown that one can live simply and in an emotionally satisfying way by using much less energy than is used in Western countries. Technologies they may embrace include computers, photovoltaic systems, wind and water turbines. Technological interventions that appear to simplify living may actually induce side effects elsewhere or at a future point in time. Evgeny Morozov warns that tools like the internet can facilitate mass surveillance and political repression. The book Green Illusions identifies how wind and solar energy technologies have hidden side effects and can actually increase energy consumption and entrench environmental harms over time. Authors of the book Techno-Fix criticize technological optimists for overlooking the limitations of technology in solving agricultural problems. Advertising is criticised for encouraging a consumerist mentality. Many advocates of simple living tend to agree that cutting out, or cutting down on, television viewing is a key ingredient in simple living. Some see the Internet, podcasting, community radio, or pirate radio as viable alternatives. Simplifying diet Another practice is the adoption of a simplified diet or a diet that may simplify domestic food production and consumption. In the United Kingdom, the Movement for Compassionate Living was formed by Kathleen and Jack Jannaway in 1984 to spread the message of veganism and promote simple living and self-reliance as a remedy against the exploitation of humans, animals, and the planet. Politics and activism Environmentalism Environmentalism is inspired by simple living, as harmony with nature is intrinsically dependent on a simple lifestyle. For example, Green parties often advocate simple living as a consequence of their "four pillars" or the "Ten Key Values" of the Green Party of the United States. This includes, in policy terms, their rejection of genetic engineering and nuclear power and other technologies they consider to be hazardous. The Greens' support for simplicity is based on the reduction in natural resource usage and environmental impact. This concept is expressed in Ernest Callenbach's "green triangle" of ecology, frugality and health. Many with similar views avoid involvement even with green politics as compromising simplicity, however, and advocate forms of green anarchism that attempt to implement these principles at a smaller scale, e.g. the ecovillage. Deep ecology, a belief that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans, proposes wilderness preservation, human population control and simple living. Anti-war The alleged relationship between economic growth and war, when fought for control and exploitation of natural and human resources, is considered a good reason for promoting a simple living lifestyle. Avoiding the perpetuation of the resource curse is a similar objective of many simple living adherents. Opposition to war has led peace activists, such as Ammon Hennacy and Ellen Thomas, to a form of tax resistance in which they reduce their income below the tax threshold by taking up a simple living lifestyle. These individuals believe that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical or destructive activities such as war, and paying taxes inevitably funds these activities. Arts The term Bohemianism has been used to describe a long tradition of both voluntary and involuntary poverty by artists who devote their time to artistic endeavors rather than paid labor. In May 2014, a story on NPR suggested that positive attitudes towards living in poverty for the sake of art are becoming less common among young American artists, and quoted one recent graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design as saying "her classmates showed little interest in living in garrets and eating ramen noodles." Degrowth The movement of degrowth appeared for the first time in 1972 in France as décroissance, although the ideas behind the movement have been around for centuries. In France, it started as a social movement in which protesters fought for car-free cities, meals in the streets, co-ops, and anti-advertising. The movement in relation to the environment suggests the conservation of natural spaces because of their inherent value, beyond that of the resources they provide. Degrowth also suggests that you cannot have ecological conservation and economic development. “Sustainable development” is an oxymoron and therefore, development should be halted altogether. Degrowth also criticizes the human need to collect and consume. Where economies must thrive based on consumer practices, degrowth suggests a rise in sharing, gift-giving, and reciprocation which fosters relationships and connection rather than self-centered buying. Thus, not only does degrowth suggest a political and economic change, but a change in values and practices of the society as a whole and aims for the individual to rediscover identity beyond economic bonds. The essence of degrowth is to add value and meaning back into life which is beyond the desire to work and accumulate. There are correlations between voluntary simplicity and happiness as well as correlations between the increase of emotional disorders and material gain. Degrowth also calls for a deeper democracy in which conversations about economic development are held but can split into two here with the other side proposing a completely new political head post-consumerism. This opposite way connotes strength coming from the internal society which “governs itself” and can check and challenge democracy. However, this can only exist with self-limitation. In terms of justice and considering trickle-down economics, degrowth calls for less competition, large-scale redistribution, and reducing massive amounts of wealth. When considering how to help the poor, additional wealth through economic development only changes the scale of poverty, though it does not eradicate it where economic status is based on comparative values. Those in favor of degrowth often push their agenda through oppositional activism, or protesting developments such as new highways, high-speed trains, and airports. Other degrowth activists like Enric Duran, take more extreme measures as public statements. Duran publicly announced his robbing of banks from which he took many small loans which he had no intention of paying back. Overall, degrowth offers an alternative to sustainability for the individual. One which pushes people to find more frugal and interpersonal ways of fulfilling their needs. Economics A new economics movement has been building since the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, and the publications that year of Only One Earth, The Limits to Growth, and Blueprint For Survival, followed by Small Is Beautiful: Economics As If People Mattered in 1973. Recently, David Wann has introduced the idea of "simple prosperity" as it applies to a sustainable lifestyle. From his point of view, and as a point of departure for what he calls real sustainability, "it is important to ask ourselves three fundamental questions: what is the point of all our commuting and consuming? What is the economy for? And, finally, why do we seem to be unhappier now than when we began our initial pursuit for rich abundance?" In this context, simple living is the opposite of our modern quest for affluence and, as a result, it becomes less preoccupied with quantity and more concerned about the preservation of cities, traditions and nature. A reference point for this new economics can be found in James Robertson's A New Economics of Sustainable Development, and the work of thinkers and activists, who participate in his Working for a Sane Alternative network and program. According to Robertson, the shift to sustainability is likely to require a widespread shift of emphasis from raising incomes to reducing costs. The principles of the new economics, as set out by Robertson, are the following: Systematic empowerment of people (as opposed to making and keeping them dependent), as the basis for people-centred development Systematic conservation of resources and the environment, as the basis for environmentally sustainable development Evolution from a "wealth of nations" model of economic life to a one-world model, and from today's inter-national economy to an ecologically sustainable, decentralising, multi-level one-world economic system Restoration of political and ethical factors to a central place in economic life and thought Respect for qualitative values, not just quantitative values See also Agrarianism Ahiṃsā (concept in Dhārmic religions) Anti-consumerism Asceticism Back-to-the-land movement Black Bear Ranch Buddhist economics Buddhist ethics Christian anarchism Christian pacifism Corporate poverty Deep ecology Degrowth Downshifting (lifestyle) Engaged Buddhism Epicureanism Eye of a needle Gross National Happiness Homesteading Intentional living Jesus and the rich young man Off-the-grid (lifestyle) Pu (concept in Taoism) Religion and vegetarianism Buddhist vegetarianism Christian vegetarianism Jain vegetarianism Jewish vegetarianism Taoist diet Simple living advocates (category) Slow living Tiny-house movement Ziran References Bibliography Helen and Scott Nearing (1970) The Good Life: Helen and Scott Nearing's Sixty Years of Self-Sufficient Living, Schocken Vernard Eller (1973) The Simple Life, Dolly Freed (1978) Possum Living: How to Live Well Without a Job and with (Almost) No Money 2010 edition Duane Elgin (1981, revised 1993 and 2010) Voluntary Simplicity, Harper, Charles Long (1986) How to Survive Without a Salary: Living the Conserver Lifestyle. 1996 edition Wendell Berry (1990) What Are People For?, North Point Press, Vicki Robin and Joe Dominguez (1992) Your Money or Your Life, Viking. Your Money or Your Life: Revised and Updated for the 21st Century, published by Penguin Books in December 2008 by Vicki Robin with Monique Tilford and contributor Mark Zaifman. Edward Romney (1992) Living Well on Practically Nothing 2001 edition Janet Luhrs (1997) The Simple Living Guide: A Sourcebook for Less Stressful, More Joyful Living, Amy Dacyczyn (1998) The Complete Tightwad Gazette: Promoting Thrift as a Viable Alternative Lifestyle., Deborah Taylor-Hough (2000) A Simple Choice: A practical guide for saving your time, money and sanity, SourceBooks, John de Graaf, David Wann and Thomas Naylor (2002) Affluenza: The All-Consuming Epidemic, Stephanie Mills (2002) Epicurean Simplicity, Island Press, Jacob Lund Fisker (2010) Early Retirement Extreme: A philosophical and practical guide to financial independence, Dave Bruno (2010) The 100 Thing Challenge, Marie Kondo (2014) The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up, External links Subcultures Personal finance Work–life balance Sustainability Lifestyle	[ 0.6231956481933594, 0.4503324627876282, -0.5396472811698914, -0.07229054719209671, 0.11041946709156036, 0.5272762775421143, 0.7142300009727478, 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206511	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supachai%20Panitchpakdi	Supachai Panitchpakdi	Supachai Panitchpakdi (, , ; born 30 May 1946 in Bangkok, Thailand) is a Thai politician and professor. He was Secretary-General of the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) from 1 September 2005 to 31 August 2013. Prior to this, he was the Director-General of the World Trade Organization (WTO) from 1 September 2002 to 1 September 2005. He was succeeded by Pascal Lamy. Education Supachai studying in primary and secondary education at Saint Gabriel's College abd Triam Udom Suksa School. Then he received his master's degree in economics, development planning and his PhD in economic planning and development at the Netherlands School of Economics (now known as Erasmus University) in Rotterdam. In 1973, he completed his doctoral dissertation under supervision of Professor Jan Tinbergen, the first Nobel laureate in economics. In the same year, he went to Cambridge University as a visiting fellow to conduct research on development models. Political careers In 1986 Supachai Panitchpakdi was appointed as Thailand's Deputy Minister of Finance, but when parliament was dissolved in 1988 he left politics and became president of Thai Military Bank. In 1992 he returned to politics and became deputy prime minister until 1995, responsible for trade and economics. During the Asian financial crisis in November 1997 he returned to be deputy prime minister and also became minister of commerce. World Trade Organization On 22 July 1999 he was elected to become Director-General of the World Trade Organization, sharing the post with Mike Moore when a decision could not be reached. Taking the second half of the six-year term, he entered office on 1 September 2002. UNCTAD In March 2005 he was appointed Secretary-General of the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) following his term at the WTO, a post he took up in late-2005. He was appointed for a second four-year term in September 2009. Keen to reform and revitalise the organisation, he has established a Panel of Eminent Persons to oversee the start of reform of UNCTAD. Selected works He published numerous books, including Educational Growth in Developing Countries (1974), Globalization and Trade in the New Millennium (2001) and China and the WTO: Changing China, Changing World Trade (2002, co-authored with Mark Clifford). References External links UNCTAD - Secretary-General's Office UNCTAD - Secretary-General's Biography UNDT judgment UNDT/2012/136 Biography at WTO 1946 births Living people Supachai Panitchpakdi Directors-General of the World Trade Organization Erasmus University Rotterdam alumni Supachai Panitchpakdi Supachai Panitchpakdi Supachai Panitchpakdi Under-Secretaries-General of the United Nations Supachai Panitchpakdi Hakka writers Supachai Panitchpakdi Supachai Panitchpakdi Supachai Panitchpakdi Supachai Panitchpakdi Supachai Panitchpakdi Winners of the Nikkei Asia Prize	[ -0.34766775369644165, 0.6142808198928833, -0.5862156748771667, -0.2751370370388031, -0.23056063055992126, 0.756573498249054, 0.5686570405960083, 0.06195754185318947, -0.41051074862480164, 0.006760577671229839, -0.1556830257177353, 0.33645227551460266, -0.003948738798499107, 0.2712571322917938, 0.17614977061748505, -0.13342992961406708, 0.5823725461959839, 0.17514389753341675, -0.09048812836408615, 0.21506498754024506, 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206512	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YTV	YTV	YTV or ytv may refer to: YTV (Canadian TV channel), a Canadian youth television station owned by Corus Entertainment Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council, a co-operation agency operating in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area Yale TV, the broadcast desk of the student newspaper Yale Daily News Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, a TV station joining Nippon News Network and Nippon Television Network System in Osaka, Japan Yorkshire Television, former name of ITV Yorkshire, United Kingdom Yumurcak TV, a Turkish channel See also KYTV (TV station), an NBC affiliated television station in Springfield, Missouri WYTV, an ABC affiliated television station in Youngstown, Ohio WHYY-TV, a PBS member station in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania	[ 1.0215023756027222, -0.2438586801290512, 0.5802120566368103, 0.33893927931785583, -0.15001650154590607, 0.060635678470134735, 0.30382636189460754, 0.38838744163513184, 0.08498256653547287, -0.14085200428962708, 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206515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsu%20Islands	Matsu Islands	The Matsu Islands (; Foochow Romanized: Mā-cū liĕk-dō̤), officially Lienchiang County (; Foochow Romanized: Lièng-gŏng-gâing), are an archipelago of 36 islands and islets in the East China Sea governed by the Republic of China (ROC) based on Taiwan, with its location sitting alongside southeastern coast of mainland China. It is the smallest county in Taiwan as well as one of two counties that was part of the nominal Fujian Province. The current Lienchiang County of the ROC was once part of an intact Lienchiang County of Fujian before its effective partition in 1949 following the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the mainland portion of the county being controlled by the People's Republic of China (PRC), while the offshore islands of Matsu remained under ROC control. The circumstance has made the county the only former geographical unit which is now divided between the administrations of the ROC and the PRC. Name Lienchiang County, Taiwan (R.O.C.) uses the traditional Chinese characters name () and the romanized name Lienchiang which is derived from the Wade-Giles romanization (Lien²-chiang¹) of the Mandarin pronunciation for those Chinese characters that also refer to Lianjiang County, Fuzhou, Fujian in mainland China. Lienchiang has also been written as Lien-chiang and Lienkiang and by a postal romanization of the local language pronunciation Lienkong. The term Lienchiang can also refer to the homophonous Lianjiang in Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China. The Matsu Islands are named after the main island, Nangan (Nankan). Nangan is also named Matsu Island because of a temple on the island which is supposed to be the burial site of the similarly named goddess Mazu (). Matsu is the Wade-Giles-derived romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation (Ma³-tsu³) for the Chinese character name () of the islands. The Matsu Islands are also known by other Chinese-language names including and ; Foochow Romanized: Mā-cū dō̤). In April 2003, the Lienchiang County government considered changing the name of the county to Matsu County in order to avoid confusion with the nearby Lianjiang County on the mainland. Then-Magistrate Chen Hsueh-sheng said some local people opposed the name change because they felt it reflected the pro-independence viewpoint of the Democratic Progressive Party. History Yuan Dynasty Chinese from Fujian and Zhejiang started migrating to the islands during the Yuan Dynasty. Most of the people on Matsu came from Houguan () (today Changle, Fujian). The popular net fishing industry had established the base for development of Fuao settlement and industrial development of the region over several hundred years. Ming Dynasty Some crewmen of Zheng He temporarily stayed on the islands. Qing Dynasty During the early Qing Dynasty, pirates gathered here and the residents left temporarily. In contrast with Taiwan and Penghu, the Matsu Islands were not ceded to the Japanese Empire via the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Due to its strategic location along the only route for the spice traffic, the British established the Dongyong Lighthouse in Dongyin Island in 1912 to facilitate ships navigation. Republic of China In 1911, the Qing Dynasty was toppled after the Xinhai Revolution on 10 October 1911 and the Republic of China (ROC) was established on 1 January 1912. Matsu Islands were subsequently governed under the administration of Fukien Province of the ROC. On 1 August 1927, the Nanchang Uprising broke out between the ruling Nationalist Party of China (KMT) and Communist Party of China (CPC) which marked the beginning of Chinese Civil War. On 10 September 1937, Japan occupied Beigan and Nangan via the Collaborationist Chinese Army, making the islands the first in Fujian to fall to Japan. The islands were not occupied by Japanese troops during World War II because they were not important militarily. The Surrender of Japan took place on August 15, 1945. As a result of the Chinese Civil War, in 1949 the Communist Party of China (CPC) took over mainland China from the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT). The CPC established the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949, which included administration of today’s Lianjiang County of Fujian. The KMT retreated from mainland China to Taiwan at the end of 1949, but retained some of the offshore parts of Lienchiang County (namely, the Matsu Islands), and also most of Kinmen County (Quemoy). On 15 December 1950, the Matsu Administrative Office () of Fujian Province, Republic of China, was established, including modern-day Lienchiang County (the Matsu Islands), as well as islands in present-day Haidao Township, Xiapu County and Taishan () in present-day Shacheng, Fuding, Ningde, Fujian, China (PRC) which were attacked in 1950 and 1951. In early July 1953, Chinese Nationalist guerillas retreated from islands in the Xiyang Island (Chihchutao) area of present-day Haidao Township (PRC), and the area came under the control of the PRC. In June 1955, the PRC undertook considerable road and military construction around Haitan Island, Pingtan County, Fuzhou, Fujian, China, including roads leading to possible artillery positions on the mainland. Those positions might have been used to protect the Haitan Strait, which was considered a favorable staging area for amphibious operations against the Matsu Islands. In July 1958, the PRC began massing forces opposite Kinmen (Quemoy) and Matsu (Lienchiang) and began bombarding them on 23 August, triggering the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis. On 4 September 1958, the PRC announced the extension of its territorial waters by 20 kilometres (12 mi) to include the two islands. However, later that month, after talks between the USA and PRC in Warsaw, Poland, a ceasefire was agreed and the status quo reaffirmed. The phrase "Quemoy and Matsu" became part of American political language in the 1960 U.S. presidential election. During the debates, both candidates, Vice-President Richard Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy, pledged to use American forces if necessary to protect Taiwan from invasion by the PRC, which the United States did not recognize as the legitimate government of China. However, in the second debate on 7 October 1960, the two candidates stated different opinions about whether American forces should also be used to protect Taiwan's forward positions, Quemoy and Matsu. Senator Kennedy stated that these islands—as little as 9 kilometres (5.5 mi) off the coast of China and as much as 170 kilometres (106 mi) from Taiwan—were strategically indefensible and were not essential to the defense of Taiwan. Vice-President Nixon maintained that since Quemoy and Matsu were in the "area of freedom", they should not, as a matter of principle, be surrendered to the Communists. Earlier in the debate, Nixon said: Later in the debate, Edward P. Morgan asked Senator Kennedy: Kennedy's response was: Vice President Nixon retorted: After the third debate on 13 October 1960, Kennedy's advisers spoke with then Secretary of State Herter and said Kennedy was willing to revise his position on the Quemoy and Matsu issue so as not to give the Communists the impression that the USA would not stand united against aggression. Nixon pointed out the change in Kennedy's position but decided not to press the point due to the importance of the USA's role in what was an extremely tense situation. Polls of Republicans and Democrats showed overwhelming support for Nixon's position. Self-governance of the county resumed in 1992, after the cessation of political warfare with the mainland and the abolition of Battle Field Administration on 7 November 1992. Afterwards, local construction picked up pace. In 1999, the islands were designated as the Matsu National Scenic Area Administration. In January 2001, direct cargo and passenger shipping started between Matsu and Fujian Province of the PRC. After 1 January 2015, tourists from mainland China could directly apply the Exit and Entry Permit upon arrival in Matsu Islands. That privilege also applied to Penghu and Kinmen, as a means to boost tourism in the outlying islands of Taiwan. In December 2015, the Huangqi-Matsu ship route was introduced as part of the Mini Three Links. In 2020, rampant illegal sand mining by Chinese ships in the waters around the Matsu Islands caused concern in the islands and in the Executive Yuan about damage to the marine environment, possible damage to underwater telecommunications cables, and the potential for coastal erosion. Auctioning impounded ships was seen as an easy way for the dredging companies to get their ships back via intermediaries, hence sinking the impounded ships was under consideration. Geography The Matsu Islands comprise 19 islands and islets, which include five major islands, which are Nangan, Dongju and Xiju (both in Juguang Township), Beigan and Dongyin. Minor islands include Liang Island, Gaodeng Island, Daqiu Island and Xiaoqiu, which are part of Beigan Township. The shortest distance between Huangqi, Lianjiang County and the Matsu Islands is also the shortest distance between China (PRC) administered territory and territory in the ROC (Taiwan)-administered Matsu Islands. Dongyin is the northernmost and Dongju is the southernmost. Dongyin is 100 nautical miles (190 km) from Keelung, Taiwan, 180 to the Penghu islands, and slightly over 10 nautical miles (19 km) from Mainland China. The soil is not ideal for farming. The highest point is on Beigan, 298 metres (978'). Areas: Nangan: Beigan: Dongyin: Juguang islands: see Juguang Geology The islands are predominantly composed of Jurassic and Cretaceous intrusive (emplaced ~160 Ma, ∼130 Ma and ∼94 Ma) granite and diabase. Climate Average annual temperature is 18.6 °C (65°F), with the average low being at 13 °C (55°F) and average high at 29 °C (85°F). The daily temperature varies greatly during day and night. The region experiences subtropical maritime climate, which is influenced by monsoon and ocean currents and its geographic location. Matsu has four seasons: during winter it is cold and wet, during summer and spring it is foggy, and during autumn the weather is generally stable. Politics and government Matsu Islands are administered as Lienchiang County under the Fujian Provincial Government. Nangan Township is the county seat which houses the Lienchiang County Government and Lienchiang County Council. The county is headed by a magistrate, elected every four years in the ROC local elections. The incumbent magistrate is Liu Cheng-ying of Kuomintang. Administrative divisions Lienchiang County is divided into four rural townships. It is further divided into 22 villages and 137 neighborhoods (鄰). Lienchiang County is the only county in Taiwan which does not have a city or an urban township. The county seat is Nangan Township (Nankan). All the townships administer more than one island. Magistrates Before 1993, county magistrates were appointed. Elected magistrates Tsao Chang-Shun () (1993-1997) (KMT) Liu Li-Chun () (1997-2001) (KMT) Chen Hsueh-sheng, also the current national representative of Matsu. (2001-2009) (PFP, later KMT) Yang Sui-sheng (2009-2014) (KMT) Liu Cheng-ying (2014-present) (KMT) Military The Matsu Islands are protected by the ROC Army Matsu Defense Command (). Politics Lienchang County voted one Kuomintang legislator out of one seat to be in the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election. While the Democratic Progressive Party have had difficulty winning a county-level election in this area, most of the competitions are among local strategies. In 2018, a Green Party member, 蘇柏豪 attempted to run for magistrate but failed. Cross-Strait relations The PRC claims the three northern townships of the Matsu Islands as Matsu Township (; Mā-cū hiŏng) and the Juguang Islands (the southernmost islands, formerly named the Baiquan Islands) as part of Changle District. Vessels from the Taiwan's Coast Guard Administration (CGA) have confronted sand dredging by Chinese vessels near the Matsu Islands. This dredging activity began in 2018. Since March 2019, the Lienchiang Cross-Strait Matters Forum started as an official forum between Lienchiang County of the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Lianjiang County of the People's Republic of China to discuss matters regarding the two sides. Demographics and culture Population The majority of native Matsu Islands residents originated from Northern Fujian. Several of the islands of Matsu are not inhabited permanently. Some of these are garrisoned by soldiers from the Republic of China Armed Forces stationed in the county since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and during the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1954 and 1958 respectively. Due to that high military demand large numbers of military personnel stationed on the islands produced unprecedented population growth in the county. The population reached its peak in 1971 with a total of 17,088 people. After those periods of high growth the population decreased year after year due to the poor economic growth which resulted in mass youth emigration due to lack of employment opportunities. In recent years the population in the county has gradually increased because of immigration. The population has stabilized due to the improved transportation between Taiwan Island and Matsu Islands as well as mass construction projects. Languages The native language spoken by Matsu residents is Matsu dialect, a subdialect of Fuzhou dialect, which is one of the statutory languages for public transport announcements in the Matsu Islands. Mandarin Chinese is one of the official languages of Lienchiang County. Name Chen (陳) is the most common surname, then Lin (林), Wang (王), Tsao (曹) and Liu (劉). Belief Matsu, though named after the goddess Matsu, is written with a different character that has a different tone. But the Matsu Islands are not the birthplace of the goddess as the human Lin Muoniang - Meizhou Island is — but her death place (on a seaport named after her on Nangan Island). The Matsu Nangan Tianhou Temple (), a temple dedicated to the goddess, contains the sarcophagus of Lin Muoniang. It is, however, not as popular as the Meizhou temple. Most Taiwanese pilgrims to Meizhou start off their journey in the Matsu Islands because they are the closest ROC-controlled territory to Meizhou, which is controlled by the PRC. Economy Due to its geographically remote location, the manufacturing business of Matsu has never been fully developed. Among them, the wine making industry of Matsu Distillery is the most distinguished feature. Tourism has become a highly important feature of the economy. However, most of its commercial trading focuses on retail businesses and restaurants for stationed military consumption. Farm products of Matsu include rice, sugar cane, tea plant, orange. Sea animals, such as fish, clams, and jellyfish, are also popular exports due to its nature as the major traditional industry in Matsu. However, the flourishing fishing ground is almost exhausted by arbitrary fish bombing by Mainland China fishing boats, while the fish population is decreasing as well. In July 2012, Matsu residents voted in favor of the establishment of casinos, which led to the prospect of gaming industries in the county and the passing of the Gaming Act (). Energy and environment Power generation On 1 July 1975, the Matsu Power Company was founded to operate all of the power plants in the county. On 1 July 1986, the company was incorporated into Taiwan Power Company. The county is powered up by its fuel-fired (diesel) Zhushan Power Plant located in Cingshuei Village of Nangan Township with a capacity of 15.4 MW commissioned on 22 March 2010. The other power plants are Beigan Power Plant in Beigan Township, Dongyin Power Plant in Dongyin Township and Dongju Power Plant in Dongju Island and Xiju Power Plant in Xiju Island of Juguang Township. The county is also powered up by its photovoltaic system with a capacity of 0.074 MW. Pollution Generally, the environment of Matsu Islands is still well-preserved. The major source of pollution is from family and military household waste. There are, however, concerns that the continued lack of modern sewage facilities results in household waste seeping into groundwater. Tourism Tourism has become a critical sector in the local economy. Lienchiang County Government is making an effort to attract more visitors to the Matsu Islands, especially among foreigners. Dongyin Visitor Center is the main visitor center of the township. Nangan is the capital of Matsu and it is noted for its granite tunnel and the Iron Fort. It has two interconnected main roads. The Beihai Tunnels are manmade granite tunnels. Both tunnels were remarkable for their time, and they took great effort to construct. The tunnel in Nangan was built in 1968. The completion of Beihai Tunnel took the effort of thousands of men. The 700 metre (800 yard) tunnel has a width of 10 metres (33') and a height of 16 metres (52'). It was completed in 820 days with shovels, spades and explosives; the tunnel also took the life of a platoon of soldiers. The tunnel was considered a military location and was not opened to the public until 1990. The Iron Fort is located on the Southwest side of Nangan island. Located by a small cliff, it is a vulnerable spot for outside attacks or illegal smuggling of materials. With that in mind, the fort was built for defence. It is equipped with multiple machinegun rooms and rudimentary living facilities. It is now open to the public, and although most of the equipment has been removed from the site, the site itself brings back a vivid image of what it was like for soldiers at that time. Museums in Matsu including the Matsu Blue Tears Ecological Museum, Matsu Folk Culture Museum, Ching-kuo Memorial Hall and War and Peace Memorial Park Exhibition Center. Nature Since 1990, the county manages the , which spreads across eight islands and islets in Nangan, Beigan and Tongyin Townships. It contains 30 species in 15 orders, mostly gulls and terns. In 2000, four pairs of the critically endangered Chinese crested tern, previously thought to be extinct, were discovered nesting on the Matsu Islands, giving them global conservation importance. There are also mosses and ferns rare or absent elsewhere in the ROC. Cetacean species that have become rare along Chinese coasts are still present here such as false killer whales and finless porpoises, providing opportunistic observations at times. Finless porpoises in this areas are generally smaller than other subspecies, and it is unique that two subspecies inhabit in this region where Matsu region is the northern limit for one of them. Transportation Air Both Nangan and Beigan have airports which are the Matsu Nangan Airport and Matsu Beigan Airport respectively. Dongyin and Juguang (in Xiju Island) house heliports which only operate during winter time and priority is given to local residents to travel to Nangan. Sea Due to the fact that the main airport is located in Nangan, boats are the main form of transportation between the islands in the county. There are two ferry rides to Mainland China. One arrives at Mawei District of Fuzhou and departs from Fuao Harbor at Nangan Township in which the journey normally takes 90 minutes while in Nangan. Another arrives at Huangqi () of Lianjiang and departs from Beigan Township in which the journey takes only 20 minutes. Dongyin Township houses the Zhongzhu Harbor. Road Due to their size, travelling by motorized scooter is an ideal way to get around the main islands such as Nangan and Beigan, despite the steep hills. Both Islands have regular buses and taxis are also economical. In October 2019, Mainland China announced 'initial plans' to build a bridge linking Fuzhou to the Matsu Islands. Taiwan’s Mainland Affairs Council (MAC) said that the plans were made unilaterally by China as part of its schemes to absorb Taiwan and divide Taiwanese society and that they see no need for bridges linking either Matsu or Kinmen to China. Notable persons Chen Pao-yu, Chief of Staff of the Republic of China Army (2019-) See also Matsu Daily Lianjiang County(located in mainland China) Administrative divisions of the Republic of China List of Taiwanese superlatives List of cities in the Republic of China List of islands of the Republic of China Notes References External links Military importance from www.globalsecurity.org Smaller map (from CNN) Name change: Taipei Times article Matzu Scenic Area Satellite image of the Nangan and Beigan islands by Google Maps Islands of the East China Sea Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean Archipelagoes of Taiwan Taiwan Strait Territorial disputes of China Territorial disputes of the Republic of China Islands of Fujian, Republic of China	[ 0.2645926773548126, -0.4748099148273468, 0.3178189694881439, 0.032334838062524796, 0.17310038208961487, 0.22324329614639282, -0.08250060677528381, 0.3550073504447937, -0.4599805474281311, -0.15777592360973358, -0.42791563272476196, -0.24897415935993195, 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206516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liane%20Haid	Liane Haid	Juliane "Liane" Haid (16 August 1895 – 28 November 2000) was an Austrian actress and singer. She has often been referred to as Austria's first movie star. Biography Juliane Haid was born in Vienna on 16 August 1895, the first child to Georg Haid (1864–1951) and Juliane Haid (1873–1939). She had two younger sisters, Grit, who also became an actress, and Johanna (1903–1964). Haid trained both as a dancer and singer and became the epitome of the Süßes Wiener Mädel ("Sweet Viennese Girl") and a popular pin-up throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Her first motion picture was a propaganda film made during the First World War, Mit Herz und Hand fürs Vaterland (1916). She worked for UFA and, as a trained singer, easily made the transition to the sound era, appearing in comedy films alongside Austrian and German stars such as Willi Forst, Bruno Kastner, Georg Alexander, Theo Lingen, and Heinz Rühmann. Her first husband, Baron Fritz von Haymerle, helped her found her film company, Micco-Film. Having refused several offers from Hollywood, she left Germany for Switzerland in 1942 "because of the regime, because everything was bombed, and because all the good directors had left". She married Carl Spycher and ended her film career. Spycher adopted Liane's son, Pierre (born 1940), who was the result of her second marriage to Hans Somborn. Her notable films include Lady Hamilton (1921; her breakthrough role); Lucrezia Borgia (1922); The Csardas Princess (1927, based on the operetta by Emmerich Kálmán); and the talkies The Song Is Ended (1930) and Ungeküsst soll man nicht schlafen gehn (1936). She made her last film appearance in 1953. Filmography With Heart and Hand for the Fatherland (1915) Summer Idyll (1916) With God for Emperor and Empire (1916) The Vagabonds (1916) The Tragedy of Castle Rottersheim (1916) On the Heights (1916) Lebenswogen (1917) The Black Hand (1917) The Stain of Shame (1917) The Spendthrift (1917) Double Suicide (1918) Rigoletto (1918) So fallen die Lose des Lebens (1918) The Ancestress (1919) The Master of Life (1920) Let the Little Ones Come to Me (1920) Durch Wahrheit zum Narren (1920) Freut Euch des Lebens (1920) The Dancing Death (1920) The Voice of Conscience (1920) Der Leiermann (1920) Eva, The Sin (1920) Verschneit (1920) Doctor Ruhland (1920) Light of His Life (1921) The Woman in White (1921) The Films of Princess Fantoche (1921) The Story of a Maid (1921) Lady Hamilton (1921) Money in the Streets (1922) Lucrezia Borgia (1922) Explosion (1923) The Slipper Hero (1923) Southern Love (1924) The Island of Dreams (1925) Fire of Love (1925) I Love You (1925) The White Horse Inn (1926) The Brothers Schellenberg (1926) The Uncle from the Provinces (1926) The Son of Hannibal (1926) When I Came Back (1926) The White Slave (1927) The Dashing Archduke (1927) The Golden Abyss (1927) The Dollar Princess and her Six Admirers (1927) The Csardas Princess (1927) The Last Waltz (1927) The Women's War (1928) The Lady in Black (1928) Two Red Roses (1928) Vienna, City of My Dreams (1928) Spy of Madame Pompadour (1928) Ship in Distress (1929) Play Around a Man (1929) Black Forest Girl (1929) The Great Longing (1930) The Song Is Ended (1930) Twice Married (1930) The Immortal Vagabond (1930) My Cousin from Warsaw (1931) Kaiserliebchen (1931) Zirkus Leben (1931) The Opera Ball (1931) The Men Around Lucy (1931) Grock (1931) I Do Not Want to Know Who You Are (1932) The Prince of Arcadia (1932) Der Diamant des Zaren (1932) Madame Makes Her Exit (1932) Madame Wants No Children (1933) A Woman Like You (1933) Typhoon (1933) The Star of Valencia (1933) The Castle in the South (1933) (1933) Ihre Durchlaucht, die Verkäuferin (1933) Tell Me Who You Are (1933) Roman einer Nacht (1933) An Evening Visit (1934) Bei der blonden Kathrein (1934) Die Fahrt in die Jugend (1935) Dance Music (1935) Whom the Gods Love (1936) Wer zuletzt küßt... (1936) Peter in the Snow (1937) Die unvollkommene Liebe (1940) Im Krug zum grünen Kranze, a.k.a. Die fünf Karnickel (1953) See also List of centenarians References External links Photographs of Liane Haid 1895 births 2000 deaths 20th-century Austrian people Austrian film actresses Austrian silent film actresses Austrian centenarians Actresses from Vienna 20th-century Austrian actresses Women centenarians	[ -0.3858875632286072, 0.4931319057941437, -0.5389324426651001, -0.671227753162384, -0.3074120283126831, 0.8762478232383728, 0.8431470394134521, -0.09415630996227264, -0.29617273807525635, 0.07052737474441528, -0.15239253640174866, 0.21861791610717773, 0.062357813119888306, 0.24629800021648407, -0.16467614471912384, 0.13089017570018768, 0.14060711860656738, 0.19348213076591492, -0.08620259165763855, -0.408500611782074, -0.29920223355293274, 0.05166041851043701, 0.36558467149734497, -0.08240596950054169, -0.711409330368042, 0.26867613196372986, 0.16316920518875122, 0.2550787627696991, 0.7829912304878235, -0.023214230313897133, 0.03550175949931145, 0.5407814383506775, 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206518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice	Frederick Denison Maurice	John Frederick Denison Maurice (29 August 1805 – 1 April 1872), known as F. D. Maurice, was an English Anglican theologian, a prolific author, and one of the founders of Christian socialism. Since World War II, interest in Maurice has expanded. Early life and education John Frederick Denison Maurice was born in Normanston, Suffolk, on 29 August 1805, the only son of Michael Maurice and his wife, Priscilla. Michael Maurice was the evening preacher in a Unitarian chapel. Deaths in the family brought about changes in the family's "religious convictions" and "vehement disagreement" between family members. Maurice later wrote about these disagreements and their effect on him: Michael was "of no little learning" and gave his son his early education. The son "appears to have been an exemplary child, responsive to teaching and always dutiful. He read a good deal on his own account, but had little inclination for games. Serious and precocious, he even at this time harboured ambitions for a life of public service." For his higher education in civil law, Maurice entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1823 that required no religious test for admissions though only members of the established church were eligible to obtain a degree. With John Sterling Maurice founded the Apostles' Club. He moved to Trinity Hall in 1825. In 1826, Maurice went to London to read for the bar and returned to Cambridge where he obtained a first-class degree in civil law in 1827. During the 1827–1830 break in his higher education, Maurice lived in London and Southampton. While in London, he contributed to the Westminster Review and made the acquaintance of John Stuart Mill. With Sterling he also edited the Athenaeum. The magazine did not pay and his father had lost money which entailed moving the family to a smaller house in Southampton and Maurice joined them. During his time in Southampton, Maurice rejected his earlier Unitarianism and decided to be ordained in the Church of England. Mill described Maurice and Sterling as representing "a second Liberal and even Radical party, on totally different grounds from Benthamism." Maurice's articles evince sympathy for Radicals such as Leigh Hunt and William Hazlitt, and he welcomed the "shattering of thrones, the convulsions of governments" that marked the end of the eighteenth century. He likewise commended the Whig Henry Brougham's support for Catholic emancipation in England, but criticized him for relying too much on the aristocracy and not enough on the people. Maurice entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1830 to prepare for ordination. He was older than most of students, he was very poor and he "kept to himself, toiling at his books". However, "his honesty and intellectual powers" impressed others. In March 1831, Maurice was baptised in the Church of England. After taking a second-class degree in November 1831, he worked as a "private tutor" in Oxford until his ordination as a deacon in January 1834 and appointment to a curacy in Bubbenhall near Leamington. Being twenty-eight years old when he was ordained deacon, Maurice was older and with a wider experience than most ordinands. He had attended both universities and been active in "the literary and social interests of London". All this, coupled with his diligence in study and reading, gave Maurice a knowledge "scarcely paralleled by any of his contemporaries". He was ordained as priest in 1835. Career and marriages Except for his 1834–1836 first clerical assignment, Maurice's career can be divided between his conflicted years in London (1836–1866) and his peaceful years in Cambridge (1866–1872) For his first clerical assignment, Maurice served an assistant curacy in Bubbenhall in Warwickshire from 1834 until 1836. During his time in Bubbenhall, Maurice began writing on the topic of "moral and metaphysical philosophy". Writing on this topic by "revision and expansion" continued the rest of his life until the publication of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, 2 vols in 1871–1872, the year of his death. Also, Maurice's novel Eustace Conway, begun , was published in 1834 and was praised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In 1836, he was appointed chaplain of Guy's Hospital where he took up residence and "lectured the students on moral philosophy". He continued this post until 1860. Maurice's public life began during his years at Guy's. In June 1837, Maurice met Anna Eleanor Barton, a daughter of General Charles Barton. They became engaged and were married on 7 October 1837. In 1838, the first edition of The Kingdom of Christ was published. It was "one of his most significant works." A second enlarged edition was published in 1842 and a third edition in 1883. For Maurice the signs of this kingdom are "the sacraments of baptism and the eucharist, to which must be added the creeds, the liturgy, the episcopate, and the scriptures—in fact, all the marks of catholicity as exemplified in the Church of England." The book was met with criticism when published, a criticism "that lasted throughout Maurice's career." London Maurice served as editor of the Educational Magazine during its entire 1839–1841 existence. He argued that "the school system should not be transferred from the church to the state." Maurice was elected professor of English literature and history at King's College, London, in 1840. When the college added a theological department in 1846, he became a professor there also. That same year Maurice was elected chaplain of Lincoln's Inn and resigned the chaplaincy at Guy's Hospital. In 1845, Maurice was made both the Boyle lecturer by the Archbishop of York's nomination and the Warburton lecturer by the Archbishop of Canterbury's nomination. He held these chairs until 1853. Maurice's wife, Anna, died on 25 March 1845, leaving two sons, one of whom was John Frederick Maurice who wrote his father's biography. Queen's College During his London years, Maurice engaged in two lasting educational initiatives: founding Queen's College, London in 1848 and the Working Men's College in 1854. In 1847, Maurice and "most of his brother-professors" at King's College formed a Committee on Education for the education of governesses. This committee joined a scheme for establishing a College for Women that resulted in the founding of Queen's College. Maurice was its first principal. The college was "empowered to grant certificates of qualification 'to governesses' and 'to open classes in all branches of female education'." One of the early graduates of Queen's College who was influenced by Maurice was Matilda Ellen Bishop who became the first Principal of Royal Holloway College. On 4 July 1849, Maurice remarried, this time to Georgina Hare-Naylor. Dismissed from King's College "Maurice was dismissed from his professorships because of his leadership in the Christian Socialist Movement, and because of the supposed unorthodoxy of his Theological Essays (1853)." His work The Kingdom of Christ had evoked virulent criticism. The publication of his Theological Essays in 1853 evoked even more and precipitated his dismissal from King's College. At the instigation of Richard William Jelf, the Principal of the College, the Council of the College, asked Maurice to resign. He refused and demanded that he be either "acquitted or dismissed." He was dismissed. To prevent the controversy from affecting Queen's College, Maurice "severed his relations" with it. The public and his friends were strongly in support of Maurice. His friends "looked up to him with the reverence due to a great spiritual teacher." They were devoted to him and wanted to protect Maurice against his opponents. Working Men's College Although his relations with King's College and Queen's College had been severed, Maurice continued to work for the education of workers. In February 1854, he developed plans for a Working Men's College. Maurice gained enough support for the college by giving lectures that by 30 October 1854 the college opened with over 130 students. "Maurice became principal, and took an active part both in teaching and superintending during the rest of his life in London." Maurice's teaching led to some "abortive attempts at co-operation among working men" and to the more enduring Christian Socialism movement and the Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations. In July 1860, in spite of controversy, Maurice was appointed to the benefice of the chapel of St. Peter's, Vere Street. He held the position until 1869. Cambridge University "On 25 October 1866 Maurice was elected to the Knightbridge professorship of casuistry, moral theology, and moral philosophy at [the University of] Cambridge." This professorship was the "highest preferment" Maurice attained. Among his books he cited in his application, were his Theological Essays and What is Revelation? that had evoked opposition elsewhere. But at Cambridge, Maurice was "almost unanimously elected" to the faculty. Maurice was "warmly received" at Cambridge, where "there were no doubts of his sufficient orthodoxy". While teaching at Cambridge, Maurice continued as the Working Men's College principal, though he was there less often. At first, he retained the Vere Street, London, curacy which entailed a weekly rail trip to London to officiate at services and preach. When this proved too strenuous, upon medical advice, Maurice resigned this curacy in October 1869. In 1870, by accepting the offer of St Edward's, Cambridge, where he had "an opportunity for preaching to an intelligent audience" with few pastoral duties, albeit with no stipend. In July 1871 Maurice accepted the Cambridge preachership at Whitehall. "He was a man to whom other men, no matter how much they might differ from him, would listen." Royal Commissioner In spite of declining health, in 1870 Maurice agreed to serve on the Royal Commission regarding the Contagious Diseases Act of 1871, and travelled to London for the meetings. "The Commission consisted of twenty-three men, including ten parliamentarians (from both Houses), some clergy, and some eminent scientists (such as T.H. Huxley)." Dean Francis Close wrote a monograph about the proceedings of the royal commission. The issue was whether earlier acts legalising and policing prostitution for the armed forces should be repealed. Close quoted a commission member's speech to the House of Commons that praised Maurice as a "model Royal Commissioner". Close ended his monograph with these words: "Professor Maurice remained firmly and conscientiously opposed to the Acts to the very last." Final years In spite of terminal illness, Maurice continued giving his professorial lectures, trying to know his students personally and completing his Metaphysical and Moral Philosophy (2 vols., 1871–1872). He also continued preaching (at Whitehall from November 1871 to January 1872 and two university sermons in November). His final sermon was 11 February 1872 in St Edward's. On 30 March he resigned from St Edward's. Very weak and mentally depressed, on Easter Monday, 1 April 1872, after receiving Holy Communion, with great effort he pronounced the blessing, became unconscious and died. Conflicting opinions of Maurice's thinking In a letter of 2 April 1833 to Richard Chenevix Trench, Maurice lamented the current "spirit" of "conflicting opinions" that "cramps our energies" and "kills our life". In spite of his lamenting "contradictory opinions," that term precisely described reactions to Maurice. Maurice's writings, lectures, and sermons spawned conflicting opinions. Julius Hare considered him "the greatest mind since Plato", but John Ruskin thought him "by nature puzzle-headed and indeed wrong-headed;" while John Stuart Mill considered that "there was more intellectual power wasted in Maurice than in any other of my contemporaries". Hugh Walker in a study of Victorian literature found other examples of conflicting opinions. Charles Kingsley pronounced Maurice "a great and rare thinker". Aubrey Thomas de Vere compared listening to Maurice to "eating pea-soup with a fork". Matthew Arnold spoke of Maurice as "always beating the bush with profound emotion, but never starting the hare." One important literary and theological figure who was favorably impressed by Maurice was Charles Dodgson, also known as Lewis Carroll. Dodgson wrote about attending morning and afternoon services at Vere Street at which Maurice preached both times with the comment, "I like his sermons very much". Maurice held the benefice of the chapel of St. Peter's, Vere Street from 1860–1869. M. E. Grant Duff in his diary for 22 April 1855, wrote that he "went, as usual about this time, to hear F.D. Maurice preach at Lincoln's Inn. I suppose I must have heard him, first and last, some thirty or forty times, and never carried away one clear idea, or even the impression that he had more than the faintest conception of what he himself meant." John Henry Newman described Maurice as a man of "great power" and of "great earnestness". However, Newman found Maurice so "hazy" that he "lost interest in his writings." In the United States, The National Quarterly Review and Religious Magazine, Volume 38 (January 1879), contained this appreciation of Maurice. "Mr. Maurice's characteristics are well known and becoming every year more highly appreciated—broad catholicity, keenness of insight, powerful mental grasp, fearlessness of utterance and devoutness of spirit." Leslie Stephen in The English Utilitarians,Vol 3, John Stuart Mill. 1900., Wrote " Maurice is equally opposed to the sacerdotalism which makes the essence of religion consist in a magical removal of penalties instead of a 'regeneration' of the nature. He takes what may be vaguely called the 'subjective' view of religion, and sympathises with Schleiermacher's statement that piety is 'neither a knowing nor a doing, but an inclination and determination of the feelings' ". {{<citation needed>}} Social activism "The demand for political and economic righteousness is one of the principal themes of Maurice's theology." Maurice practiced his theology by going "quietly on bearing the chief burthen of some of the most important social movements of the time." Living in London the "condition of the poor pressed upon him with consuming force." Working men trusted him when they distrusted other clergymen and the church. Working men attended Bible classes and meetings led by Maurice whose theme was "moral edification." Christian socialism Maurice was affected by the "revolutionary movements of 1848", especially the march on Parliament, but he believed that "Christianity rather than secularist doctrines was the only sound foundation for social reconstruction." Maurice "disliked competition as fundamentally unchristian, and wished to see it, at the social level, replaced by co-operation, as expressive of Christian brotherhood." In 1849, Maurice joined other Christian socialist in an attempt to mitigate competition by the creation of co-operative societies. He viewed co-operative societies as "a modern application of primitive Christian communism." Twelve cooperative workshops were to be launched in London. However, even with subsidy by Edward Vansittart Neale many turned out to be unprofitable. Nevertheless, the effort effected lasting consequences as seen in the following sub-section on the "Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations" In 1854, there were eight Co-operative Productive Associations in London and fourteen in the Provinces. These included breweries, flour mills, tailors, hat makers, builders, printers, engineers. Others were formed in the following decades. Some of them failed after several years, some lasted a longer time, some were replaced. Maurice's perception of a need for a moral and social regeneration of society led him into Christian socialism. From 1848 until 1854 (when the movement came to an end), he was a leader of the Christian Socialist Movement. He insisted that "Christianity is the only foundation of Socialism, and that a true Socialism is the necessary result of a sound Christianity." Maurice has been characterized as "the spiritual leader" of the Christian socialists because he was more interested in disseminating its theological foundations than "their practical endeavours." Maurice once wrote,Let people call me merely a philosopher, or merely anything else.... My business, because I am a theologian, and have no vocation except for theology, is not to build, but to dig, to show that economics and politics ... must have a ground beneath themselves, and that society was not to be made by any arrangements of ours, but is to be regenerated by finding the law and ground of its order and harmony, the only secret of its existence, in God. Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations Early in 1850 the Christian socialists started a working men's association for tailors in London, followed by associations for other trades. To promote this movement, a Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations (SPWMA) was founded with Maurice as a founding member and head of its "central board". At first, the SPWMA's work was merely propagating the idea of associations by publishing tracts. Then it undertook the practical project of establishing the Working Men's College because educated workers were essential for successful co-operative societies. With that ingredient more of the associations succeeded; others still failed or were replaced by a later "cooperative movement". The lasting legacy of the Christian socialists was that, in 1852, they influenced the passage of an act in Parliament which gave "a legal status to co-operative bodies" such as working men's associations. The SPWMA "flourished in the years from 1849 to 1853, or thereabouts." The original mission of the Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations was "to diffuse the principles of co-operation as the practical application of Christianity to the purposes of trade and industry." The goal was forming associations by which working men and their families could enjoy the whole produce of their labour. In testimony from representatives of "Co-operative Societies" during 1892–1893 to the Royal Commission on Labour for the House of Commons, one witness applauded the contribution of Christian socialists to the "present cooperative movement" by their formulating the idea in the 1850s. The witness specifically cited "Maurice, Kingsley, Ludlow, Neale, and Hughes." Legacy That Maurice left a legacy that would be valued by many was harbingered by responses to his death on 1 April 1872. He was buried on the west side of Highgate Cemetery and "crowds following his remains to their last resting place, and around the open grave there stood men of widely different creeds, united for the moment by the common sorrow and their deep sense of loss. From pulpit and press, from loyal friends and honest opponents, the tribute to the worth of Mr. Maurice was both sincere and generous." Frederick Denison Maurice is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 1 April. Denison Road in Ealing, London is named after him. Personal legacy Maurice's close friends were "deeply impressed with the spirituality of his character". His wife observed that whenever Maurice was awake in the night, he was "always praying." Charles Kingsley called him "the most beautiful human soul whom God has ever allowed me to meet with." Maurice's life comprised "contradictory elements". Maurice was a man "of peace, yet his life was spent in a series of conflicts". He was a man "of deep humility, yet so polemical that he often seemed biased". He was a man "of large charity, yet bitter in his attack upon the religious press of his time". He was "a loyal churchman who detested the label Broad yet poured out criticism upon the leaders of the Church". He was a man of "a kindly dignity" combined with "a large sense of humour". He possessed "an intense capacity for visualizing the unseen". Teaching legacy As a professor at King's College and at Cambridge, Maurice attracted "a band of earnest students" to whom he gave two things. He taught them from the knowledge he had gained by his comprehensive reading. More importantly, Maurice instilled in students "the habit of inquiry and research" and a "desire for knowledge and the process of independent thought." Written legacy Maurice's written legacy includes "nearly 40 volumes", and they hold "a permanent place in the history of thought in his time." His writings are "recognizable as the utterance of a mind profoundly Christian in all its convictions." By themselves, two of Maurice's books, The Kingdom of Christ (1838 and later editions) and Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy (2 volumes, 1871–1872), are "remarkable enough to have made their writer famous." But there more reasons for Maurice's fame. In his "life-work" Maurice was "constantly teaching, writing, guiding, organizing; training up others to do the same kind of work, but giving them something of his spirit, never simply his views." He drew out "all the best that was in others, never trying to force himself upon them." With his opponents, Maurice tried to find some "common ground" between them. None who knew him personally "could doubt that he was indeed a man of God." In The Kingdom of Christ Maurice viewed the true church as a united body that transcended the "diversities and partialities of its individual members, factions, and sects". The true church had six signs: "baptism, creeds, set forms of worship, the eucharist, an ordained ministry, and the Bible." Maurice's ideas were reflected a half-century later by William Reed Huntington and the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral. The modern ecumenical movement also incorporated Maurice's ideas contained in his The Kingdom of Christ. Decline and revival of interest in legacy Interest in the vast legacy of writings bequeathed by Maurice declined even before his death. Hugh Walker, a fellow academic, predicted in 1910 that neither of Maurice's major works, his Theological Essays (1853) and his Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy (1871–1872), will "stand the test of time." However, "this phase of neglect has passed." "Since World War II there has been a revival of interest in Maurice as a theologian." During this period, twenty-three (some only in part) books about Maurice have been published as can be seen in the References section of this article. Maurice is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer on 1 April as "Frederick Denison Maurice, Priest, 1872" and a brief biography is included in the church's Holy Women, Holy Men: Celebrating the Saints. Despite Maurice's dismissal by King's College after the publication of his Theological Essays, "a chair at King's, the F D Maurice Professorship of Moral and Social Theology, now commemorates his contribution to scholarship at the College." King's College also established "The FD Maurice Lectures" in 1933 in honour of Maurice. Maurice, who was Professor of English Literature and History (1840–1846) and then Professor of Theology (1846–1853). Writings Maurice's writings result from diligent work on his part. As a rule he "rose early" and did his socializing with friends at breakfast. He dictated his writings until dinner-time. The manuscripts he dictated were "elaborately corrected and rewritten" before publication. Maurice's writings hold "a permanent place in the history of thought in his time." Some of the following were "rewritten and in a measure recast, and the date given is not necessarily that of the first appearance." Most of these writings "were first delivered as sermons or lectures." Eustace Conway, or the Brother and Sister], a novel in three volumes (1834): Volume 1no online, Volume 2, and Volume 3 Subscription no Bondage, Or The Practical Advantages Afforded by the Thirty-nine Articles as Guides in All the Branches of Academical Education under the pseudonym Rusticus (1835) The Kingdom of Christ, or Hints to a Quaker, respecting the principles, constitution and ordinances of the Catholic Church (1838)Volume 1 Volume 2 Has the Church or the State power to Educate the Nation? (1839) Reasons for Not Joining a Party in the Church; a Letter to S Wilberforce (1841) Three Letters to the Rev W Palmer on the Jerusalem Bishopric (1842) Right and Wrong Methods of Supporting Protestantism: A Letter to Lord Ashley (1843) Christmas Day and Other Sermons (1843) The New Statute and Dr Ward: A Letter to a Non-resident Member of Convocation (1845) Thoughts on the Rule of Conscientious Subscription (1845) The Epistle to the Hebrews (1846) The religions of the world and their relations to ChristianityReligions of the World and Their Relation to Christianity](1847) Letter on the Attempt to Defeat the Nomination of Dr Hampden (1847) Thoughts on the Duty of a Protestant on the Present Oxford Election (1847) The Lord's Prayer: Nine Sermons (1848) "Queen's College, London: its Objects and Methods" in Queen's College, London: its Objects and Methods (1848) Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy (at first an article in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, 1848) Volume 1 Ancient Philosophy Volume 2 The Christian Fathers Volume 3 Mediaeval Philosophy Volume 4 Modern Philosophy The Prayer Book, Considered Especially in Reference to the Romish System (1849) The Church a Family (1850) Queen's College, London in reply to the Quarterly Review (1850) The Old Testament: Nineteen Sermons on the First Lessons for the Sundays from Septuagesima (1851) Sermons on the Sabbath Day, on the Character of the Warrior, and on the Interpretation of History (1853) The Word Eternal and the Punishment of the Wicked: A Letter to Dr Jelf (1853) Theological Essays (1853) The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament: a series of sermons (1853) The Unity of the New Testament: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels and of the Epistles of St. James, St. Jude, St. Peter, and St. Paul in two volumes (1854) Volume 1 Volume 2 The Unity of the New Testament, 1st American ed in one volume (1879) Extensive review of The Unity of the New Testament in The Unitarian Review (June 1876), 581–594. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Centuries (1854) The Doctrine of Sacrifice Deduced From the Scriptures (1854) The Unity of the New Testament, a Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, and the Epistles of St James, St Jude, St Peter, and St Paul in two volumes(1854) The Unity of the New Testament, 1st American ed in one volume (1879) Learning and Working: six lectures and The Religion of Rome: 4 lectures (1855) The Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament: a series of sermons (1855) The Gospel of St John: a series of discourses (1857) The Epistles of St John: a series of lectures on Christian ethics (1857) The Eucharist: five sermons (1857) The Indian Crisis: five sermons (1857) What is Revelation?: a Series of Sermons on the Epiphany (1859) Sequel to the Enquiry, What is Revelation? (1860) Address of Congratulation to the Rev. F. D. Maurice, on His Nomination to St. Peter's, Vere Street; with His Reply Thereto (1860) Lectures on the Apocalypse, or the Book of Revelation of St John the Divine (1861) Dialogues Between a Clergyman and a Layman on Family Worship (1862) Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence Between a Layman and the Rev. F. D. Mauhice on Some Questions Arising out of the Controversy Respecting the Pentateuch (1863) The Conflict of Good and Evil in our Day: twelve letters to a missionary (1864) The Gospel of the Kingdom of Heaven: a course of lectures on the Gospel of St Luke (1864) The Commandments Considered as Instruments of National Reformation (1866) Casuistry, Moral Philosophy, and Moral Theology: inaugural lecture at Cambridge (1866) The Working Men's College (1866) The Ground and Object of Hope for Mankind: four university sermons (1867) The Workman and the Franchise: Chapters from English History on the Representation and Education of the People (1866) The Conscience: Lectures on Casuistry (1868) Social Morality: twenty-one lectures delivered in the University of Cambridge (1869) The Lord's Prayer, a Manual (1870). The Friendship of Books and Other Lectures, ed. T. Hughes (1873) Sermons Peached in Country Churches (1873) Faith and Action from the Writings of F.D. Maurice (1886) The Acts of the Apostles: A Course of Sermons (1894) Preached at St Peter, Vere Street. See also Frederick Barton Maurice References Notes Bibliography Further reading External links "Frederick Denison Maurice" "MAURICE, Professor Frederick Denison (1805–1872)" 19th-century English theologians English Anglican theologians English sermon writers Founders of English schools and colleges Academics of King's College London Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford People from Waveney District 1805 births 1872 deaths Burials at Highgate Cemetery English Christian socialists 19th-century English Anglican priests Anglican saints Academics of the University of Cambridge Anglican universalists Anglican socialists Christian socialist theologians 19th-century Anglican theologians 19th-century English Christian theologians 19th-century philanthropists	[ -0.33149829506874084, 0.4064146876335144, -0.43265974521636963, -0.09984688460826874, -0.5493286848068237, 1.0782548189163208, 1.2379766702651978, 0.189836785197258, -0.4275575280189514, -0.788085401058197, 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206519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penghu	Penghu	The Penghu (Hokkien POJ: Phîⁿ-ô͘ or Phêⁿ-ô͘ ) or Pescadores Islands are an archipelago of 90 islands and islets in the Taiwan Strait. The largest city is Magong, located on the largest island, which is also named Magong. Covering an area of , the archipelago collectively forms of the Republic of China (Taiwan) and is the second smallest county after Lienchiang County (the Matsu Islands). Name The traditional name of the islands, the Pescadores, comes from the Portuguese name Ilhas dos Pescadores ("Fishermen Islands"). The European Portuguese pronunciation is but, in English, it is typically closer to . The islands have also been called Pehoe from the Minnan name Phêⁿ-ô·. Using romanization based on the Mandarin pronunciation for the Chinese name, the islands have also been referred to as "Penghu Liehtao". History Prehistory Penghu 1, a fossil jaw (mandible) dating to the late Pleistocene that belonged to a member of an extinct hominin species, was discovered in the Pescadores Channel around 2008. Finds of fine red cord-marked pottery at Guoye, Huxi, indicate that Penghu was visited by Austronesians from southwestern Taiwan around 5,000 years ago, though not settled permanently. Han Chinese from southern Fujian began to establish fishing communities on the islands in the 9th and 10th centuries, and representatives were intermittently stationed there by the Southern Song and Yuan governments from around 1170. Wang Dayuan gave a detailed first-hand account of the islands in his Daoyi Zhilüe (1349). Ming dynasty In the 15th century, the Ming ordered the evacuation of the islands as part of their maritime ban. When these restrictions were removed in the late 16th century, legal fishing communities were re-established on the islands. These fishermen worshipped at the Mazu Temple that gave Magong its name and themselves gave rise to the Portuguese and English name Pescadores. The Ming established a permanent military presence starting in 1597. At this time, the Dutch East India Company was trying to force China to open a port in Fujian to Dutch trade and expel the Portuguese from Macau. When the Dutch were defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of Macau in 1622, they seized Penghu, built a fort there, and threatened raids on Chinese ports and shipping unless the Chinese allowed trading with them on Penghu and that China not trade with Manila. In response, the Chinese governor of Fujian demanded that the Dutch withdraw from Penghu to Taiwan, where the Chinese would permit them to engage in trade. The Dutch continued to raid the Fujian coast between October 1622 and January 1624 to force their demands, but were unsuccessful. In 1624, the new governor of Fujian sent a fleet of 40–50 warships with 5,000 troops to Penghu and expelled the Dutch, who moved to Fort Zeelandia on Taiwan. Qing dynasty For a period in the mid-17th century, Taiwan and the archipelago were ruled by the Koxinga kingdom (Kingdom of Tungning), which was overthrown by the Qing dynasty in 1683 after the Battle of Penghu. The Penghu archipelago was captured by the French in March 1885, in the closing weeks of the Sino-French War, and evacuated four months later. The Pescadores Campaign was the last campaign of Admiral Amédée Courbet, whose naval victories during the war had made him a national hero in France. Courbet was among several French soldiers and sailors who succumbed to cholera during the French occupation of Penghu. He died aboard his flagship Bayard in Makung harbour on 11 June 1885. Empire of Japan Towards the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, having defeated the Qing in northern China, Japan sought to ensure that it obtained Penghu and Taiwan in the final settlement. In March 1895, the Japanese defeated the Chinese garrison on the islands and occupied Makung. The Japanese occupation of Penghu, with its fine harbor, gave the Imperial Japanese Navy an advanced base from which their short-range coal-burning ships could control the Taiwan Straits and thus prevent more Chinese troops from being sent to Taiwan. This action persuaded the Chinese negotiators at Shimonoseki that Japan was determined to annex Taiwan, and, after Penghu, Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula had been ceded to Japan in the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Shimonoseki in April, helped to ensure the success of the Japanese invasion of Taiwan in May. Penghu County was then called the Hōko Prefecture by the Japanese government of Taiwan. During World War II, Makō (Makung) was a major base for the Imperial Japanese Navy and the embarkation point for the invasion of the Philippines. Republic of China In the Cairo Declaration of 1943, the United States, the United Kingdom and China stated it to be their purpose that "all the territories that Japan has stolen from the Chinese, such as Formosa and The Pescadores, shall be restored to the Republic of China". On 26 July 1945, the three governments issued the Potsdam Declaration, declaring that "the terms of the Cairo Declaration shall be carried out". However, the United States and the United Kingdom have regarded the aforementioned documents as merely wartime statements of intention with no binding force in law. Following the surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur issued General Order No. 1, which directed Japanese forces to surrender to the Allied Powers and facilitate the occupation of Japanese territories by the Allied Powers. In the Treaty of San Francisco, signed in 1951 and coming into effect in 1952, Japan renounced sovereignty over Taiwan and Penghu, but left their final disposition unsettled. The archipelago has been administered by the Republic of China since 1945. Boat people fleeing Vietnam in the 1970s and 1980s who were rescued by Taiwan's ships in the South China Sea were sent to Penghu. On 25 May 2002, China Airlines Flight 611, a Boeing 747-200 aircraft flying from Taipei to Hong Kong, disintegrated and exploded over the Islands. The wreckage slammed into the Taiwan Strait, a couple of miles off the coast. All 225 passengers and crew on board were killed. Climate Penghu County has a dry-winter humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cwa), bordering on a regular humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Geology Penghu is the remnant of a Miocene aged shield volcano, the stratigraphy of the island is dominated by two to four layers of basalt interbedded with sandstone and mudstone deposited in shallow marine conditions. Government Penghu County is administered by Penghu County Government headed by Magistrate Lai Feng-wei of the Kuomintang and headquartered at the Penghu County Hall. Administrative divisions Penghu County is divided into one city and five rural townships. It is further divided into 97 villages. Like Lienchiang County, Penghu County has no urban townships. The county seat is located at Magong City where it houses the Penghu County Hall and Penghu County Council. The main islands of Magong City/Huxi Township, Baisha Township, and Xiyu Township are the three most populous islands and are connected via bridges. Two shorter bridges connect Huxi and Baisha. The Penghu Great Bridge connecting Baisha and Xiyu is the longest bridge in Taiwan. Politics The county elects a single representative to the Legislative Yuan. In the 2016 Republic of China legislative election, this seat was won by the Democratic Progressive Party with 55.4% of the vote. Political dispute Despite the controversy over the political status of Taiwan, both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China agree that Penghu is a county in (their own respective) "Taiwan Province" (Taiwan Province, Republic of China and Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China). However, geographically, the island of Taiwan does not include Penghu, although it is closer to Taiwan than mainland China. Thus, Penghu is listed separately from "Taiwan" in some contexts, e.g. the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu (the official WTO name for the Republic of China) and in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Cairo Declaration, and the Treaty of San Francisco. Economy Due to its restricted geography, fisheries have been the main industry for Penghu. The Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau of the Penghu County Government governs matters related to agriculture and fisheries in Penghu. In 2016, the bureau placed a ban on the harvesting of sea urchins due to their declining population. However, the ban was lifted in 2017 but catches are limited only to those species larger than in diameter. Demographics Education Education-related matters in Penghu County are administered under the Education Department of the Penghu County Government. The county houses the National Penghu University of Science and Technology. Energy Penghu is powered by the Chienshan Power Plant, a 140 MW diesel-fired power plant commissioned in 2001, and the Hujing Power Plant on Table Island. On 24 December 2010, the Taiwan-Penghu Undersea Cable Project of Taipower was approved by the Executive Yuan to connect the electrical grid in Taiwan Island to Penghu. Under a wind power development project approved in 2002 by the Executive Yuan, the ROC government plans to set up a total of 200 wind turbines in Penghu within 10 years. However, only 14 turbines have been set up . On 1 October 2015, Taipower announced the construction of another 11 new wind turbines across the island, of which six will be constructed in Huxi Township and five in Baisha Township. The current total desalination capacity of the county to provide clean water to its residents is 15,500 m3 per day. To reduce its groundwater use, in November 2015 the county secured a contract of building an additional desalination plant with 4,000 m3 capacity per day, construction of which is expected to be completed by May 2018. Tourism The Penghu National Scenic Area was established in the early 1990s, comprising most of the islands and islets of the archipelago. Tourism has since become one of the main sources of income of the county. Historical sites include Central Street, Tianhou Temple, Four-eyed Well, Penghu Reclamation Hall, Qimei Lighthouse, Xiyu Eastern Fort, Jinguitou Fortress and Xiyu Western Fort. Museums in the county are Chuwan Crab Museum, Ocean Resources Museum, Chang Yu-sheng Memorial Museum and Penghu Living Museum. Other attractions in the county include the Double-Heart of Stacked Stones, Fenggui Cave, Little Taiwan, Whale Cave, Xiaomen Geology Gallery and South Penghu Marine National Park. Since 1 January 2015, tourists from Mainland China can directly apply for the Exit & Entry Permit upon arrival in Penghu. This privilege also applies to Kinmen and the Matsu Islands as a means to boost tourism in the outlying islands of Taiwan. The county welcomed 1.8 million tourists in 2018 with an average annual growth of around 10%. Drug trafficking As a lightly populated outlying island, Penghu lends itself to being used as a trans-shipment hub for drug smuggling into Taiwan from China and the Philippines. Beginning in 2016, the area became the focus of a major drug trafficking crackdown by the Taiwanese police. In 2016, Chou Meng-hsiang (周盟翔), chief prosecutor of the Penghu District Prosecutors Office, "led an investigation team in Taiwan, including officers from the Coast Guard Administration, in a bid to bring (a) drug trafficking ring to justice." A joint investigation with Philippine and Chinese authorities spanning one and a half years resulted in the seizure of "22.6 kilograms of amphetamine, 11.4 kilograms of ephedrine, and about 40 kilograms of calcium chloride" with an estimated value of NT$123 million. Eight suspects were arrested in Cagayan, a small island in northern Philippines, but no Taiwanese nationals were charged in relation to the importation scheme. In 2017, media reported "the biggest-ever haul of drugs in the county’s history" when 506 kg of ephedrine was seized from a Chinese fishing boat off Penghu "as part of an ongoing crackdown on the area drug trade". Ephedrine smuggling has increased in recent years as it has a similar structure to amphetamines and can be easily converted into methamphetamine. According to a Focus Taiwan report, "(It) can then be sold for ten times the price, in this case that would be more than NT$1 billion (US$33.33 million)." Despite the size of the drug seizure, only the five crew members of the Chinese fishing boat were detained in the operation, with authorities "unable to find the Taiwanese ship which should have turned up to take delivery of the drugs". It was unclear from media reports how the Taiwanese side of the smuggling operation knew to abort the rendezvous. The suppliers of the shipment also evaded capture. It was believed the drugs were destined to be transported from Penghu for distribution on Taiwan. Transport Air Penghu is served by Penghu Airport in Magong City and Qimei Airport in Cimei Township. Both airports opened in 1977. Daily Air operates flights between Penghu to Kaohsiung. Water The county has Magong Harbor and Longmen Jianshan Pier. Magong Harbor hosts ferry connections with Kaohsiung, Tainan, Chiayi and Kinmen. See also Administrative divisions of Taiwan List of cities in Taiwan References Citations Works cited Further reading External links Penghu County Government Penghu Tour Official Website 澎湖研究學術研討會第1-8屆論文輯全球資訊網-歷屆論文 (Traditional Chinese) Living Museum (Copyright © 2012 Culture Taiwan) Archipelagoes of Taiwan Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean Landforms of Penghu County	[ 0.42242535948753357, -0.30848410725593567, -0.04763318598270416, 0.0577426515519619, 0.45105668902397156, 0.2211461067199707, -0.43281999230384827, 0.44939103722572327, 0.12304331362247467, -0.08848593384027481, -0.2184140384197235, -0.06974014639854431, -0.10401542484760284, -0.2540909945964813, -0.558874785900116, 0.2977554202079773, 0.7612829804420471, 0.08000487834215164, -0.3165246546268463, -0.5882298946380615, -0.7016955018043518, 0.0006671994924545288, 0.11148087680339813, -0.04588955640792847, 0.23061197996139526, 0.11269266158342361, 0.13741107285022736, 0.5517523884773254, 0.6758382320404053, 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206520	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic%20flow	Pyroclastic flow	A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of but is capable of reaching speeds up to . The gases and tephra can reach temperatures of about . Pyroclastic flows are the most deadly of all volcanic hazards and are produced as a result of certain explosive eruptions; they normally touch the ground and hurtle downhill, or spread laterally under gravity. Their speed depends upon the density of the current, the volcanic output rate, and the gradient of the slope. Origin of term The word pyroclast is derived from the Greek (pýr), meaning "fire", and (klastós), meaning "broken in pieces". A name for pyroclastic flows which glow red in the dark is (French, "burning cloud"); this was notably used to describe the disastrous 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Martinique, a French island in the Caribbean. Pyroclastic flows that contain a much higher proportion of gas to rock are known as "fully dilute pyroclastic density currents" or pyroclastic surges. The lower density sometimes allows them to flow over higher topographic features or water such as ridges, hills, rivers and seas. They may also contain steam, water and rock at less than ; these are called "cold" compared with other flows, although the temperature is still lethally high. Cold pyroclastic surges can occur when the eruption is from a vent under a shallow lake or the sea. Fronts of some pyroclastic density currents are fully dilute; for example, during the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902, a fully dilute current overwhelmed the city of Saint-Pierre and killed nearly 30,000 people. A pyroclastic flow is a type of gravity current; in scientific literature they are sometimes abbreviated to PDC (pyroclastic density current). Causes There are several mechanisms that can produce a pyroclastic flow: Fountain collapse of an eruption column from a Plinian eruption (e.g. Mount Vesuvius' destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii in 79 AD). In such an eruption, the material forcefully ejected from the vent heats the surrounding air and the turbulent mixture rises, through convection, for many kilometers. If the erupted jet is unable to heat the surrounding air sufficiently, convection currents will not be strong enough to carry the plume upwards and it falls, flowing down the flanks of the volcano. Fountain collapse of an eruption column associated with a Vulcanian eruption (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano has generated many of these deadly pyroclastic flows and surges). The gas and projectiles create a cloud that is denser than the surrounding air and becomes a pyroclastic flow. Frothing at the mouth of the vent during degassing of the erupted lava. This can lead to the production of a rock called ignimbrite. This occurred during the eruption of Novarupta in 1912. Gravitational collapse of a lava dome or spine, with subsequent avalanches and flows down a steep slope (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano, which caused nineteen deaths in 1997). The directional blast (or jet) when part of a volcano collapses or explodes (e.g., the eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980). As distance from the volcano increases, this rapidly transforms into a gravity-driven current. Size and effects Flow volumes range from a few hundred cubic meters (yards) to more than 1,000 cubic kilometres (~240 cubic miles). Larger flows can travel for hundreds of kilometres (miles), although none on that scale has occurred for several hundred thousand years. Most pyroclastic flows are around 1 to 10 km3 (about ¼ to 2½ cubic miles) and travel for several kilometres. Flows usually consist of two parts: the basal flow hugs the ground and contains larger, coarse boulders and rock fragments, while an extremely hot ash plume lofts above it because of the turbulence between the flow and the overlying air, admixing and heating cold atmospheric air causing expansion and convection. The kinetic energy of the moving cloud will flatten trees and buildings in its path. The hot gases and high speed make them particularly lethal, as they will incinerate living organisms instantaneously or turn them into carbonized fossils: The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy, for example, were engulfed by pyroclastic surges on August 24, 79 AD with many lives lost. The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée destroyed the Martinique town of St. Pierre. Despite signs of impending eruption, the government deemed St. Pierre safe due to hills and valleys between it and the volcano, but the pyroclastic flow charred almost the entirety of the city, killing all but three of its 30,000 residents. A pyroclastic surge killed volcanologists Harry Glicken and Katia and Maurice Krafft and 40 other people on Mount Unzen, in Japan, on June 3, 1991. The surge started as a pyroclastic flow and the more energised surge climbed a spur on which the Kraffts and the others were standing; it engulfed them, and the corpses were covered with about of ash. On June 25, 1997, a pyroclastic flow travelled down Mosquito Ghaut on the Caribbean island of Montserrat. A large, highly energized pyroclastic surge developed. This flow could not be restrained by the Ghaut and spilled out of it, killing 19 people who were in the Streatham village area (which was officially evacuated). Several others in the area suffered severe burns. Interaction with water Testimonial evidence from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, supported by experimental evidence, shows that pyroclastic flows can cross significant bodies of water. However, that might be a pyroclastic surge, not flow, because the density of a gravity current means it cannot move across the surface of water. One flow reached the Sumatran coast as far as away. A 2006 BBC documentary film, Ten Things You Didn't Know About Volcanoes, demonstrated tests by a research team at Kiel University, Germany, of pyroclastic flows moving over water. When the reconstructed pyroclastic flow (stream of mostly hot ash with varying densities) hit the water, two things happened: the heavier material fell into the water, precipitating out from the pyroclastic flow and into the liquid; the temperature of the ash caused the water to evaporate, propelling the pyroclastic flow (now only consisting of the lighter material) along on a bed of steam at an even faster pace than before. During some phases of the Soufriere Hills volcano on Montserrat, pyroclastic flows were filmed about offshore. These show the water boiling as the flow passed over it. The flows eventually built a delta, which covered about . Another example was observed in 2019 at Stromboli, when a pyroclastic flow traveled for several hundreds of meters above the sea. A pyroclastic flow can interact with a body of water to form a large amount of mud, which can then continue to flow downhill as a lahar. This is one of several mechanisms that can create a lahar. On other celestial bodies In 1963, NASA astronomer Winifred Cameron proposed that the lunar equivalent of terrestrial pyroclastic flows may have formed sinuous rilles on the Moon. In a lunar volcanic eruption, a pyroclastic cloud would follow local relief, resulting in an often sinuous track. The Moon's Schröter's Valley offers one example. Some volcanoes on Mars, such as Tyrrhenus Mons and Hadriacus Mons have produced layered deposits that appear to be more easily eroded than lava flows, suggesting that they were emplaced by pyroclastic flows. See also Pyroclastic fall Pyroclastic rock Welded tuff References Sigurdson, Haraldur: Encyclopedia of volcanoes. Academic Press, 546–548. . 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206521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Anthony%20Motteux	Peter Anthony Motteux	Peter Anthony Motteux (born Pierre Antoine Motteux ; 25 February 1663 – 18 February 1718) was a French-born English author, playwright, and translator. Motteux was a significant figure in the evolution of English journalism in his era, as the publisher and editor of The Gentleman's Journal, "the first English magazine," from 1692 to 1694. Life A native of Rouen, he was a French Huguenot who came to England in 1685 after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. At first he lived with his godfather, Paul Dominique, and made his living as an auctioneer; by 1706 he maintained a shop in Leadenhall Street, selling imports from China, Japan, and India, and (in his own words) "silks, lace, linens, pictures, and other goods." He also held a position with the Post Office in the first decade of the 18th century. His death in a bawdy house was thought to be suspicious, and caused a good deal of legal disturbance. Five people were tried for his murder, but were acquitted. He was survived by his widow Priscilla, two sons and a daughter. Translations Motteux is perhaps best known for completing Sir Thomas Urquhart's translation of Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel. Books I and II of Urquhart's translation of Rabelais had been published in 1653; Motteux (with outside help) revised these, completed Urquart's translation of Book III, and translated Book IV and the possibly-spurious Book V. The entire work was published in 1693 and 1694 (reprinted in 1708; revised by John Ozell in 1737). While Urquhart's original version of Rabelais has sometimes been acclaimed as a masterpiece in itself, critics have had reservations about Motteux's continuation. In part, Motteux suffered for frankly rendering the vulgarity of Rabelais, to a generation of readers less prepared to tolerate it than Urquhart's had been. Motteux produced an important translation of the Miguel de Cervantes novel Don Quixote; this 4-volume 1700–03 edition (3rd edition in 1712) was credited as "translated from the original by many hands and published by Peter Motteux." Very popular in its own era, Motteux's version of the work has been condemned by later translators. John Ormsby listed numerous faults he found with Motteux's translation, and described it as "worse than worthless ... worthless as failing to represent, worse than worthless as misrepresenting" the spirit and flavour of the original. Motteux translated other works as well, one example being The Present State of the Empire of Morocco (1695) by French diplomat François Pidou de Saint-Olon. Dramas Motteux wrote a series of plays and musical librettos that were produced during the 1690s and early 18th century, including: The Loves of Mars and Venus (1695) Love's a Jest (1696) She Ventures and He Wins (1696) The Novelty, or Every Act a Play (1697) Beauty in Distress (1698) Britain's Happiness (1704) The Stage Coach (1704) The Amorous Miser, or the Younger the Wiser (1705) Thomyris, Queen of Scythia (1707) Love's Triumph (1708) —among others. As its subtitle indicates, The Novelty was an anthology of five short plays in different genres, comedy, tragedy, pastoral, masque, and farce. Motteux worked in the English stage genre then called "opera," which were semi-operas somewhat comparable to modern musicals; works like The Rape of Europa by Jupiter (1694), Acis and Galatea (1701), and Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus (1705), Thomyris, Queen of Scythia (17078 the first two with music by John Eccles, the third with music by Thomas Clayton and the fourth arranged by Johann Christoph Pepusch. His final works are translations and adaptations of opera libretti from the Italian. As was typical of Restoration drama, Motteux's plays often adapted earlier works; and his plays in turn were adapted by others into new forms. His semi-opera The Island Princess, or the Generous Portuguese (1699) was an adaptation of John Fletcher's play The Island Princess, with music by Daniel Purcell, Richard Leveridge and Jeremiah Clarke. The mezzo-soprano, Mrs Lindsey sang interludes at its first performance at Drury Lane in February 1699. After his death, the comic subplot of Acis and Galatea was transformed into "a comic mask" called Roger and Joan, or the Country Wedding (1739). Much later, David Garrick adapted The Novelty into a farce titled The Lying Varlet, published in 1823. Journalism Motteux edited The Gentleman's Journal, or the Monthly Miscellany from its initial issue, dated January 1692, to its last of November 1694; evidence suggests he wrote most of the prose in each issue as well. (The plan was for monthly issues, though some were late, and some were missed.) Motteux may have been influenced by Le Mercure Galant, a French periodical of the 1670s devoted to Court news and gossip—though Motteux's Journal was more ambitious. The Journal published "News, History, Philosophy, Poetry, Musick, Translations, &c." It covered a wider range of topics than other periodicals of its era like John Dunton's The Athenian Gazette, giving it some claim as the first "general interest" magazine in English. Motteux reviewed plays by John Dryden (a personal friend) and William Congreve among others; he published verse by the poets of the era, including Matthew Prior and Charles Sedley; he covered the musical career of Henry Purcell and printed several of his songs. The short fictions published in the journal contributed to the formation of the novel in English. The Journal even featured a "Lovers' Gazette," foreshadowing the advice-to-the-lovelorn columns of later generations of popular journalism. Though its existence was relatively brief in historical terms, the Journal provided a precedent for later publications of the same type, notably The Gentleman's Magazine and The London Magazine. One curiosity of the Journal is that the title page of its first issue bore the motto E pluribus unum, apparently the earliest use of what would later become the motto of the United States of America. Motteux used the phrase in the sense of "one chosen among many," rather than its common later connotation. (Classicists have attempted to trace possible sources for the motto, ranging from Vergil to Aristotle to Horace to Cicero to St. Augustine.) Motteux published early arguments in favor of the equality of the sexes; he re-titled the October 1693 issue of the Journal "The Lady's Journal," and devoted it to articles by and about women. Notes References Arnold, Howard Payson. Historical Side-Lights. New York, Harper & Brothers, 1899. Baldwin, Neil. The American Revelation. New York, St. Martin's Griffin, 2006. Bayer, Gerd. "Novel Horizons: The Genre Making of Restoration Fiction." Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2016. Cervantes, Miguel de. The History of Don Quixote De La Mancha. Translated by John Ormsby. Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica Press, 1952. Cunningham, Robert Newton. Peter Anthony Motteux: A Biographical and Critical Study. Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1933. Gillespie, Stuart, and David Hopkins, eds. The Oxford History of Literary Translation in English. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005. Jackson, Mason. The Pictorial Press: Its Origin and Progress. London, Hurst and Blackett, 1885. MacDonald, Hugh. John Dryden: A Bibliography of Early Editions and of Drydeniana. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1939; reprinted Kessinger, 2006. Owen, Susan J. A Companion to Restoration Drama. London, Blackwell, 2001. Van Laun, Henri. "Life," in: Motteux's Don Quixote, edited by John Gibson Lockhart; 4 Volumes, reprinted London, J. M. Dent, 1880. External links Three Motteux plays online. 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206525	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliban%20%28moon%29	Caliban (moon)	Caliban is the second-largest retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered on 6 September 1997 by Brett J. Gladman, Philip D. Nicholson, Joseph A. Burns, and John J. Kavelaars using the 200-inch Hale telescope together with Sycorax and given the temporary designation S/1997 U 1. Designated Uranus XVI, it was named after the monster character in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest. Orbit Caliban follows a distant orbit, more than 10 times further from Uranus than the furthest regular moon Oberon. Its orbit is retrograde, moderately inclined and slightly eccentric. The orbital parameters suggest that it may belong to the same dynamic cluster as Stephano and Francisco, suggesting common origin. The diagram illustrates the orbital parameters of the retrograde irregular satellites of Uranus (in polar co-ordinates) with the eccentricity of the orbits represented by the segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre. Physical characteristics Caliban's diameter is estimated to be around 42 km, based on thermal measurements by the Herschel Space Observatory. Its albedo is estimated at around 0.22, which is unusually high compared to those of other Uranian irregular satellites. Neptune's largest irregular satellite, Nereid, has a similarly high albedo as Caliban. Somewhat inconsistent reports put Caliban in light-red category ( , ), redder than Himalia but still less red than most Kuiper belt objects. Caliban may be slightly redder than Sycorax. It also absorbs light at 0.7 μm, and one group of astronomers think this may be a result of liquid water that modified the surface. Measurements of Caliban's light curve by the Kepler space telescope indicate that its rotation period is about 9.9 hours. Origin Caliban is hypothesized to be a captured object: it did not form in the accretionary disk that existed around Uranus just after its formation. The exact capture mechanism is not known, but capturing a moon requires the dissipation of energy. The possible capture processes include: gas drag in the protoplanetary disk, many body interactions and the capture during the fast growth of the Uranus' mass (so-called "pull-down"). See also Moons of Uranus Footnotes References External links Caliban Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewiit pages Uranus' Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard) MPC: Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service Caliban and Sycorax, Moons of Uranus (2005 Calvin J. 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206530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule%20by%20decree	Rule by decree	Rule by decree is a style of governance allowing quick, unchallenged promulgation of law by a single person or group, and is used primarily by dictators, absolute monarchs and military leaders. The expression is also sometimes used when describing actions of democratic governments that are perceived to unduly bypass parliamentarian or popular scrutiny. Rule by decree allows the ruler to arbitrarily edit law, without legislative approval. When a state of emergency, such as martial law, is in place, rule by decree is common. While rule by decree is easily susceptible to the whims and corruption of the person in power, it is also highly efficient: a law can take weeks or months to pass in a legislature, but can be edited with ease by a leader ruling by decree. This is what makes it valuable in emergency situations. Thus, it is allowed by many constitutions, including the French, Argentine, Indian and Hungarian constitutions. Lex Titia and Second Triumvirate One of the first examples of rule by decree was in the ancient Roman Republic when, after the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, his successor, Gaius Octavian (Augustus), general Mark Antony and succeeding pontifex maximus Aemilius Lepidus seized power in the Second Triumvirate, officially recognized by the senate by the Lex Titia decree. The resolution, which gave the three 'triumvirs' authoritarian powers for five years, was enacted and reinstated consecutive in 38 BC. It finally collapsed in 33/32 BC, after the downfall of Lepidus, leading to the final Roman Republican civil war and the total collapse of republican government. Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 The most prominent example in history is the Reichstag Fire Decree in Germany, passed after the Reichstag building caught fire in 1933. German Chancellor Adolf Hitler convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to invoke Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution and issue a decree suspending basic civil rights indefinitely. As a result of this decree, German authorities were able to constitutionally suppress or imprison their opposition, which in turn paved the way for the one-party rule of the Nazi Party. The ensuing state of exception, which suspended the Constitution without formally repealing it, lasted until the end of the Third Reich in 1945. Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes Some democratic leaders, such as the presidents of Mexico, France and Argentina may rule by decree in national emergencies, subject to constitutional and other legal limitations. In the case of France this power has been used only once, by Charles de Gaulle in 1961 during the Algerian War. Other modern political concepts, such as the French decrees, Orders in Council in the British Commonwealth, and executive orders in the United States are partially based on this notion of decrees, although they are far more limited in scope and generally subject to judicial review. India During the Indian Emergency from 1975 to 1977, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had laws passed that allowed her to rule by decree. Ireland Ireland's Emergency Powers Act allows the government to rule by decrees called Emergency Powers Orders in any aspect of national life, if the parliament invokes the emergency clause in Article 28(3) of the Constitution. The Act however allows the Dáil Éireann to void specific EPOs in a free vote or end the state of emergency at any time. Russia From 23 September (given actual effect from 4 October after the armed disbanding of the Supreme Soviet) to 12 December 1993, rule by decree (ukase) was imposed in Russia by President Boris Yeltsin, during transition from the Russian Constitution of 1978 (which was modelled after the obsolete Soviet Constitution of 1977) to the current 1993 Constitution. Venezuela Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez was granted executive power by the National Assembly to rule by decree multiple times throughout his tenure, passing hundreds of laws. Chávez ruled Venezuela by decree in 2000, 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011 and 2012. Between 2004 and 2006 alone, Chávez declared 18 "emergencies" to rule by decree. Chávez's successor, Nicolás Maduro, has also ruled by decree multiple times since he was elected in April 2013. President Maduro has ruled Venezuela by decree for the majority of the period from 19 November 2013 through 2018. Giorgio Agamben's critique of the use of decrees-law Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben has claimed that there has been an explosion in the use of various types of decrees (decree-law, presidential decrees, executive orders, etc.) since World War I. According to him, this is the sign of a "generalization of the state of exception". See also Enabling act Carlos Ibáñez del Campo's rule in Chile during the Presidential Republic era Executive order State of emergency Decree COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary References Emergency laws Dictatorship National security Philosophy of law Political concepts Totalitarianism Decrees	[ 0.5161778926849365, 0.08146180212497711, 0.15499897301197052, 0.430184930562973, -0.2170526087284088, -0.3709762990474701, 0.02535126730799675, 0.0850628912448883, -0.3803175389766693, -0.33791401982307434, -0.8158078789710999, 0.4287935495376587, -0.20422029495239258, 0.5270723700523376, -0.6950831413269043, 0.2796708047389984, 0.133463054895401, 0.6535888314247131, -0.11597167700529099, -0.2504734694957733, 0.21025978028774261, 0.15861213207244873, -0.482241153717041, -0.28699198365211487, 0.1985168159008026, -0.10025738179683685, 0.18741640448570251, -0.31676000356674194, -0.5759574770927429, 0.14067129790782928, 0.4579085409641266, -0.2757028341293335, -0.168545201420784, 0.07689175009727478, 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206532	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leigh%20Hunt	Leigh Hunt	James Henry Leigh Hunt (19 October 178428 August 1859), best known as Leigh Hunt, was an English critic, essayist and poet. Hunt co-founded The Examiner, a leading intellectual journal expounding radical principles. He was the centre of the Hampstead-based group that included William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb, known as the "Hunt circle". Hunt also introduced John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Robert Browning and Alfred Tennyson to the public. Hunt's presence at Shelley's funeral on the beach near Viareggio was immortalised in the painting by Louis Édouard Fournier, although in reality Hunt did not stand by the pyre, as portrayed. Hunt inspired aspects of the Harold Skimpole character in Charles Dickens' novel Bleak House. Early life James Henry Leigh Hunt was born 19 October 1784, at Southgate, London, where his parents had settled after leaving the United States. His father, Isaac, a lawyer from Philadelphia, and his mother, Mary Shewell, a merchant's daughter and a devout Quaker, had been forced to come to Britain because of their Loyalist sympathies during the American War of Independence. Once in England, Isaac Hunt became a popular preacher but was unsuccessful in obtaining a permanent living. He was then employed by James Brydges, 3rd Duke of Chandos, as tutor to his nephew, James Henry Leigh for whom Isaac named his son. Education Leigh Hunt was educated at Christ's Hospital in London from 1791 to 1799, a period that Hunt described in his autobiography. Thomas Barnes was a school friend. One of the boarding houses at Christ's Hospital is named after Hunt. As a boy, Hunt was an admirer of Thomas Gray and William Collins, writing many verses in imitation of them. A speech impediment, later cured, prevented Hunt from going to university. "For some time after I left school," he says, "I did nothing but visit my school-fellows, haunt the book-stalls and write verses." Hunt's first poems were published in 1801 under the title of Juvenilia, introducing him into British literary and theatrical society. He began to write for the newspapers and published in 1807 a volume of theatre criticism, and a series of Classic Tales with critical essays on the authors. Hunt's early essays were published by Edward Quin, editor and owner of The Traveller. Family In 1809, Leigh Hunt married Marianne Kent, whose parents were Thomas and Ann. Over the next 20 years, the couple had ten children: Thornton Leigh (1810–73), John Horatio Leigh (1812–46), Mary Florimel Leigh (1813–49), Swinburne Percy Leigh (1816–27), Percy Bysshe Shelley Leigh (1817–99), Henry Sylvan Leigh (1819–76), Vincent Leigh (1823–52), Julia Trelawney Leigh (1826–72), Jacyntha Leigh (1828–1914), and Arabella Leigh (1829–30). Marianne Hunt, in poor health for most of her life, died on 26 January 1857, at the age of 69. Leigh Hunt made little mention of his family in his autobiography. Marianne's sister, Elizabeth Kent (Hunt's sister-in-law), became his amanuensis. Newspapers The Examiner In 1808, Hunt left the War Office, where he had been working as a clerk, to become editor of The Examiner, a newspaper founded by his brother, John Hunt. His brother Robert Hunt contributed to its columns. Robert Hunt's criticism earned the enmity of William Blake, who described the office of The Examiner as containing a "nest of villains". Blake's response also included Leigh Hunt, who had published several vitriolic reviews in 1808 and 1809 and had added Blake's name to a list of so-called "quacks". The Examiner soon acquired a reputation for unusual political independence; it would attack any worthy target "from a principle of taste," as John Keats expressed it. In 1813 (or 1812), The Examiner attacked Prince Regent George, apparently for describing his physique as "corpulent"; the British government tried the three Hunt brothers and sentenced them to two years in prison. Leigh Hunt served his term at the Surrey County Gaol. Leigh Hunt's visitors at Surrey County Gaol included Lord Byron, Thomas Moore, Lord Henry Brougham, and Charles Lamb. The stoicism with which Leigh Hunt bore his imprisonment attracted general attention and sympathy. His imprisonment allowed him many luxuries and access to friends and family, and Lamb described his decorations of the cell as something not found outside a fairy tale. When Jeremy Bentham called on him, he found Hunt playing battledore. From 1814 to 1817, Leigh Hunt and Hazlitt wrote a series of essays in The Examiner that they titled "The Round Table". These essays were published in two volumes in 1817 in The Round Table. Twelve of the 52 essays were written by Hunt, the rest by Hazlitt. The Reflector From 1810 to 1811, Leigh Hunt edited a quarterly magazine, The Reflector, for his brother John. He wrote "The Feast of the Poets" for publication. His work was a satire that offended many contemporary poets, particularly William Gifford. The Indicator From 1819 to 1821, Hunt edited The Indicator, a weekly literary periodical that was published by Joseph Appleyard. Hunt probably wrote much of the content, which included reviews, essays, stories and poems. The Companion From January to July 1828, Hunt edited The Companion, a weekly literary periodical that was published by Hunt and Clarke. The journal dealt with books, theatrical productions and miscellaneous topics. Poetry In 1816, Hunt published the poem Story of Rimini. The work was based on the tragic episode of Francesca da Rimini, as told in Dante's Inferno. Hunt's preference was decidedly for Geoffrey Chaucer's verse style, as adapted to Modern English by John Dryden. That was in contrast to the epigrammatic couplet of Alexander Pope. The Story of Rimini is an optimistic narrative that runs contrary to the tragic nature of its subject. Hunt's flippancy and familiarity, often degenerating into the ludicrous, subsequently made him a target for ridicule and parody. In 1818, Hunt published a collection of poems entitled Foliage, followed in 1819 by Hero and Leander, and Bacchus and Ariadne. In the same year, he reprinted The Story of Rimini and The Descent of Liberty with the title of Poetical Works. Hunt also started the Indicator. Both Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley belonged to a literary group that gathered around Hunt at Hampstead. The Hunt Circle also included Hazlitt, Lamb, Bryan Procter, Benjamin Haydon, Charles Cowden Clarke, C. W. Dilke, Walter Coulson and John Hamilton Reynolds. The group was known pejoratively as the Cockney School. Some of Hunt's most popular poems are "Jenny kiss'd Me", "Abou Ben Adhem" (1834) and "A Night-Rain in Summer". Friendship with Keats and Shelley Hunt maintained close friendships with both Keats and Shelley. Financial help from Shelley saved Hunt from ruin. In return, Hunt provided Shelley with support during his family problems and defended him in The Examiner. Hunt introduced Keats to Shelley and wrote a very generous appreciation of him in The Indicator. Keats seemingly, however, later felt that Hunt's example as a poet had been in some respects detrimental to him. After Shelley's departure for Italy in 1818, Hunt experienced more financial difficulties. In addition, both his health and that of his wife Marianne failed. As a result, Hunt was forced to discontinue The Indicator (1819–1821) and stated that he had "almost died over the last numbers". Trip to Italy Shelley suggested that Hunt could join him and Byron in Italy to establish a quarterly magazine. The advantage was that they would be able to publish liberal opinions without repression from the British government. Byron's motive for this proposal was allegedly to acquire more influence over The Examiner with Hunt out of England. However, Byron soon discovered that Hunt was no longer interested in The Examiner. Leigh Hunt left England for Italy in November 1821, but storm, sickness, and misadventure delayed his arrival until 1 July 1822. Thomas Love Peacock compared their voyage to that of the character Ulysses in Homer's Odyssey. One week after Hunt arrived in Italy, Shelley died. Hunt was now virtually dependent upon Byron, who was not interested in supporting him and his family. Byron's friends also scorned Hunt. The Liberal lived through four quarterly numbers, containing contributions no less memorable than Byron's "Vision of Judgment" and Shelley's translations from Faust. In 1823, Byron left Italy for Greece, abandoning the quarterly. Hunt, remaining in Genoa, enjoyed the Italian climate and culture and stayed in Italy until 1825. Meanwhile, he created Ultra-Crepidarius: a Satire on William Gifford (1823), and his translation (1825) of Francesco Redi's Bacco in Toscana. Return to England In 1825, a lawsuit with one of his brothers made Hunt return to England. In 1828, Hunt published Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries. The work was designed to counter what Hunt perceived as an inaccurate public image of Byron. The public was shocked that Hunt, who had been obliged to Byron for so much, would "bite the hand that fed him". Hunt especially writhed under the withering satire of Moore. During his later years, Hunt continued to suffer from poverty and sickness. He worked unremittingly, but one effort failed after another. Two journalistic ventures, the Tatler (1830–1832), a daily devoted to literary and dramatic criticism, and London Journal (1834–1835) failed even though the latter contained some of his best writing. Hunt's editorship (1837–1838) of the Monthly Repository was also unsuccessful. In 1832, Hunt published by subscription a collected edition of his poems. The subscribers included many of his opponents. Also in 1832, Hunt printed for private circulation Christianism, the work afterward published (1853) as The Religion of the Heart. A copy sent to Thomas Carlyle secured his friendship, and Hunt went to live next door to him in Cheyne Row in 1833. Hunt's romance, Sir Ralph Esher, about Charles II's was successful. Captain Sword and Captain Pen, published in 1835, a spirited contrast between the victories of peace and the victories of war, deserves to be ranked among his best poems. In 1840, Hunt's play Legend of Florence had a successful engagement at Covent Garden, which helped him financially. Lover's Amazements, a comedy, was acted several years afterwards and was printed in Journal (1850–1851); other plays remained in manuscript. Also in 1840, Hunt wrote introductory notices to the work of Richard Brinsley Sheridan and to Edward Moxon's edition of the works of William Wycherley, William Congreve, John Vanbrugh and George Farquhar, a work that furnished the occasion of Macaulay's essay on the Dramatists of the Restoration. A narrative poem, The Palfrey, was published in 1842. During the 1830s, Hunt also wrote for the Edinburgh Review Final years In 1844 Mary Shelley and her son, on succeeding to the family estates, settled an annuity of £120 upon Hunt (Rossetti 1890). In 1847 Lord John Russell set up a pension of £200 for Hunt. With his finances in better shape, Hunt published the companion books Imagination and Fancy (1844) and Wit and Humour (1846). These were two volumes of selections from English poets, which displayed his refined, discriminating critical tastes. Hunt also published a book on the pastoral poetry of Sicily, A Jar of Honey from Mount Hybla (1848). The Town (2 vols., 1848) and Men, Women and Books (2 vols., 1847) are partly made up from former material. The Old Court Suburb (2 vols., 1855; ed. A Dobson, 2002) is a sketch of Kensington, where Hunt long resided. In 1850 Hunt published his Autobiography (3 vols.). It has been described as a naive and affected, but accurate, piece of self-portraiture. Hunt published A Book for a Corner (2 vols.) in 1849 and Table Talk appeared in 1851. In 1855, he published his narrative poems, both original and translated, under the title Stories in Verse. Hunt died in Putney in London on 28 August 1859. He was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery. In September 1966, Christ's Hospital named one of its houses in the memory of Hunt. Today, a residential street in his birthplace of Southgate is named Leigh Hunt Drive in his honour. In a letter of 25 September 1853, Dickens stated that Hunt had inspired the character of Harold Skimpole in Bleak House; "I suppose he is the most exact portrait that was ever painted in words! ... It is an absolute reproduction of a real man". A contemporary critic commented, "I recognized Skimpole instantaneously; ... and so did every person whom I talked with about it who had ever had Leigh Hunt's acquaintance." G. K. Chesterton suggested that Dickens "May never once have had the unfriendly thought, 'Suppose Hunt behaved like a rascal!'; he may have only had the fanciful thought, 'Suppose a rascal behaved like Hunt!'" (Chesterton 1906). Other works Amyntas, A Tale of the Woods (1820), a translation of Tasso's Aminta The Seer, or Common-Places refreshed (2 pts., 1840–1841) Three of the Canterbury Tales in The Poems of Geoffrey Chaucer modernized (1841) Stories from the Italian Poets (1846) Compilations such as One Hundred Romances of Real Life (1843) Selections from Beaumont and Fletcher (1855) The Book of the Sonnet (Boston, 1867), with S Adams Lee. His Poetical Works (2 vols.), revised by himself and edited by Lee, were printed at Boston in 1857, and an edition (London and New York) by his son, Thornton Hunt, appeared in 1860. Among volumes of selections are Essays (1887), ed. A. Symons; Leigh Hunt as Poet and Essayist (1889), ed. C. Kent; Essays and Poems (1891), ed. R. B. Johnson for the "Temple Library". Elizabeth Kent also incorporated many of his suggestions into her anonymously published Hunt's Autobiography was revised shortly before his death, and edited (1859) by Thornton Hunt, who also arranged his Correspondence (2 vols., 1862). Additional letters were printed by the Cowden Clarkes in their Recollections of Writers (1878). The Autobiography was edited (2 vols., 1903) with full bibliographical note by Roger Ingpen. A bibliography of Hunt's works was compiled by Alexander Ireland (List of the Writings of William Hazlitt and Leigh Hunt, 1868). There are short lives of Hunt by Cosmo Monkhouse ("Great Writers," 1893) and by RB Johnson (1896). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Volume 28 (2004). Notes References Blainey, Ann. Immortal Boy. 1985. Blunden, Edmund, Leigh Hunt's Examiner Examined. Cobden-Sanderson, 1928 Blunden, Edmund, Leigh Hunt. A Biography. Cobden-Sanderson, 1930 Cox, Jeffrey N., Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and their Circle. Cambridge University Press, 1999. Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, Leigh Hunt and the London Literary Scene: A Reception History of His Major Works, 1805–1828. Routledge, 2005. Holden, Anthony, The Wit in the Dungeon: The Life of Leigh Hunt. Little, Brown, 2005. Lulofs, Timothy J. and Hans Ostrom, Leigh Hunt: A Reference Guide. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1985. Roe, Nicholas, Fiery Heart: The First Life of Leigh Hunt. Pimlico, 2005. The Autobiography of Leigh Hunt (3rd Edition) – With an introduction by Edmund Blunden, Oxford University Press "The World's Classics" Series 1928 External links Archival material at Leigh Hunt Letters – The University of Iowa Libraries Essays by Leigh Hunt at Quotidiana.org Selection of poems by Leigh Hunt "Leigh Hunt and Anna Maria Dashwood: A Shelleyan Romance" by Eleanor M. Gates "An imprisoned wit" article on the life and writings of Leigh Hunt in The Times Literary Supplement by Kelly Grovier Mrs. Shelley by Lucy M. Rossetti (1890) Ann Blainey, Immortal Boy: A Portrait of Leigh Hunt. New York: St. Martins, 1985. Leigh Hunt at the National Portrait Gallery Hunt's house in the Vale of Health, Hampstead Hunt's house in Chelsea Poems by James Henry Leigh Hunt 1784 births 1859 deaths English essayists English memoirists English male journalists 19th-century English poets Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery Victorian poets People educated at Christ's Hospital People from Southgate, London English literary critics English autobiographers 19th-century English writers Male essayists English male poets	[ 0.06285476684570312, 0.14238712191581726, -0.8156716823577881, -0.2999234199523926, 0.13210409879684448, 0.944625973701477, 0.6429128646850586, -0.24306443333625793, -0.08575305342674255, -0.16946671903133392, -0.28995901346206665, 0.44396793842315674, -0.12013000249862671, -0.24871781468391418, -0.12272533029317856, 0.23590251803398132, -0.5461750030517578, -0.6117333173751831, 0.2833084464073181, -0.21540763974189758, -0.17047207057476044, -0.1400664895772934, 0.2705666422843933, -0.4849850833415985, 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206542	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical%20object	Astronomical object	An astronomical object or celestial object is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms object and body are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial object is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures. Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified as both body and object: It is a body when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an object when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail. History Galaxy and larger The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy. Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe. Galaxies have a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters. Within a galaxy The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surround newly formed stars. The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then its physical properties can cause it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. The evolving star may eject some portion of its atmosphere to form a nebula, either steadily to form a planetary nebula or in a supernova explosion that leaves a remnant. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole. Shape The IAU definitions of planet and dwarf planet require that a Sun-orbiting astronomical body has undergone the rounding process to reach a roughly spherical shape, an achievement known as hydrostatic equilibrium. The same spheroidal shape can be seen from smaller rocky planets like Mars to gas giants like Jupiter. Any natural Sun-orbiting body that has reached hydrostatic equilibrium is classified by the IAU as a small Solar System body (SSB). These come in many non-spherical shapes which are lumpy masses accreted haphazardly by in-falling dust and rock; not enough mass falls in to generate the heat needed to complete the rounding. Some SSSBs are just collections of relatively small rocks that are weakly held next to each other by gravity but are not actually fused into a single big bedrock. Some larger SSSBs are nearly round but have not reached hydrostatic equilibrium. The small Solar System body 4 Vesta is large enough to have undergone at least partial planetary differentiation. Stars like the Sun are also spheroidal due to gravity's effects on their plasma, which is a free-flowing fluid. Ongoing stellar fusion is a much greater source of heat for stars compared to the initial heat released during formation. Categories by location The table below lists the general categories of bodies and objects by their location or structure. 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206544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20McCoy	Andy McCoy	Antti Hulkko (born 11 October 1962), better known as Andy McCoy, is a Finnish musician. He is best known for his role as the lead guitarist and main songwriter of the rock band Hanoi Rocks, but has also played with Iggy Pop and a variety of other groups. McCoy's works cover a wide range of music genres, including rock 'n' roll, punk rock, flamenco, glam punk, glam rock, blues rock and hard rock. He is also an avid painter. Biography Hanoi Rocks (1979–1985, 2001–2009) Before Hanoi Rocks, McCoy had become well known in his home country, Finland, due to his work in the punk rock band Pelle Miljoona Oy. During this time McCoy was talking with Matti Fagerholm (better known as Michael Monroe) to start a band of their own, but because McCoy was currently in Pelle Miljoona Oy, he told Monroe to start the band without him in 1979. After McCoy left Pelle Miljoona Oy, he joined Monroe in Hanoi Rocks, with another former-Pelle Miljoona Oy member, Sam Yaffa. At this point, the Hanoi Rocks line-up consisted of Michael Monroe (lead vocals), Andy McCoy (lead guitar), Nasty Suicide (rhythm guitar), Sam Yaffa (bass) and Swedish Gyp Casino (drums). Hanoi Rocks released their first album in 1981 titled Bangkok Shocks, Saigon Shakes, Hanoi Rocks, with eight out of ten tracks written by McCoy. The album was produced by Andy McCoy and Michael Monroe who were known as "The Muddy Twins". In 1982 Hanoi Rocks recorded and released their second studio album Oriental Beat in London. The original cover's back side featured Andy McCoy's then girlfriend Anna's naked breasts painted blue and red with "Hanoi Roxx" written across it. After the album's release, the band moved to London the same year, and subsequently fired drummer Gyp Casino before hiring Hanoi Rocks fan Nicholas Dingley, better known as Razzle, as drummer. The line-up with Razzle is considered the definitive version of Hanoi Rocks. Later that year the band released Self Destruction Blues, which had Razzle on the cover, but he didn't play on the album, because it was actually a compilation of old singles. The tour for the album took the band to Asia for the first time. The next year 1983, the band released Back to Mystery City and after that, in 1984, the band worked with producer Bob Ezrin, and released Two Steps from the Move. Before this, McCoy had written most of the songs by himself, but for this album Bob Ezrin helped McCoy with the writing, along with Monroe. He also got some help with the lyrics from legendary Ian Hunter (of Mott The Hoople). After Razzle's death, Sam Yaffa left the band due to personal differences with McCoy (amongst other reasons he was now engaged to Anna, McCoy's former girlfriend known from the Oriental Beat cover). The band tried out new members (amongst them The Clash ex-drummer Terry Chimes and bassist René Berg), but things didn't work out, so the band disbanded in 1985. In 2001 McCoy and Michael Monroe started working together again and decided to reform Hanoi Rocks with two new members on guitar and bass, with Michael Monroe's solo career drummer, Lacu. They released Twelve Shots on the Rocks that same year. In 2005 they released Another Hostile Takeover with new members Andy Christell on bass and Conny Bloom on guitar (both formerly of the Electric Boys). In 2007 the band released the album Street Poetry. In 2008 Andy McCoy and Michael Monroe stated that they had taken the band as far as they could and so they decided to end the band. Hanoi Rocks played 8 sold out farewell gigs in 6 days at Tavastia Club, Helsinki. The original guitarist Nasty Suicide appeared as a special guest on three of the last gigs. Other work (1985–1999, 2009–2019) After Hanoi Rocks' break-up in 1985, McCoy continued with his next project "The Cherry Bombz" which featured the last Hanoi line-up (except Michael Monroe), which consisted of Nasty Suicide, drummer Terry Chimes, bass player Timo Kaltio and vocalist Anita Chellemah of Toto Coelo fame (previously scoring a hit with "I Eat Cannibals"). The band was perceived as being the next stage of Hanoi Rocks. The music of The Cherry Bombz was actually very similar to that of Hanoi Rocks. The band played a handful of shows in Europe and in the United States in 1985 and 1986 and released two EPs and a live album and video, but never a full-length studio album. In 1986, Timo Kaltio was replaced by bassist Dave Tregunna (Sham 69, Lords of the New Church), but the group broke up the next year. McCoy also worked with Nasty Suicide under the moniker "The Suicide Twins" and released the album Silver Missiles And Nightingales (which was the original working tile for Two Steps from the Move) in 1986, which also featured a guest appearance by René Berg. "The Suicide Twins" project disbanded in 1987 McCoy spent the rest of 1987 not doing much, except releasing his memoir titled "Andy McCoy – From Hanoi to Eternity", but nothing else. In 1988 McCoy released his first solo-album titled Too Much Ain't Enough. For the rest of 1988 McCoy did some acoustic gigs in Finland, moved to London and then to Los Angeles. Next McCoy struck a record deal with BMG. McCoy also became the first Finnish artist to have a gold record in the US, when Samantha Fox recorded a cover of The Suicide Twins' song "The Best Is Yet to Come". The rest of 1988 and some of 1989 McCoy spent touring as the guitarist for Iggy Pop. In 1989 McCoy appeared on the U.K. Subs' album Killing Time. In the beginning of the 1990s, McCoy lived in Los Angeles with his son and new girlfriend, Johnny Thunders' cousin Angela Nicoletti (former girlfriend of Izzy Stradlin). McCoy formed the band Shooting Gallery and married Angela in October 1991. Shooting Gallery toured as an opening act for Kiss during a U.S. tour and also released an album in 1992, before breaking-up that same year. Shooting Gallery shortly came back and toured in Finland with Gyp Casino on drums in 1994, but again disbanded that same year. In 1995 McCoy's second solo-album Building on Tradition was released and, aside from Hanoi Rocks, it became McCoy's biggest success. The album's biggest hit "Strung Out" was originally meant for Shooting Gallery, but it was not recorded until the second solo-album. For the tour for Building on Tradition, McCoy assembled the band Live Ammo, which featured McCoy (guitar, vocals), Angela McCoy (vocals), Dan Lagerstedt (guitar, vocals), Andy Christell (bass), Gyp Casino (drums) and Christian André (keyboards). Christell had to soon leave the band for family reasons, so Lagerstedt started to play bass. André was also fired from the band, and they soon disbanded. Also in 1995, McCoy appeared on The 69 Eyes' songs "Vietnamese Baby" and the song "Wild Talk" from the album Savage Garden. Next McCoy returned to his childhood passion: painting (which he still does). In 1996, McCoy and Pete Malmi reformed their old band Briard after 20 years. The new Briard (which also included Angela McCoy) released a new album simply titled Briard. That same year filmmaker Pekka Lehto started the filming for the movie The Real McCoy, a half-real, half-fictional bio-pic on McCoy. The film was released in 1999. After Hanoi officially ended in 2009, Andy McCoy formed a band called "The Real McCoy Band", but this band broke up after just three shows, when guitarist Chris Shiflett returned to the US after his son contracted swine flu. After 2009, McCoy was recruited as lead guitarist for Grease Helmet, a new Helsinki-based band. The first album of the band was released in September 2012. Besides working with Grease Helmet, McCoy has also performed with several other bands including the new band for a Finnish punk singer, Pelle Miljoona (which he had played before joining Hanoi Rocks) as well as Bam Margera's band in which he toured in Australia in 2015. McCoy released an EP "Soul Satisfaction" in December 2018 and toured with Pelle Miljoona Oy from November 2018 to late August 2019. The band released a new EP called "Anna soihtusi palaa" (Let your torch burn) in October 2018 with McCoy on the guitar. McCoy released a new single "Seven Seas" on 15 August 2019, with the announcement of a tour starting in 2020 and a full album release on 27 September the same year. He also hosted an art exhibition with an acoustic gig at Hard Rock Cafe in Helsinki on the release day of the single Seven Seas. Personal life McCoy was born in Pelkosenniemi, Finland, but grew up in Stockholm, Sweden. His mother was Finnish and Swedish, and McCoy has stated that his paternal grandfather was a Romani musician who taught him "gypsy and flamenco guitar" in his childhood, but in a 2012 interview his brother Ilkka Hulkko denied the Roma roots and described their ”grandfather Eino” as ”a good accordion player but not a Romani”. Besides music, Andy McCoy is an avid painter and he also makes a lot of his own and his wife's clothes, along with designing jewellery, scarfs and other accessories. McCoy held his first Art Exhibition McCoy Hits Canvas at The Cable Factory in Helsinki in 2010. On 27 July 2009 a statue of McCoy (sculpted in wood by Matti Hulkko) was erected in the main square of Pelkosenniemi. All proceeds went to charity for newcomers in the music business. McCoy's autobiography Sheriff McCoy: Outlaw Legend of Hanoi Rocks was published in English translation on 17 September 2009 by Bazillion Points Books. McCoy was previously married to Anastasia Maisonneuve, the ex-girlfriend of his Hanoi Rocks bandmate Michael Monroe, and the former common-law wife of musician Stiv Bators. She and McCoy have a son together named Sebastian. McCoy has been married to Angela Nicoletti since 1991. McCoy entered Finland's Celebrity Big Brother on 3 September 2013. Legacy When Acey Slade was asked "Who is the best guitarist in rock right now?" He replied: "Andy McCoy. Period. When Dave Grohl met Andy McCoy, he said 'I have met my first rockstar.' That's a pretty good reason." McCoy is a friend of Bam Margera (professional skater and Jackass star). McCoy made his appearance in Viva la Bam, Bam Margera Presents: Where the#$&% Is Santa? and appeared several times on radio Bam. Margera has a tattoo of McCoy on his right arm. Discography Solo Too Much Ain't Enough (1988) Building on Tradition (1995) The Real McCoy – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1999) R'n'R Memorabilia – The Best Solo Tracks So Far! (2003) Soul Satisfaction (2018) 21st Century Rocks (2019) Hanoi Rocks Briard I Really Hate Ya – 7" (1977) Fuck the Army – 7" (1978) Chirpy Chirpy Cheap Cheap – 7" (1979) Miss World – LP (1983) Briard (1996) Miss World – rerelease with 15 bonus songs (2005) Pelle Miljoona Oy Moottoritie on kuuma (1980) Anna soihtusi palaa (2018) Suicide Twins Silver Missiles And Nightingales (1986) Cherry Bombz Cherry Bombz/Hot Girls in Love (mini-LP) (1985) House of Ecstasy (EP) (1986) "Coming Down Slow" (Live) (1987) Shooting Gallery Shooting Gallery 1992 (Mercury records) Grease Helmet Grease Helmet (2012) Guest appearances Maukka Perusjätkä: Ennen kolmatta maailmansotaa (1980) Pete Malmi: Malmi Re-released 2005 (1981) Urban Dogs: Urban Dogs (McCoy on guitar on A Bridge Too Far and Human Beings) (1983) Fallen Angels: Fallen Angels (McCoy on additional guitar) (1983) Fallen Angels: In Loving Memory (McCoy on additional guitar) (1986) UK Subs: Killing Time (McCoy plays guitar on Drag Me Down) (1988) Snatches of Pink: Bent With Pray (McCoy plays guitar on Screams) (1992) The 69 Eyes: Savage Garden (Wild Talk with/by McCoy) (1995) The 69 Eyes: Velvet Touch (McCoy plays guitar on TV Eye) (1995) Juice Leskinen: Kiveä ja sämpylää (1996) XL5: Taas Mennään (Guitar by McCoy) (1996) 22 Pistepirkko: Downhill City (McCoy on the song Let The Romeo Weep) (1999) Hidria Spacefolk: Balansia (McCoy on slide guitar on "Pajas") (2004) References External links A gallery of Andy McCoys paintings A profile Kaksi minää – 22 ihmistä kertoo, millainen on oikea Andy McCoy giving a detailed look on Andy McCoy's personality Andy McCoy interview at WickedInfo.com SHERIFF MCCOY: Outlaw Legend of Hanoi Rocks, by Andy McCoy 1962 births Living people People from Pelkosenniemi Lead guitarists Finnish heavy metal guitarists Hanoi Rocks members Glam rock musicians Finnish people of Swedish descent	[ 0.30036231875419617, 0.6351864337921143, -0.4815899431705475, -0.4982244670391083, 0.22187644243240356, 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206550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20maximum	Solar maximum	Solar maximum is the regular period of greatest solar activity during the Sun's 11-year solar cycle. During solar maximum, large numbers of sunspots appear, and the solar irradiance output grows by about 0.07%. On average, the solar cycle takes about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next, with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years. Large solar storms often occur during solar maximum. For example, the Carrington Event, which took place a few months before the solar maximum of solar cycle 10, was the most intense geomagnetic storm in recorded history and widely considered to have been caused by an equally large solar storm. Predictions Predictions of a future maximum's timing and strength are very difficult; predictions vary widely. There was a solar maximum in 2000. In 2006, NASA initially expected a solar maximum in 2010 or 2011, and thought that it could be the strongest since 1958. However, the solar maximum was not declared to have occurred until 2014, and even then was ranked among the weakest on record. Grand solar minima and maxima Grand solar maxima occur when several solar cycles exhibit greater than average activity for decades or centuries. Solar cycles still occur during these grand solar maximum periods, but the intensity of those cycles is greater. Grand solar maxima have shown some correlation with global and regional climate changes. The idea of a Modern Maximum has now been thrown into question with the release of a paper at the International Astronomical Union General Assembly in August 2015. A list of historical Grand minima of solar activity includes also Grand minima ca. 690 AD, 360 BC, 770 BC, 1390 BC, 2860 BC, 3340 BC, 3500 BC, 3630 BC, 3940 BC, 4230 BC, 4330 BC, 5260 BC, 5460 BC, 5620 BC, 5710 BC, 5990 BC, 6220 BC, 6400 BC, 7040 BC, 7310 BC, 7520 BC, 8220 BC, 9170 BC. 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206552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wisconsin%20%28BB-64%29	USS Wisconsin (BB-64)	USS Wisconsin (BB-64) is an , the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Wisconsin. She was built at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and launched on 7 December 1943 (the second anniversary of the Pearl Harbor raid), sponsored Margaret Goodland, wife of Governor Walter Goodland of Wisconsin. During her career, Wisconsin served in the Pacific theater of World War II, where she shelled Japanese fortifications and screened United States aircraft carriers as they conducted air raids against enemy positions. During the Korean War, Wisconsin shelled North Korean targets in support of United Nations and South Korean ground operations, after which she was decommissioned. She was reactivated on 1 August 1986; after a modernization program, she participated in Operation Desert Storm in January and February 1991. Wisconsin was last decommissioned in September 1991 after a total of 14 years of active service in the fleet, and having earned a total of six battle stars for service in World War II and Korea, as well as a Navy Unit Commendation for service during the January/February 1991 Gulf War. She currently functions as a museum ship operated by Nauticus, The National Maritime Center in Norfolk, Virginia. Wisconsin was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) 17 March 2006, and was donated for permanent use as a museum ship. On 15 April 2010, the City of Norfolk officially took over ownership of the ship. Construction Wisconsin was one of the "fast battleship" designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. She was the third of four completed ships of the of battleships. Her keel was laid down on 25 January 1941, at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was launched on 7 December 1943, sponsored by Mrs. Goodland, wife of Walter S. Goodland, the Governor of Wisconsin, and commissioned on 16 April 1944, with Captain Earl E. Stone in command. Wisconsins main battery consisted of nine /50 cal Mark 7 guns, which could fire armor-piercing shells some . The secondary battery consisted of 20 /38 cal guns in 10 twin turrets, which could fire at targets up to away. With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of allied aircraft carriers; to this end, Wisconsin was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm antiaircraft guns to defend allied carriers from enemy airstrikes. When reactivated in 1986, Wisconsin had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed, and was outfitted with Phalanx CIWS mounts for protection against enemy missiles and aircraft, and armored box launchers and quad cell launchers designed to fire Tomahawk and Harpoon missiles, respectively. Wisconsin and her sister ship Missouri were fitted with thicker transverse bulkhead armor, , compared to in the first two ships of her class, the Iowa and New Jersey. Wisconsin is numerically the highest-numbered US battleship built. Although her keel was laid after s, she was commissioned before Missouris commissioning date. Thus, Wisconsins construction began after Missouris, and finished earlier. Iowa and Wisconsin were finally stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006, making them the last battleships on a navy list in the world. World War II (1944–1945) Shakedown and service with 3rd Fleet, Admiral Halsey After the ship's trials and initial training in the Chesapeake Bay, Wisconsin departed Norfolk, Virginia, on 7 July 1944, bound for the British West Indies. Following her shakedown cruise (conducted out of Trinidad), she returned to the builder's yard for alterations and repairs. On 24 September 1944, Wisconsin sailed for the West Coast, transiting the Panama Canal, and reporting for duty with the Pacific Fleet on 2 October. The battleship later moved to Hawaiian waters for training exercises and then headed for the Western Caroline Islands. Upon reaching the Caroline Island Ulithi, she joined Admiral William F. Halsey's 3rd Fleet on 9 December. Due to the time it took needed to build her, Wisconsin missed much of the initial thrust into Japanese-held territory, having arrived at a time when the reconquest of the Philippines was well underway. As a part of that movement, the planners had envisioned landings on the southwest coast of Mindoro, south of Luzon. From that point, American forces could threaten Japanese shipping lanes through the South China Sea. In preparation for the coming invasion of Mindoro, Wisconsin was assigned to protect the 3rd Fleet's Fast Carrier Task Force (TF 38), as they conducted air raids at Manila to soften up Japanese positions. On 18 December, the ships of TF 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force–seven fleet and six light carriers, eight battleships, 15 cruisers, and about 50 destroyers–during their attempt to refuel at sea. At the time, the ships were operating about east of Luzon in the Philippine Sea. The carriers had just completed three days of heavy raids against Japanese airfields, suppressing enemy aircraft during the American amphibious operations against Mindoro in the Philippines. The task force met with Captain Jasper T. Acuff and his fueling group 17 December with the intention of refueling all ships in the task force and replacing lost aircraft. Although the sea had been growing rougher all day, the nearby cyclonic disturbance gave relatively little warning of its approach. On 18 December, the small but violent typhoon overtook the task force while many of the ships were attempting to refuel. Many of the ships were caught near the center of the storm and buffeted by extreme seas and hurricane-force winds. Three destroyers, , , and , capsized and sank with nearly all hands, while a cruiser, five aircraft carriers, and three destroyers suffered serious damage. About 790 men were lost or killed, with another 80 injured. Fires occurred in three carriers when planes broke loose in their hangars and some 146 planes on various ships were lost or damaged beyond economical repair by fires, impact damage, or being swept overboard. Wisconsin reported two injured sailors as a result of the typhoon, but otherwise proved her seaworthiness as she escaped the storm unscathed. Wisconsins next operation was to assist with the occupation of Luzon. Bypassing the southern beaches, American amphibious forces went ashore at Lingayen Gulf, the scene of initial Japanese assaults to take Luzon nearly three years before. Wisconsin, armed with heavy antiaircraft batteries, performed escort duty for TF 38's fast carriers during air strikes against Formosa, Luzon, and the Nansei Shoto to neutralize Japanese forces there and to cover the unfolding Allied Lingayen Gulf operations. Those strikes, lasting from 3–22 January 1945, included a thrust into the South China Sea, in the hope that major units of the Imperial Japanese Navy could be drawn into battle. Wisconsins carrier group launched air strikes between Saigon and Camranh Bay, French Indochina, on 12 January, resulting in severe losses for the enemy. TF 38's warplanes sank 41 ships and heavily damaged docks, storage areas, and aircraft facilities. Formosa, already struck on 3–4 January, was raided again on 9 January, 15 January, and 21 January. Throughout January Wisconsin shielded the carriers as they conducted air raids at Hong Kong, Canton, Hainan Island, the Canton oil refineries, the Hong Kong Naval Station, and Okinawa. Service with 5th Fleet, Admiral Spruance Wisconsin was assigned to the 5th Fleet when Admiral Raymond A. Spruance relieved Admiral Halsey as commander of the fleet. She moved northward with the redesignated TF 58 as the carriers headed for the Tokyo area. On 16 February, the task force approached the Japanese coast under cover of adverse weather conditions and achieved complete tactical surprise. As a result, Wisconsin and the other ships shot down 322 enemy planes and destroyed 177 more on the ground. Japanese shipping, both naval and merchant, also suffered drastically, as did hangars and aircraft installations. Wisconsin and the task force moved to Iwo Jima on 17 February to provide direct support for the landings slated to take place on 19 February. They revisited Tokyo on 25 February and hit the island of Hachino off the coast of Honshū the next day, resulting in heavy damage to ground facilities; additionally, American planes sank five small vessels and destroyed 158 planes. Wisconsins task force stood out of Ulithi on 14 March bound for Japan. The mission of that group was to eliminate airborne resistance from the Japanese homeland to American forces off Okinawa. Enemy fleet units at Kure and Kobe, on southern Honshū, reeled under the impact of the explosive blows delivered by TF 58's airmen. On 18–19 March, from a point southwest of Kyūshū, TF 58 hit enemy airfields on that island; unfortunately, allied antiaircraft fire on 19 March failed to stop an attack on the carrier . That afternoon, Wisconsin and the task force retired from Kyūshū, screening the blazing and battered flattop, and shooting down 48 attackers. On 24 March, Wisconsin trained her guns on targets ashore on Okinawa. Together with the other battleships of the task force, she pounded Japanese positions and installations in preparation for the landings. Japanese resistance, while fierce, was doomed to failure by dwindling numbers of aircraft and trained pilots. While TF 58's planes were dealing with and her escorts, enemy aircraft attacked the American surface units. Combat air patrol (CAP) shot down 15 enemy planes, and ships' gunfire shot down another three, but not before one kamikaze attack penetrated the CAP and screen to crash on the flight deck of the fleet carrier . On 11 April, the Japanese renewed their kamikaze attacks; and only drastic maneuvers and heavy barrages of gunfire saved the task force. CAP shot down 17 planes, and ships' gunfire shot down 12. The next day, 151 enemy aircraft attacked TF 58, but Wisconsin, together with other units of the screens for the vital carriers, kept the kamikaze pilots at bay and destroyed them before they could reach their targets. Over the days that ensued, Japanese kamikaze attacks managed to crash into three carriers—, , and —on successive days. By 4 June, a typhoon was swirling through the fleet. Wisconsin rode out the storm unscathed, but three cruisers, two carriers, and a destroyer suffered serious damage. Offensive operations were resumed on 8 June with a final aerial assault on Kyūshū. The Japanese aerial response was virtually nonexistent; 29 planes were located and destroyed. On that day, one of Wisconsins floatplanes landed and rescued a downed pilot from the carrier . Bombardment of Japan Wisconsin ultimately put into Leyte Gulf and dropped anchor there on 13 June for repairs and replenishment. Three weeks later, on 1 July, the battleship and her escorts sailed once more for Japanese home waters for carrier air strikes on the enemy's heartland. Nine days later, carrier planes from TF 38 destroyed 72 enemy aircraft on the ground and smashed industrial sites in the Tokyo area. Wisconsin and the other ships made no attempt whatsoever to conceal the location of their armada, due in large part to a weak Japanese response to their presence. On 16 July, Wisconsin fired her guns at the steel mills and oil refineries at Muroran, Hokkaido. Two days later, she wrecked industrial facilities in the Hitachi Miro area, on the coast of Honshū-, northeast of Tokyo itself. During that bombardment, British battleships of the British Pacific Fleet contributed their heavy shellfire. By that point in the war, Allied warships such as Wisconsin were able to shell the Japanese homeland almost at will. TF 38's planes subsequently blasted the Japanese naval base at Yokosuka, and put the former fleet flagship Nagato out of action, one of the two remaining Japanese battleships. Throughout July and into August, Admiral Halsey's airmen visited destruction upon the Japanese, the last instance being against Tokyo on 13 August. Two days later, the Japanese surrendered, ending World War II. Wisconsin, as part of the occupying force, arrived at Tokyo Bay on 5 September, three days after the formal surrender occurred on board the battleship . During Wisconsins brief career in World War II, she had steamed since commissioning, shot down three enemy planes, claimed assists on four occasions, and fueled her screening destroyers on some 250 occasions. Post World War II (1945–1950) Shifting subsequently to Okinawa, the battleship embarked homeward-bound GIs on 22 September 1945, as part of Operation Magic Carpet staged to bring soldiers, sailors, and marines home from the far-flung battlefronts of the Pacific. Departing Okinawa on 23 September, Wisconsin reached Pearl Harbor on 4 October, remaining there for five days before she pushed on for the West Coast on the last leg of her state-side bound voyage. She reached San Francisco on 15 October. Heading for the East Coast of the United States soon after the start of the new year, 1946, Wisconsin transited the Panama Canal from 11 to 13 January and reached Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 18 January. Following a cruise south to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the battleship entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul. After repairs and alterations that consumed the summer, Wisconsin sailed for South American waters. Over the weeks that ensued, the battleship visited Valparaíso, Chile, from 1–6 November; Callao, Peru, from 9–13 November; Balboa, Canal Zone, from 16 to 20 November; and La Guaira, Venezuela, from 22 to 26 November, before returning to Norfolk on 2 December 1946. Wisconsin spent nearly all of 1947 as a training ship, taking naval reservists on two-week cruises throughout the year. Those voyages commenced at Bayonne, New Jersey, and saw visits conducted at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and the Panama Canal Zone. While underway at sea, the ship would perform various drills and exercises before the cruise would end where it had started, at Bayonne. During June and July 1947, Wisconsin took United States Naval Academy midshipmen on cruises to northern European waters. In January 1948, Wisconsin reported to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Norfolk for inactivation. Placed out of commission, in reserve on 1 July, Wisconsin was assigned to the Norfolk group of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. The Korean War (1950–1952) Her sojourn in "mothballs", however, was comparatively brief, due to the North Korean invasion of South Korea in late June 1950. Wisconsin was recommissioned on 3 March 1951 with Captain Thomas Burrowes in command. After shakedown training, the revitalized battleship conducted two midshipmen training cruises, taking the officers-to-be to Edinburgh, Scotland; Lisbon, Portugal; Halifax, Nova Scotia; New York City; and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before she returned to Norfolk. While leaving New York, Wisconsin was accidentally grounded on mud flats in New York Harbor, but was freed on 23 August 1951 with no damage to the ship. Wisconsin departed Norfolk on 25 October, bound for the Pacific. She transited the Panama Canal on 29 October and reached Yokosuka, Japan, on 21 November. There, she relieved as flagship for Vice Admiral H. M. Martin, Commander, 7th Fleet. On 26 November, with Vice Admiral Martin and Rear Admiral F.P. Denebrink, Commander, Service Force, Pacific, embarked, Wisconsin departed Yokosuka for Korean waters to support the fast carrier operations of TF 77. She left the company of the carrier force on 2 December, and screened by the destroyer , provided gunfire support for the Republic of Korea (ROK) Corps in the Kasong-Kosong area. After disembarking Admiral Denebrink on 3 December at Kangnung, the battleship resumed station on the Korean "bombline", providing gunfire support for the American 1st Marine Division. Wisconsins shelling accounted for a tank, two gun emplacements, and a building. She continued her gunfire support task for the 1st Marine Division and 1st ROK Corps through 6 December, accounting for enemy bunkers, artillery positions, and troop concentrations. On one occasion during that time, the battleship received a request for call-fire support and provided three star-shells for the 1st ROK Corps, illuminating an enemy attack that was consequently repulsed with a considerable number of enemy casualties. After being relieved on the gunline by the heavy cruiser on 6 December, Wisconsin briefly retired from gunfire-support duties. She resumed them, however, in the Kasong-Kosong area on 11 December screened by the destroyer . The following day, 12 December, had the helicopter embarkation on Wisconsin of Rear Admiral H. R. Thurber, Commander, Battleship Division 2 (BatDiv 2), as part of his inspection trip in the Far East. Wisconsin continued her naval gunfire-support duties on the bombline, shelling enemy bunkers, command posts, artillery positions, and trench systems through 14 December. She departed the "bombline" on that day to render special gunfire support duties in the Kojo area shelling coastal targets in support of United Nations (UN) troops ashore. That same day, Wisconsin returned to the Kasong-Kosong area. On 15 December, she disembarked Admiral Thurber by helicopter. The next day, Wisconsin departed Korean waters, heading for Sasebo to rearm. Returning to the combat zone on 17 December, Wisconsin embarked United States Senator Homer Ferguson of Michigan on 18 December. That day, the battleship supported the 11th ROK invasion with night illumination fire that enabled the ROK troops to repulse a North Korean assault with heavy enemy casualties. Departing the "bombline" on 19 December, the battleship transferred Ferguson by helicopter to the carrier . On 20 December, Wisconsin participated in a coordinated air-surface bombardment of Wonsan to neutralize selected targets in its area. The ship shifted its bombardment station to the western end of Wonsan harbor, hitting boats and small craft in the inner swept channel with her 5-inch (127 mm) guns during the afternoon and helping forestall attempts to assault the friendly held islands nearby. Wisconsin then made an antiboat sweep to the north, firing her 5-inch batteries on suspected boat concentrations. She then provided gunfire support to UN troops operating at the bombline until 22 December, when she rejoined the carrier task force. On 28 December, Cardinal Francis Spellman, on a Korean tour over the Christmas holidays, helicoptered aboard the ship to celebrate Mass for the Catholic members of the crew. He left as he came, off Pohang. On New Year's Eve day, Wisconsin put into Yokosuka. Wisconsin departed that port on 8 January 1952 and returned to Korean waters. She reached Pusan the following day and entertained the president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee, and his wife, on 10 January. The couple received full military honors as they came on board, which Rhee reciprocated by awarding Vice Admiral Martin the ROK Order of the Military Merit. Wisconsin returned to the bombline on 11 January, and over the ensuing days, delivered heavy gunfire support for the 1st Marine Division and the 1st ROK Corps. As before, her primary targets were command posts, shelters, bunkers, troop concentrations, and mortar positions. As before, she stood ready to deliver call-fire support as needed, shelling enemy troops in the open on 14 January at the request of the ROK 1st Corps. Rearming once more at Sasebo, she shortly joined TF 77 off the coast of Korea and resumed support at the bombline on 23 January. Three days later, she shifted again to the Kojo region, to participate in a coordinated air and gun strike. That same day, the battleship returned to the bombline and shelled the command post and communications center for the 15th North Korean Division during call-fire missions for the 1st Marine Division. Returning to Wonsan at the end of January, Wisconsin bombarded enemy guns at Hodo Pando before she was rearmed at Sasebo. The battleship rejoined TF 77 on 2 February, and the next day blasted railway buildings and marshaling yards at Hodo Pando and Kojo before rejoining TF 77. After replenishment at Yokosuka a few days later, she returned to the Kosong area and resumed gunfire support. During that time, she destroyed railway bridges and a small shipyard while conducting call-fire missions on enemy command posts, bunkers, and personnel shelters, making numerous cuts on enemy trench lines in the process. On 26 February, Wisconsin arrived at Pusan, where Vice Admiral Shon, the ROK chief of naval operations; United States Ambassador J.J. Muccio; and Rear Admiral Scott-Montcrief, Royal Navy, Commander, Task Group 95.12 (TG 95.12), visited the battleship. Departing that South Korean port the following day, Wisconsin reached Yokosuka on 2 March, and a week later, she shifted to Sasebo to prepare to return to Korean waters. Wisconsin arrived off Songjin, Korea, on 15 March and concentrated her gunfire on enemy railway transport. Early that morning, she destroyed a communist troop train trapped outside a destroyed tunnel. That afternoon, she received the first direct hit in her history, when one of four shells from a North Korean 152 mm gun battery struck the shield of a starboard 40 mm mount; although little material damage resulted, three men were injured. Wisconsin subsequently destroyed that battery with a full 16-inch (406 mm) salvo before continuing her mission. After again supporting 1st Marine Division with her heavy rifles, the battleship returned to Japan on 19 March. Relieved as flagship of the 7th Fleet on 1 April by sister ship , Wisconsin departed Yokosuka, bound for the United States. En route home, she touched briefly at Guam, where she took part in the successful test of the Navy's largest floating dry dock on 4–5 April, the first ever to accommodate an . She continued her homeward-bound voyage via Pearl Harbor and arrived at Long Beach, California, on 19 April before continuing on for Norfolk. After the Korean War (1952–1981) On 9 June, Wisconsin resumed her role as a training ship, taking midshipmen to Greenock, Scotland, Brest, France, and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before returning to Norfolk. She departed Hampton Roads on 25 August and participated in the NATO exercise Operation Mainbrace, which was held out of Greenock, Scotland. After her return to Norfolk, Wisconsin underwent an overhaul in the naval shipyard there. Wisconsin remained in the Atlantic fleet throughout 1952 and into 1953, training midshipmen and conducting exercises. After a month of routine maintenance Wisconsin departed Norfolk on 9 September 1953, bound for the Far East. Sailing via the Panama Canal to Japan, Wisconsin relieved as 7th Fleet flagship on 12 October. During the months that followed, Wisconsin visited the Japanese ports of Kobe, Sasebo Navy Yard, Yokosuka, Otaru, and Nagasaki. She spent Christmas at Hong Kong and was ultimately relieved of flagship duties on 1 April 1954 and returned to the United States soon thereafter, reaching Norfolk, via Long Beach and the Panama Canal, on 4 May. Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 11 June, Wisconsin underwent a brief overhaul and commenced a midshipman training cruise on 12 July. After revisiting Greenock, Brest, and Guantánamo Bay, the ship returned to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for repairs. Shortly thereafter, Wisconsin participated in Atlantic Fleet exercises as flagship for the commander, Second Fleet. Departing Norfolk in January 1955, Wisconsin took part in Operation Springboard, during which she visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Then, upon returning to Norfolk, the battleship conducted another midshipman's cruise that summer, visiting Edinburgh, Copenhagen, Denmark, and Guantánamo Bay before returning to the United States. Upon completion of a major overhaul at the New York Naval Shipyard, Wisconsin headed south for refresher training in the Caribbean Sea, later taking part in another Springboard exercise. During that cruise, she again visited Port-au-Prince and added Tampico, Mexico, and Cartagena, Colombia, to her list of ports of call. She returned to Norfolk on the last day of March 1955 for local operations. On 19 October, while operating in the East River in New York Harbor, Wisconsin was accidentally grounded, but the ship was freed in about an hour without any serious damage. Throughout April 1956 and into May, Wisconsin operated locally off the Virginia Capes. On 6 May, the battleship collided with the destroyer in a heavy fog; Wisconsin put into Norfolk with extensive damage to her bow, and one week later entered dry dock at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. A novel experiment sped her repairs and enabled the ship to carry out her scheduled midshipman training cruise that summer. A 120-ton, 68 foot (21 m) section of the bow of Wisconsins incomplete sister ship was transported by barge, in one section, from Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Corporation of Newport News, Virginia, across Hampton Roads to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. Working around the clock, Wisconsins ship's force and shipyard personnel completed the operation that grafted on the new bow in 16 days. On 28 June 1956, the ship was ready for sea. Wisconsin resumed her midshipman training on 9 July 1956. That autumn, Wisconsin participated in Atlantic Fleet exercises off the coast of the Carolinas, returning to port on 8 November 1956. Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard a week later, the battleship underwent major repairs that were not finished until 2 January 1957. After local operations off the Virginia capes on 3–4 January 1957 and from 9–11 January, Wisconsin departed Norfolk on 16 January, reporting to the commander, Fleet Training Group, at Naval Station Guantánamo Bay. Wisconsin served as Admiral Henry Crommelin's flagship during the ensuing shore bombardment practices and other exercises held off the isle of Culebra, Puerto Rico, from 2–4 February. Sailing for Norfolk upon completion of the training period, the battleship arrived on 7 February and resumed local operations off Norfolk. On 27 March, Wisconsin sailed for the Mediterranean Sea, reaching Gibraltar on 6 April, she pushed on that day to rendezvous with TF 60 in the Aegean Sea before reporting to Turkey for the NATO exercise Red Pivot. Departing Xeros Bay on 14 April, she arrived at Naples four days later, and conducted exercises in the eastern Mediterranean. In the course of those operational training evolutions, she rescued a pilot and crewman who survived the crash of a plane from the aircraft carrier . Wisconsin reached Valencia, Spain, on 10 May, and three days later, entertained prominent civilian and military officials of the city. Departing Valencia on 17 April, Wisconsin reached Norfolk on 27 May. En route, she was called upon to sink a Boeing KC-97F-55-BO Stratofreighter, 51-0258, which had ditched in the Atlantic on 9 May, 550 km (343.8 mi) southeast of the Azores Islands following a double engine failure, and subsequently floated for 10 days. On 27 May, Rear Admiral L.S. Parks relieved Rear Admiral Crommelin as Commander, BatDiv 2. Departing Norfolk on 19 June, the battleship, over the ensuing weeks, conducted a midshipman training cruise through the Panama Canal to South American waters, and reached Valparaiso on 3 July. Eight days later, the battleship headed back to the Panama Canal and the Atlantic. After exercises at Guantánamo Bay and off Culebra, Wisconsin reached Norfolk on 5 August and conducted local operations that lasted into September. She then participated in NATO exercises, which took her across the North Atlantic to the British Isles. Wisconsins days as an active fleet unit were numbered, and she prepared to make her last cruise. On 4 November, she departed Norfolk with a large group of prominent guests on board. Reaching New York City on 6 November, the battleship disembarked her guests, and on 8 November, headed for Bayonne, New Jersey, to commence a preinactivation overhaul. She was placed out of commission at Bayonne on 8 March 1958, and joined the United States Navy reserve fleet (better known as the "mothball fleet") there, leaving the Navy without an active battleship for the first time since 1895. Subsequently, taken to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Wisconsin remained there with her sister ship Iowa into the 1980s. While berthed in the Philadelphia Naval Yard, an electrical fire damaged the ship and left her as the Iowa-class battleship in the worst material condition prior to her 1980s reactivation. Reactivation (1986–1990) As part of President Ronald Reagan's Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to create a "600-ship Navy," Wisconsin was reactivated 1 August 1986, a precommissioning unit (PCU) crew established, and the ship moved under tow to the Avondale Shipyard in New Orleans, Louisiana, to commence pre-recommissioning workups. The battleship was then towed from the Avondale Shipyard and arrived at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi, on 2 January 1987 to receive weapons system upgrades for her modernization. During the modernization, Wisconsin had all of her remaining 20 mm Oerlikon and 40 mm Bofors antiaircraft guns removed, due to their ineffectiveness against modern jet fighters and enemy antiship missiles; additionally, the two gun mounts located at midship and in the aft on the port and starboard sides of the battleship were removed. Over the next several months, the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available. Among the new weapon systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 RGM-84 Harpoon antiship missiles, eight armored box launcher mounts for 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles, and four of the United States Navy's Phalanx Close-in weapon system 20 mm Gatling guns for defense against enemy antiship missiles and enemy aircraft. Wisconsin also received eight RQ-2 Pioneer unmanned aerial vehicles, remotely controlled drones that replaced the helicopters previously used to spot for her nine guns. Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles, and improved electronic warfare capabilities. Armed as such, Wisconsin was formally recommissioned on 22 October 1988 in Pascagoula, Mississippi, under the command of Captain Jerry M. Blesch, USN. Assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet, she was subsequently homeported at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, where she became the centerpiece of her own surface action group (SAG), also referred to as a battleship battle group (BBBG). Wisconsin spent the first part of 1989 conducting training exercises in the Atlantic Ocean and off the coast of Puerto Rico before returning to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for a post-recommissioning shakedown that lasted the rest of the year. In mid-1990, the battleship participated in a fleet exercise. Gulf War (January/February 1991) On 2 August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. In the middle of the month, President George H. W. Bush, in keeping with the Carter Doctrine, sent the first of several hundred thousand troops, along with a strong force of naval support, to Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf area to support a multinational force in a standoff with Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. On 7 August, Wisconsin and her battle group were ordered to deploy in defense of Kuwait for Operation Desert Shield, and they arrived in the Persian Gulf on 23 August. On 15 January 1991, Operation Desert Storm commenced operations, and Wisconsin found herself serving alongside her sister Missouri, just as she had done in Korea 40 years previously. Both Wisconsin and Missouri launched Tomahawk missile attacks against Iraq; they were among the first ships to fire cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War. Wisconsin served as the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Operation Desert Storm and firing a total of 24 of her own TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. Wisconsin also assumed the responsibility of the local antisurface warfare coordinator for the Northern Persian Gulf Surface Action Group. Wisconsin, escorted by , relieved Missouri on 6 February, then answered her first combat call for gunfire support since March 1952. The most recently recommissioned battleship sent 11 shells to destroy an Iraqi artillery battery in southern Kuwait during a mission called in by USMC OV-10 Bronco aircraft. Using an RQ-2 Pioneer UAV as a spotter in combat for the first time, Wisconsin pounded an Iraqi communications compound on 7 February. Her main guns lobbed 24 shells on Iraqi artillery sites, missile facilities, and electronic-warfare sites along the coast. That evening, she targeted naval sites with her guns, firing 50 rounds, which severely damaged or sank 15 Iraqi boats, and destroyed several piers at the Khawr al-Mufattah marina. In response to calls for fire support from US and coalition forces, Wisconsins main battery was used again on 9 February, blasting bunkers and artillery sites, and shelling Iraqi troop positions near Khafji after the Iraqis were ousted from the city by Saudi and Qatari armor. On 21 February, one of Wisconsins UAVs observed several trucks resupplying an Iraqi command post; in response, Wisconsin trained her guns on the complex, leveling or heavily damaging 10 of the buildings. Wisconsin and Missouri alternated positions on the gun line, using their guns to destroy enemy targets and soften defenses along the Kuwait coastline for a possible amphibious assault. On the night of 23 February, Missouri and Wisconsin turned their big guns on Kuwait's Faylaka Island to support the US-led coalition ground offensive to free Kuwait from the Iraqi occupation forces. The two ships were to conduct a diversionary assault aimed at convincing the Iraqi forces arrayed along the shores of Faylaka Island that coalition forces were preparing to launch an amphibious invasion. As part of this attack, Missouri and Wisconsin were directed to shell known Iraqi defensive positions on the island. Shortly after Missouri completed her shelling of Faylaka Island, Wisconsin, while still over the horizon (and thus out of visual range of the Iraqi forces) launched her RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicle to spot for her guns. As Wisconsins drone approached Faylaka Island, the pilot of the drone was instructed to fly the vehicle low over Iraqi positions so that the soldiers would know that they were once again being targeted by a battleship. Iraqi troops on the ground heard the Pioneer's distinctive buzzing sound, and having witnessed the effects of Missouris artillery strike on their trench line, the Iraqi troops decided to signal their willingness to surrender by waving makeshift white flags, an action dutifully noted aboard Wisconsin. Amused at this sudden development, the men assigned to the drone's aircrew called Wisconsins commanding officer, Captain David S. Bill III, and asked, "Sir, they want to surrender, what should I do with them?" This surrender to Wisconsins Pioneer has since become one of the most remembered moments of the Gulf War; the incident was also the first-ever surrender of enemy troops to an unmanned aircraft controlled by a ship. Wisconsin drone also carried out a number of reconnaissance missions on occupied Kuwait before the coalition's ground offensive. The next day, Wisconsin answered two separate call-fire support missions for coalition forces by suppressing Iraqi troops barricaded in two bunkers. After witnessing the effects of Wisconsins strike against the Iraqi positions, an elated Saudi marine commander commented over the radio, "I wish we had a battleship in our navy." Both Wisconsin and Missouri delivered more than 1 million pounds of ordnance on Iraqi targets by the time President George H. W. Bush ended hostilities on 28 February. With one last salvo from her big guns, Wisconsin fired the last naval gunfire-support mission of the war, and thus was the final battleship in world history to see action. Wisconsin remained in the Persian Gulf after the cease-fire took effect, and returned home on 28 March 1991. During the eight months Wisconsin spent in the Persian Gulf, she had flown 348 UAV hours, recorded 661 safe helicopter landings, steamed , fired 319 rounds, 881 rounds, and 5,200 20 mm Phalanx CIWS rounds, and launched 24 Tomahawk cruise missiles. Since all four remaining battleships were decommissioned and stricken following the Gulf War, this was the last time that United States battleships actively participated in a war. Museum ship (1992–present) With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the absence of a perceived threat to the United States came drastic cuts in the defense budget. The high cost of maintaining and operating battleships as part of the United States Navy's active fleet became uneconomical; as a result, Wisconsin was decommissioned on 30 September 1991 after 14 total years of active service, and joined the Reserve Fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) on 12 January 1995, then on 15 October 1996, she was moved to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and on 12 February 1998, she was restored to the Naval Vessel Register. On 7 December 2000, the battleship was towed from Portsmouth, Virginia and berthed adjacent to Nauticus, The National Maritime Center in Norfolk. On 16 April 2001 the battleship's weather decks were opened to the public by the Hampton Roads Naval Museum, a U.S. Navy museum charged with Wisconsins interpretation and public visitation. The ship was still owned by the Navy and was considered part of the mothball fleet. Wisconsin was named (along with ) as one of two US Navy battleships to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets in accordance with the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 as shore-bombardment vessels. However, Wisconsin was then over 60 years old and would have required extensive modernization to return to the fleet since most of her technology dated back to World War II, and the missile and electronic-warfare equipment added to the battleship during her 1988–89 modernization were considered obsolete. In addition, the cost of modernizing the battleships was estimated to be around $500 million for reactivation and $1.5 billion for a full modernization program. On 17 March 2006, the Secretary of the Navy exercised his authority to strike Iowa and Wisconsin from the NVR, which cleared the way for both ships to be donated for use as museums; however, the U.S. Congress remained "deeply concerned" over the loss of naval surface-gunfire support that the battleships provided, and noted, "...navy efforts to improve upon, much less replace, this capability have been highly problematic." Partially as a consequence, Congress passed , the National Defense Authorization Act 2006, requiring that the battleships be kept and maintained in a state of readiness should they ever be needed again. Congress had ordered that the following measures be implemented to ensure that Wisconsin could be returned to active duty if needed: She must not be altered in any way that would impair her military utility. The battleship must be preserved in her present condition through the continued use of cathodic protection, dehumidification systems, and any other preservation methods as needed. Spare parts and unique equipment, such as the gun barrels and projectiles, must be preserved in adequate numbers to support Wisconsin, if reactivated. The Navy must prepare plans for the rapid reactivation of Wisconsin should she be returned to the Navy in the event of a national emergency. These conditions closely mirror the original three conditions that the Nation Defense Authorization Act of 1996 laid out for the maintenance of Wisconsin while she was in the mothball fleet. These conditions would be unlikely to impede a plan to turn Wisconsin into a permanent museum ship at her berth in Norfolk. On 14 December 2009, the US Navy officially transferred Wisconsin to the city of Norfolk, ending the requirement for the ship to be preserved for possible recall to active duty. The US Navy had paid the city of Norfolk $2.8 million between 2000 and 2009 to maintain the ship. A formal ceremony transferring the ship to the city of Norfolk took place on 16 April 2010. Wisconsin was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 28 March 2012. Awards Wisconsin earned five battle stars for her World War II service, and one for the Korean War. The ship also received the Combat Action Ribbon and Navy Unit Commendation for actions in the Korean War and Operation Desert Storm in 1991. She also received over a dozen more awards for World War II, the Korean War, and Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. See also List of broadsides of major World War II ships List of museum ships U.S. Navy museums (and other battleship museums) References Further reading The Floating Drydock. United States Naval Vessels, ONI 222-US, Kresgeville, PA 18333. Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet. 2001 Naval Institute Press. . External links Nauticus, Norfolk, VA NAVSOURCE Photo Gallery: Numerous photographs of USS Wisconsin Hampton Roads Naval Museum Operation Desert Storm Timeline Maritimequest USS Wisconsin BB-64 Photo Gallery USS Wisconsin Photo Gallery and Facts USS Wisconsin Association 1995 US General Accounting Office report on the US Navy’s Naval Surface Fire Support program 2005 US Government Accountability Office Report: Issues Related to Navy Battleships Satellite image of the USS Wisconsin 1956 Booklet of General Plans for the U.S.S. Wisconsin (BB-64), Iowa Class, hosted by the Historical Naval Ships Association (HNSA) Digital Collections Existing battleships Iowa-class battleships Ships built in Philadelphia 1943 ships World War II battleships of the United States Cold War battleships of the United States Korean War battleships of the United States Gulf War ships of the United States United States Navy Wisconsin-related ships Museum ships in Virginia Museums in Norfolk, Virginia Military and war museums in Virginia Naval museums in the United States Museums established in 2001 National Register of Historic Places in Norfolk, Virginia Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia World War II on the National Register of Historic Places Maritime incidents in 1951 Maritime incidents in 1956 Downtown Norfolk, Virginia Battleship museums in the United States	[ -0.40641024708747864, 0.5582842230796814, -0.32307010889053345, 0.07004503160715103, 0.08178985118865967, 0.4397531747817993, 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206553	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanationism	Emanationism	Emanationism is an idea in the cosmology or cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems. Emanation, from the Latin emanare meaning "to flow from" or "to pour forth or out of", is the mode by which all things are derived from the first reality, or principle. All things are derived from the first reality or perfect God by steps of degradation to lesser degrees of the first reality or God, and at every step the emanating beings are less pure, less perfect, less divine. Emanationism is a transcendent principle from which everything is derived, and is opposed to both creationism (wherein the universe is created by a sentient God who is separate from creation) and materialism (which posits no underlying subjective and/or ontological nature behind phenomena being immanent). Origins Emanationism is a cosmological theory which asserts that all things "flow" from an underlying principle or reality, usually called the Absolute or Godhead. Any teachings which involve emanation are usually in opposition to creation ex nihilo as emanation advocates that everything has always existed and has not been "created" from nothing. Kleinham (2007) writes: Underlying the worldview of traditional cosmology is the idea that the universe is an emanation of a unitary divine principle. Although this idea has been blended with the revealed creationist doctrines of the major monotheistic religions, orthodox theologians have generally regarded it with suspicion. They have relegated it to the shadowy spheres of mysticism, pantheism, and the occult, which have always been at odds with orthodoxy. The traditional view is summed in the doctrine of emanation formulated by Plotinus. The primary classical exponent of emanationism was the neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus, who in his Enneads described all things phenomenal and otherwise as an emanation ( aporrhoe (Ennead ΙΙ.3.2) or ἀπόρροια aporrhoia (II.3.11)) from the One (ἕν, hen). In 5.1.6, emanationism is compared to a diffusion from the One, of which there are three primary hypostases, the One, the Intellect (νοῦς, nous), and the Soul (ψυχή, psyche). Another advocate of emanationism was Michael Servetus, who was burned at the stake for his nontrinitarian cosmology. Occultism Emanationism is a common teaching found in occult and esoteric writings. According to Owen (2005): Theosophy draws on Neoplatonic emanationism, in particular the concept of separation from and return to the Absolute, and reworks the Eastern concepts of karma and reincarnation to provide an evolutionary theory of both humankind and the universe. Theosophy contends that all organisms—including animals and human beings—and all matter "flow" from a pure spiritual formation in the Absolute to a material one over time to become materialised and that they will later return to the Absolute after the cosmic cycle of life. As Morgan summarises: "The Secret Doctrine laid out an emanationist view of the development of the physical universe, a process of ebb and flow in which spirit gradually unfolded itself in matter, attaining consciousness, and returning to spirit in a higher and more realised form." According to the emanationist cosmology of Madame Blavatsky all monads emerge from divine unity at the beginning of a cosmic cycle and return to this source at its close. Blavatsky in her book The Key to Theosophy (1889) wrote that: "We believe in a universal divine principle, the root of all, from which all proceeds, and within which all shall be at the end of the great cycle of being." Occultist Samael Aun Weor taught emanationism from his studies with the Kabbalah and Gnosticism. He mapped out a complex esoteric cosmology with matter flowing from different planes of existence all existing in the absolute. As Dawson (2007) comments: As with esoteric thought in general, Weor holds that the universe originated in the ordering activity of the absolute upon chaotic primordial matter, giving rise to (emanating) the subsequent planes of the created order (Pleroma). See also Aeon (Gnosticism) Anathem Emanation in the Eastern Orthodox Church Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion Panentheism References External links Neoplatonism and Emanationism Many articles on Emanationism Emanation and Ascent in Hermetic Kabbalah Colin Low 2004. Presentation and notes on emanation and the roots of Hermetic Kabbalah Emanationism Enneads Esoteric cosmology Neoplatonism Platonism Spiritual evolution Religious cosmologies Kabbalah	[ 0.34550464153289795, 0.6429447531700134, -0.27066394686698914, 0.1677374541759491, -0.6746726036071777, -0.043643057346343994, 0.6994229555130005, 0.4279187023639679, -0.0462116114795208, -0.40355926752090454, -0.886728823184967, -0.17109329998493195, -0.48783737421035767, 0.6395245790481567, 0.29365208745002747, -0.20032019913196564, 0.5046472549438477, 0.4719661474227905, -0.20012560486793518, -0.012386078014969826, -0.3696429133415222, 0.291922926902771, -0.1978113353252411, -0.3991585075855255, 0.10372214019298553, -0.2270909994840622, -0.047425586730241776, -0.35197269916534424, 0.04966163635253906, -0.11564989387989044, 0.13937368988990784, 0.958440899848938, -0.18874450027942657, -0.5669924020767212, 0.003617912996560335, 0.29627782106399536, 0.27805089950561523, -0.43623870611190796, 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206554	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki%20Metropolitan%20Area%20Council	Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council	The Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council (, ) was a co-operation agency operating in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, now replaced by HSL and HSY. The organisation had a few responsibilities, most notably regional public transport and waste management. It was subordinated to the city councils of the four participating cities (Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo and Kauniainen). Furthermore, transport cooperation also included neighboring municipalities of Kerava and Kirkkonummi. Economy The Metropolitan Council used €155.6 million in 2002 and its income was €160.3 million. Traffic and waste management make up 97% of its expenditure. About 70% of the income consisted of customer fees for public transport and waste management. Transportation management The Metropolitan Council grouped together different Public Transportation companies operating in the Metropolitan area, such as HKL, operator of the metro, Suomenlinna ferry service and bus services within the Helsinki region, and published a timetable of all public transport quarterly, and provided a public transport route planner service on the Internet. It also ran ticketing and prices, fixing prices at the same level for all public transportation, irrespective of method or transportation company. These services are now (since January 1, 2010) provided by Helsingin seudun liikenne. Most tickets were bought using the electronic travel cards, a smart card service run by Buscom. These travel cards supported two types of payment for trips: If the same travel card was loaded with both value and period, period took priority when applicable to the current zone. If the period ran out, or the passenger travelled to a zone where the period was not applicable, value was used instead. The travel cards were bought through certain shops and Public Transport Information Centres. The Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council managed the following zones before 2010: Helsinki Espoo and Kauniainen Vantaa Regional traffic 1: Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa Regional traffic 2: Espoo, Kauniainen, Vantaa, Kerava and Kirkkonummi (excluding Helsinki) Entire region: Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen, Vantaa, Kerava and Kirkkonummi Mission The mission of the Metropolitan Council was to improve the capital area's development by high quality public transports, waste management and air protection. In addition a "development planning unit" has the purpose to increase cooperation between the four town-administrations involved, particularly regarding planning of land use. External links Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council – A now defunct site HSL – Helsinki Regional Transport Authority HSY – Helsinki Region Environmental Services Authority Journey Planner Espoo Organisations based in Helsinki Politics of Finland Vantaa Economy of Helsinki	[ 0.651339054107666, -0.27715206146240234, 0.19361984729766846, 0.06360375136137009, -0.49614688754081726, -0.4872887134552002, 0.4440043270587921, -0.1033586636185646, 0.01525833085179329, 0.024853289127349854, -0.5336480140686035, -0.15243785083293915, -0.21869730949401855, 0.0492948442697525, -0.37754765152931213, -0.2628304362297058, 0.7609222531318665, 0.7094667553901672, -0.05349007248878479, -0.2749751806259155, -0.22056199610233307, 0.2060794085264206, 0.6667266488075256, 0.17304246127605438, 0.09223014861345291, -0.32359400391578674, 0.49303001165390015, 0.5899986028671265, -0.0690988078713417, 0.09364079684019089, -0.11409010738134384, 0.8611521124839783, -0.21980752050876617, -0.45868977904319763, 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206555	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20cycle	Solar cycle	The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is a nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun's activity measured in terms of variations in the number of observed sunspots on the solar surface. Sunspots have been observed since the early 17th century and the sunspot time series is the longest continuously observed (recorded) time series of any natural phenomena. The magnetic field of the Sun flips during each solar cycle, with the flip occurring when sunspot cycle is near its maximum. Levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material, the number and size of sunspots, solar flares, and coronal loops all exhibit a synchronized fluctuation, from active to quiet to active again, with a period of 11 years. This cycle has been observed for centuries by changes in the Sun's appearance and by terrestrial phenomena such as auroras. Solar activity, driven both by the sunspot cycle and transient aperiodic processes govern the environment of the Solar System planets by creating space weather and impact space- and ground-based technologies as well as the Earth's atmosphere and also possibly climate fluctuations on scales of centuries and longer. Understanding and predicting the sunspot cycle remains one of the grand challenges in astrophysics with major ramifications for space science and the understanding of magnetohydrodynamic phenomena elsewhere in the Universe. Definition Solar cycles have an average duration of about 11 years. Solar maximum and solar minimum refer to periods of maximum and minimum sunspot counts. Cycles span from one minimum to the next. Observational history Sunspots were first systematically observed by Galileo Galilei, Christoph Scheiner and contemporaries from around 1609. The solar cycle was discovered in 1843 by Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, who after 17 years of observations noticed a periodic variation in the average number of sunspots. Schwabe was however preceded by Christian Horrebow who in 1775 wrote: "it appears that after the course of a certain number of years, the appearance of the Sun repeats itself with respect to the number and size of the spots" based on his observations of the sun from 1761 and onwards from the observatory Rundetaarn in Copenhagen. Rudolf Wolf compiled and studied these and other observations, reconstructing the cycle back to 1745, eventually pushing these reconstructions to the earliest observations of sunspots by Galileo and contemporaries in the early seventeenth century. Following Wolf's numbering scheme, the 1755–1766 cycle is traditionally numbered "1". Wolf created a standard sunspot number index, the Wolf index, which continues to be used today. The period between 1645 and 1715, a time of few sunspots, is known as the Maunder minimum, after Edward Walter Maunder, who extensively researched this peculiar event, first noted by Gustav Spörer. In the second half of the nineteenth century Richard Carrington and Spörer independently noted the phenomena of sunspots appearing at different solar latitudes at different parts of the cycle. The cycle's physical basis was elucidated by George Ellery Hale and collaborators, who in 1908 showed that sunspots were strongly magnetized (the first detection of magnetic fields beyond the Earth). In 1919 they showed that the magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs: Is constant throughout a cycle; Is opposite across the equator throughout a cycle; Reverses itself from one cycle to the next. Hale's observations revealed that the complete magnetic cycle spans two solar cycles, or 22 years, before returning to its original state (including polarity). Because nearly all manifestations are insensitive to polarity, the "11-year solar cycle" remains the focus of research; however, the two halves of the 22-year cycle are typically not identical: the 11-year cycles usually alternate between higher and lower sums of Wolf's sunspot numbers (the Gnevyshev-Ohl rule). In 1961 the father-and-son team of Harold and Horace Babcock established that the solar cycle is a spatiotemporal magnetic process unfolding over the Sun as a whole. They observed that the solar surface is magnetized outside of sunspots, that this (weaker) magnetic field is to first order a dipole, and that this dipole undergoes polarity reversals with the same period as the sunspot cycle. Horace's Babcock Model described the Sun's oscillatory magnetic field as having a quasi-steady periodicity of 22 years. It covered the oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic field ingredients. Cycle history Sunspot numbers over the past 11,400 years have been reconstructed using carbon-14-based dendroclimatology. The level of solar activity beginning in the 1940s is exceptional – the last period of similar magnitude occurred around 9,000 years ago (during the warm Boreal period). The Sun was at a similarly high level of magnetic activity for only ~10% of the past 11,400 years. Almost all earlier high-activity periods were shorter than the present episode. Fossil records suggest that the Solar cycle has been stable for at least the last 700 million years. For example, the cycle length during the Early Permian is estimated to be 10.62 years and similarly in the Neoproterozoic. Until 2009, it was thought that 28 cycles had spanned the 309 years between 1699 and 2008, giving an average length of 11.04 years, but research then showed that the longest of these (1784–1799) may actually have been two cycles. If so then the average length would be only around 10.7 years. Since observations began cycles as short as 9 years and as long as 14 years have been observed, and if the cycle of 1784–1799 is double then one of the two component cycles had to be less than 8 years in length. Significant amplitude variations also occur. A list of historical "grand minima" of solar activity exists. Recent cycles Cycle 25 Solar Cycle 25 began in December 2019. Several predictions have been made for sunspot cycle 25 based on different methods, ranging from very weak to strong magnitude. A physics-based prediction relying on the data-driven solar dynamo and solar surface flux transport models by Bhowmik and Nandy (2018) seems to have predicted the strength of the solar polar field at the current minima correctly and forecasts a weak but not insignificant solar cycle 25 similar or slightly stronger in strength relative to cycle 24. Notably, they rule out the possibility of the Sun falling in to a Maunder-minimum-like (inactive) state over the next decade. A preliminary consensus by a Solar Cycle 25 Prediction Panel was made in early 2019. The Panel, which was organized by NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) and NASA, based on the published solar cycle 25 predictions, concluded that Solar Cycle 25 will be very similar to Solar Cycle 24. They anticipate that the Solar Cycle minimum before Cycle 25 will be long and deep, just as the minimum that preceded Cycle 24. They expect solar maximum to occur between 2023 and 2026 with a sunspot range of 95 to 130, given in terms of the revised sunspot number. Cycle 24 Solar cycle 24 began on 4 January 2008, with minimal activity until early 2010. The cycle featured a "double-peaked" solar maximum. The first peak reached 99 in 2011 and the second in early 2014 at 101. Cycle 24 ended in December 2019 after 11.0 years. Cycle 23 Solar cycle 23 lasted 11.6 years, beginning in May 1996 and ending in January 2008. The maximum smoothed sunspot number (monthly number of sunspots averaged over a twelve-month period) observed during the solar cycle was 120.8 (March 2000), and the minimum was 1.7. A total of 805 days had no sunspots during this cycle. Phenomena Because the solar cycle reflects magnetic activity, various magnetically driven solar phenomena follow the solar cycle, including sunspots, faculae/plage, network, and coronal mass ejections. Sunspots The Sun's apparent surface, the photosphere, radiates more actively when there are more sunspots. Satellite monitoring of solar luminosity revealed a direct relationship between the Schwabe cycle and luminosity with a peak-to-peak amplitude of about 0.1%. Luminosity decreases by as much as 0.3% on a 10-day timescale when large groups of sunspots rotate across the Earth's view and increase by as much as 0.05% for up to 6 months due to faculae associated with large sunspot groups. The best information today comes from SOHO (a cooperative project of the European Space Agency and NASA), such as the MDI magnetogram, where the solar "surface" magnetic field can be seen. As each cycle begins, sunspots appear at mid-latitudes, and then move closer and closer to the equator until a solar minimum is reached. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram. Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots is calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce this time-series diagram. While magnetic field changes are concentrated at sunspots, the entire sun undergoes analogous changes, albeit of smaller magnitude. Faculae and plage Faculae are bright magnetic features on the photosphere. They extend into the chromosphere where they are referred to as plage. The amount of facula and plage area varies in-phase with the solar cycle, and they are more abundant than sunspots by approximately an order of magnitude. Coronal mass ejection The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of magnetic flux produced by dynamo action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to coronal mass ejections into interplanetary space, or flares, caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called space weather. The occurrence frequency of coronal mass ejections and flares is strongly modulated by the cycle. Flares of any given size are some 50 times more frequent at solar maximum than at minimum. Large coronal mass ejections occur on average a few times a day at solar maximum, down to one every few days at solar minimum. The size of these events themselves does not depend sensitively on the phase of the solar cycle. A case in point are the three large X-class flares that occurred in December 2006, very near solar minimum; an X9.0 flare on Dec 5 stands as one of the brightest on record. Patterns The Waldmeier effect names the observation that cycles with larger maximum amplitudes tend to take less time to reach their maxima than cycles with smaller amplitudes; maximum amplitudes are negatively correlated to the lengths of earlier cycles, aiding prediction. Solar maxima and minima also exhibit fluctuations at time scales greater than solar cycles. Increasing and decreasing trends can continue for periods of a century or more. The Schwabe Cycle is thought to be an amplitude modulation of the 87 year (70–100 year) Gleissberg cycle, named after Wolfgang Gleißberg. The Gleissberg cycle implied that the next solar cycle have a maximum smoothed sunspot number of about 145±30 in 2010 (instead 2010 was just after the cycle's solar minimum) and that the following cycle have a maximum of about 70±30 in 2023. Associated centennial variations in magnetic fields in the corona and heliosphere have been detected using carbon-14 and beryllium-10 cosmogenic isotopes stored in terrestrial reservoirs such as ice sheets and tree rings and by using historic observations of geomagnetic storm activity, which bridge the time gap between the end of the usable cosmogenic isotope data and the start of modern satellite data. These variations have been successfully reproduced using models that employ magnetic flux continuity equations and observed sunspot numbers to quantify the emergence of magnetic flux from the top of the solar atmosphere and into the heliosphere, showing that sunspot observations, geomagnetic activity and cosmogenic isotopes offer a convergent understanding of solar activity variations. Hypothesized cycles Periodicity of solar activity with periods longer than the sunspot cycle of about 11 (22) years has been proposed, including: The 210 year Suess cycle (a.k.a. "de Vries cycle", named after Hans Eduard Suess and Hessel de Vries respectively) is recorded from radiocarbon studies, although "little evidence of the Suess Cycle" appears in the 400-year sunspot record. The Hallstatt cycle (named after a cool and wet period in Europe when glaciers advanced) is hypothesized to extend for approximately 2,400 years. An as yet unnamed cycle may extend over 6,000 years. In carbon-14 cycles of 105, 131, 232, 385, 504, 805 and 2,241 years have been observed, possibly matching cycles derived from other sources. Damon and Sonett proposed carbon 14-based medium- and short-term variations of periods 208 and 88 years; as well as suggesting a 2300-year radiocarbon period that modulates the 208-year period. During the Upper Permian 240 million years ago, mineral layers created in the Castile Formation show cycles of 2,500 years. Solar magnetic field The Sun's magnetic field structures its atmosphere and outer layers all the way through the corona and into the solar wind. Its spatiotemporal variations lead to various measurable solar phenomena. Other solar phenomena are closely related to the cycle, which serves as the energy source and dynamical engine for the former. Effects Solar Surface magnetism Sunspots eventually decay, releasing magnetic flux in the photosphere. This flux is dispersed and churned by turbulent convection and solar large-scale flows. These transport mechanisms lead to the accumulation of magnetized decay products at high solar latitudes, eventually reversing the polarity of the polar fields (notice how the blue and yellow fields reverse in the Hathaway/NASA/MSFC graph above). The dipolar component of the solar magnetic field reverses polarity around the time of solar maximum and reaches peak strength at the solar minimum. Space Spacecraft CMEs (coronal mass ejections) produce a radiation flux of high-energy protons, sometimes known as solar cosmic rays. These can cause radiation damage to electronics and solar cells in satellites. Solar proton events also can cause single-event upset (SEU) events on electronics; at the same, the reduced flux of galactic cosmic radiation during solar maximum decreases the high-energy component of particle flux. CME radiation is dangerous to astronauts on a space mission who are outside the shielding produced by the Earth's magnetic field. Future mission designs (e.g., for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded "storm shelter" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event. Gleißberg developed a CME forecasting method that relies on consecutive cycles. The increased irradiance during solar maximum expands the envelope of the Earth's atmosphere, causing low-orbiting space debris to re-enter more quickly. Galactic cosmic ray flux The outward expansion of solar ejecta into interplanetary space provides overdensities of plasma that are efficient at scattering high-energy cosmic rays entering the solar system from elsewhere in the galaxy. The frequency of solar eruptive events is modulated by the cycle, changing the degree of cosmic ray scattering in the outer solar system accordingly. As a consequence, the cosmic ray flux in the inner Solar System is anticorrelated with the overall level of solar activity. This anticorrelation is clearly detected in cosmic ray flux measurements at the Earth's surface. Some high-energy cosmic rays entering Earth's atmosphere collide hard enough with molecular atmospheric constituents that they occasionally cause nuclear spallation reactions. Fission products include radionuclides such as 14C and 10Be that settle on the Earth's surface. Their concentration can be measured in tree trunks or ice cores, allowing a reconstruction of solar activity levels into the distant past. Such reconstructions indicate that the overall level of solar activity since the middle of the twentieth century stands amongst the highest of the past 10,000 years, and that epochs of suppressed activity, of varying durations have occurred repeatedly over that time span. Atmospheric Solar irradiance The total solar irradiance (TSI) is the amount of solar radiative energy incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere. TSI variations were undetectable until satellite observations began in late 1978. A series of radiometers were launched on satellites since the 1970s. TSI measurements varied from 1355 to 1375 W/m2 across more than ten satellites. One of the satellites, the ACRIMSAT was launched by the ACRIM group. The controversial 1989–1991 "ACRIM gap" between non-overlapping ACRIM satellites was interpolated by the ACRIM group into a composite showing +0.037%/decade rise. Another series based on the ACRIM data is produced by the PMOD group and shows a −0.008%/decade downward trend. This 0.045%/decade difference can impact climate models. However, reconstructed total solar irradiance with models favor the PMOD series, thus reconciling the ACRIM-gap issue. Solar irradiance varies systematically over the cycle, both in total irradiance and in its relative components (UV vs visible and other frequencies). The solar luminosity is an estimated 0.07 percent brighter during the mid-cycle solar maximum than the terminal solar minimum. Photospheric magnetism appears to be the primary cause (96%) of 1996–2013 TSI variation. The ratio of ultraviolet to visible light varies. TSI varies in phase with the solar magnetic activity cycle with an amplitude of about 0.1% around an average value of about 1361.5 W/m2 (the "solar constant"). Variations about the average of up to −0.3% are caused by large sunspot groups and of +0.05% by large faculae and the bright network on a 7-10-day timescale (see TSI variation graphics). Satellite-era TSI variations show small but detectable trends. TSI is higher at solar maximum, even though sunspots are darker (cooler) than the average photosphere. This is caused by magnetized structures other than sunspots during solar maxima, such as faculae and active elements of the "bright" network, that are brighter (hotter) than the average photosphere. They collectively overcompensate for the irradiance deficit associated with the cooler, but less numerous sunspots. The primary driver of TSI changes on solar rotational and sunspot cycle timescales is the varying photospheric coverage of these radiatively active solar magnetic structures. Energy changes in UV irradiance involved in production and loss of ozone have atmospheric effects. The 30 hPa atmospheric pressure level changed height in phase with solar activity during solar cycles 20–23. UV irradiance increase caused higher ozone production, leading to stratospheric heating and to poleward displacements in the stratospheric and tropospheric wind systems. Short-wavelength radiation With a temperature of 5870 K, the photosphere emits a proportion of radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and above. However, hotter upper layers of the Sun's atmosphere (chromosphere and corona) emit more short-wavelength radiation. Since the upper atmosphere is not homogeneous and contains significant magnetic structure, the solar ultraviolet (UV), EUV and X-ray flux varies markedly over the cycle. The photo montage to the left illustrates this variation for soft X-ray, as observed by the Japanese satellite Yohkoh from after August 30, 1991, at the peak of cycle 22, to September 6, 2001, at the peak of cycle 23. Similar cycle-related variations are observed in the flux of solar UV or EUV radiation, as observed, for example, by the SOHO or TRACE satellites. Even though it only accounts for a minuscule fraction of total solar radiation, the impact of solar UV, EUV and X-ray radiation on the Earth's upper atmosphere is profound. Solar UV flux is a major driver of stratospheric chemistry, and increases in ionizing radiation significantly affect ionosphere-influenced temperature and electrical conductivity. Solar radio flux Emission from the Sun at centimetric (radio) wavelength is due primarily to coronal plasma trapped in the magnetic fields overlying active regions. The F10.7 index is a measure of the solar radio flux per unit frequency at a wavelength of 10.7 cm, near the peak of the observed solar radio emission. F10.7 is often expressed in SFU or solar flux units (1 SFU = 10−22 W m−2 Hz−1). It represents a measure of diffuse, nonradiative coronal plasma heating. It is an excellent indicator of overall solar activity levels and correlates well with solar UV emissions. Sunspot activity has a major effect on long distance radio communications, particularly on the shortwave bands although medium wave and low VHF frequencies are also affected. High levels of sunspot activity lead to improved signal propagation on higher frequency bands, although they also increase the levels of solar noise and ionospheric disturbances. These effects are caused by impact of the increased level of solar radiation on the ionosphere. 10.7 cm solar flux could interfere with point-to-point terrestrial communications. Clouds Speculations about the effects of cosmic-ray changes over the cycle potentially include: Changes in ionization affect the aerosol abundance that serves as the condensation nucleus for cloud formation. During solar minima more cosmic rays reach Earth, potentially creating ultra-small aerosol particles as precursors to Cloud condensation nuclei. Clouds formed from greater amounts of condensation nuclei are brighter, longer lived and likely to produce less precipitation. A change in cosmic rays could cause an increase in certain types of clouds, affecting Earth's albedo. It was proposed that, particularly at high latitudes, cosmic ray variation may impact terrestrial low altitude cloud cover (unlike a lack of correlation with high altitude clouds), partially influenced by the solar-driven interplanetary magnetic field (as well as passage through the galactic arms over longer timeframes), but this hypothesis was not confirmed. Later papers showed that production of clouds via cosmic rays could not be explained by nucleation particles. Accelerator results failed to produce sufficient, and sufficiently large, particles to result in cloud formation; this includes observations after a major solar storm. Observations after Chernobyl do not show any induced clouds. Terrestrial Organisms The impact of the solar cycle on living organisms has been investigated (see chronobiology). Some researchers claim to have found connections with human health. The amount of ultraviolet UVB light at 300 nm reaching the Earth's surface varies by a few percent over the solar cycle due to variations in the protective ozone layer. In the stratosphere, ozone is continuously regenerated by the splitting of O2 molecules by ultraviolet light. During a solar minimum, the decrease in ultraviolet light received from the Sun leads to a decrease in the concentration of ozone, allowing increased UVB to reach the Earth's surface. Radio communication Skywave modes of radio communication operate by bending (refracting) radio waves (electromagnetic radiation) through the Ionosphere. During the "peaks" of the solar cycle, the ionosphere becomes increasingly ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays. This affects the propagation of the radio wave in complex ways that can either facilitate or hinder communications. Forecasting of skywave modes is of considerable interest to commercial marine and aircraft communications, amateur radio operators and shortwave broadcasters. These users occupy frequencies within the High Frequency or 'HF' radio spectrum that are most affected by these solar and ionospheric variances. Changes in solar output affect the maximum usable frequency, a limit on the highest frequency usable for communications. Climate Both long-term and short-term variations in solar activity are proposed to potentially affect global climate, but it has proven challenging to show any link between solar variation and climate. Early research attempted to correlate weather with limited success, followed by attempts to correlate solar activity with global temperature. The cycle also impacts regional climate. Measurements from the SORCE's Spectral Irradiance Monitor show that solar UV variability produces, for example, colder winters in the U.S. and northern Europe and warmer winters in Canada and southern Europe during solar minima. Three proposed mechanisms mediate solar variations' climate impacts: Total solar irradiance ("Radiative forcing"). Ultraviolet irradiance. The UV component varies by more than the total, so if UV were for some (as yet unknown) reason having a disproportionate effect, this might affect climate. Solar wind-mediated galactic cosmic ray changes, which may affect cloud cover. The sunspot cycle variation of 0.1% has small but detectable effects on the Earth's climate. Camp and Tung suggest that solar irradiance correlates with a variation of 0.18 K ±0.08 K (0.32 °F ±0.14 °F) in measured average global temperature between solar maximum and minimum. Other effects include one study which found a relationship with wheat prices, and another one that found a weak correlation with the flow of water in the Paraná River. Eleven-year cycles have been found in tree-ring thicknesses and layers at the bottom of a lake hundreds of millions of years ago. The current scientific consensus, most specifically that of the IPCC, is that solar variations only play a marginal role in driving global climate change, since the measured magnitude of recent solar variation is much smaller than the forcing due to greenhouse gases. Also, average solar activity in the 2010s was no higher than in the 1950s (see above), whereas average global temperatures had risen markedly over that period. Otherwise, the level of understanding of solar impacts on weather is low. Solar variations also affect the orbital decay of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) by altering the density of the upper thermosphere. Solar dynamo The 11-year sunspot cycle is thought to be one-half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton solar dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields which is mediated by solar plasma flows which also provides energy to the dynamo system at every step. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the Convection zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon known as the Hale cycle. During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number. At solar minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare and the poloidal field is at maximum strength. During the next cycle, differential rotation converts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change in the polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field. Solar dynamo models indicate that plasma flux transport processes in the solar interior such as differential rotation, meridional circulation and turbulent pumping play an important role in the recycling of the toroidal and poloidal components of the solar magnetic field (Hazra and Nandy 2016). The relative strengths of these flux transport processes also determine the "memory" of the solar cycle that plays an important role in physics-based predictions of the solar cycle. Yeates, Nandy and Mackay (2008) and Karak and Nandy (2012), in particular, utilized stochastically forced non-linear solar dynamo simulations to establish that the solar cycle memory is short, lasting over one cycle, thus implying accurate predictions are possible only for the next sunspot cycle and not beyond. This postulate of a short one cycle memory in the solar dynamo mechanism was later observationally verified by Muñoz-Jaramillo et al. (2013). Although the tachocline has long been thought to be the key to generating the Sun's large-scale magnetic field, recent research has questioned this assumption. Radio observations of brown dwarfs have indicated that they also maintain large-scale magnetic fields and may display cycles of magnetic activity. The Sun has a radiative core surrounded by a convective envelope, and at the boundary of these two is the tachocline. However, brown dwarfs lack radiative cores and tachoclines. Their structure consists of a solar-like convective envelope that exists from core to surface. Since they lack a tachocline yet still display solar-like magnetic activity, it has been suggested that solar magnetic activity is only generated in the convective envelope. Speculated influence of the planets It has long been theorized that the planets may have an influence on the solar cycle, with many speculative papers published through years. In 1974 there was a best-seller called The Jupiter Effect based on the idea. For example, it was proposed that the torque exerted by the planets on a non-spherical tachocline layer deep in the Sun may synchronize the solar dynamo. However, their results were shown to be an artifact of the incorrectly applied smoothing method leading to the aliasing. Yet, works proposing the putative influence of the planetary forces on the sun keep appearing every now and then, though without a quantitative physical mechanism for that. However, the solar variability is known to be essentially stochastic and unpredictable beyond one solar cycle, which contradicts the idea of the deterministic planetary influence on solar dynamo. Moreover, modern dynamo models precisely reproduce the solar cycle without any planetary influence. Accordingly, the planetary influence on the solar dynamo is considered marginal and contradicting the Occam's razor principles. See also References General references External links NOAA / NESDIS / NGDC (2002) Solar Variability Affecting Earth NOAA CD-ROM NGDC-05/01. This CD-ROM contains over 100 solar-terrestrial and related global data bases covering the period through April 1990. Recent Total Solar Irradiance data updated every Monday N0NBH Solar data and tools Satellite Total Solar Irradiance Observations SolarCycle24.com Solar Physics Web Pages at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center Science Briefs: Do Variations in the Solar Cycle Affect Our Climate System?. By David Rind, NASA GISS, January 2009 Yohkoh Public Outreach Project Stanford Solar Center NASA's Cosmos Windows to the Universe: The Sun SOHO Web Site TRACE Web Site Solar Influences Data Analysis Center Animated explanation of the effect of the Solar Cycle on Sunspots in the Photosphere (University of South Wales) SunSpotWatch.com (since 1999) Solar phenomena Periodic phenomena Articles containing video clips	[ 0.45181888341903687, -0.09804372489452362, 0.518257200717926, -0.12526799738407135, -0.14514192938804626, -0.16900426149368286, -0.04623577743768692, 0.734462320804596, -0.9112364649772644, -0.358247846364975, -0.1573009341955185, -0.11810394376516342, -0.46680760383605957, 0.2868892252445221, -0.1984325349330902, 0.36751019954681396, 0.5949273705482483, 0.2110167294740677, -0.22843709588050842, -0.17571350932121277, 0.01215682178735733, 0.44896307587623596, 0.8678369522094727, -0.2603383958339691, -0.2221870869398117, -0.2454773187637329, -0.37349411845207214, 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206556	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wyoming%20%28BB-32%29	USS Wyoming (BB-32)	USS Wyoming (BB-32) was the lead ship of her class of dreadnought battleships and was the third ship of the United States Navy named Wyoming, although she was only the second named in honor of the 44th state. Wyoming was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia in February 1910, was launched in May 1911, and was completed in September 1912. She was armed with a main battery of twelve guns and capable of a top speed of . During the First World War, she was part of the Battleship Division Nine, which was attached to the British Grand Fleet as the 6th Battle Squadron. During the war, she was primarily tasked with patrolling in the North Sea and escorting convoys to Norway. She served in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets throughout the 1920s, and in 1931–1932, she was converted into a training ship according to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930. Wyoming served as a training ship throughout the 1930s, and in November 1941, she became a gunnery ship. She operated primarily in the Chesapeake Bay area, which earned her the nickname "Chesapeake Raider". In this capacity, she trained some 35,000 gunners for the hugely expanded US Navy during World War II. She continued in this duty until 1947, when she was decommissioned on 1 August and subsequently sold for scrap; she was broken up in New York starting in December 1947. Design Wyoming was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at , generating a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 12-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns in six Mark 9 twin gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one /51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. The main armored belt was thick, while the gun turrets had thick faces. The conning tower had thick sides. Modifications In 1925, Wyoming was modernized in the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Her displacement increased significantly, to standard and full load. Her beam was widened to , primarily from the installation of anti-torpedo bulges, and draft increased to . Her twelve coal-fired boilers were replaced with four White-Forster oil-fired boilers that had been intended for the ships cancelled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty; performance remained the same as the older boilers. The ship's deck armor was strengthened by the addition of of armor to the second deck between the end barbettes, plus of armor on the third deck on the bow and stern. The deck armor over the engines and boilers was increased by and , respectively. Five of the 5-inch guns were removed and eight /50 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. The mainmast was removed to provide space for an aircraft catapult mounted on the Number 3 turret amidships. Service history Wyoming was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 9 February 1910, and was launched on 25 May 1911. She was completed a year and four months later, on 25 September 1912. After her commissioning, the final fitting-out work was completed at the New York Navy Yard over the next three months. She then proceeded to join the rest of the fleet at Hampton Roads on 30 December, where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Charles J. Badger, the commander of the Atlantic Fleet. Wyoming left Hampton Roads on 6 January 1913, bound for the Caribbean. She visited the Panama Canal, which was nearing completion, and then participated in fleet exercises off Cuba. The ship was back in port in Chesapeake Bay on 4 March. Wyoming then took part in gunnery drills off the Virginia Capes, and on 18 April, entered drydock at the New York Navy Yard for some repairs, which lasted until 7 May. She joined the rest of the fleet for maneuvers off Block Island that lasted from 7–24 May. During the maneuvers, the ship's machinery proved troublesome, which necessitated repairs at Newport from 9–19 May. At the end of the month, she was in New York harbor, to participate in the ceremonies for the dedication of the monument to the armored cruiser , which had been destroyed in Havana harbor on 15 February 1898. On 4 June, Wyoming steamed to Annapolis, where she took on a crew of naval cadets from the Naval Academy for a summer midshipman cruise. After returning the midshipmen to Annapolis on 24–25 August, Wyoming took part in gunnery and torpedo training over the next few weeks. On 16 September, she returned to New York for repairs, which lasted until 2 October. She then ran full–power sea trials before proceeding to the Virginia Capes, where she participated in another round of fleet maneuvers. Next, she departed for a European goodwill cruise on 26 October. She toured the Mediterranean Sea, stopping in Valletta, Malta, Naples, Italy, and Villefranche, France. She departed France on 30 November, and arrived in New York on 15 December. There, she went into dock at the New York Navy Yard for periodic repairs, which lasted until January 1914. On the 6th, Wyoming left for Hampton Roads, where she took on coal in preparation for the annual fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean. The exercises lasted from 26 January to 15 March, and the fleet was based in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba. Wyoming and the rest of the fleet then proceeded to Tangier Sound for additional training, including gunnery drills. On 3 April, Wyoming left the fleet for an overhaul in New York, which lasted until 9 May. She then returned to Hampton Roads, where she took on a contingent of troops and ferried them to Veracruz, arriving on 18 May. The US had intervened in the Mexican Revolution and occupied Veracruz to safeguard American citizens there. Wyoming cruised off Veracruz into the Autumn of 1914, at which point she returned to the Virginia Capes for exercises. On 6 October, she entered New York for repairs; this work lasted until 17 January 1915. Wyoming then proceeded to Hampton Roads, and then to Cuba, where she joined the fleet for the annual maneuvers off Cuba. These lasted until April, when she returned to the US. She participated in more exercises off Block Island over the next several months, and on 20 December, she returned to New York for another overhaul. On 6 January 1916, she emerged from dry dock, and then proceeded to the Caribbean. On 16 January, she reached Culebra, Puerto Rico, then visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti on 27 January. She entered port at Guantanamo the next day, and took part in fleet maneuvers until 10 April, after which she returned to New York. Another round of dockyard work took place from 16 April to 26 June. After returning to service, Wyoming took part in more maneuvers off the Virginia Capes for the remainder of the year. She left New York on 9 January 1917, bound for Cuban waters for exercises that lasted through mid-March. She left Cuba on 27 March, and was cruising off Yorktown, Virginia when the US declared war on Germany on 6 April, formally entering World War I. World War I Wyoming operated out of the Chesapeake Bay area for the next seven months, training engine-room personnel for the expanding American fleet. On 25 November, Battleship Division 9 (BatDiv 9), which at that time comprised Wyoming, , , and , departed the US, bound for Britain. BatDiv 9 was to reinforce the British Grand Fleet at its base in Scapa Flow. The American ships reached Scapa on 7 December, where they became the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet. The American ships drilled with their British counterparts from December 1917 to February 1918. On 6 February, Wyoming and the other American battleships undertook their first wartime operation, to escort a convoy to Stavanger, Norway, in company with eight British destroyers. On 7 February, lookouts on several ships, including Wyoming, thought they spotted German U-boats attacking the ships with torpedoes, though these proved to be incorrect reports. The convoy successfully reached Norway two days later; the return trip to Scapa Flow took another two days. Wyoming patrolled in the North Sea for the next several months, watching for a sortie by the German High Seas Fleet. On 30 June, Wyoming and the rest of the 6th Battle Squadron covered a minelaying operation in the North Sea; the operation lasted until 2 July. During the operation, jumpy crewmen again incorrectly reported U-boat sightings, and Wyoming opened fire on the supposed targets. On the return voyage, the 6th Battle Squadron joined up with Convoy HZ40, which was returning from Norway. On 14 October, New York collided with a U-boat and sank it. The collision nevertheless damaged her screws, which forced Rodman to transfer his flag from New York to Wyoming while the former was in dock for repair. On 21 November, after the Armistice with Germany ended the war, Wyoming and an Allied fleet of some 370 warships met the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea and escorted it into internment in Scapa Flow. On 12 December, Wyoming, now the flagship of Rear Admiral William Sims, the new BatDiv 9 commander, left Britain for France. There, she rendezvoused off Brest, France, with , which was carrying President Woodrow Wilson to the peace negotiations in Paris. Wyoming then returned to Britain two days later before departing for the US, arriving in New York on 25 December. She remained there through the new year, and on 18 January 1919, she became the flagship of BatDiv 7, flying the flag of Rear Admiral Robert Coontz. Inter-war period 1919–1924 On 1 February, Wyoming steamed out of New York to join the annual fleet maneuvers off Cuba, before returning to New York on 14 April. On 12 May, she left port to help guide a group of Navy Curtiss NC flying boats as they made the first aerial transatlantic crossing. The battleship was back in port by 31 May. She then took on a crew of midshipmen for a training cruise off the Chesapeake Bay and Virginia Capes. After finishing the cruise, Wyoming entered dry dock at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 1 July for a modernization for service in the Pacific. Her secondary battery was reduced to sixteen 5-inch guns. After emerging from the shipyard, she became the flagship of BatDiv 6 of the newly designated Pacific Fleet. On 19 July, Wyoming and the rest of the Pacific Fleet departed the east coast, bound for the Pacific. The ships transited the Panama Canal later that month, and reached San Diego, California on 6 August. On 9 August, Wyoming moved to San Pedro, where she was based for the next month. She went to the Puget Sound Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted until 19 April 1920. On 4 May, she was back in San Pedro and resumed her normal routine of fleet maneuvers off the California coast. On 30 August, Wyoming left California for Hawaii, where she participated in more training exercises through September. She then returned to San Diego on 8 October for more maneuvers off the west coast. The ship left San Francisco on 5 January 1921 for a cruise to Central and South American waters; the trip culminated in Valparaíso, Chile, where she was reviewed by the President of Chile Arturo Alessandri Palma on 8 February. Wyoming then returned north, arriving in Puget Sound for repairs on 18 March. On 2 August, Wyoming was in Balboa in the Canal Zone, where she picked up Rear Admiral Rodman and a commission traveling from Peru back to New York. She arrived in New York on 19 August and rejoined the Atlantic Fleet. There, she became the flagship of Admiral Hilary P. Jones, the commander of the Atlantic Fleet. Wyoming spent the next three and a half years on the normal routine of winter fleet exercises off Cuba, followed by summer maneuvers off the east coast of the US. Throughout the period, she served as the flagship of Vice Admirals John McDonald, Newton McCully, and Josiah McKean in the Scouting Fleet. In the summer of 1924, she conducted a midshipman training cruise to Europe, and stopped in Torbay, Great Britain, Rotterdam in the Netherlands, Gibraltar, and the Azores. In January and February 1924, the Navy conducted Fleet Problem II, III, and IV concurrently. During the FP III maneuvers, Wyoming, her sister , and the two s stood in for the new s. During the FP IV portion of the maneuvers, Wyoming served in the "Blue" force, which represented the US Navy. She was attacked by "Black" aircraft, but the umpires judged Wyomings anti-aircraft fire and the escort fighters provided by to have effectively defended the fleet. 1925–1930 On 14 February 1925, Wyoming again passed through the Panama Canal to return to the Pacific. There, she joined fleet exercises off California. She then proceeded to Hawaii, where she remained from late April to early June. She visited San Diego on 18–22 June, and then returned to the east coast via the Panama Canal, arriving in New York on 17 July. A cruise to Cuba and Haiti followed, after which Wyoming returned to the New York Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted from 23 November to 26 January 1926. During this period, then-Commander William F. Halsey, Jr. came aboard as the ship's executive officer; he served on Wyoming until 4 January 1927. Wyoming then returned to the routine of winter maneuvers in the Caribbean and training cruises in the summer. In late August, the ship went to Philadelphia for an extensive modernization. Her old coal-fired boilers were replaced with new oil-fired models and anti-torpedo bulges were added to improve her resistance to underwater damage. The work was completed by 2 November, after which Wyoming conducted a shakedown cruise to Cuba and the Virgin Islands. She was back in Philadelphia on 7 December, and two days later, she returned to her post as the flagship of the Scouting Fleet, flying the flag of Vice Admiral Ashley Robertson. Wyoming spent the next three years in the Scouting Fleet. She conducted training cruises with Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) cadets from various universities, including Yale, Harvard, Georgia Tech, and Northwestern. These cruises went throughout the Atlantic, including to the Gulf of Mexico, to the Azores, and to Nova Scotia. While on one of these cruises in November 1928, Wyoming picked up eight survivors from the wrecked steamship ; she took them to Norfolk on 16 November. On 19 September 1930, Wyoming was transferred from the Scouting Force to BatDiv 2, where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Wat T. Cluverius. She served here until 4 November, when she was withdrawn from front-line service and became the flagship of the Training Squadron, flying the flag of Rear Admiral Harley H. Christy. Thereafter, she conducted a training cruise to the Gulf of Mexico. 1931–1941 After returning to Philadelphia on 1 January 1931, Wyoming was placed on reduced commission. Under the terms of the London Naval Treaty signed the previous year, Wyoming was to be demilitarized. During the demilitarization process, her anti-torpedo bulges, side armor, and half of her main battery guns were removed. She was back in service by May, and on the 29th, she took on a crew of midshipmen from Annapolis for a training cruise to Europe, which began on 5 June. While en route on 15 June, Wyoming rescued the disabled submarine and took it under tow to Queenstown, Northern Ireland. While in Europe, she stopped in Copenhagen, Denmark, Greenock, Scotland, Cadiz, Spain, and Gibraltar. The ship was back in Hampton Roads on 13 August; while on the cruise, Wyoming was reclassified as "AG-17", to reflect her new role as a training ship. Wyoming spent the next four years conducting training cruises for midshipmen and NROTC cadets to various destinations, including European ports, the Caribbean, and the Gulf of Mexico. On 18 January 1935, she carried the 2nd Battalion, 4th Marine Regiment, from Norfolk to Puerto Rico for amphibious assault exercises. On 5 January 1937, the ship left Norfolk and steamed to the Pacific via the Panama Canal. She took part in more amphibious assault exercises and gunnery drills at San Clemente Island. On 18 February, during the exercises, a 5-inch shrapnel shell exploded as it was being loaded into one of her guns. The blast killed six Marines and wounded another eleven. Wyoming immediately steamed to San Pedro and transferred the wounded Marines to the hospital ship . On 3 March, Wyoming left Los Angeles, bound for the Atlantic. She reached Norfolk on 23 March, where she served as the temporary flagship for Rear Admiral Wilson Brown, the commander of the Training Squadron, from 15 April to 3 June. On 4 June, she left port to conduct a goodwill cruise to Kiel, Germany, arriving on 21 June. There, she visited Admiral Graf Spee. She left Germany on 29 June, stopping in Torbay, Britain, and Funchal, Madeira, and arrived in Norfolk on 3 August. Wyoming resumed her training ship duties for Naval and Merchant Marine Reserve units. She returned to Norfolk Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted from 16 October to 14 January 1938. Wyoming performed her typical routine of training cruises in the Atlantic through 1941. The cruises included another European trip in 1938; she took the midshipmen to Le Havre, France, Copenhagen, and Portsmouth. After the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939, Wyoming was assigned to a naval reserve force in the Atlantic, alongside the battleships New York, Arkansas, and and the aircraft carrier . Wyoming became the flagship of Rear Admiral Randall Jacobs, the commander of the Training, Patrol Force on 2 January 1941. In November, Wyoming became a gunnery training ship. Her first cruise in this new role began on 25 November; she was cruising off Platt's Bank in the Gulf of Maine when she received word of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December. World War II Following the United States' entrance into World War II, Wyoming performed her normal duties as a gunnery training ship with the Operational Training Command, United States Atlantic Fleet starting in February 1942. She operated primarily in the Chesapeake Bay area, and frequent sightings of the ship steaming around the bay earned her the nickname "Chesapeake Raider". Wyoming was very busy, training thousands of anti-aircraft gunners on weapons ranging from light .50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns to medium-caliber 5-inch guns for the rapidly expanding American fleet. Early in the war, the Navy briefly considered converting Wyoming back to her battleship configuration, but decided against the plan. These duties continued throughout the rest of the war. Wyoming was modernized at Norfolk Navy Yard from 12 January to 3 April 1944; the reconstruction removed the last of her three 12-inch gun turrets, and replaced them with four twin and two single enclosed mounts for 5-inch/38 caliber guns. New fire control radars were also installed; these modifications allowed Wyoming to train anti-aircraft gunners with the most modern equipment they would use while in combat with the fleet. She was back in service in the Chesapeake Bay by 10 April. Over the course of the war, Wyoming trained an estimated 35,000 gunners on seven different types of guns: 5-inch, 3-inch, 1.1-inch, 40-millimeter, 20-millimeter, .50 caliber, and .30 caliber (7.62 mm) weapons. Due to her extensive use as a gunnery training ship, she claimed the distinction of firing more ammunition than any other ship in the fleet during the war. Wyoming finished her gunnery training duties in the Chesapeake area on 30 June 1945, when she left Norfolk for the New York Navy Yard, for further modifications. Work was completed by 13 July, after which she left for Casco Bay. There, she joined Composite Task Force 69 (CTF 69), under command of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee. Wyoming was tasked with developing tactics to more effectively engage the Japanese kamikaze suicide aircraft. The gunners conducted experimental gunnery drills with towed sleeves, drone aircraft, and radio-controlled targets. On 31 August, CTF 69 was renamed Operational Development Force, United States Fleet. Wyoming continued in this unit through the end of the war, and began to be used to test new fire control equipment. In the summer of 1946, then-Ensign Jimmy Carter, the future President of the United States, came aboard as part of the final crew of the old battleship. On 11 July 1947, Wyoming put into Norfolk and was decommissioned there on 1 August. Her crew was transferred to the ex-battleship , which was also serving in the gunnery training unit. Wyoming was stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry on 16 September, and she was sold for scrapping on 30 October. She arrived on 5 December in New York, where she was dismantled by Lipsett, Incorporated. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links NavSource Naval History, USS Wyoming (BB-32) Log of the U.S. Ship Wyoming, 1936, MS 89 and U.S.S. 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206567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20%28given%20name%29	Maria (given name)	Maria is a feminine given name. It is given in many languages influenced by Latin Christianity. It has its origin as the feminine form of the Roman name Marius (see Maria gens), and, after Christianity has spread across the Roman empire, it became the Latinised form of the name of Miriam: Mary, mother of Jesus. Maria (Greek: Μαρία) is a form of the name used in the New Testament, standing alongside Mariam (Μαριάμ). It reflects the Syro-Aramaic name Maryam, which is in turn derived from the Biblical Hebrew name Miriam. As a result of their similarity and syncretism, the Latin original name Maria and the Hebrew-derived Maria combined to form a single name. The name is also sometimes used as a male (middle) name. This was historically the case in many Central Europe countries and still is the case in countries with strong Catholic traditions, where it signified patronage of the Virgin Mary (French-speakers often did the same with Marie). Variants and usage Maria was a frequently given name in southern Europe even in the medieval period. In addition to the simple name, there arose a tradition of naming girls after specific titles of Mary, feast days associated with Mary and specific Marian apparitions (such as Maria de los Dolores, Maria del Pilar, Maria del Carmen etc., whence the derived given names of Dolores, Pilar, Carmen etc.). By contrast, in northern Europe the name only rose to popularity after the Reformation. Because the name is so frequent in Christian tradition, a tradition of giving compound names has developed, with a number of such compounds themselves becoming very popular. Examples, among numerous others, include: Anna + Maria (Anne-Marie, Marianne) Maria + Luisa (Marie-Louise) Margarita + Maria (English Margaret Mary, French Marguerite Marie) Maria + Antonia (Maria Antonia, French Marie-Antoinette) Maria + Helena (Italian Maria Elena, Spanish María Elena) Maria + Teresa (Maria Theresa, French Marie Thérèse) As a feminine given name, Maria ranked 109th in the United States as of 2015, down from rank 31 held during 1973–1975. Spelling variants of Maria include: Mária (Hungarian, Slovakian), María (Greek, Icelandic, Spanish), Máire and Muire (Irish), Marya and Marija (transliterated from Cyrillic), Maria (Polish). Due to a very strong devotion of Irish and Polish Catholics to the Blessed Virgin Mary, a special exception is made for two other forms of her name – Muire and Maryja: no one else may take that name, similar to the way the name Jesus is not used in most languages. The English form Mary is derived via French Marie. A great number of hypocoristic forms are in use in numerous languages. Cyrillic Maryam and Miriam have numerous variants, such as Mariami (Georgian) Mariamma, biblical Mariamme, Mariamne Məryəm (Azerbaijani) Meryem (Kurdish, Turkish) Myriam (French) The spelling in Semitic abjads is mrym: Aramaic ܡܪܝܡ, Hebrew מרים, Arabic مريم. Cyrillic has Марыя (Marýja) (Belarusian), Марија (Marija) (Serbian), and Мария (Maríja) (Russian, Bulgarian). Georgian uses მარიამ (Mariam) and მარია (Maria); Armenian has Մարիամ (Mariam). Chinese has adopted the spelling 瑪麗 (simplified 玛丽, pinyin Mǎlì). The variant Mariah (usually pronounced ) was rarely given in the United States prior to the 1990s, when it bounced in popularity, from rank 562 in 1989 to rank 62 in 1998, in imitation of the name of singer Mariah Carey (whose Vision of Love topped the charts in 1990). Masculine name Maria is used as a part of masculine given names in Hispanic and Roman Catholic tradition. People Female Maaria Eira, Finnish opera singer and actress Maria of Russia (several people) Maria al-Qibtiyya Maria I of Portugal (1734-1816), Queen of Portugal María Conchita Alonso (born 1957), American singer/songwriter and actress Maria Ahtisa Manalo, Miss International Philippines 2018 Maria Ângela Carrascalão, East Timorese politician Maria II of Portugal (1818-1853), Queen of Portugal María Azambuya (1944–2011), Uruguayan actress and theatre director Maria Bamford (born 1970), American stand-up comedian, actress, and voice actress María Bazo (born 1998), Peruvian windsurfer Maria Beasley, American inventor Maria Beig (1920–2018), German author Maria Bello (born 1967), American actress and writer María Belón (born 1966), Spanish physician and motivational speaker Maria Brink (born 1977), American singer and songwriter María Bolívar (born 1975), Venezuelan politician Maria Callas (1923–1977), Greek-American soprano Maria Callani (1778–1803), Italian 18th century portrait painter active in Parma Maria Cantwell (born 1958), U.S. Senatoor Maria Cole (1922–2012), American jazz singer Maria Christina (several people) Maria Dallas, New Zealand singer Maria Damanaki (born 1952) Greek politician Maria Darling, British voice actress Maria de Lourdes Martins Cruz, East Timorese religious sister Maria de Vasconcelos (born 1970), Portuguese psychiatrist, singer and songwriter Maria do Céu Sarmento, East Timorese politician Maria Domingas Alves, East Timorese politician Maria Edgeworth (1768–1849), Anglo-Irish writer of adults' and children's literature María Escudero-Escribano (born 1983), Spanish chemist María-Esther Vidal, Venezuelan scientist Maria Louise Eve (1842–1900), American poet Maria Ewing (1950–2022), American opera singer Maria Farantouri (born 1947), Greek singer María Fernanda Di Giacobbe (born 1964), Venezuelan chocolatier Maria Fyfe (1938–2020), Scottish politician María Esther García López (born, 1948), poet, writer; president, Asturias Writers Association María la Grande (), prominent Tehuelche leader of the early 19th century Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), Siamese cook Maria Harfanti (born 1992), Miss World Indonesia 2015 Maria Höfl-Riesch (born 1984), German alpine skier María Holly (born 1932), widow of rock and roll pioneer Buddy Holly Maria Iliou (born 1960) Greek film director, scriptwriter and producer Maria James (1793–1868), Welsh-born American poet Maria Jane Jewsbury (1800–1833), English writer, poet, literary reviewer María José (several people) Maria Kanellis (born 1982), American professional wrestler Maria Kekkonen, Finnish erotic actress Maria Brace Kimball (1852–1933), American educator, elocutionist, writer Maria Kochetkova (born 1984), Russian ballet dancer Maria Kowroski (born 1976), American ballet dancer Maria Lampadaridou Pothou (born 1933), Greek novelist, poet and playwright Maria Elise Turner Lauder (1833–1922), Canadian writer Maria Lauterbach (1987–2007), American murder victim Maria White Lowell (1821–1853), American poet, abolitionist Maria Lugones (1944–2020), American philosopher Maria Lynn Ehren (born 1992), Thai singer and model Maria Laura Mainetti (1939–2000), Italian Catholic sister and murder victim Maria Mandl (1912–1948), Austrian Nazi SS commandant of the female camp at Auschwitz concentration camp executed for war crimes Maria Rika Maniates (1937–2011), Canadian musicologist María Marcano de León, Puerto Rican government official Maria Mazina (born 1964), Russian Olympic champion épée fencer Maria Alberta Menéres (1930–2019), Portuguese writer Maria Montessori, Italian educator , Japanese voice actress , Japanese actress Princess Maria Pia of Bourbon-Parma (born 1934) Maria Palmer (1917–1981), Austrian-born American actress Maria Rahajeng (born 1991), Miss World Indonesia 2014 Maria Goretti, a victim of crime and saint Maria Rasputin (1898–1977), memoirist Maria Ressa (born 1963), Filipina-American author, journalist and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Maria Reynolds (1768–1828), wife of James Reynolds Maria Sakkari (born 1995), Greek professional tennis player María Elena Salinas, American broadcast journalist, news anchor, and author Maria Selena (born 1990), Indonesian beauty pageant titleholder who won Puteri Indonesia 2011 Maria Sharapova (born 1987), Russian professional tennis player Maria Shriver (born 1955), American journalist and activist Maria Theresa (several people) Maria von Trapp (1905–1987), Austrian-born American singer María Valverde (born 1987), Spanish actress Maria Eulália Vares, Brazilian mathematical statistician and probability theorist Maria Walliser (born 1963), Swiss alpine skier Maria Zandbang (1886–1972), Polish equestrian Fictional characters Maria, a fictional character played by Laura Nicole in the British web series Corner Shop Show Maria (West Side Story), the main female protagonist from the musical West Side Story Maria Jackson, a character from The Sarah Jane Adventures Maria Renard, a character in the Castlevania video game series Maria Robotnik, a character in the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series Maria von Trapp (The Sound of Music), the main female protagonist from the musical The Sound of Music Lady Maria of the Astral Clocktower, a boss character from The Old Hunters DLC for the video game Bloodborne Maria Calavera, a supporting character in the animated web series RWBY Maria Fritz, the daughter of Ymir Fritz, namesake of Wall Maria and a minor character in the anime and manga Attack on Titan Maria Wong, a character from the Canadian animated television series Braceface Male (as part of a compound name or as a middle name) Carlo Maria Abate, Italian racecar driver Alberto María de Agostini, Italian explorer Carlos María de Alvear, Argentine general José María Aznar, Spanish politician, former Spanish prime minister Angelo Maria Bandini, Italian author and librarian Antonio María Barbieri, Uruguayan cardinal Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria Giovanni Maria Benzoni, Italian sculptor Matteo Maria Boiardo, Italian poet Giovanni Maria Bottala, Italian painter Klaus Maria Brandauer, Austrian actor Giuseppe Maria Buonaparte, Corsican politician Carlo Maria Cipolla, Italian economic historian Giovanni Carlo Maria Clari, Italian composer Carlo Maria Curci, Italian theologian Corrado Maria Daclon, Italian journalist Felix Maria Diogg, Swiss painter Timm Maria Franz Elstner, German TV host Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti, better known as Pope Pius IX Johann Maria Farina, Italian-German perfumer Carlo Innocenzio Maria Frugoni, Italian poet Alessandro Maria Gaetano Galilei, Italian architect and mathematician Giuseppe Maria Giulietti, Italian soldier Carlo Maria Giulini, Italian conductor Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Italian mathematician Christoph Maria Herbst, German actor Franco Maria Malfatti, Italian politician Thomas Maria Mamachi, Italo-Greek Dominican theologian and historian Antonio Maria Maraggiano, Italian sculptor Carlo Maria Martini, Italian cardinal Giovanni Maria Nanino, Italian composer Tommaso Maria Napoli, Italian architect José María Olazábal, Spanish golfer Francesco Maria Piave, Italian librettist Carlo Maria Pintacuda, Italian racecar driver Francesco Maria Pritilli, Italian scholar and antiquarian Erich Maria Remarque, German author Franco Maria Ricci, Italian art publisher Rainer Maria Rilke, German poet Jan Maria Rokita, Polish politician Anton Maria Schyrleus of Rheita, Czech astronomer Juan Carlos Alfonso Víctor María de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias, king of Spain Charles Edward Louis John Casimir Silvester Maria Stuart, leader of the Jacobite rebellion José María Canlás Sison, Filipino activist and founder of the Communist Party of the Philippines Victor Maria Regis Sotto (born 1989), Filipino politician Giuseppe Maria Tomasi, Italian cardinal and saint Giovanni Maria Trabaci, Italian composer Antonio Maria Vassallo, Italian painter Francesco Maria Veracini, Italian composer and violinist Gianni Versace born Giovanni Maria Versace, Italian fashion designer Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan Gian Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan Gian Maria Volonté, Italian actor Carl Maria von Weber, German composer Edward Maria Wingfield, English explorer Tommaso Maria Zigliara, Italian cardinal Maximilian Maria Kolbe, Polish Conventual Franciscan Karl-Theodor Maria Nikolaus Johann Jacob Philipp Franz Joseph Sylvester Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg Juan María Bordaberry, Uruguayan dictator See also Maria (disambiguation) References Italian feminine given names Romanian feminine given names Russian feminine given names Slovak feminine given names Spanish feminine given names Portuguese feminine given names Swiss feminine given names Pakistani feminine given names Slavic feminine given names Scandinavian feminine given names Ukrainian feminine given names German feminine given names Dutch feminine given names Georgian feminine given names Greek feminine given names Armenian feminine given names Bulgarian feminine 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206568	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20%28disambiguation%29	Mare (disambiguation)	A mare is a female horse. Mare is the Latin word for "sea". Mare may also refer to: People Surname Mare (surname) Walter de la Mare (1873–1956), English poet and writer Given name Mare Kandre (1962–2005), Swedish writer of Estonian origin Mare Tommingas (born 1959), Estonian ballet dancer and choreographer Mare Teichmann (born 1954), Estonian psychologist and academic Mare Vint (1942–2020), Estonian graphic artist Mare Winningham (born 1959), American actress and singer Places Maré, a commune in the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia Maré Island, the second-largest of the Loyalty Islands Maire, Netherlands, also known as Mare, former village in Zeeland, Netherlands Märe, a mountain in the Bernese Alps in Switzerland Maré, Rio de Janeiro, a favela in Rio, Brazil Weston-super-Mare, a town in North Somerset, England Mare', a town in Syria In Romania Baia Mare, a municipality in Romania Sânnicolau Mare, town in Timiș County, Romania Satu Mare County, is a county (judeţ) in Romania Vânju Mare, a town in Mehedinţi County, Romania Târnava Mare River, a river in Romania Someşul Mare River, a river in Romania Geography Mare Nostrum, another name for the Mediterranean Sea Kraken Mare, a large body of liquid on Saturn's moon Titan Lunar mare, a basaltic plain on Earth's moon Music Mare (band), an experimental band on Hydra Head Records "Mare" (Diamá Song), 2014 song by Diamá "Mare", a song by The Black Eyed Peas from their album The E.N.D. Other uses Mare (folklore), a goblin of Germanic folklore Mare's Leg, or Mare's Laig, a pistol first used in the fictional television series Wanted: Dead or Alive Mare (TV series), Japanese television drama Mare Sheehan (Kate Winslet), fictional main character in HBO crime drama Mare of Easttown See also Mares (disambiguation) Mare Island (disambiguation) Satu Mare (disambiguation) Valea Mare (disambiguation) Mayor, a head of a town, district, city, etc. Estonian feminine given names	[ -0.009158635511994362, -0.24934914708137512, -0.8071891069412231, 0.0822569876909256, -0.5404356122016907, 0.2436569780111313, 0.5471962690353394, -0.13393284380435944, -0.2798936665058136, 0.000026167394025833346, -0.3549523651599884, 0.33161279559135437, -0.11773508042097092, 0.405316025018692, -0.3253360688686371, 0.38800665736198425, 0.02377401292324066, 0.5775817632675171, 0.18258251249790192, -0.48132258653640747, -0.24111884832382202, -0.4933062791824341, -0.27455803751945496, -0.6292493939399719, 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206570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20O-12%20%28SS-73%29	USS O-12 (SS-73)	USS O-12 (SS-73) was an O-class submarine of the United States Navy. These later O-boats, O-11 through O-16, were designed by Lake Torpedo Boat to different specifications than the earlier Electric Boat designs. They performed poorly as compared to the Electric Boat units, and are sometimes considered a separate class. The ship was launched in 1917 and entered service with the Navy in 1918 in the Panama Canal Zone. Taken out of service by the US Navy in 1924, the submarine was leased for use in Artic exploration in 1930 sponsored by William Randolph Hearst. Renamed Nautilus, the submarine suffered significant damage while exploring the Arctic in 1931 and having recorded significant data while there, Hearst considered the venture a failure. Having returned to Norway to repair the damage, the submarine was returned to the United States Navy there, and they had the submarine towed down a fjord and scuttled in November 1931. Service history The submarine's keel was laid down on 6 March 1916 by the Lake Torpedo Boat Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut. O-12 was launched on 29 September 1917, sponsored by Mrs. Homer S. Cummings, and commissioned on 18 October 1918 with Lieutenant Commander J.E. Austin in command. O-12 spent much of her career as a unit of Submarine Division 1, based at Coco Solo, Panama Canal Zone. In 1921, she was awarded a Battle Efficiency Pennant and trophy for gunnery (gun and torpedo). She decommissioned on 17 June 1924 after just five and a half years of service, and was placed in reserve at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Nautilus Arctic Expedition Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 July 1930, ex-O-12 transferred to the United States Shipping Board for conversion by the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was leased at the rate of one dollar per year to Lake and Danenhower, Inc., of Bridgeport, Connecticut, for use on Hubert Wilkins's and Lincoln Ellsworth's Arctic Expedition of geophysical investigation. The lease required that she either be returned to the Navy for disposal, or scuttled in at least of water. On 24 March 1931, she was re-christened Nautilus. As Prohibition prevented the use of an alcoholic beverage, she was baptised not with the traditional champagne but rather with a bucket of ice cubes. Great French writer Jules Verne's grandson was present at the event, under the French flag, along of course with Sir Hubert's new-wed wife, actress Suzanne Bennett. Simon Lake equipped Nautilus with several clever devices for under-ice operations. One was a mechanical probe, much like a trolley pole, that would scrape along the bottom of the ice cap to indicate how much clearance the submarine had below the ice. Others included drills supposedly capable of cutting through of ice to reach fresh air. The vessel's torpedo chamber was converted into a moon pool, when its water-tight door was closed, pressure was equalized, so a trap door could be opened, allowing the lowering of scientific instruments. These innovations were tested only cursorily before the boat put to sea. Nautilus with her crew of 20 men was commanded by Captain Sloan Danenhower, son of John Wilson Danenhower, who served aboard during her Arctic expedition. Nautilus, on 4 June 1931, began the crossing from New York City, United States, to Plymouth, England, the first leg of the voyage that was planned to take them up the coasts of the North Sea to Spitsbergen and conclude with a dramatic rendezvous at the North Pole with the German airship Graf Zeppelin. On that first leg, however, Nautilus encountered a violent storm. Both engines failed, leaving the boat adrift. She was rescued and initially towed into Cork Harbour in Southern Ireland on 22 June where her batteries were re-charged, before being towed to England by where she was repaired. On 5 August, very late in the year to begin an Arctic expedition, Nautilus began making her way through the English Channel and along the Norwegian coast. Another storm again damaged the boat, carrying away her bridge and giving her a permanent list, but after a stop in Tromsø on 11 August, she successfully reached Spitsbergen, and Wilkins allowed but a single day for repairs. The crew carried out the planned scientific experiments as they pushed on northward, but thick pack ice hindered their progress. The boat was ill-equipped to deal with the extreme cold, lacking insulation and heaters. The fresh water system froze and the hull developed slow leaks. After ten days, Nautilus reached 82°N, the farthest north any vessel had reached under its own power, and preparations began to dive and proceed under the ice. However, the boat refused to respond; the stern planes had been carried away at some unknown earlier time. Without them, the submarine could not control its depth while submerged, and the expedition had to be aborted. On 31 August, under financial pressure from newspaperman William Randolph Hearst, who had initially promised to pay for the expedition but who indicated by telegraph that Wilkins would not be paid if he did not continue, Wilkins ordered the submarine onward. Captain Danenhower ordered Nautilus trimmed down by the bow, and deliberately rammed an ice floe in an attempt to force the boat under. The manoeuvre worked in that Nautilus submerged, and became the first submarine to operate under the polar ice cap. However, her unconventional method of diving caused significant damage to her upper works. She was out of radio contact for days, was presumed lost, and rescue efforts were planned. In fact, she had actually travelled only a short distance under the ice before resurfacing through a polynya, but her radios had been badly damaged, requiring days to repair. The scientific crew continued their experiments, and their findings became the first paper published by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. On 20 September, Nautilus returned to Spitsbergen carrying invaluable data and with all crew alive. Hearst, however, considered the expedition a failure and carried out his threat, refusing to pay for the expedition. Fate Following the expedition, O-12 was returned to the Navy Department. On 30 November 1931 she was towed three miles down the Byfjorden (a Norwegian fjord just outside Bergen) and scuttled in of water. In 1981 Norwegian divers found her wreck. In 1959, was the first submarine to surface at the North Pole and the second submarine (after in 1958) to reach the North Pole. Her crew conducted a tribute to Sir George Hubert Wilkins and scattered his ashes over the North Pole. In 2010 the research submersible JAGO dove to try to locate and inspect Nautilus. References External links Nautilus (Submarine) Photograph Collection O-12 (SS-73) World War I submarines of the United States Military in the Arctic Shipwrecks in the Norwegian Sea Ships built in Groton, Connecticut 1917 ships	[ -0.1626967489719391, -0.0061505516059696674, -0.46975380182266235, 0.4000912308692932, -0.23026253283023834, 0.1072997972369194, 0.8504723310470581, -0.1798393428325653, -0.4112091660499573, 0.007661544252187014, 0.2992047071456909, 0.2102162092924118, -0.26361218094825745, -0.021244067698717117, 0.22708827257156372, -0.6624241471290588, 0.6395083665847778, 0.582504391670227, -0.16624583303928375, -0.6336069703102112, -0.18111155927181244, -0.12187287956476212, 0.19524572789669037, 0.06586295366287231, -0.2084181159734726, 0.31234481930732727, 0.16669146716594696, 0.32946816086769104, 0.821466326713562, -0.07162237912416458, 0.41259342432022095, 0.8626103401184082, 0.5422890782356262, 0.22487077116966248, -0.2406972348690033, 0.0887422189116478, 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206578	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential%20system	Presidential system	A presidential system, or single executive system, is a form of government in which a head of government (president) leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch in systems that use separation of powers. This head of government is in most cases also the head of state. In presidential countries, the head of government is elected and is not responsible to the legislature, which cannot (usually) in normal circumstances dismiss the president. Such dismissal is possible, however, in uncommon cases, often through impeachment. The title "president" has persisted from a time when such a person personally presided over the governing body, as with the President of the Continental Congress in the early United States, prior to the executive function being split into a separate branch of government. A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system, where the head of government comes to power by gaining the confidence of an elected legislature. There are also hybrid systems such as the semi-presidential system, used in the former Weimar Republic, France, and Poland. Countries that feature a presidential or semi-presidential system of government are not the exclusive users of the title of president. Heads of state of parliamentary republics, largely ceremonial in most cases, are called presidents. Dictators or leaders of one-party states, whether popularly elected or not, are also often called presidents. Presidentialism is the dominant form of government in the mainland Americas, with 19 of its 22 sovereign states being presidential republics, the exceptions being Canada, Belize, and Suriname. It is also prevalent in Central and southern West Africa and in Central Asia. By contrast, there are very few presidential republics in Europe, with Belarus and Cyprus being the only examples. Oceania is the only continent that has no presidential republics. History Characteristics In a full-fledged presidential system, a politician is chosen directly by the public or indirectly by the winning party to be the head of government. The President of Cyprus has the roles of head of state and government combined, making Cyprus the only EU state with a full presidential system of government. The following characteristics apply generally for the numerous presidential governments across the world: The executive can veto legislative acts and, in turn, a supermajority of lawmakers may override the veto. The veto is generally derived from the British tradition of royal assent in which an act of parliament can only be enacted with the assent of the monarch. The president has a fixed term of office. Elections are held at regular times and cannot be triggered by a vote of confidence or other parliamentary procedures, although in some countries there is an exception which provides for the removal of a president who is found to have broken a law. The executive branch is unipersonal. Members of the cabinet serve at the pleasure of the president and must carry out the policies of the executive and legislative branches. The president, and often cabinet members, are not members of the legislature. However, presidential systems often need legislative approval of executive nominations to the cabinet, judiciary, and various lower governmental posts. A president generally can direct members of the cabinet, military, or any officer or employee of the executive branch, but cannot direct or dismiss judges. The president can often pardon or commute sentences of convicted criminals, though this is by no means exclusive to the presidential system. Subnational governments of the world Subnational governments, usually states, may be structured as presidential systems. All of the state governments in the United States use the presidential system, even though this is not constitutionally required. On a local level, many cities use council-manager government, which is equivalent to a parliamentary system, although the post of a city manager is normally a non-political position. Some countries without a presidential system at the national level use a form of this system at a subnational or local level. One example is Japan, where the national government uses the parliamentary system, but the prefectural and municipal governments have governors and mayors elected independently from local assemblies and councils. Advantages Supporters generally claim four basic advantages for presidential systems: Direct elections — in a presidential system, the president is often elected directly by the people. This makes the president's power appear to some as being more legitimate than that of a leader appointed indirectly. However, this is not a necessary feature of a presidential system. Some presidential states have an indirectly elected head of state. Separation of powers — a presidential system establishes the presidency and the legislature as two parallel structures. This allows each structure to monitor and check the other, preventing abuses of power. Speed and decisiveness — A system of checks and balances can control abuses of power by the president, but it can also hinder action in matters that require it. Stability — a president, by virtue of a fixed term, may provide more stability than a prime minister, who can be dismissed at any time. Direct elections In most presidential systems, the president is elected by popular vote, although some such as the United States use an electoral college or some other method. By this method, the president receives a personal mandate to lead the country, whereas in a parliamentary system a candidate might only receive a personal mandate to represent a constituency. That means a president can only be elected independently of the legislative branch. Separation of powers A presidential system's separation of the executive from the legislature is sometimes held up as an advantage, in that each branch may scrutinize the actions of the other. In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from the legislature, making criticism of one by the other considerably less likely. A formal condemnation of the executive by the legislature is often considered a vote of no confidence. According to supporters of the presidential system, the lack of checks and balances means that misconduct by a prime minister may never be discovered. Writing about Watergate, Woodrow Wyatt, a former MP in the UK, said "don't think a Watergate couldn't happen here, you just wouldn't hear about it." (ibid) Critics respond that if a presidential system's legislature is controlled by the president's party, the same situation exists. Proponents such as political scientists note that even in such a situation a legislator from the president's party is in a better position to criticize the president or his policies should he deem it necessary, since the immediate security of the president's position is less dependent on legislative support. In parliamentary systems, party discipline is much more strictly enforced. If a parliamentary backbencher publicly criticizes the executive or its policies to any significant extent then he/she faces a much higher prospect of losing his/her party's nomination, or even outright expulsion from the party. Even mild criticism from a backbencher could carry consequences serious enough (in particular, removal from consideration for a cabinet post) to effectively muzzle a legislator with any serious political ambitions. Despite the existence of the no confidence vote, in practice it is extremely difficult to stop a prime minister or cabinet that has made its decision. In a parliamentary system, if important legislation proposed by the incumbent prime minister and his cabinet is "voted down" by a majority of the members of parliament then it is considered a vote of no confidence. To emphasize that particular point, a prime minister will often declare a particular legislative vote to be a matter of confidence at the first sign of reluctance on the part of legislators from his or her own party. If a government loses a parliamentary vote of confidence, then the incumbent government must then either resign or call elections to be held, a consequence few backbenchers are willing to endure. Hence, a no confidence vote in some parliamentary countries, like Britain, only occurs a few times in a century. In 1931, David Lloyd George told a select committee: "Parliament has really no control over the executive; it is a pure fiction." (Schlesinger 1982) By contrast, if a presidential legislative initiative fails to pass a legislature controlled by the president's party (e.g. the Clinton health care plan of 1993 in the United States), it may damage the president's political standing and that of his party, but generally has no immediate effect on whether or not the president completes his term. Speed and decisiveness It is believed that presidential systems can respond more rapidly to emerging situations than parliamentary ones. A prime minister, when taking action, needs to retain the support of the legislature, but a president is often less constrained. In Why England Slept, future U.S. president John F. Kennedy argued that British prime ministers Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain were constrained by the need to maintain the confidence of the Commons. Other supporters of presidential systems sometimes argue in the exact opposite direction, however, saying that presidential systems can slow decision-making to beneficial ends. Divided government, where the presidency and the legislature are controlled by different parties, is said to restrain the excesses of both the coalition and opposition, and guarantee cross-partisan input into legislation. In the United States, Republican Congressman Bill Frenzel wrote in 1995: Stability Although most parliamentary governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote, Italy, Israel, and the French Fourth Republic have all experienced difficulties maintaining stability. When parliamentary systems have multiple parties, and governments are forced to rely on coalitions, as they often do in nations that use a system of proportional representation, extremist parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas. Many people consider presidential systems more able to survive emergencies. A country under enormous stress may, supporters argue, be better off being led by a president with a fixed term than rotating premierships. The fact that elections are fixed in a presidential system is considered by supporters a welcome "check" on the powers of the executive, contrasting parliamentary systems, which may allow the prime minister to call elections whenever they see fit or orchestrate their own vote of no confidence to trigger an election when they cannot get a legislative item passed. The presidential model is said to discourage this sort of opportunism, and instead forces the executive to operate within the confines of a term they cannot alter to suit their own needs. Proponents of the presidential system also argue that stability extends to the cabinets chosen under the system. In most parliamentary systems, cabinets must be drawn from within the legislative branch. Under the presidential system, cabinet members can be selected from a much larger pool of potential candidates. This allows presidents the ability to select cabinet members based as much or more on their ability and competency to lead a particular department as on their loyalty to the president, as opposed to parliamentary cabinets, which might be filled by legislators chosen for no better reason than their perceived loyalty to the prime minister. Supporters of the presidential system note that parliamentary systems are prone to disruptive "cabinet shuffles" where legislators are moved between portfolios, whereas in presidential system cabinets (such as the United States Cabinet), cabinet shuffles are unusual. Criticism and disadvantages Critics generally claim three basic disadvantages for presidential systems: Tendency towards authoritarianism – presidentialism raises the stakes of elections, exacerbates their polarization and can lead to authoritarianism (Linz). Political gridlock – the separation of powers of a presidential system establishes the presidency and the legislature as two parallel structures. Critics argue that this can create an undesirable and long-term political gridlock whenever the president and the legislative majority are from different parties, which is common because the electorate usually expects more rapid results from new policies than are possible (Linz, Mainwaring and Shugart). In addition, this reduces accountability by allowing the president and the legislature to shift blame to each other. Impediments to leadership change – presidential systems often make it difficult to remove a president from office early, for example after taking actions that become unpopular. A fourth criticism applies specifically to nations with a proportionally elected legislature and a presidency. Where the voters are virtually all represented by their votes in the proportional outcome, the presidency is elected on a winner-take-all basis. Two different electoral systems are therefore in play, potentially leading to conflicts that are based on the natural differences of the systems. Tendency towards authoritarianism Yale political scientist Juan Linz argues that: Some political scientists say that presidential systems are not constitutionally stable and have difficulty sustaining democratic practices, noting that presidentialism has slipped into authoritarianism in many of the countries in which it has been implemented. According to political scientist Fred Riggs, presidentialism has fallen into authoritarianism in nearly every country it has been attempted. The list of the world's 22 older democracies includes only two countries (Costa Rica and the United States) with presidential systems. Dana D. Nelson, in her 2008 book Bad for Democracy, sees the office of the President of the United States as essentially undemocratic and characterizes presidentialism as worship of the president by citizens, which she believes undermines civic participation. Political gridlock Some political scientists speak of the "failure of presidentialism" because the separation of powers of a presidential system often creates undesirable long-term political gridlock and instability whenever the president and the legislative majority are from different parties. This is common because the electorate often expects more rapid results than are possible from new policies and switches to a different party at the next election. Critics such as Juan Linz, argue that this inherent political instability can cause democracies to fail, as seen in such cases as Brazil and Allende's Chile. Lack of accountability In such cases of gridlock, presidential systems are said by critics not to offer voters the kind of accountability seen in parliamentary systems. It is easy for either the president or the legislature to escape blame by shifting it to the other. Describing the United States, former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon said "the president blames Congress, the Congress blames the president, and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington". Years before becoming president, Woodrow Wilson (at the time, a fierce critic of the U.S. system of government) famously wrote "how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping?" Impediments to leadership change Another alleged problem of presidentialism is that it is often difficult to remove a president from office early. Even if a president is "proved to be inefficient, even if he becomes unpopular, even if his policy is unacceptable to the majority of his countrymen, he and his methods must be endured until the moment comes for a new election". Since prime ministers in parliamentary systems must always retain the confidence of the legislature, in cases where a prime minister suddenly leaves office there is little point in anyone without a reasonable prospect of gaining that legislative confidence attempting to assume the premiership. This ensures that whenever a premiership becomes vacant (or is about to become vacant), legislators from the premier's party will always play a key role in determining the leader's permanent successor. In theory this could be interpreted to support an argument that a parliamentary party ought to have the power to elect their party leader directly, and indeed, at least historically, parliamentary system parties' leadership electoral procedures usually called for the party's legislative caucus to fill a leadership vacancy by electing a new leader directly by and from amongst themselves, and for the whole succession process to be completed within as short a time frame as practical. Today, however, such a system is not commonly practiced and most parliamentary system parties' rules provide for a leadership election in which the general membership of the party is permitted to vote at some point in the process (either directly for the new leader or for delegates who then elect the new leader in a convention), though in many cases the party's legislators are allowed to exercise a disproportionate influence in the final vote. Walter Bagehot criticized presidentialism because it does not allow a transfer in power in the event of an emergency. However, supporters of the presidential system question the validity of the point. They argue that if presidents were not able to command some considerable level of security in their tenures, their direct mandates would be worthless. They further counter that republics such as the United States have successfully endured war and other crises without the need to change heads of state. Supporters argue that presidents elected in a time of peace and prosperity have proven themselves perfectly capable of responding effectively to a serious crisis, largely due to their ability to make the necessary appointments to the cabinet and elsewhere in government or by creating new positions to deal with new challenges. One prominent, recent example would be the appointment of a Secretary of Homeland Security following the September 11 attacks in the United States. Some supporters of the presidential system counter that impediments to a leadership change, being that they are little more than an unavoidable consequence of the direct mandate afforded to a president, are thus a strength instead of a weakness in times of crisis. In such times, a prime minister might hesitate due to the need to keep parliament's support, whereas a president can act without fear of removal from office by those who might disapprove of his actions. Furthermore, even if a prime minister does manage to successfully resolve a crisis (or multiple crises), it does not guarantee that he or she will possess the political capital needed to remain in office for a similar, future crisis. Unlike what would be possible in a presidential system, a perceived crisis in the parliamentary system might give disgruntled backbenchers or rivals an opportunity to launch a vexing challenge for a prime minister's leadership. Finally, many political analysts have criticized presidential systems for their alleged slowness to respond to their citizens' needs. Often, the checks and balances make action difficult. Walter Bagehot said of the American system, "the executive is crippled by not getting the law it needs, and the legislature is spoiled by having to act without responsibility: the executive becomes unfit for its name, since it cannot execute what it decides on; the legislature is demoralized by liberty, by taking decisions of others [and not itself] will suffer the effects". British-Irish philosopher and MP Edmund Burke stated that an official should be elected based on "his unbiased opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience", and therefore should reflect on the arguments for and against certain policies and then do what he believes is best for his constituents and country as a whole, even if it means short-term backlash. Thus defenders of presidential systems hold that sometimes what is wisest may not always be the most popular decision and vice versa. Differences from a parliamentary system A number of key theoretical differences exist between a presidential and a parliamentary system: In a presidential system, the central principle is that the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government are separate. This leads to the separate election of president, who is elected to office for a fixed term, and only removable for gross misdemeanor by impeachment and dismissal. By contrast, in parliamentarianism, the executive branch is led by a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, who are directly accountable to the legislature and often have their background in the legislature, which may be variously called a "parliament", an "assembly", a "diet", or a "chamber". As with the president's set term of office, the legislature also exists for a set term of office and cannot be dissolved ahead of schedule (or, as in the case of Cyprus, only the legislature can dissolve itself). By contrast, in parliamentary systems, the prime minister needs to survive a vote of confidence if one is held, otherwise a new election must be called. The legislature can typically be dissolved at any stage during its life by the head of state, usually on the advice of either Prime Minister alone, by the Prime Minister and cabinet, or by the cabinet. In a presidential system, the president usually has special privileges in the enactment of legislation, namely the possession of a power of veto over legislation of bills, in some cases subject to the power of the legislature by weighted majority to override the veto. The legislature and the president are thus expected to serve as checks and balances on each other's powers. Presidential system presidents may also be given a great deal of constitutional authority in the exercise of the office of Commander in Chief, a constitutional title given to most presidents. In addition, the presidential power to receive ambassadors as head of state is usually interpreted as giving the president broad powers to conduct foreign policy. Though semi-presidential systems may reduce a president's power over day-to-day government affairs, semi-presidential systems commonly give the president power over foreign policy. Presidential systems also have fewer ideological parties than parliamentary systems. Sometimes in the United States, the policies preferred by the two parties have been very similar, and at times quite polarized. In the 1950s, during the leadership of Lyndon B. Johnson, the Senate Democrats included the right-most members of the chamber—Harry Byrd and Strom Thurmond, and the left-most members—Paul Douglas and Herbert Lehman. This pattern did not permanently hold, nor is it a feature of Latin American presidential democracies. Overlapping elements In practice, elements of both systems overlap. Though a president in a presidential system does not have to choose a government under the legislature, the legislature may have the right to scrutinize his or her appointments to high governmental office, with the right, on some occasions, to block an appointment. In the United States, many appointments must be confirmed by the Senate, although once confirmed an appointee can only be removed against the president's will through impeachment. By contrast, though answerable to parliament, a parliamentary system's cabinet may be able to make use of the parliamentary 'whip', an obligation on party members in parliament to vote with their party, to control and dominate parliament, reducing the parliament's ability to control the government. States with a presidential system of government Italics indicate states with limited recognition. Presidential systems Presidential systems with a prime minister The following countries have presidential systems where a post of prime minister (official title may vary) exists alongside that of the president. The president is still both the head of state and government and the prime minister's roles are mostly to assist the president. Belarus, Gabon and Kazakhstan, where the prime minister is effectively the head of government and the president the head of state, are exceptions. Article 53 of the Constitution of India states that the president can exercise his powers directly or by subordinate authority, with few exceptions. All of the executive powers vested in the president are, in practice, exercised by the prime minister (a subordinate authority) with the help of the Council of Ministers.[3] The president is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet as long as the advice does not violate the constitution. Countries with a Supreme Leader Presidential system in administrative divisions Dependencies of United States Special administrative regions of China Former presidential Republics (1998–2013) (1990–1991), (1992–2016) (1975–1991) (1948–1991) de facto (1902–1959) (1938–1940) (1995–2004) (1930–1933) de facto (1859–1957), (1957–1986) (1960–1963) (1990–1991) (1990–1991) Mali (1960–1992) (1960–1978) Niger (1960–1974, 1989–1993) (1962–1970) (1935–1939) (1991–1992) de facto (1963-1972) (1955–1975) (1990–1991) (1990–1991) (1995-1996) (1990–1991) See also List of countries by system of government Parliamentary system Westminster system Semi-presidential system Coalition government Notes and references External links The Great Debate: Parliament versus Congress Castagnola, Andrea/Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal: Presidential Control of High Courts in Latin America: A Long-term View (1904-2006), in Journal of Politics in Latin America, Hamburg 2009. 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206579	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1825%20in%20literature	1825 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1825. Events February 19 – Franz Grillparzer's König Ottokars Glück und Ende (The Fortune and Fall of King Ottokar, published 1823) is first performed, at the Burgtheater in Vienna, after Caroline Augusta, Empress of Austria, urges her husband Francis I of Austria to lift the censorship restrictions on it. April – Charles Lamb retires from his clerical post with the East India Company in London on superannuation. May 6–June 15 – The two youngest Brontë sisters, Maria and Elizabeth, die at home at Haworth Parsonage aged 11 and 9, of consumption they have contracted at Cowan Bridge School. May 6 – French bibliophile, translator, lawyer and politician Henri Boulard (born 1754) dies, leaving a library of over half a million books, one of the greatest private book collections in history. December 17 – John Neal moves in with and becomes personal secretary of Jeremy Bentham, who recruits Neal to his utilitarian philosophy. unknown date – The first publication of Samuel Pepys' Diary (1660–1669) appears, edited by Lord Braybrooke from a transcription by Rev. John Smith. New books Fiction John and Michael Banim – Tales of the O'Hara Family Lydia Maria Child – The Rebels Sarah Green – Parents and Wives Wilhelm Hauff – Der Mann im Mond (The Man in the Moon) Barbara Hofland – Moderation John Neal – Brother Jonathan: or, the New Englanders Sir Walter Scott The Betrothed The Talisman Children Maria Hack –English Stories. Third Series, Reformation under the Tudor Princes Drama Caroline Boaden – Quite Correct Aleksander Griboyedov – Woe from Wit (part published) James Sheridan Knowles – William Tell Harriet Lee – The Three Strangers John Poole – Paul Pry Alexander Pushkin – Boris Godunov (published 1831, but approved for the stage only in 1866) William Tennant – John Balliol Charles Walker – The Fall of Algiers Poetry Anna Laetitia Barbauld – Works Felicia Hemans – The Forest Sanctuary Esaias Tegnér – Frithiol's Saga Non-fiction Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin – Physiologie du goût (The Physiology of Taste) Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Aids to Reflection George Gleig – The Subaltern William Hazlitt – The Spirit of the Age Sarah Kemble Knight – The Journal of Madam Knight John Claudius Loudon – The Encyclopaedia of Agriculture Thomas Moore – Memoirs of the Life of Richard Brinsley Sheridan Harriette Wilson – The Memoirs of Harriette Wilson, Written by Herself Births January 11 – Bayard Taylor, American poet (died 1878) February 13 – Julia C. R. Dorr, American author (died 1913) February 18 – Mór Jókai, Hungarian novelist and dramatist (died 1904) March 3 – Annie Keary, English novelist, poet and children's writer (died 1879) March 16 – Lucy Virginia French, American author (died 1881) April 3 – William Billington, English poet and publican (died 1884) April 20 – Emma Jane Guyton (Worboise), English novelist and magazine editor (died 1887) April 24 – R. M. Ballantyne, Scottish writer of juvenile fiction (died 1894) May 21 – Nancy H. Adsit, American art writer, lecturer, educator (died 1902) June 7 – R. D. Blackmore, English novelist (died 1900) June 14 – Mary Elizabeth Beauchamp, English-born American author and educator (died 1903) July 2 – Richard Henry Stoddard, American critic and poet (died 1903) July 13 – Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren, American writer, translator, and anti-suffragist (died 1889) October 19 – Jeanette Granberg, Swedish playwright and translator (died 1857) October 23 – Walter Gregor, Scottish folklorist, linguist and pastor (died 1897) Uncertain date Annie French Hector (pseudonym Mrs Alexander), Irish-born novelist (died 1902) Deaths March 9 – Anna Laetitia Barbauld, English poet, essayist and children's author (born 1743) April 23 – Maler Müller, German poet, dramatist and painter (born 1749) June 4 – Morris Birkbeck, American writer and social reformer (born 1764) June 11 – Helen Craik, Scottish novelist and poet (born c. 1751) August 10 – Joseph Harris (Gomer), Welsh poet and journalist (born 1773) November 7 – Charlotte Dacre, English poet and Gothic novelist (born c. 1772) November 25 – Desfontaines-Lavallée, French novelist and dramatist (born 1733) December 5 – Mary Whateley (Mary Darwall), English poet (born 1738) unknown dates Huang Peilie (黄丕烈), Chinese bibliophile (born 1763) Shen Fu (沈復), Chinese novelist and chronicler (born 1763) Awards Chancellor's Gold Medal – Edward Bulwer-Lytton Newdigate Prize – Richard Clarke Sewell, "The Temple of Vesta" References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.14213885366916656, 0.46182727813720703, -0.8421549797058105, -0.28028401732444763, -0.5467633008956909, 0.09481719136238098, 0.6869853734970093, 0.509890079498291, -0.7451009154319763, -0.8333656787872314, 0.07958361506462097, -0.14528997242450714, 0.1539027839899063, 0.43787840008735657, -0.046960894018411636, 0.2680055499076843, -0.10566579550504684, -0.10953602939844131, 0.2541274428367615, -0.36941468715667725, -0.41457825899124146, 0.14873729646205902, 0.42670509219169617, -0.6875123977661133, 0.33044055104255676, 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206580	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurehead%20%28object%29	Figurehead (object)	A figurehead is a carved wooden decoration found at the bow of ships, generally of a design related to the name or role of a ship. They were predominant between the 16th and 20th centuries, and modern ships' badges fulfill a similar role. History Although earlier ships had often had some form of bow ornamentation (e.g. the eyes painted on the bows of Greek and Phoenician galleys, the Roman practice of putting carvings of their deities on the bows of their galleys, and the Viking ships of ca. A.D. 800–1100), the general practice was introduced with the galleons of the 16th century, as the figurehead as such could not come to be until ships had an actual stemhead structure on which to place it. The menacing appearance of toothy and bug-eyed figureheads on Viking ships were considered a form of apotropaic magic, serving the function of warding off evil spirits. The Egyptians placed figures of holy birds on the prow while the Phoenicians used horses representing speed. The Ancient Greeks used boars' heads to symbolise acute vision and ferocity while Roman boats often mounted a carving of a centurion representing valour in battle. In northern Europe, serpents, bulls, dolphins and dragons were customary and by the 13th Century, the swan was used representing grace and mobility. In Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, it was once believed that spirits/faeries called Kaboutermannekes (gnomes, little men, faeries) dwelt in the figureheads. The spirit guarded the ship from sickness, rocks, storms, and dangerous winds. If the ship sank, the Kaboutermannekes guided the sailors' souls to the Land of the Dead. To sink without a Kaboutermanneke condemned the sailor's soul to haunt the sea forever, so Dutch sailors believed. A similar belief was found in early Scandinavia/Vikings. In pre-colonial Burma, during the Konbaung dynasty, figureheads were used to distinguish several types of royal barges allocated to different members of the royal court; each barge had a specific mythical figurehead at the front. During the period from the 17th to the 18th centuries the carved subjects of figureheads varied from representations of saints to patriotic emblems such as the unicorns or lions popular on English ships. When the ship was named after a royal or naval personage the head and bust of the individual might be shown. As with the stern ornamentation, the purpose of the figurehead was often to indicate the name of the ship in a non-literate society (albeit in a sometimes very convoluted manner); and always, in the case of naval ships, to demonstrate the wealth and might of the owner. At the height of the Baroque period, some ships boasted gigantic figureheads, weighing several tons and sometimes twinned on both sides of the bowsprit. A large figurehead, being carved from massive wood and perched on the very foremost tip of the hull, adversely affected the sailing qualities of the ship. This, and cost considerations, led to figureheads being made dramatically smaller during the 18th century, and in some cases they were abolished altogether around 1800. After the Napoleonic wars they made something of a comeback, but were then often in the form of a small waist-up bust rather than the oversized full figures previously used. The clipper ships of the 1850s and 1860s customarily had full figureheads, but these were relatively small and light. During their final stage of common usage figureheads ranged in length from about to . Decline in use Figureheads as such died out with the military sailing ship. In addition the vogue for ram bows meant that there was no obvious place to mount one on battleships. An exception was which was the last British battleship to carry a figurehead. Smaller ships of the Royal Navy continued to carry them. The last example may well have been the sloop launched in 1903. Early steamships sometimes had gilt scroll-work and coats-of-arms at their bows. This practice lasted up until about World War I. The 1910 German liner originally sported a large bronze figurehead of an eagle (the Imperial German symbol) standing on a globe. The few extra feet of length added by the figurehead made Imperator the longest ship in the world at the time of her launch. It is still common practise for warships to carry ships' badges, large plaques mounted on the superstructure with a unique design relating to the ship's name or role. For example, Type 42 destroyers of the Royal Navy, which are named after British cities, carry badges depicting the coat of arms of their namesake. On smaller vessels, the billethead might be substituted. This was a smaller, nonfigural carving, most often a curl of foliage. Images See also Hood ornament Winged victory References External links The Figurehead Archive Telegraph Gallery (17 images) History Trust of South Australia Figureheads The Mariners' Museum Figurehead Collection Figureheads from the Vestfold Museums's (Norwegian) collections on DigitalMuseum Further reading Sailboat components Sailing ship components	[ 0.1693516969680786, -0.01951604150235653, 0.2310665398836136, 0.4404789209365845, -0.09426286071538925, 0.5260539054870605, 0.03916856646537781, 0.2574431896209717, -1.0899789333343506, -0.4545309841632843, -0.4354144036769867, 0.0228139515966177, 0.163551464676857, 0.24445226788520813, -0.08636053651571274, 0.15018285810947418, 0.6693693399429321, 0.39488688111305237, -0.7059072852134705, 0.09684956818819046, -0.6737315058708191, -0.3817581236362457, 0.22194702923297882, -0.5565516948699951, 0.399557888507843, -0.1599784940481186, 0.41237396001815796, -0.043758854269981384, 0.12629258632659912, 0.17610350251197815, -0.10913783311843872, 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206581	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Blackwood%20%28publisher%29	John Blackwood (publisher)	John Blackwood FRSE (1818–1879) was a Scottish publisher, sixth son of William Blackwood. John succeeded his father as editor of the business in 1834, on William's death. Four years later he was joined by Major William Blackwood, who continued in the firm until his death in 1861. Five of William Blackwood's seven sons played a role in the running of the company, William Blackwood and Sons. Life He was born at 2 Salisbury Road in south Edinburgh on 7 December 1818. Educated at the High School and University of Edinburgh, he early displayed literary tastes, which procured for him the nickname of "the little editor." At the close of his college career he spent three years in continental travel. Soon after his return, his father having meanwhile died and been succeeded by two of his elder brothers, he entered, in 1839, to learn business, the house of a then eminent London publishing firm. In 1840, he was entrusted with the superintendence of the branch which his brother's Edinburgh house was establishing in London. He occupied this position for six years, during which his office in Pall Mall became a literary rendezvous, among his visitors being Lockhart of the Quarterly Review, Delane of The Times, and Thackeray, with the last two of whom he formed an intimate friendship. One of his functions was to procure recruits for Blackwood's Magazine, then edited by his eldest brother, and to him was due the connection formed with it by the first Lord Lytton, who began in 1842 to contribute to it his translation of the poems and ballads of Schiller. In 1845, he returned to Edinburgh on the death of his eldest brother, whom he succeeded in the editorship of Blackwood's Magazine. In 1852, by the death of another elder brother, he became virtual head of the publishing business also, and he retained both positions until his death. As an editor he was critical and suggestive, as well as appreciative. As a publisher he preferred quality to the production of quantity; in both capacities he displayed hereditary acumen and liberality. He quickly discerned the genius of George Eliot, forthwith accepting and publishing in his magazine the first instalment of her earliest fiction the 'Scenes of Clerical Life,' which had been sent to him without the name of the author, for whom thus early he predicted a great career as a novelist. This commencement of a business connection was soon followed by a personal acquaintance between author and publisher, which ripened into intimacy. In her husband's biography of George Eliot there are many indications of her readiness to accept Blackwood's friendly criticisms and suggestions, and of her grateful regard for him. On hearing of the probably fatal termination of his last illness she wrote: All her books, after the "Scenes of Clerical Life," were, with one exception, first published by his firm. Although Blackwood was a staunch conservative and the conductor of the chief monthly organ of conservatism, he always welcomed, whether as editor or publisher, what he considered to be literary ability, without regard to the political or religious opinions of its possessors. A genial and convivial host and companion, he delighted to dispense, at his house in Edinburgh, and his country house, Strathtyrum, near St. Andrews, a liberal hospitality to authors with whom he had formed a business connection. To his magazine he contributed directly only occasional obituary notices of prominent contributors. In later life his Edinburgh address was 3 Randolph Crescent on the southern edge of the Moray Estate. He died at Strathtyrum House near St Andrews on 29 October 1879. He is buried on a small west-facing section of wall on the southern edge of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. A secondary memorial to John is within his father's family vault in Old Calton Burial Ground. The Blackwood family still live to this day in Ayrshire, Scotland around the Doon Valley Area and other parts of Ayrshire. References Attribution: Further reading Porter, Mary Blackwood (Mrs. Gerald Porter), Annals of a Publishing House: John Blackwood, by his Daughter Mrs. Gerald Porter. Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood and Sons, 1898. External links More on John Blackwood and George Eliot (including letters, articles, and book editions) at the George Eliot Archive 1818 births 1879 deaths Blackwood family (publishers) Scottish magazine publishers (people) Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Publishers (people) from Edinburgh People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Scottish magazine editors 19th-century Scottish businesspeople 19th-century British journalists British male journalists 19th-century British male writers	[ -0.22870886325836182, 0.6381669044494629, -0.3051343560218811, -0.5787928104400635, -0.26412174105644226, -0.034108422696590424, 0.775338351726532, 0.22379758954048157, -0.2825695276260376, -0.2745284140110016, -0.320243239402771, -0.11734608560800552, -0.4324595332145691, 0.4373784363269806, 0.129092276096344, 0.4106573164463043, 0.1178770363330841, 0.0858980342745781, -0.8514352440834045, -0.6068581938743591, -0.33012694120407104, 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206582	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra%20Mauro%20formation	Fra Mauro formation	The Fra Mauro formation (or Fra Mauro Highlands) is a formation on the near side of Earth's Moon that served as the landing site for the American Apollo 14 mission in 1971. It is named after the 80-kilometer-diameter crater Fra Mauro, located within it. The formation, as well as Fra Mauro crater, take their names from a 15th-century Italian monk and mapmaker of the same name. Apollo 13 was originally scheduled to land in the Fra Mauro highlands, but was unable due to an in-flight technical failure. Fra Mauro is thought to have been formed from ejecta, or debris, from the impact which formed Mare Imbrium. During Apollo 14, the crew members sampled ejecta from Cone crater, a feature close in proximity to the immediate landing site of the mission, which provided insight into the composition of material deep inside the formation. Data from the mission has helped to determine the approximate age of Mare Imbrium, suggesting that it is no more than about 4.25 billion years old. Formation and geography Fra Mauro is a widespread hilly geological area covering large portions of the lunar surface around Mare Imbrium, and is thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact which formed Imbrium. The area is primarily composed of relatively low ridges and hills, between which exist undulating valleys. Much of the ejecta blanket from the Imbrium impact is covered with debris from younger impacts and material churned up by possible moonquakes. Debris found in the formation may have originated from deep beneath the original crust, and samples collected there could give insight into the geologic history of the Moon. The petrology of the formation, based on data obtained on Apollo 14, indicates a history of impact and ejection possibly spanning over approximately 500 million years. A relatively recent impact created Cone crater, 1,000 feet across and 250 feet deep, near the landing site of Apollo 14. One of the main objectives of that mission was to sample the original Imbrium material located on its rim. Samples obtained of the Fra Mauro formation during Apollo 14 suggest that the impact that formed the Imbrium basin is no older than 4.25 billion years. Geology Analysis of Apollo 14 samples suggests that there are five major geologic constituents present in the immediate landing area: regolith breccias, fragmental breccias, igneous lithologies, granulitic lithologies, and impact-melt lithologies. Samples of each of these compositions were recovered in one or both of two major surface units of the Apollo 14 landing site within Fra Mauro: the immediate impact blanket of Cone crater, about 25 million years old, and surrounding older terrain. During Apollo 14, astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell recovered ejecta material from the Cone crater impact, which is believed to have excavated Imbrium impact material from a possible depth of about . Most of the samples returned from the Moon from Fra Mauro are classified as breccias from the vicinity of Cone crater. Studies conducted upon samples from Apollo 14 have shown that the samples do not support the possibility that the landing site is floored by volcanic rocks, or basalts. Basalts are sparse in samples of Cone crater ejecta, but somewhat abundant in samples recovered farther west, on the opposite side of the immediate landing site. Two explanations have been presented for this: (1) the majority of basalt in the landing site lies below the depth of excavation of Cone crater or (2) the presence of a basalt flow beneath the landing area excavated by a nearby crater with a diameter of . It is believed that the former seems more likely, as the basalts are similar to the basalts recovered at Cone crater. It is inconclusive whether or not the recovered basalts have a direct affiliation with the landing site, as it is located in a valley between ridges, and there exists the possibility that the basalts were merely deposited there as a result of other impact events. The Apollo 14 crew members sampled boulders in the ejecta of Cone crater. These boulders appeared to be layered and fractured breccias, contrasting from the appearance of the surrounding area because of their older age. As these boulders increase in size and number closer to Cone crater, it is believed that they originate from the greatest depth of excavation of Cone crater. These boulders show what is believed to be general characteristics of the Fra Mauro formation: clastic texture, stratification, and jointing or fracturing. Landing site selection As Apollo 14 was an early Apollo mission, consideration for landing sites was restricted to equatorial regions in order to enable the Moon-bound spacecraft to remain on a free-return trajectory should the Apollo Service Module engine fail. After Apollo 12 demonstrated the ability to land with some degree of precision at a pre-specified landing site, mission planners considered landings in rough, but geologically interesting areas of the Moon. The aborted Apollo 13 mission was originally scheduled to land at Fra Mauro, with Apollo 14 scheduled to land in the Littrow region of Mare Serenitatis. After Apollo 13 failed to land, mission planners decided to re-target Apollo 14 to Fra Mauro, as they regarded Fra Mauro as more interesting scientifically than the Littrow site. There, Apollo 14 had the objective of sampling ejecta from the Imbrium impact to gain insight into the Moon's geologic history. Mission planners chose a landing site near the relatively freshly formed Cone crater, as this crater served as a 'natural drill hole' to allow the astronauts to obtain Imbrium ejecta, a primary objective of the mission. References External links Area map Geological Survey Professional Paper 880 - Apollo 14 Professional Paper Geological features on the Moon Apollo 13 Apollo 14	[ -0.11009062081575394, 0.8254958987236023, 0.1279657483100891, -0.38610097765922546, 0.5889976620674133, 0.5216836929321289, 0.13807986676692963, 0.7049251794815063, -0.22450809180736542, -0.09384661912918091, -0.5690041780471802, 0.7166315913200378, 0.15660151839256287, 0.2805296778678894, -0.31452029943466187, -0.08656272292137146, 0.21659310162067413, -0.16971351206302643, 0.09384149312973022, -0.2547357976436615, 0.46191099286079407, -0.12295299768447876, 0.12070971727371216, 0.04646416753530502, -0.41551879048347473, -0.32762983441352844, 0.021317243576049805, 0.40083926916122437, 0.46325817704200745, 0.45310041308403015, -0.29632818698883057, 0.29838991165161133, 0.00005508713365998119, -0.5352610945701599, 0.10776679217815399, 0.5118545293807983, 0.09923166781663895, -0.05261847749352455, -0.9985026717185974, 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206583	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering	Suffering	Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence of affective phenomena. The opposite of suffering is pleasure or happiness. Suffering is often categorized as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. Attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, deserved or undeserved. Suffering occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, often dramatically. As a result, many fields of human activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. These aspects may include the nature of suffering, its processes, its origin and causes, its meaning and significance, its related personal, social, and cultural behaviors, its remedies, management, and uses. Terminology The word suffering is sometimes used in the narrow sense of physical pain, but more often it refers to psychological pain, or more often yet it refers to pain in the broad sense, i.e. to any unpleasant feeling, emotion or sensation. The word pain usually refers to physical pain, but it is also a common synonym of suffering. The words pain and suffering are often used both together in different ways. For instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms. Or they may be used in 'contradistinction' to one another, as in "pain is physical, suffering is mental", or "pain is inevitable, suffering is optional". Or they may be used to define each other, as in "pain is physical suffering", or "suffering is severe physical or mental pain". Qualifiers, such as physical, mental, emotional, and psychological, are often used to refer to certain types of pain or suffering. In particular, mental pain (or suffering) may be used in relationship with physical pain (or suffering) for distinguishing between two wide categories of pain or suffering. A first caveat concerning such a distinction is that it uses physical pain in a sense that normally includes not only the 'typical sensory experience of physical pain' but also other unpleasant bodily experiences including air hunger, hunger, vestibular suffering, nausea, sleep deprivation, and itching. A second caveat is that the terms physical or mental should not be taken too literally: physical pain or suffering, as a matter of fact, happens through conscious minds and involves emotional aspects, while mental pain or suffering happens through physical brains and, being an emotion, involves important physiological aspects. The word unpleasantness, which some people use as a synonym of suffering or pain in the broad sense, may refer to the basic affective dimension of pain (its suffering aspect), usually in contrast with the sensory dimension, as for instance in this sentence: "Pain-unpleasantness is often, though not always, closely linked to both the intensity and unique qualities of the painful sensation." Other current words that have a definition with some similarity to suffering include distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, disagreeableness. Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy Many of the Hellenistic philosophies addressed suffering. In Cynicism (philosophy) suffering is alleviated by achieving mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια) (literally "freedom from smoke (τύφος)" which signified false belief, mindlessness, folly, and conceit), developing self-sufficiency (αὐτάρκεια), equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia, and indifference to the vicissitudes of life (adiaphora ἁδιαφορία). For Pyrrhonism, suffering comes from dogmas (i.e. beliefs regarding non-evident matters), most particularly beliefs that certain things are either good or bad by nature. Suffering can be removed by developing epoche (suspension of judgment) regarding beliefs, which leads to ataraxia (mental tranquility). Epicurus (contrary to common misperceptions of his doctrine) advocated that we should first seek to avoid suffering (aponia) and that the greatest pleasure lies in ataraxia, free from the worrisome pursuit or the unwelcome consequences of ephemeral pleasures. Epicureanism's version of Hedonism, as an ethical theory, claims that good and bad consist ultimately in pleasure and pain. For Stoicism, the greatest good lies in reason and virtue, but the soul best reaches it through a kind of indifference (apatheia) to pleasure and pain: as a consequence, this doctrine has become identified with stern self-control in regard to suffering. Modern philosophy Jeremy Bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism, a popular doctrine in ethics, politics, and economics. Bentham argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". He suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus, for determining how much pleasure and pain would result from any action. John Stuart Mill improved and promoted the doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. Karl Popper, in The Open Society and Its Enemies, proposed a negative utilitarianism, which prioritizes the reduction of suffering over the enhancement of happiness when speaking of utility: "I believe that there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure. (...) human suffering makes a direct moral appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway." David Pearce, for his part, advocates a utilitarianism that aims straightforwardly at the abolition of suffering through the use of biotechnology (see more details below in section Biology, neurology, psychology). Another aspect worthy of mention here is that many utilitarians since Bentham hold that the moral status of a being comes from its ability to feel pleasure and pain: therefore, moral agents should consider not only the interests of human beings but also those of (other) animals. Richard Ryder came to the same conclusion in his concepts of 'speciesism' and 'painism'. Peter Singer's writings, especially the book Animal Liberation, represent the leading edge of this kind of utilitarianism for animals as well as for people. Another doctrine related to the relief of suffering is humanitarianism (see also humanitarian principles, humanitarian aid, and humane society). "Where humanitarian efforts seek a positive addition to the happiness of sentient beings, it is to make the unhappy happy rather than the happy happier. (...) [Humanitarianism] is an ingredient in many social attitudes; in the modern world it has so penetrated into diverse movements (...) that it can hardly be said to exist in itself." Pessimists hold this world to be mainly bad, or even the worst possible, plagued with, among other things, unbearable and unstoppable suffering. Some identify suffering as the nature of the world and conclude that it would be better if life did not exist at all. Arthur Schopenhauer recommends us to take refuge in things like art, philosophy, loss of the will to live, and tolerance toward 'fellow-sufferers'. Friedrich Nietzsche, first influenced by Schopenhauer, developed afterward quite another attitude, arguing that the suffering of life is productive, exalting the will to power, despising weak compassion or pity, and recommending us to embrace willfully the 'eternal return' of the greatest sufferings. Philosophy of pain is a philosophical speciality that focuses on physical pain and is, through that, relevant to suffering in general. Religion Suffering plays an important role in a number of religions, regarding matters such as the following: consolation or relief; moral conduct (do no harm, help the afflicted, show compassion); spiritual advancement through life hardships or through self-imposed trials (mortification of the flesh, penance, asceticism); ultimate destiny (salvation, damnation, hell). Theodicy deals with the problem of evil, which is the difficulty of reconciling the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent god with the existence of evil: a quintessential form of evil, for many people, is extreme suffering, especially in innocent children, or in creatures destined to an eternity of torments (see problem of hell). The 'Four Noble Truths' of Buddhism are about dukkha, a term often translated as suffering. They state the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, the Noble Eightfold Path. Buddhism considers liberation from dukkha and the practice of compassion (karuna) as basic for leading a holy life and attaining nirvana. Hinduism holds that suffering follows naturally from personal negative behaviors in one's current life or in a past life (see karma in Hinduism). One must accept suffering as a just consequence and as an opportunity for spiritual progress. Thus the soul or true self, which is eternally free of any suffering, may come to manifest itself in the person, who then achieves liberation (moksha). Abstinence from causing pain or harm to other beings, called ahimsa, is a central tenet of Hinduism, and even more so of another Indian religion, Jainism (see ahimsa in Jainism). In Judaism, suffering is often seen as a punishment for sins and a test of a person's faith, like the Book of Job illustrates. For Christianity, redemptive suffering is the belief that human suffering, when accepted and offered up in union with the Passion of Jesus, can remit the just punishment for sins and allow to grow in the love of God, others and oneself. In Islam, the faithful must endure suffering with hope and faith, not resist or ask why, accept it as Allah's will and submit to it as a test of faith. Allah never asks more than can be endured. One must also work to alleviate the suffering of others, as well as one's own. Suffering is also seen as a blessing. Through that gift, the sufferer remembers God and connects with him. Suffering expunges the sins of human beings and cleanses their soul for the immense reward of the afterlife, and the avoidance of hell. According to the Bahá'í Faith, all suffering is a brief and temporary manifestation of physical life, whose source is the material aspects of physical existence, and often attachment to them, whereas only joy exists in the spiritual worlds. Arts and literature Artistic and literary works often engage with suffering, sometimes at great cost to their creators or performers. The Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database offers a list of such works under the categories art, film, literature, and theater. Be it in the tragic, comic or other genres, art and literature offer means to alleviate (and perhaps also exacerbate) suffering, as argued for instance in Harold Schweizer's Suffering and the remedy of art. This Brueghel painting is among those that inspired W. H. Auden's poem Musée des Beaux Arts: About suffering they were never wrong, The Old Masters; how well, they understood Its human position; how it takes place While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along; (...) In Breughel's Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away Quite leisurely from the disaster; (...) Social sciences Social suffering, according to Arthur Kleinman and others, describes "collective and individual human suffering associated with life conditions shaped by powerful social forces". Such suffering is an increasing concern in medical anthropology, ethnography, mass media analysis, and Holocaust studies, says Iain Wilkinson, who is developing a sociology of suffering. The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential is a work by the Union of International Associations. Its main databases are about world problems (56,564 profiles), global strategies and solutions (32,547 profiles), human values (3,257 profiles), and human development (4,817 profiles). It states that "the most fundamental entry common to the core parts is that of pain (or suffering)" and "common to the core parts is the learning dimension of new understanding or insight in response to suffering". Ralph G.H. Siu, an American author, urged in 1988 the "creation of a new and vigorous academic discipline, called panetics, to be devoted to the study of the infliction of suffering", The International Society for Panetics was founded in 1991 to study and develop ways to reduce the infliction of human suffering by individuals acting through professions, corporations, governments, and other social groups. In economics, the following notions relate not only to the matters suggested by their positive appellations, but to the matter of suffering as well: Well-being or Quality of life, Welfare economics, Happiness economics, Gross National Happiness, Genuine Progress Indicator. In law, "Pain and suffering" is a legal term that refers to the mental distress or physical pain endured by a plaintiff as a result of injury for which the plaintiff seeks redress. Assessments of pain and suffering are required to be made for attributing legal awards. In the Western world these are typical made by juries in a discretionary fashion and are regarded as subjective, variable, and difficult to predict, for instance in the US, UK, Australia, and New Zealand. See also, in US law, Negligent infliction of emotional distress and Intentional infliction of emotional distress. In management and organization studies, drawing on the work of Eric Cassell, suffering has been defined as the distress a person experiences when they perceive a threat to any aspect of their continued existence, whether physical, psychological, or social. Other researchers have noted that suffering results from an inability to control actions that usually define one's view of one's self and that the characteristics of suffering include the loss of autonomy, or the loss of valued relationships or sense of self. Suffering is therefore determined not by the threat itself but, rather, by its meaning to the individual and the threat to their personhood. Biology, neurology, psychology Suffering and pleasure are respectively the negative and positive affects, or hedonic tones, or valences that psychologists often identify as basic in our emotional lives. The evolutionary role of physical and mental suffering, through natural selection, is primordial: it warns of threats, motivates coping (fight or flight, escapism), and reinforces negatively certain behaviors (see punishment, aversives). Despite its initial disrupting nature, suffering contributes to the organization of meaning in an individual's world and psyche. In turn, meaning determines how individuals or societies experience and deal with suffering. Many brain structures and physiological processes are involved in suffering (particularly the anterior insula and cingulate cortex, both implicated in nociceptive and empathic pain). Various hypotheses try to account for the experience of suffering. One of these, the pain overlap theory takes note, thanks to neuroimaging studies, that the cingulate cortex fires up when the brain feels suffering from experimentally induced social distress, as well as physical pain. The theory proposes therefore that physical pain and social pain (i.e. two radically differing kinds of suffering) share a common phenomenological and neurological basis. According to David Pearce’s online manifesto "The Hedonistic Imperative," suffering is the avoidable result of Darwinian genetic design. Pearce promotes replacing the biology of suffering with a robot-like response to noxious stimuli or with information-sensitive gradients of bliss, through genetic engineering and other technical scientific advances. Hedonistic psychology, affective science, and affective neuroscience are some of the emerging scientific fields that could in the coming years focus their attention on the phenomenon of suffering. Health care Disease and injury may contribute to suffering in humans and animals. For example, suffering may be a feature of mental or physical illness such as borderline personality disorder and occasionally in advanced cancer. Health care addresses this suffering in many ways, in subfields such as medicine, clinical psychology, psychotherapy, alternative medicine, hygiene, public health, and through various health care providers. However..."If people feel unhappy when burdened by negative life events, this is no mental disorder, but “healthy suffering” . It is of great importance not to medicalize such everyday problems." Health care approaches to suffering, however, remain problematic. Physician and author Eric Cassell, widely cited on the subject of attending to the suffering person as a primary goal of medicine, has defined suffering as "the state of severe distress associated with events that threaten the intactness of the person". Cassell writes: "The obligation of physicians to relieve human suffering stretches back to antiquity. Despite this fact, little attention is explicitly given to the problem of suffering in medical education, research or practice." Mirroring the traditional body and mind dichotomy that underlies its teaching and practice, medicine strongly distinguishes pain from suffering, and most attention goes to the treatment of pain. Nevertheless, physical pain itself still lacks adequate attention from the medical community, according to numerous reports. Besides, some medical fields like palliative care, pain management (or pain medicine), oncology, or psychiatry, do somewhat address suffering 'as such'. In palliative care, for instance, pioneer Cicely Saunders created the concept of 'total pain' ('total suffering' say now the textbooks), which encompasses the whole set of physical and mental distress, discomfort, symptoms, problems, or needs that a patient may experience hurtfully. Mental illness Gary Greenberg, in The Book of Woe, writes that mental illness might best be viewed as medicalization or labeling/naming suffering (i.e. that all mental illnesses might not necessarily be of dysfunction or biological-etiology, but might be social or cultural/societal). Relief and prevention in society Since suffering is such a universal motivating experience, people, when asked, can relate their activities to its relief and prevention. Farmers, for instance, may claim that they prevent famine, artists may say that they take our minds off our worries, and teachers may hold that they hand down tools for coping with life hazards. In certain aspects of collective life, however, suffering is more readily an explicit concern by itself. Such aspects may include public health, human rights, humanitarian aid, disaster relief, philanthropy, economic aid, social services, insurance, and animal welfare. To these can be added the aspects of security and safety, which relate to precautionary measures taken by individuals or families, to interventions by the military, the police, the firefighters, and to notions or fields like social security, environmental security, and human security. The nongovernmental research organization Center on Long-Term Risk, formerly known as the Foundational Research Institute, focuses on reducing risks of astronomical suffering (s-risks) from emerging technologies. Another organization also focused on research, the Center on Reducing Suffering, has a similar focus, with a stress on clarifying what priorities there should be at a practical level to attain the goal of reducing intense suffering in the future. Uses Philosopher Leonard Katz wrote: "But Nature, as we now know, regards ultimately only fitness and not our happiness (...), and does not scruple to use hate, fear, punishment and even war alongside affection in ordering social groups and selecting among them, just as she uses pain as well as pleasure to get us to feed, water and protect our bodies and also in forging our social bonds." People make use of suffering for specific social or personal purposes in many areas of human life, as can be seen in the following instances: In arts, literature, or entertainment, people may use suffering for creation, for performance, or for enjoyment. Entertainment particularly makes use of suffering in blood sports and violence in the media, including violent video games depiction of suffering. A more or less great amount of suffering is involved in body art. The most common forms of body art include tattooing, body piercing, scarification, human branding. Another form of body art is a sub-category of performance art, in which for instance the body is mutilated or pushed to its physical limits. In business and various organizations, suffering may be used for constraining humans or animals into required behaviors. In a criminal context, people may use suffering for coercion, revenge, or pleasure. In interpersonal relationships, especially in places like families, schools, or workplaces, suffering is used for various motives, particularly under the form of abuse and punishment. In another fashion related to interpersonal relationships, the sick, or victims, or malingerers, may use suffering more or less voluntarily to get primary, secondary, or tertiary gain. In law, suffering is used for punishment (see penal law ); victims may refer to what legal texts call "pain and suffering" to get compensation; lawyers may use a victim's suffering as an argument against the accused; an accused's or defendant's suffering may be an argument in their favor; authorities at times use light or heavy torture in order to get information or a confession. In the news media, suffering is often the raw material. In personal conduct, people may use suffering for themselves, in a positive way. Personal suffering may lead, if bitterness, depression, or spitefulness is avoided, to character-building, spiritual growth, or moral achievement; realizing the extent or gravity of suffering in the world may motivate one to relieve it and may give an inspiring direction to one's life. Alternatively, people may make self-detrimental use of suffering. Some may be caught in compulsive reenactment of painful feelings in order to protect them from seeing that those feelings have their origin in unmentionable past experiences; some may addictively indulge in disagreeable emotions like fear, anger, or jealousy, in order to enjoy pleasant feelings of arousal or release that often accompany these emotions; some may engage in acts of self-harm aimed at relieving otherwise unbearable states of mind. In politics, there is purposeful infliction of suffering in war, torture, and terrorism; people may use nonphysical suffering against competitors in nonviolent power struggles; people who argue for a policy may put forward the need to relieve, prevent or avenge suffering; individuals or groups may use past suffering as a political lever in their favor. In religion, suffering is used especially to grow spiritually, to expiate, to inspire compassion and help, to frighten, to punish. In rites of passage (see also hazing, ragging), rituals that make use of suffering are frequent. In science, humans and animals are subjected on purpose to aversive experiences for the study of suffering or other phenomena. In sex, especially in a context of sadism and masochism or BDSM, individuals may use a certain amount of physical or mental suffering (e.g. pain, humiliation). In sports, suffering may be used to outperform competitors or oneself; see sports injury, and no pain, no gain; see also blood sport and violence in sport as instances of pain-based entertainment. See also Selected bibliography Joseph A. Amato. Victims and Values: A History and a Theory of Suffering. New York: Praeger, 1990. James Davies. The Importance of Suffering: the value and meaning of emotional discontent. London: Routledge Cynthia Halpern. Suffering, Politics, Power: a Genealogy in Modern Political Theory. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002. Jamie Mayerfeld. Suffering and Moral Responsibility. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Thomas Metzinger. Suffering.In Kurt Almqvist & Anders Haag (2017)[eds.], The Return of Consciousness. Stockholm: Axel and Margaret Ax:son Johnson Foundation. David B. Morris. The Culture of Pain. Berkeley: University of California, 2002. Elaine Scarry. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. Ronald Anderson. World Suffering and Quality of Life, Social Indicators Research Series, Volume 56, 2015. ; Also: Human Suffering and Quality of Life, SpringerBriefs in Well-Being and Quality of Life Research, 2014. 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206586	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological%20convergence	Technological convergence	Technological convergence, also known as digital convergence, is the tendency for technologies that were originally unrelated to become more closely integrated and even unified as they develop and advance. For example, watches, telephones, television, computers, and social media platforms began as separate and mostly unrelated technologies, but have converged in many ways into interrelated parts of a telecommunication and media industry, sharing common elements of digital electronics and software. Definitions "Convergence is a deep integration of knowledge, tools, and all relevant activities of human activity for a common goal, to allow society to answer new questions to change the respective physical or social ecosystem. Such changes in the respective ecosystem open new trends, pathways, and opportunities in the following divergent phase of the process" (Roco 2002, Bainbridge and Roco 2016). Siddhartha Menon defines convergence, in his Policy initiative Dilemmas on Media Covergence: A Cross National Perspective, as integration and digitalization. Integration, here, is defined as "a process of transformation measure by the degree to which diverse media such as phone, data broadcast and information technology infrastructures are combined into a single seamless all purpose network architecture platform". Digitalization is not so much defined by its physical infrastructure, but by the content or the medium. Jan van Dijk suggests that "digitalization means breaking down signals into bytes consisting of ones and zeros". Convergence is defined by Blackman, 1998, as a trend in the evolution of technology services and industry structures. Convergence is later defined more specifically as the coming together of telecommunications, computing and broadcasting into a single digital bit-stream. Mueller stands against the statement that convergence is really a takeover of all forms of media by one technology: digital computers. Media technological convergence is the tendency that as technology changes, different technological system sometimes evolve toward performing similar tasks. Digital convergence refers to the convergence of four industries into one conglomerate, ITTCE (Information Technologies, Telecommunication, Consumer Electronics, and Entertainment). Previously separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video can now share resources and interact with each other synergistically. Telecommunications convergence (also called "network convergence") describes emerging telecommunications technologies, and network architecture used to migrate multiple communications services into a single network. Specifically this involves the converging of previously distinct media such as telephony and data communications into common interfaces on single devices, such as most smart phones can make phone calls and search the web. Media convergence is the interlinking of computing and other information technologies, media content, media companies and communication networks that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the Internet as well as the activities, products and services that have emerged in the digital media space. Closely linked to the multilevel process of media convergence are also several developments in different areas of the media and communication sector which are also summarized under the term of media deconvergence. Many experts view this as simply being the tip of the iceberg, as all facets of institutional activity and social life such as business, government, art, journalism, health, and education are increasingly being carried out in these digital media spaces across a growing network of information and communication technology devices. Also included in this topic is the basis of computer networks, wherein many different operating systems are able to communicate via different protocols. Convergent services, such as VoIP, IPTV, Smart TV, and others, tend to replace the older technologies and thus can disrupt markets. IP-based convergence is inevitable and will result in new service and new demand in the market. When the old technology converges into the public-owned common, IP based services become access-independent or less dependent. The old service is access-dependent. Elements of technology convergence There are 5 elements of technological convergence, which are: Technology, It is a common for technologies that are viewed as very different to develop similar features with time that blur differences. In 1995, a television and a mobile phone were completely different devices. In recent years, they may have similar features such as the ability to connect to wifi, play rich internet-based media and run apps. People may use either their television or phone to play a game or communicate with relatives, using the same software. Media & content, a television and internet services were once viewed as separate but have begun to converge. It is likely that music, movies, video games and informational content will eventually converge to the point that they are no longer distinct formats. For example, future music may always come with an interactive music video that resembles a game. Services applications, in the late 1990s, there was a large difference between business and consumer software and services. With time, this line has blurred. Technology tends to move from a large number of highly specific tools towards a small set of flexible tools with broad applications. Robots & machines, it is increasingly common for machines such as vehicles or appliances to have semi-autonomous features that technically make them robots. Virtual reality/Augmented reality, can be viewed as the convergence of real life with digital entities such as simulations, games, and information environments. History of media technological convergence Communication networks were designed to carry different types of information independently. The older media, such as television and radio, are broadcasting networks with passive audiences. Convergence of telecommunication technology permits the manipulation of all forms of information, voice, data, and video. Telecommunication has changed from a world of scarcity to one of seemingly limitless capacity. Consequently, the possibility of audience interactivity morphs the passive audience into an engaged audience. The historical roots of convergence can be traced back to the emergence of mobile telephony and the Internet, although the term properly applies only from the point in marketing history when fixed and mobile telephony began to be offered by operators as joined products. Fixed and mobile operators were, for most of the 1990s, independent companies. Even when the same organization marketed both products, these were sold and serviced independently. In the 1990s an implicit and often explicit assumption was that new media was going to replace the old media and Internet was going to replace broadcasting. In Nicholas Negroponte's Being Digital, Negroponte predicts the collapse of broadcast networks in favor of an era of narrow-casting. He also suggests that no government regulation can shatter the media conglomerate. "The monolithic empires of mass media are dissolving into an array of cottage industries... Media barons of today will be grasping to hold onto their centralized empires tomorrow.... The combined forces of technology and human nature will ultimately take a stronger hand in plurality than any laws Congress can invent." The new media companies claimed that the old media would be absorbed fully and completely into the orbit of the emerging technologies. George Gilder dismisses such claims saying, "The computer industry is converging with the television industry in the same sense that the automobile converged with the horse, the TV converged with the nickelodeon, the word-processing program converged with the typewriter, the CAD program converged with the drafting board, and digital desktop publishing converged with the Linotype machine and the letterpress." Gilder believes that computers had come not to transform mass culture but to destroy it. Media companies put Media Convergence back to their agenda, after the dot-com bubble burst. Erstwhile Knight Ridder promulgated concept of portable magazines, newspaper, and books in 1994: "Within news corporations it became increasingly obvious that an editorial model based on mere replication in the internet of contents that had previously been written for print newspapers, radio, or television was no longer sufficient." The rise of digital communication in the late 20th century has made it possible for media organizations (or individuals) to deliver text, audio, and video material over the same wired, wireless, or fiber-optic connections. At the same time, it inspired some media organizations to explore multimedia delivery of information. This digital convergence of news media, in particular, was called "Mediamorphosis" by researcher Roger Fidler , in his 1997 book by that name. Today, we are surrounded by a multi-level convergent media world where all modes of communication and information are continually reforming to adapt to the enduring demands of technologies, "changing the way we create, consume, learn and interact with each other". Converging technological fields NBIC, an acronym for Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information technology and Cognitive science, was, in 2014, the most popular term for converging technologies. It was introduced into public discourse through the publication of Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance, a report sponsored in part by the U.S. National Science Foundation. Various other acronyms have been offered for the same concept such as GNR (Genetics, Nanotechnology and Robotics) (Bill Joy, 2000, Why the future doesn't need us). Journalist Joel Garreau in Radical Evolution: The Promise and Peril of Enhancing Our Minds, Our Bodies — and What It Means to Be Human uses "GRIN", for Genetic, Robotic, Information, and Nano processes, while science journalist Douglas Mulhall in Our Molecular Future: How Nanotechnology, Robotics, Genetics and Artificial Intelligence Will Transform Our World uses "GRAIN", for Genetics, Robotics, Artificial Intelligence, and Nanotechnology. Another acronym coined by the appropriate technology organization ETC Group is "BANG" for "Bits, Atoms, Neurons, Genes". Converging science and technology fields A comprehensive term used by Roco, Bainbridge, Tonn and Whitesides is Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society (2013). Bainbridge and Roco edited and co-authored the Springer reference Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence (2016) defining the concept of convergence in various science, technology and medical fields. Roco published Principles and Methods that Facilitate Convergence (2015). Examples of technology implications Convergent solutions include both fixed-line and mobile technologies. Recent examples of new, convergent services include: Using the Internet for voice and video telephony Video on demand Fixed-mobile convergence Mobile-to-mobile convergence Location-based services Integrated products and bundles Convergent technologies can integrate the fixed-line with mobile to deliver convergent solutions. Convergent technologies include: IP Multimedia Subsystem Session Initiation Protocol IPTV Voice over IP Voice call continuity Digital video broadcasting – handheld Convergence in appliances Some media observers expect that we will eventually access all media content through one device, or "black box". As such, media business practice has been to identify the next "black box" to invest in and provide media for. This has caused a number of problems. Firstly, as "black boxes" are invented and abandoned, the individual is left with numerous devices that can perform the same task, rather than one dedicated for each task. For example, one may own both a computer and a video games console, subsequently owning two DVD players. This is contrary to the streamlined goal of the "black box" theory, and instead creates clutter. Secondly, technological convergence tends to be experimental in nature. This has led to consumers owning technologies with additional functions that are harder, if not impractical, to use rather than one specific device. Many people would only watch the TV for the duration of the meal's cooking time, or whilst in the kitchen, but would not use the microwave as the household TV. These examples show that in many cases technological convergence is unnecessary or unneeded. Furthermore, although consumers primarily use a specialized media device for their needs, other "black box" devices that perform the same task can be used to suit their current situation. As a 2002 Cheskin Research report explained: "...Your email needs and expectations are different whether you're at home, work, school, commuting, the airport, etc., and these different devices are designed to suit your needs for accessing content depending on where you are- your situated context." Despite the creation of "black boxes", intended to perform all tasks, the trend is to use devices that can suit the consumer's physical position. Due to the variable utility of portable technology, convergence occurs in high-end mobile devices. They incorporate multimedia services, GPS, Internet access, and mobile telephony into a single device, heralding the rise of what has been termed the "smartphone," a device designed to remove the need to carry multiple devices. Convergence of media occurs when multiple products come together to form one product with the advantages of all of them, also known as the black box. This idea of one technology, concocted by Henry Jenkins, has become known more as a fallacy because of the inability to actually put all technical pieces into one. For example, while people can have e-mail and Internet on their phone, they still want full computers with Internet and e-mail in addition. Mobile phones are a good example, in that they incorporate digital cameras, mp3 players, voice recorders, and other devices. For the consumer, it means more features in less space; for media conglomerates it means remaining competitive. However, convergence has a downside. Particularly in initial forms, converged devices are frequently less functional and reliable than their component parts (e.g., a mobile phone's web browser may not render some web pages correctly, due to not supporting certain rendering methods, such as the iPhone browser not supporting Flash content). As the number of functions in a single device escalates, the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases. As Rheingold asserts, technological convergence holds immense potential for the "improvement of life and liberty in some ways and (could) degrade it in others". He believes the same technology has the potential to be "used as both a weapon of social control and a means of resistance". Since technology has evolved in the past ten years or so, companies are beginning to converge technologies to create demand for new products. This includes phone companies integrating 3G and 4G on their phones. In the mid 20th century, television converged the technologies of movies and radio, and television is now being converged with the mobile phone industry and the Internet. Phone calls are also being made with the use of personal computers. Converging technologies combine multiple technologies into one. Newer mobile phones feature cameras, and can hold images, videos, music, and other media. Manufacturers now integrate more advanced features, such as video recording, GPS receivers, data storage, and security mechanisms into the traditional cellphone. Convergence on the internet The role of the internet has changed from its original use as a communication tool to easier and faster access to information and services, mainly through a broadband connection. The television, radio and newspapers were the world's media for accessing news and entertainment; now, all three media have converged into one, and people all over the world can read and hear news and other information on the internet. The convergence of the internet and conventional TV became popular in the 2010s, through Smart TV, also sometimes referred to as "Connected TV" or "Hybrid TV", (not to be confused with IPTV, Internet TV, or with Web TV). Smart TV is used to describe the current trend of integration of the Internet and Web 2.0 features into modern television sets and set-top boxes, as well as the technological convergence between computers and these television sets or set-top boxes. These new devices most often also have a much higher focus on online interactive media, Internet TV, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and less focus on traditional broadcast media like previous generations of television sets and set-top boxes always have had. Digital convergence Digital Convergence means inclination for various innovations, media sources, content that become similar with the time. It enables the convergence of access devices and content as well as the industry participant operations and strategy. This is how this type of technological convergence creates opportunities, particularly in the area of product development and growth strategies for digital product companies. The same can be said in the case of individual content producers such as vloggers in the YouTube video-sharing platform. The convergence in this example is demonstrated in the involvement of the Internet, home devices such as smart television, camera, the YouTube application, and the digital content. In this setup, there are the so-called "spokes", which are the devices that connect to a central hub, which could either be the smart TV or PC. Here, the Internet serves as the intermediary, particularly through its interactivity tools and social networking, in order to create unique mixes of products and services via horizontal integration. The above example highlights how digital convergence encompasses three phenomena: previously stand-alone devices are being connected by networks and software, significantly enhancing functionalities; previously stand-alone products are being converged onto the same platform, creating hybrid products in the process; and, companies are crossing traditional boundaries such as hardware and software to provide new products and new sources of competition. Another example is the convergence of different types of digital contents. According to Harry Strasser, former CTO of Siemens "[digital convergence will substantially impact people's lifestyle and work style]". Convergence in the marketplace Convergence is a global marketplace dynamic in which different companies and sectors are being brought together, both as competitors and collaborators, across traditional boundaries of industry and technology. In a world dominated by convergence, many traditional products, services and types of companies will become less relevant, but a stunning array of new ones is possible. An array of technology developments act as accelerators of convergence, including mobility, analytics, cloud, digital and social networks. As a disruptive force, convergence is a threat to the unprepared, but a tremendous growth opportunity for companies that can out-innovate and out-execute their ever-expanding list of competitors under dramatically new marketplace rules. With convergence, lines are blurred as companies diversify outside of their original markets. For instance, mobile services are increasingly an important part of the automobile; chemicals companies work with agribusiness; device manufacturers sell music, video and books; booksellers become consumer device companies; search and advertising companies become telecommunications companies ("telcos"); media companies act like telcos and vice versa; retailers act like financial services companies and vice versa; cosmetics companies work with pharmaceutical companies; and more. Mobile phone usage broadens dramatically, enabling users to make payments online, watch videos, or even adjusting their home thermostat while away at work. Media convergence Generally, media convergence refers to the merging of both old and new media and can be seen as a product, a system or a process. Jenkins states that convergence is, "the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behaviour of media audiences who would go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they wanted" According to Jenkins, there are five areas of convergence: technological, economic, social or organic, cultural and global. So media convergence is not just a technological shift or a technological process, it also includes shifts within the industrial, cultural, and social paradigms that encourage the consumer to seek out new information. Convergence, simply put, is how individual consumers interact with others on a social level and use various media platforms to create new experiences, new forms of media and content that connect us socially, and not just to other consumers, but to the corporate producers of media in ways that have not been as readily accessible in the past. However, Lugmayr and Dal Zotto argued, that media convergence takes place on technology, content, consumer, business model, and management level. They argue, that media convergence is a matter of evolution and can be described through the triadic phenomenon of convergence, divergence, and coexistence. Today's digital media ecosystems coexist, as e.g. mobile app stores provide vendor lock-ins into particular eco-systems; some technology platforms are converging under one technology, due to e.g. the usage of common communication protocols as in digital TV; and other media are diverging, as e.g. media content offerings are more and more specializing and provides a space for niche media. Advances in technology bring the ability for technological convergence that Rheingold believes can alter the "social-side effects," in that "the virtual, social and physical world are colliding, merging and coordinating." It was predicted in the late 1980s, around the time that CD-ROM was becoming commonplace, that a digital revolution would take place, and that old media would be pushed to one side by new media. Broadcasting is increasingly being replaced by the Internet, enabling consumers all over the world the freedom to access their preferred media content more easily and at a more available rate than ever before. However, when the dot-com bubble of the 1990s suddenly popped, that poured cold water over the talk of such a digital revolution. In today's society, the idea of media convergence has once again emerged as a key point of reference as newer as well as established media companies attempt to visualize the future of the entertainment industry. If this revolutionary digital paradigm shift presumed that old media would be increasingly replaced by new media, the convergence paradigm that is currently emerging suggests that new and old media would interact in more complex ways than previously predicted. The paradigm shift that followed the digital revolution assumed that new media was going to change everything. When the dot com market crashed, there was a tendency to imagine that nothing had changed. The real truth lay somewhere in between as there were so many aspects of the current media environment to take into consideration. Many industry leaders are increasingly reverting to media convergence as a way of making sense in an era of disorientating change. In that respect, media convergence in theory is essentially an old concept taking on a new meaning. Media convergence, in reality, is more than just a shift in technology. It alters relationships between industries, technologies, audiences, genres and markets. Media convergence changes the rationality media industries operate in, and the way that media consumers process news and entertainment. Media convergence is essentially a process and not an outcome, so no single black box controls the flow of media. With proliferation of different media channels and increasing portability of new telecommunications and computing technologies, we have entered into an era where media constantly surrounds us. Media convergence requires that media companies rethink existing assumptions about media from the consumer's point of view, as these affect marketing and programming decisions. Media producers must respond to newly empowered consumers. Conversely, it would seem that hardware is instead diverging whilst media content is converging. Media has developed into brands that can offer content in a number of forms. Two examples of this are Star Wars and The Matrix. Both are films, but are also books, video games, cartoons, and action figures. Branding encourages expansion of one concept, rather than the creation of new ideas. In contrast, hardware has diversified to accommodate media convergence. Hardware must be specific to each function. While most scholars argue that the flow of cross-media is accelerating, O'Donnell suggests, especially between films and video game, the semblance of media convergence is misunderstood by people outside of the media production industry. The conglomeration of media industry continues to sell the same story line in different media. For example, Batman is in comics, films, anime, and games. However, the data to create the image of batman in each media is created individually by different teams of creators. The same character and the same visual effect repetitively appear in different media is because of the synergy of media industry to make them similar as possible. In addition, convergence does not happen when the game of two different consoles is produced. No flows between two consoles because it is faster to create game from scratch for the industry. One of the more interesting new media journalism forms is virtual reality. Reuters, a major international news service, has created and staffed a news “island” in the popular online virtual reality environment Second Life. Open to anyone, Second Life has emerged as a compelling 3D virtual reality for millions of citizens around the world who have created avatars (virtual representations of themselves) to populate and live in an altered state where personal flight is a reality, altered egos can flourish, and real money (US$1,296,257 were spent during the 24 hours concluding at 10:19 a.m. eastern time January 7, 2008) can be made without ever setting foot into the real world. The Reuters Island in Second Life is a virtual version of the Reuters real-world news service but covering the domain of Second Life for the citizens of Second Life (numbering 11,807,742 residents as of January 5, 2008). Media convergence in the digital era means the changes that are taking place with older forms of media and media companies. Media convergence has two roles, the first is the technological merging of different media channels – for example, magazines, radio programs, TV shows, and movies, now are available on the Internet through laptops, iPads, and smartphones. As discussed in Media Culture (by Campbell), convergence of technology is not new. It has been going on since the late 1920s. An example is RCA, the Radio Corporation of America, which purchased Victor Talking Machine Company and introduced machines that could receive radio and play recorded music. Next came the TV, and radio lost some of its appeal as people started watching television, which has both talking and music as well as visuals. As technology advances, convergence of media change to keep up. The second definition of media convergence Campbell discusses is cross-platform by media companies. This usually involves consolidating various media holdings, such as cable, phone, television (over the air, satellite, cable) and Internet access under one corporate umbrella. This is not for the consumer to have more media choices, this is for the benefit of the company to cut down on costs and maximize its profits. As stated in the article, Convergence Culture and Media Work, by Mark Deuze, “the convergence of production and consumption of media across companies, channels, genres, and technologies is an expression of the convergence of all aspects of everyday life: work and play, the local and the global, self and social identity." Convergence culture Henry Jenkins determines convergence culture to be the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they want. The convergence culture is an important factor in transmedia storytelling. Convergence culture introduces new stories and arguments from one form of media into many. Transmedia storytelling is defined by Jenkins as a process "where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience. Ideally, each medium makes its own unique contribution to the unfolding of the story". For instance, The Matrix starts as a film, which is followed by two other instalments, but in a convergence culture it is not constrained to that form. It becomes a story not only told in the movies but in animated shorts, video games and comic books, three different media platforms. Online, a wiki is created to keep track of the story's expanding canon. Fan films, discussion forums, and social media pages also form, expanding The Matrix to different online platforms. Convergence culture took what started as a film and expanded it across almost every type of media. Bert is Evil (images) Bert and Bin Laden appeared in CNN coverage of anti-American protest following September 11. The association of Bert and Bin Laden links back to the Ignacio's Photoshop project for fun. Convergence culture is a part of participatory culture. Because average people can now access their interests on many types of media they can also have more of a say. Fans and consumers are able to participate in the creation and circulation of new content. Some companies take advantage of this and search for feedback from their customers through social media and sharing sites such as YouTube. Besides marketing and entertainment, convergence culture has also affected the way we interact with news and information. We can access news on multiple levels of media from the radio, TV, newspapers, and the internet. The internet allows more people to be able to report the news through independent broadcasts and therefore allows a multitude of perspectives to be put forward and accessed by people in many different areas. Convergence allows news to be gathered on a much larger scale. For instance, photographs were taken of torture at Abu Ghraib. These photos were shared and eventually posted on the internet. This led to the breaking of a news story in newspapers, on TV, and the internet. Media scholar Henry Jenkins has described the media convergence with participatory culture as: Cell phone convergence The social function of the cell phone changes as the technology converges. Because of technological advancement, cell phones function as more than just as a phone. They contain an internet connection, video players, MP3 players, gaming, and a camera and their areas of use have increased over time, partly substituting other devices. A mobile convergence device is one that, if connected to a keyboard, monitor, and mouse, can run applications as a desktop computer would. Convergent operating systems include the GNU/Linux operating systems Ubuntu Touch, Plasma Mobile and PureOS. Convergence can also refer to being able to run the same app across different devices and being able to develop apps for different devices (such as smartphones, TVs and desktop computers) at once, with the same code base. This can be done via GNU/Linux applications that adapt to the device they're being used on (including native apps designed for such via frameworks like Kirigami) or by the use of multi-platform frameworks like the Quasar framework that use tools such as Apache Cordova, Electron and Capacitor, which can increase the userbase, the pace and ease of development and the number of reached platforms while decreasing development costs. Social movements The integration of social movements in cyberspace is one of the potential strategies that social movements can use in the age of media convergence. Because of the neutrality of the internet and the end-to-end design, the power structure of the internet was designed to avoid discrimination between applications. Mexico's Zapatistas campaign for land rights was one of the most influential case in the information age; Manuel Castells defines the Zapatistas as "the first informational guerrilla movement". The Zapatista uprising had been marginalized by the popular press. The Zapatistas were able to construct a grassroots, decentralized social movement by using the internet. The Zapatistas Effect, observed by Cleaver, continues to organize social movements on a global scale. A sophisticated webmetric analysis, which maps the links between different websites and seeks to identify important nodal points in a network, demonstrates that the Zapatistas cause binds together hundreds of global NGOs. The majority of the social movement organized by Zapatistas targets their campaign especially against global neoliberalism. A successful social movement not only need online support but also protest on the street. Papic wrote, "Social Media Alone Do Not Instigate Revolutions", which discusses how the use of social media in social movements needs good organization both online and offline. A study, "Journalism in the age of media convergence: a survey of undergraduates’ technology-related news habits", concluded that several focus group respondents reported they generally did not actively engage in media convergence, such as viewing slide shows or listening to podcast that accompanied an online story, as part of their Web-based news consumption, a significant number of students indicated the interactive features often associated with online news and media convergence were indeed appealing to them. Examples in regulation VoIP The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has not been able to decide how to regulate VoIP (Internet Telephony) because the convergent technology is still growing and changing. In addition to its growth, FCC is tentative to set regulation on VoIP in order to promote competition in the telecommunication industry. There is not a clear line between telecommunication service and the information service because of the growth of the new convergent media. Historically, telecommunication is subject to state regulation. The state of California concerned about the increasing popularity of internet telephony will eventually obliterate funding for the Universal Service Fund Some states attempt to assert their traditional role of common carrier oversight onto this new technology. Meisel and Needles (2005) suggests that the FCC, federal courts, and state regulatory bodies on access line charges will directly impact the speed in which Internet telephony market grows. On one hand, the FCC is hesitant to regulate convergent technology because VoIP with different feature from the old Telecommunication; no fixed model to build legislature yet. On the other hand, the regulations is needed because Service over the internet might be quickly replaced telecommunication service, which will affect the entire economy. Convergence has also raised several debates about classification of certain telecommunications services. As the lines between data transmission, and voice and media transmission are eroded, regulators are faced with the task of how best to classify the converging segments of the telecommunication sector. Traditionally, telecommunication regulation has focused on the operation of physical infrastructure, networks, and access to network. No content is regulated in the telecommunication because the content is considered private. In contrast, film and Television are regulated by contents. The rating system regulates its distribution to the audience. Self-regulation is promoted by the industry. Bogle senior persuaded the entire industry to pay 0.1 percent levy on all advertising and the money was used to give authority to the Advertising Standards Authority, which keeps the government away from setting legislature in the media industry. The premises to regulate the new media, two-ways communications, concerns much about the change from old media to new media. Each medium has different features and characteristics. First, internet, the new medium, manipulates all form of information – voice, data and video. Second, the old regulation on the old media, such as radio and Television, emphasized its regulation on the scarcity of the channels. Internet, on the other hand, has the limitless capacity, due to the end-to-end design. Third, Two-ways communication encourages interactivity between the content producers and the audiences. "...Fundamental basis for classification, therefore, is to consider the need for regulation in terms of either market failure or in the public interests"(Blackman). The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), founded in 1990, is a non profit organization to defend free speech, privacy, innovation and consumer rights. DMCA, Digital Millennium Copyright Act regulates and protect the digital content producers and consumers. Emerging trends in communications Network neutrality has emerged as an issue. Wu and Lessig (2004) set out two reasons to adapt neutral network model for computer networks. First, "a neutral network eliminates the risk of future discrimination, providing more incentive to invest in broadband application development." Second, "neutral network facilitates fair competition among application, no bias between applications." The two reasons also coincide with FCC's interest to stimulate investment and enhance innovation in broadband technology and services. Despite regulatory efforts of deregulation, privatization, and liberalization, the infrastructure barrier has been a negative factor in achieving effective competition. "Kim et al. argues that IP dissociates the telephony application from the infrastructure and Internet telephony is at the forefront of such dissociation." The neutrality of the network is very important for fair competition. As the former FCC Charman Michael Powell put it: "From its inception, the Internet was designed, as those present during the course of its creating will tell you, to prevent government or a corporation or anyone else from controlling it. It was designed to defeat discrimination against users, ideas and technologies". Because of these reasons, Shin concludes that regulator should make sure to regulate application and infrastructure separately. The layered model was first proposed by Solum and Chug, Sicker, and Nakahata. Sicker, Warbach and Witt have supported using a layered model to regulate the telecommunications industry with the emergence of convergence services. Many researchers have different layered approach, but they all agree that the emergence of convergent technology will create challenges and ambiguities for regulations. The key point of the layered model is that it reflects the reality of network architecture, and current business model. The layered Model consists of 1. Access Layer – where the physical infrastructure resides: copper wires, cable, or fiber optic. 2. transport layer – the provider of service. 3. Application layer – the interface between the data and the users. 4. content layer – the layer which users see. In Convergence Technologies and the Layered Policy Model: Implication for Regulating Future Communications, Shin combines the Layered Model and Network Neutrality as the principle to regulate the future convergent Media Industry. Messaging Combination services include those that integrate SMS with voice, such as voice SMS. Providers include Bubble Motion, Jott, Kirusa, and SpinVox. Several operators have launched services that combine SMS with mobile instant messaging (MIM) and presence. Text-to-landline services also exist, where subscribers can send text messages to any landline phone and are charged at standard rates. The text messages are converted into spoken language. This service has been popular in America, where fixed and mobile numbers are similar. Inbound SMS has been converging to enable reception of different formats (SMS, voice, MMS, etc.). In April 2008, O2 UK launched voice-enabled shortcodes, adding voice functionality to the five-digit codes already used for SMS. This type of convergence is helpful for media companies, broadcasters, enterprises, call centres and help desks who need to develop a consistent contact strategy with the consumer. Because SMS is very popular today, it became relevant to include text messaging as a contact possibility for consumers. To avoid having multiple numbers (one for voice calls, another one for SMS), a simple way is to merge the reception of both formats under one number. This means that a consumer can text or call one number and be sure that the message will be received. Mobile "Mobile service provisions" refers not only to the ability to purchase mobile phone services, but the ability to wirelessly access everything: voice, Internet, audio, and video. Advancements in WiMAX and other leading edge technologies provide the ability to transfer information over a wireless link at a variety of speeds, distances, and non-line-of-sight conditions. Multi-play in telecommunications Multi-play is a marketing term describing the provision of different telecommunication services, such as Internet access, television, telephone, and mobile phone service, by organizations that traditionally only offered one or two of these services. Multi-play is a catch-all phrase; usually, the terms triple play (voice, video and data) or quadruple play (voice, video, data and wireless) are used to describe a more specific meaning. A dual play service is a marketing term for the provisioning of the two services: it can be high-speed Internet (digital subscriber line) and telephone service over a single broadband connection in the case of phone companies, or high-speed Internet (cable modem) and TV service over a single broadband connection in the case of cable TV companies. The convergence can also concern the underlying communication infrastructure. An example of this is a triple play service, where communication services are packaged allowing consumers to purchase TV, Internet, and telephony in one subscription. The broadband cable market is transforming as pay-TV providers move aggressively into what was once considered the telco space. Meanwhile, customer expectations have risen as consumer and business customers alike seek rich content, multi-use devices, networked products and converged services including on-demand video, digital TV, high speed Internet, VoIP, and wireless applications. It is uncharted territory for most broadband companies. A quadruple play service combines the triple play service of broadband Internet access, television, and telephone with wireless service provisions. This service set is also sometimes humorously referred to as "The Fantastic Four" or "Grand Slam". A fundamental aspect of the quadruple play is not only the long-awaited broadband convergence but also the players involved. Many of them, from the largest global service providers to whom we connect today via wires and cables to the smallest of startup service providers are interested. Opportunities are attractive: the big three telecom services – telephony, cable television, and wireless—could combine their industries. In the UK, the merger of NTL: Telewest and Virgin Mobile resulted in a company offering a quadruple play of cable television, broadband Internet, home telephone, and mobile telephone services.https://futurebusinessboost.com/the-best-future-technology-ideas-in-2021/ Home network Early in the 21st century, home LAN convergence so rapidly integrated home routers, wireless access points, and DSL modems that users were hard put to identify the resulting box they used to connect their computers to their Internet service. A general term for such a combined device is a residential gateway. See also Computer multitasking (the software equivalent of a converged device) Convergence (telecommunications) Dongle, can facilitate inclusion of non-converged devices. Digital rhetoric Generic Access Network History of science and technology UMA Today IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) Mobile VoIP Next Generation Networks Next generation network services Post-convergent Second screen Technology Further reading Jenkins, H. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: New York UP, 2006. Print. Artur Lugmayr, Cinzia Dal Zotto, Media Convergence Handbook, Vol 1. and Vol. 2, Springer-Verlag, 2016 References External links Amdocs MultiPlay Strategy WhitePaper Technology Convergence Update with Bob Brown – Video Business software Crossover devices Digital technology Digital television Digital media History of telecommunications Information technology Mass media technology Network architecture Network protocols Science and technology studies Technological change Telecommunications systems Telephony Television terminology Technology systems	[ 0.24364620447158813, 0.11511096358299255, 0.4761473834514618, 0.4784092903137207, 0.22350740432739258, 0.2975747883319855, -0.16500477492809296, 0.7038017511367798, 0.1172991544008255, -1.0047436952590942, -0.8102158308029175, 0.24949929118156433, -0.24418963491916656, 0.7571148872375488, -0.4759039878845215, 0.13286198675632477, 0.1382310539484024, -0.02281133458018303, -0.45319104194641113, 0.5135654211044312, -0.5279298424720764, 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206587	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Halsey%20Jr.	William Halsey Jr.	William Frederick Halsey Jr. (October 30, 1882 – August 16, 1959) was a fleet admiral in the United States Navy during World War II. He is one of four individuals to have attained the rank of fleet admiral of the United States Navy, the others being Ernest King, William Leahy, and Chester W. Nimitz. Born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Halsey graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1904. He served in the Great White Fleet and, during World War I, commanded the destroyer . He took command of the aircraft carrier in 1935 after completing a course in naval aviation, and was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in 1938. At the start of the War in the Pacific (1941–1945), Halsey commanded the task force centered on the carrier in a series of raids against Japanese-held targets. Halsey was made commander of the South Pacific Area, and led the Allied forces over the course of the Battle for Guadalcanal (1942–1943) and the fighting up the Solomon chain (1942–1945). In 1943 he was made commander of the Third Fleet, the post he held through the rest of the war. He took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle of the Second World War and, by some criteria, the largest naval battle in history. He was promoted to fleet admiral in December 1945 and retired from active service in March 1947. Early years Halsey was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on October 30, 1882, the son of Anna Masters (Brewster) and United States Navy Captain William F. Halsey Halsey was of English ancestry, all of his ancestors came to America from England and all of them emigrated from England to New England in the early 1600s. He felt a "kinship" with his ancestors, including Captain John Halsey of colonial Massachusetts who served in the Royal Navy in Queen Anne's War from 1702 to 1713 where he raided French shipping. Through his father he was a descendant of Senator Rufus King, who was an American lawyer, politician, diplomat, and Federalist. Halsey attended the Pingry School. After waiting two years to receive an appointment to the United States Naval Academy, Halsey decided to study medicine at the University of Virginia and then join the Navy as a physician. He chose Virginia because his best friend, Karl Osterhause, was there. While there, Halsey joined the Delta Psi fraternity and was also a member of the secretive Seven Society. After his first year, Halsey received his appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, and entered the Academy in the fall of 1900. While attending the academy he lettered in football as a fullback and earned several athletic honors. Halsey graduated from the Naval Academy on February 2, 1904. Following graduation he spent his early service years in battleships, and sailed with the main battle fleet aboard the battleship as Roosevelt's Great White Fleet circumnavigated the globe from 1907 to 1909. Halsey was on the bridge of the battleship on Wednesday April 13, 1904, when a flareback from the port gun in her aft turret ignited a powder charge and set off two others. No explosion occurred, but the rapid burning of the powder burnt and suffocated to death 31 officers and enlisted sailors. This resulted in Halsey dreading the 13th of every month, especially when it fell on a Wednesday. After his service on Missouri, Halsey served aboard torpedo boats, beginning with in 1909. Halsey was one of the few officers who was promoted directly from ensign to full lieutenant, skipping the rank of lieutenant (junior grade). Torpedoes and torpedo boats became specialties of his, and he commanded the First Group of the Atlantic Fleet's Torpedo Flotilla in 1912 through 1913. Halsey commanded a number of torpedo boats and destroyers during the 1910s and 1920s. At that time, the destroyer and the torpedo boat, through extremely hazardous delivery methods, were the most effective way to bring the torpedo into combat against capital ships. Then-Lieutenant Commander Halsey's World War I service, including command of in 1918, earned him the Navy Cross. Interwar years In October 1922, he was the Naval Attaché at the American Embassy in Berlin, Germany. One year later, he was given additional duty as naval attaché at the American Embassies in Christiania, Norway; Copenhagen, Denmark; and Stockholm, Sweden. He then returned to sea duty, again in destroyers in European waters, in command of and . Upon his return to the U.S. in 1927, he served one year as executive officer of the battleship , and then for three years in command of , the station ship at the Naval Academy. Then-Captain Halsey continued his destroyer duty on his next two-year stint at sea, starting in 1930 as the Commander of Destroyer Division Three of the Scouting Force, before returning to study at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island. In 1934, the chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Rear Admiral Ernest King, offered Halsey command of the aircraft carrier , subject to completion of the course of an air observer. Halsey elected to enroll as a cadet for the full 12-week Naval Aviator course rather than the simpler Naval Aviation Observer program. "I thought it better to be able to fly the aircraft itself than to just sit back and be at the mercy of the pilot," said Halsey at the time. Halsey earned his Naval Aviator's Wings on May 15, 1935, at the age of 52, the oldest person to do so in the history of the U.S. Navy. While he had approval from his wife to train as an observer, she learned from a letter after the fact that he had changed to pilot training, and she told her daughter, "What do you think the old fool is doing now? He's learning to fly!" He went on to command the USS Saratoga, and later the Naval Air Station Pensacola at Pensacola, Florida. Halsey considered airpower an important part of the future navy, commenting, "The naval officer in the next war had better know his aviation, and good." Halsey was promoted to rear admiral in 1938. During this time he commanded carrier divisions and served as the overall commander of the Aircraft Battle Force. World War II Traditional naval doctrine envisioned naval combat fought between opposing battleship gun lines. This view was challenged when Army Air Corps General Billy Mitchell demonstrated the capability of aircraft to substantially damage and sink even the most heavily armored naval vessel. In the interwar debate that followed, some saw the carrier as defensive in nature, providing air cover to protect the battle group from shore-based aircraft. Carrier-based aircraft were lighter in design and had not been shown to be as lethal. The adage "Capital ships cannot withstand land-based air power" was well known. Aviation proponents, however, imagined bringing the fight to the enemy with the use of air power. Halsey was a firm believer in the aircraft carrier as the primary naval offensive weapon system. When he testified at Admiral Husband Kimmel's hearing after the Pearl Harbor debacle he summed up American carrier tactics being to "get to the other fellow with everything you have as fast as you can and to dump it on him." Halsey testified he would never hesitate to use the carrier as an offensive weapon. In April 1940, Halsey's ships, as part of Battle Fleet, moved to Hawaii and in June 1940, he was promoted to vice admiral (temporary rank), and was appointed commander Carrier Division 2 and commander Aircraft Battle Force. With tensions high and war imminent, U.S. Naval intelligence indicated Wake Island would be the target of a Japanese surprise attack. In response, on 28 November 1941 Admiral Kimmel ordered Halsey to take to ferry aircraft to Wake Island to reinforce the Marines there. Kimmel had given Halsey "a free hand" to attack and destroy any Japanese military forces encountered. The planes flew off her deck on December 2. Highly anxious of being spotted and then jumped by the Japanese carrier force, Halsey gave orders to "sink any shipping sighted, shoot down any plane encountered." Protested his operations officer, "Goddammit, Admiral, you can't start a private war of your own! Who's going to take the responsibility?" Said Halsey, "I'll take it! If anything gets in my way, we'll shoot first and argue afterwards." A storm delayed Enterprise on her return voyage to Hawaii. Instead of returning on December 6 as planned, she was still out at sea, when she received word that the surprise attack anticipated was not at Wake Island, but at Pearl Harbor itself. News of the attack came in the form of overhearing desperate radio transmissions from one of her aircraft sent forward to Pearl Harbor, attempting to identify itself as American. The plane was shot down, and her pilot and crew were lost. In the immediate wake of the attack upon Pearl Harbor, Admiral Kimmel named Halsey "commander of all the ships at sea." Enterprise searched south and west of the Hawaiian islands for the Japanese attackers, but did not locate the six Japanese fleet carriers then retiring to the north and west. Early Pacific carrier raids Halsey and Enterprise slipped back into Pearl Harbor on the evening of December 8. Surveying the wreckage of the Pacific Fleet, he remarked, "Before we're through with them, the Japanese language will be spoken only in hell." Halsey was an aggressive commander. Above all else, he was an energetic and demanding leader who had the ability to invigorate the U.S. Navy's fighting spirit when most required. In the early months of the war, as the nation was rocked by the fall of one western bastion after another, Halsey looked to take the fight to the enemy. Serving as commander, Carrier Division 2, aboard his flagship Enterprise, Halsey led a series of hit-and-run raids against the Japanese, striking the Gilbert and Marshall islands in February, Wake Island in March, and carrying out the Doolittle Raid in April 1942 against the Japanese capital Tokyo and other places on Japan's largest and most populous island Honshu, the first air raid to strike the Japanese Home Islands, providing an important boost to American morale. Halsey's slogan, "Hit hard, hit fast, hit often," soon became a byword for the Navy. Halsey returned to Pearl Harbor from his last raid on May 26, 1942, in poor health due to the extremely serious and stressful conditions at hand. He had spent nearly all of the previous six months on the bridge of the carrier Enterprise, directing the Navy's counterstrikes. Psoriasis covered a great deal of his body and caused unbearable itching, making it nearly impossible for him to sleep. Gaunt and having lost , he was medically ordered to the hospital in Hawaii. Meanwhile, U.S. Naval intelligence had strongly ascertained that the Japanese were planning an attack on the central Pacific island of Midway. Admiral Chester Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, determined to take the opportunity to engage them. Losing Midway would have been a very serious threat because the Japanese then could easily take Hawaii and threaten the west coast of the United States. The loss of his most aggressive and combat experienced carrier admiral, Halsey, on the eve of this crisis was a severe blow to Nimitz. Nimitz met with Halsey, who recommended his cruiser division commander, Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance, to take command for the upcoming Midway operation. Nimitz considered the move, but it would mean stepping over Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher of Task Force 17, who was the senior of the two men. After interviewing Fletcher and reviewing his reports from the Coral Sea engagement, Nimitz was convinced that Fletcher's performance was sound, and he was given the responsibility of command in the defense of Midway. Acting upon Halsey's recommendations, Nimitz then made Rear Admiral Spruance commander of Halsey's Task Force 16, comprising the carriers Enterprise and Hornet. To aid Spruance, who had no experience as the commander of a carrier force, Halsey sent along his irascible chief of staff, Captain Miles Browning. Halsey's skin condition was so serious that he was sent on the light cruiser to San Francisco, where he was met by a leading allergist for specialized treatment. The skin condition soon receded but Halsey was ordered to stand down for the next six weeks and relax. While detached stateside during his convalescence, he visited family and traveled to Washington D.C. In late August, he accepted a speaking engagement at the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis. Prior to the discussion of his raids against the Japanese positions in the Marshall Islands, Halsey informed the midshipmen before him, "Missing the Battle of Midway has been the greatest disappointment of my career, but I am going back to the Pacific where I intend personally to have a crack at those yellow-bellied sons of bitches and their carriers," which was received with loud applause. At the completion of his convalescence in September 1942, Admiral Nimitz reassigned Halsey to Commander, Air Force, Pacific Fleet. Commander, South Pacific Area After being medically approved to return to duty, Halsey was named to command a carrier task force in the South Pacific Area. Since Enterprise was still laid up in Pearl Harbor undergoing repairs following the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, and the other ships of Task Force 16 were still being readied, he began a familiarization trip to the south Pacific on October 15, 1942, arriving at area headquarters at Nouméa in New Caledonia on October 18. The Guadalcanal campaign was at a critical juncture, with the 1st Marine Division, 11,000 men, under the command of Marine Major General Alexander Vandegrift holding on by a thread around Henderson Field. The Marines did receive additional support from the U.S. Army's 164th Infantry Regiment with a complement of 2,800 soldiers on October 13. This addition only helped to fill some of the serious holes and was insufficient to sustain the battle of itself. During this critical juncture, naval support was tenuous due to Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley's reticence, malaise and lackluster performance. Pacific Fleet commander Chester Nimitz had concluded that Ghormley had become dispirited and exhausted. Nimitz made his decision to change the South Pacific Area commander while Halsey was en route. As Halsey's aircraft came to rest in Nouméa, a whaleboat came alongside carrying Ghormley's flag lieutenant. Meeting him before he could board the flagship, the lieutenant handed over a sealed envelope containing a message from Nimitz: "You will take command of the South Pacific Area and South Pacific forces immediately." The order came as an awkward surprise to Halsey. Ghormley was a long time personal friend, and had been since their days as teammates on the football team back at Annapolis. Awkward or not, the two men carried out their directives. Halsey's command now included all ground, sea, and air forces in the South Pacific area. News of the change flashed and produced an immediate boost to morale with the beleaguered Marines, energizing his command. He was widely considered the U.S. Navy's most aggressive admiral, and with good reason. He set about assessing the situation to determine what actions were needed. Ghormley had been unsure of his command's ability to maintain the Marine toehold on Guadalcanal, and had been mindful of leaving them trapped there for a repeat of the Bataan Peninsula disaster. Halsey punctiliously made it clear he did not plan to withdraw the Marines. He not only intended to counter the Japanese efforts to dislodge them, he intended to secure the island. Above all else, he wanted to regain the initiative and take the fight to the Japanese. It was two days after Halsey had taken command in October 1942 that he gave an order that all naval officers in the South Pacific would dispense with wearing neckties with their tropical uniforms. As Richard Frank commented in his account of the Battle for Guadalcanal: Halsey led the South Pacific command through what was for the U.S. Navy the most tenuous phase of the war. Halsey committed his limited naval forces through a series of naval battles around Guadalcanal, including the carrier engagements of the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. These engagements checked the Japanese advance and drained their naval forces of carrier aircraft and pilots. For his conduct, "can-do" leadership style, and increasing number of forces under his command, Halsey was promoted to four-star admiral in October 1942. The promotion put Halsey into sustained public spotlight for the first time, appearing on the cover of Time Magazine's November 1942 issue which quoted Halsey from his superior Nimitz as "professionally competent and militarily aggressive without being recklessly foolhardy" and that his promotion by the President was something "he richly deserves". Halsey's four-star insignia were welded together from two-star rear admiral insignia, which promptly replaced his vice admiral's stars which he sent to the relatives of those who contributed greatly to the campaign. In November, Halsey's willingness to place at risk his command's two fast battleships in the confined waters around Guadalcanal for a night engagement paid off with the U.S. Navy winning the battle, the decisive naval engagement of the Guadalcanal campaign that doomed the Japanese garrison and wrested control from the Japanese. Japanese naval aviation proved to be formidable during the Solomon campaign. In April 1943, Halsey assigned Rear Admiral Marc Mitscher to become Commander Air, Solomon Islands, where he directed a mixed bag of army, navy, marine and New Zealand aircraft in the airwar over Guadalcanal and up the Solomons chain. Said Halsey: "I knew we'd probably catch hell from the Japs in the air. That's why I sent Pete Mitscher up there. Pete was a fighting fool and I knew it." Typical for the period was an exchange that occurred between Halsey and one of his staff officers in June 1943. The South Pacific Area was expecting the arrival of an additional air group to support their next offensive. As a part of the long view of winning the war taken by Nimitz, upon its arrival at Fiji the group was given new orders to return stateside and be broken up, its pilots to be used as instructors for pilot training. Halsey's headquarters had been counting on the air group for their operations up the Solomons chain. The staff officer who brought the dispatch to Halsey remarked "If they do that to us we will have to go on the defensive." The admiral turned to the speaker and replied: "As long as I have one plane and one pilot, I will stay on the offensive." Halsey's forces spent the rest of the year battling up the Solomon Islands chain to Bougainville. At Bougainville the Japanese had two airfields in the southern tip of the island, and another at the northernmost peninsula, with a fourth on Buki just across the northern passage. Here, instead of landing near the Japanese airfields and taking them away against the bulk of the Japanese defenders, Halsey landed his invasion force of 14,000 Marines in Empress Augusta Bay, about halfway up the west coast of Bougainville. There he had the Seabees clear and build their own airfield. Two days after the landing, a large cruiser force was sent down from Japan to Rabaul in preparation for a night engagement against Halsey's screening force and supply ships in Empress Augusta Bay. The Japanese had been conserving their naval forces over the past year, but now committed a force of seven heavy cruisers, along with one light cruiser and four destroyers. At Rabaul the force refueled in preparation for the coming night battle. Halsey had no surface forces anywhere near equivalent strength to oppose them. Battleships , , and assorted cruisers had been transferred to the Central Pacific to support the upcoming invasion of Tarawa. Other than the destroyer screen, the only force Halsey had available were the carrier air groups on and . Rabaul was a heavily fortified port, with five airfields and extensive anti-aircraft batteries. Other than the surprise raid at Pearl Harbor, no mission against such a target had ever been accomplished with carrier aircraft. It was highly dangerous to the aircrews, and to the carriers as well. With the landing in the balance, Halsey sent his two carriers to steam north through the night to get into range of Rabaul, then launch a daybreak raid on the base. Aircraft from recently captured Vella Lavella were sent over to provide a combat air patrol over the carriers. All available aircraft from the two carriers were committed to the raid itself. The mission was a stunning success, so damaging the cruiser force at Rabaul as to make them no longer a threat. Aircraft losses in the raid were light. Halsey later described the threat to the landings as "the most desperate emergency that confronted me in my entire term as ComSoPac." Following the successful Bougainville operation, he then isolated and neutralized the Japanese naval stronghold at Rabaul by capturing surrounding positions in the Bismarck Archipelago in a series of amphibious landings known as Operation Cartwheel. This enabled the continuation of the drive north without the heavy fighting that would have been necessary to capture the base itself. With the neutralization of Rabaul, major operations in the South Pacific Area came to a close. With his determination and grit, Halsey had bolstered his command's resolve and seized the initiative from the Japanese until ships, aircraft and crews produced and trained in the States could arrive in 1943 and 1944 to tip the scales of the war in favor of the allies. Battles of the Central Pacific As the war progressed it moved out of the South Pacific and into the Central Pacific. Halsey's command shifted with it, and in May 1944 he was promoted to commanding officer of the newly formed Third Fleet. He commanded actions from the Philippines to Japan. From September 1944 to January 1945, he led the campaigns to take the Palaus, Leyte and Luzon, and on many raids on Japanese bases, including off the shores of Formosa, China, and Vietnam. By this point in the conflict the U.S. Navy was doing things the Japanese high command had not thought possible. The Fast Carrier Task Force was able to bring to battle enough air power to overpower land based aircraft and dominate whatever area the fleet was operating in. Moreover, the Navy's ability to establish forward operating ports as they did at Majuro, Enewetak and Ulithi, and their ability to convoy supplies out to the combat task forces, allowed the fleet to operate for extended periods of time far out to sea in the central and western Pacific. The Japanese Navy conserved itself in port and would sortie in force to engage the enemy. The U.S. Navy remained at sea and on station, dominating whatever region it entered. The size of the Pacific Ocean, which Japanese planners had thought would limit the U.S. Navy's ability to operate in the western Pacific, would not be adequate to protect Japan. Command of the "big blue fleet" was alternated with Raymond Spruance. Under Spruance the fleet designation was the Fifth Fleet and the Fast Carrier Task Force was designated "Task Force 58". Under Halsey the fleet was designated Third Fleet and the Fast Carrier Task Force was designated "Task Force 38". The split command structure was intended to confuse the Japanese and created a higher tempo of operations. While Spruance was at sea operating the fleet, Halsey and his staff, self-dubbed the "Department of Dirty Tricks", would be planning the next series of operations. The two admirals were a contrast in styles. Halsey was aggressive and a risk taker. Spruance was calculating, professional, and cautious. Most higher-ranking officers preferred to serve under Spruance; most common sailors were proud to serve under Halsey. Leyte Gulf In October 1944, amphibious forces of the U.S. Seventh Fleet carried out General Douglas MacArthur's major landings on the island of Leyte in the Central Philippines. Halsey's Third Fleet was assigned to cover and support Seventh Fleet operations around Leyte. Halsey's plans assumed the Japanese fleet or a major portion of it would challenge the effort, creating an opportunity to engage it decisively. Halsey directed the Third Fleet "will seek the enemy and attempt to bring about a decisive engagement if he undertakes operations beyond support of superior land based air forces." In response to the invasion, the Japanese launched their final major naval effort, an operation known as 'Sho-Go', involving almost all their surviving fleet. It was aimed at destroying the invasion shipping in the Leyte Gulf. The Northern Force of Admiral Ozawa was built around the remaining Japanese aircraft carriers, now weakened by the heavy loss of trained pilots. The Northern Force was meant to lure the covering U.S. forces away from the Gulf while two surface battle-groups, the Center Force and the Southern Force, were to break through to the beachhead and attack the invasion shipping. These forces were built around the remaining strength of the Japanese Navy, and comprised a total of 7 battleships and 16 cruisers. The operation brought about the Battle for Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle of the Second World War and, by some criteria, the largest naval battle in history. The Center Force commanded by Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita was located October 23 coming through the Palawan Passage by two American submarines, which attacked the force, sinking two heavy cruisers and damaging a third. The following day Third Fleet's aircraft carriers launched strikes against Kurita's Center Force, sinking the battleship and damaging the heavy cruiser , causing the force to turn westward back towards its base. Kurita appeared to be retiring but he later reversed course and headed back into the San Bernardino Strait. At this point Ozawa's Northern Force was located by Third Fleet scout aircraft. Halsey made the momentous decision to take all available strength northwards to destroy the Japanese carrier forces, planning to strike them at dawn of October 25. He considered leaving a battle group behind to guard the strait, and made tentative plans to do so, but he felt he would also have to leave one of his three carrier groups to provide air cover, weakening his chance to crush the remaining Japanese carrier forces. The entire Third Fleet steamed northward. San Bernardino Strait was effectively left unguarded by any major surface fleet. Battle off Samar In moving Third Fleet northwards, Halsey failed to advise Admiral Thomas Kinkaid of Seventh Fleet of his decision. Seventh Fleet intercepts of organizational messages from Halsey to his own task group commanders seemed to indicate that Halsey had formed a task force and detached it to protect the San Bernardino Strait, but this was not the case. Kinkaid and his staff failed to confirm this with Halsey, and neither had confirmed this with Nimitz. Despite aerial reconnaissance reports on the night of October 24–25 of Kurita's Center Force in the San Bernardino Strait, Halsey continued to take Third Fleet northwards, away from Leyte Gulf. When Kurita's Center Force emerged from the San Bernardino Strait on the morning of October 25, there was nothing to oppose them except a small force of escort carriers and screening destroyers and destroyer escorts, Task Unit 77.4.3 "Taffy 3", which had been tasked and armed to attack troops on land and guard against submarines, not oppose the largest enemy surface fleet since the battle of Midway, led by the largest battleship in the world. Advancing down the coast of the island of Samar towards the troop transports and support ships of the Leyte Gulf landing, they took Seventh Fleet's escort carriers and their screening ships entirely by surprise. In the desperate Battle off Samar which followed, Kurita's ships destroyed one of the escort carriers and three ships of the carriers' screen, and damaged a number of other ships as well. The remarkable resistance of the screening ships of Taffy 3 against Kurita's battle-group remains one of the most heroic feats in the history of the U.S. Navy. Their efforts and those of the several hundred aircraft that the escort carriers could put up, many of whom, however could not be armed with the most effective ordnance to deal with heavy surface ships in time, took a heavy toll on Kurita's ships and convinced him that he was facing a stronger force than was the case. Mistaking the escort carriers for Halsey's fleet carriers, and fearing entrapment from the six battleships of the Third Fleet battleship group, he decided to withdraw back through the San Bernardino Strait and to the west without achieving his objective of disrupting the Leyte landing. When the Seventh Fleet's escort carriers found themselves under attack from the Center Force, Halsey began to receive a succession of desperate calls from Kinkaid asking for immediate assistance off Samar. For over two hours Halsey turned a deaf ear to these calls. Then, shortly after 10:00 hours, a message was received from Admiral Nimitz: "Where is repeat where is Task Force 34? The world wonders". The tail end of this message, The world wonders, was intended as padding designed to confuse enemy decoders, but was mistakenly left in the message when it was handed to Halsey. The urgent inquiry had seemingly become a stinging rebuke. The fiery Halsey threw his hat on the deck of the bridge and began cursing. Finally Halsey's Chief of Staff, Rear Admiral Robert "Mick" Carney, confronted him, telling Halsey "Stop it! What the hell's the matter with you? Pull yourself together." Halsey cooled but continued to steam Third Fleet northward to close on Ozawa's Northern Force for a full hour after receiving the signal from Nimitz. Then, Halsey ordered Task Force 34 south. As Task Force 34 proceeded south they were further delayed when the battle force had to slow to 12 knots so that the battleships could refuel their escorting destroyers. The refueling cost a two and a half-hour further delay. By the time Task Force 34 arrived at the scene it was too late to assist the Seventh Fleet's escort carrier groups. Kurita had already decided to retire and had left the area. A single straggling destroyer was caught by Halsey's advance cruisers and destroyers, but the rest of Kurita's force was able to escape. Meanwhile, the major part Third Fleet continued to close on Ozawa's Northern Force, which included one fleet carrier (the last surviving Japanese carrier of the six that had attacked Pearl Harbor) and three light carriers. The Battle off Cape Engaño resulted in Halsey's Third Fleet sinking all four of Ozawa's carriers. The same attributes that made Halsey an invaluable leader in the desperate early months of the war, his desire to bring the fight to the enemy, his willingness to take on a gamble, worked against him in the later stages of the war. Halsey received much criticism for his decisions during the battle, with naval historian Samuel Morison terming the Third Fleet run to the north "Halsey's Blunder". However, the destruction of the Japanese carriers had been an important goal up to that point, and the Leyte landings were still successful despite Halsey falling for the Japanese Navy's decoy. Halsey's Typhoon After the Leyte Gulf engagement, December found the Third Fleet confronted with another powerful enemy in the form of Typhoon Cobra, which was dubbed "Halsey's Typhoon" by many. While conducting operations off the Philippines, the fleet had to discontinue refueling due to a Pacific storm. Rather than move Third Fleet away, Halsey chose to remain on station for another day. In fairness, he received conflicting information from Pearl Harbor and his own staff. The Hawaiian weathermen predicted a northerly path for the storm, which would have cleared Task Force 38 by some . Eventually his own staff provided a prediction regarding the direction of the storm that was far closer to the mark with a westerly direction. However, Halsey played the odds, declining to cancel planned operations and requiring the ships of Third Fleet to hold formation. On the evening of December 17 Third Fleet was unable to land its combat air patrol due to the pitching and rolling decks of the carriers. All the aircraft were ditched in the ocean and lost, but the pilots were all saved by accompanying destroyers. By 10:00 a.m. the next morning the barometer on the flagship was noted to be dropping precipitously. With increasingly heavy seas the fleet still attempted to maintain stations. The threat was greatest to the fleet's destroyers, which did not have the fuel reserves of the larger ships and were running dangerously low. Finally, at 11:49 am, Halsey issued the order for the ships of the fleet to take the most comfortable course available to them. Many of the smaller ships had already been forced to do so. Between 11:00 a.m. and 2:00 pm, the typhoon did its worst damage, tossing the ships in waves. The barometer continued to drop and the wind roared at with gusts well over . At 1:45 pm. Halsey issued a typhoon warning to Fleet Weather Central. By this time Third Fleet had lost three of its destroyers. By the time the storm had cleared the next day a great many ships in the fleet had been damaged, three destroyers were sunk, 146 aircraft were destroyed and 802 seamen had been lost. For the next three days Third Fleet conducted search and rescue operations, finally retiring to Ulithi on 22 December 1944. Following the typhoon a Navy court of inquiry was convened on board in the Naval base at Ulithi. Admiral Nimitz, CINCPAC, was in attendance at the court, Vice Admiral John H. Hoover presided the Court with admirals George D. Murray and Glenn B. Davis as associate judges. Forty-three-year-old Captain Herbert K. Gates, of Cascade, was the Judge Advocate. The inquiry found that though Halsey had committed an error of judgement in sailing the Third Fleet into the heart of the typhoon, it stopped short of unambiguously recommending sanction. The events surrounding Typhoon Cobra were similar to those the Japanese navy had faced some nine years earlier in what they termed "The Fourth Fleet Incident." End of the war During January 1945 the Third Fleet attacked Formosa and Luzon, and raided the South China Sea in support of the landing of U.S. Army forces on Luzon. At the conclusion of this operation, Halsey passed command of the ships that made up Third Fleet to Admiral Spruance on January 26, whereupon its designation changed to Fifth Fleet. Returning home Halsey was asked about General MacArthur, who was not the easiest man to work with, and vied with the Navy over the conduct and management of the war in the Pacific. Halsey had worked well with MacArthur and did not mind saying so. When a reporter asked Halsey if he thought MacArthur's fleet (7th Fleet) would get to Tokyo first, the admiral grinned and answered "We're going there together." Then seriously he added "He's a very fine man. I have worked under him for over two years and have the greatest admiration and respect for him." Spruance held command of Fifth Fleet until May, when command returned to Halsey. In early June 1945 the Third Fleet again sailed through the path of Typhoon Connie. On this occasion, six men were swept overboard and lost, along with 75 airplanes lost or destroyed, with another 70 badly damaged. Though some ships sustained significant damage, none were lost. A Navy court of inquiry was again convened, this time recommending that Halsey be reassigned, but Admiral Nimitz declined to abide by this recommendation, citing Halsey's prior service record, despite that record including a previous instance of negligently sailing his fleet through a typhoon. Halsey led Third Fleet through the final stages of the war, striking targets on the Japanese homeland itself. Third Fleet aircraft conducted attacks upon Tokyo, the naval base at Kure and the northern Japanese island of Hokkaidō, and Third Fleet battleships engaged in the bombardment of a number of Japanese coastal cities in preparation for an invasion of Japan, which ultimately never had to be undertaken. After the cessation of hostilities, Halsey, still aggressively cautious of Japanese kamikaze attacks, ordered Third Fleet to maintain a protective air cover with the following communiqué: He was present when Japan formally surrendered on the deck of his flagship, , on September 2, 1945. Postwar years Immediately after the surrender of Japan, 54 ships of the Third Fleet returned to the United States, with Halsey's four-star flag flying from USS South Dakota, for the annual Navy Day Celebrations in San Francisco on October 27, 1945. He hauled down his flag on November 22, 1945, and was assigned special duty in the Office of the Secretary of the Navy. On December 11, 1945, he took the oath as Fleet Admiral, becoming the fourth and still the most recent naval officer awarded that rank. Halsey made a goodwill flying trip, passing by Central and South America, covering nearly and 11 nations. He retired from active service in March 1947, but as a Fleet Admiral, he was not taken off active duty status. Halsey was asked about the weapons used to win the war and he answered: Halsey joined the New Jersey Society of the Sons of the American Revolution in 1946. Upon retirement, he joined the board of two subsidiaries of the International Telephone and Telegraph Company, including the American Cable and Radio Corporation, and served until 1957. He maintained an office near the top of the ITT Building at 67 Broad Street, New York City in the late 1950s. He was involved in a number of efforts to preserve his former flagship as a memorial in New York Harbor. They proved fruitless, as it was not possible to secure sufficient funding to preserve the ship. Personal life While at the University of Virginia he met Frances Cooke Grandy (1887–1968) of Norfolk, Virginia, whom Halsey called "Fan." After his return from the Great White Fleet's circumnavigation of the globe and upon his promotion to the rank of full lieutenant he was able to persuade her to marry him. They married on December 1, 1909, at Christ Church in Norfolk. Among the ushers were Halsey's friends Thomas C. Hart and Husband E. Kimmel. Fan developed manic depression in the late 1930s and eventually had to live apart from Halsey. The couple had two children, Margaret Bradford (October 10, 1910 – December 15, 1979) and William Frederick Halsey III (September 8, 1915 – September 23, 2003). Halsey is also the great-uncle of actor Charles Oliver Hand, known professionally as Brett Halsey, who chose his stage name as a reference to him. Death While vacationing on Fishers Island, New York, Halsey died of a heart attack at age 76 on August 16, 1959. After lying in state in the Washington National Cathedral, he was interred on August 20, near his parents in Arlington National Cemetery. His wife, Frances Grandy Halsey, is buried with him. Asked about his contribution in the Pacific and the role he played in defending the United States, Halsey said merely: Dates of rank United States Naval Academy Midshipman—Class of 1904 Halsey never held the rank of lieutenant (junior grade), as he was appointed a full lieutenant after three years of service as an ensign. For administrative reasons, Halsey's naval record states he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) and lieutenant on the same day. At the time of Halsey's promotion to rear admiral, both rear admirals lower half (O-7) and rear admirals upper half (O-8) wore two stars. This was the case until 1942. During World War II and up until 1950, the Navy used the one star commodore rank for certain staff specialties. Awards and decorations Foreign awards Honors Halsey Field, NAS North Island in Coronado, California, dedicated October 20, 1960, celebrating 50 years of Naval Aviation (1911–1961). Halsey Society, student Naval ROTC organization at Texas A&M University Buildings Admiral William F. Halsey Jr. Leadership Academy & William F. Halsey House, Elizabeth High School in Elizabeth, New Jersey Halsey Field House, United States Naval Academy Halsey Hall, University of Virginia Halsey Terrace, U.S. Navy housing in Honolulu, Hawaii Halsey Hall, Jonathan Dayton High School USS Halsey (BEQ-439), A Junior Enlisted Barracks for students going through initial training in Naval Station Great Lakes, Illinois W. F. Halsey Elementary School, RAF Edzell, Scotland, UK. DOD school closed in 1997 when the base closed. Ships , a Leahy-class guided-missile cruiser , an Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer Street Halsey Road, Annapolis, Maryland Halsey St., Brooklyn, New York Admiral Halsey Drive, NE, Albuquerque, New Mexico Halsey Street, Alexandria, Louisiana William F. Halsey Avenue, Bakersfield, California Halsey Road Dover, Delaware Halsey Place, Baltimore, Maryland Halsey Street, Chula Vista, California Admiral Halsey Avenue, Daytona Beach, Florida Halsey Drive, Flower Mound, Texas Halsey Avenue, Middletown, Rhode Island Halsey Street, Newport, Rhode Island Halsey Drive, Warwick, Rhode Island Halsey Street, Newark, New Jersey Admiral Halsey Service Area, a north-bound rest area along the New Jersey Turnpike at mile marker 111 on Interstate 95, at the present New Jersey Route 81 interchange, in New Jersey Admiral Halsey Slope, Nouméa, New Caledonia Halsey Court, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Admiral Halsey Road, Plymouth, Massachusetts Halsey Court, Princeton, New Jersey Halsey Street, Princeton, New Jersey Halsey Street, Colonel Bud Day Field, Sioux City, Iowa Halsey Avenue, Yuba City, California Halsey Road, Toms River, New Jersey Halsey Street, San Leandro, California S Halsey Dr, Whidbey Island Halsey Dr, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Halsey Drive, Riverside, Ohio Halsey Rd, Jacksonville, Florida Halsey Street, East Hartford, Connecticut Halsey Ed, Milton, Florida Halsey St, Pensacola, Florida Halsey St, Eau Claire, Wisconsin Halsey Blvd, Foster City, California Halsey Drive, Lynfield, New Zealand (Halsey visited New Zealand in 1908, however the drive may be named for British Admiral Lionel Halsey) In popular culture Halsey was portrayed by James Cagney in the 1959 bio-pic, The Gallant Hours; by James Whitmore in the 1970 film, Tora! Tora! Tora!; by Robert Mitchum in the 1976 film, Midway, and by Dennis Quaid in the 2019 film Midway. Halsey makes a brief appearance in Herman Wouk's novel The Winds of War, and has a more substantial supporting role in the sequel War and Remembrance. Wouk was extremely critical of Halsey's handling of the battle at Leyte Gulf, but also said he was too great a builder of naval morale to be retired in disgrace. (Chapter 92) Halsey was portrayed in the 1983 television miniseries adaptation of The Winds of War by Richard X. Slattery, and in the 1988 miniseries adaptation of War and Remembrance by Pat Hingle. Halsey has been portrayed in a number of other films and TV miniseries, played by Glenn Morshower (Pearl Harbor, 2001), Kenneth Tobey (MacArthur, 1977), Jack Diamond (Battle Stations, 1956), John Maxwell, (The Eternal Sea, 1955) and Morris Ankrum (Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, 1944). An "Admiral Halsey" is mentioned in the Paul and Linda McCartney song "Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey". The chorus of "hands across the water, heads across the sky" was a reference to the American aid programs of World War II. McCartney later specified that the second half of the song was indeed in honor of William Halsey. On March 4, 1951, Halsey appeared as a mystery guest on episode No. 40 of the game show, What's My Line, where the panel correctly deduced his identity. In the television series, McHale's Navy, one of Captain Binghampton's catchphrases whenever he would get frustrated with one of McHale's schemes was, "What in the name of Halsey is going on here?" Halsey is mentioned in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October. Soviet submarine commander Marko Ramius, while engaged in battle with the Soviet attack submarine Konovalov, asks Jack Ryan what books he wrote for the CIA. Ryan mentions one about Admiral Halsey, entitled The Fighting Sailor (not to be confused with a real book of the same title); Ramius reveals his awareness of the book and expresses disdain for Ryan's assessment of Halsey, saying, "Your conclusions were all wrong, Ryan. Halsey acted stupidly." A character in Seth MacFarlane's The Orville is named Admiral Halsey, presumably after Admiral Halsey. In The Bridge on the River Kwai, William Holden's character, feigning madness as his excuse for impersonating an officer, says, "I'm getting worse, you know. Sometimes I think I'm Admiral Halsey." A former service area on the New Jersey Turnpike was named for Admiral William Halsey located by what is now Exit 13A in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Upon creation of the exit in 1982, this caused the obscuring of the service area as they both overlapped with each other, before the service area itself closed in 1994. See also List of Fleet and Grand Admirals List of United States military leaders by rank List of military figures by nickname Gene Markey Notes References Citations Sources Further reading 1882 births 1959 deaths American five-star officers United States Navy personnel of World War I Battle of Midway Burials at Arlington National Cemetery United States Naval Aviators Military personnel from New Jersey Naval War College alumni Navy Midshipmen athletic directors Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States) Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire People from Elizabeth, New Jersey United States Naval Academy alumni United States Navy admirals United States Navy World War II admirals Pingry School alumni Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal United States naval attachés	[ -0.6743500232696533, 0.776603102684021, -0.64948570728302, -0.15879955887794495, -0.12212371081113815, 0.5324761867523193, 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206589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20geologic%20timescale	Lunar geologic timescale	The lunar geological timescale (or selenological timescale) divides the history of Earth's Moon into five generally recognized periods: the Copernican, Eratosthenian, Imbrian (Late and Early epochs), Nectarian, and Pre-Nectarian. The boundaries of this time scale are related to large impact events that have modified the lunar surface, changes in crater formation through time, and the size-frequency distribution of craters superposed on geological units. The absolute ages for these periods have been constrained by radiometric dating of samples obtained from the lunar surface. However, there is still much debate concerning the ages of certain key events, because correlating lunar regolith samples with geological units on the Moon is difficult, and most lunar radiometric ages have been highly affected by an intense history of bombardment. Lunar stratigraphy The primary geological processes that have modified the lunar surface are impact cratering and volcanism, and by using standard stratigraphic principles (such as the law of superposition) it is possible to order these geological events in time. At one time, it was thought that the mare basalts might represent a single stratigraphic unit with a unique age, but it is now recognized that mare volcanism was an ongoing process, beginning as early as 4.2 Ga (1 Ga = 1 billion years ago) and continuing to perhaps as late as 1.2 Ga. Impact events are by far the most useful for defining a lunar stratigraphy as they are numerous and form in a geological instant. The continued effects of impact cratering over long periods of time modify the morphology of lunar landforms in a quantitative way, and the state of erosion of a landform can also be used to assign a relative age. The lunar geological time scale has been divided into five periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, and Copernican) with one of these (the Imbrian) being subdivided into two epochs. These divisions of geological time are based on the recognition of convenient geomorphological markers, and as such, they should not be taken to imply that any fundamental changes in geological processes have occurred at these boundaries. The Moon is unique in the Solar System in that it is the only body (other than the Earth) for which we possess rock samples with a known geological context. By correlating the ages of samples obtained from the Apollo missions to known geological units, it has been possible to assign absolute ages to some of these geological periods. The timeline below represents one such attempt, but it is important to note (as is discussed below) that some of the ages are either uncertain, or disputed. In many lunar highland regions, it is not possible to distinguish between Nectarian and Pre-Nectarian materials, and these deposits are sometimes labeled as just Pre-Imbrian. Pre-Nectarian The Pre-Nectarian period is defined from the point at which the lunar crust formed, to the time of the Nectaris impact event. Nectaris is a multi-ring impact basin that formed on the near side of the Moon, and its ejecta blanket serves as a useful stratigraphic marker. 30 impact basins from this period are recognized, the oldest of which is the South Pole–Aitken basin. This geological period has been informally subdivided into the Cryptic and Basin Groups 1-9, but these divisions are not used on any geological maps. Nectarian The Nectarian period encompasses all events that occurred between the formation of the Nectaris and Imbrium impact basins. 12 multi-ring impact basins are recognized in the Nectarian period, including the Serenitatis and Crisium basins. One of the scientific objectives of the Apollo 16 mission was to date material excavated by the Nectaris impact basin. Nevertheless, the age of the Nectaris basin is somewhat contentious, with the most frequently cited numbers being 3.92 Ga, and less frequently 3.85 Ga. Recently, it has been suggested that the Nectaris basin could be, in fact, much older at ~4.1 Ga. Imbrian The Imbrian period has been subdivided into Late and Early epochs. The Early Imbrian is defined as the time between the formation of the Imbrium and Orientale impact basins. The Imbrium basin is believed to have formed at 3.85 Ga, though a minority opinion places this event at 3.77 Ga. The Schrödinger basin is the only other multi-ring basin that is Lower Imbrian in age, and no large multi-ring basins formed after this epoch. The Late Imbrian is defined as the time between the formation of the Orientale basin, and the time at which craters of a certain size (DL) have been obliterated by erosional processes. The age of the Orientale basin has not been directly determined, though it must be older than 3.72 Ga (based on Upper Imbrian ages of mare basalts) and could be as old as 3.84 Ga based on the size-frequency distributions of craters superposed on Orientale ejecta. About two-thirds of the Moon's mare basalts erupted within the Upper Imbrian Series, with many of these lavas filling the depressions associated with older impact basins. Eratosthenian The base of the Eratosthenian period is defined by the time at which craters on a geological unit of a certain size DL have been almost obliterated by erosional processes. The principal erosional agent on the Moon is impact cratering itself, though seismic modification could play a minor role as well. The absolute age of this boundary is not well defined, but is commonly quoted as being near 3.2 Ga. The younger boundary of this period is defined based on the recognition that freshly excavated materials on the lunar surface are generally bright and that they become darker over time as a result of space weathering processes. Operationally, this period was originally defined as the time at which impact craters lost their bright ray systems. This definition, however, has recently been subjected to some criticism as some crater rays are bright for compositional reasons that are unrelated to the amount of space weathering they have incurred. In particular, if the ejecta from a crater formed in the highlands (which is composed of bright anorthositic materials) is deposited on the low albedo mare, it will remain bright even after being space weathered. Copernican The Copernican period is the youngest geological period of the Moon. Originally, the presence of a bright ray system surrounding an impact crater was used to define Copernican units, but as mentioned above, this is complicated by the presence of compositional ray systems. The base of the Copernican period does not correspond to the formation of the impact crater Copernicus. The age of the base of the Copernican is not well constrained, but a commonly quoted number is 1.1 Ga. The Copernican extends until the present day. Relationship to Earth's geologic time scale The divisions of the lunar geologic time scale are based on the recognition of a few convenient geomorphological markers. While these divisions are extremely useful for ordering geological events in a relative manner, it is important to realize that the boundaries do not imply any fundamental change of geological processes. Furthermore, as the oldest geological periods of the Moon are based exclusively on the times of individual impact events (in particular, Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale), these punctual events will most likely not correspond to any specific geological event on the other terrestrial planets, such as Mercury, Venus, Earth, or Mars. Nevertheless, at least one notable scientific work has advocated using the lunar geological time scale to subdivide the Hadean eon of Earth's geologic time scale. In particular, it is sometimes found that the Hadean is subdivided into the Cryptic, Basin Groups 1-9, Nectarian, and Early Imbrian. This notation is not entirely consistent with the above lunar geologic time scale in that the Cryptic and Basin Groups 1-9 (both of which are only informal terms that are not used in geologic maps) comprise the Pre-Nectarian period. See also Crater counting Geology of the Moon Geologic time scale (Earth) Impact crater Late Heavy Bombardment References Cited references General references Lunar science Geology timelines	[ 0.01358161773532629, 0.48773494362831116, -0.1270374208688736, -0.18957385420799255, -0.21410560607910156, 0.460085391998291, -0.1200820729136467, 1.0731027126312256, -0.4859829545021057, -0.8387543559074402, -0.14364272356033325, -0.034369178116321564, 0.13768604397773743, 1.1076164245605469, -0.21806418895721436, 0.321322500705719, -0.04169609397649765, 0.0043199323117733, -0.2711387276649475, -0.23857375979423523, -0.10641241818666458, -0.0191836878657341, 0.9829610586166382, -0.40477827191352844, -0.23671108484268188, -0.1794734001159668, -0.36359038949012756, 0.264144629240036, 0.2491743564605713, -0.16431747376918793, -0.9067069292068481, 0.5303381085395813, -0.32050955295562744, 0.0888434424996376, 0.1923292577266693, -0.11636626720428467, -0.02335158735513687, 0.1946825087070465, 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206601	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC%201105	UNIVAC 1105	The UNIVAC 1105 was a follow-on computer to the UNIVAC 1103A introduced by Sperry Rand in September 1958. The UNIVAC 1105 used 21 types of vacuum tubes, 11 types of diodes, 10 types of transistors, and three core types. The UNIVAC 1105 had either 8,192 or 12,288 words of 36-bit magnetic core memory, in two or three banks of 4,096 words each. Magnetic drum memory provided either 16,384 or 32,768 words, in one or two drums with 16,384 words each. Sixteen to twenty-four UNISERVO II tape drives were connected, with a maximum capacity (not counting block overhead) of 1,200,000 words per tape. Fixed-point numbers had a one-bit sign and a 35-bit value, with negative values represented in ones' complement format. Floating-point numbers had a one-bit sign, an eight-bit characteristic, and a 27-bit mantissa. Instructions had a six-bit operation code and two 15-bit operand addresses. A complete UNIVAC 1105 computer system required 160 kW of power (175 KVA, 0.9 power factor) and an air conditioning unit with a power of at least 35 tons (123 kW) for cooling input water. The computer system weighed about with a floor loading of 47 lb/ft2 (230 kg/m2) and required a room 49 x 64 x 10 ft (15 x 20 x 3 m). The floor space for the computer was approximately 3,752 ft2 (350 m2). The power, refrigeration and equipment room was approximately 2,450 ft2 (230 m2). Cost, price and rental rates Chapel Hill In 1959, a Univac 1105 located in the basement of Phillips Hall of The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was one of three computers of its type. It was intended primarily for the United States Census Bureau, which had one of its own; Armour Institute of Technology had the other. The Chapel Hill unit cost $2.4 million, with the improvements to the basement, including 16-inch concrete walls to protect it from nuclear attack, added $1.2 million. Its memory was less than 50 kilobytes, or one 8 1/2 x 11 document, with the capability of adding 30,000 numbers per second. The Univac was 60 feet long, weighed 19 tons, and used 7200 vacuum tubes. Its printer had a speed of 600 lines per minute. See also List of UNIVAC products History of computing hardware List of vacuum tube computers References External links BRL REPORT NO. 1115 March 1961: UNIVAC 1105 by Martin H. 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206603	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabrina%20%28actress%29	Sabrina (actress)	Norma Ann Sykes (19 May 1936 – 24 November 2016), better known as Sabrina or Sabby, was a 1950s English glamour model who progressed to a minor film career. Sabrina was one of "a host of exotic, glamorous (British) starlets ... modelled on the likes of Marilyn Monroe, Jayne Mansfield and Lana Turner"; others included Diana Dors, Belinda Lee, Shirley Eaton and Sandra Dorne. Early life and career Sabrina was born on 19 May 1936 at Stepping Hill Hospital in Stockport, Cheshire, to Walter and Annie Sykes. She lived in Buckingham Street, Heaviley, for about 13 years and attended St George's School there, before moving with her mother to Blackpool. She spent some time in hospital with rheumatic fever. At the age of 16, she moved to London, where she worked as a waitress and did some nude modelling, posing for Russell Gay in a photoshoot that led to her appearance on the five of spades in a deck of nude playing cards. In 1955, she was chosen to play a dumb blonde in Arthur Askey's new television series Before Your Very Eyes (BBC 1952–56, ITV 1956–58). The show ran from 18 February 1955 to 20 April 1956, and made Sabrina a household name. She was promoted by the BBC as "the bosomy blonde who didn't talk", but surviving kinescope episodes show quite clearly that she did. James Beney, of Walton Films, released a 100-foot 9.5 mm short glamour film "At Home With Sabrina" around July 1955. Goodnight with Sabrina (c.1958, 3:49 mins) is included with Beat Girl, in 2016, newly remastered by BFI Flipside She made her film debut in Stock Car in 1955. She then appeared in a small role in the 1956 film Ramsbottom Rides Again. In her third film, Blue Murder at St Trinian's (1957), she had a non-speaking role in which, despite sharing equal billing with the star Alastair Sim on posters and appearing in many publicity stills in school uniform, she was required only to sit up in bed wearing a nightdress, reading a book, while the action took place around her. Sabrina's penultimate film role was in the western The Phantom Gunslinger (1970), in which she starred alongside Troy Donahue. Her final film was the horror movie The Ice House (1969), in which she replaced Jayne Mansfield, who had died in a car crash two years earlier. In 1958 she was awarded an honorary D.Litt. by the University of Leeds. On 27 November 1967 Sabrina married Dr. Harold Melsheimer (born 11 June 1927 in Germany), a Hollywood gynaecologist/obstetrician. They divorced ten years later. In 2007 there were newspaper reports that Sabrina had become a hermit, "living in squalor" in a Spanish-style house on a street known as 'Smog Central', under the flightpath of Burbank Airport. Sabrina admitted that she was confined to the house due to back problems, but denied living in squalor. Having suffered from ill health for many years, partly owing to botched back surgery, she died of blood poisoning in 2016, at the age of 80. Cultural depictions The scripts of The Goon Show are littered with references to Sabrina's bosom, such as "By the measurements of Sabrina!" and "By the sweaters of Sabrina!" In "The Scandal Magazine", an episode of the radio programme Hancock's Half Hour, Sid James plays the editor of a sleazy gossip magazine that has carried an embarrassing story about Tony Hancock. James tells Hancock that his readers "will believe anything. ... If I told them that Sabrina was Arthur Askey's mother, they'd believe me." Hancock replies, "Well, I don't", pauses and asks, "She's not, is she?" James says emphatically "No", but Hancock reflects, "Mind you, there is a resemblance ..." Hunchfront of Lime Grove – "A somewhat unappealing nickname given to the generously endowed starlet known as Sabrina ..." In the 1950s members of the Royal Air Force dubbed parts of the Hawker Hunter jet fighter plane "Sabrinas" owing to two large humps on the underside of the aircraft. Similarly, in the late 1950s, when ERF, a British firm that made lorries (trucks), produced a semi-forward control heavy goods vehicle (HGV) with a short protruding bonnet, these vehicles were nicknamed "Sabrinas" because they had "a little more in front". The 1959 Triumph TR3S 1985 cc iron-block alloy-headed engine was called "Sabrina" because of its dome-shaped cam drivers. In 1974 the British motoring press gave the name "Sabrinas" to the oversized pairs of protruding rubber bumper blocks (see dagmar bumpers) added to the MG MGB, Midget and Triumph TR6 sports cars, when U.S. safety regulations mandated sturdier impact protection. The name stuck and is used around the world. Television appearances Before Your Very Eyes (1955–1956, ten episodes) Double Your Money (1955) Tarzan (one episode, 1967) This Is Your Life (Arthur Askey, 1974) Acting credits Stock Car (1955) Ramsbottom Rides Again (1956) Blue Murder at St Trinian's (1957) Goodnight with Sabrina (1958) Just My Luck (1957) Make Mine a Million (1959) Satan in High Heels (1962) House of the Black Death (1965) The Ice House (1969) The Phantom Gunslinger (1970) References Notes Citations Bibliography External links The Complete Sabrina (Norma Sykes) Encyclopaedia At Home – (Sabrina Encyclopaedia) http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp101768/norma-ann-sykes-sabrina Sabrina at aenigma 1959 award of D.Litt. 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206606	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criccieth%20Castle	Criccieth Castle	Criccieth Castle (; ) is a native Welsh castle situated on the headland between two beaches in Criccieth, Gwynedd, in North Wales, on a rocky peninsula overlooking Tremadog Bay. It was built by Llywelyn the Great of the kingdom of Gwynedd, but was heavily modified following its capture by English forces of Edward I in the late 13th century. Construction Although the stone castle was begun in the 1230s, there were three main building phases plus several periods of remodelling. The earliest part of the masonry castle is the inner ward which was started by Llywelyn the Great. Unlike most other Welsh native strongholds, the inner ward at Criccieth was protected by a gatehouse with twin D-shaped towers that was protected by a gate and portcullis, with murder holes in the passage, and outward facing arrowslits in each tower. Archaeologist Laurence Keen suggested that Criccieth's gatehouse was based on the design of those at Beeston Castle in Cheshire, which was built for Ranulf de Blondeville in the 1220s, as they have similar plans. This design is also similar to Montgomery Castle, Powys. The two towers of the gatehouse at Criccieth provided accommodation and their height was later increased in the Edwardian period. The castle's well was also in the gatehouse passage which was supplied by a spring fed cistern. In the 1260s or 1270s, an outer ward was added during the second building phase under Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. A new gateway was added in the outer curtain with a large two-storey rectangular tower. The castle, although not a proper concentric design, now had two circuits of circular defences. Criccieth was taken by English forces in 1283. Under James of Saint George, another two storey rectangular tower connected to the rest of the castle by a curtain wall, the "Engine Tower" (now in ruins) might have been the foundation for a siege engine. The gatehouse had another storey added and several Welsh mural towers were strengthened. An outer barbican was added to the outer curtain wall. Under Welsh stewardship, the principal residence was in the SW tower but when the castle was taken over by the English, accommodation was situated in the D-shaped towers of the gatehouse. Timber buildings, which included a great hall, were erected within the inner ward. History A motte and bailey stood at a different site in Criccieth before the masonry castle was built. In 1239, Llywelyn the Great imprisoned Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ap Iorwerth and Owain Goch, respectively his son and grandson, at Criccieth; this was likely at the castle. In 1283 the castle was captured by English under the command of Edward I. It was then remodelled by James of St George. In 1294, Madoc ap Llywelyn, a distant relation of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, began an uprising against English rule that spread quickly through Wales. Several English-held towns were razed and Criccieth (along with Harlech Castle and Aberystwyth Castle) were besieged that winter. Its residents survived until spring when the castle was resupplied. In the 14th century the castle had a notable Welsh constable called Hywel ap Gruffydd, known as Howell the Axe, who fought for Edward III at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. The castle was used as a prison until 1404 when Welsh forces captured the castle during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr. The Welsh then tore down its walls and set the castle alight. Some stonework still shows the scorch marks. Around that time it was noted that "Crukkith Castle had Roger de Accon for Constable, with six men-at-arms and fifty archers; annual maintenance £416, 14s, 2d." Criccieth was also one of several locations Romantic artist Joseph Mallord William Turner used for his famous series of paintings depicting shipwrecked mariners. Present day The castle is maintained by Cadw. It includes exhibits and information on Welsh castles as well as the 12th-century Anglo-Norman writer Gerald of Wales. Constable of the castle The official roles of the Constable were - Governor of the castle, governor of the fortified borough, keeper of the castle gaol (prison), Mayor () and extraordinary duties. During 1283 the castle was recorded to have a garrison of : 30 men (), 10 cross-bowmen (), 1 superintendent at arms (), 1 Chaplain (), 1 Stone mason (), 1 Carpenter (), 1 Artisan (), 15 residents (), William De Leyburn was the constable with a yearly fee of £100 (). List of constables Information regarding the former constables of the castle: See also Castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of castles in Wales References Bibliography - External links Cadw visitor's page www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Criccieth castle Criccieth Castles in Gwynedd Castles of Llywelyn the Great Prisons in Gwynedd Gwynedd Castle ruins in Wales Cadw Grade I listed castles in Wales Grade I listed buildings in Gwynedd	[ -0.4449705481529236, 0.4268589913845062, 0.582180380821228, -1.1085054874420166, 0.15011534094810486, 0.5463646054267883, 0.42182689905166626, -0.09134618192911148, -0.27085670828819275, 0.18570244312286377, -0.2173433005809784, 0.0743987113237381, 0.18926078081130981, 0.5697741508483887, -0.7316271066665649, 0.39193665981292725, 0.2141612321138382, 0.682115375995636, 0.4964991509914398, -1.116115689277649, 0.19089080393314362, -0.8269065022468567, -0.7966323494911194, 0.0565146766602993, 0.4106408357620239, 0.11397869139909744, 0.7284024953842163, 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206607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partisan	Partisan	Partisan may refer to: Military Partisan (weapon), a pole weapon Partisan (military), paramilitary forces engaged behind the front line Films Partisan (film), a 2015 Australian film Hell River, a 1974 Yugoslavian film also known as Partisans Music Partisan Records, an American independent record label The Partisans (band), a 1980s punk and Oi! band "The Partisan", a World War II anti-fascist song, later popularized by Leonard Cohen Other uses Partisan (politics), a committed member of a political party Partisans (novel), a 1982 novel by Alistair MacLean about the Yugoslav partisans Partisan game, in combinatorial game theory PARTISANS, an architecture firm based in Toronto The Partisans (sculpture), in Boston See also Partisan Review, a United States political and literary quarterly Partizan (disambiguation) Partizani (disambiguation)	[ 0.6547234654426575, 0.14676018059253693, -0.8590635061264038, 0.27532216906547546, 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206609	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caprifoliaceae	Caprifoliaceae	The Caprifoliaceae or honeysuckle family is a clade of dicotyledonous flowering plants consisting of about 860 species in 42 genera, with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Centres of diversity are found in eastern North America and eastern Asia, while they are absent in tropical and southern Africa. Description The flowering plants in this clade are mostly shrubs and vines: rarely herbs. They include some ornamental garden plants grown in temperate regions. The leaves are mostly opposite with no stipules (appendages at the base of a leafstalk or petiole), and may be either evergreen or deciduous. The flowers are tubular funnel-shaped or bell-like, usually with five outward spreading lobes or points, and are often fragrant. They usually form a small calyx with small bracts. The fruit is in most cases a berry or a drupe. The genera Diervilla and Weigela have capsular fruit, while Heptacodium has an achene. Taxonomy Views of the family-level classification of the traditionally accepted Caprifoliaceae and other plants in the botanical order Dipsacales have been considerably revised in recent decades. Most botanists now accept the placement of two of the most familiar members of this group, the elderberries (Sambucus) and the viburnums (Viburnum), in the family Adoxaceae instead; these were formerly classified here. Several other families of the more broadly treated Caprifoliaceae s.l. are separated by some but not all authors; these are treated as subfamilies in the listing of selected genera below, along with estimated numbers of species. Diervilloideae Diervilla (bush honeysuckle): 3 species Weigela: 10 species. Caprifolioideae s.s. Heptacodium (seven-son flower): 1 species Leycesteria: 6 species Lonicera (honeysuckle): 180 species Symphoricarpos (snowberry): 17 species Triosteum (horsegentian): 6 species Linnaeoideae Abelia: 30 species Dipelta: 4 species Kolkwitzia (beautybush): 1 species Linnaea (twinflower): 1 species Morinoideae Acanthocalyx: 3 species Cryptothladia Morina Zabelia Dipsacoideae Cephalaria Dipsacus (teasel): 15 species Knautia Pterocephalus: 25 species Scabiosa (scabious, pincushion flower): 30 species Succisa Succisella Triplostegia Valerianoideae Centranthus: 12 species Fedia Nardostachys : 3 species Patrinia: 17 species Plectritis (seablushes): 5 species Valeriana (valerians): 125 species Valerianella (cornsalads): 20 species Uses The plants belonging to this family are mainly hardy shrubs or vines of ornamental value, many of which are popular garden shrubs, notably species belonging to the genera Abelia, Lonicera, and Weigela. A few, however, have become invasive weeds outside their native ranges (such as Lonicera japonica). References Flowering Plants of the World, 1987, Vernon H. Heywood, Andromeda Oxford Ltd., Botanica, Gordon Cheers, Random House Australia, External links Caprifoliaceae in Topwalks Species account : Caprifoliaceae Comparison Table for the Cornidae Asterid families	[ -0.24486017227172852, 0.07735218852758408, 0.033554889261722565, -0.1829672008752823, -0.21015015244483948, 0.3903381824493408, 0.2879776060581207, 0.6659559011459351, -0.63824862241745, 0.18700937926769257, -0.04035824537277222, -0.09064610302448273, -0.5770124793052673, 0.5973488688468933, 0.01717100292444229, 0.49278637766838074, 0.39316171407699585, 0.8230332732200623, 0.2687356770038605, -0.2042202353477478, -0.4848375916481018, -0.5827178359031677, 0.7749719023704529, -0.33208322525024414, 0.43951547145843506, -0.5814377069473267, 0.2178683876991272, 0.2644205689430237, 0.5169777870178223, 0.07191118597984314, -0.18807034194469452, 0.9746257662773132, 0.7241102457046509, -0.2883877754211426, 0.43567192554473877, 0.2816246449947357, -0.43505463004112244, -0.37290042638778687, 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206610	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative	Comparative	In general linguistics, the comparative is a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison between two (or more) entities or groups of entities in quality or degree - see also comparison (grammar) for an overview of comparison, as well as positive and superlative degrees of comparison. The syntax of comparative constructions is poorly understood due to the complexity of the data. In particular, the comparative frequently occurs with independent mechanisms of syntax such as coordination and forms of ellipsis (gapping, pseudogapping, null complement anaphora, stripping, verb phrase ellipsis). The interaction of the various mechanisms complicates the analysis. Absolute and null forms A number of fixed expressions use a comparative form where no comparison is being asserted, such as higher education or younger generation. These comparatives can be called absolute. Similarly, a null comparative is one in which the starting point for comparison is not stated. These comparisons are frequently found in advertising, for example, in typical assertions such as Our burgers have more flavor, Our picture is sharper or 50% more. These uses of the comparative do not mention what it is they are being compared to. In some cases it is easy to infer what the missing element in a null comparative is. In other cases, the speaker or writer has been deliberately vague, for example "Glasgow's miles better". Scientific classification, taxonomy, and geographical categorization conventionally include the adjectives greater and lesser, when a large or small variety of an item is meant, as in the greater celandine as opposed to the lesser celandine. These adjectives may at first sight appear as a kind of null comparative, when as is usual, they are cited without their opposite counterpart. It should be apparent, however, that an entirely different variety of animal, scientific, or geographical object is intended. Thus it may be found, for example, that the lesser panda entails a giant panda variety, and a gazetteer would establish that there are the Lesser Antilles as well as the Greater Antilles. It is in the nature of grammatical conventions evolving over time that it is difficult to establish when they first became widely accepted, but both greater and lesser in these instances have over time become mere adjectives (or adverbial constructs), so losing their comparative connotation. Further, Greater indicates the inclusion of adjacent areas when referring to metropolitan areas, such as when suburbs are intended. Although it implies a comparison with a narrower definition that refers to a central city only, such as Greater London versus the City of London, or Greater New York versus New York City, it is not part of the "comparative" in the grammatical sense of this article. A comparative always compares something directly with something else. Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination At times the syntax of comparatives matches the syntax of coordination, and at other times, it must be characterized in terms of subordination. Comparative coordination The syntax of comparatives can closely mirror the syntax of coordination. The similarity in structure across the following a- and b-sentences illustrates this point. The conjuncts of the coordinate structures are enclosed in square brackets: a. [The boys] and [the girls] sent flowers to him today. b. More [boys] than [girls] sent flowers to him today. a. [The boys sent] and [the girls dropped off] flowers for him today. b. [More boys sent] than [girls dropped off] flowers for him today. a. The boys sent [flowers to him] and [chocolates to her] today. b. More boys sent [flowers to him] than [chocolates to her] today. a. The boys sent [flowers to him today] and [chocolates to her yesterday]. b. More boys sent [flowers to him today] than [chocolates to her yesterday]. The structure of the b-sentences involving comparatives is closely similar to the structure of the a-sentences involving coordination. Based on this similarity, many have argued that the syntax of comparatives overlaps with the syntax of coordination at least some of the time. In this regard, the than in the b-sentences should be viewed as a coordinator (coordinate conjunction), not as a subordinator (subordinate conjunction). Comparative subordination Examples of the comparative that do not allow an analysis in terms of coordination (because the necessary parallel structures are not present) are instances of comparative subordination. In such cases, than has the status of a preposition or a subordinator (subordinate conjunction), e.g. a. We invited more people than wanted to come. b. A better striker was playing for them than we have. c. More passengers than the airline had issued tickets tried to board the plane. d. More guests than we had chairs showed up. e. Who did he eat more hotdogs than? Since the parallel structures associated with coordinate structures, i.e., the conjuncts, cannot be acknowledged in these sentences, the only analysis available is one in terms of subordination, whereby than has the status of a subordinator (as in sentences a-d) or of a preposition (as in sentence e). What this means is that the syntax of comparatives is complex because at times an analysis in terms of coordination is warranted, whereas at other times, the analysis must assume subordination. Comparative deletion and subdeletion There are two types of ellipsis that are unique to the than-clauses of comparatives: comparative deletion and comparative subdeletion. The existence of comparative deletion as an ellipsis mechanism is widely acknowledged, whereas the status of comparative subdeletion as an ellipsis mechanism is more controversial. Comparative deletion Comparative deletion is an obligatory ellipsis mechanism that occurs in the than-clause of a comparative construction. The elided material of comparative deletion is indicated using a blank, and the unacceptable b-sentences show what is construed as having been elided in the a-sentences: a. Fred reads more books than Susan reads ___. b. Fred reads more books than Susan reads books. - Sentence is bad because comparative deletion has not occurred. a. We invited more people than ___ came. b. We invited more people than people came. - Sentence is bad because comparative deletion has not occurred. a. She was happier than I was ___. b. *She was happier than I was happy. - Sentence is bad because comparative deletion has not occurred. Comparative subdeletion Comparative subdeletion is a second type of ellipsis in comparatives that some accounts acknowledge. It occurs when the focused constituent in the than-clause is not deleted because it is distinct from its counterpart in the main clause. In other words, comparative subdeletion occurs when comparative deletion does not because the constituents being compared are distinct, e.g. a. He has more cats than he has __ dogs. b. Fewer women showed up than __ men wanted to dance. c. You were happier than I was __ sad. b. The table is as wide as it is __ tall. Accounts that acknowledge comparative subdeletion posit a null measure expression in the position marked by the blank (x-many, x-much). This element serves to focus the expression in the same way that -er or more focuses its counterpart in the main clause. Various arguments are put forth that motivate the existence of this null element. These arguments will not be reproduced here, though. Suffice it to say that the sentences in which subdeletion is supposedly occurring are qualitatively different from sentences in which comparative deletion occurs, e.g., He has more cats than you have ___ . Independent ellipsis mechanisms in than-clauses There are a number of independent ellipsis mechanisms that occur in the than-clauses of comparative constructions: gapping, pseudogapping, null complement anaphora, stripping, and verb phrase ellipsis. These mechanisms are independent of comparative clauses because they also occur when the comparative is not involved. The presence of these ellipsis mechanisms in than-clauses complicates the analysis considerably, since they render it difficult to discern which aspects of the syntax of comparatives are unique to comparatives. a. You should visit me on Tuesday, and I ___ you on Wednesday. - Gapping without the comparative b. You visited me on Tuesdays more than I ___ you on Wednesdays. - Gapping with the comparative a. He will say it twice before she has ___ once. - Pseudogapping without the comparative b. More people will say it twice than ___ will ___ just once. - Pseudogapping with the comparative; comparative deletion also present a. He did it as I expected ___ . - Null complement anaphora without the comparative b. He did it more than I expected ___ . - Null complement anaphora with the comparative a. Men did it, and women ___ too. - Stripping without the comparative b. More men did it than women ___ . - Stripping analysis possible here a. Susan has helped when you have ___ . - Verb phrase ellipsis without the comparative b. Susan has helped more than you have ___ . - Verb phrase ellipsis with the comparative The fact that the five independent ellipsis mechanisms (and possibly others) can occur in the than-clauses of comparatives has rendered the study of the syntax of comparatives particularly difficult. One is often not sure which ellipsis mechanisms are involved in a given than-clause. One thing is clear, however: the five ellipsis mechanisms illustrated here are distinct from the two ellipsis mechanisms that are unique to comparatives mentioned above (comparative deletion and comparative subdeletion). Double comparatives If an adjective has two comparative markers, it is known as a double comparative (e.g. more louder, worser). The use of double comparatives is generally associated with Appalachian English and African American Vernacular English, though they were common in Early Modern English and were used by Shakespeare. "The Duke of Milan / and his more braver daughter could controul thee."—Shakespeare, The Tempest Universals of comparative constructions Russell Ultan (1972) surveyed 20 languages and observed that the comparative and superlative are inflected forms of (near-)identical bases with respective to the positive and equative. Jonathan D. Bobaljik (2012) contends that Ultan’s generalization is a strong contender for a linguistic universal. Bobaljik formulates the Comparative-Superlative Generalization: With respect to the positive, if any adjective’s comparative degree were suppletive, so would its superlative; vice versa, if any adjective’s superlative degree were suppletive, then so would its comparative. Bobaljik phrases the Containment Hypothesis thus: "The representation of the superlative properly contains that of the comparative (in all languages that have a morphological superlative)". Indeed: in many languages (Persian, Ubykh, Cherokee, Chukchi, etc.) the superlative transparently contains the comparative; in Celtic languages, Arabic, Klon, Totnac, etc. the comparatives and the superlatives are formally similar; in Romance languages, Greek, Maltese, etc. the superlatives are derived from the comparatives by means of the addition of definite articles. Additionally, Bobaljik asserts that Universal Grammar lacks the superlative morpheme. See also Coordination Ellipsis Gapping Pseudogapping Stripping Subordination Verb phrase ellipsis Notes References Bobaljik, J. D. 2012. Universals in Comparative Morphology. MIT Press. Bresnan, J. 1973. Syntax of the comparative clause construction in English. Linguistic Inquiry 35, 275-343. Bresnan, J. 1976. On the form and functioning of transformations. Linguistic Inquiry 7, 3-40. Corver, N. 2006. Comparative deletion and subdeletion. Volume 1, The Blackwell companion to syntax, eds. M. Everaert and H. van Riemsdijk, 582-637. Malden: Blackwell. Grimshaw, J. 1987. Subdeletion. Linguistic Inquiry, 659-669. Huddleston, R. and G. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge grammar of the English Language. Lechner, W. 2004. Ellipsis in comparatives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Napoli D.J. 1983. Comparative ellisis: A phrase structure analysis. Linguistic Inquiry 14, 675-694. Osborne, T. 2009. Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 27, 427-454. Pinkham, J. 1982. The formation of comparative clauses in French and English. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. Ryan, K. 1983. Than as a coordination. Papers from the nineteenth regional meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society. 353-361. Stassen, Leon. 1985. Comparison and universal grammar. Oxford: Blackwell. Ultan, Russell. 1972. Some features of basic comparative constructions. Working Papers in Language Universals 9, 117-132. 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206611	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolwyddelan%20Castle	Dolwyddelan Castle	Dolwyddelan Castle ( ; ; ) is a Welsh castle located near Dolwyddelan in Conwy County Borough in North Wales. It is thought to have been built in the early 13th century by Llywelyn the Great, Prince of Gwynedd and Wales. Initially comprising just one tower with two floors, a second tower was built in the late 13th century, and a third floor was added to the first during repairs in the late 15th century. Construction The castle was built, using mostly local grit and slate rubble, as one of the Snowdonian strongholds of the princes of Gwynedd. Though there are no records of the exact construction date, it is thought that a single rectangular tower, with two floors, was built in the early 13th century. The first floor would have consisted of a main chamber with a fireplace, with a trapdoor for entrance to the basement, and the main keep's doorway would have been covered by a porch or forebuilding. The second two-storey tower was added by Edward I during the repairs in 1283–84 and linked by an irregular curtain wall with a courtyard in the centre, with further work undertaken in 1290–92. This second tower contained a fireplace on the top floor reached by internal stairs. A third storey was added to the main keep in the late 15th century, raising it to a total height of . The castle was heavily restored between 1848 and 1850 by Baron Willoughby de Eresby during which time the battlements were added. History The Welsh castle, built in the early 13th century, functioned as a guard post along a main route through North Wales. It was reputed to be the birthplace of Llywelyn the Great, though it is now thought that he was born at Tomen Castell, a small tower that previously stood on a nearby hill, and that he built Dolwyddelan Castle. On 18 January 1283 the castle was captured by Edward I of England's forces during the final stages of his conquest of Wales. Some historians have suggested that there may have been a deal between the defenders of the castle and Edward I in which its surrender was negotiated. The castle was then modified and strengthened until at least 1286 for occupation by an English garrison with recorded repairs including carpentry, the bridge, and the water mill. Edwardian troops maintained a military presence here until 1290. In the 15th century, the upper storey and drainage system were added to the keep by local lord Maredudd ap Ieuan who acquired the lease in 1488. It was restored and partly re-modelled in the 19th century by Lord Willoughby de Eresby, who added the battlements. It was reported that in around 1810 one of the towers may have collapsed. In 1930 the building was placed under the guardianship of the Ministry of Works. The castle is now under the protection of Cadw, which is part of the Welsh Assembly's historic environment division. Media appearances In 1980 the location was used for all the outdoor shots of Ulrich's castle during the making of the film Dragonslayer. See also Castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of castles in Wales References External links www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Dolwyddelan Castle Buildings and structures completed in the 13th century Dolwyddelan Castles of Llywelyn the Great Castles in Conwy County Borough Grade I listed buildings in Conwy County Borough Grade I listed castles in Wales Cadw Motte-and-bailey castles	[ -0.36885300278663635, 0.49395906925201416, 0.34044089913368225, -1.3978413343429565, 0.15757028758525848, 0.4399152994155884, 0.32239365577697754, -0.14076606929302216, -0.14757193624973297, 0.23725572228431702, -0.42688676714897156, -0.15265043079853058, -0.10373277217149734, 0.4759538471698761, -0.795555830001831, 0.2915937602519989, 0.20684374868869781, 0.4524615406990051, 0.8398849368095398, -0.8395242094993591, 0.2244008332490921, -0.8395447134971619, -0.6715997457504272, 0.17269663512706757, 0.028347358107566833, -0.299479603767395, 0.7229875922203064, 0.26806122064590454, 0.050268422812223434, 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206612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20L.%20Bristol	Arthur L. Bristol	Arthur LeRoy Bristol, Jr. (July 15, 1886 – April 27, 1942) was a vice admiral in the United States Navy, who held important commands during World War I and World War II, and was an early aircraft carrier commander. Early life and career Born in Charleston, South Carolina, he entered the United States Naval Academy on September 23, 1902, and graduated with the Class of 1906. After the prescribed two years of sea duty, which he served in the pre-dreadnought USS Illinois (Battleship No. 7), he received his commission as ensign in 1908. Transferred to Mayflower in 1909, he remained in that Presidential yacht until ordered to Berlin, Germany, in January 1912 for a year and one-half as a naval attaché. In June 1913, he returned home to command the new destroyer Cummings (Destroyer No. 44) upon her completion at Bath Iron Works. A year later, he received the concurrent command of Terry (Destroyer No. 25) and the 2nd Division, Reserve Torpedo Flotilla, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. He then briefly commanded Jarvis (Destroyer No. 38). World War I Late in 1915, Bristol was assigned the duties of aide and torpedo officer on the staff of Commander, Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet and, in the winter of 1916, he became aide and flag secretary to the Commander, Destroyer Force, Atlantic Fleet. In the summer of 1917, soon after the United States entered World War I, he became aide and flag secretary for Commander, Cruiser Force, Atlantic Fleet. After serving in that capacity into the following winter, Bristol was awarded the Navy Cross for his service as flag secretary and acting chief of staff to Commander, Cruiser and Transport Force. While holding that post, he worked closely with Army authorities in the handling of troopship movements. Later, as flag secretary for the Commander, Cruiser and Transport Force, he earned the Distinguished Service Medal. Going ashore in February 1918, he labored in Washington through the end of World War I and into the spring of 1919 on duty in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Russian Civil War Bristol then commanded Breckinridge (DD-148) and Overton (DD-239) in succession, serving in the latter during that ship's operations in the Black Sea during the capitulation of White Russian forces to the Bolsheviks in November 1920. For his services rendered during the evacuation of the Crimea, a grateful Russian government-in-exile presented him with the Order of St. Stanislav, III Class. Assignments during the interwar years Detached from Overton in August 1921, Bristol again served in Washington attached to the Navy General Board and then went to Philadelphia to assist in the decommissioning of destroyers. A course of instruction at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, occupied him from July 1922 to May 1923, and he next served as an instructor on the staff of that institution from May 1923 to May 1924. Following a brief tour as aide for Commander, Scouting Fleet, he sailed to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to join the American naval mission there. Reporting to the battleship Arizona (BB-39) in February 1927, Bristol served as executive officer of that dreadnought until April of the following year, and then moved to the Naval Air Station (NAS), San Diego, California, for aviation instruction. Following further flight training at NAS, Pensacola, Florida, he was designated a naval aviator and was sent to the Asiatic Fleet, where he served as commanding officer of the seaplane tender Jason (AV-2) and later, as Commander, Aircraft Squadrons, Asiatic Fleet. Detached in the spring of 1931, he checked in briefly at the Office of Naval Intelligence in Washington before proceeding on to the United Kingdom to become naval attaché in London on October 1, 1931. A brief stop in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations upon his return from England in the spring of 1934 preceded his traveling to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia, as prospective commanding officer of the new aircraft carrier Ranger (CV-4). Carrier commander The first commanding officer of the Navy's first aircraft carrier to be built as such from the keel up, Bristol took Ranger to South American waters on shakedown and commanded her thereafter until June 1936, when he became Commanding Officer NAS, San Diego. During the latter tour, he served on the Hepburn Board, participating in the investigations into suitable base sites in the United States and its possessions. Becoming Commander, Patrol Wing 2, at Pearl Harbor, on July 27, 1939, Bristol was given flag rank on August 1, and, the following summer, became Commander Carrier Division 1. He then served as Commander, Aircraft, Scouting Force (September 18 to October 12, 1940), and as Commander, Patrol Wings, United States Fleet (October 12, 1940, to January 23, 1941) before reporting to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations on January 25, 1941. World War II With increasing American alarm over the course of the Battle of the Atlantic, the Roosevelt administration took steps to aid the British. To help escort convoys across the Atlantic, the Navy established the Support Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, and based it at Newport. On March 1, 1941, Rear Admiral Bristol became the Force's first commander. He held this important position throughout the tense, undeclared war with Germany in the summer and autumn of 1941 and through America's entry into the global conflict on December 7, of that year. Designated vice admiral on February 27, 1942, Bristol remained in that important command until he suffered a fatal heart attack at NS Argentia, Newfoundland, on April 27, 1942. Namesake The destroyer escort USS Arthur L Bristol (DE-281) was named in honor of Vice Admiral Bristol. She was converted during construction into the high-speed transport USS Arthur L. Bristol (APD-97), and was in commission as such from 1945 to 1946. The Arthur L. Bristol School, which educated the children of U.S. Navy personnel between 1957 and 1995 at Naval Air Station Argentia, Newfoundland, also was named for Vice Admiral Bristol. Attribution External links 1886 births 1942 deaths Military personnel from Charleston, South Carolina United States Naval Academy alumni Naval War College alumni United States Navy vice admirals United States Navy personnel of World War I United States Navy World War II admirals United States Naval Aviators Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States) Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)	[ -0.22765490412712097, 0.6403493285179138, -0.8404189348220825, -0.2690938413143158, 0.2327699065208435, 0.6270963549613953, 0.6306465268135071, 0.4083366096019745, -0.2611806392669678, -0.2588135600090027, -0.6148703694343567, 0.35003170371055603, -0.4349859356880188, 0.9790948033332825, -0.017221493646502495, 0.8304295539855957, -0.5343988537788391, 0.47437742352485657, -0.1200389489531517, -0.0546659491956234, -0.29892104864120483, -0.27442410588264465, 0.3256158232688904, 0.03766213729977608, 0.11982464790344238, 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206613	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scillus	Scillus	Scillus or Skillous () was a town of Triphylia, a district of ancient Elis, situated 20 stadia south of Olympia. In 572 BCE the Scilluntians assisted Pyrrhus, king of Pisa, in making war upon the Eleians; but they were completely conquered by the latter, and both Pisa and Scillus were razed to the ground. Scillus remained desolate till about 392 BCE, when the Lacedaemonians, who had a few years previously compelled the Eleians to renounce their supremacy over their dependent cities, colonised Scillus and gave it to Xenophon, then an exile from Athens. Xenophon resided here more than twenty years, and probably composed the Anabasis here, but was expelled from it by the Eleians soon after the Battle of Leuctra, in 371 BCE. He has left us a description of the place, which he says was situated 20 stadia from the Sacred Grove of Zeus, on the road to Olympia from Sparta, It stood upon the river Selinus, which was also the name of the river flowing by the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and like the latter it abounded in fish and shell-fish. Here Xenophon, from a tenth of the spoils acquired in the Asiatic campaign, dedicated a temple to Artemis, in imitation of the celebrated temple at Ephesus, and instituted a festival to the goddess. Scillus stood amidst woods and meadows, and afforded abundant pasture for cattle; while the neighbouring mountains supplied wild hogs, roebucks, and stags. When Pausanias visited Scillus five centuries afterwards the temple of Artemis still remained, and a statue of Xenophon, made of Pentelic marble. Scillus's site is near the modern village of Makrisia. See also Skillountia References Populated places in ancient Elis Former populated places in Greece Cities in ancient Peloponnese Triphylia Spartan colonies	[ 0.4883270561695099, -0.6999622583389282, -0.43712252378463745, 0.6404864192008972, 0.15934301912784576, 0.6768032908439636, -0.3748979866504669, 0.7167390584945679, -0.5070689916610718, -0.40547195076942444, 0.24217939376831055, -0.46213796734809875, -0.2868259847164154, 0.1568782776594162, -0.291071355342865, 0.2749801576137543, -0.19662487506866455, 0.35873937606811523, 0.5012801289558411, -0.03797931969165802, 0.30766561627388, 0.08052894473075867, 0.18217504024505615, -0.3069482743740082, -0.34256303310394287, 0.20128123462200165, -0.014323373325169086, 0.3250170648097992, 0.2906467914581299, -0.1361745446920395, 0.033191975206136703, 0.2214806079864502, 0.046091824769973755, -0.515875518321991, -0.345544695854187, 0.13605418801307678, 0.2958125174045563, 0.06443773210048676, 0.04549030587077141, -0.41053929924964905, 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206614	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%202264	NGC 2264	NGC 2264 is the designation number of the New General Catalogue that identifies two astronomical objects as a single object: the Cone Nebula, and the Christmas Tree Cluster. Two other objects are within this designation but not officially included, the Snowflake Cluster, and the Fox Fur Nebula. All of the objects are located in the Monoceros constellation and are located about 720 parsecs or 2,300 light-years from Earth. Due to its relative proximity and large size, it is extremely well studied. NGC 2264 is sometimes referred to as the Christmas Tree Cluster and the Cone Nebula. However, the designation of NGC 2264 in the New General Catalogue refers to both objects and not the cluster alone. Structure NGC 2264 is the location where the Cone Nebula, the Stellar Snowflake Cluster and the Christmas Tree Cluster have formed in this emission nebula. For reference, the Stellar Snowflake Cluster is located 2,700 light years away in the constellation Monoceros. The Monoceros constellation is not typically visible by the naked eye due to its lack of colossal stars. The Snowflake Cluster was granted its name due to its unmistakable pinwheel-like shape and its assortment of bright colors. The Christmas Tree star formation consists of young stars obscured by heavy layers of dust clouds. These dust clouds, along with hydrogen and helium are producing luminous new stars. The combination of dense clouds and an array of colors creates a color map filled with varying wavelengths. As seen in the photographs taken by the Spitzer Space telescope, we are able to differentiate between young red stars and older blue stars. With varying youthful stars comes vast changes to the overall structure of the clusters and nebula. For a cluster to be considered a Snowflake, it must remain in the original location the star was formed. When referring to this emission nebula overall, there are several aspects that contribute to the prominent configuration of a snowflake and/or Christmas tree cluster. There is a diverse arrangement of brilliant colors, and an evolving process of structure that follow star formation in a nebula. The ratio of brown dwarfs to stars is between 1 to 2.5 and 1 to 7.5. References External links NGC 2264 @ SEDS NGC objects pages Coordinates: 06h 41m 00s, +09° 53′ 00″ O Tannenbaum, O Tannenbaum! - Astronomy Sketch of the Day, 12-25-2008 Stellar Snowflake Cluster Spitzer Spots Stellar Snowflake on the 'Christmas Tree Cluster' 2264 Monoceros (constellation) Open clusters Star-forming regions	[ -0.05434689298272133, 0.3522975444793701, 0.5768095254898071, -0.3535885214805603, -0.5523637533187866, 0.2010878473520279, 0.5222607851028442, 0.2895313501358032, -0.9324504137039185, -0.07126408070325851, -0.5042201280593872, -0.5436292886734009, -0.5901937484741211, 0.9326454401016235, -0.1549149453639984, 0.4679236114025116, 0.6742776036262512, 0.49003493785858154, -0.4597039818763733, -0.4375835657119751, 0.4821532666683197, -0.09308625012636185, 0.06390281021595001, -0.4655335247516632, -0.3407841622829437, 0.3726223111152649, -0.12318971008062363, -0.048818811774253845, 0.8252584934234619, -0.16042162477970123, -0.20131219923496246, 0.5822015404701233, 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206618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%207742	NGC 7742	NGC 7742 also known as Fried Egg Galaxy is a face-on unbarred spiral galaxy in the constellation Pegasus. It is also classified as a Type II Seyfert Galaxy. The galaxy is unusual in that it contains a ring but no bar. Typically, bars are needed to produce a ring structure. The bars' gravitational forces move gas to the ends of the bars, where it forms into the rings seen in many barred spiral galaxies. In this galaxy, however, no bar is present, so this mechanism cannot be used to explain the formation of the ring. O. K. Sil'chenko and A. V. Moiseev proposed that the ring was formed partly as the result of a merger event in which a smaller gas-rich dwarf galaxy collided with NGC 7742. As evidence for this, they point to the unusually bright central region, the presence of highly inclined central gas disk, and the presence of gas that is counterrotating (or rotating in the opposite direction) with respect to the stars. Two Type II supernovae, SN 1993R and SN 2014cy, have been detected in NGC 7742. See also NGC 7217 - a face-on spiral galaxy with identical characteristics Sombrero Galaxy - a similar galaxy with a dust ring Gallery References External links NGC 7742 at ESA/Hubble Ring galaxies Unbarred spiral galaxies Pegasus (constellation) 7742 12760 72260	[ 0.06406687945127487, 0.25265204906463623, -0.11498305946588516, -0.2895200848579407, -0.38623809814453125, 0.47613343596458435, 0.4635479152202606, 0.29140132665634155, -0.4662991166114807, -0.8111750483512878, -0.7181416749954224, -0.54197758436203, -0.5571282505989075, 0.3951168954372406, -0.13138996064662933, 0.05293108522891998, 0.7119066715240479, 0.17868325114250183, -0.6095660328865051, -0.5823097825050354, 0.2869683504104614, -0.11220303177833557, 0.3468005061149597, -0.7001487016677856, -0.5152505040168762, 0.035258471965789795, 0.020788399502635002, 0.12264750897884369, 0.8899688124656677, -0.25140494108200073, 0.15972597897052765, 0.7121777534484863, 0.33391818404197693, -0.11142294108867645, 0.04293685033917427, 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206620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Gottfried%20Galle	Johann Gottfried Galle	Johann Gottfried Galle (9 June 1812 – 10 July 1910) was a German astronomer from Radis, Germany, at the Berlin Observatory who, on 23 September 1846, with the assistance of student Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, was the first person to view the planet Neptune and know what he was looking at. Urbain Le Verrier had predicted the existence and position of Neptune, and sent the coordinates to Galle, asking him to verify. Galle found Neptune in the same night he received Le Verrier's letter, within 1° of the predicted position. The discovery of Neptune is widely regarded as a dramatic validation of celestial mechanics, and is one of the most remarkable moments of 19th-century science. Early life Galle was born in the Papsthaus (a house in the Pabst wood) 2 km west of Radis in the vicinity of the town of Gräfenhainichen, as the first son of Marie Henriette née Pannier (1790–1839) and Johann Gottfried Galle (1790–1853), an operator of a tar oven. He attended the Gymnasium in Wittenberg and studied at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin from 1830 to 1833. He became a teacher at the Gymnasium in Guben, teaching mathematics and physics. Later on, he transferred to the Gymnasium in Berlin. Berlin Observatory He had started to work as an assistant to Johann Franz Encke in 1835 immediately following the completion of the new Berlin Observatory. Galle worked there for the next 16 years, making use especially of a Fraunhofer-refractor with 9 Zoll (~22.5 cm) aperture. In 1838 he discovered an inner, dark ring of Saturn. From 2 December 1839 to 6 March 1840 he discovered three new comets. In 1845 Galle was awarded a Dr. phil. His doctoral thesis was a reduction and critical discussion of Ole Rømer's observation of meridian transits of stars and planets on the days from 20 October to 23 October 1706. Discovery of Neptune Around the same time in 1845 he sent a copy of his thesis to Urbain Le Verrier, but only received an answer a year later. Sent on 18 September 1846, it reached Galle on the morning of 23 September. Le Verrier had been investigating the perturbations of the orbit of the planet Uranus and from this he derived the position of a still undiscovered planet, and requested Galle to search in the corresponding section of sky. The very same night (after Encke gave permission to search, against his own judgement), in collaboration with his assistant Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, Galle discovered a star of 8th magnitude, only 1° away from the calculated position, which was not recorded in the Berliner Akademischen Sternkarte. Over the next two evenings, a proper motion of the celestial object of 4 seconds of arc was measured, which determined it absolutely as a planet, for which Le Verrier proposed the name Neptune. Galle always refused to be acknowledged as the discoverer of Neptune; he attributed the discovery to Le Verrier. In 1847 Galle was designated as the successor to Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel as Director of Königsberg Observatory. Before the enacted nomination from Friedrich Wilhelm IV effected de facto, Galle withdrew his application at the beginning of 1848 due to an intrigue against him led by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. Breslau Observatory In 1851 he moved to Breslau (today Wrocław) to become the director of the local observatory, and in 1856 he became Professor of Astronomy at the Schlesischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Breslau. He worked in Breslau for over 45 years. For the academic year 1875/76 he was elected Rector. At Breslau he dealt with the exact determination of planetary orbits and developed methods for calculating the height of the aurorae and the path of meteors, and consolidated the data for all 414 comets discovered up to 1894 into one work (with the help of his son). Otherwise he concerned himself with the Earth's magnetic field and climatology. Altogether he published over 200 works. Later years In 1897 Galle returned to Potsdam, where he died in 1910 at the age of 98. He was survived by his wife and two sons, Andreas Galle and Georg Galle (1860–1946). The town of Gräfenhainichen, which is close to his birthplace, erected a memorial to him in 1977. Two craters, one on the Moon and the "happy face" one on Mars, the asteroid 2097 Galle, and a ring of Neptune have been named in his honor. In Breslau (today Wrocław) itself, it was commemorated by naming one of the streets with his last name - Gallestrasse. This name was in force until the end of World War II. Its contemporary name is Wapienna Street. Legacy Google celebrated Galle's 200th birthday with a Google Doodle. References External links J. Galle @ Astrophysics Data System Obituaries Astronomical images NASA photo of the Mars crater Galle (a.k.a. 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206627	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruffudd%20ap%20Cynan	Gruffudd ap Cynan	Gruffudd ap Cynan ( 1137), sometimes written as Gruffydd ap Cynan, was King of Gwynedd from 1081 until his death in 1137. In the course of a long and eventful life, he became a key figure in Welsh resistance to Norman rule, and was remembered as King of all Wales. As a descendant of Rhodri Mawr, Gruffudd ap Cynan was a senior member of the princely House of Aberffraw. Through his mother, Gruffudd had close family connections with the Norse settlement around Dublin and he frequently used Ireland as a refuge and as a source of troops. He three times gained the throne of Gwynedd and then lost it again, before regaining it once more in 1099 and this time keeping power until his death. Gruffudd laid the foundations which were built upon by his son Owain Gwynedd and his great-grandson Llywelyn the Great. Life Unusually for a Welsh king or prince, a near-contemporary biography of Gruffudd, The history of Gruffudd ap Cynan, has survived. Much of our knowledge of Gruffudd comes from this source. The traditional view among scholars was that it was written during the third quarter of the 12th century during the reign of Gruffudd's son, Owain Gwynedd, but it has recently been suggested that it may date from the early reign of Llywelyn the Great, around 1200. The author is not known. Most of the existing manuscripts of the history are in Welsh but these are clearly translations of a Latin original. It is usually considered that the original Latin version has been lost, and that existing Latin versions are re-translations from the Welsh. However, Russell (2006) has suggested that the Latin version in Peniarth MS 434E incorporates the original Latin version, later amended to bring it into line with the Welsh text. Ancestry According to the Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan, Gruffudd was born in the Hiberno-Norse Kingdom of Dublin and reared near Swords, County Dublin in Ireland. He was the son of a Welsh prince, Cynan ap Iago, who was a claimant to the kingship of Gwynedd but was probably never its king, though his father, Gruffudd's grandfather, Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig, had ruled Gwynedd from 1023 to 1039. When Gruffudd first appeared on the scene in Wales the Welsh annals several times refer to him as "grandson of Iago" rather than the more usual "son of Cynan", indicating that his father was little known in Wales. Cynan ap Iago seems to have died while Gruffudd was still young, since the History describes his mother telling him who his father was. According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan, Gruffudd's mother was Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb, a granddaughter of King Sigtrygg Silkbeard and a member of the Hiberno-Norse Uí Ímair dynasty. The latter had two sons named Amlaíb: one died in 1013, whilst another died in 1034. Either man could have been Ragnailt's father. During his many struggles to gain the kingship of Gwynedd, Gruffudd received considerable aid from Ireland, from the Hiberno-Norse at Dublin, the Isles and Wexford and from Muircheartach Ua Briain, because he was also descendant through his mother from Brian Boru, High King of Ireland. First bid for the throne Gruffudd first attempted to take over the rule of Gwynedd in 1075, following the death of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn. Trahaearn ap Caradog had seized control of Gwynedd but had not yet firmly established himself. Gruffudd landed on Abermenai Point, Anglesey with an Irish force, and with the assistance of troops provided by the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan first defeated and killed Cynwrig ap Rhiwallon, an ally of Trahaearn who held Llŷn, then defeated Trahaearn himself in the battle of Gwaed Erw in Meirionnydd and gained control of Gwynedd. Gruffudd then led his forces eastwards to reclaim territories taken over by the Normans, and despite the assistance previously given by Robert of Rhuddlan attacked and destroyed Rhuddlan Castle. However tension between Gruffudd's Danish-Irish bodyguard and the local Welsh led to a rebellion in Llŷn, and Trahaearn took the opportunity to counterattack, defeating Gruffudd at the battle of Bron yr Erw above Clynnog Fawr the same year. Second bid for the throne and capture by the Normans Gruffudd fled to Ireland but, in 1081, returned and made an alliance with Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Deheubarth. Rhys had been attacked by Caradog ap Gruffudd of Gwent and Morgannwg, and had been forced to flee to St David's Cathedral. Gruffudd this time embarked from Waterford with a force composed of Danes and Irish and landed near St David's, presumably by prior arrangement with Rhys. He was joined here by a force of his supporters from Gwynedd, and he and Rhys marched north to seek Trahaearn ap Caradog and Caradog ap Gruffudd who had themselves made an alliance and been joined by Meilyr ap Rhiwallon of Powys. The armies of the two confederacies met at the Battle of Mynydd Carn, with Gruffudd and Rhys victorious and Trahaearn, Caradog and Meilyr all being killed. Gruffudd was thus able to seize power in Gwynedd for the second time. He was soon faced with a new enemy, as the Normans were now encroaching on Gwynedd. Gruffudd had not been king very long when he was enticed to a meeting with Hugh, Earl of Chester and Hugh, Earl of Shrewsbury at Rhug, near Corwen. At the meeting Gruffudd was seized and taken prisoner. According to his biographer this was by the treachery of one of his own men, Meirion Goch. Gruffudd was imprisoned in Earl Hugh's castle at Chester for many years while Earl Hugh and Robert of Rhuddlan went on to take possession of Gwynedd, building castles at Bangor, Caernarfon and Aberlleiniog. Escape from captivity and third reign Gruffudd reappeared on the scene years later, having escaped from captivity, he was free by 1094. Gruffudd again took refuge in Ireland but returned to Gwynedd to lead the assaults on Norman castles such as Castell Aberlleiniog. The Welsh revolt had begun in 1094 and by late 1095 had spread to many parts of Wales. This induced William II of England (William Rufus) to intervene, invading northern Wales in 1095. However, his army was unable to bring the Welsh to battle and returned to Chester without having achieved very much. King William mounted a second invasion in 1097, but again without much success. The History only mentions one invasion by Rufus, which could indicate that Gruffudd did not feature in the resistance to the first invasion. At this time Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of Powys led the Welsh resistance. In the summer of 1098, Earl Hugh of Chester joined with Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury in another attempt to recover his losses in Gwynedd. Gruffudd and his ally Cadwgan ap Bleddyn retreated to Anglesey, but were then forced to flee to Ireland in a skiff when a fleet he had hired from the Danish settlement in Ireland accepted a better offer from the Normans and changed sides. King for the fourth time and consolidation The Normans were obliged to evacuate Anglesey, and the following year, Gruffudd returned from Ireland to take possession again, having apparently come to an agreement with Earl Hugh of Chester. The situation was changed by the arrival of a Norwegian fleet under the command of King Magnus III of Norway, also known as Magnus Barefoot, who attacked the Norman forces near the eastern end of the Menai Straits. Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury was killed by an arrow said to have been shot by Magnus himself. With the death of Hugh of Chester in 1101, Gruffudd was able to consolidate his position in Gwynedd, as much by diplomacy as by force. He met King Henry I of England who granted him the rule of Llŷn, Eifionydd, Ardudwy and Arllechwedd, considerably extending his kingdom. By 1114, he had gained enough power to induce King Henry to invade Gwynedd, one detachment led by King Alexander I of Scotland. Faced by overwhelming force, Gruffudd was obliged to pay homage to Henry and to pay a heavy fine, but lost no territory. The Kingdom was expanded by his sons, Owain Gwynedd and later Cadwaladr, by Cynan's last years "Ceredigion, Meirionnydd, Rhos, Rhufoniog and Dyffryn Clwyd were under the rule of Gwynedd". The cantrefs of Rhos and Rhufoniog were annexed in 1118, Meirionnydd captured from Powys in 1123, and Dyffryn Clwyd in 1124. Another invasion by the king of England in 1121 was a military failure. The king had to come to terms with Gruffudd and made no further attempt to invade Gwynedd during Gruffudd's reign. The death of Cadwallon in a battle against the forces of Powys near Llangollen in 1132 checked further expansion for the time being. Gruffudd was now powerful enough to ensure that his nominee David the Scot was consecrated as Bishop of Bangor in 1120. The see had been effectively vacant since bishop Hervey le Breton had been forced to flee by the Welsh almost twenty years before, since Gruffudd and King Henry could not agree on a candidate. David went on to rebuild Bangor Cathedral with a large financial contribution from Gruffudd. Owain and Cadwaladr, in alliance with Gruffudd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, gained a crushing victory over the Normans at Crug Mawr, near Cardigan, in 1136 and took possession of Ceredigion. The latter part of Gruffydd's reign was considered to be a "Golden Age"; according to the Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan Gwynedd was "bespangled with lime-washed churches like the stars in the firmament". Death and succession Gruffudd died in his bed, old and blind in 1137, and was mourned by the annalist of Brut y Tywysogion as the "head and king and defender and pacifier of all Wales". He was buried by the high altar in Bangor Cathedral, which he had been involved in rebuilding. He also made bequests to many other churches, including one to Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin where he had worshipped as a boy. An elegy was sung for him by the poet Meilyr Brydydd, his wife Angharad survived him by 25 years. He was succeeded as king of Gwynedd by his son Owain Gwynedd. His daughter Gwenllian, who married Gruffudd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, son of his old ally Rhys ap Tewdwr, is also notable for her resistance to English rule. Legacy According to Hywel Teifi Edwards, Gruffudd, according to legend, not only reformed the Welsh bardic tradition to accord with that of the Irish-language bards, but also sponsored an Eisteddfod at Caerwys during his reign as King of Gwynedd. Children The family line of Gruffudd shows he had many children by several different women. With wife Angharad (daughter of Owain ab Edwin) he had: Owain Gwynedd (Owain ap Gruffudd), married (1) Gwladus (Gladys) ferch Llywarch, daughter of Llywarch ap Trahaearn (2) Cristin ferch Goronwy, daughter of Goronwy ab Owain Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd, married Alice de Clare, daughter of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare Cadwallon ap Gruffudd Mareda/Marared Susanna, married Madog ap Maredudd, prince of Powys Ranulht/Rannillt, married Madog ap Idnerth, King of Cynllibiwg Agnes/Annest ferch gruffydd Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd, married Gruffydd ap Rhys, prince of Deheubarth. The FitzRery family of Swords, County Dublin, who were prominent in Dublin politics and commercial life until the seventeenth century, claimed descent from Gruffudd: since he was born in Swords, and maintained close links with Ireland, the claim is not implausible. Ancestry References Citations Book Sources - maryjones.us Edition Notes External links 1050s births 1137 deaths Year of birth uncertain Monarchs of Gwynedd Gruffudd Gruffydd British people of Scandinavian descent 11th-century Welsh monarchs 12th-century Welsh monarchs Nobility from Dublin (city) Norse-Gaelic monarchs Welsh people of Irish descent	[ -0.4775233566761017, 0.16166484355926514, -0.18588007986545563, -0.4146825075149536, -0.9151262044906616, 0.49727270007133484, 0.6038259863853455, 0.0624641478061676, -0.27435415983200073, -0.241283118724823, -0.08532537519931793, 0.43900951743125916, -0.17416730523109436, -0.40233924984931946, -0.2959641218185425, 0.08541250228881836, 0.5068861246109009, -0.33725202083587646, 0.28175631165504456, -0.7348963618278503, -0.19250334799289703, -0.3839365541934967, 0.04373587295413017, 0.2576810121536255, 0.10254789888858795, 0.3312530815601349, 0.6054143905639648, 0.011953715234994888, 0.10117682069540024, -0.22454321384429932, 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206631	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20O.%20Abell	George O. Abell	George Ogden Abell (March 1, 1927 – October 7, 1983) was an American educator. Teaching at UCLA, priorly he worked as a research astronomer, administrator, as a popularizer of science and of education, and as a skeptic. He earned his B.S. in 1951, his M.S. in 1952 and his Ph.D. in 1957, all from the California Institute of Technology. He was a Ph.D. student under Donald Osterbrock. His astronomical career began as a tour guide at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. Abell made great contributions to astronomical knowledge which resulted from his work during and after the National Geographic Society - Palomar Observatory Sky Survey, especially concerning clusters of galaxies and planetary nebulae. A galaxy, an asteroid, a periodic comet, and an observatory are all named in his honor. His teaching career extended beyond the campus of UCLA to the high school student oriented Summer Science Program, and educational television. He not only taught about science but also about what is not science. He was an originating member of the Committee on Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Early life George Ogden Abell was born in Los Angeles California on March 27, 1927 to Theodore C. Abell and Annamarie (Ogden) Abell. Theodore Abell was born in Waterbury, Connecticut in 1890, was a Unitarian minister, and was one of the original members of the Hollywood Humanist Society. Annamarie was born in Kansas City, Missouri in 1896, and studied to be a librarian, worked for a short while as a librarian but eventually became a social worker. George Ogden Abell was named for his mother's brother, George Ogden. Theodore and Annamarie divorced when Abell was 6 years old. Annamarie and son went to live with her father, also George Ogden, who was an author of western novels. Theodore maintained regular contact with Abell and took him to many museums and to Griffith Observatory and planetarium when he was about 8, soon after it opened. This prompted Abell to start reading books on astronomy. Abell attended Van Nuys High School where he achieved all As in all math and science courses that he took. As a youth, Abell held many part-time jobs, he had a newspaper delivery as well as mail route, worked in a bowling alley, a restaurant, grocery store, and did home maintenance work. Military service Abell enlisted in the US Army Air Corps after he graduated from high school in 1945 in the waning days of World War II. He took the tests that qualified him for training as a pilot, navigator or bombardier, however the war ended and those schools were shut down before he could begin training. Instead, he went to weather school at Chanute Field in Illinois. On finishing that, he had the option of staying at Chanute Field to attend forecasting school, however, that would have entailed becoming an officer and staying in the army longer. Since the war was over, getting out of the army as soon as possible seemed more important to him, so he opted to forego forecasting school. Instead he was sent to Japan where he served as an Air Corps weatherman for six months before being discharged after 18 months of total service. Education Upon leaving the Air Corps, Abell returned to Los Angeles and worked as a gas station attendant while waiting to start school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). At Caltech, Abell studied physics his freshman year. However, the next year Caltech inaugurated its astronomy department and as a sophomore he switched majors to astronomy. As an undergraduate student, Abell lived in Caltech's Fleming House and bowled on the Fleming House bowling team. Abell participated in the Drama Club, and was president of the club for one year. He also wrote the music column for Caltech's weekly newspaper, The California Tech, and worked at Griffith Observatory as a guide while an undergrad student. Abell received his Bachelor of Science degree in astronomy in 1951. He then continued at Caltech for graduate studies in astronomy. He received a Master of Science in 1952 and a Ph.D. in 1957. He was the first Ph.D. student of Donald Osterbrock. During his graduate student days he worked at Griffith Observatory as a lecturer. Career Palomar sky survey Abell's first professional astronomical occupation came as a Caltech grad student when he was an observer on the National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey. Several scientific advances came out of this work including, The Abell catalog of 2,712 rich clusters of galaxies, "...a seminal contribution to observational cosmology". The recognition of second order clusters of the clusters of galaxies, which also disproved Carl Charlier's hierarchical model. The study of luminosity of clusters showing how they can be used for determination of relative distances. A list of 86 planetary nebulae which includes Abell 39. Recognition that planetary nebulae derive from red giant stars, together with Peter Goldreich, of UCLA, With Robert G. Harrington discovered periodic comet 52P/Harrington-Abell. An extended version of the clusters of galaxies catalogue was published after Abell's death in 1987 under the authorship of Abell, Harold G. Corwin and Ronald P. Olowin. This extended catalog includes clusters seen from the southern hemisphere, lists approximately 4,000 clusters of galaxies and includes thirty members with a redshift up to z = 0.2. (See List of Abell clusters.) Teaching UCLA Abell taught at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) for 17 years where he was known as an outstanding and brilliant teacher. He believed that the cornerstone of teaching science is to present how and why the facts are known to be facts; and not in the mere presentation of facts that might amaze, sensationalize, entertain but not enlighten the listener. Abell chaired the UCLA Astronomy Department for seven years 1968 to 1975. He also served on several university committees and commissions, such as, Faculty Senate Committee on Parking and Transportation (1959) Chairman of the Graduate Council (1964-1965) Chairman of the Committee on Athletics (1968-1969) Chairman of the Los Angeles Division (1972-1973) During the period of student unrest in the 1960s Abell was an active member and organizer of the unofficial Committee for Responsible University Government. This was due to his belief that faculty and administration standards were weakening as a result of the unrest. Summer science program Abell was a leader and teacher in the Summer Science Program for talented high school students. At Thatcher School in Ojai, California he and others taught college-level physics, mathematics and astronomy to these students. A number of them went on to pursue distinguished careers in science. One such is Ed Krupp the long-time director of Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. Other teaching methods Abell also lectured at other venues, specifically at many small colleges that lacked astronomy departments. He also strove to bring the stories of science and astronomy to the people through public lectures. He wrote several books including Exploration of the Universe a textbook widely used in undergraduate astronomy courses. He helped produce educational TV programs/series such as Project Universe and Understanding Space and Time. He also appeared in some of these as himself, an astronomer. Project Universe was a 30 part introductory course on astronomy that featured Ed Krupp director of Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. Abell and Julian Schwinger created Understanding Space and Time in 16 parts to explain in layman's terms celestial mechanics, relativity, and the large scale structure of the universe. Skepticism Abell was not just a teacher of astronomy and science, he also taught about popular topics with no scientific evidence. He was a debunker of astrology, pseudoscience, and the occult. In a tribute to Abell in The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Lawrence H. Aller wrote, His opposition to such forces took many forms, in writings, and in television appearances. He was one of the co-founders of the Committee on Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal now known as CSI, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Other founding members of the committee were, Co-chairmen Paul Kurtz State University of New York at Buffalo, professor of philosophy Editor of The Humanist Marcello Truzzi Eastern Michigan University, professor of sociology Authority on witchcraft and exorcism Isaac Asimov, writer Bart Bok, University of Arizona, astronomer Brand Blanshard, Yale University philosopher L. Sprague de Camp, author of books debunking pseudoscience Sidney Hook, philosopher at the Hoover Institution and emeritus at New York University Ernest Nagel, Columbia, philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine, Harvard, philosopher B. F. Skinner, Harvard, psychologist Carl Sagan, Cornell, expert on possibilities of extraterrestrial life Abell was a contributor to the organization's journal Skeptical Inquirer. Astronomical namesakes There are several astronomical bodies named for George Abell, as well as an earthbound observatory. The Abell Galaxy, discovered by Abell was the largest known astronomical object for many years Asteroid (3449)Abell Periodic comet 52P/Harrington-Abell, which Abell co-discovered with Robert Harrington George Abell Observatory, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom Affiliations Professional American Astronomical Society Councilor 1969-1972 Education Committee, Chairman Astronomical Society of the Pacific President 1969-1971 Member Board of Directors 1982-1984 Royal Astronomical Society, elected a Fellow in 1970 International Astronomical Union Cosmology Commission, President Organized symposia on the large-scale structure of the universe UCLA – 1979 Crete – 1982 American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the governing board Summer Science Program Academic Director 1960-1983 Guest speaker in other years Skeptical Committee on Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (founding member) Which became Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Pantheon of Skeptics, one of the initial 27 members Personal life Abell was married twice. The first marriage occurred right after his graduation from Caltech. His first wife was a school teacher and they had two sons together named Anthony and Jonathan. This marriage ended after 19 years with the sons remaining with their father. Abell's second wife, Phyllis, was a painter who studied three years at the Philadelphia Museum School of Art but did not graduate. Abell enjoyed many hobbies during his lifetime such as, softball, bowling, music concerts and grand opera (on which he was considered an authority), record collecting, and literature. He was an avid baseball fan, frequently in attendance at Los Angeles Dodgers games. Abell died at home on October 7, 1983 after suffering a heart attack. Selected published works (PhD Thesis) Journal articles He was slated to take over as editor of the Astronomical Journal effective January 1, 1984, but his death occurred before that appointment became effective. Filmography See also List of Abell clusters Abell catalogue :Category:Abell objects Abell Catalog of Planetary Nebulae Obituaries JRASC 77 (1983) L85 QJRAS 30 (1989) 283 University of California: In Memoriam, 1985 Notes References 1927 births 1983 deaths Discoverers of comets American astronomers 20th-century American educators American skeptics Summer Science Program University of California, Los Angeles faculty California Institute of Technology alumni Military personnel from California United States Army Air Forces soldiers United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II	[ -0.09076090902090073, 0.4534488320350647, -0.8926898837089539, -0.04652254283428192, -0.15991903841495514, 0.32242855429649353, 0.5266760587692261, -0.009700549766421318, -0.1051517128944397, -0.40827223658561707, 0.12100887298583984, 0.14520099759101868, -0.2729148268699646, 0.39608171582221985, -0.22846046090126038, 0.041108839213848114, -0.24382327497005463, 0.10803171247243881, -0.48611995577812195, 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206634	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix%20Nebula	Helix Nebula	The Helix Nebula (also known as NGC 7293 or Caldwell 63) is a planetary nebula (PN) located in the constellation Aquarius. Discovered by Karl Ludwig Harding, probably before 1824, this object is one of the closest to the Earth of all the bright planetary nebulae. The distance, measured by the Gaia mission, is 655±13 light-years. It is similar in appearance to the Cat's Eye Nebula and the Ring Nebula, whose size, age, and physical characteristics are similar to the Dumbbell Nebula, varying only in its relative proximity and the appearance from the equatorial viewing angle. The Helix Nebula has sometimes been referred to as the "Eye of God" in pop culture, as well as the "Eye of Sauron". General information The Helix Nebula is an example of a planetary nebula, formed by an intermediate to low-mass star, which sheds its outer layers near the end of its evolution. Gases from the star in the surrounding space appear, from our vantage point, as if we are looking down a helix structure. The remnant central stellar core, known as the central star (CS) of the planetary nebula, is destined to become a white dwarf star. The observed glow of the central star is so energetic that it causes the previously expelled gases to brightly fluoresce. The nebula is in the constellation of Aquarius, and lies about 650 light-years away, spanning about 0.8 parsecs (2.5 light-years). Its age is estimated to be years, based on the ratio of its size to its measured expansion rate of 31 km·s−1. Structure The Helix Nebula is thought to be shaped like a prolate spheroid with strong density concentrations toward the filled disk along the equatorial plane, whose major axis is inclined about 21° to 37° from our vantage point. The size of the inner disk is 8×19 arcmin in diameter (0.52 pc); the outer torus is 12×22 arcmin in diameter (0.77 pc); and the outer-most ring is about 25 arcmin in diameter (1.76 pc). The outer-most ring appears flattened on one side due to it colliding with the ambient interstellar medium. Expansion of the whole planetary nebula structure is estimated to have occurred in the last 6,560 years, and 12,100 years for the inner disk. Spectroscopically, the outer ring's expansion rate is 40 km/s, and about 32 km/s for the inner disk. Knots The Helix Nebula was the first planetary nebula discovered to contain cometary knots. Its main ring contains knots of nebulosity, which have now been detected in several nearby planetary nebulae, especially those with a molecular envelope like the Ring nebula and the Dumbbell Nebula. These knots are radially symmetric (from the CS) and are described as "cometary", each centered on a core of neutral molecular gas and containing bright local photoionization fronts or cusps towards the central star and tails away from it. All tails extend away from the Planetary Nebula Nucleus (PNN) in a radial direction. Excluding the tails, each knot is approximately the size of our Solar system, while each of the cusp knots are optically thick due to Lyc photons from the CS. There are about 40,000 cometary knots in the Helix Nebula. The knots are probably the result of Rayleigh-Taylor instability. The low density, high expansion velocity ionized inner nebula is accelerating the denser, slowly expanding, largely neutral material which had been shed earlier when the star was on the Asymptotic Giant Branch. The excitation temperature varies across the Helix nebula. The rotational-vibrational temperature ranges from 1800 K in a cometary knot located in the inner region of the nebula are about 2.5'(arcmin) from the CS, and is calculated at about 900 K in the outer region at the distance of 5.6'. <p> Gallery Videos See also New General Catalogue (NGC) References External links NASA/JPL-Caltech - The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) SEDS - The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) NightSkyInfo – The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) Snopes - Helix Eye of God - Urban Legend Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) at Constellation Guide Aquarius (constellation) Articles containing video clips 063b NGC objects Planetary nebulae	[ 0.27444988489151, -0.40927964448928833, 0.4841115176677704, -0.2192966341972351, -0.37394651770591736, -0.05439627170562744, 0.1717853546142578, 0.17735980451107025, -0.44452348351478577, -0.7489988207817078, -0.26025786995887756, -0.05889984220266342, -0.7619993090629578, 0.7914658784866333, 0.5466358661651611, 0.17541247606277466, 0.512100100517273, 0.5559204816818237, 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206635	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20M.%20Miller%20Jr.	Walter M. Miller Jr.	Walter Michael Miller Jr. (1923–1996) was an American science fiction writer. His fix-up novel, A Canticle for Leibowitz (1959), the only novel published in his lifetime, won the 1961 Hugo Award for Best Novel. Prior to its publication, he was a writer of short stories. Early life Miller was born on January 23, 1923, in New Smyrna Beach, Florida. Educated at the University of Tennessee and the University of Texas, he worked as an engineer. During World War II, he served in the Army Air Forces as a radioman and tail gunner, flying more than fifty bombing missions over Italy. He took part in the bombing of the Benedictine Abbey at Monte Cassino, which proved a traumatic experience for him. Joe Haldeman reported that Miller "had post-traumatic stress disorder for 30 years before it had a name", and that Miller displayed a photograph he had taken of Ron Kovic prominently in his living room. After the war, Miller converted to Catholicism. He married Anna Louise Becker in 1945 and they had four children. He lived with science-fiction writer Judith Merril in 1953. Career Between 1951 and 1957, Miller published over three dozen science fiction short stories, winning a Hugo Award in 1955 for the story "The Darfsteller". He also wrote scripts for the television show Captain Video in 1953. Late in the 1950s, Miller assembled a novel from three closely related novellas he had published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in 1955, 1956 and 1957. The novel, entitled A Canticle for Leibowitz, was published in 1959. It is a post-apocalyptic novel revolving around the canonisation of Saint Leibowitz, and is considered a masterpiece of the genre. It won the 1961 Hugo Award for Best Novel. After the success of A Canticle for Leibowitz, Miller ceased publishing, although several compilations of Miller's earlier stories were issued in the 1960s and 1970s. A radio adaptation of A Canticle for Leibowitz was produced by WHA Radio and NPR in 1981 and is available on CD. A radio adaptation of the first two parts was broadcast in the UK by the BBC in 1992; further details can be found on the BBC Genome Project. Later years In Miller's later years, he became a recluse, avoiding contact with nearly everyone, including family members; he never allowed his literary agent, Don Congdon, to meet him. According to science fiction writer Terry Bisson, Miller struggled with depression, but had managed to nearly complete a 600-page manuscript for the sequel to Canticle before taking his own life with a firearm on January 9, 1996, shortly after his wife's death. The sequel, Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman, was completed by Bisson at Miller's request and published in 1997. Publications Saint Leibowitz series The series includes Miller's two novels, published almost 40 years apart. A Canticle for Leibowitz (J. B. Lippincott, 1959) Fiat Homo, revised version of "A Canticle for Leibowitz", 1955 Fiat Lux, revision of "And the Light Is Risen", 1956 Fiat Voluntas Tua, revision of "The Last Canticle", 1957 Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman (1997) – "Terry Bisson finished the nearly complete, and reportedly very polished, manuscript left by Miller." Collections Conditionally Human (1962), 3 stories The View from the Stars (1965), 9 stories The Science Fiction Stories of Walter M. Miller Jr. (1977) – omnibus of Conditionally Human and The View from the Stars The Best of Walter M. Miller Jr. (1980) – omnibus of Conditionally Human and The View from the Stars plus two added stories, The Lineman and Vengeance for Nikolai Conditionally Human and Other Stories (1982) – 6 stories from the 1980 omnibus The Darfstellar and Other Stories (1982) – the remaining 8 stories from the 1980 omnibus Short stories "MacDoughal's Wife" (in American Mercury, March 1950; not science fiction) "Month of Mary" (in Extension Magazine, May 1950; not science fiction) "Dark Benediction" (1951) "Izzard and the Membrane" (1951) "The Little Creeps" (1951) "Secret of the Death Dome" (1951) "The Song of Vorhu" (1951) "The Soul-Empty Ones" (1951) "The Space Witch" (1951) "The Big Hunger" (1952) "Big Joe and the Nth Generation" (1952, also known as "It Takes a Thief") "Bitter Victory" (1952) "Blood Bank" (1952) "Cold Awakening" (1952) "Command Performance" (1952, also known as "Anybody Else Like Me?") "Conditionally Human" (1952) "Dumb Waiter" (1952) "Gravesong" (1952) "Let My People Go" (1952) "No Moon for Me" (1952) "A Family Matter" (1952) "The Reluctant Traitor" (Amazing Stories, January 1952) "Please Me Plus Three" (in Other Worlds Science Stories, August 1952) "Six and Ten Are Johnny" (1952) "Crucifixus Etiam" (1953, also known as "The Sower Does Not Reap") "I, Dreamer" (1953) "The Yokel" (1953) "Wolf Pack" (1953) "Check and Checkmate" (1953) "Death of a Spaceman" (1954, also known as "Memento Homo") "I Made You" (1954) "The Ties that Bind" (1954) "The Will" (1954) "Way of a Rebel" (1954) "A Canticle for Leibowitz" (The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, April 1955; reprinted as "The First Canticle"; revised into A Canticle for Leibowitz) "The Darfsteller" (1955) "The Hoofer" (1955) "The Triflin' Man" (1955, also known as "You Triflin' Skunk!") "And the Light is Risen" (The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, August 1956; revised into A Canticle for Leibowitz) "The Last Canticle" (The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, February 1957; revised into A Canticle for Leibowitz) "The Lineman" (1957) "Vengeance for Nikolai" (1957, also known as "The Song of Marya") Anthologies Beyond Armageddon: Twenty-One Sermons to the Dead, eds. Martin H. Greenberg and Miller (Donald I. Fine, 1985) Works about Miller Roberson, W. H. (2011). Walter M. Miller Jr.: A Reference Guide to His Fiction and His Life. Roberson, W. H., and Battenfeld, R. L. (1992). Walter M. Miller Jr.: A Bio-Bibliography. Secrest, Rose (2002). Glorificemus: A Study of the Fiction of Walter M. Miller Jr. Musch, Sebastian (2016). "The Atomic Priesthood and Nuclear Waste Management - Religion, Sci-fi Literature and the End of our Civilization" Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 51 (3), p. 626-639. References External links "Sebastian Musch: The Atomic Priesthood and Nuclear Waste Management - Religion, Sci-fi Literature and the End of our Civilization 20th-century American novelists American science fiction writers Converts to Roman Catholicism Hugo Award-winning writers People from New Smyrna Beach, Florida Roman Catholic writers Suicides by firearm in Florida 1923 births 1996 suicides Abbey of Monte Cassino American male novelists Christian novelists United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II United States Army Air Forces soldiers University of Tennessee alumni University of Texas at Austin alumni American male short story writers Place of death missing 20th-century American short story writers 20th-century American male writers Catholics from Florida Writers from Florida People with post-traumatic stress disorder People with mood disorders 1996 deaths	[ -0.7259101271629333, 0.6570666432380676, -0.7643871903419495, -0.4218388497829437, -0.003932665567845106, 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206636	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Langley%20%28CVL-27%29	USS Langley (CVL-27)	USS Langley (CVL-27) was an light aircraft carrier that served the United States Navy from 1943 to 1947, and French Navy as from 1951 to 1963. Career Langley was named for Samuel Pierpont Langley, American scientist and aviation pioneer. She carried on the name and tradition of , the first U.S. Navy aircraft carrier, which had been sunk on 27 February 1942. The ship was originally ordered as a light cruiser and named Fargo (CL‑85). She was laid down as USS Crown Point (CV‑27) by New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey United States on 11 April 1942 and renamed Langley on 13 November 1942. 1943 Langley was launched on 22 May 1943 and commissioned on 31 August 1943, Captain W.M. Dillon in command. After shakedown in the Caribbean Sea, Langley departed Philadelphia on 6 December 1943 for Pearl Harbor, where she participated in training operations. 1944 On 19 January 1944, she sailed with Task Force 58 (TF 58) for the attack on the Marshall Islands. From 29 January to 6 February, Langleys Carrier Air Group 32 (CVG-32) conducted raids on Wotje and Taroa Island to support the landings at Kwajalein, and from 10 through 28 February at Eniwetok. After a brief respite at Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, Langleys aircraft hit Japanese positions on Palau, Yap, and Woleai, Caroline Islands, from 30 March to 1 April. She next proceeded to New Guinea to take part in the capture of Hollandia on 25 April. A mere 4 days later, the carrier engaged in the 2‑day strike against the Japanese bastion Truk. During the raid, Langley and her aircraft accounted for some 35 enemy planes destroyed or damaged, while losing only one aircraft herself. Langley next departed Majuro on 7 June 1944 for the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. On 11 June, TF 58 launched a strike of 208 fighters and eight torpedo bombers against enemy bases and airfields on Saipan and Tinian. From 11 June to 8 August, Langley operated with TF 58 and also took part in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, 19 to 20 June 1944. The carrier departed Eniwetok on 29 August and sortied with TF 38, under the command of Adm. William F. Halsey for air assaults on Peleliu and airfields in the Philippines as the preliminary steps in the invasion of the Palaus from 15 to 20 September 1944. During October, she operated off Formosa and the Pescadores Islands. Later in the month, TF 38 supported the landings on Leyte. The Japanese efforts to stop the U.S. advance included the counterattack by most available major fleet units ("Operation Sho-Go"). On 24 October, Langleys planes took part in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea. Aircraft of TF 38 attacked the Japanese Center Force, as it steamed toward the San Bernardino Strait and the American beachhead at Tacloban. The Japanese units temporarily retired. The following day, upon word of Japanese aircraft carriers north of Leyte, TF 38 raced to intercept. In the ensuing Battle off Cape Engaño, the Japanese lost four carriers, two battleships, four heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and five destroyers. Langleys aircraft assisted in the destruction of the carriers Zuihō and Zuikaku, the latter being the only remaining carrier of the six that had participated in the Pearl Harbor attack. During November 1944, Langley supported the Philippine landings and strikes the Manila Bay area. Aircraft of Langleys CVG-44 attacked Japanese reinforcement convoys, and airfields on Luzon and in the Cape Engaño area. On 1 December, the carrier withdrew to Ulithi for reprovisioning. 1945 During January 1945, Langley participated in the South China Sea raid supporting Invasion of Lingayen Gulf. Raids were made against Formosa, French Indochina, and the China coast from 30 December 1944 to 25 January 1945. Langleys task group was attacked by two dive bombers on 21 January. One bomb stuck the center of Langleys flight deck forward and penetrated to the gallery deck to explode among the officers' staterooms just aft of the forecastle. The fire was quickly extinguished, and the flight deck repaired to continue flight operations. The second bomber inflicted greater damage on . Langley next joined in the sweeps against Tokyo and Nansei Shoto in support of the landings on Iwo Jima between 10 February and 18 March 1945. She next raided airfields on the Japanese homeland, and arrived off Okinawa on 23 March. Until 11 May, the ship operated either off Okinawa or took part in strikes on Kyushu, Japan, in an effort to destroy kamikaze bases in southern Japan which were launching desperate and deadly attacks. After touching Ulithi and Pearl Harbor, she steamed to San Francisco, arriving on 3 June for repairs and modernization at the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard. She departed 1 August and reached Pearl Harbor on 8 August 1945. While there, word arrived that hostilities had ended. She completed two "Magic Carpet" voyages to the Pacific, transporting soldiers back to the United States, and got underway on 1 October for Philadelphia. 1946 She departed from that port 15 November for the first of two trips to Europe transporting U.S. Army troops returning home from that theater. She returned to Philadelphia on 6 January 1946 and was assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, Philadelphia Group, on 31 May 1946. Langley was decommissioned on 11 February 1947. Transfer to France Langley was taken out of "mothballs", refurbished and transferred to France under the Mutual Defense Assistance Program on 8 January 1951. After more than a decade of French Navy service as , she was returned to the United States on 20 March 1963 and sold to the Boston Metals Co., Baltimore, Maryland, for scrapping. References The original version of this article based on US Navy public domain text. External links navsource.org: USS Langley hazegray.org: USS Langley USS Langley at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project Independence-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Camden, New Jersey 1943 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States United States Navy Virginia-related ships Independence-class aircraft carriers of the French Navy	[ -0.33966922760009766, -0.00140476506203413, -0.17609842121601105, 0.292680561542511, -0.1996309608221054, 0.24675747752189636, 0.27559077739715576, -0.053657665848731995, -0.7685128450393677, 0.013840260915458202, -0.32447531819343567, 0.21446667611598969, -0.32117775082588196, -0.03633831441402435, 0.050623904913663864, 0.2739584743976593, 0.5994678139686584, 0.44997718930244446, -0.0768556222319603, -1.0813941955566406, -0.23293574154376984, -0.1036297157406807, -0.14774349331855774, -0.10850054770708084, -0.03040042519569397, 0.4118203818798065, 0.19253140687942505, 0.458797425031662, 0.6265517473220825, 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206639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenia	Messenia	Messenia or Messinia ( ; ) is a regional unit (perifereiaki enotita) in the southwestern part of the Peloponnese region, in Greece. Until the implementation of the Kallikratis plan on 1 January 2011, Messenia was a prefecture (nomos) covering the same territory. The capital and largest city of Messenia is Kalamata. Geography Physical Messenia borders on Elis to the north, Arcadia to the northeast, and Laconia to the southeast. The Ionian Sea lies to the west, and the Gulf of Messinia to the south. The most important mountain ranges are the Taygetus in the east, the Kyparissia mountains in the northwest and the Lykodimo in the southwest. The main rivers are the Neda in the north and the Pamisos in central Messenia. Off the south coast of the southwesternmost point of Messenia lie the Messinian Oinousses islands. The largest of these are Sapientza, Schiza and Venetiko. The small island Sphacteria closes off the bay of Pylos. All these islands are virtually uninhabited. Climate may vary, in the lowlands, temperatures are a bit warmer than Athens. Snow is not common during winter months except for the mountains, especially the Taygetus. Rain and clouds are common inland. Political Organization of Messenia Before the 2010 reorganization, Messenia was a nomos (prefecture) containing 29 dimoi (municipalities) and 2 koinotites (communities). Since 2010, Messenia has been a perifereiake enoteta (regional unit) containing only 6 municipalities, but with the same population, as it did not change area in the reorganization. Some 25 municipalities and communities were incorporated politically into the other 6 according to the table below, becoming municipal units. Provinces The prefecture of Messenia was previously subdivided into four provinces (, "eparchies") : Province of Kalamon - Kalamata Province of Messini - Messine Province of Pylia - Pylos Province of Tryphilia - Kyparissia Like all provinces of Greece, they were abolished after the 2006 local elections, in line with Law 2539/1997, as part of the "Kapodistrias reform". Some of the enlarged municipalities (demoi) created in 2011 have a territory similar to the former provinces. Population The main cities and towns of Messenia are (ranked by 2011 census population): Kalamata 54,567 Filiatra 6,791 Messini 6,287 Kyparissia 5,784 Gargalianoi 5,569 Chora (Nestoras) 3,498 Pylos 2,767 Economy The economy of Messenia is primarily based on agricultural production although in recent years efforts are being made toward the development of activities in other sectors such as tourism. Main agricultural products are olive oil, Kalamata table olives, figs, and black raisins (sultanas). The variety of agricultural products is complemented by a small amount of stockbreeding products (beef, milk, sfela cheese, honey) and fish from the Gulf of Messenia. The tourist development observed is mainly attributable to the promotion of important archaeological sites, such as the Palace of Nestor, Ancient Messene, and the Venetian castles of Pylos, Koroni, Methoni and Kalamata, as well as to the beauty of the landscape. Another key factor for Messenia's economy is Costa Navarino a location on the border between Pylos and Trifylia, comprising several eco-friendly luxury resorts and golf courses, which is Greece’s biggest tourist development. There are many small- and medium-size firms involved in the processing and standardization of agricultural products as well as a number of enterprises devoted to wood processing, furniture manufacturing, and metal construction. The Karelia tobacco company is based in Kalamata. Transport The main airport in Messenia is Kalamata International Airport (KLX). The main highways in Messenia are: Greek National Road 7 (Corinth - Tripoli - Kalamata) Greek National Road 9 (Patras - Pyrgos - Kyparissia - Pylos) Greek National Road 82 (Pylos - Kalamata - Sparti) The main railways in Messenia (meter gauge) are: Corinth - Argos - Tripoli - Zevgolateio - Kalamata Patras - Pyrgos - Kalo Nero - Kyparissia Kalo Nero - Zevgolateio Communications Television Notia Elliniki Teleorasi, (Southern Greece Television) Best TV, Mesogeios TV History Ancient period Messenia is mentioned in the oldest work of European literature, the Iliad. The name undoubtedly goes back to at least the Bronze Age, but its origins are lost in the world of mythology. The region was one of the largest that was conquered and enslaved as helots by ancient Sparta. Medieval period In the Middle Ages, Messinia shared the fortunes of the rest of the Peloponnese. Striking reminders of these conflicts are afforded by the extant ruins of the medieval strongholds of Kalamata, Coron (anc. Asine, mod. Korone), Modon (Methone) and Pylos. Messenia was a part of the Byzantine Empire. Ottoman and Venetian period Much of Messenia fell into the hands of the Ottoman Turks, a part of the area remained with the Venetian Republic. In 1534 a group of families, known as the 'Coroni', settled in Piana degli Albanesi in Sicily. They were Arvanites and Greeks from Koroni. During the 1680s, the whole of Messenia was regained by the Venetian Republic in the Morean War, and formed part of the "Kingdom of the Morea" until recovered by the Ottomans in 1715. The Mani Peninsula, a part of modern Messenia, was autonomous from Turkish rule due to the fact that it had no harbors. Modern period Messenia became part of independent Greece as a result of the Greek War of Independence (1821-1832). The famous naval Battle of Navarino took place near present Pylos in 1827, and was a decisive victory for Greece and its allies. The population in the area of Kalamata and Messene increased from 30,000 before World War II up to nearly 80,000 in the present day.. Messenia suffered damage from the 2007 Greek forest fires. See also List of settlements in Messenia Messenia (constituency) Notes Bibliography . The previous Kapodistrias organization of all the communities in Greece. The populations are from the Census of 2001. Kontogiannis, N.D. "Settlements and countryside of Messinia during the late Middle Ages: the testimony of the fortifications," Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 34,1 (2010), 3-29. 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206640	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue	Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue	Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue () is an on-island suburb located at the western tip of the Island of Montreal in southwestern Quebec, Canada. It is the second oldest community in Montreal's West Island, having been founded as a parish in 1703. The oldest, Dorval, was founded in 1667. Points of interest include the Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue Canal (a National Historic Site of Canada), the Sainte-Anne Veterans' Hospital, the Morgan Arboretum, and the L'Anse-à-l'Orme Nature Park. Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue is also home to John Abbott College and McGill University's Macdonald Campus, which includes the J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory and the Canadian Aviation Heritage Centre as well as about of farmland which separates the small town from neighbouring Baie-d'Urfé. History Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue was established on a location once known and frequented by both the Algonquin and Iroquois peoples. Situated between two important lakes (Lac des Deux-Montagnes and Lac Saint Louis) and near the confluence of two important rivers (the Saint Lawrence River and the Ottawa River) both nations recognized its natural strategic advantages and had names for the place. The oral records show that it was named “Tiotenactokte” by the Algonquin, which means "place of the last encampments" and that the Iroquois called it “Skanawetsy” meaning "white waters, after the rapids". In 1663, the Saint-Louis Mission was founded in the west end of Montreal Island at Pointe-Caron (site of the present-day Baie-d'Urfé yacht club), and was led by François-Saturnin Lascaris d'Urfé. At that time, the mission included the entire area from the tip of Montreal Island to Pointe-Claire, Île Perrot, Soulanges, Vaudreuil, and Île aux Tourtes. In 1672, King Louis XIV of France granded fiefdoms bordering on Lake of Two Mountains and Lake Saint-Louis to Louis de Berthé, Lord of Chailly, and to his brother Gabriel, Lord of La Joubardière. One of these adjacent fiefdoms was called Bellevue, due to its good views to the east and west. In 1677, the Parish of Saint-Louis-du-Bout-de-l'Île, sometimes also called Saint-Louis-du-Haut-de-l'Île, was founded. Jean de Lalonde was the first church warden. One September 30, 1687, Lalonde and four other parishioners were killed in a skirmish with the Iroquois. In 1703, the parish was closed and its registers moved to Lachine because of the constant threat from the Iroquois. Around 1712, René-Charles de Breslay (1658–1735), local parish priest from 1703 to 1719, got caught in a fierce snowstorm. He fell from his horse, broke his leg on the ice, and lost the horse. Breslay was allegedly saved through the intervention by Saint Anne, after which he built a chapel dedicated to her at the westernmost point of Montreal Island next to Fort Senneville and Tourtes Island (Île aux Tourtes). Two years later, the parish was reestablished and took the name Sainte-Anne-du-Bout-de-l'Île. From the early 1800s the town became a place of literary pilgrimage after Thomas Moore the famous Irish composer wrote one of his most celebrated works Canadian Boat Song here. In 1835, the local post office opened. In 1843, the Sainte-Anne Canal was completed, resulting in a large number of travellers and merchants passing through the village. Another impetus to its development came a few years later in 1854, when the Grand Trunk Railway was built through the area, followed by the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1887. In 1845, the place was first incorporated as the Municipality of Bout-de-l'Isle. This was abolished two years later, but in 1855, it was reestablished as the Parish Municipality of Sainte-Anne-en-l'Isle-de-Montréal. In 1878, the main settlement was incorporated as a separate village municipality, and the parish municipality was renamed to Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue that same year. The village municipality changed its status to town (ville) on January 12, 1895. The early 20th century saw several developments in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue: the Macdonald College (affiliated to the McGill University) was established in 1907; the Federal Government built Ste. Anne's Veteran Hospital in 1917; the Galipeault Bridge was built in 1924 and doubled in 1964, linking Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue with Île Perrot. One of Canada's earliest Garden City experiments was undertaken in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue by John James Harpell, an industrialist, who around 1918 developed the neighbourhood of Gardenvale. The neighbourhood was granted its own post office in 1920. In 1911, the parish municipality lost part of its territory when Baie-d'Urfé became a separate municipality. In 1964, the town of Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue annexed the parish municipality. On January 1, 2002, as part of the 2002–2006 municipal reorganization of Montreal, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue was merged into the city of Montreal and became part of the borough of L'Île-Bizard–Sainte-Geneviève–Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue. However, after a change of government and a 2004 referendum, it was re-constituted as an independent city on January 1, 2006. Climate Government The current mayor of Saint-Anne-de-Bellevue is Paola Hawa. There are six city councilors: Ryan Young (District 1) Jean-Pierre Cardinal (District 2) Dan Boyer (District 3) Tom Broad (District 4) Yvan Labelle (District 5) Denis Gignac (District 6) List of mayors The mayors of Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue have been: Jules Tremblay, 1878–1879 Thomas Grenier, 1880–1884, 1885–1886 Antoine St-Denis, 1881–1883 D. Lebeau, 1887 L. Michaud, 1888–1897 M. C. Bezner, 1898–1899, 1901–1905, 1909–10, 1915–1916 L.N.F. Cypihot, 1900, 1921–1922 J.A. Aumais, 1906 Guis. Daoust, 1906, 1917–1920 Bruno Lalonde, 1907–1908, 1913–1914 J.S. Vallée, 1911–1912 L.J. Boileau, 1923–1931, 1933–1934 A.R. Demers, 1932, 1935–1938 E.E. Deslauriers, 1939–1951 Philippe Godin, 1951–1965 J.L. Paquin, 1965–1973 Alphonse Trudeau, 1973–1978 Marcel Marleau, 1978–1984 René Martin, 1984–1994 Bill Tierney, 1994–2001, 2005–2009 Francis Deroo, 2009–2013 Paola Hawa, 2013–present Demographics Transportation Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue is traversed by Autoroute 40 (the Trans-Canada Highway) and Autoroute 20, which crosses the Ottawa River over the Galipeault Bridge linking it to Île Perrot. For public transit, the town is served by the Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue commuter train station on the Vaudreuil-Hudson Line. It also covered by the bus network of the Société de transport de Montréal. It is planned that Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue would be the westernmost terminus for the newly planned Réseau express métropolitain rapid transit system on the island of Montreal. Education The Centre de services scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys operates Francophone public schools, but were previously operated by the Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys until June 15, 2020. The change was a result of a law passed by the Quebec government that changed the school board system from denominational to linguistic. It operates the École primaire du Bout-de-l'Isle. The Lester B. Pearson School Board (LBPSB) operates Anglophone public schools in the area. It operates Macdonald High School. The zoned elementary school is Dorset Elementary School in Baie-D'Urfé See also List of former boroughs Montreal Merger Municipal reorganization in Quebec Morgan Arboretum Ecomuseum Zoo References External links Official website Ecomuseum Parks Canada – Sante-Anne-de-Bellevue locks Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue Rugby Club Nursing Services Cities and towns in Quebec Populated places established in 1703 1703 establishments in the French colonial empire	[ -0.5957971215248108, 0.22780126333236694, 0.1418972611427307, -0.1718090921640396, -0.050527095794677734, 0.970775306224823, 0.8683377504348755, -0.15920965373516083, -0.1770079880952835, -0.8682236075401306, -0.3131687343120575, 0.23095278441905975, 0.5144634246826172, 0.4571559727191925, -0.48591312766075134, 0.35023167729377747, 0.42406126856803894, 0.18139468133449554, 0.2452382594347, -0.36163073778152466, -0.22522218525409698, -0.4145904779434204, 0.08284736424684525, 0.24061964452266693, 0.36927348375320435, 0.19391076266765594, 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