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206919	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyfert%20galaxy	Seyfert galaxy	Seyfert galaxies are one of the two largest groups of active galaxies, along with quasars. They have quasar-like nuclei (very luminous, distant and bright sources of electromagnetic radiation) with very high surface brightnesses whose spectra reveal strong, high-ionisation emission lines, but unlike quasars, their host galaxies are clearly detectable. Seyfert galaxies account for about 10% of all galaxies and are some of the most intensely studied objects in astronomy, as they are thought to be powered by the same phenomena that occur in quasars, although they are closer and less luminous than quasars. These galaxies have supermassive black holes at their centers which are surrounded by accretion discs of in-falling material. The accretion discs are believed to be the source of the observed ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet emission and absorption lines provide the best diagnostics for the composition of the surrounding material. Seen in visible light, most Seyfert galaxies look like normal spiral galaxies, but when studied under other wavelengths, it becomes clear that the luminosity of their cores is of comparable intensity to the luminosity of whole galaxies the size of the Milky Way. Seyfert galaxies are named after Carl Seyfert, who first described this class in 1943. Discovery Seyfert galaxies were first detected in 1908 by Edward A. Fath and Vesto Slipher, who were using the Lick Observatory to look at the spectra of astronomical objects that were thought to be "spiral nebulae". They noticed that NGC 1068 showed six bright emission lines, which was considered unusual as most objects observed showed an absorption spectrum corresponding to stars. In 1926, Edwin Hubble looked at the emission lines of NGC 1068 and two other such "nebulae" and classified them as extragalactic objects. In 1943, Carl Keenan Seyfert discovered more galaxies similar to NGC 1068 and reported that these galaxies have very bright stellar-like nuclei that produce broad emission lines. In 1944 Cygnus A was detected at 160 MHz, and detection was confirmed in 1948 when it was established that it was a discrete source. Its double radio structure became apparent with the use of interferometry. In the next few years, other radio sources such as supernova remnants were discovered. By the end of the 1950s, more important characteristics of Seyfert galaxies were discovered, including the fact that their nuclei are extremely compact (< 100 pc, i.e. "unresolved"), have high mass (≈109±1 solar masses), and the duration of peak nuclear emissions is relatively short (> 108 years). In the 1960s and 1970s, research to further understand the properties of Seyfert galaxies was carried out. A few direct measurements of the actual sizes of Seyfert nuclei were taken, and it was established that the emission lines in NGC 1068 were produced in a region over a thousand light years in diameter. Controversy existed over whether Seyfert redshifts were of cosmological origin. Confirming estimates of the distance to Seyfert galaxies and their age were limited since their nuclei vary in brightness over a time scale of a few years; therefore arguments involving distance to such galaxies and the constant speed of light cannot always be used to determine their age. In the same time period, research had been undertaken to survey, identify and catalogue galaxies, including Seyferts. Beginning in 1967, Benjamin Markarian published lists containing a few hundred galaxies distinguished by their very strong ultraviolet emission, with measurements on the position of some of them being improved in 1973 by other researchers. At the time, it was believed that 1% of spiral galaxies are Seyferts. By 1977, it was found that very few Seyfert galaxies are ellipticals, most of them being spiral or barred spiral galaxies. During the same time period, efforts have been made to gather spectrophotometric data for Seyfert galaxies. It became obvious that not all spectra from Seyfert galaxies look the same, so they have been subclassified according to the characteristics of their emission spectra. A simple division into types I and II has been devised, with the classes depending on the relative width of their emission lines. It has been later noticed that some Seyfert nuclei show intermediate properties, resulting in their being further subclassified into types 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 and 1.9 (see Classification). Early surveys for Seyfert galaxies were biased in counting only the brightest representatives of this group. More recent surveys that count galaxies with low-luminosity and obscured Seyfert nuclei suggest that the Seyfert phenomenon is actually quite common, occurring in 16% ± 5% of galaxies; indeed, several dozen galaxies exhibiting the Seyfert phenomenon exist in the close vicinity (≈27 Mpc) of our own galaxy. Seyfert galaxies form a substantial fraction of the galaxies appearing in the Markarian catalog, a list of galaxies displaying an ultraviolet excess in their nuclei. Characteristics An active galactic nucleus (AGN) is a compact region at the center of a galaxy that has a higher than normal luminosity over portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A galaxy having an active nucleus is called an active galaxy. Active galactic nuclei are the most luminous sources of electromagnetic radiation in the Universe, and their evolution puts constraints on cosmological models. Depending on the type, their luminosity varies over a timescale from a few hours to a few years. The two largest subclasses of active galaxies are quasars and Seyfert galaxies, the main difference between the two being the amount of radiation they emit. In a typical Seyfert galaxy, the nuclear source emits at visible wavelengths an amount of radiation comparable to that of the whole galaxy's constituent stars, while in a quasar, the nuclear source is brighter than the constituent stars by at least a factor of 100. Seyfert galaxies have extremely bright nuclei, with luminosities ranging between 108 and 1011 solar luminosities. Only about 5% of them are radio bright; their emissions are moderate in gamma rays and bright in X-rays. Their visible and infrared spectra shows very bright emission lines of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen. These emission lines exhibit strong Doppler broadening, which implies velocities from , and are believed to originate near an accretion disc surrounding the central black hole. Eddington luminosity A lower limit to the mass of the central black hole can be calculated using the Eddington luminosity. This limit arises because light exhibits radiation pressure. Assume that a black hole is surrounded by a disc of luminous gas. Both the attractive gravitational force acting on electron-ion pairs in the disc and the repulsive force exerted by radiation pressure follow an inverse-square law. If the gravitational force exerted by the black hole is less than the repulsive force due to radiation pressure, the disc will be blown away by radiation pressure. Emissions The emission lines seen on the spectrum of a Seyfert galaxy may come from the surface of the accretion disc itself, or may come from clouds of gas illuminated by the central engine in an ionization cone. The exact geometry of the emitting region is difficult to determine due to poor resolution of the galactic center. However, each part of the accretion disc has a different velocity relative to our line of sight, and the faster the gas is rotating around the black hole, the broader the emission line will be. Similarly, an illuminated disc wind also has a position-dependent velocity. The narrow lines are believed to originate from the outer part of the active galactic nucleus, where velocities are lower, while the broad lines originate closer to the black hole. This is confirmed by the fact that the narrow lines do not vary detectably, which implies that the emitting region is large, contrary to the broad lines which can vary on relatively short timescales. Reverberation mapping is a technique which uses this variability to try to determine the location and morphology of the emitting region. This technique measures the structure and kinematics of the broad line emitting region by observing the changes in the emitted lines as a response to changes in the continuum. The use of reverberation mapping requires the assumption that the continuum originates in a single central source. For 35 AGN, reverberation mapping has been used to calculate the mass of the central black holes and the size of the broad line regions. In the few radio-loud Seyfert galaxies that have been observed, the radio emission is believed to represent synchrotron emission from the jet. The infrared emission is due to radiation in other bands being reprocessed by dust near the nucleus. The highest energy photons are believed to be created by inverse Compton scattering by a high temperature corona near the black hole. Classification Seyferts were first classified as Type I or II, depending on the emission lines shown by their spectra. The spectra of Type I Seyfert galaxies show broad lines that include both allowed lines, like H I, He I or He II and narrower forbidden lines, like O III. They show some narrower allowed lines as well, but even these narrow lines are much broader than the lines shown by normal galaxies. However, the spectra of Type II Seyfert galaxies show only narrow lines, both permitted and forbidden. Forbidden lines are spectral lines that occur due to electron transitions not normally allowed by the selection rules of quantum mechanics, but that still have a small probability of spontaneously occurring. The term "forbidden" is slightly misleading, as the electron transitions causing them are not forbidden but highly improbable. In some cases, the spectra show both broad and narrow permitted lines, which is why they are classified as an intermediate type between Type I and Type II, such as Type 1.5 Seyfert. The spectra of some of these galaxies have changed from Type 1.5 to Type II in a matter of a few years. However, the characteristic broad Hα emission line has rarely, if ever, disappeared. The origin of the differences between Type I and Type II Seyfert galaxies is not known yet. There are a few cases where galaxies have been identified as Type II only because the broad components of the spectral lines have been very hard to detect. It is believed by some that all Type II Seyferts are in fact Type I, where the broad components of the lines are impossible to detect because of the angle we are at with respect to the galaxy. Specifically, in Type I Seyfert galaxies, we observe the central compact source more or less directly, therefore sampling the high velocity clouds in the broad line emission region moving around the supermassive black hole thought to be at the center of the galaxy. By contrast, in Type II Seyfert galaxies, the active nuclei are obscured and only the colder outer regions located further away from the clouds' broad line emission region are seen. This theory is known as the "Unification scheme" of Seyfert galaxies. However, it is not yet clear if this hypothesis can explain all the observed differences between the two types. Type I Seyfert galaxies Type I Seyferts are very bright sources of ultraviolet light and X-rays in addition to the visible light coming from their cores. They have two sets of emission lines on their spectra: narrow lines with widths (measured in velocity units) of several hundred km/s, and broad lines with widths up to 104 km/s. The broad lines originate above the accretion disc of the supermassive black hole thought to power the galaxy, while the narrow lines occur beyond the broad line region of the accretion disc. Both emissions are caused by heavily ionised gas. The broad line emission arises in a region 0.1–1 parsec across. The broad line emission region, RBLR, can be estimated from the time delay corresponding to the time taken by light to travel from the continuum source to the line-emitting gas. Type II Seyfert galaxies Type II Seyfert galaxies have the characteristic bright core, as well as appearing bright when viewed at infrared wavelengths. Their spectra contain narrow lines associated with forbidden transitions, and broader lines associated with allowed strong dipole or intercombination transitions. NGC 3147 is considered the best candidate to be a true Type II Seyfert galaxy. In some Type II Seyfert galaxies, analysis with a technique called spectro-polarimetry (spectroscopy of polarised light component) revealed obscured Type I regions. In the case of NGC 1068, nuclear light reflected off a dust cloud was measured, which led scientists to believe in the presence of an obscuring dust torus around a bright continuum and broad emission line nucleus. When the galaxy is viewed from the side, the nucleus is indirectly observed through reflection by gas and dust above and below the torus. This reflection causes the polarisation. Type 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 and 1.9 Seyfert galaxies In 1981, Donald Osterbrock introduced the notations Type 1.5, 1.8 and 1.9, where the subclasses are based on the optical appearance of the spectrum, with the numerically larger subclasses having weaker broad-line components relative to the narrow lines. For example, Type 1.9 only shows a broad component in the Hα line, and not in higher order Balmer lines. In Type 1.8, very weak broad lines can be detected in the Hβ lines as well as Hα, even if they are very weak compared to the Hα. In Type 1.5, the strength of the Hα and Hβ lines are comparable. Other Seyfert-like galaxies In addition to the Seyfert progression from Type I to Type II (including Type 1.2 to Type 1.9), there are other types of galaxies that are very similar to Seyferts or that can be considered as subclasses of them. Very similar to Seyferts are the low-ionisation narrow-line emission radio galaxies (LINER), discovered in 1980. These galaxies have strong emission lines from weakly ionised or neutral atoms, while the emission lines from strongly ionised atoms are relatively weak by comparison. LINERs share a large amount of traits with low luminosity Seyferts. In fact, when seen in visible light, the global characteristics of their host galaxies are indistinguishable. Also, they both show a broad line emission region, but the line emitting region in LINERs has a lower density than in Seyferts. An example of such a galaxy is M104 in the Virgo constellation, also known as the Sombrero Galaxy. A galaxy that is both a LINER and a Type I Seyfert is NGC 7213, a galaxy that is relatively close compared to other AGNs. Another very interesting subclass are the narrow line Type I galaxies (NLSy1), which have been subject to extensive research in recent years. They have much narrower lines than the broad lines from classic Type I galaxies, steep hard and soft X-ray spectra and strong Fe[II] emission. Their properties suggest that NLSy1 galaxies are young AGNs with high accretion rates, suggesting a relatively small but growing central black hole mass. There are theories suggesting that NLSy1s are galaxies in an early stage of evolution, and links between them and ultraluminous infrared galaxies or Type II galaxies have been proposed. Evolution The majority of active galaxies are very distant and show large Doppler shifts. This suggests that active galaxies occurred in the early Universe and, due to cosmic expansion, are receding away from the Milky Way at very high speeds. Quasars are the furthest active galaxies, some of them being observed at distances 12 billion light years away. Seyfert galaxies are much closer than quasars. Because light has a finite speed, looking across large distances in the Universe is equivalent to looking back in time. Therefore, the observation of active galactic nuclei at large distances and their scarcity in the nearby Universe suggests that they were much more common in the early Universe, implying that active galactic nuclei could be early stages of galactic evolution. This leads to the question about what would be the local (modern-day) counterparts of AGNs found at large redshifts. It has been proposed that NLSy1s could be the small redshift counterparts of quasars found at large redshifts (z>4). The two have many similar properties, for example: high metallicities or similar pattern of emission lines (strong Fe [II], weak O [III]). Some observations suggest that AGN emission from the nucleus is not spherically symmetric and that the nucleus often shows axial symmetry, with radiation escaping in a conical region. Based on these observations, models have been devised to explain the different classes of AGNs as due to their different orientations with respect to the observational line of sight. Such models are called unified models. Unified models explain the difference between Type I and Type II galaxies as being the result of Type II galaxies being surrounded by obscuring toruses which prevent telescopes from seeing the broad line region. Quasars and blazars can be fit quite easily in this model. The main problem of such an unification scheme is trying to explain why some AGN are radio loud while others are radio quiet. It has been suggested that these differences may be due to differences in the spin of the central black hole. Examples Here are some examples of Seyfert galaxies: Circinus Galaxy, has rings of gas ejected from its center Centaurus A or NGC 5128, apparently the brightest Seyfert galaxy as seen from Earth; a giant elliptical galaxy and also classified as a radio galaxy notable for its relativistic jet spanning more than a million light years in length. Cygnus A, the first identified radio galaxy and the brightest radio source in the sky as seen in frequencies above 1 GHz Messier 51a (NGC 5194), the Whirlpool Galaxy, one of the best known galaxies in the sky Messier 66 (NGC 3627), a part of the Leo Triplet Messier 77 (NGC 1068), one of the first Seyfert galaxies classified Messier 81 (NGC 3031), the second brightest Seyfert galaxy in the sky after Centaurus A Messier 88 (NGC 4501), a member of the large Virgo Cluster and one of the brightest Seyfert galaxies in the sky. Messier 106 (NGC 4258), one of the best known Seyfert galaxies, has a water vapor megamaser in its nucleus seen by 22-GHz line of ortho-H2O. NGC 262, an example of a galaxy with an extended gaseous H I halo NGC 1097, has four narrow optical jets coming out from its nucleus NGC 1275, whose central black hole producing the lowest B-flat note ever recorded NGC 1365, notable for its central black hole spinning almost the speed of light NGC 1566, one of the first Seyfert galaxies classified NGC 1672, has a nucleus engulfed by intense starburst regions NGC 1808, also a starburst galaxy NGC 3079, has a giant bubble of hot gas coming out from its center NGC 3185, member of the Hickson 44 group NGC 3259, also a strong source of X-rays NGC 3783, also a strong source of X-rays NGC 3982, also a starburst galaxy NGC 4151, has two supermassive black holes in its center. NGC 4395, an example of a low surface brightness galaxy with an intermediate-mass black hole in its center. NGC 4725, one of the closest and brightest Seyfert galaxies to Earth; has a very long spiraling cloud of gas surrounding its center seen in infrared. NGC 4945, a galaxy relatively close to Centaurus A. NGC 5033, has a Seyfert nucleus displaced from its kinematic center. NGC 5548, an example of a lenticular Seyfert galaxy NGC 6240, also classified as an ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG) NGC 6251, the X-ray brightest low-excitation radio galaxy in the 3CRR catalog NGC 6264, a Seyfert II with an associated AGN. NGC 7479, a spiral galaxy with arms opening in a direction opposite to the optical arms NGC 7742, an unbarred spiral galaxy; also known as the Fried Egg Galaxy IC 2560, a spiral galaxy with a nucleus similar to NGC 1097 See also Notes References External links Active Galaxies and Quasars at NASA.gov Seyfert Galaxies at SEDS.org Seyfert Galaxies at ESA.int Active galaxy types 1943 in science	[ -0.40290847420692444, 0.3078515827655792, 0.2982238829135895, -0.4157045781612396, -0.7517500519752502, 0.24263747036457062, 0.6782732009887695, 0.6420656442642212, 0.08135140687227249, -0.8001494407653809, -0.7069053649902344, -0.2971769869327545, -0.12602245807647705, 0.6617954969406128, 0.04432465136051178, 0.5005033016204834, 0.5341448783874512, 0.7165316939353943, -0.07883841544389725, -1.0048542022705078, 0.4329596161842346, -0.11702165007591248, 0.6393550634384155, -0.5454655289649963, -0.2160349190235138, -0.2547065317630768, 0.12788605690002441, 0.427851140499115, 0.7952117919921875, 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206924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youssef%20Chahine	Youssef Chahine	Youssef Chahine ( ; 25 January 1926 – 27 July 2008) was an Egyptian film director. He was active in the Egyptian film industry from 1950 until his death. He has 13 films in the Top 100 Egyptian films list. A winner of the Cannes 50th Anniversary Award (for lifetime achievement), Chahine was credited with launching the career of actor Omar Sharif. A well-regarded director with critics, he was often present at film festivals during the earlier decades of his work. Chahine gained his largest international audiences as one of the co-directors of 11'9"01 September 11 (2002). Childhood and early life Chahine (Fr. pronounced Shaheen) was born in Alexandria, Egypt to a Melkite Greek Catholic family. His father was an attorney originally from Zahle, Lebanon and was a supporter of the Egyptian nationalist Wafd Party. His mother, Claire Bastorous was of Greek descent. She worked as a tailor. Although Chahine was raised Catholic, he was not a believer in organized religion. If asked of his religion, he would state, "Egyptian". At home, the Chahines spoke five languages, which was common in cosmopolitan Alexandria at the time. Chahine had affectionate parents and had a strong relationship with both of them- even though his mother and father had distinct personalities. At a young age, he knew what he wanted to become. Chahine would stay under his bed and in his room for hours, picturing himself in the industry- whether in a projection theater, a cinema hall or a production company. When asked about his childhood and early interest in cinema, Chahine said:"At the age of Eight, I discovered that 9.5mm films and projectors were being sold in stores. I saved from allowances enough to buy the projector and then became a regular for the Rabbani Bibi films. I used to gather the children of the neighborhood to show them these films. Some of them didn’t care for cinema and would come up with excuses not to attend. So I had no choice but to form a gang to beat up those who were late coming to the show." In the following years, two concepts raged Chahine and gagged his interest: indulging in sexual fantasies and cinema. A few years later, Chahine dealt with the death of his brother Alfred, who was only two years older than him. Chahine always remembered Alfred's eyes, which influenced his work. Most his male actors had eyes that resembled Alfred's. According to Chahine, his father was honest, which seeped into his values and was a trait he appreciated having. Along with honesty, Chahine's father ignited his love for books. Being a lawyer, Chahine's father could not keep up with the tuition bills, so he closed up his law office and took a job in the legal department in the Alexandria municipality so he could send Chahine to Victoria College. Another memory Chahine was fond of, was how his father took him to the desert, and taught him how to look for landmarks and find his way back home. Scouting for film locations often brought back these memories. Their home was aristocratic, even though they were not rich. They had to be well mannered, and mistakes had punishments(which usually meant having dinner alone in the kitchen rather than outside on the family table.) Despite them being tight on money, they would still have guests over for dinner and lived without paying much attention to bank statements. Education Fascinated by the performing arts from an early age, young Chahine began to create shows at home for his family. Chahine began his education at a Frères' school Collège Saint Marc. Growing up, he attended Alexandria's elite Victoria College. After graduating from Victoria college in 1944, he was determined to go abroad to fulfill his passions. His parents refused, and tried to talk him out of it. They enrolled him in the college of Engineering at the University of Alexandria, but Chahine refused and later said that he had to "blackmail them, and almost jump out of the window." He was later able to get what he wanted, and enrolled in the Pasadena Playhouse in California- where he studied theater and television, but not film. Out of the 200 students that attended, only thirteen took the final examination, and only four passed- Chahine ranking first. After returning from Pasadena, Chahine didn't work in Egyptian theater or film. Instead, he worked in 20th Century Fox's publicity department, where he worked with Gianni Vernuccio and Alvise Orfanelli. During this time, a producer turned to Chahine to finish a film after the director had left following a quarrel, but Chahine refused to complete someone else's work. On another occasion, Chahine was offered the position of Assistant Director, which he also refused, stating that he was working on Hollywood theaters beforehand and an Assistant Director role was not for him. Starting as a director After returning to Egypt, he turned his attention to directing. Cinematographer Alvise Orfanelli helped Chahine into the film business. Chahine directed his first feature film in 1950, Baba Amin (Daddy Amin) at the age of 23, two years before the Egyptian revolution of 1952 that saw the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of the charismatic leader Gamal Abdel Nasser. One year later, with Nile Boy (1951) he was first invited to the Cannes Film Festival. Sira' fi-l-Wadi (Struggle in the Valley) introduced Omar Sharif to the cinematic screen. In 1970 he was awarded a Golden Tanit at the Carthage Film Festival for al-Ikhtiyar (The Choice). With The Sparrow (1973), in which he showed his political opinions after the Six-Day War with Israel, he directed the first Egypt–Algeria co-production. He won the Silver Bear – Special Jury Priz at the 29th Berlin International Film Festival for Alexandria... Why? (1978), the first instalment in what would prove to be an autobiographic quartet, completed with An Egyptian Story (1982), Alexandria, Again and Again (1990), and Alexandria...New York (2004). The producer Humbert Balsan went to Cannes in 2004 with Alexandria... New York, his ninth film with the Egyptian director since 1985's Adieu, Bonaparte. In one of his films The Sixth Day اليوم السادس, an adaptation of a novel written in French by Lebanese writer André Chedid, the famous Egyptian singer Dalida was the protagonist in the role of a poor Egyptian woman. About his work, Chahine has said, "I make my films first for myself. Then for my family. Then for Alexandria. Then for Egypt," Chahine once famously said. "If the Arab world likes them, ahlan wa sahlan (welcome). If the foreign audience likes them, they are doubly welcome." Significant films During his long career Chahine produced different movies, including Aly Badrakhan's Chafika et Metwal (1979). His early films in Egypt included Raging Sky (1953), which begun while Farouk was still King and dealing with a peasant farmer's challenge to a feudal landlord. In 1992 Jacques Lassalle approached him to stage a piece of his choice for Comédie-Française. Chahine agreed and chose to adapt Albert Camus' Caligula. The same year he started writing The Emigrant (1994), a story inspired by the Biblical character of Joseph, son of Jacob. This had been an intended project for some years and he was finally able to film it in 1994. This film created a controversy in Egypt between liberals and fundamentalists who opposed the depiction of religious characters in films. In 1997, 46 years later, his work was acknowledged at the Cannes Film Festival with the lifetime achievement award. Chahine is credited with directing 5 films starring Salah Zulfikar in significant films including Saladin (1963), The Nile and the Life (1968) and One Day, the Nile (1972) and also credited with discovering Omar Sharif, whose first starring role was in Chahine's film The Blazing Sun (1954). He also provided Hind Rostom with a role early on in her career in Bab al-Hadid (Cairo Station.) Chahine produced his four autobiographical films starting 1978 and up till 2004. These films tell Yehia's life, which reflects Chahine's own. In this quartet, he explores his sexuality, personality, and family issues. The autobiographical films all take place between World War One and World War Two. Released in 1979, and set in the 1940s, Alexandria...Why? Sparked controversy and censorship from the government- it examines Egypt's social and political issues. Haddouta Masriya, released later in 1982, Chahine looks at his own journey as an auteur and a director. In 1989, Chahine released his third autobiographical film Alexandria Again and Forever. This film follows a strike that the actors and actresses, as well as production workers in the Egyptian film industry participate in. The film is a political commentary on censorship in Egypt. Chahine uses many directorial styles: verité, normal narrative and formalism. The fourth and final film to the autobiographical film is Alexandria ... New York (2004). The film draws a parallel between Chahine's life and the narrative he tells: it explores the relationship between the United States and Egypt. Cairo Station ("Bab al-Hadid", 1958) The film is set in Cairo train station and features mainly Kinawi (played by Youssef Chahine), a mentally unstable newspaper seller that is madly in love with Hanouma, who works as an illegal cold drinks vendor at the same station. Kinawi cuts pictures of women from magazines for the little cabin that he lives in, and has a psychosexual obsession with Hanouma (played by the acknowledged actress Hind Rostom), who is engaged to Abou Seri' (Farid Shawki), porter and trade union organiser. In a turn of events, Kinawi attacks Halawithom, Hanouma's friend. Jamila al-Jaza'iriyya ("Jamila, The Algerian", 1958) Jamila Bouhired, often known as Jamila. was an Algerian and Arab symbol of resistance. Jamila sees the French Army arrest her friend. She then volunteers to join the National Liberation Front. After a while, she is promoted to an organizer because of her intelligence. Eventually she is arrested and tortured in prison. She is put on trial in a military court and they try to accidentally kill him, as they have disposed of many witnesses. Luckily, the lawyer survives but the court still gives her the death penalty. The resistance movements rile up and Jamila is a symbol of inspiration and resistance to the Arab world. It premiered at the Moscow Film Festival in 1959, with the French government's dismay. The film gained high critical recognition in the festival specially for Salah Zulfikar, the lead actor in the film. However it was not shown on Egyptian television for many years. According to Magda, the lead actress and producer of the film, Egypt had banned the screening in order to not harm political relations with France. Saladin (original title: El Nasser Salah Ed-Din ("Saladin, The Victorious", 1963) Chahine made an epic, three-hour film in widescreen named after the 12th century Ayyubid sultan who, as the film begins, is preparing to liberate Jerusalem from its Crusader occupiers. It was scripted by Ezz El-Dine Zulficar, Naguib Mahfouz and the poet and progressive writer, Abderrahman Cherkaoui. A parallel between Saladin and President Nasser, a champion of pan-Arabism, is easily drawn. Saladin is portrayed as an educated and peaceful man—at one point he is asked to give clandestine medical help to Richard the Lion Heart, who was shot by an arrow. Saladin later tells him: "Religion is God’s and the Earth is for all ... I guarantee to all Christians in Jerusalem the same rights as are enjoyed by Muslims." Chahine was well aware of the propaganda dimension that implicitly painted President Nasser as a modern-era Saladin, stating "My own sympathies were with pan-Arabism, which I still believe in." The main reason he made the film was to prove that an epic film with a small budget, by global cinema standards, was feasible. From then on, he only produced color films. Al Ard ("The Earth", 1968) A novel by Cherkaoui, serialised, formed the basis of The Earth ,and is noted particularly for its image of the peasant farmer – "eternal 'damned of the earth'" – which broke with "the ridiculous image the cinema had (hitherto) given him" (Khaled Osman). There followed a further collaboration with Mahfouz on The Choice. Al Ikhtiyar ("The Choice", 1970) The protagonist of the film is schizophrenic, a fact that the audience discovers well into the film. The film mainly follows the police as they try to solve the murder of Mahmoud, who is believed to be the unidentified corpse in the beginning of the film. The older detectives believe that Sayyid, Mahmoud's twin brother killed him. While a young assistant questions whether this is self-deception and not even a real crime. Al Usfur ("The Sparrow", 1972) The film deals with the aftermath of the Six Day War and Nasser's announcement of the defeat and his subsequent resignation. Bahiyya, the main character runs into the street, followed by a growing crowd, shouting "No! we must fight. We won’t accept defeat!"—an iconic scene in Egyptian cinema. Iskinderiya.. leh? ("Alexandria, Why?", 1978) Yehia, a young Victoria College student, is obsessed with Hollywood and dreams of cinema. It is 1942, the Germans are about to enter Alexandria, a thought that is preferable to the presence of the British in Egypt. Hadduta Masriya ("An Egyptian Story", 1982) As a result of a heart operation, he reviews his life: moments of Chahine's own films are replayed against their autobiographical and social historical context. Memory is very important to Chahine's most recent work —whether of the "city of my childhood, Alexandria, between the two world wars tolerant, secular, open to Muslims, Christians and Jews" or of a more distant past: such as evoked in Adieu Bonaparte (1985), based on the cultural aspect of Bonaparte's expedition into Egypt (1798). "Out of this marvelous confrontation there was a rebirth of Egyptian consciousness, of its past ... which belongs to humanity." Al-Massir ("Destiny", 1997) Set in Andalusia in the 12th century, "Destiny" is a historical drama about Ibn Rushd, a prominent Muslim thinker known for his debates with Muslim theologians and treatises on Aristotle. The film portrays his friendship with a group of intellectuals and artists, including a singer played by Mohamed Mounir, who come under attack from a rising movement of militant fundamentalists backed by the region's ruler, Caliph al-Mansour. The film incorporates political themes and songs that can be seen as allegorical, since it was produced and released during a period when Egypt was experiencing a series of Islamist terrorist attacks. Controversies Despite being internationally renowned, and successful in Egypt, Chahine has often been the center of controversies due to his liberal views, portrayal of sexuality and political critique. Cairo Station, albeit a classic of Egyptian cinema, shocked viewers both by the sympathy with which a "fallen woman" is depicted and by the violence with which another is killed. It was also a style that Egyptian audiences were not used to, hence it was rejected by the public, but still received appraisal from critics. The Sparrow attacked Egyptian corruption and blamed it for the defeat in the Six Day War, which gained backlash from government supporters. During the several following years, Chahine found himself increasingly in conflict with the government-backed film industry of Egypt and its heavy political restrictions in filmmaking. In 1964, he traveled to Lebanon, where he shot two musicals: Bayya al-Khawatim (1965, Ring Seller) and Rimal al-Dhahab (1967, Sands of Gold). Ring Seller became one of the best musicals of Arab cinema, bringing success to Youssef Chahine, whereas Sands of Gold, due to delays in shooting and its box-office failure, forced him to quit his work in Lebanon and return to Egypt. In 1994, with the release of Al Mohaguer (The Emigrant), Chahine ran into trouble with fundamentalists. The film tells the story of Joseph, and Islam does not condone the drawing, or acting out the role of a prophet. The film was initially banned awaiting a lawsuit that Chahine eventually won, however, it was still not screened. Chahine criticized the increasing influence of Islamic fundamentalism on Egyptian culture under the government of Hosni Mubarak, saying "The Egyptian has always been a very religious person, but at the same time he is also a lover of life and art and music and theater." He also blamed the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and particularly Saudi Arabia, for the influence. He again found himself at conflict with fundamentalists after the release of Al Masir (Destiny) which tells the story of Andalucian Arab philosopher, Abu al-Walid ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd (known in the west as Averroes). The film's goal was to initiate religious tolerance, however, it was seen as disrespectful to Ibn Rushd. Upon the release of Al Akhar (The Other) in 1999, the film caused some public controversy. The film features a mother who exposes a woman's scam after she and her son had fallen in love and planned to marry. We later discover in the film that the mother's relationship to her son was somewhat sexual. The film was not banned, and screened normally in theaters and on televisions. Gay-bisexual themes in his work Chahine frequently included gay or bisexual themes in his work. Alexandria... Why? tells the story of two young men—one Egyptian, the other European—who fall in love during World War II. Yehia's cousin is gay and 'buys' drunken British soldiers. Jewish friends are forced to leave and decide to settle in Palestine. In An Egyptian Story (1982) Yehia is a film-maker, going to London (as Chahine had earlier) for open-heart surgery. He has a brief affair with a taxi driver. Illness and death Chahine was hospitalised at El Shorouq hospital in Cairo, having fallen into a coma following an apparent cerebral haemorrhage, on Sunday, 15 June 2008. On Monday, 16 June 2008, Chahine was flown to Paris on an emergency flight and admitted to the American Hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine, west of Paris, where his niece told AFP his condition was "critical but stable." Youssef Chahine died in his Cairo home on Sunday, 27 July 2008. Tribute In 2008, he was honored by BAFTA for his contribution to film. On 25 January 2015, Google Doodle commemorated his 89th birthday. Nominations and awards Cannes Film Festival Berlin International Film Festival Amiens International Film Festival Cairo National Festival for Egyptian Cinema Carthage Film Festival Chicago International Film Festival Dubai International Film Festival Moscow International Film Festival Murex D'Or New York Film Festival Toronto International Film Festival Filmography See also Cinema of Egypt Top 100 Egyptian films Ezz El-Dine Zulficar Lebanese people in Egypt List of Egyptians References External links 1926 births 2008 deaths Collège Saint Marc, Alexandria alumni Egyptian Arab nationalists Egyptian film directors Egyptian former Christians Egyptian people of Greek descent Egyptian people of Lebanese descent Nasserists People from Alexandria Victoria College, Alexandria alumni Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage	[ 0.32464319467544556, 0.8942368030548096, -1.2399413585662842, -0.2315196394920349, -0.006075060460716486, 0.549140214920044, -0.03280983492732048, -0.35222917795181274, 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206926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Charleston	USS Charleston	USS Charleston may refer to: , a galley in commission from 1798 to 1802 , a protected cruiser commissioned in 1889 and wrecked in 1899 , a protected cruiser in commission from 1905 to 1923 , a gunboat in commission from 1936 to 1946 , an amphibious cargo ship in commission from 1968 to 1992 , a littoral combat ship commissioned on March 2, 2019 In fiction On the Beach (2000 film) United States Navy ship names	[ -0.09222844988107681, -0.2676496207714081, -0.27809634804725647, -0.030521947890520096, 0.02456137351691723, 0.253795862197876, 0.42525267601013184, -0.3078380525112152, -0.8889457583427429, -0.23615574836730957, 0.06315363198518753, 0.19689543545246124, -0.19076675176620483, 0.7838985323905945, 0.17146512866020203, 0.6178532242774963, 0.7163316607475281, 0.5209213495254517, 0.025102460756897926, -0.32679489254951477, -0.34175997972488403, 0.12563100457191467, 0.635580837726593, -0.46801191568374634, 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206928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20New%20Zealand	List of birds of New Zealand	In this list of the birds of New Zealand, the common name of the bird in New Zealand English is given first, and its Māori-language name, if different, is also noted. The list's taxonomic treatment and nomenclature (common and scientific names) mainly follows the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 2021 edition. Some supplemental referencing is that of the Avibase Bird Checklists of the World as of 2021, and the 4th edition of the Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand, published in 2010 by Te Papa Press in association with the Ornithological Society of New Zealand, which is an authoritative list of the birds of New Zealand. The species and subspecies marked extinct became extinct subsequent to humans' arrival in New Zealand. About two thirds of the extinctions occurred after the arrival of Māori but before the arrival of Pākehā and the rest since Pākehā arrived. Unless otherwise noted, all species listed below occur regularly in New Zealand as permanent residents, summer or winter visitors, or migrants. The following codes are used to denote other categories of species: (B) Breeding – confirmed nesting records in New Zealand or a portion thereof. (I) Introduced – a species introduced to New Zealand by the actions of humans, either directly or indirectly (X) Extinct – a species that no longer exists (ex) Extirpated – a species no longer found in New Zealand or a portion thereof but existing elsewhere (P) – a regularly occurring in New Zealand or a portion thereof. The species occurs on an annual or mostly annual basis, but does not nest in New Zealand. (V) Vagrant – a species rarely occurring in New Zealand or a portion thereof. () following taxonomic name: (unexplained) Kiwi Order: Apterygiformes Family: Apterygidae Kiwi are flightless birds all native to New Zealand. Approximately the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are by far the smallest living ratites. Moa Order: Dinornithiformes Family: Dinornithidae Moa were nine species (in six genera) of now extinct flightless birds endemic to New Zealand. The two largest species, Dinornis robustus and Dinornis novaezelandiae, reached about 3.6 m (12 ft) in height with neck outstretched, and weighed about 230 kg (510 lb). It is estimated that the moa population was about 58,000 when Polynesians settled New Zealand circa 1280. Ducks, geese, and waterfowl Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are adapted for an aquatic existence, with webbed feet, bills that are flattened to a greater or lesser extent, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to special oils. The Cape Barren goose is also recorded as an escape from captivity in New Zealand which has bred, as well as being a vagrant from Australia as set out in the table below. Guineafowl Order: Galliformes Family: Numididae The guineafowl are a family of birds native to Africa. They typically eat insects and seeds, are ground-nesting, and resemble partridges, except with featherless heads. New World quail Order: GalliformesFamily: Odontophoridae The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits. Pheasants, grouse, and allies Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae Phasianidae consists of the pheasants and their allies. These are terrestrial species, variable in size but generally plump, with broad, relatively short wings. Many species are gamebirds or have been domesticated as a food source for humans. Grebes Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land. Pigeons and doves Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Cuckoos Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites. Owlet-nightjars Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Aegothelidae The owlet-nightjars are a distinctive group of small nocturnal birds related to swifts found from the Maluku Islands and New Guinea to Australia and New Caledonia. Swifts Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. Adzebills Order: GruiformesFamily: Aptornithidae The adzebills, genus Aptornis, were two closely related bird species of the extinct family Aptornithidae. Rails, gallinules, and coots Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. Cranes Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances". Stilts and avocets Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. Oystercatchers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae The oystercatchers are large, obvious and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prying open molluscs. Plovers and lapwings Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Painted-snipes Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Rostratulidae Painted-snipes are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly coloured. Sandpipers and allies Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae The Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Pratincoles and coursers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae Pratincoles have short legs, very long pointed wings and long forked tails. Their most unusual feature for birds classed as waders is that they typically hunt their insect prey on the wing like swallows, although they can also feed on the ground. Their short bills are an adaptation to aerial feeding. Skuas and jaegers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae They are in general medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They have longish bills with hooked tips and webbed feet with sharp claws. They look like large dark gulls, but have a fleshy cere above the upper mandible. They are strong, acrobatic fliers. Gulls, terns, and skimmers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, terns, kittiwakes and skimmers. They are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Tropicbirds Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their long wings have black markings, as does the head. Penguins Order: Sphenisciformes Family: Spheniscidae The penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless birds living almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere. Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid, and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. Albatrosses (toroa) Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae The albatrosses are a family of large seabird found across the Southern and North Pacific Oceans. The largest are among the largest flying birds in the world. {\| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" \|- ! width="200"\|Species !! Kermadecs !! North I !! South I !! Stewart !! Chathams !! Snares !! Auckland !! Campbell !! Antipodes !! Bounty \|- ! Yellow-nosed albatrossThalassarche chlororhynchos \| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| \|\| P \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- ! Grey-headed albatrossThalassarche chrysostoma \| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| P \|- ! Buller's albatrossThalassarche bulleri \| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| B \|\| B \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|- ! White-capped albatrossThalassarche cauta \| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|- ! Salvin's albatrossThalassarche salvini \| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|- ! Chatham albatrossThalassarche eremita \| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| \|- ! Black-browed albatrossThalassarche melanophrys \| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| B \|\| B \|\| P \|- ! Sooty albatrossPhoebetria fusca \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| V \|\| \|\| V \|\| V \|\| V \|\| \|- ! Light-mantled albatrossPhoebetria palpebrata \| \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| P \|\| B \|\| B \|\| B \|\| P \|- ! Royal albatrossDiomedea epomophora \| V \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| B \|\| P \|\| B \|\| B \|\| P \|\| P \|- ! Wandering albatrossDiomedea exulans \| colspan="10" align="center"\|P \|- ! Laysan albatrossPhoebastria immutabilis' \| \|\| V \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- ! Black-footed albatrossPhoebastria nigripes \| \|\| \|\| V \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} Southern storm-petrelsOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae The southern storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. Their flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Northern storm-petrelsOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae Northern storm-petrels are small birds which spend most of their lives at sea, coming ashore only to breed. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering or pattering across the water. Their flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Shearwaters and petrelsOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium nasal septum, and a long outer functional primary flight feather. FrigatebirdsOrder: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black-and-white, or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have coloured inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Boobies and gannetsOrder: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. AnhingasOrder: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae Anhingas or darters are frequently referred to as "snake-birds" because of their long thin neck, which gives a snake-like appearance when they swim with their bodies submerged. The males have black and dark brown plumage, an erectile crest on the nape and a larger bill than the female. The females have a much paler plumage especially on the neck and underparts. The darters have completely webbed feet, and their legs are short and set far back on the body. Their plumage is somewhat permeable, like that of cormorants, and they spread their wings to dry after diving. Cormorants and shagsOrder: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae The Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium-to-large coastal, fish-eating sea-birds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage colouration varies with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black and white, and a few being colourful. The bill is long, thin and sharply hooked. PelicansOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae Pelicans are large water birds with distinctive pouches under their bills. Like other birds in the order Pelecaniformes, they have four webbed toes. Herons, egrets, and bitternsOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large sized wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Unlike other long-necked birds suck as storks, ibises and spoonbills, members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted. Ibises and spoonbillsOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae The Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers. Hawks, eagles, and kitesOrder: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey and includes the osprey, hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. Barn owlsOrder: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. OwlsOrder: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae Typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk. KingfishersOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails. RollersOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not. Falcons and caracarasOrder: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey, notably the falcons and caracaras. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. New Zealand parrotsOrder: PsittaciformesFamily: Strigopidae The New Zealand parrot superfamily, Strigopoidea, consists of at least three genera of parrots – Nestor, Strigops, the fossil Nelepsittacus, and probably the fossil Heracles. The genus Nestor consists of the kea, kaka, Norfolk Island kaka and Chatham Island kaka, while the genus Strigops contains the iconic kakapo. All extant species are endemic to New Zealand. The species of the genus Nelepsittacus were endemics of the main islands, while the two extinct species of the genus Nestor were found at the nearby oceanic islands such as Chatham Island of New Zealand, and Norfolk Island and adjacent Phillip Island. CockatoosOrder: PsittaciformesFamily: Cacatuidae The cockatoos share many features with other parrots including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot, with two forward toes and two backwards toes. They differ, however in a number of characteristics, including the often spectacular movable headcrest. Old world parrotsOrder: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand. New Zealand wrensOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Acanthisittidae The New Zealand wrens are a family (Acanthisittidae) of tiny passerines endemic to New Zealand. They were represented by six known species in four or five genera, although only two species survive in two genera today. They are understood to form a distinct lineage within the passerines, but authorities differ on their assignment to the oscines or suboscines (the two suborders that between them make up the Passeriformes). HoneyeatersOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Meliphagidae The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family, Meliphagidae, of small to medium-sized birds. The family includes the Australian chats, myzomelas, friarbirds, wattlebirds, miners and melidectes. They are most common in Australia and New Guinea, but also found in New Zealand, the Pacific islands as far east as Samoa and Tonga, and the islands to the north and west of New Guinea known as Wallacea. Thornbills and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Acanthizidae The Acanthizidae are small- to medium-sized birds with short rounded wings, slender bills, long legs, and a short tail. CuckooshrikesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae The cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly greyish with white and black, although some minivet species are brightly coloured. WhiteheadsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: MohouidaeMohoua is a small genus of three bird species endemic to New Zealand. The scientific name is taken from mohua – the Māori name for the Yellowhead. Their taxonomic placement has presented problems: They have typically been placed in the whistler family, Pachycephalidae, but in 2013 it was established that they are best placed in their own family, Mohouidae. Old World oriolesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae The Old World orioles are colourful passerine birds which are not closely related to the New World orioles Woodswallows, bellmagpies, and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Artamidae The woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-coloured passerine birds. They are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings. FantailsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Rhipiduridae The fantails are small insectivorous birds with longish, frequently fanned, tails. Monarch flycatchersOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae The monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by gleaning, hovering or flycatching. Crows, jays, and magpiesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. Wattlebirds Order: PasseriformesFamily: CallaeidaeCallaeidae (sometimes Callaeatidae) is a family of passerine birds endemic to New Zealand. It contains three genera, with five species in the family. One species, the huia, became extinct early in the 20th century, while the South Island kokako is critically endangered and may be extinct. StitchbirdOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Notiomystidae The stitchbird or hihi (Notiomystis cincta) is a honeyeater-like bird endemic to the North Island and adjacent offshore islands of New Zealand. Its evolutionary relationships have long puzzled ornithologists, but it is now classed as the only member of its own family, the Notiomystidae. Australasian robinsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Petroicidae The bird family Petroicidae includes 49 species in 19 genera. All are endemic to Australasia: New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand and numerous Pacific Islands as far east as Samoa. For want of an accurate common name, the family is often called the Australasian robins. Within the family the species are known not only as robins but as scrub-robins and flyrobins. They are, however, only distantly related to the Old World family Muscicapidae (to which other species with such names belong) and the monarch flycatchers (Monarchidae). LarksOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds. Reed warblers and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa. Grassbirds and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over. SwallowsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. BulbulsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red, or orange vents, cheeks, throats, or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests. White-eyes, yuhinas, and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae The white-eyes are small birds of rather drab appearance, the plumage above being typically greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast, or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As the name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye. StarlingsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Thrushes and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. AccentorsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae The accentors are a genus of birds in the family Prunellidae, which is the only bird family endemic to the Palearctic. This small group of closely related passerines are all in the genus Prunella. Old World sparrowsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Sparrows are small passerine birds, typically small, plump, brown or grey with short tails and short powerful beaks. They are seed-eaters, but also consume small insects. Wagtails and pipitsOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails and comprises the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. These are slender ground-feeding insectivores of open country. Finches, euphonias, and alliesOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae Finches are small to moderately large seed-eating passerine birds with a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have 12 tail feathers and nine primary flight feathers. Finches have a bouncing flight, alternating bouts of flapping with gliding on closed wings, and most sing well. Old World buntingsOrder: PasseriformesFamily': Emberizidae The emberizids are a large family of seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns. See also List of birds of Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica Lists of birds by region List of endemic birds of New Zealand Fauna of New Zealand References Heather, Barrie; Robertson, Hugh (1996). The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand. Collinson, Martin (June 2006). "Splitting headaches? Recent taxonomic changes affecting the British and Western Palaearctic lists" British Birds'' vol 99, pp. 306–323. External links New Zealand Birds online A comprehensive guide to the birds of New Zealand, maintained by Birds New Zealand, the Department of Conservation, and Te Papa. CSV file with names from New Zealand Birds online A list of all New Zealand Birds including common and scientific names, derived from New Zealand Birds online. New Zealand birds A–Z, Department of Conservation What Bird? A tool for identifying birds that are likely to be encountered in and around New Zealand forests (not intended to be a complete database of the birds of New Zealand). TerraNature New Zealand native birds list. 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206931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hither%20Green	Hither Green	Hither Green is a district in south-east London, England, in the London Borough of Lewisham. It forms the southern part of Lewisham, 6.6 miles (10.6 km) south-east of Charing Cross, and on the Prime Meridian. Growing extensively with the arrival of the railways, Hither Green is characterised by late 19th and early 20th century Victorian and Edwardian domestic architecture, most notably the Corbett Estate. The railway runs through the centre of the area, which divides Hither Green into an "east side" focused on Staplehurst Road, and a "west side" focused on Hither Green Lane and Springbank Road. The lane dates back to Roman times and runs between the Quaggy and Ravensbourne rivers. From 1978 to 1998 Hither Green was the name of the electoral ward that covered the area – since 2002 the local ward that covers most of Hither Green is Lewisham Central. The parliamentary constituency is Lewisham East. The area is known for the 1967 Hither Green rail crash, in which 49 people were killed. History Toponymy Hither Green acquired its name as it was closer to Lewisham than Further Green located on Verdant Lane. The original Hither Green was located where the present day George Lane intersects with Hither Green Lane. The area now occupied by Hither Green is thought to have originally been a hamlet called Romborough, which was wiped out in the Black Death. Origins Hither Green had remained a largely wooded area through the medieval times but by the 18th century most of the trees had been felled, and the first houses were built. Additional houses appeared through the 19th century, many of them quite substantial residences. Development Mountsfield Park Mountsfield Park opened in August 1905 and has grown through several acquisitions since then. The location of the original park included the substantial residence called Mountsfield, home of noted entomologist Henry Tibbats Stainton. The house was demolished but remnants of the garden remain. Additional acres were bought from the School Board for London and six allotments from Trinity College. And when Charlton Athletic football club gave up the football ground at the bottom of the hill in 1923 the park had grown to 28 acres. Bombing damage to a terrace of houses along the south side of George Lane saw this also added to the park. The final addition came in 1994 when a large majority of the Catford Boys School playing field was added. Other nearby parks include Manor House Gardens and Manor Park to the east. Park Fever Hospital The Park Fever Hospital (latterly Hither Green Hospital) was opened by the Prince of Wales in 1897 for the treatment of infectious diseases such as scarlet fever or diphtheria. The hospital was designed by Edwin T. Hall, the architect behind London's Liberty & Co. department store. The hospital and local area suffered extensive bombing damage during the Second World War. All that remains of the hospital is the water tower with its large clock faces (now the emblem of Hither Green) which is illuminated at night, and several of the hospital’s outbuildings. In 1997 the hospital closed and site was developed as a housing estate called Meridian South. Corbett Estate Much of the Victorian terraced housing dates from the late 19th century when social reformer and Scottish Member of Parliament (MP) Archibald Cameron Corbett built numerous houses on 278 acres of land he purchased from North Park Farm, this was to become known as the Corbett Estate. A booking hall was added to the east side of Hither Green Station to cater for people living on this new estate. Many of the road names are of Scottish origin, as Corbett was a Scot. Due to his Quaker origins, the area was devoid of a public house and remains so. He gave the land for St Andrew's Church, dedicated to Scotland's patron saint. St. Swithun's Church In November 1888, the new parish of St. Swithun's was created. Designed by Ernest Newton the foundation stone was laid in July 1892 and the church, built of red Wrotham brick with Bath stone windows, was completed in 1904. Its organ previously came from Blenheim Palace. Wesleyan Church, Hither Green Lane The large non-conformist Wesleyan Church, designed by Josiah Gunton, standing in the angle of Hither Green Lane and Wellmeadow Road, was completed in 1900 to accommodate 700 people. It was built by C. Castle & Son of Lower Clapton of red brick with a nave, two aisles, a transept, chancel, organ chamber and galleries on three sides, along with a tall pinnacled tower. On the night of 11–12 September 1940, the church was destroyed in the Blitz. What was left of the church was torn down and the site was subsequently occupied by council-built flats. Hither Green TMD Hither Green TMD was opened by the Southern Railway in 1933. It remains in use in a reduced capacity as a DB Cargo UK depot. Nearby areas Transport Rail Hither Green railway station serves the area with services to London Charing Cross and to London Cannon Street both via Lewisham and as part of a loop service via both Sidcup and Woolwich Arsenal. There are also services to Orpington, Sevenoaks via Orpington and to Gravesend via Sidcup. Buses Hither Green is also served by several Transport for London bus services that connect it with areas including Lewisham, Eltham, Catford, Sidcup, New Cross, Canada Water and Crystal Palace. Driving The Driving Standards Agency runs a driving test centre in Hither Green – one of the largest in south London catering for over 1,000 driving tests each month. Hither Green in the news "Let's move to Hither Green, London" in The Guardian newspaper Park Fever beer and chocolate in Wallpaper magazine Hither Green mural from start to finish in News Shopper Hither Green in the Evening Standard Hither Green in Meridian magazine (p.7) Notable former inhabitants Jude Law – Actor Gladys Cooper – Actress Dora Jessie Saint (Miss Read) – Author Dane Baptiste – Comedian Juris Kalnins – Polish musician, philanthropist See also Hither Green Cemetery – contrary to the name, the cemetery is situated in Catford Hither Green railway station Hither Green rail crash References External links Hither Green community forum on Facebook OurHitherGreen.com – Community Association website The website of St Swithun's Church (C of E) Manor House Gardens Friends of Mountsfield Park Walking Hither Green The 1967 Hither Green rail crash (BBC) Districts of the London Borough of Lewisham Areas of London	[ -0.24567480385303497, -0.10471499711275101, 0.06442312896251678, 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206932	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20battleship%20Yamato	Japanese battleship Yamato	was the lead ship of her class of battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) shortly before World War II. She and her sister ship, , were the heaviest and most powerfully armed battleships ever constructed, displacing nearly 72,000 tonnes at full load and armed with nine Type 94 main guns, which were the largest guns ever mounted on a warship. Named after the ancient Japanese Yamato Province, Yamato was designed to counter the numerically superior battleship fleet of the United States, Japan's main rival in the Pacific. She was laid down in 1937 and formally commissioned a week after the Pearl Harbor attack in late 1941. Throughout 1942, she served as the flagship of the Combined Fleet, and in June 1942 Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto directed the fleet from her bridge during the Battle of Midway, a disastrous defeat for Japan. Musashi took over as the Combined Fleet flagship in early 1943, and Yamato spent the rest of the year moving between the major Japanese naval bases of Truk and Kure in response to American threats. In December 1943, Yamato was torpedoed by an American submarine which necessitated repairs at Kure, where she would also be refitted with additional anti-aircraft guns and radar in early 1944. Although present at the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, she played no part in the battle. The only time Yamato fired her main guns at enemy surface targets was in October 1944, when she was sent to engage American forces invading the Philippines during the Battle of Leyte Gulf. While threatening to sink American troop transports, they encountered a light escort carrier group of the U.S. Navy's Task Force 77, "Taffy 3", in the Battle off Samar. The Japanese turned back after American air attacks convinced them they were engaging a powerful US carrier fleet. During 1944, the balance of naval power in the Pacific decisively turned against Japan, and by early 1945, its fleet was much depleted and badly hobbled by critical fuel shortages in the home islands. In a desperate attempt to slow the Allied advance, Yamato was dispatched on a one-way mission to Okinawa in April 1945, with orders to beach herself and fight until destroyed, thus protecting the island. The task force was spotted south of Kyushu by US submarines and aircraft, and on 7 April 1945 she was sunk by American carrier-based bombers and torpedo bombers with the loss of most of her crew. Design and construction During the 1930s the Japanese government adopted an ultranationalist militancy with a view to greatly expand the Japanese Empire. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1934, renouncing its treaty obligations. After withdrawing from the Washington Naval Treaty, which limited the size and power of capital ships, the Imperial Japanese Navy began their design of the new Yamato class of heavy battleships. Their planners recognized Japan would be unable to compete with the output of U.S. naval shipyards should war break out, so the 70,000 ton vessels of the Yamato class were designed to be capable of engaging multiple enemy battleships at the same time. The keel of Yamato, the lead ship of the class, was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal, Hiroshima, on 4 November 1937, in a dockyard that had to be adapted to accommodate her enormous hull. The dock was deepened by one meter, and gantry cranes capable of lifting up to 350 tonnes were installed. Extreme secrecy was maintained throughout construction, a canopy even being erected over part of the drydock to screen the ship from view. Yamato was launched on 8 August 1940, with Captain (later Vice-Admiral) Miyazato Shutoku in command. A great effort was made in Japan to ensure the ships were built in extreme secrecy to prevent American intelligence officials from learning of their existence and specifications. Armament Yamatos main battery consisted of nine 45 Caliber Type 94 naval guns—the largest caliber of naval artillery ever fitted to a warship, although the shells were not as heavy as those fired by the British 18-inch naval guns of . Each gun was long, weighed , and was capable of firing high-explosive or armor-piercing shells . Her secondary battery comprised twelve guns mounted in four triple turrets (one forward, one aft, two midships), and twelve guns in six twin mounts (three on each side amidships). These turrets had been taken off the Mogami-class cruisers when those vessels were converted to a main armament of guns. In addition, Yamato carried twenty-four anti-aircraft guns, primarily mounted amidships. When refitted in 1944 and 1945 for naval engagements in the South Pacific, the secondary battery configuration was changed to six 155 mm guns and twenty-four 127 mm guns, and the number of 25 mm anti-aircraft guns was increased to 162. Service Trials and initial operations During October or November 1941 Yamato underwent sea trials, reaching her maximum possible speed of . As war loomed, priority was given to accelerating military construction. On 16 December, months ahead of schedule, the battleship was formally commissioned at Kure, in a ceremony more austere than usual, as the Japanese were still intent on concealing the ship's characteristics. The same day, under Captain (later Vice-Admiral) Gihachi Takayanagi, she joined fellow battleships and in the 1st Battleship Division. On 12 February 1942, Yamato became the flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's Combined Fleet. A veteran of Japan's crushing victory over Russia at the Battle of Tsushima in the Russo-Japanese War, the Pearl Harbor victor was planning a decisive engagement with the United States Navy at Midway Island. After participating in war games Yamato departed Hiroshima Bay on 27 May for duty with Yamamoto's main battleship group. US codebreakers were aware of Yamamoto's intentions and the Battle of Midway proved disastrous for Japan's carrier force, with four fleet carriers and 332 aircraft lost. Yamamoto exercised overall command from Yamatos bridge, but his battle plan had widely dispersed his forces to lure the Americans into a trap, and the battleship group was too far away to take part in the engagement. On 5 June, Yamamoto ordered the remaining ships to return to Japan, so Yamato withdrew with the main battleship force to Hashirajima, before making her way back to Kure. Yamato left Kure for Truk on 17 August 1942. After 11 days at sea, she was sighted by the American submarine , which fired four torpedoes, all of which missed; Yamato arrived safely at Truk later that day. She remained there throughout the Guadalcanal campaign because of a lack of 46 cm ammunition suitable for shore bombardment, uncharted seas around Guadalcanal, and her high fuel consumption. Before the year's end, Captain (later Rear Admiral) Chiaki Matsuda was assigned to command Yamato. On 11 February 1943, Yamato was replaced by her sister ship Musashi as flagship of the Combined Fleet. The battleship spent only a single day away from Truk between her arrival in August 1942 and her departure on 8 May 1943. On that day, she set sail for Yokosuka and from there for Kure, arriving on 14 May. She spent nine days in dry dock for inspection and general repairs, and after sailing to Japan's western Inland Sea she was again dry-docked in late July for significant refitting and upgrades. On 16 August, Yamato began her return to Truk, where she joined a large task force formed in response to American raids on the Tarawa and Makin atolls. She sortied in late September with Nagato, three carriers, and smaller warships to intercept US Task Force 15, and again a month later with six battleships, three carriers, and eleven cruisers. Intelligence had reported that the United States Naval Base at Pearl Harbor was nearly empty of ships, which the Japanese interpreted to mean that an American naval force would strike at Wake Island. But there were no radar contacts for six days, and the fleet returned to Truk, arriving on 26 October. Yamato escorted Transport Operation BO-1 from Truk to Yokosuka during 12–17 December. Subsequently, because of their extensive storage capacity and thick armor protection, Yamato and Musashi were pressed into service as transport vessels. On 25 December, while ferrying troops and equipment—which were wanted as reinforcements for the garrisons at Kavieng and the Admiralty Islands—from Yokosuka to Truk, Yamato and her task group were intercepted by the American submarine about out at sea. Skate fired a spread of four torpedoes at Yamato; one struck the battleship's starboard side toward the stern. A hole below the top of her anti-torpedo bulge and measuring some across was ripped open in the hull, and a joint between the upper and lower armored belts failed, causing the rear turret's upper magazine to flood. Yamato took on about 3,000 tons of water, but reached Truk later that day. The repair ship effected temporary repairs, and Yamato departed on 10 January for Kure. On 16 January 1944, Yamato arrived at Kure for repairs of the torpedo damage and was dry-docked until 3 February. During this time, armor plate sloped at ° was fitted in the area of damage to her hull. It had been proposed that of steel be used to bolster the ship's defense against flooding from torpedo hits outside the armored citadel, but this was rejected out of hand because the additional weight would have increased Yamatos displacement and draft too much. While Yamato was dry-docked, Captain Nobuei Morishita—former captain of the battleship —assumed command. On 25 February, Yamato and Musashi were reassigned from the 1st Battleship Division to the Second Fleet. Yamato was again dry-docked at Kure for further upgrades to all her radar and anti-aircraft systems from 25 February to 18 March 1944. Each of the two beam-mounted 6.1 inch (155-mm) triple turrets was removed and replaced by three pairs of 5-inch (127-mm) AA guns in double mounts. In addition, 8 triple and 26 single 25mm AA mounts were added, increasing the total number of 127 mm and 25 mm anti-aircraft guns to 24 and 162, respectively. Shelters were also added on the upper deck for the increased AA crews. A Type 13 air search and Type 22, Mod 4, surface search/gunnery control radar were installed, and the main mast was altered. Her radar suite was also upgraded to include infrared identification systems and aircraft search and gunnery control radars. She left the dry dock on 18 March and went through several trials beginning on 11 April. Yamato left Kure on 21 April and embarked soldiers and materiel the following day at Okinoshima for a mission to Manila, reaching the Philippines on 28 April. She then moved on to Malaya to join Vice-Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa's Mobile Fleet at Lingga; this force arrived at Tawi Tawi on 14 May. Battle of the Philippine Sea In early June, Yamato and Musashi were again requisitioned as troop transports, this time to reinforce the garrison and naval defenses of the island of Biak as part of Operation Kon. The mission was cancelled when word reached Ozawa's headquarters of American carrier attacks on the Mariana Islands. Instead, the Imperial Japanese Navy reorganized, concentrating the majority of its remaining fighting strength in the hope of achieving a decisive success against the Americans. By this time though, the entire Japanese navy was inferior in numbers and experience to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. From 19 to 23 June 1944, Yamato escorted forces of Ozawa's Mobile Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, dubbed by American pilots "The Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". The Japanese lost three aircraft carriers and 426 aircraft; Yamatos only significant contribution was mistakenly opening fire on returning Japanese aircraft. Following the battle, Yamato withdrew with the Mobile Fleet to the Hashirajima staging area near Kure to refuel and rearm. With Musashi she left the fleet on 24 June for the short journey to Kure, where she received five more triple 25 mm anti-aircraft mounts. The opportunity was taken to put in place "emergency buoyancy keeping procedures". These resulted in the removal of almost every flammable item from the battleship, including linoleum, bedding, and mattresses. In place of the latter, men slept on planks which could be used to repair damage. Flammable paints received a new silicone based overcoat, and additional portable pumps and fire fighting apparatus were installed. Leaving Japan on 8 July, Yamato—accompanied by the battleships Musashi, , Nagato, and 11 cruisers and destroyers—sailed south. Yamato and Musashi headed for the Lingga Islands, arriving on 16–17 July. By this stage of the war, Japan's tanker fleet had been much reduced by marauding American submarines, so major fleet units were stationed in the East Indies to be near the source of their fuel supply. The battleships remained at the islands for the next three months. Battle of Leyte Gulf Between 22 and 25 October 1944, as part of Admiral Takeo Kurita's Center Force (also known as Force A or First Striking Force), Yamato took part in one of the largest naval engagements in history—the Battle of Leyte Gulf. In response to the American invasion of the Philippines, Operation Shō-Gō called for a number of Japanese groups to converge on the island of Leyte, where American troops were landing. On 18 October, Yamato was given a coating of black camouflage in preparation for her nighttime transit of the San Bernardino Strait; the main ingredient was soot taken from her smokestack. While en route to Leyte, the force was attacked in Palawan Passage on 23 October by the submarines and , which sank two Takao-class heavy cruisers including Kurita's flagship, , and damaged a third. Kurita survived the loss of Atago and transferred his flag to Yamato. Battle of the Sibuyan Sea The following day the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea hurt the Center Force badly with the loss of three more heavy cruisers, eliminating a substantial part of the fleet's anti-aircraft defence. During the course of the day, American carrier aircraft sortied a total of 259 times. Aircraft from the struck Yamato with two armor-piercing bombs and scored one near miss; Yamato suffered moderate damage and took on about of water, but remained battleworthy. However, her sister ship Musashi became the focus of the American attacks and eventually sank after being hit with 17 bombs and 19 torpedoes. Battle off Samar Unknown to the Japanese admiral, the main American battle group under the command of Admiral William Halsey Jr., departed the Leyte Gulf area on the evening of 24 October. Convinced that Kurita's Center Force had been turned back, Halsey took his powerful Task Force 38 in pursuit of the Japanese Northern Force, a decoy group composed of one fleet aircraft carrier (), three light carriers, two Ise-class hybrid battleship-carriers, and their escorts. The deception was a success, drawing away five fleet carriers and five light carriers with more than 600 aircraft among them, six fast battleships, eight cruisers, and over 40 destroyers. During the hours of darkness, Kurita's force navigated the San Bernardino Strait and shortly after dawn, in the Battle off Samar, attacked an American formation that had remained in the area to provide close support for the invading troops. Known as "Taffy 3", this small group comprised six escort carriers, three destroyers, and four destroyer escorts. In the initial stages of this battle, Yamato engaged enemy surface targets for the only time in her career, hitting several American ships. After Yamato confirmed primary battery hits on the escort carrier , a spread of torpedoes heading for Yamato was spotted; the battleship was forced to steer away from the fighting to avoid them and was unable to rejoin the battle. Although armed only with torpedoes and 5 inch guns and under attack by large caliber cannons, the light American surface combatants, supported by FM-2 Wildcats and TBM Avengers from Taffy 3's escort carriers, attacked so ferociously that Kurita believed his ships were engaging a full American task force of fleet carriers. A mistaken report that he was facing six fleet carriers, three cruisers, and two destroyers led Kurita to order his task force to turn and disengage. Yamato emerged from the battle without serious damage; only three near misses from bombs and 17 casualties from strafing were suffered during the battle itself, while carrier strikes during the retreat caused light damage to the ship and injured or killed 21 crewmen. Three more heavy cruisers and one light cruiser were subsequently lost. The Centre Force sank one American escort carrier (CVE), two destroyers, and a destroyer escort. A second CVE was lost by kamikaze attack after the surface engagement. Following the engagement, Yamato and the remnants of Kurita's force returned to Brunei. On 15 November 1944, the 1st Battleship Division was disbanded and Yamato became the flagship of the Second Fleet. On 21 November, while transiting the East China Sea in a withdrawal to Kure Naval Base, Yamatos battle group was attacked by the submarine . The battleship Kongō and destroyer were lost. Yamato was immediately drydocked for repairs and anti-aircraft upgrades on reaching Kure, where several of the battleship's older anti-aircraft guns were replaced. On 25 November, Captain Aruga Kōsaku was named Yamatos commander. Operation Ten-Go On 1 January 1945, Yamato, Haruna and Nagato were transferred to the newly reactivated 1st Battleship Division. Yamato left drydock two days later for Japan's Inland Sea. This reassignment was brief; the 1st Battleship Division was deactivated once again on 10 February and Yamato was allotted to the 1st Carrier Division. On 19 March, American carrier aircraft from , and raided Kure. Although 16 warships were hit, Yamato sustained only minor damage from a number of near misses and from one bomb that struck her bridge. The intervention of a squadron of Kawanishi N1K1 "Shiden" fighters (named "George" by the Allies) flown by veteran Japanese fighter instructors prevented the raid from doing too much damage to the base and assembled ships, while Yamatos ability to maneuver—albeit slowly—in the Nasami Channel benefited her. As the final step before their planned invasion of the Japanese mainland, Allied forces invaded Okinawa on 1 April. The Imperial Japanese Navy's response was to organise a mission codenamed Operation Ten-Go that would see the commitment of much of Japan's remaining surface strength. Yamato and nine escorts (the cruiser and eight destroyers) would sail to Okinawa and, in concert with kamikaze and Okinawa-based army units, attack the Allied forces assembled on and around Okinawa. Yamato would then be beached to act as an unsinkable gun emplacement and continue to fight until destroyed. In preparation for the mission, Yamato had taken on a full stock of ammunition on 29 March. According to the Japanese plan, the ships were supposed to take aboard only enough fuel for a one way voyage to Okinawa, but additional fuel amounting to 60% of capacity was issued on the authority of local base commanders. Designated the "Surface Special Attack Force", the ships left Tokuyama at 15:20 on 6 April. Unfortunately for the Japanese, the Allies had intercepted and decoded their radio transmissions, learning the particulars of Operation Ten-Go. Further confirmation of Japanese intentions came around 20:00 when the Surface Special Attack Force, navigating the Bungo Strait, was spotted by the American submarines and . Both reported Yamatos position to the main American carrier strike force, but neither could attack because of the speed of the Japanese ships——and their extreme zigzagging. The Allied forces around Okinawa braced for an assault. Admiral Raymond Spruance ordered six battleships already engaged in shore bombardment in the sector to prepare for surface action against Yamato. These orders were countermanded in favor of strikes from Admiral Marc Mitscher's aircraft carriers, but as a contingency the battleships together with 7 cruisers and 21 destroyers were sent to interdict the Japanese force before it could reach the vulnerable transports and landing craft. Yamatos crew were at general quarters and ready for anti-aircraft action by dawn on 7 April. The first Allied aircraft made contact with the Surface Special Attack Force at 08:23; two flying boats arrived soon thereafter, and for the next five hours, Yamato fired Common Type 3 or Beehive (3 Shiki tsûjôdan) shells at the Allied seaplanes, but could not prevent them from shadowing the force. Yamato obtained her first radar contact with aircraft at 10:00; an hour later, American F6F Hellcat fighters appeared overhead to deal with any Japanese aircraft that might appear. None did. At about 12:30, 280 bomber and torpedo bomber aircraft arrived over the Japanese force. , which had fallen out of formation with engine trouble, was caught and sunk by a detachment of aircraft from . The Surface Special Attack Force increased speed to , and following standard Japanese anti-aircraft defensive measures, the destroyers began circling Yamato. The first aircraft swooped in to attack at 12:37. Yahagi turned and raced away at in an attempt to draw off some of the attackers; it drew off only an insignificant number. Yamato was not hit for four minutes, but at 12:41 two bombs obliterated two of her triple 25 mm anti-aircraft mounts and blew a hole in the deck. A third bomb then destroyed her radar room and the starboard aft 127 mm mount. At 12:45 a single torpedo struck Yamato far forward on her port side, sending shock waves throughout the ship. At 12:46, another two bombs struck the battleship's port side, one slightly ahead of the aft 155 mm centreline turret and the other right on top of the gun. These caused a great deal of damage to the turret and its magazines; only one man survived. Because many of the ship's crew who did not go down with the vessel were killed by strafing aircraft as they swam in the oily water, the details are uncertain, but authors Garzke and Dulin record that little damage was caused. Shortly afterward, up to three more torpedoes struck Yamato. Two impacts, on the port side near the engine room and on one of the boiler rooms, are confirmed; the third is disputed but is regarded by Garzke and Dulin as probable because it would explain the reported flooding in Yamatos auxiliary steering room. The attack ended around 12:47, leaving the battleship listing ° to port; counterflooding—deliberately flooding compartments on the other side of the ship—reduced the list to °. One boiler room had been disabled, slightly reducing Yamatos top speed, and strafing had incapacitated many of the gun crews who manned Yamatos unprotected 25 mm anti-aircraft weapons, sharply curtailing their effectiveness. The second attack started just before 13:00. In a coordinated strike, dive bombers flew high overhead to begin their runs while torpedo bombers approached from all directions at just above sea level. Overwhelmed by the number of targets, the battleship's anti-aircraft guns were ineffective, and the Japanese tried desperate measures to break up the attack. Yamatos main guns were loaded with Beehive shells fused to explode one second after firing—a mere from the ship—but these had little effect. Three or four torpedoes struck the battleship on the port side and one to starboard. Three hits, close together on the port side, are confirmed: one struck a fire room that had already been hit, one impacted a different fire room, and the third hit the hull adjacent to a damaged outboard engine room, increasing the water flow into that space and possibly flooding nearby locations. The fourth hit, unconfirmed, may have struck aft of the third; Garzke and Dulin believe this would explain the rapid flooding reported in that location. This attack left Yamato in a perilous position, listing ° to port. Counterflooding of all remaining starboard void spaces lessened this to °, but further correction would have required repairs or flooding the starboard engine and fire rooms. Although the battleship was not yet in danger of sinking, the list meant the main battery was unable to fire and her speed was limited to . The third and most damaging attack developed at about 13:40. At least four bombs hit the ship's superstructure and caused heavy casualties among her 25 mm anti-aircraft gun crews. Many near misses drove in her outer plating, compromising her defense against torpedoes. Most serious were four more torpedo impacts. Three exploded on the port side, increasing water flow into the port inner engine room and flooding yet another fire room and the steering gear room. With the auxiliary steering room already under water, the ship lost maneuverability and became stuck in a starboard turn. The fourth torpedo most likely hit the starboard outer engine room, which, along with three other rooms on the starboard side, was being counterflooded to reduce the port list. The torpedo strike accelerated the rate of flooding and trapped many crewmen. At 14:02, the order was belatedly given to abandon ship. By this time, Yamatos speed had dropped to and her list was increasing. Fires raged out of control and alarms on the bridge warned of critical temperatures in the forward main battery magazines. Protocol called for flooding the magazines to prevent explosion, but the pumping stations had been knocked out. At 14:05, Yahagi sank, the victim of twelve bombs and seven torpedoes. At the same time, a final flight of torpedo bombers attacked Yamato from her starboard side. Her list was now such that the torpedoes—set to a depth of —struck the bottom of her hull. The battleship continued her inexorable roll to port. By 14:20, the power went out and her remaining 25 mm anti-aircraft guns began to drop into the sea. Three minutes later, Yamato capsized. Her main 46 cm turrets fell off, and as she rolled suction was created that drew swimming crewmen back toward the ship. When the roll reached approximately °, one of the two bow magazines detonated in a tremendous explosion. The resulting mushroom cloud—over high—was seen away on Kyūshū. Yamato sank rapidly, losing an estimated 3,055 of her 3,332 crew, including fleet commander Vice-Admiral Seiichi Itō. The few survivors were recovered by the four surviving destroyers, which withdrew to Japan. From the first attack at 12:37 to the explosion at 14:23, Yamato was hit by at least 11 torpedoes and 6 bombs. There may have been two more torpedo and bomb hits, but this is not confirmed. Wreck discovery Due to often confused circumstances and incomplete information regarding their sinkings, it took until 2019 to discover and identify most wrecks of Japanese capital ships lost in World War II. Drawing on US wartime records, an expedition to the East China Sea in 1982 produced some results, but the wreckage discovered could not be clearly identified. A second expedition returned to the site two years later, and the team's photographic and video records were later confirmed by one of the battleship's designers, Shigeru Makino, to show the Yamatos last resting place. The wreck lies southwest of Kyushu under of water in two main pieces; a bow section comprising the front two thirds of the ship, and a separate stern section. On 16 July 2015, a group of Liberal Democratic Party lawmakers began meetings to study the feasibility of raising the ship from the ocean floor and recovering the remains of crewmembers entombed in the wreckage. The group said it plans to request government funds to research the technical feasibility of recovering the ship. In May 2016, the wreckage was surveyed using digital technology, giving a more detailed view and confirming the earlier identification. The resulting video revealed many details such as the chrysanthemum crest on the bow, the massive propeller, and the detached main gun turret. The nine-minute video of this survey is being shown at the Yamato Museum in Kure. Cultural significance From the time of their construction, Yamato and her sister Musashi carried significant weight in Japanese culture. The battleships represented the epitome of Imperial Japanese naval engineering, and because of their size, speed, and power, visibly embodied Japan's determination and readiness to defend its interests against the Western Powers and the United States in particular. Shigeru Fukudome, chief of the Operations Section of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, described the ships as "symbols of naval power that provided to officers and men alike a profound sense of confidence in their navy." Yamatos symbolic might was such that some Japanese citizens held the belief that their country could never fall as long as the ship was able to fight. Decades after the war, Yamato was memorialised in various forms by the Japanese. Historically, the word "Yamato" was used as a poetic name for Japan; thus, her name became a metaphor for the end of the Japanese empire. In April 1968, a memorial tower was erected at Cape Inutabu on Tokunoshima, an island in the Amami Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture, to commemorate the lives lost in Operation Ten-Go. In October 1974, Leiji Matsumoto created a new television series, Space Battleship Yamato, about rebuilding the battleship as a starship and its interstellar quest to save Earth. The series was a huge success, spawning eight feature films and four more TV series, the most recent of which was released in 2017. The series popularised the space opera. As post-war Japanese tried to redefine the purpose of their lives, Yamato became a symbol of heroism and of their desire to regain a sense of masculinity after their country's defeat in the war. Brought to the United States as Star Blazers, the animated series proved popular and established a foundation for anime in the North American entertainment market. The motif in Space Battleship Yamato was repeated in Silent Service, a popular manga and anime that explores issues of nuclear weapons and the Japan–US relationship. It tells the story of a nuclear-powered super submarine whose crew mutinies and renames the vessel Yamato, in allusion to the World War II battleship and the ideals she symbolises. In 2005, the Yamato Museum was opened near the site of the former Kure shipyards. Although intended to educate on the maritime history of post Meiji-era Japan, the museum gives special attention to its namesake; the battleship is a common theme among several of its exhibits, which includes a section dedicated to Matsumoto's animated series. The centrepiece of the museum, occupying a large section of the ground floor, is a long model of Yamato (1:10 scale). Later that year, Toei released a 143-minute movie, Yamato, based on a book by Jun Henmi, to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the end of World War II; Tamiya released special editions of scale models of the battleship in conjunction with the film's release. Based on a book of the same name, the film is a tale about the sailors aboard the doomed battleship and the concepts of honour and duty. The film was shown on more than 290 screens across the country and was a commercial success, taking in a record 5.11 billion yen at the domestic box office. A second Yamato, dubbed the "Yamato Mark II", is a central plot device in the 2016 video game Yakuza 6: The Song of Life, in which it was constructed in secret following the end of World War II and financed with misappropriated government funds, being stored at Iwami Shipbuilding's facility in Onomichi. The 2019 Japanese film The Great War of Archimedes (アルキメデスの大戦, Archimedes no Taisen) based on a manga by Norifusa Mita tells the story of a dispute within the Japanese Navy over whether to fund the construction of aircraft carriers or a new battleship that would become Yamato. The film begins with the sinking of Yamato and ends with its commissioning. See also Battleships in World War II Notes Footnotes References Ballard, Robert (1999). Return to Midway. London. Wellington House. Jackson, Robert (2000). The World's Great Battleships. Brown Books. . Johnston, Ian & McAuley, Rob (2000). The Battleships. MBI Publishing Company. . Reynolds, Clark G (1982). The Carrier War. Time-Life Books. . Skulski, Janusz (2004) [1988]. The Battleship Yamato: Anatomy of a Ship Conway Maritime Press. Steinberg, Rafael (1978). Island Fighting. Time-Life Books Inc. Steinberg, Rafael (1980) Return to the Philippines. Time-Life Books Inc. Wheeler, Keith (1980). War Under the Pacific. Time-Life Books. Willmott, H.P. (2000). The Second World War in the Far East. Wellington House. . Further reading External links Yamato Museum Joseph Czarnecki, "What did the USN know about Yamato and when?" 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206934	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luton%20Airport	Luton Airport	London Luton Airport is an international airport located east of Luton town centre in England, and is north of Central London. The airport is owned by London Luton Airport Ltd (LLAL), a company wholly owned by Luton Borough Council, and operated by London Luton Airport Operations Ltd (LLAOL). An airport was opened on the site on 16 July 1938. During the Second World War, the airport was used by fighters of the Royal Air Force. Commercial activity and general aviation flight training at Luton resumed during 1952. By the 1960s, Luton Airport was playing a key role in the development of the package holiday business; by 1969, a fifth of all holiday flights from the UK departed from Luton Airport. From the mid-1960s, executive aircraft have been based at the airport. During the late 1970s, an expansion plan was initiated at Luton to accommodate as many as 5 million passengers per year, although the airport experienced a reduction in passenger numbers in the 1980s. In 1990, the airport was renamed London Luton Airport to re-emphasise the airport's proximity to the capital. The arrival of new operators at Luton during the 1990s, such as charter operator MyTravel Group and new low-cost scheduled flights from Debonair and EasyJet, contributed to a rapid increase in passenger numbers that made it the fastest growing major airport in the UK. In August 1997, to fund an £80million extension of the airport, a 30-year concession contract was issued to a public-private partnership consortium, London Luton Airport Operations Limited. Throughout the 1990s, £30million was invested in Luton's infrastructure and facilities. In November 1999, a new £40million terminal was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip; the new building houses 60 check-in desks, baggage and flight information systems and a range of commercial outlets. During 2004/5, the departure and arrivals lounges and other facilities were redeveloped at a cost of £38million. In 2018, over 16.5 million passengers passed through the airport, a record total for Luton making it the fifth busiest airport in the UK. It is the fourth-largest airport serving the London area after Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, and is one of London's six international airports along with London City and Southend. The airport serves as a base for EasyJet, TUI Airways, Ryanair and Wizz Air and previously served as a base for Monarch Airlines until it ceased operations in October 2017. The vast majority of the routes served are within Europe, although there are some charter and scheduled routes to destinations in Northern Africa and Asia. History Early history Luton Municipal Airport was opened on the site on 16 July 1938 by the Secretary of State for Air, Kingsley Wood. Situated where the valley of the River Lea cuts its way through the north-east end of the Chiltern Hills, the airport occupies a hill-top location, with a roughly drop-off at the western end of the runway. The airport, which was owned by the Borough of Luton, was considered to be the northern terminal for neighbouring London. During the Second World War, the airport was used by the Royal Air Force, fighters of No. 264 Squadron being based there. Following the end of the conflict, the site was returned to the local council. During 1952, activity at the airport resumed on a commercial basis; a new control tower was opened around this time. British aviation company Percival Aircraft had its factory at the airport until the early 1960s. From the mid-1960s, executive aircraft have been based at the airport, initially operated by McAlpine Aviation. These activities have grown and several executive jet operators and maintenance companies are currently based at Luton. In the 1960s, Luton Airport played a key role in the development of the package holiday business, in which the popularity of the foreign holiday rose substantially, as the launch of new services had allowed greater numbers of people to travel abroad for the first time. Luton became the operating base for several charter airlines, such as Autair (which went on to become Court Line), Euravia (now TUI Airways, following Euravia's change of name to Britannia Airways and subsequent merger with First Choice Airways and TUI rebrand) and Dan-Air. By 1969, a fifth of all holiday flights from the UK departed from Luton Airport; during 1972, Luton Airport was the most profitable airport in the country. However, Luton suffered a severe setback in August 1974 when major package holiday operator Clarksons and its in-house airline Court Line (which also operated coach links) ceased operations and were liquidated. Nevertheless, by 1978, the airport's management initiated an expansion plan as to allow Luton to accommodate as many as 5 million passengers per year. 1980s and 1990s During the 1980s, the airport experienced a decline in customer numbers; this was due to lack of reinvestment while the nearby Stansted Airport, which was also located north of London, was growing. The council responded to lobbying and focused again on developing the airport. During 1985, a new international terminal building was opened by The Prince of Wales. Further updates and changes over the following 15 years were made, including the opening of a new international terminal an automated baggage handling facility, a new control tower with updated air traffic control systems, a new cargo centre and runway upgrades. In 1987, Luton Airport became a limited company, of which Luton Borough Council was the sole shareholder; this reorganisation was taken as it was felt that the airport ought to be operated at arm's length via an independent management team. While developing the basic infrastructure, various business partners were courted and business models were considered. The process envisaged a cargo centre, an airport railway station, and people mover from station to airport terminal (hence the unused underpass parallel to the road as one approaches the terminal). During 1991, an attempt was made to sell Luton Airport, but it was unsuccessful; instead, a new management team was appointed to turn around the business, stem the losses, and improve passenger numbers. Over the following five years, £30million was invested in Luton's infrastructure and facilities. Originally, the airport's runways had been grass tracks 18/36 and 06/24, and then a concrete runway 08/26. By the end of the 1980s, there was only one runway, 08/26. The 18/36 grass runway had disappeared under a landfill, while 06/24 had effectively become a taxiway. For Luton to maintain viability, it was necessary to update airfield services, and achieve CAT III status. This meant updating the instrument landing system (ILS); glidepath and localiser and removing the hump in the runway; even a six-foot person could not see one end of the runway from the other. The hump was removed by building up layers at the end of the runway; this was done over 72 successive nights between October 1988 and February 1989, with the height being raised 90 mm on one particular night. During the course of this work, the airport would re-open for flights during the day. In 1990, the airport was renamed London Luton Airport to re-emphasise the airport's proximity to the UK capital. In 1991, another setback occurred when Ryanair, which had flown from the airport to Ireland for a number of years, transferred its London operating base from Luton to rival Stansted. This move was attributed as causing a decline in passenger numbers at Luton. Later in the 1990s, MyTravel Group began charter flights from the airport, using the Airtours brand and new low-cost scheduled flights from Debonair and EasyJet, the latter making Luton its base. The arrival of these new operators marked a rapid increase in passenger numbers; during 1997/1998, 3.4 million people travelled via the airport, while 4.4 million travellers were recording during the following year, making Luton Airport the fastest growing major airport in the UK. In August 1997, to fund an £80million extension of the airport, the council issued a 30-year concession contract to a public-private partnership consortium, London Luton Airport Operations Limited, a partnership of Airport Group International (AGI) and Barclays Private Equity. AGI was a specialist airport management and development company once owned by Lockheed Martin. In 1999, AGI was sold to TBI plc; in 2001, Barclays also sold its shares in Luton to TBI plc. The main feature of the development phase in 1998 was a £40million terminal made from aluminium and glass, based on an original design by Foster + Partners. The new terminal, which was officially opened in November 1999 by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, houses 60 check-in desks, baggage and flight information systems and a wide range of shops, restaurants and bars. During late 1999, British railway infrastructure company Railtrack opened the new Luton Airport Parkway railway station; built at a cost of £23million, the station facilitated a travel time to central London of less than 30 minutes. Development since the 2000s In September 2004, Luton Airport embarked on a 10-month project to develop the departure and arrivals lounges and other facilities at a cost of £38million; this work included a area featuring a spectacular vaulted ceiling was completed with the new terminal, but intended to lie unused until required. On 1 July 2005, the new departure hall opened on schedule, featuring a boarding pier extending out between the airport's north and east aprons and relocated security, customs and immigration facilities, as well as an expanded number of boarding gates from the previous number of 19 to 26. In 2004, the airport management announced that they supported the government plans to expand the facilities, which included a full-length runway and a new terminal. However, local campaign groups, including Luton and District Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise (LADACAN) and Stop Luton Airport Plan (SLAP) opposed the new expansion plans, for reasons including noise pollution and traffic concerns; LADACAN also claimed that various sites, including Someries Castle, a Scheduled Monument, would be threatened by the expansion. On 6 July 2007, it was announced that the owners of London Luton Airport had decided to scrap plans to build a second runway and new terminal for financial reasons. In order for the airport to expand further, the Department for Transport (DfT) advised the airport authority to use the airport site more efficiently. The DfT supports plans to extend the runway from its current length to and increase the length of the taxiway. A full-length runway would increase airlines' operational flexibility by enabling the use of aircraft that have a greater payload capacity and longer range than is currently possible. A longer taxiway would maximise runway use by reducing the need for taxiing aircraft to cross or move along the runway. In January 2005, London Luton Airport Operations Limited was acquired by Airport Concessions Development Limited, a company owned by Abertis Infraestructuras (90%) and Aena Internacional (10%), both Spanish companies. control organisation. In November 2013, ownership of London Luton Airport Operations Ltd passed to Aena and Ardian. In April 2018, AMP Capital acquired Ardian's 49% stake in the business. By 2006, the last flight training operator had ceased training from the airport. From 2006 to 2008, Silverjet operated long-haul flights to Newark and Dubai from a dedicated terminal, but ceased operations due to the global economic crisis. In September 2016, La Compagnie announced it would cease operating its Luton to Newark service citing economic reasons. Therefore, Luton lost its only long-haul service. In February 2017, Hungarian low-cost carrier Wizz Air announced it would to open its first British base at Luton Airport inaugurating three new routes to Tel Aviv, Pristina and Kutaisi in addition to more than a dozen already served ones from other bases. In December 2018, a three-year redevelopment of the airport commenced. Costing roughly £160million, the airport management stated that the upgrade, which included new shops, a new boarding pier, and more boarding gates, would increase overall capacity by 50%, enabling the site to accommodate 18 million passengers by 2020. Campaigners from local pressure groups such as LADACAN have complained that the airport had failed to incorporate reduce noise reduction measures into the plan, while an airport spokesman stated "Our noise control measures are some of the most stringent of any major UK airport", noting that it had applied for additional flight restrictions. In addition, earlier that year, work had commenced on the construction of the Luton DART, an automated guided people mover which will travel between Luton Airport Parkway station and the airport. Costed at £200million, the DART will eliminate the need for shuttle buses from mid-2022. Facilities The airport possesses a single runway, running roughly east to west (07/25), with a length of at an elevation of . The runway is equipped with an Instrument Landing System (ILS) rated to Category IIIB, allowing the airport to continue operating in conditions of poor visibility. All the airport facilities lie to the north of the runway. The terminal and aprons have an unconventional layout for a commercial airport, with terminal drop-off, bus stands, taxi ranks and short-term car parks being accessed facing south towards the runway, being connected by a road. This road tunnels under a taxiway which connects the western apron area to the runway's taxiway network. There are approximately 60 stands available for aircraft, with 28 dedicated gates, which are all hardstands. All of these stands are located on the northern side of the terminal building, away from the runway and connected to it by a 'U' shaped set of taxiways and aprons that together encircle the terminal. The northern side of the U-shaped apron is ringed by a continuous line of hangars and other buildings, emphasising the fact that Luton is a major maintenance base for several airlines including TUI Airways, EasyJet, and previously Monarch Airlines. By contrast to the heavily built up apron area, the airport's southern boundary is entirely rural with only a few isolated farm buildings and houses close to the airport boundary. The airport remains in municipal ownership, owned by Luton Borough Council but managed by the private sector London Luton Airport Operations Limited (LLAOL). London Luton Airport has a Civil Aviation Authority Public Use Aerodrome Licence (Number P835) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction. An indicator of the importance of the airport to the economy of Luton is that Luton is reported to have the highest number of taxicabs per head of population in the United Kingdom. EasyJet's head office is Hangar 89 (H89), a building located on the grounds of London Luton Airport; the hangar, a former Britannia Airways/TUI facility, is located from the former site of EasyLand, the previous headquarters of EasyJet. Hangar 89, built in 1974, has of office space and can house two aircraft the size of an Airbus A320 or Boeing 737 at one time. When EasyJet received H89, it had a 1970s style office setup. EasyJet modernised the building and painted it orange. In addition, TUI Airways head office is at the airport, and - prior to its closure - Monarch Airlines's head office, along with that of Monarch Group, was in Prospect House, on the grounds of the airport. Terminal Luton Airport has a single, two-storey passenger terminal building which has been expanded and rearranged several times. The ground floor has a main hall equipped with 62 check-in desks (1-62), a separate security screening hall, as well as some shops, service counters and the arrivals facilities. After the security screening hall, stairs lead to the departures lounge on the upper floor, where several more stores, restaurants and all 41 departure gates in three side piers (1-19, 20-28 and 30-43) can be found. Besides branches of Burger King, Starbucks, Boots and others, one airport lounge is located inside the terminal. Airlines and destinations Passenger The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Luton: Cargo Statistics Traffic development Busiest routes Ground transport Road The airport lies a few miles away from the M1 motorway, which runs southwards to London, northwards to Leeds and connects to the M25 motorway. The airport is linked to M1's Junction 10 by the dual-carriageway A1081 road. There is a short stay car park adjacent to the terminal, together with medium and long term on airport car parks to the west and east of the terminal respectively and linked to the terminal by shuttle buses. Pre-booked off airport parking is also available from several independent operators. Rail Luton Airport Parkway has served the airport since 1999. It is on the Midland Main Line from London St Pancras, between which, journeys take as little as 22 minutes, on services branded EMR. Thameslink is the primary operator, with services running from the station to Bedford, St Albans, London, Wimbledon, Sutton, Gatwick Airport and Brighton. East Midlands Railway operate semi-fast services calling at the station twice hourly. These trains run south directly to London St Pancras and north to Corby via Bedford, Wellingborough and Kettering. Limited services to Nottingham and Sheffield call at the station at peak times. A shuttle bus service connects the station to the airport, a distance of just over a mile. The fare is included in pre-purchased rail tickets to/from Luton Airport (Parkway) otherwise a cash fee is charged. In 2016, airport owners announced plans to build the Luton DART, a light railway from the Parkway station to the airport at £200million. A planning application was submitted in Autumn 2016; it was accepted in June 2017. The link was originally planned to come into passenger service by the end of 2020. Several schemes before the light rail building project were rejected, including in 2007 a proposal to replace the shuttle buses with segregated tracked transit conveyors. From the Midland Main Line ambitious plans to build a railway spur were put forward in 2015 to reduce time, frequently, to or from central London to 20minutes and significantly increase passenger numbers. In 2016, Luton Airport commissioned a study, with the support of the CBI, easyJet, the Federation of Small Businesses, and the Bedfordshire and the Hertfordshire Chambers of Commerce (among others) which sought to explore opportunities to expand rail services to and from the airport. The study found four fast trains per hour from central London was possible. Negotiations are underway with the Department for Transport to extend the validity of the Oyster card contactless ticketing system to the airport. Contactless bank cards (but not Oyster cards) became valid for journeys to and from London from October 2019. Buses Local buses connect Luton Airport with Luton town centre and other nearby places. The airport is the served by the Route A of the Luton to Dunstable Busway, a bus rapid transit route which connects the airport with Luton Town Centre and the neighbouring towns of Dunstable, Houghton Regis and Milton Keynes. The buses, operated by Arriva Shires & Essex, run on a segregated guided busway track between Luton and Dunstable. Conventional bus services also operate, connecting the airport with towns and cities in the region and parts of north London, including the 100, operated by Arriva, which offers an hourly daytime connection to the nearby towns of Hitchin and Stevenage; Metroline service 84A; Courtney Buses coach service to Bracknell. Direct coach services to London include Green Line route 757 operated by Arriva Shires & Essex and the A1 operated by National Express which operate competing services to and from Victoria Coach Station. EasyBus services operate towards Liverpool Street station. A range of longer distance National Express services linking Stansted, Heathrow and Gatwick Airports as well as destinations in the Midlands and North of England. Govia Thameslink Railway provide a shuttle bus link between the airport and Luton Airport Parkway railway station. This service runs 24 hours a day - every ten minutes from 5am to 12am and between 12am to 5am it is timed to meet each overnight train service. There are also three services around the airport operated by APCOA Parking which operate 24 hours a day serving the terminal, mid stay, long stay, and staff car parks. The service that serves the staff car park also serves the car hire centre and rental companies and all stops in between including the Holiday Inn Express, the TUI Airways HQ And the ID Unit. A new fleet of six Mercedes-Benz Citaro buses were purchased for these operations during 2014. A range of other bus services operated by off-site parking companies also serve the airport. These include Airparks, Paige Airport Parking, Centrebus and Coach Hire 4 U. The latter two operators provide staff shuttle buses on behalf of TUI and EasyJet. In popular culture London Luton Airport appeared in two fly-on-the-wall television documentaries, Airline (1998) and Luton Airport (2005). Airline followed the staff of EasyJet at Luton and the airline's other bases across the country whilst the 2005 series followed the life of employees in a similar format to the show Airport, set in Heathrow Airport. The airport was mentioned in a 1977 television advert for Campari featuring Lorraine Chase, with the punch line "Were you truly wafted here from paradise?" — "Nah, Lut'n Airport". This advert was the inspiration for the 1979 UK hit song "Luton Airport" by Cats UK. In the Spitting image TV skit for "The Chicken Song", Luton Airport appears for a brief few seconds at the beginning. The first episode of the second series of the BBC sitcom One Foot in the Grave is entitled In Luton Airport No-One Can Hear You Scream. Luton Airport was mentioned in the Piranha Brothers sketch from Monty Python's Flying Circus, as being the place where one of the brothers, Dinsdale, thinks that a giant hedgehog named Spiny Norman sleeps. In 2011 the airport featured in an episode of the series Supersize Grime which focused on the cleaning of an Airbus A321 at the Monarch Aircraft Engineering hangar 127. Accidents and incidents 4 November 1949: A Hawker Tempest single-engined piston fighter being operated by Napier Aircraft on a test flight crashed at the airport, killing the test pilot. 23 December 1967: A Hawker Siddeley HS 125 (registration: G-AVGW) of Court Line crashed shortly after taking off from Luton Airport, killing both pilots. The aircraft had been on a training flight. The crash occurred when the crew simulated an engine failure on takeoff. The HS 125 lost height rapidly and hit the roof of a nearby factory. This resulted in a post-crash fire. 3 March 1974: A Douglas DC-7C/F (registration: EI-AWG) operating an Aer Turas Teo charter flight from Dublin landed on runway 08 just after midnight but failed to achieve reverse thrust. Normal braking application also appeared to the crew to be ineffective and the emergency pneumatic brakes were applied. All main wheel tyres burst. The aircraft overran the runway and continued over the steep bank at the eastern perimeter finally coming to rest in soft ground 90 metres beyond. The situation had also been made worse by an inadvertent application of forward thrust by the crew in trying to achieve reverse thrust. Three of the six passengers and two of the four crew were injured. The aircraft was badly damaged and deemed a write-off. 18 April 1974: A BAC One-Eleven 518FG (registration: G-AXMJ) operating Court Line Flight 95 was involved in a ground collision with Piper PA-23 Aztec (registration: G-AYDE) after the Aztec entered the active runway without clearance. The pilot of the Aztec was killed and his passenger was injured. All 91 people on board the One-Eleven successfully evacuated after take-off was aborted. 21 June 1974: A Boeing 727-46 (registration: G-BAEF) operating a Dan-Air charter flight to Corfu hit the localiser antenna while taking off, thereby rendering the runway's ILS inoperative. After being told by Luton air traffic control about the incident, the crew flying the aircraft elected to divert to London Gatwick where it landed safely without harming its 134 occupants (eight crew members and 126 passengers). The subsequent investigation revealed that the aircraft only just became airborne at the end of the runway, and as the ground fell away to the Lea valley below, the aircraft actually followed a downsloping course until finally gaining positive climb. The report concluded that there had been a cumulative effect of three factors – erosion of take-off run available; delay in starting rotation; and a very slow rate of rotation – as a result of the flightdeck crew's miscalculation of the aircraft's takeoff weight (too high), a wrong pressure ratio for two of the aircraft's three engines (too low) and a sub-optimal choice of runway based on the use of outdated wind information that omitted the latest update's tailwind component. 29 March 1981: A Lockheed JetStar 1329 (registration: N267L) operating an inbound flight from Nigeria overran runway 08 and came to rest down the embankment beyond the eastern perimeter fence. The accident was caused because the pilot landed well past the touchdown zone in poor visibility at night. At the time runway 08 did not have an ILS. The co-pilot suffered severe spinal injuries but the commanding pilot and seven passengers escaped with only minor injuries. 15 January 1994: A Bell 206B JetRanger helicopter (registration: G-BODW) rolled over on takeoff. One of the rotor blades sliced into the cabin, killing the pilot. The aircraft was badly damaged and deemed a write-off. Future expansion plans In February 2019, London Luton Airport Limited announced plans to expand the airport by building a second terminal. The expansion would increase airport capacity to handle 32 million passengers per year 2039. The enlarged airport would continue to operate using the existing single runway. LLAL have outlined several options for the site of the new Terminal 2. Most of the proposals involve a development that will encroach upon Wigmore Valley Park, a designated County Wildlife Site; an alternative site to the east would encroach upon the London Green Belt, and a further option proposes siting a new terminal to the south of the runway. A public consultation in October 2019 included plans for a third stop on the Luton DART transit, currently under construction. See also Airports of London List of airports in the United Kingdom and the British Crown Dependencies Transport in Luton Notes References External links London Luton Airport Limited London Luton Airport Consultative Committee Interactive flight radar map of London Luton Airport Airports in the London region Airports in the East of England Airports established in 1938 Luton Transport in Bedfordshire Buildings and structures in Bedfordshire Transport in Luton/Dunstable Urban Area Airports in Bedfordshire 1938 establishments in England	[ -0.5578457713127136, -0.037491898983716965, 0.6664310097694397, -0.5926481485366821, 0.002295328304171562, -0.11160145699977875, 0.23767660558223724, 0.20950204133987427, -0.14189207553863525, -0.4066399335861206, -0.6036375761032104, -0.012156909331679344, -0.32883039116859436, 0.10373667627573013, 0.232035294175148, 0.11850692331790924, -0.3629916310310364, -0.19304132461547852, 0.2500477433204651, -0.40053272247314453, 0.05413365364074707, 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206935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Badger	USS Badger	Three ships of the United States Navy have been named Badger: , an auxiliary cruiser purchased in 1898 and used in the Spanish–American War , a Wickes-class destroyer commissioned in 1919 and active during World War II , a Knox-class destroyer escort commissioned in 1970, reclassified as a frigate in 1975 and decommissioned in 1991 See also , a ferry Sources United States Navy ship names	[ -0.2515837848186493, 0.4573151767253876, -0.7292978763580322, 0.11004450172185898, -0.2653745114803314, 0.6727240681648254, 0.6564527153968811, -0.05577165260910988, -0.7068486213684082, -0.19007918238639832, 0.20944878458976746, 0.6407262682914734, -0.0169695857912302, 0.649411141872406, 0.1263640820980072, 0.23138555884361267, 0.42324283719062805, 0.8963775634765625, -0.26628121733665466, -0.5257361531257629, -0.0909748449921608, -0.07893241196870804, 0.3165687620639801, -0.08558432012796402, 0.4237614870071411, 0.3362363278865814, 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206938	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Vilhelm%20Snellman	Johan Vilhelm Snellman	Johan Vilhelm Snellman (; 12 May 1806 – 4 July 1881) was an influential Fennoman philosopher and Finnish statesman, ennobled in 1866. He was one of the most important 'awakeners' or promoters of Finnish nationalism, alongside Elias Lönnrot and J. L. Runeberg. Life and career Snellman was born in Stockholm, Sweden, the son of Kristian Henrik Snellman, a ship's captain. After the Russian conquest of Finland in 1808–09, and the promising establishment of the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, his family moved there in 1813, to the Ostrobothnian coastal town of Kokkola. His mother Maria Magdalena Snellman died there only a year later. In 1835, after academic work amongst followers of Hegel, Snellman was appointed lecturer at the University of Helsinki, where he belonged to the famous circle of Cygnaeus, Lönnrot, and Runeberg comprising the brightest of their generation. Snellman's lectures quickly became popular with the students, but in November 1838 his lectureship was temporarily recalled after a judicial proceeding that ultimately aimed to establish firm governmental control of new and oppositional thought among the academics. As a consequence, Snellman exiled himself to Sweden and Germany, more or less voluntarily, from 1839 to 1842. By the time he returned to Helsinki, his popularity had increased further, but the political juncture did not allow the university to employ him. Instead, he took up the position as headmaster for a school in distant Kuopio and published starkly polemical periodicals, including the paper Saima in Swedish, which advocated the duty of the educated classes to take up the language of the then circa 85% majority of Finns, and develop Finnish into a language of the civilized world, useful for academic works, fine arts, state craft, and nation building. Saima was suppressed by the government in 1846. In 1848–49, Snellman was again rebuffed when applying for the position of professor at Finland's University in Helsinki. After having contemplated a renewed exile in Sweden, this time possibly definitive, Snellman in 1850 gave up the position in Kuopio and moved to Helsinki, where he and his family lived under economically awkward conditions until the death of Emperor Nicholas in 1855. Then it again became possible for Snellman to publish periodical papers on political issues. He had married Johanna Lovisa Wennberg in 1845, and they had five children before her death in 1857. In 1856, Snellman was finally appointed professor, which was met with great satisfaction among politically interested Finns. However, Snellman's unparalleled popularity could not remain. He was a generation older than the most active political opposition, and now backed a government which had the brightest expectations for Finland under the rule of Emperor Alexander II. The language strife in Finland, of which he was the chief initiator, contributed also to substantial opposition against him and his views. Finally and not least, his stance against the Polish rebels of the January Uprising of 1863 was seen by many as the ultimate sign of unprincipled ingratiation. In 1863 Snellman was called to a cabinet post in the Senate of Finland, in effect as Chancellor of the Exchequer, where he became an energetic and valued senator. He accomplished a language decree from the Emperor that would gradually give Finns a position equal to that of the Swedish within the Finnish government. In practical terms it meant the re-establishment of the Parliament, which had remained inhibited since the Russian conquest. A separate Finnish currency, the Markka, was introduced in 1860, and Snellman managed to tie it to silver instead of to the ruble. The Markka came to be of the utmost value for Finland. Snellman's tenure as Finance Minister would be tainted by the Finnish famine of 1866–1868, aggravated by the government's strict fiscal policy, but Snellman worked to get aid while trying to protect the new currency. Snellman's inflexibility and high profile position in the political debate would however, together with his old reputation as radical agitator of the 1830s–1840s, accumulate too much resistance and aversion to his person and his policies. In 1868 he was forced to resign from the senate. For the remainder of his life, he continued to participate in the political debate, and now ennobled he belonged to the Nobles' Chamber of the parliament. Snellman never lost his popularity among his Fennoman followers, but he had become a highly divisive symbol in Finland's political landscape. Honors Johan Vilhelm Snellman first appeared on a 1960 coin, commemorating the introduction of the markka denomination in 1860. He was recently selected as the main motif for another commemorative coin, the €10 Johan Vilhelm Snellman commemorative coin, minted in 2006 celebrating the 200th anniversary of his birth. The obverse depicts J.V. Snellman. It also depicts the logo of the Europe Coins Programme. The reverse design features represent the dawn of Finnish culture. A park in Kuopio called the Snellman Park (Snellmaninpuisto) has been named after J. V. Snellman; it was formerly known as the former location of the Kuopio Market Square. In the middle of the park, a bust of J. V. Snellman sculpted by Johannes Takanen was unveiled on July 3, 1886. Works In 1842 Snellman published his foremost work Läran om staten (Study of the State). References http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=160109&nodeid=37598&culture=en-US http://www.kansallisbiografia.fi/english/person/3639 http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/550446/Johan-Vilhelm-Snellman http://runeberg.org/authors/snellman.html http://www.taidemuseo.fi/english/veisto/veistossivu.html?id=95 External links J. V. Snellman in 375 humanists – 12 May 2015. Faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki. 1806 births 1881 deaths Politicians from Stockholm Swedish-speaking Finns Finnish Party politicians Finnish senators Members of the Diet of Finland Finnish philosophers 19th-century Finnish nobility Academics of the University of Helsinki 19th-century Finnish philosophers 19th-century Finnish politicians	[ 0.0591142475605011, 0.45327460765838623, -0.09019786864519119, 0.662223219871521, -0.20862744748592377, 0.9664412140846252, 1.249825358390808, -0.3640030026435852, -0.2600799798965454, -0.11628235876560211, -0.24825140833854675, 0.3842918872833252, -0.16779839992523193, 0.1135815978050232, -0.1839456558227539, -0.4674794673919678, 0.11288361251354218, 0.1443861573934555, -0.7494898438453674, 0.19250276684761047, -0.3217518627643585, -0.12143480777740479, 0.7355045676231384, 0.09505601972341537, -0.055123139172792435, -0.1447867602109909, 0.1149657666683197, -0.10511819273233414, 0.3754415214061737, 0.21697363257408142, 0.4413968622684479, 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206940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice%20storm	Ice storm	An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain, also known as a glaze event or, in some parts of the United States, as a silver thaw. The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm which results in the accumulation of at least of ice on exposed surfaces. They are generally not violent storms but instead are commonly perceived as gentle rains occurring at temperatures just below freezing. Formation The formation of ice begins with a layer of above-freezing air above a layer of sub-freezing temperatures closer to the surface. Frozen precipitation melts to rain while falling into the warm air layer, and then begins to refreeze in the cold layer below. If the precipitate refreezes while still in the air, it will land on the ground as sleet. Alternatively, the liquid droplets can continue to fall without freezing, passing through the cold air just above the surface. This thin layer of air then cools the rain to a temperature below freezing (). However, the drops themselves do not freeze, a phenomenon called supercooling (or forming "supercooled drops"). When the supercooled drops strike ground or anything else below (e.g. power lines, tree branches, aircraft), a layer of ice accumulates as the cold water drips off, forming a slowly thickening film of ice, hence freezing rain. While meteorologists can predict when and where an ice storm will occur, some storms still occur with little or no warning. In the United States, most ice storms are in the northeastern part of the country, but damaging storms have occurred farther south; an ice storm in February 1994 resulted in tremendous ice accumulation as far south as Mississippi, and caused reported damage in nine states. Effect The freezing rain from an ice storm covers everything with heavy, smooth glaze ice. In addition to hazardous driving or walking conditions, branches or even whole trees may break from the weight of ice. Falling branches can block roads, tear down power and telephone lines, and cause other damage. Even without falling trees and tree branches, the weight of the ice itself can easily snap power lines and also break and bring down power/utility poles; even electricity pylons with steel frames. This can leave people without power for anywhere from several days to a month. According to most meteorologists, just one quarter of an inch of ice accumulation can add about of weight per line span. Damage from ice storms is easily capable of shutting down entire metropolitan areas. Additionally, the loss of power during ice storms has indirectly caused numerous illnesses and deaths due to unintentional carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. At lower levels, CO poisoning causes symptoms such as nausea, dizziness, fatigue, and headache, but high levels can cause unconsciousness, heart failure, and death. The relatively high incidence of CO poisoning during ice storms occurs due to the use of alternative methods of heating and cooking during prolonged power outages, common after severe ice storms. Gas generators, charcoal and propane barbecues, and kerosene heaters contribute to CO poisoning when they operate in confined locations. CO is produced when appliances burn fuel without enough oxygen present, such as basements and other indoor locations. Loss of electricity during ice storms can indirectly lead to hypothermia and even death from hypothermia. It can also lead to ruptured pipes due to water freezing inside the pipes. Gallery See also December 2005 North American ice storm Freezing rain Ice pruning List of ice storms Power outage References External links Ice Storms at The Weather Channel U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Events Road hazards Snow or ice weather phenomena Storm	[ 0.02197359874844551, 0.4392056465148926, -0.00007188320887507871, 0.09639354795217514, -0.2948530316352844, -0.38029471039772034, 1.2004728317260742, 0.7451977729797363, -0.4768851101398468, -0.18067684769630432, -0.8235915303230286, -0.4729466736316681, -0.5599097013473511, 0.8840341567993164, -0.17315973341464996, 0.2169302999973297, 0.1853405088186264, 0.37799909710884094, -0.11208076030015945, 0.0292983241379261, -0.002013295190408826, -0.5575125217437744, 0.5923889875411987, 0.18445344269275665, 0.02374744415283203, -0.062075305730104446, 0.043555352836847305, 0.08341453969478607, -0.12502776086330414, 0.16700947284698486, -0.5350731015205383, 0.8969645500183105, -0.2279684841632843, 0.05255790427327156, 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206947	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%20II%20region	H II region	An H II region or HII region is a region of interstellar atomic hydrogen that is ionized. It is typically a cloud in a molecular cloud of partially ionized gas in which star formation has recently taken place, with a size ranging from one to hundreds of light years, and density from a few to about a million particles per cubic cm. The Orion Nebula, now known to be an H II region, was observed in 1610 by Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc by telescope, the first such object discovered. They may be of any shape, because the distribution of the stars and gas inside them is irregular. The short-lived blue stars created in these regions emit copious amounts of ultraviolet light that ionize the surrounding gas. H II regions—sometimes several hundred light-years across—are often associated with giant molecular clouds. They often appear clumpy and filamentary, sometimes showing intricate shapes such as the Horsehead Nebula. H II regions may give birth to thousands of stars over a period of several million years. In the end, supernova explosions and strong stellar winds from the most massive stars in the resulting star cluster will disperse the gases of the H II region, leaving behind a cluster of stars which have formed, such as the Pleiades. H II regions can be observed at considerable distances in the universe, and the study of extragalactic H II regions is important in determining the distance and chemical composition of galaxies. Spiral and irregular galaxies contain many H II regions, while elliptical galaxies are almost devoid of them. In spiral galaxies, including our Milky Way, H II regions are concentrated in the spiral arms, while in irregular galaxies they are distributed chaotically. Some galaxies contain huge H II regions, which may contain tens of thousands of stars. Examples include the 30 Doradus region in the Large Magellanic Cloud and NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy. Terminology The term H II is pronounced "H two" by astronomers. "H" is the chemical symbol for hydrogen, and "II" is the Roman numeral for 2. It is customary in astronomy to use the Roman numeral I for neutral atoms, II for singly-ionised—H II is H+ in other sciences—III for doubly-ionised, e.g. O III is O2+, etc. H II, or H+, consists of free protons. An H I region is neutral atomic hydrogen, and a molecular cloud is molecular hydrogen, H2. In spoken discussion with non-astronomers there is sometimes confusion between the identical spoken forms of "H II" and "H2". Observations A few of the brightest H II regions are visible to the naked eye. However, none seem to have been noticed before the advent of the telescope in the early 17th century. Even Galileo did not notice the Orion Nebula when he first observed the star cluster within it (previously cataloged as a single star, θ Orionis, by Johann Bayer). The French observer Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc is credited with the discovery of the Orion Nebula in 1610. Since that early observation large numbers of H II regions have been discovered in the Milky Way and other galaxies. William Herschel observed the Orion Nebula in 1774, and described it later as "an unformed fiery mist, the chaotic material of future suns". In early days astronomers distinguished between "diffuse nebulae" (now known to be H II regions), which retained their fuzzy appearance under magnification through a large telescope, and nebulae that could be resolved into stars, now known to be galaxies external to our own. Confirmation of Herschel's hypothesis of star formation had to wait another hundred years, when William Huggins together with his wife Mary Huggins turned his spectroscope on various nebulae. Some, such as the Andromeda Nebula, had spectra quite similar to those of stars, but turned out to be galaxies consisting of hundreds of millions of individual stars. Others looked very different. Rather than a strong continuum with absorption lines superimposed, the Orion Nebula and other similar objects showed only a small number of emission lines. In planetary nebulae, the brightest of these spectral lines was at a wavelength of 500.7 nanometres, which did not correspond with a line of any known chemical element. At first it was hypothesized that the line might be due to an unknown element, which was named nebulium—a similar idea had led to the discovery of helium through analysis of the Sun's spectrum in 1868. However, while helium was isolated on earth soon after its discovery in the spectrum of the sun, nebulium was not. In the early 20th century, Henry Norris Russell proposed that rather than being a new element, the line at 500.7 nm was due to a familiar element in unfamiliar conditions. Interstellar matter, considered dense in an astronomical context, is at high vacuum by laboratory standards. Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low density, electrons can populate excited metastable energy levels in atoms and ions, which at higher densities are rapidly de-excited by collisions. Electron transitions from these levels in doubly ionized oxygen give rise to the 500.7 nm line. These spectral lines, which can only be seen in very low density gases, are called forbidden lines. Spectroscopic observations thus showed that planetary nebulae consisted largely of extremely rarefied ionised oxygen gas (OIII). During the 20th century, observations showed that H II regions often contained hot, bright stars. These stars are many times more massive than the Sun, and are the shortest-lived stars, with total lifetimes of only a few million years (compared to stars like the Sun, which live for several billion years). Therefore, it was surmised that H II regions must be regions in which new stars were forming. Over a period of several million years, a cluster of stars will form in an H II region, before radiation pressure from the hot young stars causes the nebula to disperse. The Pleiades are an example of a cluster which has 'boiled away' the H II region from which it was formed. Only a trace of reflection nebulosity remains. Origin and lifetime The precursor to an H II region is a giant molecular cloud (GMC). A GMC is a cold (10–20 K) and dense cloud consisting mostly of molecular hydrogen. GMCs can exist in a stable state for long periods of time, but shock waves due to supernovae, collisions between clouds, and magnetic interactions can trigger its collapse. When this happens, via a process of collapse and fragmentation of the cloud, stars are born (see stellar evolution for a lengthier description). As stars are born within a GMC, the most massive will reach temperatures hot enough to ionise the surrounding gas. Soon after the formation of an ionising radiation field, energetic photons create an ionisation front, which sweeps through the surrounding gas at supersonic speeds. At greater and greater distances from the ionising star, the ionisation front slows, while the pressure of the newly ionised gas causes the ionised volume to expand. Eventually, the ionisation front slows to subsonic speeds, and is overtaken by the shock front caused by the expansion of the material ejected from the nebula. The H II region has been born. The lifetime of an H II region is of the order of a few million years. Radiation pressure from the hot young stars will eventually drive most of the gas away. In fact, the whole process tends to be very inefficient, with less than 10 percent of the gas in the H II region forming into stars before the rest is blown off. Contributing to the loss of gas are the supernova explosions of the most massive stars, which will occur after only 1–2 million years. Destruction of stellar nurseries Stars form in clumps of cool molecular gas that hide the nascent stars. It is only when the radiation pressure from a star drives away its 'cocoon' that it becomes visible. The hot, blue stars that are powerful enough to ionize significant amounts of hydrogen and form H II regions will do this quickly, and light up the region in which they just formed. The dense regions which contain younger or less massive still-forming stars and which have not yet blown away the material from which they are forming are often seen in silhouette against the rest of the ionised nebula. Bart Bok and E. F. Reilly searched astronomical photographs in the 1940s for "relatively small dark nebulae", following suggestions that stars might be formed from condensations in the interstellar medium; they found several such "approximately circular or oval dark objects of small size", which they referred to as "globules", since referred to as Bok globules. Bok proposed at the December 1946 Harvard Observatory Centennial Symposia that these globules were likely sites of star formation. It was confirmed in 1990 that they were indeed stellar birthplaces. The hot young stars dissipate these globules, as the radiation from the stars powering the H II region drives the material away. In this sense, the stars which generate H II regions act to destroy stellar nurseries. In doing so, however, one last burst of star formation may be triggered, as radiation pressure and mechanical pressure from supernova may act to squeeze globules, thereby enhancing the density within them. The young stars in H II regions show evidence for containing planetary systems. The Hubble Space Telescope has revealed hundreds of protoplanetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula. At least half the young stars in the Orion Nebula appear to be surrounded by disks of gas and dust, thought to contain many times as much matter as would be needed to create a planetary system like the Solar System. Characteristics Physical properties H II regions vary greatly in their physical properties. They range in size from so-called ultra-compact (UCHII) regions perhaps only a light-year or less across, to giant H II regions several hundred light-years across. Their size is also known as the Stromgren radius and essentially depends on the intensity of the source of ionising photons and the density of the region. Their densities range from over a million particles per cm³ in the ultra-compact H II regions to only a few particles per cm³ in the largest and most extended regions. This implies total masses between perhaps 100 and 105 solar masses. There are also "ultra-dense H II" regions (UDHII). Depending on the size of an H II region there may be several thousand stars within it. This makes H II regions more complicated than planetary nebulae, which have only one central ionising source. Typically H II regions reach temperatures of 10,000 K. They are mostly ionised gases with weak magnetic fields with strengths of several nanoteslas. Nevertheless, H II regions are almost always associated with a cold molecular gas, which originated from the same parent GMC. Magnetic fields are produced by these weak moving electric charges in the ionised gas, suggesting that H II regions might contain electric fields. A number of H II regions also show signs of being permeated by a plasma with temperatures exceeding 10,000,000 K, sufficiently hot to emit X-rays. X-ray observatories such as Einstein and Chandra have noted diffuse X-ray emissions in a number of star-forming regions, notably the Orion Nebula, Messier 17, and the Carina Nebula. The hot gas is likely supplied by the strong stellar winds from O-type stars, which may be heated by supersonic shock waves in the winds, through collisions between winds from different stars, or through colliding winds channeled by magnetic fields. This plasma will rapidly expand to fill available cavities in the molecular clouds due to the high speed of sound in the gas at this temperature. It will also leak out through holes in the periphery of the H II region, which appears to be happening in Messier 17. Chemically, H II regions consist of about 90% hydrogen. The strongest hydrogen emission line, the H-alpha line at 656.3 nm, gives H II regions their characteristic red colour. (This emission line comes from excited un-ionized hydrogen.) Most of the rest of an H II region consists of helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements. Across the galaxy, it is found that the amount of heavy elements in H II regions decreases with increasing distance from the galactic centre. This is because over the lifetime of the galaxy, star formation rates have been greater in the denser central regions, resulting in greater enrichment of those regions of the interstellar medium with the products of nucleosynthesis. Numbers and distribution H II regions are found only in spiral galaxies like the Milky Way and irregular galaxies. They are not seen in elliptical galaxies. In irregular galaxies, they may be dispersed throughout the galaxy, but in spirals they are most abundant within the spiral arms. A large spiral galaxy may contain thousands of H II regions. The reason H II regions rarely appear in elliptical galaxies is that ellipticals are believed to form through galaxy mergers. In galaxy clusters, such mergers are frequent. When galaxies collide, individual stars almost never collide, but the GMCs and H II regions in the colliding galaxies are severely agitated. Under these conditions, enormous bursts of star formation are triggered, so rapid that most of the gas is converted into stars rather than the normal rate of 10% or less. Galaxies undergoing such rapid star formation are known as starburst galaxies. The post-merger elliptical galaxy has a very low gas content, and so H II regions can no longer form. Twenty-first century observations have shown that a very small number of H II regions exist outside galaxies altogether. These intergalactic H II regions may be the remnants of tidal disruptions of small galaxies, and in some cases may represent a new generation of stars in a galaxy's most recently accreted gas. Morphology H II regions come in an enormous variety of sizes. They are usually clumpy and inhomogeneous on all scales from the smallest to largest. Each star within an H II region ionises a roughly spherical region—known as a Strömgren sphere—of the surrounding gas, but the combination of ionisation spheres of multiple stars within a H II region and the expansion of the heated nebula into surrounding gases creates sharp density gradients that result in complex shapes. Supernova explosions may also sculpt H II regions. In some cases, the formation of a large star cluster within an H II region results in the region being hollowed out from within. This is the case for NGC 604, a giant H II region in the Triangulum Galaxy. For a H II region which cannot be resolved, some information on the spatial structure (the electron density as a function of the distance from the center, and an estimate of the clumpiness) can be inferred by performing an inverse Laplace transform on the frequency spectrum. Notable regions Notable Galactic H II regions include the Orion Nebula, the Eta Carinae Nebula, and the Berkeley 59 / Cepheus OB4 Complex. The Orion Nebula, about 500 pc (1,500 light-years) from Earth, is part of OMC-1, a giant molecular cloud that, if visible, would be seen to fill most of the constellation of Orion. The Horsehead Nebula and Barnard's Loop are two other illuminated parts of this cloud of gas. The Orion Nebula is actually a thin layer of ionised gas on the outer border of the OMC-1 cloud. The stars in the Trapezium cluster, and especially θ1 Orionis, are responsible for this ionisation. The Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way at about 50 kpc (), contains a giant H II region called the Tarantula Nebula. Measuring at about () across, this nebula is the most massive and the second-largest H II region in the Local Group. It is much bigger than the Orion Nebula, and is forming thousands of stars, some with masses of over 100 times that of the sun—OB and Wolf-Rayet stars. If the Tarantula Nebula were as close to Earth as the Orion Nebula, it would shine about as brightly as the full moon in the night sky. The supernova SN 1987A occurred in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula. Another giant H II region—NGC 604 is located in M33 spiral galaxy, which is at 817 kpc (2.66 million light years). Measuring at approximately () across, NGC 604 is the second-most-massive H II region in the Local Group after the Tarantula Nebula, although it is slightly larger in size than the latter. It contains around 200 hot OB and Wolf-Rayet stars, which heat the gas inside it to millions of degrees, producing bright X-ray emissions. The total mass of the hot gas in NGC 604 is about 6,000 Solar masses. Current issues As with planetary nebulae, estimates of the abundance of elements in H II regions are subject to some uncertainty. There are two different ways of determining the abundance of metals (metals in this case are elements other than hydrogen and helium) in nebulae, which rely on different types of spectral lines, and large discrepancies are sometimes seen between the results derived from the two methods. Some astronomers put this down to the presence of small temperature fluctuations within H II regions; others claim that the discrepancies are too large to be explained by temperature effects, and hypothesise the existence of cold knots containing very little hydrogen to explain the observations. The full details of massive star formation within H II regions are not yet well known. Two major problems hamper research in this area. First, the distance from Earth to large H II regions is considerable, with the nearest H II (California Nebula) region at 300 pc (1,000 light-years); other H II regions are several times that distance from Earth. Secondly, the formation of these stars is deeply obscured by dust, and visible light observations are impossible. Radio and infrared light can penetrate the dust, but the youngest stars may not emit much light at these wavelengths. See also Emission nebula Reflection nebula Astronomical object H I region Planetary nebula Protoplanetary nebula Astronomical spectroscopy Interstellar medium References External links Hubble images of nebulae including several H II regions Information from SEDS Harvard astronomy course notes on H II regions Nebulae	[ -0.13375400006771088, 0.17329837381839752, 0.2820560336112976, -0.02609812468290329, -0.10096997767686844, -0.8953799605369568, 0.002672088099643588, -0.12122637033462524, 0.2563566267490387, -0.8698525428771973, -0.7748767137527466, -0.3946828544139862, -0.49795472621917725, 0.5831871628761292, 0.4111708104610443, 0.42678841948509216, 0.8024646639823914, 0.6444928050041199, -0.7390612959861755, -0.15118932723999023, 0.10746662318706512, 0.24529895186424255, -0.03711779788136482, -0.2935633063316345, 0.3711273968219757, -0.2843147814273834, -0.11607872694730759, 0.02991316094994545, 0.9345779418945312, -0.03257503733038902, -0.3881487548351288, 0.6072967648506165, 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206948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weibull%20distribution	Weibull distribution	In probability theory and statistics, the Weibull distribution is a continuous probability distribution. It is named after Swedish mathematician Waloddi Weibull, who described it in detail in 1951, although it was first identified by Fréchet and first applied by to describe a particle size distribution. Definition Standard parameterization The probability density function of a Weibull random variable is: where k > 0 is the shape parameter and λ > 0 is the scale parameter of the distribution. Its complementary cumulative distribution function is a stretched exponential function. The Weibull distribution is related to a number of other probability distributions; in particular, it interpolates between the exponential distribution (k = 1) and the Rayleigh distribution (k = 2 and ). If the quantity X is a "time-to-failure", the Weibull distribution gives a distribution for which the failure rate is proportional to a power of time. The shape parameter, k, is that power plus one, and so this parameter can be interpreted directly as follows: A value of indicates that the failure rate decreases over time (like in case of the Lindy effect, which however corresponds to Pareto distributions rather than Weibull distributions). This happens if there is significant "infant mortality", or defective items failing early and the failure rate decreasing over time as the defective items are weeded out of the population. In the context of the diffusion of innovations, this means negative word of mouth: the hazard function is a monotonically decreasing function of the proportion of adopters; A value of indicates that the failure rate is constant over time. This might suggest random external events are causing mortality, or failure. The Weibull distribution reduces to an exponential distribution; A value of indicates that the failure rate increases with time. This happens if there is an "aging" process, or parts that are more likely to fail as time goes on. In the context of the diffusion of innovations, this means positive word of mouth: the hazard function is a monotonically increasing function of the proportion of adopters. The function is first convex, then concave with an inflexion point at . In the field of materials science, the shape parameter k of a distribution of strengths is known as the Weibull modulus. In the context of diffusion of innovations, the Weibull distribution is a "pure" imitation/rejection model. Alternative parameterizations Applications in medical statistics and econometrics often adopt a different parameterization. The shape parameter k is the same as above, while the scale parameter is . In this case, for x ≥ 0, the probability density function is the cumulative distribution function is the hazard function is and the mean is A third parameterization can also be found. The shape parameter k is the same as in the standard case, while the scale parameter λ is replaced with a rate parameter β = 1/λ. Then, for x ≥ 0, the probability density function is the cumulative distribution function is and the hazard function is In all three parameterizations, the hazard is decreasing for k < 1, increasing for k > 1 and constant for k = 1, in which case the Weibull distribution reduces to an exponential distribution. Properties Density function The form of the density function of the Weibull distribution changes drastically with the value of k. For 0 < k < 1, the density function tends to ∞ as x approaches zero from above and is strictly decreasing. For k = 1, the density function tends to 1/λ as x approaches zero from above and is strictly decreasing. For k > 1, the density function tends to zero as x approaches zero from above, increases until its mode and decreases after it. The density function has infinite negative slope at x = 0 if 0 < k < 1, infinite positive slope at x = 0 if 1 < k < 2 and null slope at x = 0 if k > 2. For k = 1 the density has a finite negative slope at x = 0. For k = 2 the density has a finite positive slope at x = 0. As k goes to infinity, the Weibull distribution converges to a Dirac delta distribution centered at x = λ. Moreover, the skewness and coefficient of variation depend only on the shape parameter. A generalization of the Weibull distribution is the hyperbolastic distribution of type III. Cumulative distribution function The cumulative distribution function for the Weibull distribution is for x ≥ 0, and F(x; k; λ) = 0 for x < 0. If x = λ then F(x; k; λ) = 1 − e−1 ≈ 0.632 for all values of k. Vice versa: at F(x; k; λ) = 0.632 the value of x ≈ λ. The quantile (inverse cumulative distribution) function for the Weibull distribution is for 0 ≤ p < 1. The failure rate h (or hazard function) is given by The Mean time between failures MTBF is Moments The moment generating function of the logarithm of a Weibull distributed random variable is given by where is the gamma function. Similarly, the characteristic function of log X is given by In particular, the nth raw moment of X is given by The mean and variance of a Weibull random variable can be expressed as and The skewness is given by where , which may also be written as where the mean is denoted by and the standard deviation is denoted by . The excess kurtosis is given by where . The kurtosis excess may also be written as: Moment generating function A variety of expressions are available for the moment generating function of X itself. As a power series, since the raw moments are already known, one has Alternatively, one can attempt to deal directly with the integral If the parameter k is assumed to be a rational number, expressed as k = p/q where p and q are integers, then this integral can be evaluated analytically. With t replaced by −t, one finds where G is the Meijer G-function. The characteristic function has also been obtained by . The characteristic function and moment generating function of 3-parameter Weibull distribution have also been derived by by a direct approach. Shannon entropy The information entropy is given by where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The Weibull distribution is the maximum entropy distribution for a non-negative real random variate with a fixed expected value of xk equal to λk and a fixed expected value of ln(xk) equal to ln(λk) − . Parameter estimation Maximum likelihood The maximum likelihood estimator for the parameter given is The maximum likelihood estimator for is the solution for k of the following equation This equation defining only implicitly, one must generally solve for by numerical means. When are the largest observed samples from a dataset of more than samples, then the maximum likelihood estimator for the parameter given is Also given that condition, the maximum likelihood estimator for is Again, this being an implicit function, one must generally solve for by numerical means. Weibull plot The fit of a Weibull distribution to data can be visually assessed using a Weibull plot. The Weibull plot is a plot of the empirical cumulative distribution function of data on special axes in a type of Q–Q plot. The axes are versus . The reason for this change of variables is the cumulative distribution function can be linearized: which can be seen to be in the standard form of a straight line. Therefore, if the data came from a Weibull distribution then a straight line is expected on a Weibull plot. There are various approaches to obtaining the empirical distribution function from data: one method is to obtain the vertical coordinate for each point using where is the rank of the data point and is the number of data points. Linear regression can also be used to numerically assess goodness of fit and estimate the parameters of the Weibull distribution. The gradient informs one directly about the shape parameter and the scale parameter can also be inferred. Kullback–Leibler divergence Applications The Weibull distribution is used In survival analysis In reliability engineering and failure analysis In electrical engineering to represent overvoltage occurring in an electrical system In industrial engineering to represent manufacturing and delivery times In extreme value theory In weather forecasting and the wind power industry to describe wind speed distributions, as the natural distribution often matches the Weibull shape In communications systems engineering In radar systems to model the dispersion of the received signals level produced by some types of clutters To model fading channels in wireless communications, as the Weibull fading model seems to exhibit good fit to experimental fading channel measurements In information retrieval to model dwell times on web pages. In general insurance to model the size of reinsurance claims, and the cumulative development of asbestosis losses In forecasting technological change (also known as the Sharif-Islam model) In hydrology the Weibull distribution is applied to extreme events such as annual maximum one-day rainfalls and river discharges. In decline curve analysis to model oil production rate curve of shale oil wells. In describing the size of particles generated by grinding, milling and crushing operations, the 2-Parameter Weibull distribution is used, and in these applications it is sometimes known as the Rosin–Rammler distribution. In this context it predicts fewer fine particles than the Log-normal distribution and it is generally most accurate for narrow particle size distributions. The interpretation of the cumulative distribution function is that is the mass fraction of particles with diameter smaller than , where is the mean particle size and is a measure of the spread of particle sizes. In describing random point clouds (such as the positions of particles in an ideal gas): the probability to find the nearest-neighbor particle at a distance from a given particle is given by a Weibull distribution with and equal to the density of the particles. Related distributions A Weibull distribution is a generalized gamma distribution with both shape parameters equal to k. The translated Weibull distribution (or 3-parameter Weibull) contains an additional parameter. It has the probability density function for and for , where is the shape parameter, is the scale parameter and is the location parameter of the distribution. value sets an initial failure-free time before the regular Weibull process begins. When , this reduces to the 2-parameter distribution. The Weibull distribution can be characterized as the distribution of a random variable such that the random variable is the standard exponential distribution with intensity 1. This implies that the Weibull distribution can also be characterized in terms of a uniform distribution: if is uniformly distributed on , then the random variable is Weibull distributed with parameters and . Note that here is equivalent to just above. This leads to an easily implemented numerical scheme for simulating a Weibull distribution. The Weibull distribution interpolates between the exponential distribution with intensity when and a Rayleigh distribution of mode when . The Weibull distribution (usually sufficient in reliability engineering) is a special case of the three parameter exponentiated Weibull distribution where the additional exponent equals 1. The exponentiated Weibull distribution accommodates unimodal, bathtub shaped and monotone failure rates. The Weibull distribution is a special case of the generalized extreme value distribution. It was in this connection that the distribution was first identified by Maurice Fréchet in 1927. The closely related Fréchet distribution, named for this work, has the probability density function The distribution of a random variable that is defined as the minimum of several random variables, each having a different Weibull distribution, is a poly-Weibull distribution. The Weibull distribution was first applied by to describe particle size distributions. It is widely used in mineral processing to describe particle size distributions in comminution processes. In this context the cumulative distribution is given by where is the particle size is the 80th percentile of the particle size distribution is a parameter describing the spread of the distribution Because of its availability in spreadsheets, it is also used where the underlying behavior is actually better modeled by an Erlang distribution. If then (Exponential distribution) For the same values of k, the Gamma distribution takes on similar shapes, but the Weibull distribution is more platykurtic. From the viewpoint of the Stable count distribution, can be regarded as Lévy's stability parameter. A Weibull distribution can be decomposed to an integral of kernel density where the kernel is either a Laplace distribution or a Rayleigh distribution : where is the Stable count distribution and is the Stable vol distribution. See also Fisher–Tippett–Gnedenko theorem Logistic distribution Rosin–Rammler distribution for particle size analysis Rayleigh distribution Stable count distribution References Bibliography . . . External links Mathpages – Weibull analysis The Weibull Distribution Reliability Analysis with Weibull Interactive graphic: Univariate Distribution Relationships Online Weibull Probability Plotting Continuous distributions Survival analysis Exponential family distributions Extreme value data	[ -0.48492974042892456, -0.12117563188076019, -0.002668993780389428, -0.4748513102531433, -0.5147343277931213, 0.04248456656932831, -0.13620664179325104, 0.42409366369247437, -0.09669545292854309, -0.5293576121330261, -0.6832163333892822, -0.1812630593776703, -0.5354614853858948, 0.6520649790763855, 0.14978104829788208, 0.2393506020307541, 0.315720796585083, 0.8139855265617371, 0.004034929443150759, -0.48917123675346375, 0.4102315902709961, 0.1688491702079773, 0.049081988632678986, -0.15345066785812378, -0.17437608540058136, -0.5098594427108765, -0.14898036420345306, -0.19652149081230164, 0.5796351432800293, 0.35141628980636597, -0.6175182461738586, 1.6352784633636475, 0.26862025260925293, 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206953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandgrouse	Sandgrouse	Sandgrouse is the common name for Pteroclidae , a family of sixteen species of bird, members of the order Pterocliformes . They are traditionally placed in two genera. The two central Asian species are classified as Syrrhaptes and the other fourteen species, from Africa and Asia, are placed in the genus Pterocles. They are ground dwelling birds restricted to treeless, open country, such as plains, savannahs, and semi-deserts. They are distributed across northern, southern, and eastern Africa, Madagascar, the Middle East, and India through central Asia. The ranges of the black-bellied sandgrouse and the pin-tailed sandgrouse even extend into the Iberian Peninsula and France, and Pallas's sandgrouse occasionally breaks out in large numbers from its normal range in Asia. Description Sandgrouse have small, pigeon-like heads and necks and sturdy compact bodies. They range in size from in length and from in weight. The adults are sexually dimorphic with the males being slightly larger and more brightly colored than the females. They have eleven strong primary feathers and long pointed wings, giving them a fast and direct flight. The muscles of the wings are powerful and the birds are capable of rapid take off and sustained flight. In some species, the central feathers in the tail are extended into long points. The legs are short and members of the genus Syrrhaptes have feathers growing on both the legs and toes, and no hind toes, while members of the genus Pterocles have legs feathered just at the front, no feathers on the toes, and rudimentary hind toes raised off the ground. The plumage is cryptic, generally being in shades of sandy brown, grey and buff, and variously mottled and barred, enabling the birds to merge into the dusty landscape. There is a dense layer of under down which helps insulate the bird from extremes of heat and cold. The feathers of the belly are specially adapted for absorbing water and retaining it, allowing adults, particularly males, to carry water to chicks that may be many miles away from watering holes. The amount of water that can be carried in this way is 15 to 20 millilitres (0.5 to 0.7 fluid ounces). Distribution Members of the genus Syrrhaptes are found in the steppes of central Asia. Their range extends from the Caspian Sea through southern Siberia, Tibet, and Mongolia to northern and central China. They are normally resident, but Pallas's sandgrouse can be locally migratory and very occasionally is irruptive, appearing in areas well outside its normal range. This happened in 1863 and 1888, and a major irruption took place in 1908 when many birds were seen as far afield as Ireland and the United Kingdom where they bred in Yorkshire and Moray. Members of the genus Pterocles are mainly found in the drier parts of northern, eastern, and southern Africa, though the range of some species extends into the Middle East and western Asia. The Madagascar sandgrouse is restricted to Madagascar. The black-bellied sandgrouse and the pin-tailed sandgrouse also occur in Spain, Portugal, and southern France. Most species are sedentary though some make local migrations, typically to lower altitudes in winter. Behaviour and ecology Diet and feeding Sandgrouse are principally seed eaters. Other food items eaten include green shoots and leaves, bulbs, and berries. Insect food such as ants and termites may also be eaten, especially during the breeding season. The diet of many sandgrouse is highly specialised, with the seeds of a small number of plant species being dominant. This may depend on local availability but in other cases it reflects actual selection of favoured seeds over others by the sandgrouse. Seeds of leguminous plants are usually an important part of the diet. In agricultural areas oats and other grain are readily taken. Seeds are either collected from the ground or directly from the plants. Foraging techniques vary between species that coexist, which reduces competition; in Namibia, double-banded sandgrouse feed slowly and methodically whilst Namaqua sandgrouse feed rapidly, exploring loose soil with their beaks and flicking it away sideways. Grit is also swallowed to help grind up food in the gizzard. Sandgrouse are gregarious, feeding in flocks of up to 100 birds. As a consequence of their dry diet, they need to visit water sources regularly. Drinking times vary among the species. Ten species drink at dawn, four at dusk, and two at indeterminate times. When drinking, water is sucked into the beak, which is then raised to let the water flow down into the crop. By repeating this procedure rapidly, enough water to last twenty four hours can be swallowed in a few seconds. As they travel to water holes, they call to members of their own species and many hundreds or thousands synchronise their arrival at the drinking site despite converging from many different locations scattered over hundreds of square miles (kilometres) of territory. They are vulnerable to attack while watering but with a large number of birds milling about, predators find it difficult to select a target bird and are likely to have been spotted before they can get close to the flock. The choice of a watering site is influenced by the topography of the nearby ground. The sandgrouse tend to avoid sites with cover for mammalian predators and their greatest risk is usually from predatory birds. Sandgrouse travel tens of miles to their traditional water holes and tend to disregard temporary water sources which may appear periodically. This clearly has a survival value, because a dried up water source in an arid region could result in dehydration and death. The Burchell's sandgrouse in the Kalahari Desert sometimes travels over daily to reach a water source. Not all species need to drink every day, and the Tibetan sandgrouse does not need to travel to drink, because of the abundance of water from melting snowfields in its habitat. Breeding Sandgrouse are monogamous. The breeding season usually coincides with a crop of seeds after the local rainy season and at this time the feeding flocks tend to break up into pairs. The nesting site is a slight depression in the ground, sometimes lined with a few pieces of dry foliage. Most typically, three cryptic eggs are laid, though occasionally there may be two or four. Incubation duties are shared; in most species, the males incubate at night while the females sit on the eggs during the day. The eggs usually hatch after 20–25 days. The precocial chicks are covered with down and leave the nest as soon as the last hatchling has dried out. The parents do not provide them with food and they learn, with parental guidance, what is edible and what is not. The chicks obtain their water from the soaked downy feathers on the adults' breasts. Chicks are too small and young to thermoregulate at first, and their parents shade them during the hottest part of the day, and brood them to keep warm at night. The chicks remain with their parents, as a family group, for several months. Taxonomy The Pteroclidae was formerly included in the Galliformes due to the similarities the family shares with the true grouse. However, it was later discovered that these similarities are superficial and a result of convergent evolution. Sandgrouse were later placed near the Columbiformes largely due to their reported ability to drink by the "sucking" or "pumping" action of peristalsis of the esophagus, an unusual characteristic. More recently, it has been reported that they cannot suck up water in this way, and they are now treated separately in the order Pterocliformes. They have been considered near passerine birds, and are thought by some to be closer to the shorebirds (Charadriiformes). In the DNA-study by Fain and Houde (2004) they were included in the Metaves, together with the Columbiformes. In the larger study by Hackett et al. (2008) they were once again positioned close to the Columbiformes, in Columbimorphae, but also with the Mesites. The intricately patterned, precocial downy young, and egg colouration (though not shape) closely resemble those of many Charadriiformes. Eggs are near elliptical. Phylogeny Living Pterocliformes, based on the work by John Boyd. Species Relations with humans Sandgrouse have little interaction with people, primarily because most species live in arid unpopulated areas and at low densities. They are not generally sought after as game birds as they are not especially palatable, although they have on occasion been taken in great numbers at water holes. An attempt to introduce them into Nevada failed but they have been introduced to Hawaii. No species is considered to be threatened although there have been some localised range contractions, particularly in Europe. A subspecies of the chestnut-bellied sandgrouse, P. e. floweri, was last seen in the Nile Valley of Egypt in 1979. It is thought to be extinct, but the reasons for this are unknown. References External links Sandgrouse videos on the Internet Bird Collection Pteroclididae Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte	[ -0.4798520505428314, 0.549524188041687, -0.7304197549819946, -0.5230250954627991, 0.14211028814315796, 0.2659907937049866, 0.47011110186576843, 0.284237265586853, -0.7600232362747192, -0.13277044892311096, -0.4161820411682129, 0.28423625230789185, -0.5140419006347656, 0.17742745578289032, 0.1550530046224594, 0.7146109342575073, -0.09145106375217438, 0.4737703204154968, 0.3958487808704376, -0.12533453106880188, -0.10364776849746704, -0.4044783115386963, -0.09492281079292297, -0.4907076060771942, 0.9330955147743225, -0.03926144540309906, 0.4725521206855774, 0.6835892796516418, 0.3215169310569763, 0.35242897272109985, 0.05635548010468483, 1.1102912425994873, -0.16214050352573395, 0.19334279000759125, -0.20632138848304749, -0.23039939999580383, -0.22987183928489685, -0.5062471628189087, -0.026087231934070587, -0.5863269567489624, 0.08587946742773056, 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206954	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20breakdown%20structure	Product breakdown structure	In project management under the PRINCE2 methodology, a product breakdown structure (PBS) is a tool for analysing, documenting and communicating the outcomes of a project, and forms part of the product based planning technique. The PBS provides "an exhaustive, hierarchical tree structure of deliverables that make up the project, arranged in whole-part relationship" (Haughey, 2015). This diagrammatic representation of project outputs provides a clear and unambiguous statement of what the project is to deliver. The PBS is identical in format to the work breakdown structure (WBS), but is a separate entity and is used at a different step in the planning process. The PBS precedes the WBS and focuses on cataloguing all the desired outputs (products) needed to achieve the goal of the project. This feeds into creation of the WBS, which identifies the tasks and activities required to deliver those outputs. Supporters of product based planning suggest that this overcomes difficulties that arise from assumptions about what to do and how to do it by focusing instead on the goals and objectives of the project – an oft-quoted analogy is that "PBS defines where you want to go, the WBS tells you how to get there". Example PBS of a computer (see image on right): Main unit Housing Motherboard CPU RAM chips ... Hard disk drive Graphics card Sound card Network card Monitor Display Housing Electronic components Mouse Body Optical sensor Battery Keyboard Keys See also List of project management topics Product (business) Product description Product management Project management Work breakdown structure Value breakdown structure Product flow diagram References Further reading A Framework for Software Product Line Practice Glossary Product Breakdown Structure at PRINCE2 wiki Project management techniques Product management PRINCE2	[ 0.32488176226615906, 0.19667713344097137, -0.21652136743068695, -0.10332252830266953, 0.040695980191230774, -0.010787743143737316, -0.30895912647247314, -0.20970560610294342, -0.3403351306915283, -0.27918872237205505, -0.4298763871192932, 0.3808416426181793, 0.028936458751559258, 0.08881062269210815, -0.17544949054718018, 0.41494840383529663, 0.5434785485267639, 0.45420804619789124, 0.5233681201934814, 0.05010579526424408, -0.39357519149780273, -0.12382188439369202, 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206955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna%20Spyri	Johanna Spyri	Johanna Louise Spyri (née Heusser; ; 12 June 1827 – 7 July 1901) was a Swiss author of novels, notably children's stories, and is best known for her book Heidi. Born in Hirzel, a rural area in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, as a child she spent several summers near Chur in Graubünden, the setting she later would use in her novels. Biography In 1852, Johanna Heusser married Bernhard Spyri. Bernhard was a lawyer. Whilst living in the city of Zürich she began to write about life in the country. Her first story, A Leaf on Vrony's Grave, which deals with a woman's life of domestic violence, was published in 1880; the following year further stories for both adults and children appeared, among them the novel Heidi, which she wrote in four weeks. Heidi tells the story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Swiss Alps, and is famous for its vivid portrayal of the landscape. Her husband and her only child, both named Bernhard, both died in 1884. Alone, she devoted herself to charitable causes and wrote over fifty more stories before her death in 1901. She was interred in the family plot at the Sihlfeld-A Cemetery in Zürich. An icon in Switzerland, Spyri's portrait was placed on a postage stamp in 1951 and on a 20 CHF commemorative coin in 2009. Plagiarism claim In April 2010 a professor searching for children's illustrations found a book written in 1830 by a German history teacher, Hermann Adam von Kamp, that Spyri may have used as a basis for Heidi. The 1830 story is titled Adelheide - das Mädchen vom Alpengebirge—translated, "Adelaide, the girl from the Alps". The two stories were alleged to share many similarities in plot line and imagery. Spyri biographer Regine Schindler said it was entirely possible that Johanna may have been familiar with the story as she grew up in a literate household with many books. However, the professor's claims have been examined and afterwards described as "un-scientific", due to 'superficial coincidences' he brings up in descriptions and the many actual differences in the story, that he doesn't, as well as the "Swiss disease" of homesickness already being a common trope in fiction in the eighteenth (nineteenth in the article) century (as well as, while not mentioned in the article, it being discovered before von Kamp was even born) and characters that are either drastically different or not in "Adelaide", at all. Bibliography The following is a list of her main books: Heimatlos: Two stories for children, and for those who love children (1877) Heidi (1880-81) The Story of Rico (1882) Uncle Titus and His Visit to the Country (1883) Gritli's Children (1883-84) Rico and Wiseli (1885) Veronica And Other Friends (1886) What Sami Sings with the Birds (1887) Toni, the Little Woodcarver (1890) Erick and Sally (1891) Mäzli (1891) Cornelli (1892) Vinzi: A Story of the Swiss Alps (1892) Moni the Goat-Boy (1897) Little Miss Grasshopper (1898) Her books were originally written in German. The translations into English at the end of the 19th century, or the early 1900s, mention H. A. Melcon (1839–1910), Maria Louise Kirk (1860–1938), Emma Stelter Hopkins, Louise Brooks, Helen B. Dole and the couple Charles Wharton Stork and Elisabeth P. Stork. References External links Works by Johanna Spyri at Classicreader.com 1827 births 1901 deaths People from Horgen District Swiss children's writers German-language writers 19th-century Swiss novelists 19th-century Swiss women writers 19th-century Swiss writers Swiss women children's writers Swiss women novelists	[ -0.10399115830659866, 0.14811499416828156, -0.25125935673713684, -0.05215635895729065, -0.2606413662433624, 0.7384042143821716, 1.1664215326309204, -0.587439775466919, -0.8816356658935547, 0.1437208205461502, -0.15622134506702423, -0.3259200155735016, 0.2343595325946808, 0.15603423118591309, -0.3949723541736603, -0.08597076684236526, 0.1412491798400879, 0.25128576159477234, -0.9271231889724731, -0.3854750692844391, -0.40165185928344727, -0.32708752155303955, 0.701850950717926, -0.09706375002861023, -0.4291530251502991, 0.15608181059360504, 0.5319734215736389, 0.0036723664961755276, 0.3673042953014374, 0.15649838745594025, 0.17104190587997437, 0.22625721991062164, 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206956	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slim%20Shady%20EP	Slim Shady EP	Slim Shady EP is the debut extended play by American rapper Eminem, released on December 10, 1997 through the Detroit-based record label Web Entertainment. Unlike Infinite, Slim Shady EP helped Eminem gain the interest of CEO Jimmy Iovine (co-founder of Interscope Records) and West Coast hip-hop producer Dr. Dre, who subsequently signed Eminem to his Aftermath Entertainment record label, and served as executive producer on his major-label debut album The Slim Shady LP (1999). Eminem first introduced his "Slim Shady" persona on the EP. Since the EP was released before he was signed to Interscope and Aftermath, original copies are now highly valued. His lyrics are a marked departure from those found on Infinite, featuring constant references to drug use, sexual acts, mental instability, and over-the-top violence. Another departure was his exploration of more serious themes of dealing with poverty, his direct and self-deprecating response to criticism, and of marital and family difficulties. His flow is also noticeably different from Infinite where critics claimed he sounded too much like Nas and AZ. Eminem also began utilizing story telling on this EP. The production value of the music on the tracks — from previous collaborators DJ Head, The Bass Brothers, and Mr. Porter — was also noticeably higher than on prior album efforts. According to Billboard, at this point in his life Eminem had "realized his musical ambitions were the only way to escape his unhappy life". Background and production In 1996, his debut album Infinite, which was recorded at the Bassmint, a recording studio owned by the Bass Brothers, was released under their independent label Web Entertainment. Infinite achieved little commercial success and was largely ignored by Detroit radio stations, such as WJLB (97.9 FM in Detroit), and in specific tracks Eminem raps explicitly about this problem, like in "Just Don't Give a Fuck" "If I Had" and "Low Down, Dirty". The disappointment from this experience greatly influenced his lyrical style: "After that record, every rhyme I wrote got angrier and angrier. A lot of it was because of the feedback I got. Motherfuckers was like, 'You're a white boy, what the fuck are you rapping for? Why don't you go into rock & roll?' All that type of shit started pissing me off." After the release of Infinite, Eminem's personal struggles and abuse of drugs and alcohol culminated in a suicide attempt: all these troubles became main themes of Slim Shady EP. The disappointment of Infinite inspired Eminem to create the alter ego Slim Shady: "Boom, the name hit me, and right away I thought of all these words to rhyme with it". Slim Shady served as Eminem's vent for his frustrations, and in 1997, he released the horrorcore extended play entitled Slim Shady EP simultaneously on cassette, vinyl, and CD. During this time, Eminem and his wife Kim Scott lived in a high-crime neighborhood with their newborn daughter Hailie, where their house was burglarized numerous times. After being evicted from his home, Eminem traveled to Los Angeles to participate in the Rap Olympics, an annual nationwide rap battle competition. He placed second, and the staff at Interscope Records who attended the Rap Olympics sent a copy of the Slim Shady EP to company CEO Jimmy Iovine. Iovine played the tape for record producer Dr. Dre, founder of Aftermath Entertainment. Dr. Dre recalled, "In my entire career in the music industry, I have never found anything from a demo tape or a CD. When Jimmy played this, I said, 'Find him. Now.'" Eminem and Dr. Dre subsequently began work on his major-label debut album The Slim Shady LP. Artwork The cover depicts the opening intro as well as the first track, in which Slim Shady awakens Eminem and orders him to look in the mirror to see that he is "nothing without him". Eminem resists and screams in the background while Slim Shady yells back and laughs at Eminem's horror. By the second track, Eminem and Slim Shady become the same person. Eminem is also ordered by "Slim Shady" to look into the mirror, and the sound of glass breaking is heard, alluding once again to the cover. The art also bears a similarity to Black Flag's 1981 debut album, Damaged. Release and reception According to an interview with Zane Lowe, Eminem made 500 copies of the EP, but sold only slightly higher than 250. Though rare, reviews of the EP were generally mixed to positive. AllMusic gave the EP two and a half out of five stars without a written review. XXL, despite originally giving the EP three out of five stars "L" rating, listed it on their "100 Most Essential Rap EPs of All Time – The Best of the Short & Sweet" list. Eminem was featured in the March 1998 edition of The Source magazine's (#102), "Unsigned Hype" column. The author of the column highlighted two tracks from Eminem's Slim Shady EP: "Just the Two of Us", and "Murder, Murder". Track listing References 1997 debut EPs Eminem EPs Albums produced by Mr. Porter Web Entertainment albums	[ 0.6580948233604431, 0.06270604580640793, -0.1828470379114151, 0.4211730360984802, -0.06291604042053223, 0.029576031491160393, 0.6900665163993835, -0.16613420844078064, -0.3096611797809601, 0.0869215875864029, 0.46543827652931213, 0.7870670557022095, -0.8651195168495178, -0.7924509644508362, 0.3722727298736572, -0.04902004450559616, 0.41761624813079834, -0.04321737959980965, 0.012725056149065495, -0.4420989751815796, 0.1400316208600998, 0.1252390444278717, 0.2562250792980194, -0.3717268705368042, -0.3174266517162323, 0.4437166750431061, -0.380863755941391, 0.0927824005484581, -0.08179713785648346, -0.5096188187599182, 0.30560940504074097, -0.35272520780563354, 0.4637523591518402, -0.8481394052505493, 0.18516625463962555, 0.3886776268482208, -0.41708773374557495, -0.20127590000629425, -0.39362120628356934, -0.433145672082901, -0.06954819709062576, 0.026888247579336166, 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206957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell	Wendell	Wendell may refer to: Places in the United States Wendell, Idaho Wendell, Massachusetts Wendell, Minnesota Wendell, North Carolina People Wendell (name), a list of people with the name Wendell (footballer, born 1947), full name Wendell Lucena Ramalho, Brazilian football manager and former goalkeeper Wendell (footballer, born 1989), full name Wendell Nogueira de Araújo, Brazilian football midfielder Wendell (footballer, born 1993), full name Wendell Nascimento Borges, Brazilian football left-back See also Wendel (disambiguation)	[ -0.011438564397394657, 0.5020887851715088, -0.1012013629078865, 0.25772419571876526, -0.1253843605518341, 0.048981886357069016, 0.08738281577825546, 0.5667948722839355, -0.5023104548454285, 0.03998764976859093, -0.03282061964273453, -0.06769873201847076, -0.4418615698814392, -0.08134938776493073, 0.1175931766629219, 0.8812974095344543, -0.08925137668848038, 0.6215845346450806, 0.1199597418308258, 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206960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Today	Today	Today (archaically to-day) may refer to: Day of the present, the time that is perceived directly, often called now Current era, present The current calendar date Arts, entertainment, and media Films Today (1930 film), a 1930 American drama film directed by William Nigh Today (2012 film) or Aujourd'hui, a 2012 French film Today (2014 film), a 2014 Iranian film To-Day, a 1917 silent drama film Music Groups Today (group), an American R&B vocal group TODAY (production duo), a Canadian record producer team Albums Today (Angela Aki album), or the title song, 2007 Today (Elvis Presley album), 1975 Today (Galaxie 500 album), 1988 Today! (Herbie Mann album), or the title song, 1966 Today (Johnny Hartman album), 1972 Today (Junkie XL album), or the title song, 2006 Today (Marty Robbins album), 1971 Today! (Mississippi John Hurt album), 1966 Today (Perry Como album), 1987 Today! (Skip James album), 1966 Today (The Statler Brothers album), 1983 Today (Superpitcher album), 2005 Today (Today album), 1988 The Beach Boys Today!, 1965 Today, by 33Miles, 2010 Today!, by The Airmen of Note, 1978 Today, by Gary McFarland, 1969 Today, by Johnny Maestro & the Brooklyn Bridge, 2004 Today, by Raul Malo, or the title song, 2001 EPs Today (EP), by Everlast, or the title song, 1999 Today, by Gigi Leung, 1999 Songs "Today" (Brad Paisley song), 2016 "Today" (Gary Allan song), 2009 "Today" (Jefferson Airplane song), 1967 "Today" (Mel B song), 2005 "Today" (The New Christy Minstrels song), 1964 "Today" (Scooter song), 2014 "Today" (The Smashing Pumpkins song), 1993 "Today" (Talk Talk song), 1982 "Today", by Air "Today", by Barry Ryan "Today", by Danny Brown from Atrocity Exhibition "Today", by Family "Today", by Hank Thompson from Country Love Ballads "Today", by Joshua Radin from We Were Here "Today", by Kim Dong-ryool from Walking With "Today", by KMFDM from Adios "Today", by Lifehouse from Lifehouse "Today", by Mad Caddies from Keep It Going "Today", by Poe from the soundtrack of the film Great Expectations "Today", by Sandie Shaw "Today", by VIXX LR from Whisper "Today", by Zero 7 from The Garden "T.O.D.A.Y", by Royce da 5'9" featuring Ingrid Smalls from Death Is Certain Periodicals Today (Indian newspaper), a defunct afternoon newspaper Today (Jintian), a Chinese literary journal co-founded by Huang Rui Today (Singapore newspaper), a Singapore English-language digital news provide Today (UK newspaper), a defunct national newspaper in the United Kingdom Today, a Filipino newspaper that was merged with the Manila Standard resulting in the Manila Standard Today Florida Today or Today, a U.S. daily newspaper Today Newspaper (Gambia), an independent newspaper in the Gambia, West Africa Today Newspapers, a defunct newspaper chain in Texas, United States Today, the new John Bull, a defunct British magazine Radio Today (BBC Radio 4), BBC Radio 4's early morning news and current affairs programme Today Network, a radio network in Australia 2Day FM, a radio station in Sydney, Australia Today FM, an Irish commercial FM radio station which is available nationally Today Show Radio, a simulcast of the U.S. Today Show on Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio satellite radio services Today Today, an Australian radio show Television Today (1960 TV series), an Australian television series Today (Australian TV program), an Australian breakfast television program Today (Thames Television series), a regional news programme shown in the London area, commonly remembered for Bill Grundy's 1976 interview with the Sex Pistols Today (American TV program) (also known as The Today Show), an American news and talk morning television show that airs on NBC GMTV Today, a defunct UK weekday breakfast programme LK Today, a defunct female lifestyle show presented by Lorraine Kelly, succeeded by GMTV with Lorraine Today with Maura and Daithi, an Irish TV morning program Other arts, entertainment, and media Today, a character in the Abbott and Costello comedy routine Who's on First? Radio Today (website), a network of websites reporting on radio news and events based in MediaCityUK Other uses Today Art Museum, in Beijing, China Today sponge, a brand of barrier contraceptive See also Danas (newspaper), a newspaper in Serbia Haynt, a defunct Yiddish newspaper in Poland Heute, the main evening news program of ZDF in Germany Now (disambiguation) Present (disambiguation) Today Today, a song by Cowboys International Tomorrow (disambiguation) Yesterday (disambiguation) Yesterday & Today (disambiguation) Days	[ 0.001285930280573666, 0.12477055191993713, -0.2789880037307739, 0.14858120679855347, 0.4451023042201996, 0.14061062037944794, 0.3009378910064697, 0.1896955370903015, -0.31050553917884827, -0.4623299241065979, -0.4350813627243042, 0.7013991475105286, -0.19452880322933197, 0.29567280411720276, -0.21088334918022156, 0.4886246919631958, 0.6657648682594299, -0.0109989233314991, -0.09855182468891144, -0.2897765636444092, -0.8759688138961792, 0.16419540345668793, 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206964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing%20pigeon	Homing pigeon	The mail pigeon is a variety of domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) derived from the wild rock dove, selectively bred for its ability to find its way home over extremely long distances. The rock dove has an innate homing ability, meaning that it will generally return to its nest using magnetoreception. Flights as long as have been recorded by birds in competitive pigeon racing. Their average flying speed over moderate distances is around and speeds of up to have been observed in top racers for short distances. In 2019 after sixty years a new world record was set in Netherlands for the fastest racing pigeon flight, distance flown 239 kilometers at speed above 143.262 kilometers per hour. Because of this skill, domesticated pigeons were used to carry messages as messenger pigeons. They are usually referred to as "pigeon post" if used in post service, or "war pigeon" during wars. Until the introduction of telephones, homing pigeons were used commercially to deliver communication. Messenger pigeons are often incorrectly categorized as English Carrier pigeons, an ancient breed of fancy pigeons. They were used historically to send messages but lost the homing instinct long ago. Modern-day homing pigeons (homers) or racing pigeons (racing homers) do have "Carrier blood" in them because they are in part descendants of the old-style Carriers. This is one reason why they are still commonly but erroneously called "carrier pigeons". History By 3000 BC, Egypt was using homing pigeons for pigeon post, taking advantage of a singular quality of this bird, which when taken far from its nest is able to find its way home due to a particularly developed sense of orientation. Messages were then tied around the legs of the pigeon, which was freed and could reach its original nest. By the 19th century homing pigeons were used extensively for military communications. The sport of flying messenger pigeons was well-established as early as 3000 years ago. They were used to proclaim the winner of the Ancient Olympics. Messenger pigeons were used as early as 1150 in Baghdad and also later by Genghis Khan. By 1167 a regular service between Baghdad and Syria had been established by Sultan Nur ad-Din. In Damietta, by the mouth of the Nile, the Spanish traveller Pedro Tafur saw carrier pigeons for the first time, in 1436, though he imagined that the birds made round trips, out and back. The Republic of Genoa equipped their system of watch towers in the Mediterranean Sea with pigeon posts. Tipu Sultan of Mysore (1750–1799) also used messenger pigeons; they returned to the Jamia Masjid mosque in Srirangapatna, which was his headquarters. The pigeon holes may be seen in the mosque's minarets to this day. In 1818, a great pigeon race called the Cannonball Run took place at Brussels. In 1860, Paul Reuter, who later founded Reuters press agency, used a fleet of over 45 pigeons to deliver news and stock prices between Brussels and Aachen, the terminus of early telegraph lines. The outcome of the 1815 Battle of Waterloo has often been claimed to have been delivered to London by pigeon but there is no evidence for this, and it's very unlikely; the pigeon post was rare until the 1820s. During the Franco-Prussian War pigeons were used to carry mail between besieged Paris and the French unoccupied territory. In December 1870, it took ten hours for a pigeon carrying microfilms to fly from Perpignan to Brussels. Historically, pigeons carried messages only one way, to their home. They had to be transported manually before another flight. However, by placing their food at one location and their home at another location, pigeons have been trained to fly back and forth up to twice a day reliably, covering round-trip flights up to 160 km (100 mi). Their reliability has lent itself to occasional use on mail routes, such as the Great Barrier Pigeongram Service established between the Auckland, New Zealand, suburb of Newton and Great Barrier Island in November 1897, possibly the first regular air mail service in the world. The world's first 'airmail' stamps were issued for the Great Barrier Pigeon-Gram Service from 1898 to 1908. Homing pigeons were still employed in the 21st century by certain remote police departments in Odisha state in eastern India to provide emergency communication services following natural disasters. In March 2002, it was announced that India's Police Pigeon Service messenger system in Odisha was to be retired, due to the expanded use of the Internet. The Taliban banned the keeping or use of homing pigeons in Afghanistan. To this day, pigeons are entered into competitions. Navigation Research has been performed with the intention of discovering how pigeons, after being transported, can find their way back from distant places they have never visited before. Most researchers believe that homing ability is based on a "map and compass" model, with the compass feature allowing birds to orient and the map feature allowing birds to determine their location relative to a goal site (home loft). While the compass mechanism appears to rely on the sun, the map mechanism has been highly debated. Some researchers believe that the map mechanism relies on the ability of birds to detect the Earth's magnetic field. A prominent theory is that the birds are able to detect a magnetic field to help them find their way home. Scientific research previously suggested that on top of a pigeon's beak a large number of iron particles are found which remain aligned to Earth's magnetic north like a man-made compass, thus acting as compass which helps pigeon in determining its home. However, a 2012 study disproved this theory, putting the field back on course to search for an explanation as to how animals detect magnetic fields. A light-mediated mechanism that involves the eyes and is lateralized has been examined somewhat, but developments have implicated the trigeminal nerve in magnetoception. Research by Floriano Papi (Italy, early 1970s) and more recent work, largely by Hans Wallraff, suggest that pigeons also orient themselves using the spatial distribution of atmospheric odors, known as olfactory navigation. Other research indicates that homing pigeons also navigate through visual landmarks by following familiar roads and other man-made features, making 90-degree turns and following habitual routes, much the same way that humans navigate. Research by Jon Hagstrum of the US Geological Survey suggests that homing pigeons use low-frequency infrasound to navigate. Sound waves as low 0.1 Hz have been observed to disrupt or redirect pigeon navigation. The pigeon ear, being far too small to interpret such a long wave, directs pigeons to fly in a circle when first taking air, in order to mentally map such long infrasound waves. Various experiments suggest that different breeds of homing pigeons rely on different cues to different extents. Charles Walcott at Cornell University was able to demonstrate that while pigeons from one loft were confused by a magnetic anomaly in the Earth it had no effect on birds from another loft away. Other experiments have shown that altering the perceived time of day with artificial lighting or using air conditioning to eliminate odors in the pigeons' home roost affected the pigeons' ability to return home. GPS tracing studies indicate that gravitational anomalies may play a role as well. Roles Postal carriage A message may be written on thin light paper, rolled into a small tube, and attached to a messenger pigeon's leg. They will only travel to one "mentally marked" point that they have identified as their home, so "pigeon post" can only work when the sender is actually holding the receiver's pigeons. With training, pigeons can carry up to 75 g (2.5 oz) on their backs. As early as 1903, the German apothecary Julius Neubronner used carrier pigeons to both receive and deliver urgent medication. In 1977, a similar system of 30 carrier pigeons was set up for the transport of laboratory specimens between two English hospitals. Every morning a basket with pigeons was taken from Plymouth General Hospital to Devonport Hospital. The birds then delivered unbreakable vials back to Plymouth as needed. The carrier pigeons became unnecessary in 1983 because of the closure of one of the hospitals. In the 1980s a similar system existed between two French hospitals located in Granville and Avranche. Wartime communication Birds were used extensively during World War I. One homing pigeon, Cher Ami, was awarded the French Croix de guerre for his heroic service in delivering 12 important messages, despite having been very badly injured. During World War II, the Irish Paddy, the American G.I. Joe and the English Mary of Exeter all received the Dickin Medal. They were among 32 pigeons to receive this award, for their gallantry and bravery in saving human lives with their actions. Eighty-two homing pigeons were dropped into the Netherlands with the First Airborne Division Signals as part of Operation Market Garden in World War II. The pigeons' loft was located in London, which would have required them to fly to deliver their messages. Also in World War II, hundreds of homing pigeons with the Confidential Pigeon Service were airdropped into northwest Europe to serve as intelligence vectors for local resistance agents. Birds played a vital part in the Invasion of Normandy as radios could not be used for fear of vital information being intercepted by the enemy. On a slightly lighter note, during the Second World War, the use of pigeons for sending messages was highlighted in Britain by the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret as Girl Guides joining other Guides sending messages to the World Chief Guide in 1943, as part of a campaign to raise money for homing pigeons. Computing The humorous IP over Avian Carriers (RFC 1149) is an Internet protocol for the transmission of messages via homing pigeon. Originally intended as an April Fools' Day RFC entry, this protocol was implemented and used, once, to transmit a message in Bergen, Norway, on April 28, 2001. In September 2009, a South African IT company based in Durban pitted an 11-month-old bird armed with a data packed 4 GB memory stick against the ADSL service from the country's biggest Internet service provider, Telkom. The pigeon, Winston, took an hour and eight minutes to carry the data . In all, the data transfer took two hours, six minutes, and fifty-seven seconds—the same amount of time it took to transfer 4% of the data over the ADSL. Smuggling Homing pigeons have been reported to be used as a smuggling technique, getting objects and narcotics across borders and into prisons. For instance, between 2009 and 2015, pigeons have been reported to carry contraband items such as cell phones, SIM cards, phone batteries and USB cords into prisons in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. There have also been cases where homing pigeons were used to transport drugs into prisons. Animal exploitation Pigeon races are sometimes considered as a type of animal exploitation and against animal welfare, particularly where betting is involved, and animal welfare is regarded as secondary. For example, the animal welfare organisation PETA criticises Taiwanese owners for flying birds across wide oceans where few reach their destination, claiming a fatality rate of 98%. See also List of pigeon breeds American Show Racer Dovecote Pigeon intelligence Pigeon photography Tippler Otto J. Zahn References Further reading Lucy M Blanchard, Chico, the Story of a Homing Pigeon in the Great War, Diggory Press, Carter W. Clarke, "Signal Corps Pigeons." The Military Engineer 25.140 (1933): 133-138 Online. Jon Day, "Operation Columba" (review of Gordon Corera, Secret Pigeon Service, William Collins, 2018, 326 pp., ), London Review of Books, vol. 41, no. 7 (4 April 2019), pp. 15–16. "Pigeons flew across theRoman Empire carrying messages from the margins to the capital. [In 43 BCE] Decimus Brutus broke Marc Antony's siege of Mutina [Modena, in northern Italy] by sending letters to the consuls via pigeon.... [However, p]igeons only really came into their own with modern [times, especially d]uring the 19th and early 20th centuries..." (Jon Day, p. 15.) Meir Shalev, A Pigeon and a Boy (English translation by Evan Fallenberg), a historical novel about the use of pigeons by the Israel Defense Forces (and the Haganah before Israel was founded in 1948) in the defence of Israel when it was first founded, and in the defence of the Jewish community before Israeli independence Jerry Spinelli, Wringer "Nine Champions Create A Champion", Bob Kinney Silverado, The Thoroughbred, 15 May 1998 External links Pigeon and Business and Communication The great pigeon race disaster of 97 suggests an answer to an enduring mystery, George Johnson, "ON SCIENCE", St. Louis Post Dispatch The System of Military Dovecotes in Europe from an 1891 Scientific American article at Project Gutenberg Joao Moreira Tavares: Carrier Pigeons (Portugal), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Resource for pigeon racers Round Trip War Birds, Popular Science, November 1941, article on US Army Signal Corps use of homing pigeons with first high-speed photos showing how a pigeon flies Fragment 'Those waiting for the birds' (2008, Eve Duchemin), documentary about Belgian homing pigeons Airmail Animal-powered transport Animals in sport Domestic pigeons History of telecommunications Pigeon breeds Pigeon racing Illegal drug trade techniques	[ 0.30994144082069397, 0.30468860268592834, -0.41775137186050415, -0.051274437457323074, 0.2067171335220337, 0.3396395444869995, 0.3032786548137665, 0.13392700254917145, 0.005480900872498751, -0.14871647953987122, -0.37691161036491394, 0.39553385972976685, -0.49851882457733154, -0.5765174031257629, -0.46272900700569153, 0.07786758989095688, 0.5201309323310852, -0.2404317408800125, 0.07736460119485855, -0.5899204015731812, -0.4700809419155121, -0.29389578104019165, -0.27389365434646606, -0.3383429944515228, 0.312364399433136, 0.24203626811504364, 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206965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4%20motorway	M4 motorway	The M4, originally the London-South Wales Motorway, is a motorway in the United Kingdom running from west London to southwest Wales. The English section to the Severn Bridge was constructed between 1961 and 1971, and the Welsh element was completed in 1993. On the opening of the Second Severn Crossing in 1996, the M4 was rerouted over it. The line of the motorway from London to Bristol runs closely in parallel with the A4. After crossing the River Severn, toll-free since 17 December 2018, the motorway follows the A48, to terminate at the Pont Abraham services in Carmarthenshire. The M4 is the only motorway in Wales apart from its two spurs: the A48(M) and the M48. The major towns and cities along the routea distance of approximately include Slough, Reading, Swindon, Bristol, Newport, Cardiff, Bridgend, Port Talbot and Swansea. History A new road from London to South Wales was first proposed in the 1930s. In 1956 the Ministry of Transport announced the plans for the first major post-war road improvement projects. The Chiswick flyover, a short section of elevated dual-carriageway, not originally classed as a motorway, opened in 1959 to reduce the impact of traffic travelling between central London and the west. The Maidenhead bypass (J7-J9) opened in 1961, the section from Slough to Maidenhead (J5-J7) opened in 1963 and J1-J5 opened on 24 March 1965 incorporating the Chiswick Flyover. The stretch from J18 to the west of Newport was opened in 1966, including the Severn Bridge. The Port Talbot by-pass, also built in the 1960s and now part of the M4, was originally the A48(M) motorway, a number now allocated to a short section of motorway near Cardiff. The Ministry of Transport originally intended that the M4 would terminate at Tredegar Park west of Newport, and following the creation of the Welsh Office that the Government became committed to a high-standard dual carriageway to Carmarthenshire. The English section of the motorway was completed on 22 December 1971 when the stretch between junctions 9 and 15 (Maidenhead and Swindon) was opened to traffic. The Welsh section was completed in 1993, when the Briton Ferry motorway bridge opened. In 1996, the Second Severn Crossing opened with new link motorways on either side of the estuary to divert the M4 over the new crossing. At the same time, the original route over the Severn Bridge was redesignated the M48 and the M49 was opened to link the new crossing with the M5 at Avonmouth. After completion In April 2005, speed checks carried out by police camera vans between junction 14 and junction 18 led to a public protest, involving a "go-slow" of several hundred vehicles along the affected sections of the motorway. Between 2007 and January 2010, the section from Castleton (junction 29) to Coryton (junction 32) was widened to six lanes. The scheme was formally opened on 25 January 2010 by Ieuan Wyn Jones the Deputy First Minister for Wales. During 2009, the Newport section of the motorway between junctions 23a and 29 was upgraded with a new concrete central barrier. In February 2010 it was proposed that the M4 in South Wales would become the first hydrogen highway with hydrogen stations provided along the route, with an aspiration for further stations to be provided along the M4 into South West England over time. Between 2008 and 2010, junction 11 was extensively remodelled with a new four-lane junction, two new road bridges and other works. The £65m scheme included work on the Mereoak roundabout and part of the A33 Swallowfield Bypass near Shinfield, and also the conversion of the two existing bridges, one of which is available only to pedestrians and cyclists and the other to buses. It also involved the movement of the local Highways Agency and Fire Service offices, and the construction of a long footbridge network, a new bus lane and a new gyratory. Sound barriers for nearby residential areas were also installed. In April 2008, the decision to preserve a rare Vickers machine gun pillbox and turn it into a bat roost was announced by the developers. Tolls on the Second Severn Crossing over the River Severn were eliminated on 17 December 2018. Timeline of construction Maintenance Maintenance of the Second Severn Crossing and the of motorway in England is the responsibility of National Highways. The in Wales is the responsibility of the South Wales Trunk Road Agent. Features Speed limits For the majority of its length, the national speed limit applies. Exceptions include the following: on the Chiswick Flyover within London in both directions. between junction 4 and the Chiswick Flyover, eastbound only. on the Port Talbot elevated section between junction 40 and junction 41. The fixed speed camera was removed in 2006 as it was believed to be causing tailbacks. In July 2014, an average speed camera system was installed; it generated around £500,000 in fines in the first six months. between junctions 24 and 28 at Newport. Smart motorway The M4 has one section of smart motorway, between junctions 19 (M32) and 20 (M5) north of Bristol, where there are variable speed limits and a part-time hard-shoulder. Completion was in summer 2014. Another section between junctions 24 and 29 in Newport had variable speed limits until 2021, when it was changed to a permanent 50 mph limit with average speed cameras. In 2010, it was announced that the motorway would be upgraded to a smart motorway between junctions 3 and 12. With a length of , this will be the longest smart motorway scheme in the United Kingdom. Work started in autumn 2018 and is expected to be completed in March 2022 at a cost of £848 million. Brynglas tunnels The Brynglas Tunnels carry the M4 under Brynglas Hill in Newport, Wales. The tunnels are the first and only twin–bored tunnels in the UK motorway network (the Dartford Tunnel is not classified as part of the M25 motorway). In July 2011, a lorry fire in one tunnel closed the motorway. Although there were no injuries and no deaths, the tunnel remained closed and a contraflow system was in place in the remaining tunnel for about one month, causing major travel delays. Bus lane In June 1999, the M4 bus lane was created on the third lane between junctions 2 and 3, initially as a pilot scheme and then a permanent arrangement from 2001. A lower speed limit was introduced along this section at the same time. The bus lane was on the eastbound carriageway; from the western end of the Chiswick Flyover near Brentford to junction 3 (A312), covering part of the journey between Heathrow Airport and central London. The lane which had no intermediate exits was for use by buses, coaches, motorcycles, emergency vehicles and licensed taxis but not mini-cabs. In December 2010, the bus lane was suspended for 18 months. It was reinstated temporarily for the 2012 Summer Olympics and then permanently decommissioned. Porous road surface Near Junction 35 of the M4, there is a stretch of the motorway that has a surfacing of porous asphalt that improves drainage and reduces noise. When driving in heavy rain drivers notice a reduction in road spray from other vehicles and improved visibility. This special surface was publicised in an episode of the BBC's Tomorrow's World programme. This was the site of the first trial of the new road surface when it was laid down in 1993. Elevated and heated section The elevated section of the M4 in West London, built in the 1960s, is mostly directly above the A4 and extends over parts of Brentford's Golden Mile. This section was designed to have a heated road surface to reduce icing in winter. Four level stack interchanges The M4 has two of the three four-level stack interchanges in the UK, including the first UK example at junction 20, the "Almondsbury Interchange" with the M5. The other is junction 4b with the M25. Junction 4b has to make provision for the railway line passing beneath the M4. Due to the nature of these junctions, one cannot make a U-turn at either of them. Notable junctions Junction 8/9 near Maidenhead, Berkshire, and High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire is the only one in the UK with dual numbers. This arose at the time when the M4 turned north near junction 8, where it met the A308, and headed for the original junction 9, where the motorway ended at a roundabout interchange with the A4. When the westward extension was opened, junction 8 was closed and a new junction built a little to the west, taking both numbers. The road to the A4 became A423(M) and later A404(M), and the junction with the A4 became 9B. Junction 9A is the exit for Cox Green and White Waltham. To the west of junction 13 on the eastbound carriageway there are a set of sliproads signposted "Works Unit Only". The signs have red borders, implying a military exit. It is a back entrance to RAF Welford, a Second World War airfield and now an RAF/USAF military installation mainly used for storing munitions. The M4 entrance allows easier access for the large vehicles used to carry the munitions. Plans for the "missing" Junction 31, also known as the Thornhill interchange, for which planning permission was originally granted in September 1991 (but subsequently expired), were rekindled after proposals for a new business park on a site north of the M4 were submitted in 2007 to Cardiff Council. The developers of the business park, St Modwen Developments, would likely fund the new junction, which would be on the A469. A freedom of information request in 2010 to Cardiff Council shows that whilst the land that would enable this junction should continue to be strategically protected, the decision to formally abandon the proposed Junction 31 Thornhill was made in October 2007 and there had been no subsequent mention of it in Cardiff Council Strategic or Planning meetings since. In South Wales, the M4 has to thread its way through mountainous terrain and built-up areas, so there are some unusual junction layouts. Junction 27 (High Cross) is a normal grade-separated roundabout junction, but has severe space constraints: traffic joining the motorway must initially travel in the opposite direction to the intended direction of travel, before making a sharp left-hand turn from the slip road onto the motorway. At the time of construction, junction numbers 30 and 31 were reserved for future intermediate interchanges. Junction 30 (Cardiff Gate) has since been added, but there are no current plans to construct Junction 31 (A469 road). Junction 39 can only be used to access the motorway from a single slip road onto the westbound carriageway from the A48 at junction 38. There is no exit from the motorway at this junction. Junction 41 comprises two different junctions; one for local traffic to and from the west and one from the east. The former leads to and from a spur leading to the roundabout in Briton Ferry, formerly known as junction 41a, and the original bridge over the River Neath, which would allow access onto the stretch of the M4 from junction 43 westward. The second, eastern junction leads to and from the A48 towards Port Talbot. As a result, one can travel for almost on the motorway in either direction, both joining and then leaving the motorway at junction 41. Junction 44 is unusual in that the eastbound entrance dives under the inside of the junction, effectively creating a "right-turn" on a roundabout. Similarly, slip roads pass under or over the main motorway at junctions 41 and 42. There have been calls to close the slip roads at junctions 40 and 41 to improve traffic flow. The motorway has only two lanes on this stretch and is a major traffic congestion blackspot. The short slip roads have not been modernised. A small-scale trial of closing the westbound on-slip of junction 41 between 7 am and 9 am and from 4 pm to 6 pm on weekdays started on 4 August 2014 but following heavy criticism from local businesses and residents, was stopped on 29 May 2015. Relief road On 5 June 2019, the Welsh Government scrapped the proposal for a proposed motorway south of Newport. The Welsh Assembly Government had revived the scheme as a tolled bypass in 2007 and later abandoned it for financial reasons. An extension to the Newport Southern Distributor Road through the old Corus steel works was considered. This road is already a dual carriageway. A public consultation exercise on options for improving the capacity of the M4 corridor around Newport opened on 5 March 2012. Its website states that: "the motorway around Newport does not conform to today’s motorway standards. It lacks continuous hard shoulders, has closely spaced junctions with sub-standard slip road visibility and narrows to a restricted two lane section through the Brynglas Tunnels. Heavy congestion occurs along this stretch and either side of it at peak hours." List of junctions {\| style="margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:1em; color:black; font-size:90%;" class="wikitable" \|- style="background:#0080d0; text-align:center; color:white; font-size:120%;" \| colspan="5" \| M4 motorway \|- !scope=col\|mile !scope=col\|km !scope=col abbr="Eastbound"\|Eastbound exits (B carriageway) !scope=col\|Junction !scope=col abbr="Westbound"\|Westbound exits (A carriageway) \|- style="text-align:center;" \|7.3 \|11.8 \|Road continues as A4 to Central London \|J1 \| Start of motorway \|- style="text-align:center;" \|8.38.5 \|13.4 13.7 \| North Circular A406South Circular A205Chiswick A315 \|J2 \| Staines, Hounslow, Brentford A4 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|12.512.8 \|20.120.6 \|Heston services \|Services \|Heston services \|- style="text-align:center;" \|13.413.7 \|21.5 22.1 \| Heathrow (Terminals 4, 5 & Cargo), Hayes, Harrow, Hounslow A312 \|J3 \| Heathrow (Terminals 4, 5 & Cargo), Hayes, Harrow, Hounslow A312 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|15.215.7 \|24.5 25.2 \| Heathrow (Terminals 2 & 3) (A4) Uxbridge A408 \|J4a \| Heathrow (Terminals 2 & 3) (A4) Uxbridge A408 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|16.817.7 \|27.0 28.5 \| Heathrow (Terminals 4, 5 & Cargo) , Gatwick Airport , Watford (M3), (M23), (M40), (M1) M25 \|J4bHarmondsworth Interchange \| Heathrow (Terminals 4, 5&Cargo), Gatwick, Watford (M3), (M23), (M40), (M1), M25 \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Greater London \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Berkshire \|- style="text-align:center;" \|19.119.5 \| 30.7 31.4 \| Colnbrook, Langley, Slough (East) A4Eton, Datchet B470 \| J5 \| Colnbrook, Langley, Slough (East) A4, Datchet B470 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|22.923.2 \| 36.8 37.4 \| Slough (Central) A355Windsor A322 \|J6 \| Slough (Central) A355Windsor A322 \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Berkshire \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Buckinghamshire \|- style="text-align:center;" \|24.725.0 \| 39.8 40.3 \| Slough (West) A4 \|J7 \| Slough (West) A4 \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Buckinghamshire \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Berkshire \|- style="text-align:center;" \|27.828.2 \| 44.7 45.4 \| High Wycombe, Henley A404(M)Maidenhead A308(M) \|J8/9 \| High Wycombe, Henley A404(M)Maidenhead A308(M) \|- style="text-align:center;" \|35.035.8 \| 56.4 57.6 \| Reading (East), Wokingham, Bracknell A329(M) \|J10 \| Reading (East), Wokingham, Bracknell A329(M) \|- style="text-align:center;" \|40.641.2 \|65.4 66.3 \| Basingstoke, Reading (Central & South) A33 \|J11 \| Basingstoke, Reading (Central & South) A33 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|43.543.8 \|70.0 70.5 \|Reading services \|Services \|Reading services \|- style="text-align:center;" \|45.345.7 \| 72.9 73.5 \| Reading (West), Theale A4 \|J12 \| Reading (West), Theale A4 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|56.957.2 \|91.5 92.1 \| Newbury, Oxford A34Chieveley services (Moto) \|J13Services \| Newbury, Oxford A34Chieveley services (Moto) \|- style="text-align:center;" \|64.464.8 \|103.7 104.3 \| Hungerford, Wantage A338 \|J14 \| Hungerford, Wantage A338 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|68.7 \|110.5 \|Membury services \|Services \|Membury services \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Berkshire \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Wiltshire \|- style="text-align:center;" \|76.477.1 \|122.9 124.0 \| Swindon (East) A419Marlborough A346Oxford (A420) \|J15 \| Swindon A419, Marlborough A346 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|82.482.8 \|132.6 133.2 \| Swindon (West), Royal Wootton Bassett, Wroughton, MoD Lyneham, Calne A3102 \|J16 \| Swindon (West), Royal Wootton Bassett, Wroughton, MoD Lyneham, Calne A3102 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|94.895.3 \|152.5 153.4 \| Chippenham A350Cirencester A429 \|J17 \| Chippenham A350Cirencester A429 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|96.7 \|155.7 \|Leigh Delamere services \|Services \|Leigh Delamere services \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Wiltshire \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Gloucestershire \|- style="text-align:center;" \|104.9105.6 \|168.8 170.0 \| Bath, Stroud A46 \|J18 \| Bath, Stroud A46 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|112.8113.2 \|181.5 182.1 \| Bristol M32 \|J19 \| Bristol M32 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|115.8116.3 \|186.3 187.2 \| The South West, Bristol (West), The Midlands, Gloucester, Bristol Airport , M5 \|J20Almondsbury Interchange \| The South West, Bristol (West) M5(S) The Midlands, Gloucester M5(N) \|- style="text-align:center;" \|117.7189.5 \|189.5 190.0 \|No access \|J21 \| Chepstow M48 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|121.3121.6 \|195.2 195.7 \| Avonmouth M49 \|J22 \| Avonmouth M49 \|- style="text-align:center;" \| rowspan=2 \| 121.7124.1 \| rowspan=2 \| 195.9199.8 \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Gloucestershire \| rowspan=2 \| Second Severn Crossing \| Entry into Wales \|- style="text-align:center;" \| Entry into England \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Gwent \|- style="text-align:center;" \|127.0 \|204.4 \| No toll plaza \| Bridge Toll \| style="background:#dcdcfe;"\| Former toll plaza (closed Dec 2018) \|- style="text-align:center;" \|129.2 \|208.0 \| Chepstow M48 \|J23 \|No access \|- style="text-align:center;" \|131.4132.2 \|211.4212.8 \| Magor, Caldicot A4810Magor services \|J23A Services \| Magor, Caldicot A4810 Magor services \|- style="text-align:center;" \|134.8135.6 \|217.0218.3 \| City centre A48Newport (East) B4237Monmouth A449The Midlands (M50) \|J24 \| City centre A48Newport (East) B4237Monmouth A449 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|137.9 \|222.0 \|No access \|J25 \| Caerleon B4596 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|138.3 \|222.6 \|No access \|J25A \| Newport, Cwmbran A4042 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|138.8139.1 \|223.4223.8 \|Brynglas Tunnels \|Tunnel \|Brynglas Tunnels \|- style="text-align:center;" \|139.1139.5 \|223.8224.5 \| Newport, Cwmbran, Caerleon A4051 \|J26 \| Newport A4051 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|140.8141,4 \|226.6227.6 \| High Cross B4591 \|J27 \| High Cross B4591 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|142.0142.9 \|228.5230.0 \| Newport A48Risca, Brynmawr A467 \|J28 \| Newport A48Risca, Brynmawr A467 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|143.6 \|231.1 \|No access \|J29 \| Cardiff (East and South) A48(M) \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Gwent \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering South Glamorgan \|- style="text-align:center;" \|146.6147.3 \|236.0237.0 \| Cardiff (East) A4232Cardiff Gate services \|J30 Services \| Cardiff (East) A4232Cardiff Gate services \|- style="text-align:center;" \|151.9244.5 \|244.5246.1 \| Merthyr Tydfil, Cardiff A470 \|J32 \| Cardiff (North), Merthyr Tydfil A470 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|155.4156.0 \|250.1251.1 \| Cardiff (West), Barry, Penarth A4232Cardiff Airport Cardiff West services \|J33Services \| Cardiff (West), Barry, Penarth A4232Cardiff Airport Cardiff West services \|- style="text-align:center;" \|157.5158.1 \|253.5254.4 \| Llantrisant, Rhondda A4119Royal Glamorgan Hospital \|J34 \| Llantrisant, Rhondda A4119Royal Glamorgan Hospital \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering South Glamorgan \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Mid Glamorgan \|- style="text-align:center;" \|163.9164.4 \|263.7264.5 \| Pen-coed A473 \|J35 \| Bridgend, Pen-coed A473 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|167.5168.3 \|269.6270.8 \| Bridgend A4061Maesteg A4063Princess of Wales HospitalSarn Park services \|J36Services \| Bridgend A4061Maesteg A4063Princess of Wales HospitalSarn Park services \|- style="text-align:center;" \|172.8173.5 \|278.1279.3 \| Pyle, Porthcawl A4229 \|J37 \| Porthcawl, Pyle A4229 \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Mid Glamorgan \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering West Glamorgan \|- style="text-align:center;" \|177.0177.3 \|284.9285.3 \| Port Talbot A48 \|J38 \| Port Talbot A48 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|178.3 \|286.9 \|No access (on-ramp only) \|J39 \|No access \|- style="text-align:center;" \|179.7179.9 \|289.2289.6 \| Port Talbot A4107 \|J40 \| Port Talbot A4107 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|180.9181.3 \|291.1291.8 \| Port Talbot A48 \|J41 \| Briton Ferry A48 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|183.9184.9 \|295.9297.3 \| Briton Ferry A48Swansea (South) A483 \|J42 \| Swansea (South) A483 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|184.9185.7 \|297.5298.8 \| Neath, Merthyr Tydfil A465 \|J43 \| Neath, Merthyr Tydfil A465 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|187.0187.4 \|300.9301.6 \| Swansea (East) A48 \|J44 \| Swansea (East) A48 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|188.8189.3 \| 303.9304.7 \| Pontardawe, Swansea (North) A4067 \|J45 \| Pontardawe, Swansea (North) A4067 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|190.8191.4 \| 307.0308.0 \| Llangyfelach B4489FelindreMorriston Hospital \|J46 \| Llangyfelach B4489FelindreMorriston Hospital \|- style="text-align:center;" \|192.4193.1 \|309.6310.7 \| Swansea (West) A483Gorseinon A48Swansea services \|J47Services \| Swansea (West) A483Gorseinon A48Swansea services \|- style="text-align:center;" \| \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering West Glamorgan \| \| style=background:skyblue \| Entering Dyfed \|- style="text-align:center;" \|196.4197.1 \|316.0317.2 \| Pontarddulais, Llanelli A4138 \|J48 \| Pontarddulais, Llanelli A4138 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|199.2 \| 320.6 \| Start of motorway \|J49TerminusServices \| Motorway terminates at a roundabout:Carmarthen A48Ammanford, Llandeilo A483Pontarddulais A48Pont Abraham services \|- Coordinate list Data from driver location signs and location marker posts are used to provide distance and carriageway identification information. Where a junction spans several hundred metres and the data is available, both the start and finish values for the junction are shown. E30 Although not signed, European route E30 includes most of the M4. The entire route runs between Cork in Ireland and Omsk in Russia. Major incidents and accidents In June 1984 a crash near Maidenhead resulted in 13 deaths. In March 1991, ten people died in the 1991 M4 motorway crash near Hungerford. The crash involved 51 vehicles in foggy conditions. In May 1995 a coach carrying Royal British Legion members left the M4 close to the Severn Bridge, resulting in 10 deaths. In April 1998, drummer Cozy Powell died following a car accident on the M4 near Bristol. In July 2002, Gus Dudgeon, a music producer known for his work with Elton John, and his wife died when the car he was driving veered off the M4 between Reading and Maidenhead. The inquest recorded a verdict of accidental death. See also M4 corridor M4 Thames Bridge, Maidenhead List of motorways in the United Kingdom Transport in Wales References Further reading External links CBRD Motorway Database – M4 British Road Database: Motorways – M4 Junction 8/9 The Motorway Archive Junctions 1 to 5 Junctions 5 to 7 Junctions 8 to 14 Junctions 14 to 21 Junctions 21 to 23 Junctions 23 to 49 Map of the preferred route around Newport (relief road) Constituent roads of European route E30 Motorways in England Motorways in London Motorways in Wales Roads in Berkshire Roads in Bristol Transport in Bridgend County Borough Transport in Cardiff Transport in Carmarthenshire Transport in the London Borough of Hillingdon Transport in the London Borough of Hounslow Transport in Monmouthshire Transport in Neath Port Talbot Transport in Newport, Wales Transport in Rhondda Cynon Taf Transport in South Gloucestershire District Transport in Swansea Transport in Wiltshire	[ -0.17976784706115723, -0.37862974405288696, 0.5487629175186157, 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206968	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fool	Fool	Fool, The Fool, or Fools may refer to: A jester, also called a fool, a type of historical entertainer known for their witty jokes Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters Fool (stock character) in literature and folklore Shakespearean fool, an archetypal character in numerous works by Shakespeare Film A Fool, a 2015 Chinese film directed by Chen Jianbin Fools (film), a 1970 American film Fools (2003 film), an Indian film directed by Dasari Narayana Rao The Fool (1913 film), a 1913 British silent film The Fool (1925 film), a lost silent film The Fool (1990 film), a British film The Fool (2014 film), a Russian film Gaming and Tarot Fool (card game) The Fool (Tarot card) Literature Fool (novel), a 2009 novel by Christopher Moore Fools (play), a 1981 play by Neil Simon The Fool (novel), an 1880 Armenian language novel by Raffi The Fool, a 1921 novel by H. C. Bailey The Fool (play), a 1975 play by Edward Bond The Fool (fictional character), a fictional character in The Realm of the Elderlings by Robin Hobb Music The Fool (design collective), a Dutch design collective and band in the 1960s The Fool (guitar), a 1964 Gibson SG designed by The Fool for Eric Clapton The Fools, a musical group from Massachusetts, U.S. Albums Fool (Joe Jackson album), 2019 The Fool (The Fool album), 1968 The Fool (Ryn Weaver album), 2015 The Fool (Warpaint album), 2010 Fools (The Reason album), 2010 Fools (EP), by Lauren Aquilina, 2012 Songs "Fool" (Elvis Presley song), 1973 "Fool (If You Think It's Over)", a song by Chris Rea, 1978 "Fool" by Blur, from the 1991 album Leisure "Fool" by Cat Power, from the 2003 album You Are Free "Fool" by Dragon, from the 1984 album Body and the Beat Fool (Mansun song), from the 2000 album Little Kix "Fool" by The Rasmus, from the 2006 album Peep "Fool" by Roxette, from their 2001 album Room Service "Fool" by Shakira, from the 2001 album Laundry Service "Fool" by Swans from the album Greed "Fool (#2)" by Swans from the album Holy Money "Fool (I Feel Bad for You)" by Medina, from the U.S. release of 2012 Forever album "The Fool" (Sanford Clark song), 1956 "The Fool" (Lee Ann Womack song), 1997 "The Fool", a 1971 single by Gilbert Montagné "The Fool" by Neutral Milk Hotel, from the album In the Aeroplane over the Sea "The Fool" by Camper Van Beethoven, from the 1988 album Our Beloved Revolutionary Sweetheart "The Fool" by The Fixx, from the 1982 album Shuttered Room "The Fool" by Quicksilver Messenger Service, from the 1968 album Quicksilver Messenger Service "Fools" (Alphaville song), 1994 "Fools" by Deep Purple, from their 1971 album Fireball "Fools" by Rachel Stevens, from the 2003 album Funky Dory "Fools" by Troye Sivan, from the 2015 album Wild "Fools" by Uriah Heep, from the 1980 album Conquest "Fools" by Van Halen, from the 1980 album Women and Children First Fool" (Fitz and the Tantrums song), 2017 Food Fruit fool, a dish made with cooked fruit such as gooseberries or bilberries Ful (pronounced "fool") or ful medames, a Middle Eastern dish made from fava beans Other uses Léon-Mba International Airport, Libreville, Gabon, ICAO airport code FOOL The Motley Fool, a financial advice company (fool.com) nicknamed "the Fool" See also Folly (disambiguation) Foolish (disambiguation) Foolishness, the unawareness or lack of social norms which causes offence, annoyance, trouble or injury FoolishPeople, a British theatre collective Fools Guild, a social club of comedic performers Foolscap (disambiguation) List of jesters Clown Harlequin Jester (disambiguation) Joker (disambiguation) Magic (illusion) Stupidity Tomfoolery Yokel	[ 0.11068019270896912, 0.40965375304222107, -0.44153743982315063, 0.3444688022136688, -0.17890521883964539, 0.04333849251270294, 0.38458386063575745, 0.019987544044852257, -0.5088492035865784, 0.17069503664970398, -0.7007704973220825, 0.6859983205795288, 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206969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Tor	El Tor	El Tor is a particular strain of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera. Also known as V. cholerae biotype eltor, it has been the dominant strain in the seventh global cholera pandemic. It is distinguished from the classic strain at a genetic level, although both are in the serogroup O1 and both contain Inaba, Ogawa and Hikojima serotypes. It is also distinguished from classic biotypes by the production of hemolysins. History At the turn of the 20th century, the Turkish government established six medical stations along the coast of the Sinai Peninsula to cater to pilgrims returning from Mecca. One of them was in El Tor (A' Tur as it is called today). Sick passengers were dropped off in one of the stations for treatment. In 1905, Felix Gotschlich, a German physician at the El Tor station identified vibrios in stool specimen of two pilgrims returning from Mecca. Though the pilgrims failed to show ante or post mortem evidence of cholera, the vibrios isolated agglutinated with the anti-cholera serum. He did not think it was cholera, since it was hemolytic for human and animal red cells, while the true Vibrio cholerae is not. At that time, there was no cholera epidemic in Mecca or at the El Tor station, and the two pilgrims died from other causes. Later in 1905, Kraus and Pribram found that the bacteria, which produced soluble hemolysin, were more related to non-cholera vibrios; therefore, referred to all hemolytic vibrios as El Tor vibrios. In the early 1930s, A. Shousha, A. Gardner and K. Venkatraman, all researchers, suggested that only hemolytic vibrios agglutinated with anti-cholera serum should be referred to as El Tor vibrios. In 1959, R. Pollitzer designated El Tor as its own species V. eltor separate from V. cholerae, but six years later, in 1965, R. Hugh discovered that V. cholerae and V. eltor were similar in 30 positive and 20 negative characteristics. Thus, they were classified as a single species V. cholerae: however, Hugh believed the differing features between the two could be of epidemiological importance, so El Tor vibrios were further classified as V. cholerae biotype eltor (serogroup O1). El Tor was identified again in an outbreak in 1937 but the pandemic did not arise until 1961 in Sulawesi. El Tor spread through Asia (Bangladesh in 1963, India in 1964) and then into the Middle East, Africa and Europe. From North Africa it spread into Italy by 1973. The extent of the pandemic has been due to the relative mildness (lower expression level) of El Tor, the disease has many more asymptomatic carriers than is usual, outnumbering active cases by up to 50:1. The outbreaks during this time frame are believed to be due to the rapid development of transportation and communication on an international level, as well as decreased sanitation levels in areas with increasing populations. In the late 1970s there were small outbreaks in Japan and in the South Pacific. Molecular evidence, that is, a specific pulsed-field gel electrophoresis profile, suggests that the distinct genotype of El Tor strain which appeared in Calcutta in 1993, may have spread to Africa. In the country of Guinea-Bissau, it was responsible for an epidemic that began in October 1994 and continued into 1996. Epidemiology An El Tor infection is relatively mild, or at least rarely fatal, and patients are asymptomatic for about a week. El Tor is able to survive in the body longer than classical cholera vibrios. This characteristic allows carriers to infect a greater population of people. In fact, V. cholerae biotype eltor can be isolated from water sources in the absence of an outbreak of cases. In extreme cases, persons can become long-term carriers; for example, Cholera Dolores, who tested vibrio positive nine years after her primary infection. El Tor is transmitted by the fecal-oral route. This route is the consequence of infected persons defecating near a water source, and uninfected persons consuming contaminated water. In addition, the bacteria can be transmitted by consuming uncooked food fertilized with human feces. Treatment of a cholera infection consists of replenishing lost fluid and electrolytes by intravenous or oral solutions, and by antibiotics. El Tor outbreaks can be prevented by better standards of sanitation, filtering and boiling water, thoroughly cooking seafood, and washing vegetables and fruits before consumption. References Cholera	[ -0.3525281846523285, 0.35461676120758057, -0.26839321851730347, -0.19040244817733765, -0.09453137964010239, 0.3156852722167969, 0.2272920459508896, 1.0046204328536987, -0.0006788747268728912, -0.15910042822360992, -0.5547472834587097, 0.6932122707366943, -0.2627301514148712, 0.7034815549850464, -0.20352241396903992, 0.49753543734550476, 0.15107537806034088, 0.3732742667198181, -0.21322253346443176, -0.19307979941368103, 0.004324947949498892, -1.0458941459655762, 0.26222002506256104, -0.18503838777542114, -0.10052382200956345, -0.23575152456760406, -0.1862902194261551, 0.5938616991043091, 0.11502385884523392, 0.3807826042175293, -0.1262492686510086, 0.5174595713615417, -0.39230838418006897, -0.06458285450935364, -0.4422832429409027, 0.1392974853515625, -0.4070131182670593, -0.38511592149734497, -0.7054226398468018, -0.45066943764686584, 0.39783981442451477, -0.44052016735076904, 0.22937454283237457, 0.3730792701244354, -0.49149903655052185, -0.3991071581840515, 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206971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow%20in%20the%20Blue	Arrow in the Blue	Arrow in the Blue is an autobiography covering the first 26 years of Arthur Koestler's life (1905–1931). It was published in 1952 by Collins with Hamish Hamilton Ltd. and has been reprinted several times. The book and its contents The first edition was cloth-bound and measured 210mm x 140mm, 307 pages, including four monochrome illustrations. (No ISBN) The book is divided into five chronological Parts: 1905-1921 1922-1926 1926-1927 1927-1930 1930-1931 Each Part deals with a different phase in the author's life. The book covers the period from his birth in 1905 in Budapest, the dual capital of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, to 1931, when he joined the Communist Party of Germany. During these first twenty-six years of his life he was, among other things, a member of a Zionist duelling fraternity at the University of Vienna, a worker on a collective farm in Palestine, a street-vendor of lemonade in Haifa, editor of a newspaper in Cairo, foreign correspondent of the biggest Continental news agency in Paris and the Middle East, science editor of a major newspaper in Berlin, and a member of the North Pole expedition of the Graf Zeppelin The book has three main themes: the historical background, personal adventure and the psychological analysis of his own spiritual development. References 1952 non-fiction books Books by Arthur Koestler Arthur Koestler Autobiographies Hamish Hamilton books William Collins, Sons books	[ -0.1773894727230072, 0.5109861493110657, -0.8522199988365173, 0.09166532009840012, 0.13036444783210754, -0.1496661901473999, 0.2329205870628357, -0.1308070570230484, 0.1477273851633072, -0.6049599647521973, -0.2368890345096588, -0.1251097321510315, -0.16281621158123016, 0.06406985968351364, 0.34808117151260376, 0.21670234203338623, 0.14342573285102844, 0.041593413800001144, 0.04619125649333, -0.8393771052360535, -0.16178061068058014, -0.1177712082862854, -0.028375180438160896, 0.04164636507630348, 0.8759979605674744, -0.13831129670143127, -0.22024106979370117, -0.3018150329589844, 0.49165889620780945, 0.8198584914207458, 0.16004444658756256, 0.29957303404808044, 0.17371726036071777, -0.46860945224761963, -0.016589859500527382, -0.3806871473789215, -0.41621121764183044, -0.3553692400455475, 0.36320793628692627, -0.275566428899765, 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206973	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butch%20Cassidy	Butch Cassidy	Robert LeRoy Parker (April 13, 1866 – November 7, 1908), better known as Butch Cassidy, was an American train and bank robber and the leader of a gang of criminal outlaws known as the "Wild Bunch" in the Old West. Parker engaged in criminal activity for more than a decade at the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century, but the pressures of being pursued by law enforcement, notably the Pinkerton detective agency, forced him to flee the country. He fled with his accomplice Harry Longabaugh, known as the "Sundance Kid", and Longabaugh's girlfriend Etta Place. The trio traveled first to Argentina and then to Bolivia, where Parker and Longabaugh are believed to have been killed in a shootout with the Bolivian Army in November 1908; the exact circumstances of their fate continue to be disputed. Parker's life and death have been extensively dramatized in film, television, and literature, and he remains one of the most well-known icons of the "Wild West" mythos in modern times. Early life Robert LeRoy Parker was born on April 13, 1866, in Beaver, Utah Territory, the first of 13 children of English immigrants Maximillian Parker and Ann Campbell Gillies. The Parker and Gillies families had converted to the Mormon faith while still living in the United Kingdom. Maximillian Parker was 12 years old when his family arrived in Salt Lake City in 1856 as Mormon pioneers. Ann Gillies was born and lived in Tyneside in northeast England before immigrating to the U.S. with her family in 1859 at age 14. The couple were married in July 1865. Robert Parker grew up on his parents' ranch near Circleville. Parker fled his home as a teenager, and while working on a dairy ranch, met cattle thief Mike Cassidy. He subsequently worked on several ranches, in addition to a brief apprenticeship with a butcher in Rock Springs, Wyoming, where he got his nickname (by the word "butcher", which morphed later into "Butch"), to which he soon added the last name Cassidy in honor of his old friend and mentor. Criminal career Butch Cassidy's first criminal offense was minor. Around 1880, he journeyed to a clothier's shop in another town, but found it closed. He broke into the shop and stole a pair of jeans and some pie, leaving an IOU promising to pay on his next visit. The clothier pressed charges, but Cassidy was acquitted by a jury. He continued to work on ranches until 1884, when he moved to Telluride, Colorado, ostensibly to seek work, but perhaps to deliver stolen horses to buyers. Cassidy led a cowboy's life in Wyoming and Montana before returning to Telluride in 1887, where he met Matt Warner, the owner of a racehorse. Cassidy and Warner raced the horse at various events, dividing the winnings between them. 1889–1895 Cassidy's first bank robbery took place on June 24, 1889, when Warner, two of the McCarty brothers, and he robbed the San Miguel Valley Bank in Telluride. Businessman L. L. Nunn had taken a controlling interest in the bank the previous year. The robbers stole around $21,000 (), after which they fled to the Robbers Roost, a remote hideout in southeastern Utah. In 1890, Cassidy purchased a ranch on the outskirts of Dubois, Wyoming. This location is across the state from the notorious Hole-in-the-Wall, a natural geological formation, and a popular hideout for outlaw gangs, including Cassidy's, during the era. Cassidy's ranching was possibly a façade for clandestine activities, perhaps with Hole-in-the-Wall outlaws, as he was never financially successful at ranching. Cassidy's ranch used the "unmistakable brand" of "Reverse-E, Box, E". In early 1894, Cassidy became involved romantically with rancher and outlaw Ann Bassett. Her father was a rancher who did business with Cassidy, supplying him with fresh horses and beef. That same year, Cassidy was arrested at Lander, Wyoming, for stealing horses and possibly for running a protection racket among the local ranchers there. He was imprisoned in the Wyoming State Prison in Laramie, where he served 18 months of a 2-year sentence; he was released and pardoned in January 1896 by Governor William Alford Richards. He became involved briefly with Bassett's older sister Josie before returning to Ann. Formation of the Wild Bunch Cassidy associated with a wide circle of criminals, most notably his closest friend William Ellsworth "Elzy" Lay, Harvey "Kid Curry" Logan, Ben "The Tall Texan" Kilpatrick, Harry Tracy, Will "News" Carver, Laura Bullion, and George "Flat Nose" Curry, who collectively became the so-called "Wild Bunch". The gang assembled sometime after Cassidy's release from prison in 1896, and took its name from the Doolin–Dalton gang, also known as the "Wild Bunch". On August 13, 1896, Cassidy, Lay, Logan, and Bob Meeks robbed the bank at Montpelier, Idaho, escaping with roughly $7,000. Cassidy recruited Harry Alonzo Longabaugh, also known as the "Sundance Kid", into the gang soon after. Bassett, Lay, and Lay's girlfriend Maude Davis all joined Cassidy at Robbers Roost in early 1897. The four hid there until early April, when Lay and Cassidy sent the women home so that the men could plan their next robbery. They ambushed a small group of men carrying the payroll of the Pleasant Valley Coal Company in the mining town of Castle Gate, Utah, on April 22, 1897, stealing a sack containing $7,000 in gold, with which they fled back to the Robbers Roost. On June 2, 1899, the gang robbed a Union Pacific Overland Flyer passenger train near Wilcox, Wyoming, a robbery that earned them a great deal of notoriety and resulted in a massive manhunt. Many notable lawmen took part in the hunt, but they did not find them. Kid Curry and George Curry had a shootout with lawmen following the train robbery, killing Sheriff Joe Hazen. Tom Horn, a killer-for-hire employed by the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, was told by explosives expert Bill Speck about the Hazen shooting. Pinkerton detective Charlie Siringo was then assigned the task of capturing the outlaws. He became friends with Elfie Landusky, who was using the last name Curry after becoming pregnant by Kid Curry's brother Lonny Logan, and Siringo intended to locate the gang through her. On July 11, 1899, Lay and others were involved in a Colorado and Southern Railroad train robbery near Folsom, New Mexico, which Cassidy might have planned and personally directed. A shootout ensued with local law enforcement, during which Lay killed Sheriff Edward Farr and Henry Love; Lay was convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment at the New Mexico State Penitentiary. The Wild Bunch typically separated following a robbery and fled in different directions, later reuniting at a predetermined location such as the Hole-in-the-Wall, Robbers Roost, or Fannie Porter's brothel in San Antonio. 1899 plea for amnesty Cassidy approached Utah Governor Heber Wells to negotiate an amnesty. Wells advised him to ask the Union Pacific Railroad to drop their criminal complaints against him, and Union Pacific chairman E. H. Harriman attempted to meet with Cassidy through Warner. On August 29, 1900, Cassidy, Longabaugh, and others robbed Union Pacific train No. 3 near Tipton, Wyoming, breaking Cassidy's earlier promise to the governor of Wyoming and ending any chance for amnesty. 1900–01 On February 28, 1900, lawmen attempted to arrest Lonny Logan at his aunt's home. Lonny was killed in the shootout that followed, and his cousin Bob Lee was arrested for rustling and sent to prison in Wyoming. On March 28, George Curry and News Carver were pursued by a posse from St. Johns, Apache County, Arizona, after using currency they had stolen in the Wilcox train robbery. The posse engaged them in a shootout, during which Deputies Andrew Gibbons and Frank LeSueur were killed, while Carver and Curry escaped. On April 17, George Curry was killed in a shootout with Grand County, Utah, Sheriff John Tyler and Deputy Sam Jenkins. On May 26, Kid Curry rode into Moab, Utah, and killed both Tyler and Jenkins in another shootout in retaliation for the deaths of George and Lonny. In December, Cassidy posed alongside Longabaugh, Logan, Carver, and Ben Kilpatrick in Fort Worth, Texas, for the now-famous "Fort Worth Five" photograph. The Pinkerton Agency obtained a copy of the photograph and began to use it for wanted posters. On July 3, 1901, Kid Curry and a group of men robbed a Great Northern train near Wagner, Montana, stealing more than $60,000 in cash (). The gang split up, but a posse led by Sheriff Elijah Briant caught up with News Carver and killed him. Kilpatrick was captured in St. Louis on November 5 at Josie Blakey's resort on Chestnut Street. In his pocket, they found a key to a room at The Laclede Hotel. The next morning, they found Laura Bullion in the lobby, checking out with her luggage. In her valise was $8500 in unsigned banknotes from the Great Northern robbery. Curry killed Knoxville policemen William Dinwiddle and Robert Saylor in another shootout on December 13, then escaped. He returned to Montana, pursued by Pinkertons and other law enforcement officers, where he shot and killed rancher James Winters in retaliation for killing his brother Johnny years before. Escape to South America Cassidy and Longabaugh fled to New York City, feeling continuous pressure from the numerous law enforcement agencies pursuing them and seeing their gang falling apart. They departed from there to Buenos Aires, Argentina aboard the British steamer Herminius on February 20, 1901, along with Longabaugh's companion Etta Place. Cassidy posed as James Ryan, Place's fictitious brother. They settled in a four-room log cabin on a ranch that they purchased on the east bank of the Rio Blanco near Cholila, just east of the Andes in the Chubut. Bruce Chatwin's In Patagonia references a letter Butch wrote from Cholila to Elza Lay's mother-in-law in Utah, dated 10 August 1902. The letter cites "our little family of 3" living in a 4 room house with 300 cattle, 1500 sheep, and 28 horses. Chatwin states the letter resides with the Utah State Historical Society. 1905 Two English-speaking bandits held up the Banco de Tarapacá y Argentino in Río Gallegos on February 14, 1905, south of Cholila near the Strait of Magellan, and the pair vanished north across the Patagonian grasslands. Cassidy and Longabaugh sold the Cholila ranch on May 1, fearing that law enforcement had located them. The Pinkerton Agency had known their location for some time, but the snow and the hard winter of Patagonia had prevented their agent Frank Dimaio from making an arrest. Governor Julio Lezana issued an arrest warrant, but Sheriff Edward Humphreys, a Welsh-Argentine who was friendly with Cassidy and enamored of Place, tipped them off. The trio then fled north to San Carlos de Bariloche, where they embarked on the steamer Condor across Nahuel Huapí Lake and into Chile; they returned to Argentina by the end of the year. Cassidy, Longabaugh, Place, and an unknown male associate robbed the Banco de la Nación Argentina branch in Villa Mercedes on December 19, west of Buenos Aires, taking 12,000 pesos. They fled across the Andes to reach the safety of Chile. On June 30, 1906, Place decided that she had enough of life on the run, so Longabaugh took her back to San Francisco. Cassidy obtained honest work under the alias James "Santiago" Maxwell at the Concordia Tin Mine in the Santa Vera Cruz range of the central Bolivian Andes, where Longabaugh joined him upon his return. Their main duties included guarding the company payroll. The two traveled to Santa Cruz in late 1907, a frontier town in Bolivia's eastern savannah, still wanting to settle down as respectable ranchers. Death A courier was carrying the payroll for the Aramayo Franke and Cia Silver Mine on November 3, 1908, near the small mining town of San Vicente in southern Bolivia, when he was attacked by two masked American bandits believed to be Cassidy and Longabaugh. Witnesses saw them three days later in San Vicente, where they lodged in a small boarding house owned by miner Bonifacio Casasola. Casasola became suspicious of them because they had a mule from the Aramayo Mine, identifiable from the company's brand. He notified a nearby telegraph officer, who notified the Abaroa cavalry regiment stationed nearby. The unit dispatched three soldiers under the command of Captain Justo Concha, and they notified the local authorities. The soldiers, the police chief, the local mayor, and some of his officials all surrounded the lodging house on the evening of November 6, intending to arrest the Aramayo robbers. As they approached the house, the bandits opened fire, killing one of the soldiers and wounding another and starting a gunfight which lasted for several hours into the evening and the night. At around 2:00 am, during a lull in the fighting, the mayor heard a man scream three times inside the house, then two successive shots were fired from inside the house. The authorities entered the house the next morning, where they found two bodies with numerous bullet wounds to the arms and legs. The man assumed to be Longabaugh had a bullet wound in the forehead, and the man thought to be Cassidy had a bullet hole in the temple. The local police report speculated that judging from the positions of the bodies, Cassidy had probably shot the fatally wounded Longabaugh to put him out of his misery, then killed himself with his final bullet. The Tupiza police identified the bandits as the men who robbed the Aramayo payroll transport, but the Bolivian authorities did not know their real names, nor could they positively identify them. The two bodies were buried at the small San Vicente cemetery, near the grave of a German miner named Gustav Zimmer. American forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow and his researchers attempted to find the graves in 1991, but they did not find any remains with DNA matching the living relatives of Cassidy and Longabaugh. In 2017, a new search was launched for Cassidy's grave, which zeroed in on a mine outside Goodsprings, Nevada. The dig found human remains, but they did not match the DNA provided. Rumors of survival John McPhee's Annals of the Former World repeats a story that Dr. Francis Smith told to geologist David Love in the 1930s. Smith stated that he had seen Cassidy, who told him that his face had been altered by a surgeon in Paris, and he showed Smith an old bullet wound that Smith recognized as work that he had done. Josie Bassett claimed in 1960 that Cassidy came to visit her in the 1920s "after returning from South America," and that he "died in Johnnie, Nevada about 15 years ago." Residents in Cassidy's hometown of Circleville, Utah, claimed in an interview that he worked in Nevada until his death. Western historian Charles Kelly observed in his 1938 book The Outlaw Trail: A History of Butch Cassidy and His Wild Bunch, "it seems exceedingly strange" that Cassidy never returned to Circleville, Utah, to visit his father if he were still alive. According to his great nephew, Bill Betenson, he did return to Utah to visit his family in Circleville many times. Bruce Chatwin, in his classic travel book In Patagonia, says, "I went to see the star witness; his sister, Mrs. Lulu[sic] Parker Betenson, a forthright and energetic woman in her nineties ... She has no doubts: her brother came back and ate blueberry pie with family at Circleville in ... 1925. She believes he died of pneumonia in Washington in the late 1930s.” An episode of the television series In Search of... (1978) examined the claims and possible evidence for Cassidy's return to America during the 1920s in a series of interviews with residents of Baggs, Wyoming, a popular destination for the Wild Bunch during their raiding years. Residents claimed that Cassidy had visited for several days in 1924, driving a Ford Model T. Betenson stated that he returned to the family home in Circleville during this period, and picked up his brother Mark in a Ford, then drove to their father's home, where she also lived. Her father allegedly said to her, "I'll bet you don't know who this is. This is your brother Robert LeRoy." She stated that Cassidy was full of regrets, particularly at having disappointed his mother. She quoted him lamenting, "all I did is make a wreck of my life." Betenson claims that Cassidy lived out his years in "the Northwest" and died in 1937 and that the family had agreed not to disclose his final resting place, since "they had chased him all his life, and now he's going to rest in peace." This story is also recounted by W. C. Jameson in Butch Cassidy: Beyond the Grave, referencing the 1975 book Betenson co-authored with Dora Flack, Butch Cassidy, My Brother. On an episode of the series Mission Declassified (2019), investigative journalist Christof Putzel met with local researcher Marilyn Grace at Cassidy's childhood log cabin on the Parker ranch in Circleville to talk about the alleged burial of Cassidy there on July 20, 1937. Grace explains that Cassidy was secretly buried at Tom's Cabin, a former sheepherders' log cabin located in a remote area of the property, a favorite camping spot for his brothers and him. Grace says an eyewitness, neighbor Dee Crosby, saw the burial take place at the cabin. Earlier, Putzel spoke to Alta Orton, another Parker neighbor, who described the family as having been dressed in funeral-like attire on that same day. Grace goes on to say that cadaver dogs had been brought to the cabin in an attempt to locate remains and lead to a positive indication. The underside of the cabin was later dug and two bones discovered, identified as a human spinal bone and a toe bone. Putzel had forensic scientist Suzanna Ryan at Pure Gold Forensics in Redlands, California conduct a DNA test on the bones. Ryan confirmed they were human, but lacked enough DNA for a complete profile. As the site may have become public knowledge, the Parker family is believed to have since excavated Cassidy's remains at the cabin and moved them to a different burial site, leaving the spinal and toe bones behind in the process. Aliases George Parker George Cassidy Lowe Maxwell James "Santiago" Maxwell James Ryan Butch Cassidy Santiago Lowe Jim Lowe Alleged friends William T. Phillips claimed to have known Cassidy since childhood. In his book In Search of Butch Cassidy, Larry Pointer speculated that Phillips was actually Cassidy, based upon stories in Phillip's unpublished manuscript, The Bandit Invincible, and a resemblance between the two men. In 2012, though, Pointer obtained a copy of the Wyoming Territorial Prison mugshot of William T. Wilcox, a previously unknown associate of Cassidy's. Observing the similarities between the two men, he revised his previous theory and concluded that Phillips was Wilcox, and not Cassidy. In popular culture Literature 1967: Alias Butch Cassidy, a novel written by Henry Wilson Allen under the pseudonym Will Henry 1975: Butch Cassidy, My Brother by Lula Parker Betenson 1990: The mystery novel Coyote Waits by Tony Hillerman is about a fictional "lost treasure" hidden by Butch Cassidy. 2004: The travel book Riding the Outlaw Trail follows authors Simon Casson and Richard Adamson as they recreate Butch and Sundance's 2,000-mile horseback ride from Mexico to Canada. 2009: He appears in Kouta Hirano's Drifters, alongside Sundance Kid, as a drifter who is sent to the unknown realm to battle against the Ends. 2013: He appears in the novel Butch Cassidy: The Lost Years by William W. Johnstone and J.A. Johnstone, in which he survived the infamous Bolivian shootout in 1908 and returned to the United States, ending up in Texas and becoming a successful rancher under the name Jim Strickland. Television 1954: In the Stories of the Century season-one episode "The Wild Bunch of Wyoming" (episode 20) 1958: In the Tales of Wells Fargo (October 13) episode "Butch Cassidy", Cassidy is played by Charles Bronson. 1969: In the Death Valley Days episode "Drop Out", a young Butch Cassidy is played by Michael Margotta. 2002: Cassidy is mentioned in The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror XIII". 2014: In the PBS: American Experience episode "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" 2014: In the Murdoch Mysteries episode "Glory Days" Film 1951: The Texas Rangers is a film where Cassidy is played by John Doucette and the Sundance Kid is played by Ian MacDonald. They square off against two convicts recruited by John B. Jones to bring them to justice. 1956: The Three Outlaws, starring Neville Brand as Butch Cassidy and Alan Hale Jr as the Sundance Kid, is a film about the famed outlaws' lives with Wild Bunch member William "News" Carver. 1956: Butch and Sundance appear as supporting characters in the film The Maverick Queen. 1965: Cat Ballou is a comedy Western where a fictionalized version of Butch Cassidy is played by Arthur Hunnicutt. 1967: Butch Cassidy and Sundance appear as supporting characters in the film Return of the Gunfighter. 1969: Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a film where Butch Cassidy is played by Paul Newman and Sundance is played by Robert Redford. 1969: The Wild Bunch is a film, directed by Sam Peckinpah, that is loosely based on Butch Cassidy's exploits. 1979: Butch and Sundance: The Early Days is a film that is a prequel to the 1969 Paul Newman film. Butch Cassidy is played by Tom Berenger and Sundance is played by William Katt. 1994: The Gambler V: Playing for Keeps is a film about a fictionalized adventure where the main character finds out his son is running with the Wild Bunch. Butch Cassidy is played by Scott Paulin. 1999: The Secret of Giving is a Family movie that has a fictionalized version of Butch Cassidy under the alias Harry Withers. He is played by Thomas Ian Griffith. 2006: Outlaw Trail: The Treasure of Butch Cassidy is an adventure film about a fictional "lost treasure" hidden by Butch Cassidy. 2006: The Legend of Butch & Sundance is a film that has David Clayton Rogers as Butch, Ryan Browning as Sundance, and Rachelle Lefevre as Etta Place. 2011: Blackthorn is a film that has Sam Shepard as an aged Butch Cassidy living under the assumed name James Blackthorn in a secluded village in Bolivia 20 years after his disappearance in 1908. See also Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid List of fugitives from justice who disappeared Outlaw Trail: The Treasure of Butch Cassidy References External links Butch Cassidy's Surrender Offer article by Richard Patterson In Search Of..Butch Cassidy hosted by Leonard Nimoy 1866 births 1908 deaths 19th-century American criminals 20th-century American criminals American bank robbers American escapees American emigrants to Argentina American outlaws American people of English descent American people of Scottish descent Articles containing image maps Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch Cowboys Deaths by firearm in Bolivia Outlaws of the American Old West People from Beaver, Utah People from Dubois, Wyoming People from Piute County, Utah People of the American Old West Train robbers Fugitives wanted by the United States	[ -0.1522083431482315, -0.11562381684780121, -0.9514063596725464, 0.4379461407661438, 0.4009353518486023, 0.01499964576214552, 1.136757254600525, -0.004228001460433006, 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206977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckingham	Buckingham	Buckingham ( ) is a market town in north Buckinghamshire, England, close to the borders of Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire, which had a population of 12,043 at the 2011 Census. The town lies approximately west of Central Milton Keynes, south-east of Banbury, and north-east of Oxford. Buckingham was the county town of Buckinghamshire from the 10th century, when it was made the capital of the newly formed shire of Buckingham, until Aylesbury took over this role early in the 18th century. Buckingham has a variety of restaurants and pubs, typical of a market town. It has a number of local shops, both national and independent. Market days are Tuesday and Saturday which take over Market Hill and the High Street cattle pens. Buckingham is twinned with Mouvaux, France. History Buckingham and the surrounding area has been settled for some time with evidence of Roman settlement found in several sites close the River Great Ouse, including a temple south of the A421 at Bourton Grounds which was excavated in the 1960s and dated to the 3rd century AD. A possible Roman building was identified at Castle Fields in the 19th century. Pottery, kiln furniture and areas of burning found at Buckingham industrial estate suggest the site of some early Roman pottery kilns here. In the 7th century, Buckingham, literally "meadow of Bucca's people" is said to have been founded by Bucca, the leader of the first Anglo Saxon settlers. The first settlement was located around the top of a loop in the River Great Ouse, presently the Hunter Street campus of the University of Buckingham. Between the 7th century and the 11th century, the town of Buckingham regularly changed hands between the Saxons and the Danes, in particular, in 914 King Edward the Elder and a Saxon army encamped in Buckingham for four weeks forcing local Danish Viking leaders to surrender. Subsequently, a fort was constructed at the location of the present Buckingham parish church. Buckingham is mentioned in the Burghal Hidage, a document commonly ascribed to the early tenth century, but more probably of the period 878–9, which describes a system of forts set up by King Alfred (d.899) over the whole of the West Saxon kingdom. When King Edward encamped at Buckingham with his army in 914, he was therefore restoring a fort which had already existed for more than a generation. This tactical move was part of a putsch against the Danish Vikings who controlled what had been southern Mercia, and which involved the taking of control of Viking centres at Bedford, Northampton, Cambridge and eventually the whole of East Anglia by the end of 917. Buckingham is the first settlement referred to in the Buckinghamshire section of the Domesday Book of 1086. Buckingham was referred to as Buckingham with Bourton, and the survey makes reference to 26 burgesses, 11 smallholders and 1 mill. The town received its charter in 1554 when Queen Mary created the free Borough of Buckingham with boundaries extending from Thornborowe Bridge (now Thornborough) to Dudley Bridge and from Chackmore Bridge to Padbury Mill Bridge. The designated borough included a bailiff, twelve principal burgesses and a steward. Yeomanry House, the offices and home of the commanding officer of the Buckinghamshire Yeomanry, was built in the early 19th century. The town suffered from a significant fire that raged through the town centre on 15 March 1725, with the result that many of the main streets of the town were destroyed including Castle Street, Castle Hill and the north side of Market Hill. The result was 138 dwellings (out of a total of 387 in the town at that time) being consumed in the fire. The current fine range of Georgian architecture in these streets today is as a direct result of that fire, but the immediate aftermath was difficult for the town. Collections were made in surrounding towns such as Aylesbury and Wendover to help those made homeless and by 1730, only a third of the homes had been rebuilt. Due to many buildings being considered to be of historic interest, a number of them have been granted 'listed building' status. These include the Grade I listed Castle House on West Street, which dates back to the 15th century. Buckingham Town Hall, which is Grade II* listed, dates back to the late 18th century. In the 19th century, it was connected to the London and North Western Railway. The municipal borough had a population of 1,816 in 1841. In 1971, Buckinghamshire County Council set up the Buckingham Development Company with other local councils, and undertook a significant project to grow the town and provide a bypass, mainly to the south and east of the historic town centre. The population rose from just over 5,000 to 9,309 in 1991. Saint Rumbold The town is said to be the final resting place of St Rumbold (also known as Saint Rumwold), a little-known Saxon saint and the grandson of Penda King of Mercia; the parish church at Strixton (Northamptonshire) is dedicated to him and the small northern town of Romaldkirk is also thought to be named after him. He was apparently born at King's Sutton, Northants, where he died just three days later. During his short life, he repeatedly professed his Christian faith and asked for baptism. He is now most often referred to as St Rumbold, the latter being the most common, as it can be found being used on a local road name and recent booklets about the subject. Geography The town is centred on the historic market place and contains many 18th century buildings. There are three main roads crossing Buckingham, namely the A413, the A421 (the southern bypass) and the A422. Capability Brown's historic formal garden design at Stowe (on the A422 westbound) is an important attraction in the care of the National Trust. There is a medieval well known as St Rumbold's Well on the south side of the dismantled railway which borders the town. The well, which is now dry for much of the year, was positioned to exploit the spring line below the crest of a north facing slope overlooking the town. Suburbs of Buckingham include Mount Pleasant, Page Hill, Bourton, Badgers, Linden Village, Castle Fields and Lace Hill. Maids Moreton, a village on the north eastern borders of the town has become contiguous with the Buckingham urban area. Nearby towns include Aylesbury, Winslow, Bicester, Brackley, Milton Keynes and Towcester. Local villages in the immediate vicinity include Padbury and Gawcott to the south, Chackmore to the north and Shalstone to the north west. It is also very near Stowe, the location of Stowe House, Stowe Landscape Gardens and Stowe School. There is a degree confluence point on the edge of the town, at exactly . Bourton Bourton was a hamlet in the parish of Buckingham. The hamlet name is Old English in origin, and means 'fortified enclosure'. It is now an integral part of the town of Buckingham, with a road and old mill named Bourton still visible to visitors. Bourton was once the location of a great house that belonged to the Minshull family. In the English Civil War the house was plundered by Parliamentarian forces. The house has long since disappeared. Population At the 2011 Census, the population of the Buckingham built-up area, which includes Maids Moreton but excludes Lace Hill, was 12,890. The population of the Buckingham civil parish (which excludes Maids Moreton but includes Lace Hill) was 12,043. The town has continued to grow since 2011 and thus the figures at the prospective 2021 Census are expected to be significantly greater. , the Town Council estimates the population of its civil parish at 15,000. Education The town is home to the University of Buckingham, the oldest of the UK's five private universities. Like other UK universities, a large proportion of its students are from overseas. The Buckinghamshire Council operates the Tripartite System of state secondary education. The local state secondary schools are the Royal Latin School (a Grammar School) and the Buckingham School (a secondary modern). Stowe School and Akeley Wood School, just outside the town, are independent schools. There are four primary schools, one a community school and the other three academies, serving different areas of the town: Buckingham Primary School is the community primary, and the three academies (Bourton Meadow Academy, George Grenville Academy and Lace Hill Academy) are all operated by Campfire Education Trust. Industry and business The town is home to a number of industrial estates and technology parks housing high tech companies in the pharmaceutical, electronic, foods and composite materials fields, including Racelogic and Wipac. Buckingham was home to the Thomas Rickett steam car, an innovative vehicle from 1860, though considered ahead of its time and only two are thought to have been made. Most retail is located in the town centre with a variety of independent stores, cafes and restaurants as well as national chains. The Hidden Quarter, located mainly in Well Street and Bridge Street, hosts a number of independent retailers selling everything from handmade home wares to retro wooden toys. Currently, there are two banks in the town centre - Barclays and Lloyds. Town markets Buckingham's historic street market has been in the town for over 600 years and dates from the Charters granted by Queen Mary in 1554 and Charles II in 1664, giving the markets a unique heritage. Street markets are held every Tuesday and Saturday. Regular and casual market traders offer a wide variety of products, including fish, fruit and veg, award-winning bread, household goods, tools, flowers and clothes. There is a flea market held every Saturday on the site of the town's former cattle pens, offering a wide selection of antiques, collectables and jewellery. Transport Road Buckingham stands at the crossroads of the A413 (north-south), A421 and A422 (east-west) roads. The town was by-passed in the early 1980s by creating a new section of the A421 to the south. Bus Buckingham is linked to Milton Keynes, Winslow and Aylesbury by the regular X60 bus. An inter-city coach service, the X5, links the town to both Cambridge (via Bedford) and Oxford (via Bicester). Some surrounding villages are connected to Buckingham by a market day bus and there is a community bus scheme called Bart. Canal Buckingham was served by the Buckingham Arm of the Grand Junction Canal from 1801 until the end of the 19th century. In 1928, the Grand Junction Canal Company offered to re-open the canal if a minimum income of tolls could be guaranteed, but this was not forthcoming, with only occasional use reported up to 1932, and the canal was finally abandoned in 1964. The canal ran from Cosgrove, Northamptonshire to the centre of Buckingham to a wharf. A short section of the canal to the east of the town has now been restored. Rail Buckingham had a railway station on the Banbury to Verney Junction Branch Line and ran from 1850 to 1964. The closest stations are currently Wolverton and Milton Keynes Central to the east and Bicester North and Bicester Village to the south west. The new East West rail link will have a stop at nearby Winslow, scheduled to start running by the end of 2023. Leisure and wellbeing Sport There are three local football teams, and a rugby union club including teams for women and young women. These are Buckingham Athletic F.C. based at Stratford Fields, Buckingham Town F.C. (known as "Milton Keynes Irish F.C." following a merger with Unite MK in 2020) based at Manor Fields in Fenny Stratford (Milton Keynes), Buckingham United F.C based at Lace Hill, Buckingham RUFC based at Floyd Field, Maids Moreton. Moretonville Junior Football Club also has boys and girls teams from u7s – u16s. The town also has the Buckingham Town Cricket Club, based at Bourton Road and the Buckingham Hockey Club which plays at Stowe School. Since 2014, Buckingham has been host to a weekly Parkrun. The town has several public sports facilities including the Swan Leisure Centre with an indoor swimming pool, climbing wall, an all weather sports pitch, squash courts. There are two bowls pitch and tennis courts managed by clubs and several private golf clubs in the vicinity of the town. Culture Buckingham Old Gaol is the town's museum which was established in 1993 in the historic town centre Old Gaol building. It also houses temporary exhibitions and the Tourist Information Centre. The Chandos Cinema was in operation from 1934 and closed in 1987, but in 2005 an independent community cinema opened in the university called the Film Place. Live music events are regularly held in the Radcliffe Centre. A library is located in the town centre, operated by Buckinghamshire County Council. The town is home to numerous clubs and associations including the Buckingham Society, a civic amenity society linked with Civic Voice, a large U3A with over 900 members, and many music, photography and arts clubs. The town holds an annual Charter Fair. It is held in October over two successive Saturdays starting on the first Saturday after the 11th of the month. During the 19th century it was called the Statute Fair. The public roasting of an ox, sheep and pig often took place at the same time. Tourism The town's tourist attractions include the Chantry Chapel, the Buckingham Old Gaol museum, the Sir George Gilbert Scott designed St.Peter & St Paul Church and a number of picturesque Georgian streetscapes. Nearby to Buckingham include Stowe School, Stowe Landscape Gardens and Silverstone Circuit. Buckingham has a number of hotels including the Villiers Hotel and White Hart in the town centre, and Best Western Buckingham Hotel and Travelodge on the outskirts. Healthcare Buckingham is served by one GP surgery (The Swan Practice) and a community hospital. A minor injuries unit at the hospital was closed in 2009 and the nearest major hospital with an accident & emergency department is in Milton Keynes. Media The town is served by the Buckingham & Winslow Advertiser weekly newspaper and is within the broadcast area of local independent radio Mix 96, Heart Four Counties (now Heart East) and the BBC Three Counties Radio stations. The town sits between two television transmitters, with residents able to choose between ITV Anglia/BBC East and ITV Meridian/BBC South. Places of worship St Bernardine's Catholic Church, Buckingham Buckingham Evangelical Church St Peter and St Paul, Buckingham (Church of England) The Salvation Army Well Street United Church, Buckingham (Methodist, Baptist and United Reformed Church) Notable people George Baldock (footballer), who attended the Royal Latin School Sam Baldock (footballer), who attended the Royal Latin School Bill Benyon elected Member of Parliament for Buckingham 1970-83 John Bercow Speaker of the House of Commons Gillian Blake (actress) Wyndham Hazelton (cricketer) Dan Jones (writer) attended the Royal Latin School Frank Markham, elected member of parliament for Buckingham 1951–64 Bernie Marsden (guitarist/songwriter with rock band Whitesnake) was born in Buckingham Robert Maxwell, businessman and member of Parliament for Buckingham, 1964–1970 Shan Morgan, a civil servant who attended the Royal Latin School Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, an exiled claimant to the French throne, leased Stowe Craig Pickering (athlete), attended the Royal Latin School David Pickering (writer) reference books compiler Mary Pix (1666 – 1709), novelist and playwright George Gilbert Scott (architect) Anthony Seldon, vice-chancellor of the University of Buckingham Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, born at Stowe Browne Willis, a member of Parliament for Buckingham 1705–1708 Twin towns Buckingham has been twinned with Joinville, in France, since 1963. In 2002, Buckingham became twinned with the French town of Mouvaux. In 2020, Buckingham formalised its links with the German town of Neukirchen-Vluyn, Mouvaux's twin town in Germany, and the three towns (Buckingham, Mouvaux and Neukirch-Vluyn) became officially twinned. See also Buckingham (borough) Buckingham (UK Parliament constituency) Buckingham Palace, originally built for the Duke of Buckingham in the City of Westminster (Greater London), is named after this town. Buckingham gave its name to Buckingham Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania Duke of Buckingham Duchess of Buckingham Citations General references . . 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206979	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorectal%20cancer	Colorectal cancer	Colorectal cancer (CRC), also known as bowel cancer, colon cancer, or rectal cancer, is the development of cancer from the colon or rectum (parts of the large intestine). Signs and symptoms may include blood in the stool, a change in bowel movements, weight loss, and fatigue. Most colorectal cancers are due to old age and lifestyle factors, with only a small number of cases due to underlying genetic disorders. Risk factors include diet, obesity, smoking, and lack of physical activity. Dietary factors that increase the risk include red meat, processed meat, and alcohol. Another risk factor is inflammatory bowel disease, which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Some of the inherited genetic disorders that can cause colorectal cancer include familial adenomatous polyposis and hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer; however, these represent less than 5% of cases. It typically starts as a benign tumor, often in the form of a polyp, which over time becomes cancerous. Bowel cancer may be diagnosed by obtaining a sample of the colon during a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy. This is then followed by medical imaging to determine whether the disease has spread. Screening is effective for preventing and decreasing deaths from colorectal cancer. Screening, by one of a number of methods, is recommended starting from the age of 50 to 75. During colonoscopy, small polyps may be removed if found. If a large polyp or tumor is found, a biopsy may be performed to check if it is cancerous. Aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk. Their general use is not recommended for this purpose, however, due to side effects. Treatments used for colorectal cancer may include some combination of surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy and targeted therapy. Cancers that are confined within the wall of the colon may be curable with surgery, while cancer that has spread widely is usually not curable, with management being directed towards improving quality of life and symptoms. The five-year survival rate in the United States is around 65%. The individual likelihood of survival depends on how advanced the cancer is, whether or not all the cancer can be removed with surgery and the person's overall health. Globally, colorectal cancer is the third most common type of cancer, making up about 10% of all cases. In 2018, there were 1.09 million new cases and 551,000 deaths from the disease. It is more common in developed countries, where more than 65% of cases are found. It is less common in women than men. Signs and symptoms The signs and symptoms of colorectal cancer depend on the location of the tumor in the bowel, and whether it has spread elsewhere in the body (metastasis). The classic warning signs include: worsening constipation, blood in the stool, decrease in stool caliber (thickness), loss of appetite, loss of weight, and nausea or vomiting in someone over 50 years old. Around 50% of individuals with colorectal cancer do not report any symptoms. Rectal bleeding or anemia are high-risk symptoms in people over the age of 50. Weight loss and changes in a person's bowel habit are typically only concerning if they are associated with rectal bleeding. Cause 75–95% of colorectal cancer cases occur in people with little or no genetic risk. Risk factors include older age, male sex, high intake of fat, sugar, alcohol, red meat, processed meats, obesity, smoking, and a lack of physical exercise. Approximately 10% of cases are linked to insufficient activity. The risk from alcohol appears to increase at greater than one drink per day. Drinking 5 glasses of water a day is linked to a decrease in the risk of colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps. Streptococcus gallolyticus is associated with colorectal cancer. Some strains of Streptococcus bovis/Streptococcus equinus complex are consumed by millions of people daily and thus may be safe. 25 to 80% of people with Streptococcus bovis/gallolyticus bacteremia have concomitant colorectal tumors. Seroprevalence of Streptococcus bovis/gallolyticus is considered as a candidate practical marker for the early prediction of an underlying bowel lesion at high risk population. It has been suggested that the presence of antibodies to Streptococcus bovis/gallolyticus antigens or the antigens themselves in the bloodstream may act as markers for the carcinogenesis in the colon. Pathogenic Escherichia coli may increase the risk of colorectal cancer by producing the genotoxic metabolite, colibactin. Inflammatory bowel disease People with inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease) are at increased risk of colon cancer. The risk increases the longer a person has the disease, and the worse the severity of inflammation. In these high risk groups, both prevention with aspirin and regular colonoscopies are recommended. Endoscopic surveillance in this high-risk population may reduce the development of colorectal cancer through early diagnosis and may also reduce the chances of dying from colon cancer. People with inflammatory bowel disease account for less than 2% of colon cancer cases yearly. In those with Crohn's disease, 2% get colorectal cancer after 10 years, 8% after 20 years, and 18% after 30 years. In people who have ulcerative colitis, approximately 16% develop either a cancer precursor or cancer of the colon over 30 years. Genetics Those with a family history in two or more first-degree relatives (such as a parent or sibling) have a two to threefold greater risk of disease and this group accounts for about 20% of all cases. A number of genetic syndromes are also associated with higher rates of colorectal cancer. The most common of these is hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome) which is present in about 3% of people with colorectal cancer. Other syndromes that are strongly associated with colorectal cancer include Gardner syndrome and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). For people with these syndromes, cancer almost always occurs and makes up 1% of the cancer cases. A total proctocolectomy may be recommended for people with FAP as a preventive measure due to the high risk of malignancy. Colectomy, removal of the colon, may not suffice as a preventive measure because of the high risk of rectal cancer if the rectum remains. The most common polyposis syndrome affecting the colon is serrated polyposis syndrome, which is associated with a 25-40% risk of CRC. Mutations in the pair of genes (POLE and POLD1) have been associated with familial colon cancer. Most deaths due to colon cancer are associated with metastatic disease. A gene that appears to contribute to the potential for metastatic disease, metastasis associated in colon cancer 1 (MACC1), has been isolated. It is a transcriptional factor that influences the expression of hepatocyte growth factor. This gene is associated with the proliferation, invasion and scattering of colon cancer cells in cell culture, and tumor growth and metastasis in mice. MACC1 may be a potential target for cancer intervention, but this possibility needs to be confirmed with clinical studies. Epigenetic factors, such as abnormal DNA methylation of tumor suppressor promoters, play a role in the development of colorectal cancer. Ashkenazi Jews have a 6% higher risk rate of getting adenomas and then colon cancer due to mutations in the APC gene being more common. Pathogenesis Colorectal cancer is a disease originating from the epithelial cells lining the colon or rectum of the gastrointestinal tract, most frequently as a result of mutations in the Wnt signaling pathway that increase signaling activity. The mutations can be inherited or acquired, and most probably occur in the intestinal crypt stem cell. The most commonly mutated gene in all colorectal cancer is the APC gene, which produces the APC protein. The APC protein prevents the accumulation of β-catenin protein. Without APC, β-catenin accumulates to high levels and translocates (moves) into the nucleus, binds to DNA, and activates the transcription of proto-oncogenes. These genes are normally important for stem cell renewal and differentiation, but when inappropriately expressed at high levels, they can cause cancer. While APC is mutated in most colon cancers, some cancers have increased β-catenin because of mutations in β-catenin (CTNNB1) that block its own breakdown, or have mutations in other genes with function similar to APC such as AXIN1, AXIN2, TCF7L2, or NKD1. Beyond the defects in the Wnt signaling pathway, other mutations must occur for the cell to become cancerous. The p53 protein, produced by the TP53 gene, normally monitors cell division and induces their programmed death if they have Wnt pathway defects. Eventually, a cell line acquires a mutation in the TP53 gene and transforms the tissue from a benign epithelial tumor into an invasive epithelial cell cancer. Sometimes the gene encoding p53 is not mutated, but another protective protein named BAX is mutated instead. Other proteins responsible for programmed cell death that are commonly deactivated in colorectal cancers are TGF-β and DCC (Deleted in Colorectal Cancer). TGF-β has a deactivating mutation in at least half of colorectal cancers. Sometimes TGF-β is not deactivated, but a downstream protein named SMAD is deactivated. DCC commonly has a deleted segment of a chromosome in colorectal cancer. Approximately 70% of all human genes are expressed in colorectal cancer, with just over 1% of having increased expression in colorectal cancer compared to other forms of cancer. Some genes are oncogenes: they are overexpressed in colorectal cancer. For example, genes encoding the proteins KRAS, RAF, and PI3K, which normally stimulate the cell to divide in response to growth factors, can acquire mutations that result in over-activation of cell proliferation. The chronological order of mutations is sometimes important. If a previous APC mutation occurred, a primary KRAS mutation often progresses to cancer rather than a self-limiting hyperplastic or borderline lesion. PTEN, a tumor suppressor, normally inhibits PI3K, but can sometimes become mutated and deactivated. Comprehensive, genome-scale analysis has revealed that colorectal carcinomas can be categorized into hypermutated and non-hypermutated tumor types. In addition to the oncogenic and inactivating mutations described for the genes above, non-hypermutated samples also contain mutated CTNNB1, FAM123B, SOX9, ATM, and ARID1A. Progressing through a distinct set of genetic events, hypermutated tumors display mutated forms of ACVR2A, TGFBR2, MSH3, MSH6, SLC9A9, TCF7L2, and BRAF. The common theme among these genes, across both tumor types, is their involvement in Wnt and TGF-β signaling pathways, which results in increased activity of MYC, a central player in colorectal cancer. Mismatch repair (MMR) deficient tumours are characterized by a relatively high amount of poly-nucleotide tandem repeats. This is caused by a deficiency in MMR proteins – which are typically caused by epigenetic silencing and or inherited mutations (e.g. Lynch syndrome). 15 to 18 percent of colorectal cancer tumours have MMR deficiencies, with 3 percent developing due to Lynch syndrome. The role of the mismatch repair system is to protect the integrity of the genetic material within cells (i.e.: error detecting and correcting). Consequently, a deficiency in MMR proteins may lead to an inability to detect and repair genetic damage, allowing for further cancer-causing mutations to occur and colorectal cancer to progress. The polyp to cancer progression sequence is the classical model of colorectal cancer pathogenesis. The polyp to cancer sequence describes the phases of transition from benign tumours into colorectal cancer over many years. Central to the polyp to CRC sequence are gene mutations, epigenetic alterations and local inflammatory changes. The polyp to CRC sequence can be used as an underlying framework to illustrate how specific molecular changes lead to various cancer subtypes. Field defects The term "field cancerization" was first used in 1953 to describe an area or "field" of epithelium that has been preconditioned (by what were largely unknown processes at the time) to predispose it towards development of cancer. Since then, the terms "field cancerization", "field carcinogenesis", "field defect", and "field effect" have been used to describe pre-malignant or pre-neoplastic tissue in which new cancers are likely to arise. Field defects are important in progression to colon cancer. However, as pointed out by Rubin, "The vast majority of studies in cancer research has been done on well-defined tumors in vivo, or on discrete neoplastic foci in vitro. Yet there is evidence that more than 80% of the somatic mutations found in mutator phenotype human colorectal tumors occur before the onset of terminal clonal expansion." Similarly, Vogelstein et al. pointed out that more than half of somatic mutations identified in tumors occurred in a pre-neoplastic phase (in a field defect), during growth of apparently normal cells. Likewise, epigenetic alterations present in tumors may have occurred in pre-neoplastic field defects. An expanded view of field effect has been termed "etiologic field effect", which encompasses not only molecular and pathologic changes in pre-neoplastic cells but also influences of exogenous environmental factors and molecular changes in the local microenvironment on neoplastic evolution from tumor initiation to death. Epigenetics Epigenetic alterations are much more frequent in colon cancer than genetic (mutational) alterations. As described by Vogelstein et al., an average cancer of the colon has only 1 or 2 oncogene mutations and 1 to 5 tumor suppressor mutations (together designated “driver mutations”), with about 60 further “passenger” mutations. The oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes are well studied and are described above under Pathogenesis. In addition to epigenetic alteration of expression of miRNAs, other common types of epigenetic alterations in cancers that change gene expression levels include direct hypermethylation or hypomethylation of CpG islands of protein-encoding genes and alterations in histones and chromosomal architecture that influence gene expression. As an example, 147 hypermethylations and 27 hypomethylations of protein coding genes were frequently associated with colorectal cancers. Of the hypermethylated genes, 10 were hypermethylated in 100% of colon cancers, and many others were hypermethylated in more than 50% of colon cancers. In addition, 11 hypermethylations and 96 hypomethylations of miRNAs were also associated with colorectal cancers. Abnormal (aberrant) methylation occurs as a normal consequence of normal aging and the risk of colorectal cancer increases as a person gets older. The source and trigger of this age-related methylation is unknown. Approximately half of the genes that show age-related methylation changes are the same genes that have been identified to be involved in the development of colorectal cancer. These findings may suggest a reason for age being associated with the increased risk of developing colorectal cancer. Epigenetic reductions of DNA repair enzyme expression may likely lead to the genomic and epigenomic instability characteristic of cancer. As summarized in the articles Carcinogenesis and Neoplasm, for sporadic cancers in general, a deficiency in DNA repair is occasionally due to a mutation in a DNA repair gene, but is much more frequently due to epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence expression of DNA repair genes. Epigenetic alterations involved in the development of colorectal cancer may affect a person's response to chemotherapy. Genomics \| Epigenomics Consensus molecular subtypes (CMS) classification of colorectal cancer was first introduced in 2015. CMS classification so far has been considered the most robust classification system available for CRC that has a clear biological interpretability and the basis for future clinical stratification and subtype-based targeted interventions. A novel Epigenome-based Classification (EpiC) of colorectal cancer was proposed in 2021 introducing 4 enhancer subtypes in people with CRC. Chromatin states using 6 histone marks are characterized to identify EpiC subtypes. A combinatorial therapeutic approach based on the previously introduced consensus molecular subtypes (CMSs) and EpiCs could significantly enhance current treatment strategies. Diagnosis Colorectal cancer diagnosis is performed by sampling of areas of the colon suspicious for possible tumor development, typically during colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy, depending on the location of the lesion. It is confirmed by microscopical examination of a tissue sample. Medical imaging A colorectal cancer is sometimes initially discovered on CT scan. Presence of metastases is determined by a CT scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis. Other potential imaging tests such as PET and MRI may be used in certain cases. The latter is often used for rectal lesions to determine its local stage and to facilitate preoperative planning. Histopathology The histopathologic characteristics of the tumor are reported from the analysis of tissue taken from a biopsy or surgery. A pathology report contains a description of the microscopical characteristics of the tumor tissue, including both tumor cells and how the tumor invades into healthy tissues and finally if the tumor appears to be completely removed. The most common form of colon cancer is adenocarcinoma, constituting between 95% to 98% of all cases of colorectal cancer. Other, rarer types include lymphoma, adenosquamous and squamous cell carcinoma. Some subtypes have been found to be more aggressive. Immunohistochemistry may be used in uncertain cases. Staging Staging of the cancer is based on both radiological and pathological findings. As with most other forms of cancer, tumor staging is based on the TNM system which considers how much the initial tumor has spread and the presence of metastases in lymph nodes and more distant organs. The AJCC 8th edition was published in 2018. Prevention It has been estimated that about half of colorectal cancer cases are due to lifestyle factors, and about a quarter of all cases are preventable. Increasing surveillance, engaging in physical activity, consuming a diet high in fiber, and reducing smoking and alcohol consumption decrease the risk. Lifestyle Lifestyle risk factors with strong evidence include lack of exercise, cigarette smoking, alcohol, and obesity. The risk of colon cancer can be reduced by maintaining a normal body weight through a combination of sufficient exercise and eating a healthy diet. Current research consistently links eating more red meat and processed meat to a higher risk of the disease. Starting in the 1970s, dietary recommendations to prevent colorectal cancer often included increasing the consumption of whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and reducing the intake of red meat and processed meats. This was based on animal studies and retrospective observational studies. However, large scale prospective studies have failed to demonstrate a significant protective effect, and due to the multiple causes of cancer and the complexity of studying correlations between diet and health, it is uncertain whether any specific dietary interventions (outside of eating a healthy diet) will have significant protective effects. In 2018 the National Cancer Institute stated that "There is no reliable evidence that a diet started in adulthood that is low in fat and meat and high in fiber, fruits, and vegetables reduces the risk of CRC by a clinically important degree." According to the World Cancer Research Fund, consuming alcohol drinks and consuming processed meat both increase the risk of colorectal cancer With regard to dietary fiber, the 2014 World Health Organization cancer report noted that it has been hypothesized that fiber might help prevent colorectal cancer, but most studies have not borne this out, and status of the science remained unclear as of 2014. A 2019 review, however, found evidence of benefit from dietary fiber and whole grains. The World Cancer Research Fund listed the benefit of fiber for prevention of colorectal cancer as "probable" as of 2017. Higher physical activity is recommended. Physical exercise is associated with a modest reduction in colon but not rectal cancer risk. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of colon cancer by about 21%. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from colon cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered. Medication and supplements Aspirin and celecoxib appear to decrease the risk of colorectal cancer in those at high risk. Aspirin is recommended in those who are 50 to 60 years old, do not have an increased risk of bleeding, and are at risk for cardiovascular disease to prevent colorectal cancer. It is not recommended in those at average risk. There is tentative evidence for calcium supplementation, but it is not sufficient to make a recommendation. Vitamin D intake and blood levels are associated with a lower risk of colon cancer. Screening As more than 80% of colorectal cancers arise from adenomatous polyps, screening for this cancer is effective for both early detection and for prevention. Diagnosis of cases of colorectal cancer through screening tends to occur 2–3 years before diagnosis of cases with symptoms. Any polyps that are detected can be removed, usually by colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy, and thus prevent them from turning into cancer. Screening has the potential to reduce colorectal cancer deaths by 60%. The three main screening tests are colonoscopy, fecal occult blood testing, and flexible sigmoidoscopy. Of the three, only sigmoidoscopy cannot screen the right side of the colon where 42% of cancers are found. Flexible sigmoidoscopy, however, has the best evidence for decreasing the risk of death from any cause. Fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) of the stool is typically recommended every two years and can be either guaiac-based or immunochemical. If abnormal FOBT results are found, participants are typically referred for a follow-up colonoscopy examination. When done once every 1–2 years, FOBT screening reduces colorectal cancer deaths by 16% and among those participating in screening, colorectal cancer deaths can be reduced up to 23%, although it has not been proven to reduce all-cause mortality. Immunochemical tests are accurate and do not require dietary or medication changes before testing. Other options include virtual colonoscopy and stool DNA screening testing (FIT-DNA). Virtual colonoscopy via a CT scan appears as good as standard colonoscopy for detecting cancers and large adenomas but is expensive, associated with radiation exposure, and cannot remove any detected abnormal growths as standard colonoscopy can. Stool DNA screening test looks for biomarkers associated with colorectal cancer and precancerous lesions, including altered DNA and blood hemoglobin. A positive result should be followed by colonoscopy. FIT-DNA has more false positives than FIT and thus results in more adverse effects. Further study is required as of 2016 to determine whether a three-year screening interval is correct. Recommendations In the United States, screening is typically recommended between ages 50 to 75 years. The American Cancer Society recommends starting at the age of 45. For those between 76 and 85 years old, the decision to screen should be individualized. For those at high risk, screenings usually begin at around 40. Several screening methods are recommended including stool-based tests every 2 years, sigmoidoscopy every 10 years with fecal immunochemical testing every two years, and colonoscopy every 10 years. It is unclear which of these two methods is better. Colonoscopy may find more cancers in the first part of the colon, but is associated with greater cost and more complications. For people with average risk who have had a high-quality colonoscopy with normal results, the American Gastroenterological Association does not recommend any type of screening in the 10 years following the colonoscopy. For people over 75 or those with a life expectancy of less than 10 years, screening is not recommended. It takes about 10 years after screening for one out of a 1000 people to benefit. The USPSTF list seven potential strategies for screening, with the most important thing being that at least one of these strategies is appropriately used. In Canada, among those 50 to 75 years old at normal risk, fecal immunochemical testing or FOBT is recommended every two years or sigmoidoscopy every 10 years. Colonoscopy is less preferred. Some countries have national colorectal screening programs which offer FOBT screening for all adults within a certain age group, typically starting between ages 50 to 60. Examples of countries with organised screening include the United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Treatment The treatment of colorectal cancer can be aimed at cure or palliation. The decision on which aim to adopt depends on various factors, including the person's health and preferences, as well as the stage of the tumor. Assessment in multidisciplinary teams is a critical part of determining whether the patient is suitable for surgery or not. When colorectal cancer is caught early, surgery can be curative. However, when it is detected at later stages (for which metastases are present), this is less likely and treatment is often directed at palliation, to relieve symptoms caused by the tumour and keep the person as comfortable as possible. Surgery If the cancer is found at an early stage, it may be removed during a colonoscopy using one of several techniques, including endoscopic mucosal resection or endoscopic submucosal dissection. For people with localized cancer, the preferred treatment is complete surgical removal with adequate margins, with the attempt of achieving a cure. The procedure of choice is a partial colectomy (or proctocolectomy for rectal lesions) where the affected part of the colon or rectum is removed along with parts of its mesocolon and blood supply to facilitate removal of draining lymph nodes. This can be done either by an open laparotomy or laparoscopically, depending on factors related to the individual person and lesion factors. The colon may then be reconnected or a person may have a colostomy. If there are only a few metastases in the liver or lungs, these may also be removed. Chemotherapy may be used before surgery to shrink the cancer before attempting to remove it. The two most common sites of recurrence of colorectal cancer are the liver and lungs. For peritoneal carcinomatosis cytoreductive surgery, sometimes in combination with HIPEC can be used in an attempt to remove the cancer. Chemotherapy In both cancer of the colon and rectum, chemotherapy may be used in addition to surgery in certain cases. The decision to add chemotherapy in management of colon and rectal cancer depends on the stage of the disease. In Stage I colon cancer, no chemotherapy is offered, and surgery is the definitive treatment. The role of chemotherapy in Stage II colon cancer is debatable, and is usually not offered unless risk factors such as T4 tumor, undifferentiated tumor, vascular and perineural invasion or inadequate lymph node sampling is identified. It is also known that the people who carry abnormalities of the mismatch repair genes do not benefit from chemotherapy. For stage III and Stage IV colon cancer, chemotherapy is an integral part of treatment. If cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or distant organs, which is the case with stage III and stage IV colon cancer respectively, adding chemotherapy agents fluorouracil, capecitabine or oxaliplatin increases life expectancy. If the lymph nodes do not contain cancer, the benefits of chemotherapy are controversial. If the cancer is widely metastatic or unresectable, treatment is then palliative. Typically in this setting, a number of different chemotherapy medications may be used. Chemotherapy drugs for this condition may include capecitabine, fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin and UFT. The drugs capecitabine and fluorouracil are interchangeable, with capecitabine being an oral medication and fluorouracil being an intravenous medicine. Some specific regimens used for CRC are CAPOX, FOLFOX, FOLFOXIRI, and FOLFIRI. Antiangiogenic drugs such as bevacizumab are often added in first line therapy. Another class of drugs used in the second line setting are epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors, of which the three FDA approved ones are aflibercept, cetuximab and panitumumab. The primary difference in the approach to low stage rectal cancer is the incorporation of radiation therapy. Often, it is used in conjunction with chemotherapy in a neoadjuvant fashion to enable surgical resection, so that ultimately a colostomy is not required. However, it may not be possible in low lying tumors, in which case, a permanent colostomy may be required. Stage IV rectal cancer is treated similar to stage IV colon cancer. Stage IV colorectal cancer due to peritoneal carcinomatosis can be treated using HIPEC combined with cytoreductive surgery, in some people. Radiation therapy While a combination of radiation and chemotherapy may be useful for rectal cancer, for some people requiring treatment, chemoradiotherapy can increase acute treatment-related toxicity, and has not been shown to improve survival rates compared to radiotherapy alone, although it is associated with less local recurrence. The use of radiotherapy in colon cancer is not routine due to the sensitivity of the bowels to radiation. As with chemotherapy, radiotherapy can be used as a neoadjuvant for clinical stages T3 and T4 for rectal cancer. This results in downsizing or downstaging of the tumour, preparing it for surgical resection, and also decreases local recurrence rates. For locally advanced rectal cancer, neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy has become the standard treatment. Additionally, when surgery is not possible radiation therapy has been suggested to be an effective treatment against CRC pulmonary metastases, which are developed by 10-15% of people with CRC. Immunotherapy Immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors has been found to be useful for a type of colorectal cancer with mismatch repair deficiency and microsatellite instability. Pembrolizumab is approved for advanced CRC tumours that are MMR deficient and have failed usual treatments. Most people who do improve, however, still worsen after months or years. Other types of colorectal cancer as of 2017 is still being studied. Palliative care Palliative care is recommended for any person who has advanced colon cancer or who has significant symptoms. Involvement of palliative care may be beneficial to improve the quality of life for both the person and his or her family, by improving symptoms, anxiety and preventing admissions to the hospital. In people with incurable colorectal cancer, palliative care can consist of procedures that relieve symptoms or complications from the cancer but do not attempt to cure the underlying cancer, thereby improving quality of life. Surgical options may include non-curative surgical removal of some of the cancer tissue, bypassing part of the intestines, or stent placement. These procedures can be considered to improve symptoms and reduce complications such as bleeding from the tumor, abdominal pain and intestinal obstruction. Non-operative methods of symptomatic treatment include radiation therapy to decrease tumor size as well as pain medications. Follow-up The U.S. National Comprehensive Cancer Network and American Society of Clinical Oncology provide guidelines for the follow-up of colon cancer. A medical history and physical examination are recommended every 3 to 6 months for 2 years, then every 6 months for 5 years. Carcinoembryonic antigen blood level measurements follow the same timing, but are only advised for people with T2 or greater lesions who are candidates for intervention. A CT-scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis can be considered annually for the first 3 years for people who are at high risk of recurrence (for example, those who had poorly differentiated tumors or venous or lymphatic invasion) and are candidates for curative surgery (with the aim to cure). A colonoscopy can be done after 1 year, except if it could not be done during the initial staging because of an obstructing mass, in which case it should be performed after 3 to 6 months. If a villous polyp, a polyp >1 centimeter or high-grade dysplasia is found, it can be repeated after 3 years, then every 5 years. For other abnormalities, the colonoscopy can be repeated after 1 year. Routine PET or ultrasound scanning, chest X-rays, complete blood count or liver function tests are not recommended. For people who have undergone curative surgery or adjuvant therapy (or both) to treat non-metastatic colorectal cancer, intense surveillance and close follow-up have not been shown to provide additional survival benefits. Exercise Exercise may be recommended in the future as secondary therapy to cancer survivors. In epidemiological studies, exercise may decrease colorectal cancer-specific mortality and all-cause mortality. Results for the specific amounts of exercise needed to observe a benefit were conflicting. These differences may reflect differences in tumour biology and the expression of biomarkers. People with tumors that lacked CTNNB1 expression (β-catenin), involved in Wnt signalling pathway, required more than 18 Metabolic equivalent (MET) hours per week, a measure of exercise, to observe a reduction in colorectal cancer mortality. The mechanism of how exercise benefits survival may be involved in immune surveillance and inflammation pathways. In clinical studies, a pro-inflammatory response was found in people with stage II-III colorectal cancer who underwent 2 weeks of moderate exercise after completing their primary therapy. Oxidative balance may be another possible mechanism for benefits observed. A significant decrease in 8-oxo-dG was found in the urine of people who underwent 2 weeks of moderate exercise after primary therapy. Other possible mechanisms may involve metabolic hormone and sex-steroid hormones, although these pathways may be involved in other types of cancers Another potential biomarker may be p27. Survivors with tumors that expressed p27 and performed greater and equal to 18 MET hours per week were found to have reduced colorectal cancer mortality survival compared to those with less than 18 MET hours per week. Survivors without p27 expression who exercised were shown to have worse outcomes. The constitutive activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway may explain the loss of p27 and excess energy balance may up-regulate p27 to stop cancer cells from dividing. Physical activity provides benefits to people with non-advanced colorectal cancer. Improvements in aerobic fitness, cancer-related fatigue and health-related quality of life have been reported in the short term. However, these improvements were not observed at the level of disease-related mental health, such as anxiety and depression. Prognosis Fewer than 600 genes are linked to outcomes in colorectal cancer. These include both unfavorable genes, where high expression is related to poor outcome, for example the heat shock 70 kDa protein 1 (HSPA1A), and favorable genes where high expression is associated with better survival, for example the putative RNA-binding protein 3 (RBM3). Recurrence rates The average five-year recurrence rate in people where surgery is successful is 5% for stage I cancers, 12% in stage II and 33% in stage III. However, depending on the number of risk factors it ranges from 9–22% in stage II and 17–44% in stage III. Survival rates In Europe the five-year survival rate for colorectal cancer is less than 60%. In the developed world about a third of people who get the disease die from it. Survival is directly related to detection and the type of cancer involved, but overall is poor for symptomatic cancers, as they are typically quite advanced. Survival rates for early stage detection are about five times that of late stage cancers. People with a tumor that has not breached the muscularis mucosa (TNM stage Tis, N0, M0) have a five-year survival rate of 100%, while those with invasive cancer of T1 (within the submucosal layer) or T2 (within the muscular layer) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 90%. Those with a more invasive tumor yet without node involvement (T3-4, N0, M0) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 70%. People with positive regional lymph nodes (any T, N1-3, M0) have an average five-year survival rate of approximately 40%, while those with distant metastases (any T, any N, M1) have a poor prognosis and the five year survival ranges from <5 percent to 31 percent. The prognosis depends on a multitude of factors which include the physical fitness level of the person, extent of metastases, and tumor grade. Whilst the impact of colorectal cancer on those who survive varies greatly there will often be a need to adapt to both physical and psychological outcomes of the illness and its treatment. For example, it is common for people to experience incontinence, sexual dysfunction, problems with stoma care and fear of cancer recurrence after primary treatment has concluded. A qualitative systematic review published in 2021 highlighted that there are three main factors influencing adaptation to living with and beyond colorectal cancer: support mechanisms, severity of late effects of treatment and psychosocial adjustment. Therefore it is essential that people are offered appropriate support to help them better adapt to life following treatment. Epidemiology Globally more than 1 million people get colorectal cancer every year resulting in about 715,000 deaths as of 2010 up from 490,000 in 1990. , it is the second most common cause of cancer in women (9.2% of diagnoses) and the third most common in men (10.0%) with it being the fourth most common cause of cancer death after lung, stomach, and liver cancer. It is more common in developed than developing countries. Globally incidences vary 10-fold with highest rates in Australia, New Zealand, Europe and the US and lowest rates in Africa and South-Central Asia. United States Colorectal cancer is the second highest cause of cancer occurrence and death for men and women in the United States combined. An estimated 141,210 cases were diagnosed in 2011. Based on rates from 2007 to 2009, 5.0% of US men and women born today will be diagnosed with colorectal cancer during their lifetime. From 2005 to 2009, the median age at diagnosis for cancer of the colon and rectum in the US was 69 years of age. Approximately 0.1% were diagnosed under age 20; 1.1% between 20 and 34; 4.0% between 35 and 44; 13.4% between 45 and 54; 20.4% between 55 and 64; 24.0% between 65 and 74; 25.0% between 75 and 84; and 12.0% 85+ years of age. Rates are higher among males (54 per 100,000 c.f. 40 per 100,000 for females). United Kingdom In the UK about 41,000 people a year get colon cancer making it the fourth most common type. Australia One in 19 men and one in 28 women in Australia will develop colorectal cancer before the age of 75; one in 10 men and one in 15 women will develop it by 85 years of age. Papua New Guinea In the developing countries like Papua New Guinea and other Pacific Island States including the Solomon Islands, colorectal cancer is a very rare cancer amongst the people, which is least common compared to lung, stomach, liver or breast cancer. It is estimated that at least 8 in 100,000 of the people are most likely to developed colorectal cancer every year, which is unlike lung or breast cancer, where for the latter alone is 24 in 100,000 of the women folks alone. History Rectal cancer has been diagnosed in an Ancient Egyptian mummy who had lived in the Dakhleh Oasis during the Ptolemaic period. Society and culture In the United States, March is colorectal cancer awareness month. Research Preliminary in-vitro evidence suggests lactic acid bacteria (e.g., lactobacilli, streptococci or lactococci) may be protective against the development and progression of colorectal cancer through several mechanisms such as antioxidant activity, immunomodulation, promoting programmed cell death, antiproliferative effects, and epigenetic modification of cancer cells. Mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer have been developed and are used in research. The Cancer Genome Atlas The Colorectal Cancer Atlas integrating genomic and proteomic data pertaining to colorectal cancer tissues and cell lines have been developed. 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206981	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maids%20Moreton	Maids Moreton	Maids Moreton is a village and civil parish in north-west Buckinghamshire, England, around north of Buckingham. The village is contiguous with the Buckingham urban area and is thus often considered to be a suburb. Description and history The parish of Maids Moreton covers about of which are arable, permanent grass and woods and plantations. The soil is mostly clay and gravel and the subsoil gravel. The village lies along the Buckingham to Towcester road (A413). It contains many 17th-century houses and cottages with timber frames with brick or plaster filling and thatched roofs. The 15th-century parish church of Saint Edmund is said to have been built by two maiden ladies of the Pever family hence the name "Maids' Moreton". The Maids' memorials are a wall painting over the north door and brasses on a slab just within the doorway. The old post office, situated at the junction of Main Street with the A413, closed in the mid-1990s and is now a private house. The chapel (on the A413) was demolished in the early 1980s and the allotments next to the chapel were all used for new housing. School Maids Moreton Church of England School is a mixed Church of England voluntary controlled primary school in Maids Moreton. The school takes children between the ages of four and seven and has about 50 pupils. References External links North Buckingham Parish Villages in Buckinghamshire Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire	[ -0.38184282183647156, -0.17624753713607788, 0.20342129468917847, -0.4239554703235626, 0.0072355931624770164, 1.0046329498291016, 1.034718632698059, -0.47512006759643555, -0.30988210439682007, -0.3146490156650543, -0.07168856263160706, 0.402802050113678, 0.2907998859882355, 0.05849631503224373, -0.5068922638893127, -0.1998000591993332, 0.20898140966892242, 0.5553061962127686, 0.584087073802948, -0.7622429728507996, 0.20255032181739807, -0.2745114266872406, -0.10061484575271606, 0.1405864655971527, -0.28638723492622375, -0.5980520844459534, 0.1363445371389389, -0.15033793449401855, 0.4188637137413025, 0.028301095589995384, 0.04986923187971115, 0.7157739996910095, 0.0571991465985775, -0.6882374882698059, 0.23408663272857666, -0.5579844117164612, 0.5103363394737244, -0.4973753094673157, -0.3647821843624115, -0.6898598074913025, -0.4025348424911499, -0.23052287101745605, 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206982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A413%20road	A413 road	The A413 is a major road in England that runs between Gerrards Cross (west of London) to Towcester (northwest of Milton Keynes). It passes through or near various towns and villages including (in northbound order) Amersham, Great Missenden, Wendover, Aylesbury, Winslow, and Buckingham. Most of the road is in Buckinghamshire, with a part at the north end in Northamptonshire. In the 1960s, a by-pass was built around Great Missenden and re-routing has taken place through Aylesbury town centre. In recent years , by-passes have been built for Amersham (1987) and Wendover (1998). In the early 21st century, the junction near Towcester where the A413 joins the A43 has also been redeveloped along with much-needed A43 redevelopment around Silverstone Circuit. That part of the route which runs along the Misbourne Valley dates back into pre-history. In Medieval times, the Cartulary of Missenden Abbey simply recorded the road as "the Kings Highway". Also just north of Aylesbury the road crosses Holman's Bridge, the location in 1642 of the Battle of Aylesbury. The section of the A413 between Aylesbury and Winslow is known locally for its high accident rate. A number of signs have been put up along this stretch of road stating how many casualties have occurred on the road in recent years. The stretch has a high number of blind turnings, sudden speed limits and steep gradients. The worst accident to occur in recent years was in 2003 when a lorry crashed through the side of a bridge just south of the hamlet of Hardwick. The road was closed completely for two days resulting in all bus services being diverted onto the A418 or A41. In popular culture Aylesbury rockstar John Otway wrote a B-Side about the road on his Number 9 hit single "Bunsen Burner." The song was called "A413 Revisited" and is about John returning home no longer as a one hit wonder but as a two hit artist. The chorus is: "From Amersham, to Missenden, to Wendover to the Vale of Aylesbury, that's me heading down the 4-1-3" and features places located on the road such as The Grange School in Aylesbury. 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206984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likud	Likud	Likud (, translit. HaLikud, lit. The Consolidation), officially known as Likud – National Liberal Movement, is the major center-right to right-wing political party in Israel. A secular party, it was founded in 1973 by Menachem Begin and Ariel Sharon in an alliance with several right-wing parties. Likud's landslide victory in the 1977 elections was a major turning point in the country's political history, marking the first time the left had lost power. In addition, it was the first time in Israel that a right-wing party won the plurality of the votes. However, after ruling the country for most of the 1980s, the party lost the Knesset election in 1992. Nevertheless, Likud's candidate Benjamin Netanyahu did win the vote for Prime Minister in 1996 and was given the task of forming a government after the 1996 elections. Netanyahu's government fell apart after a vote of no confidence, which led to elections being called in 1999 and Likud losing power to the One Israel coalition led by Ehud Barak. In 2001, Likud's Ariel Sharon, who replaced Netanyahu following the 1999 election, defeated Barak in an election called by the Prime Minister following his resignation. After the party recorded a convincing win in the 2003 elections, Likud saw a major split in 2005 when Sharon left to form the Kadima party. This resulted in Likud slumping to fourth place in the 2006 elections and losing 28 seats in the Knesset. Following the 2009 elections, Likud was able to gain 15 seats, and, with Netanyahu back in control of the party, formed a coalition with fellow right-wing parties Yisrael Beiteinu and Shas to take control of the government from Kadima, which earned a plurality, but not a majority. Netanyahu served as prime minister from then until 2021. Likud had been the leading vote-getter in each subsequent election until April 2019, when Likud tied with Blue and White and September 2019, when Blue and White won one more seat than the Likud. Likud won the most seats and votes at the 2020 and 2021 elections, but Netanyahu was removed from power in June 2021 by an unprecedented coalition led by Yair Lapid and Naftali Bennett. A member of the party is called a Likudnik (). History Formation and Begin years The Likud was formed as a secular party by an alliance of several right-wing parties prior to the 1973 elections—Herut, the Liberal Party, the Free Centre, the National List, and the Movement for Greater Israel. Herut had been the nation's largest right-wing party since growing out of the Irgun in 1948. It had already been in coalition with the Liberals since 1965 as Gahal, with Herut as the senior partner. Herut remained the senior partner in the new grouping, which was given the name Likud, meaning "Consolidation", as it represented the consolidation of the Israeli right. It worked as a coalition under Herut's leadership until 1988, when the member parties merged into a single party under the Likud name. From its establishment in 1973, Likud enjoyed great support from blue-collar Sephardim who felt discriminated against by the ruling Alignment. Likud made a strong showing in its first elections in 1973, reducing the Alignment's lead to 12 seats. The party went on to win the 1977 elections, finishing 11 seats ahead of the Alignment. Begin was able to form a government with the support of the religious parties, consigning the left-wing to opposition for the first time since independence. A former leader of the hard-line paramilitary Irgun, Begin helped initiate the peace process with Egypt, which resulted in the 1978 Camp David Accords and the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Likud was reelected with a significantly reduced mandate in 1981. Likud has long been a loose alliance between politicians committed to different and sometimes opposing policy preferences and ideologies. The 1981 elections highlighted divisions that existed between the populist wing of Likud, headed by David Levy of Herut, and the Liberal wing, who represented a policy agenda of the secular bourgeoisie. Shamir, Netanyahu's first term, and Sharon Begin resigned in October 1983 and was succeeded as Likud leader and Prime Minister by Yitzhak Shamir. Shamir, a former commander of the Lehi underground, was widely seen as a hard-liner with an ideological commitment both to the settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the growth of which he encouraged, and to the idea of aliyah, facilitating the mass immigration of Jews to Israel from Ethiopia and the former Soviet Union. Although Shamir lost the 1984 election, the Alignment was unable to form a government on its own. Likud and the Alignment thus formed a national unity government, with Peres as Prime Minister and Shamir as foreign minister. After two years, Peres and Shamir switched posts. This government remained in power through 1990, when the Alignment pulled out and Shamir stitched together a right-wing coalition that held on until its defeat in 1992 by Labor. Shamir retired shortly after losing the election. His successor, Benjamin Netanyahu, became the third Likud Prime Minister in May 1996, following the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin. Netanyahu proved to be less hard-line in practice than he made himself out to be rhetorically, and felt pressured by the United States and others to enter negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organization and Yasser Arafat, despite his harsh criticism of the Oslo accords and hawkish stance in comparison to Labor. In 1998, Netanyahu reluctantly agreed to cede territory in the Wye River Memorandum. While accepted by many in the Likud, some Likud MKs, led by Benny Begin (Menachem Begin's son), Michael Kleiner and David Re'em, broke away and formed a new party, named Herut – The National Movement, in protest. Yitzhak Shamir (who had expressed harsh disappointment in Netanyahu's leadership), gave the new party his support. Less than a year afterward, Netanyahu's coalition collapsed, resulting in the 1999 election and Labor's Ehud Barak winning the premiership on a platform of immediate settlement of final status issues. Likud spent 1999–2001 on the opposition benches. Barak's "all-or-nothing" strategy failed, however, and early elections for Prime Minister were called for March 2001. Surprisingly, Netanyahu declined to be the Likud candidate for Prime Minister, meaning that the fourth Likud premier would be Ariel Sharon. Sharon, unlike past Likud leaders, had been raised in a Labor Zionist environment and had long been seen as something of a maverick. In the face of the Second Intifada, Sharon pursued a varied set of policies, many of which were controversial even within the Likud. The final split came when Sharon announced his policy of unilateral disengagement from Gaza and parts of the West Bank. The idea proved extremely divisive within the party. Kadima split Sharon's perceived shift to the political center, especially in his execution of the Disengagement Plan, alienated him from some Likud supporters and fragmented the party. He faced several serious challenges to his authority shortly before his departure. The first was in March 2005, when he and Netanyahu proposed a budget plan that met fierce opposition, though it was eventually approved. The second was in September 2005, when Sharon's critics in Likud forced a vote on a proposal for an early leadership election, which was defeated by 52% to 48%. In October, Sharon's opponents within the Likud Knesset faction joined with the opposition to prevent the appointment of two of his associates to the Cabinet, demonstrating that Sharon had effectively lost control of the Knesset and that the 2006 budget was unlikely to pass. The next month, Labor announced its withdrawal from Sharon's governing coalition following the election of the left-wing Amir Peretz as its leader. On 21 November 2005, Sharon announced he would be leaving Likud and forming a new centrist party, Kadima. The new party included both Likud and Labor supporters of unilateral disengagement. Sharon also announced that elections would take place in early 2006. As of 21 November seven candidates had declared themselves as contenders to replace Sharon as leader: Netanyahu, Uzi Landau, Shaul Mofaz, Yisrael Katz, Silvan Shalom and Moshe Feiglin. Landau and Mofaz later withdrew, the former in favour of Netanyahu and the latter to join Kadima. Netanyahu's second term Netanyahu went on to win the chairmanship elections in December, obtaining 44.4% of the vote. Shalom came in a second with 33%, leading Netanyahu to guarantee him second place on the party's list of Knesset candidates. Shalom's perceived moderation on social and foreign-policy issues were considered to be an electoral asset. Observers noted that voter turnout in the elections was particularly low in comparison with past primaries, with less than 40 percent of the 128,000 party members casting ballots. There was much media focus on far-right candidate Moshe Feiglin achieving 12.4% of votes. The founding of Kadima was a major challenge to the Likud's generation-long status as one of Israel's two major parties. Sharon's perceived centrist policies have drawn considerable popular support as reflected by public opinion polls. The Likud is now led by figures who oppose further unilateral evacuations, and its standing in the polls has suffered. After the founding of Kadima, Likud came to be seen as having more of a right-wing tendency than a moderate centre-right one. However, there exist several parties in the Knesset even more right-wing than the post-Ariel Sharon Likud. Prior to the 2006 election, the party's Central Committee relinquished control of selecting the Knesset list to the "rank and file" members at Netanyahu's behest. The aim was to improve the party's reputation, as the central committee had gained a reputation for corruption. In the election, the Likud vote collapsed in the face of the Kadima split. Other right-wing nationalist parties such as Yisrael Beiteinu gained votes, with Likud coming only fourth place in the popular vote, edging out Yisrael Beiteinu by only 116 votes. With only twelve seats, Likud was tied with the Shas for the status of third-largest party. In the 2009 Israeli legislative election, Likud won 27 seats, a close second-place finish to Kadima's 28 seats, and leading the other parties. After more than a month of coalition negotiations, Benjamin Netanyahu was able to form a government and become Prime Minister. "Pride in the Likud", a political advocacy group of LGBT conservatives affiliated with the party, was founded in 2011. Following the appointment of Amir Ohana as the Likud's first openly gay member in the Knesset, in December 2015, Netanyahu said he was "proud" to welcome him into parliament. A leadership election was held on 31 January 2012, with Netanyahu defeating Feiglin. Partnership with Yisrael Beiteinu On 25 October 2012, Netanyahu and Avigdor Lieberman announced that their respective political parties, Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu, would run together on a single ballot in Israel's 2013 parliamentary election. "A joining of forces will give us the strength to defend Israel from military threats, and the strength to spearhead social and economic changes in the country", Netanyahu said. In January 2013, Lieberman said the Yisrael Beitinu merge with the Likud party will end within one month of the election. The Likud-Yisrael Beiteinu merger led to speculation that Lieberman would eventually seek the leadership of Likud. "Every soldier must strive to be chief of staff, just as every politician wants, eventually, to stand at the top of the system. I'm not obsessed with this, but that is my goal", Lieberman said. In the 2013 election, the Likud-Yisrael Beiteninu alliance won 31 seats, 20 of which were Likud members. Netanyahu continued as Prime Minister after forming a coalition with Yesh Atid, the Jewish Home and Hatnuah. The electoral alliance was unpopular among both Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu. In November 2013, it was reported that both parties would be holding discussions on whether to end their partnership. According to Haaretz, "the alliance stoked anger among senior Likud politicians, both because of the historic change and the high price the party ostensibly paid...." Efforts by Yisrael Beitenu to formally merge with Likud after the election were rebuffed by Likud activists who worried about the effect an influx of organized new power centers could have on their own influence in the ruling party. 2019–2021 elections During the course of the April 2019 Israeli legislative election campaign, Likud facilitated the formation of the Union of Right-Wing Parties between the Jewish Home, Tkuma and Otzma Yehudit by providing a slot on its own electoral list to Jewish Home candidate Eli Ben-Dahan. In the aftermath of the election, Kulanu merged into Likud. During the September 2019 Israeli legislative election campaign, Likud agreed to a deal with Zehut, whereby the latter party would drop out of the election and endorse Likud in exchange for a ministerial post for its leader, Moshe Feiglin, as well as policy concessions. Prior to the 2020 Israeli legislative election, Gideon Sa'ar unsuccessfully challenged Netanyahu for the Likud leadership. In December of that year, Sa'ar left Likud, along with four other Likud MKs, to form New Hope. Prior to the 2021 Israeli legislative election, Gesher merged into Likud, receiving a slot on its electoral list. Likud also facilitated the formation of a joint list between the Religious Zionist Party, Otzma Yehudit and Noam by providing the Religious Zionist Party a slot on the Likud list. On 14 June, after the swearing-in of the 36th government, Ofir Sofer who held the slot, split from the Likud faction and returned to the Religious Zionist Party, decreasing the Likud faction by one to 29 seats in the Knesset. Ideological positions Likud emphasizes national security policy based on a strong military force when threatened with continued enmity against Israel. It has shown reluctance to negotiate with its neighbors whom it believes continue to seek the destruction of the Jewish state, that based on the principle of the party founder Menachem Begin concerning the preventive policy to any potential attacks on State of Israel. Its suspicion of neighboring Arab nations' intentions, however, has not prevented the party from reaching agreements with the Arabs, such as the 1979 peace treaty with Egypt. Likud's willingness to enter mutually accepted agreements with the Arabs over the years is related to the formation of other right-wing parties. Like other right-wing parties in Israel, Likud politicians have sometimes criticized particular Supreme Court decisions, but it remains committed to rule of law principles that it hopes to entrench in a written constitution. , the party remains divided between moderates and hard-liners. Likud is considered to be the leading party in the national camp in Israeli politics. Platform The 1999 Likud Party platform emphasizes the right of settlement. "The Jewish communities in Judea, Samaria, and Gaza are the realization of Zionist values. Settlement of the land is a clear expression of the unassailable right of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel and constitutes an important asset in the defense of the vital interests of the State of Israel. The Likud will continue to strengthen and develop these communities and will prevent their uprooting." Similarly, they claim the Jordan River as the permanent eastern border to Israel and it also claims Jerusalem as belonging to Israel. The 'Peace & Security' chapter of the 1999 Likud Party platform rejects a Palestinian state. "The Government of Israel flatly rejects the establishment of a Palestinian Arab state west of the Jordan river. The Palestinians can run their lives freely in the framework of self-rule, but not as an independent and sovereign state. Thus, for example, in matters of foreign affairs, security, immigration, and ecology, their activity shall be limited in accordance with imperatives of Israel's existence, security and national needs." With Likud back in power, starting in 2009, Israeli foreign policy is still under review. Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu, in his "National Security" platform, neither endorsed nor ruled out the idea of a Palestinian state. "Netanyahu has hinted that he does not oppose the creation of a Palestinian state, but aides say he must move cautiously because his religious-nationalist coalition partners refuse to give away land." On 14 June 2009, Netanyahu delivered a speech at Bar-Ilan University (also known as "Bar-Ilan Speech"), at Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, that was broadcast live in Israel and across parts of the Arab world, on the topic of the Middle East peace process. He endorsed for the first time the creation of a Palestinian state alongside Israel, with several conditions. However, on 16 March 2015, Netanyahu stated in the affirmative, that if he were elected, a Palestinian state would not be created. Netanyahu argued, "anyone who goes to create today a Palestinian state and turns over land, is turning over land that will be used as a launching ground for attacks by Islamist extremists against the State of Israel." Some take these statements to mean that Netanyahu and Likud oppose a Palestinian state. After having been criticised by U.S. White House Spokesperson Josh Earnest for the "divisive rhetoric" of his election campaign, on 19 March 2015, Netanyahu retreated to "I don't want a one-state solution. I want a peaceful, sustainable two-state solution. I have not changed my policy." The Likud Constitution of May 2014 is more vague and ambiguous. Though it contains commitments to the strengthening of Jewish settlement in the West Bank, it does not explicitly rule out the establishment of a Palestinian state. Economy The Likud party claims to support a free market capitalist and liberal agenda, though, in practice, it has mostly adopted mixed economic policies. Under the guidance of Finance minister and current party leader Benjamin Netanyahu, Likud pushed through legislation reducing value added tax (VAT), income and corporate taxes significantly, as well as customs duty. Likewise, it has instituted free trade (especially with the European Union and the United States) and dismantled certain monopolies (Bezeq and the seaports). Additionally, it has privatized numerous government-owned companies, e. g., El Al and Bank Leumi, and has moved to privatize land in Israel, which until now has been held symbolically by the state in the name of the Jewish people. Netanyahu was the most ardent free-market Israeli finance minister to date. He argued that Israel's largest labor union, the Histadrut, has so much power as to be capable of paralyzing the Israeli economy, and claimed that the main causes of unemployment are laziness and excessive benefits to the unemployed." Under Netanyahu, Likud has and is likely to maintain a comparatively fiscally conservative economic stance. However, the party's economic policies vary widely among members, with some Likud MKs supporting more leftist economic positions that are more in line with popular preferences. Palestinians Likud has historically espoused opposition to Palestinian statehood and support of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, it has also been the party that carried out the first peace agreements with Arab states. For instance, in 1979, Likud Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords with Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat, which returned the Sinai Peninsula (occupied by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967) to Egypt in return for peace between the two countries. Yitzhak Shamir was the first Israeli Prime Minister to meet Palestinian leaders at the Madrid Conference following the Persian Gulf War in 1991. However, Shamir refused to concede the idea of a Palestinian state, and as a result was blamed by some (including United States Secretary of State James Baker) for the failure of the summit. On 14 June 2009, as Prime Minister Netanyahu gave a speech at Bar-Ilan University in which he endorsed a "Demilitarized Palestinian State", though said that Jerusalem must remain the unified capital of Israel. In 2002, during the Second Intifada, Israel's Likud-led government reoccupied Palestinian towns and refugee camps in the West Bank. In 2005, Ariel Sharon defied the recent tendencies of Likud and abandoned the policy of seeking to settle in the West Bank and Gaza. Though re-elected Prime Minister on a platform of no unilateral withdrawals, Sharon carried out the Gaza disengagement plan, withdrawing from the Gaza Strip, as well as four settlements in the northern West Bank. Though losing a referendum among Likud registered voters, Sharon achieved government approval of this policy by firing most of the cabinet members who opposed the plan before the vote. Sharon and the faction who supported his disengagement proposals left the Likud party after the disengagement and created the new Kadima party. This new party supported unilateral disengagement from most of the West Bank and the fixing of borders by the Israeli West Bank barrier. The basic premise of the policy was that the Israelis have no viable negotiating partner on the Palestinian side, and since they cannot remain in indefinite occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, Israel should unilaterally withdraw. Netanyahu, who was elected as the new leader of Likud after Kadima's creation, and Silvan Shalom, the runner-up, both supported the disengagement plan; however, Netanyahu resigned his ministerial post before the plan was executed. Most current Likud members support the Jewish settlements in the West Bank and oppose Palestinian statehood and the disengagement from Gaza. Although settlement activity has continued under recent Likud governments, much of the activity outside the major settlement blocs has been to accommodate the Jewish Home, a coalition partner; support within Likud to build outside the blocs is not particularly strong. In the 2019 election, Likud was widely criticized as a "racist party" after scaremongering anti-Arab rhetoric by its members as well as Netanyahu who claimed minority Arabs and Palestinians in Israel as "threats" and "enemies,". Culture Likud generally advocates free enterprise and nationalism, but it has sometimes compromised these ideals in practice, especially as its constituency has changed. Its support for populist economic programs are at odds with its free enterprise tradition, but are meant to serve its largely nationalistic, lower-income voters in small towns and urban neighborhoods. On religion and state, Likud has a moderate stance, and supports the preservation of status quo. With time, the party has played into the traditional sympathies of its voter base, though the origins and ideology of Likud are secular. Religious parties have come to view it as a more comfortable coalition partner than Labor. Likud promotes a revival of Jewish culture, in keeping with the principles of Revisionist Zionism. Likud emphasizes such Israeli nationalist themes as the use of the Israeli flag and the victory in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. In July 2018, Likud lawmakers backed controversial Nation-State bill into law which declaring Israel as 'nation-state of the Jewish people'. Likud publicly endorses press freedom and promotion of private sector media, which has grown markedly under governments Likud has led. A Likud government headed by Ariel Sharon, however, closed the popular right-wing pirate radio station Arutz Sheva ("Channel 7"). Arutz Sheva was popular with the Jewish settler movement and often criticised the government from a right-wing perspective. Historically, the Likud and its pre-1948 predecessor, the Revisionist movement advocated secular nationalism. However, the Likud's first prime minister and long-time leader Menachem Begin, though secular himself, cultivated a warm attitude to Jewish tradition and appreciation for traditionally religious Jews—especially from North Africa and the Middle East. This segment of the Israeli population first brought the Likud to power in 1977. Many Orthodox Israelis find the Likud a more congenial party than any other mainstream party, and in recent years also a large group of Haredim, mostly modern Haredim, joined the party and established The Haredi faction in the Likud. Composition (1973–1988) Leaders Leader election process During Begin's tenure as leader of Herut/Likud, his leadership was effectively unchallenged. From 1983 through 1992, Herut/Likud elected its party leaders through votes held in party agencies. The 1983 and 1984 Herut leadership elections were undertaken through a vote of Herut's Central Committee. The day after Yitzhak Shamir won the 1983 secret ballot vote of the Herut Central Committee to obtain Herut's party leadership, the party leaders of the other Likud coalition member parties announced that they agreed to have Shamir lead the Likud coalition. The 1992 Likud leadership election was the first held after Likud became a unified party. The 1992 leadership election was held as a vote of the Likud Central Committee. After 1992, the party moved to electing its leaders through votes of its general membership, with the first such vote taking place in 1993. Current MKs Likud currently has 29 Knesset members. They are listed below in the order that they appeared on the party's list for the 2021 elections. Benjamin Netanyahu Yuli Edelstein Israel Katz Miri Regev Yariv Levin Yoav Galant Nir Barkat Gila Gamliel Avi Dichter Haim Katz Eli Cohen Galit Distel-Atbaryan Tzachi Hanegbi Ofir Akunis Yuval Steinitz Dudi Amsalem Gadi Yevarkan Amir Ohana Ofir Katz Eti Atiya Yoav Kisch David Bitan Keren Barak Shlomo Karhi Miki Zohar Orly Levy-Abekasis Keti Shitrit Fateen Mulla May Golan Party organs Likud Executive Director General of the Likud: Gadi Arielli Deputy DG, head of the Municipal Division: Rafi Dwek Director of Foreign Affairs: Eli Hazan Manager of the Likud Chairman's Office: Hanni Bleiweiss Head of the Computer Division: Tsuri Siso Likud Spokeswoman: Noga Katz (Rappaport) Head of Internet & New Media: Shai Mordov Likud Central Committee Likud Secretariat Likud Bureau Likud Court Legal Advisor of the Likud Movement Likud Youth Movement Member group of the International Young Democrat Union World Likud Election results Knesset Prime Minister See also List of Likud Knesset Members New Likudniks References External links Likud Nederland Likud Knesset website Political parties in Israel Conservatism in Israel Liberal conservative parties Political parties established in 1973 Revisionist Zionism Zionist political parties in Israel Conservative parties in Israel National liberal parties Betar Liberal parties in Israel National conservative parties Right-wing populist parties 1973 establishments in Israel Right-wing populism in Israel Right-wing parties Right-wing politics in Israel Centre-right parties in Asia	[ 0.18668784201145172, 0.4024297893047333, -0.3983226418495178, -0.5160115957260132, -0.7495178580284119, 0.4448941946029663, 0.2780923843383789, -0.1659456044435501, -0.03611081466078758, -0.2650167942047119, -0.5411285161972046, 0.2658426761627197, -0.3076816201210022, 0.356423944234848, -0.06181570515036583, 0.4412676692008972, 0.20332087576389313, 0.4755937457084656, 0.11135810613632202, -0.44732338190078735, -0.0007909295381978154, 0.34616753458976746, 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206990	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire%20hotpot	Lancashire hotpot	Lancashire hotpot is a stew originating from Lancashire in the North West of England. It consists of lamb or mutton and onion, topped with sliced potatoes (or a more traditional topping of pastry or puff pastry) and baked in a heavy pot on a low heat. History In Lancashire before industrialisation, families would work at home spinning thread while scrags of mutton stewed slowly over a low fire. Family members could attend to the cooking over many hours. In the initial stages of industrialisation and urbanisation, both men and women of all ages had long, strictly regulated work hours that made it impossible to cook food that required extensive attention and preparation time. Often lacking their own cooking facilities, housewives would carry a pudding or stew to the baker's oven and leave it there to cook. Preparation The recipe usually calls for a mix of mutton (nowadays more frequently lamb) and onions covered with sliced potato. Many regional variations add vegetables (carrot, turnip, or leeks). Many early recipes add lamb kidneys and modern variants may use beef or bacon chops instead of lamb, or have a pastry topping. The traditional recipe once included oysters, but increasing cost eliminated them from common usage. Pickled red cabbage or beetroot, and in some areas Lancashire cheese, are often served as an accompaniment. Etymology It is often thought that the "hot pot" referred to is a pottery dish used to cook casseroles in British cuisine. However, it is more likely to refer to the idea of a jumble or hodge podge of ingredients in the filling. Sir Kenelm Digby's 1677 The Closet Opened contains a recipe for the "Queen Mothers Hotchpot of Mutton". Similarly, Mrs Beeton's Cookery Book contains a recipe for "Hotch Potch", calling for neck of mutton, onion, carrot, peas, cauliflower and lettuce. See also Hodge-Podge Irish stew Nikujaga Pot roast Scotch broth Scouse Stovies References External links History of Lancashire Hotpot at Foods of England British stews Casserole dishes Lamb dishes Lancashire cuisine English cuisine Potato dishes	[ -0.23093684017658234, 0.16197597980499268, 0.2778646647930145, -0.4640451669692993, -0.34080371260643005, 0.3231106102466583, 0.22237132489681244, 0.8698515295982361, -0.26526474952697754, 0.18352170288562775, -0.3241692781448364, -0.11607954651117325, 0.21452012658119202, 0.42405667901039124, -0.6658086776733398, 0.6701638102531433, 0.20743031799793243, 0.25209033489227295, 0.051425233483314514, 0.13966545462608337, 0.17140857875347137, -0.7090511322021484, -0.2231694608926773, -0.03305304795503616, 0.4451006054878235, -0.07846596091985703, -0.07567626237869263, -0.16881601512432098, -0.011429566890001297, -0.20620499551296234, 0.02169753983616829, 0.8268417119979858, 0.1837487518787384, -1.141453742980957, -0.05164242163300514, 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206992	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalom%20aleichem	Shalom aleichem	Shalom aleichem (; , shālôm ʻalêḵem; ) is a spoken greeting in Hebrew, meaning "peace be upon you". The appropriate response is aleichem shalom ("unto you peace") (). The plural form "" is used even when addressing one person. This form of greeting is traditional among Jews throughout the world. The greeting is more common among Ashkenazi Jews. History Biblical characters greet each other with šālôm lǝkā (šālôm to you, m. singular) or šālôm lākem (plural). Šālôm ʿālêkā (šālôm upon you, m. singular) is first attested in the Scroll of Blessings for the First Month (before 30 BCE), a Dead Sea Scroll, where it is spelled, in their manner, with a final He. The plural šālôm ʿălêkem first appears in the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE), always with a plural object. It occurs there six times and the response is to repeat šālôm ʿălêkem. Šālôm ʿālêkā appears many times in the Talmud Bavli (c. 500 CE), where the response is to repeat šālôm ʿālêkā. The inverted response ʿālêkā šālôm (upon you šālôm, m. singular) is first attested in the Midrash Abba Gorion (before 1050 CE), in its gloss on Esther 3:5: "What did Haman do when he passed by and Mordechai did not rise to greet him? He came from one side and made as if Mordechai had greeted him, saying 'ʿālêkā šālôm,' but Mordechai replied, 'the Lord says there is no šālôm for the wicked.'" The plural greeting and response became common among European Jews in the second half of the next millennium, as the use of plural forms to denote respect was imported from French and German. Other religions Many religions share cognates to this greeting. The related Arabic variation ("peace be upon you", in Arabic), is used by Muslims of many language and ethnic backgrounds. The appropriate response is Wa alaikumus-salaam ("and unto you peace", ). As-salāmu alaykum and its variants are also used by Arabs of different religions as a greeting. Aramaic and Classical Syriac use , which means "peace on you". Within the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, Peace be with you (in Greek: , in Latin: ) is the initial liturgical greeting by a bishop or priest during divine services. In Mass, Catholic priests who are not bishops say "The Lord be with you." The response is "And with your spirit." A somewhat similar greeting used within the Mass by bishops and priests is "The peace of the Lord be with you always." In Orthodox Church, the greeting is always the same: Peace be with you. Similarly, "Peace be with you" is used within Anglican liturgies of the Episcopal Church and other Anglican churches, with the response being "And also with you." The same is true of Lutheran churches, some Presbyterian and Reformed churches, such as the Presbyterian Church and the Church of the Brethren. References See also Shalom As-salamu alaykum Salaam Greeting words and phrases Hebrew words and phrases Judaism and peace	[ -0.04415954649448395, 0.9758490324020386, 0.21007513999938965, -1.1577110290527344, -0.2836228311061859, 0.1493457555770874, 0.29981422424316406, -0.06327888369560242, 0.15446612238883972, -0.5760178565979004, -0.6180362701416016, 0.18272250890731812, 0.3232387900352478, 0.33429086208343506, -0.2535967528820038, 0.2805561125278473, 0.4164355993270874, 0.7691443562507629, -0.2988673448562622, -0.2585452198982239, 0.007955670356750488, -0.11597762256860733, 0.5310066342353821, -0.14349010586738586, 0.29468363523483276, -0.2655925154685974, 0.06906329095363617, -0.3128136098384857, -0.33239486813545227, -0.1380060613155365, -0.2207678258419037, 0.342721164226532, 0.16307079792022705, -0.35083726048469543, 0.05893541872501373, 0.5379317402839661, 0.5402670502662659, -0.04659867659211159, -0.350344181060791, -0.5281370282173157, 0.254861444234848, -0.679317831993103, 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206993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poi%20%28food%29	Poi (food)	Poi or Popoi is a traditional staple food in the Polynesian diet, made from starchy vegetables, usually breadfruit, taro or plantain. Traditional poi is produced by mashing cooked starch on a wooden pounding board, with a carved pestle made from basalt, calcite, coral or wood. Modern methods use an industrial food processor to produce large quantities for retail distribution. Water is added to the starch during mashing, and again just before eating, to achieve the desired consistency, which can range from highly viscous to liquid. In Hawaii, this is classified as either "one-finger", "two-finger", or "three-finger", alluding to how many fingers are required to scoop it up (the thicker the poi, the fewer fingers required to scoop a sufficient mouthful). Poi can be eaten immediately, when fresh and sweet, or left to ferment and become sour, developing a smell reminiscent of plain yoghurt. A layer of water on top can prevent fermenting poi from developing a crust. History and culture Poi is thought to have originated in the Marquesas Islands, created some time after initial settlement from Polynesian explorers. While mashing food does occur in other parts of the Pacific, the method involved was more rudimentary. In Western Polynesia, the cooked starch was mashed in a wooden bowl using a makeshift pounder out of either the stem of a coconut leaf or a hard unripe breadfruit with several wooden pegs stuck into it. The origins of poi coincided with the development of basalt pounders in the Marquesas, which soon spread elsewhere in Eastern Polynesia, with the exception of New Zealand and Easter Island. Poi was considered such an important and sacred aspect of daily Hawaiian life that Hawaiians believed that the spirit of Hāloa, the legendary ancestor of the Hawaiian people, was present when a bowl of poi was uncovered for consumption at the family dinner table. Accordingly, all conflict among family members was required to come to an immediate halt. Although many of the world's people consume taro, only Hawaiians make poi. Hawaiians traditionally cook the starchy, potato-like heart of the taro corm for hours in an underground oven called an imu, which is also used to cook other types of food such as pork, carrots, and sweet potatoes. Fermentation Poi has a paste-like texture and a delicate flavor when freshly prepared in the traditional manner, with a pale purple color that naturally comes from the taro corm. It has a smooth, creamy texture. The flavor changes distinctly once the poi has been made: fresh poi is sweet and edible; each day thereafter the poi loses sweetness and turns sour due to a natural fermentation that involves lactobacillus bacteria, yeast, and Geotrichum fungi. Therefore, some people find fermented poi more palatable if it is mixed with milk or sugar or both. The speed of this fermentation process depends upon the bacteria level present in the poi, but the souring process can be slowed by storing poi in a cool, dark location. To prepare commercial poi that has been stored in a refrigerator, it is squeezed out of the bag into a bowl (sometimes adding water), and a thin layer of water is put over the part exposed to air to keep a crust from forming on top. New commercial preparations of poi require refrigeration, but stay fresh longer and taste sweeter. Sour poi is still edible but may be less palatable, and is usually served with salted fish or Hawaiian lomi salmon on the side (as in the lyrics "my fish and poi"). Sourness can be prevented by freezing or dehydrating fresh poi, although the resulting poi after defrosting or rehydrating tends to taste bland when compared to the fresh product. Sour poi has an additional use as a cooking ingredient with a sour flavor (similar to buttermilk), usually in breads and rolls. Nutrition and dietary and medical uses Taro is low in fat, high in vitamin A, and abounds in complex carbohydrates. Poi has been used specifically as a milk substitute for babies, or as a baby food. It is supposed to be easy to digest. It contains no gluten, making it safe to eat for people who have celiac disease or a gluten intolerance. See also List of ancient dishes and foods Ube halaya – Philippine dessert made from purple yam Nilupak – Filipino delicacies made from mashed starchy foods Fufu – West African dish made from mashed cassava Notes References Craig W. Walsh, Where Can I Buy Poi?, POI, 26 May 2005. Retrieved on 12 November 2012. Amy C. Brown and Ana Valiere, The Medicinal Uses of Poi, The National Center for Biotechnology Information, 23 June 2006. Retrieved on 13 November 2012. Sky Barnhart, Powered by Poi Kalo, a Legendary Plant, Has Deep Roots in Hawaiian Culture, NO KA 'OI Maui Magazine, July/August 2007. Retrieved on 13 November 2012. Marcia Z. Mager, What Is Poi Anyway?, POI, 24 March 2009. Retrieved on 11 November 2012. Stacy Yuen Hernandez, Got Poi? The Original Hawaiian Diet, POI, 24 March 2009. Retrieved on 11 November 2012. Pamela Noeau Day, Poi – The Ancient Superfood, POI, 22 December 2009. Retrieved on 11 November 2012. External links The History of Poi "Powered By Poi" Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol.11 No.4 (July 2007). "Kipahulu Kitchen" Article about community commercial kitchen in Kipahulu, Maui, where poi is made. Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol.10 No.2 (April 2006). "Poi" YouTube video about the making of Poi. 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206995	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Martineau	James Martineau	James Martineau (; 21 April 1805 – 11 January 1900) was a British religious philosopher influential in the history of Unitarianism. For 45 years he was Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy and Political Economy in Manchester New College (now Harris Manchester College, of the University of Oxford), the principal training college for British Unitarianism. Many portraits of Martineau, including one painted by George Frederick Watts, are held at London's National Portrait Gallery. In 2014, the gallery revealed that its patron, Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, was related to Martineau. The Duchess' great-great-grandfather, Francis Martineau Lupton, was Martineau's grandnephew. The gallery also holds written correspondence between Martineau and Poet Laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson - who records that he "regarded Martineau as the mastermind of all the remarkable company with whom he engaged". Martineau and Lord Tennyson were familiar with Queen Victoria's son, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany; they noted that Leopold, who had often "conversed with the eminent Dr. Martineau, was considered to be a young man of a very thoughtful mind, high aims, and quite remarkable acquirements". William Ewart Gladstone said to Frances Power Cobbe "Dr Martineau is beyond question the greatest of living thinkers". One of Martineau's children was the Pre-Raphaelite watercolourist Edith Martineau. Early life The seventh of eight children, James Martineau was born in Norwich, England, where his father Thomas (1764–1826) was a cloth manufacturer and merchant. His mother, Elizabeth Rankin, was the eldest daughter of a sugar refiner and grocer. The Martineau family were descended from Gaston Martineau, a Huguenot surgeon and refugee, who married Marie Pierre in 1693, and settled in Norwich. His son and grandson, respectively the great-grandfather and grandfather of James Martineau, were surgeons in the same city. Many of the family were active in Unitarian causes, so much so that a room in Essex Hall, the headquarters of British Unitarianism, was eventually named after them. Branches of the Martineau family in Norwich, Birmingham and London were socially and politically prominent Unitarians; other elite Unitarian families in Birmingham were the Kenricks, Nettlefolds and the Chamberlains, with much intermarriage between these families taking place. Essex Hall held a statue of Martineau. His niece, Frances Lupton, who was close to his sister Harriet, had worked to open up educational opportunities for women. Education and early years James was educated at Norwich Grammar School where he was a school-fellow with George Borrow under Edward Valpy, as good a scholar as his better-known brother Richard, but proved too sensitive for school. He was sent to Bristol to the private academy of Dr. Lant Carpenter, under whom he studied for two years. On leaving he was apprenticed to a civil engineer at Derby, where he acquired "a store of exclusively scientific conceptions," but also began to look to religion for mental stimulation. Martineau's conversion followed, and in 1822 he entered the dissenting academy Manchester College, then at York - his uncle Peter Finch Martineau was one of its Vice-Presidents. Here he "woke up to the interest of moral and metaphysical speculations." Of his teachers, one, the Rev. Charles Wellbeloved, was, Martineau said, "a master of the true Lardner type, candid and catholic, simple and thorough, humanly fond indeed of the counsels of peace, but piously serving every bidding of sacred truth." The other, the Rev. John Kenrick, he described as a man so learned as to be placed by Dean Stanley "in the same line with Blomfield and Thirlwall," and as "so far above the level of either vanity or dogmatism, that cynicism itself could not think of them in his presence." On leaving the college in 1827 Martineau returned to Bristol to teach in the school of Lant Carpenter; but in the following year, he was ordained for a Unitarian church in Dublin, whose senior minister was a relative of his. Martineau's ministerial career was suddenly cut short in 1832 by difficulties growing out of the "regium donum", which had on the death of the senior minister fallen to him. He conceived it as "a religious monopoly" to which "the nation at large contributes," while "Presbyterians alone receive," and which placed him in "a relation to the state" so "seriously objectionable" as to be "impossible to hold." The invidious distinction it drew between Presbyterians on the one hand, and Catholics, members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), other nonconformists, unbelievers, and Jews on the other, who were compelled to support a ministry they conscientiously disapproved, offended his conscience. His conscience did, however, allow him to attend both the Coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 and her Golden Jubilee half a century later. A year prior to the coronation, at St James's Palace, Martineau had "kissed the hand" of the queen at the deputation of British Presbyterian ministers. Work and writings From Dublin, he was called to Liverpool. He lodged in a house owned by Joseph Williamson. It was during his 25 years in Liverpool that he published his first work, Rationale of Religious Enquiry, which caught the attention of many religious and philosophical figures. In 1840 Martineau was appointed Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy and Political Economy in Manchester New College, the seminary in which he had been educated, and which had now moved from York back to Manchester. This position, and the principalship (1869–1885), he held for 45 years. In 1853 the college moved to London, and four years later he followed it there. In 1858 he combined this work with preaching at the pulpit of Little Portland Street Chapel in London, which for the first two years he shared with John James Tayler (who was also his colleague in the college), and then for twelve years as its only minister. In 1866, the Chair of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College, London, fell vacant when the liberal nonconformist Dr John Hoppus retired. Martineau became a candidate, and despite strong support from some quarters, potent opposition was organised by the anti-clerical George Grote, whose refusal to endorse Martineau resulted in the appointment of George Croom Robertson, then an untried man. Martineau, however, sidestepped Grote's opposition, much as Hoppus had learnt to do during his Professorship, and developed a cordial friendship with Robertson. Martineau was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1872. He was awarded LL.D. of Harvard in 1872, S.T.D. of Leiden in 1874, D.D. of Edinburgh in 1884, D.C.L. of Oxford in 1888 and D. Litt. of Dublin in 1891. Life and thought Martineau described some of the changes he underwent; how he had "carried into logical and ethical problems the maxims and postulates of physical knowledge," and had moved within narrow lines "interpreting human phenomena by the analogy of external nature"; and how in a period of "second education" at Humboldt University in Berlin, with Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg, he experienced "a new intellectual birth". It made him, however, no more of a theist than he had been before, and he developed Transcendentalist views, which became a significant current within Unitarianism. Early years In his early life he was a preacher. Although he did not believe in the Incarnation, he held deity to be manifest in humanity; man underwent an apotheosis, and all life was touched with the dignity and the grace which it owed to its source. His preaching led to works that built up his reputation:Endeavours after the Christian Life, 1st series, 1843; 2nd series, 1847; Hours of Thought, 1st series, 1876; 2nd series, 1879; the various hymn-books he issued at Dublin in 1831, at Liverpool in 1840, in London in 1873; and the Home Prayers in 1891. In 1839 Martineau came to the defence of Unitarian doctrine, under attack by Liverpool clergymen including Fielding Ould and Hugh Boyd M‘Neile. In the controversy, Martineau published five discourses, in which he discussed "the Bible as the great autobiography of human nature from its infancy to its perfection," "the Deity of Christ," "Vicarious Redemption," "Evil," and "Christianity without Priest and without Ritual." In Martineau's earliest book, The Rationale of Religious Enquiry, published in 1836, he placed the authority of reason above that of Scripture; and he assessed the New Testament as "uninspired, but truthful; sincere, able, vigorous, but fallible." The book marked him down, among older British Unitarians, as a dangerous radical, and his ideas were the catalyst for a pamphlet war in America between George Ripley (who favored Martineau's questioning of the historical accuracy of scripture) and the more conservative Andrews Norton. Despite his belief that the Bible was fallible, Martineau continued to hold the view that "in no intelligible sense can any one who denies the supernatural origin of the religion of Christ be termed a Christian," which term, he explained, was used not as "a name of praise," but simply as " a designation of belief." He censured the German rationalists "for having preferred, by convulsive efforts of interpretation, to compress the memoirs of Christ and His apostles into the dimensions of ordinary life, rather than admit the operation of miracle on the one hand, or proclaim their abandonment of Christianity on the other". Transcendentalism Martineau came to know German philosophy and criticism, especially the criticism of Ferdinand Christian Baur and the Tübingen school, which affected his construction of Christian history. French influences were Ernest Renan and the Strassburg theologians. The rise of evolution compelled him to reformulate his theism. He addressed the public, as editor and contributor, in the Monthly Repository, the Christian Reformer, the Prospective Review, the Westminster Review and the National Review. Later he was a frequent contributor to the literary monthlies. More systematic expositions came in Types of Ethical Theory and The Study of Religion, and, partly, in The Seat of Authority in Religion (1885, 1888 and 1890). What did Jesus signify? This was the problem which Martineau attempted to deal with in The Seat of Authority in Religion. Martineau's theory of religious society, or church, was that of an idealist. He propounded a scheme, which was not taken up, that would have removed the church from the hands of a clerical order, and allowed the coordination of sects or churches under the state. Eclectic by nature, he gathered ideas from any source that appealed. Stopford Brooke once asked A. P. Stanley, Dean of Westminster, "if the Church of England would broaden sufficiently to allow James Martineau to be made Archbishop of Canterbury". Later years Although he had opposed the removal (1889) of Manchester New College to Oxford, Martineau took part in the opening of the new buildings, conducting the communion service (19 October 1893) in the chapel of what is today Harris Manchester College, University of Oxford. A wide circle of friends mourned his death on 11 January 1900; Oscar Wilde references him in his prose. He was buried in a family grave on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery. One of his daughters was the watercolourist Edith Martineau who was interred in the family grave in 1909. Bibliography Endeavours after the Christian Life (1843); Miscellanies 1852; The Rationale of Religious Enquiry: or, The question stated of reason, the Bible, and the church; in six lectures (1853); Studies of Christianity : a series of papers (1858); A Study of Spinoza (1882) Types of Ethical Theory (1885) See also Free Christians (Britain) General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches Unitarianism References Sources J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England in the 19th Century (1896) pages 246–250; A. W. Jackson, James Martineau, a Biography and a Study (Boston, 1900); J. Drummond and C. B. Upton, Life and Letters (2 volumes, 1901); Henry Sidgwick, Lectures on the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau (1902); A. H. Craufurd, Recollections of James Martineau (1903); J. E. Carpenter, James Martineau, Theologian and Teacher (1905); C. B. Upton, Dr. Martineau's philosophy, a survey (1905); Frank Schulman, James Martineau: This Conscience-Intoxicated Unitarian (2002). 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206996	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twiggy	Twiggy	Dame Lesley Lawson (née Hornby; born 19 September 1949) is an English model, actress, and singer, widely known by the nickname Twiggy. She was a British cultural icon and a prominent teenaged model during the swinging '60s in London. Twiggy was initially known for her thin build and the androgynous appearance considered to result from her big eyes, long eyelashes, and short hair. She was named "The Face of 1966" by the Daily Express and voted British Woman of the Year. By 1967, she had modelled in France, Japan, and the US, and had landed on the covers of Vogue and The Tatler. Her fame had spread worldwide. After modelling, Twiggy enjoyed a successful career as a screen, stage, and television actress. Her role in The Boy Friend (1971) brought her two Golden Globe Awards. In 1983, she made her Broadway debut in the musical My One and Only, for which she earned a Tony nomination for Best Actress in a Musical. She later hosted her own series, Twiggy's People, in which she interviewed celebrities; she also appeared as a judge on the reality show America's Next Top Model. Her 1998 autobiography Twiggy in Black and White entered the best-seller lists. Since 2005, she has modelled for Marks and Spencer, most recently to promote their recent rebranding, appearing in television advertisements and print media, alongside Myleene Klass, Erin O'Connor, Lily Cole, and others. In 2012, she worked alongside Marks & Spencer's designers to launch an exclusive clothing collection for the M&S Woman range. Early life Lesley Hornby was born on 19 September 1949 and raised in Neasden (originally in Middlesex, now a suburb of north-west London). She was the third daughter of Nellie Lydia (née Reeman), a factory worker for a printing firm, and William Norman Hornby, a master carpenter and joiner from Lancashire. Their first daughter, Shirley, had been born 15 years earlier; their second, Vivien, had been born 7 years earlier. According to Twiggy, her maternal grandfather was Jewish. However, her mother's genealogy, which was examined on the series Who Do You Think You Are? in 2014, does not contain Jewish ancestry. Twiggy's mother taught her to sew from an early age. She used this skill to make her own clothing. She attended the Brondesbury and Kilburn High School. Twiggy's great-great-grandmother, Grace Meadows, died in a stampede of excitable shoppers at a bargain sale at Messrs McIllroys store on Mare Street, in Hackney, in 1897. This event made the news at the time. Modelling career (1965–1970) 1965–1967 Twiggy is best remembered as one of the first international supermodels and a fashion icon of the 1960s. Her greatest influence is Jean Shrimpton, whom Twiggy considers to be the world's first supermodel. She has said she based her "look" on Pattie Boyd. Twiggy herself has been described as the successor to Shrimpton. In January 1966, aged 16, she had her hair coloured and cut short in London at Leonard of Mayfair, owned by celebrity hairdresser Leonard. The hair stylist was looking for models on whom to try out his new crop haircut and he styled her hair in preparation for a few test head shots. A professional photographer Barry Lategan took several photos for Leonard, which the hairdresser hung in his salon. Deirdre McSharry, a fashion journalist from the Daily Express, saw the images and asked to meet the young girl. McSharry arranged to have more photos taken. A few weeks later, the publication featured an article and images of Hornby, declaring her "The Face of '66". In it, the copy read: "The Cockney kid with a face to launch a thousand shapes... and she's only 16". Hornby's career quickly took off. She was short for a model at , weighed and had a 31–23–32 (79–58–81 cm) figure, "with a new kind of streamlined, androgynous sex appeal" Her hairdresser boyfriend, Nigel Davies, became her manager, changed his name to Justin de Villeneuve, and persuaded her to change her name to Twiggy (from "Twigs", her childhood nickname). De Villeneuve credits himself for Twiggy's discovery and her modelling success, and his version of events is often quoted in other biographies. In her 1998 book Twiggy In Black and White, she says that she met Justin through his brother, when she worked as a Saturday girl at a hairdressers in London. This is where she began to see the models in the magazines, but never thought she could do something like that. Jean Shrimpton was her idol, so she grew her hair long to look like her, before having to have it cut off for her headshots by Barry Lategan. Ten years her senior, De Villeneuve managed her lucrative career for seven years, overseeing her finances and enterprises during her heyday as a model. Twiggy was soon seen in all the leading fashion magazines, commanding fees of £80 an hour, bringing out her own line of clothes called "Twiggy Dresses" in 1967, and taking the fashion world by storm. "I hated what I looked like," she said once, "so I thought everyone had gone stark raving mad." Twiggy's look centred on three qualities: her stick-thin figure, a boyishly short haircut and strikingly dark eyelashes. Her signature look was achieved in part by applying three layers of false eyelashes. One month after the Daily Express article, Twiggy posed for her first shoot for Vogue. A year later, she had appeared in 13 separate fashion shoots in international Vogue editions. 1967–1970 Twiggy arrived in New York in March 1967 at Kennedy Airport, an event covered by the press. The New Yorker, Life and Newsweek reported on the Twiggy "phenomenon" in 1967, with the New Yorker devoting nearly 100 pages to the subject." That year she became an international sensation, modelling in France, Japan and America, and landing the cover of Paris Vogue in May, the cover of US Vogue three times, in April, July and November, and the cover of British Vogue in October. In 1967, an editorial on page 63 of the edition of 15 March of Vogue described her as an "extravaganza that makes the look of the sixties" Twiggy was, according to feminist critic Linda Delibero, "the most visible commodity Britain produced that year, and [America] generously complied with the hype, scarfing up skinny little Twiggy pens, Twiggy lunch boxes, Twiggy lashes, an assortment of Twiggy-endorsed cosmetics". The Metropolitan Museum of Art's 2009 catalogue for its exhibition The Model as Muse: Embodying Fashion stated:Twiggy's adolescent physique was the perfect frame for the androgynous styles that began to emerge in the 1960s. The trend was manifested in a number of templates: sweet A-line dresses with collars and neckties, suits and dresses that took their details from military uniforms, or, in the case of Yves Saint Laurent, an explicit transposition of the male tuxedo to women. Simultaneously, under the rubric of "unisex", designs that were minimalistic, including Nehru suits and space-agey jumpsuits, were proposed by designers such as Pierre Cardin and Andre Courreges, and, most famously in the United States, by Rudi Gernreich. Twiggy has been photographed by such noted photographers as Cecil Beaton, Richard Avedon, Melvin Sokolsky, Ronald Traeger, Bert Stern, Norman Parkinson, Annie Leibovitz and Steven Meisel. Reaction Twiggy and the magazines featuring her image polarised critics from the start. Her boyishly thin image was, and still is, criticised promoting an "unhealthy" body ideal for women. "Twiggy came along at a time when teen-age spending power was never greater," said Su Dalgleish, fashion correspondent for the Daily Mail. "With that underdeveloped, boyish figure, she is an idol to the 14- and 15-year-old kids. She makes virtue of all the terrible things of gawky, miserable adolescence." At the height of her fame, Mark Cohen, president of Leeds Women's shop, had an even harsher view: "Her legs remind me of two painted worms." Yet Twiggy had her supporters. Diana Vreeland of Vogue stated, "She's no flash in the pan. She is the mini-girl in the mini-era. She's delicious looking." In recent years, Twiggy has spoken out against the trend of waif-thin models, explaining that her own thin weight as a teenager was natural: "I was very skinny, but that was just my natural build. I always ate sensibly – being thin was in my genes." On 10 December 1969, despite being 20 years old, she was selected as the subject for one of the first editions produced by Thames Television of the television series This Is Your Life. Stage, film, television, and singing career 1970–1979 After four years of modelling, Twiggy retired in 1970, stating: "You can't be a clothes hanger for your entire life!" She broke off with Justin de Villeneuve, who had been overseeing her business affairs since 1966 and released him from his duties as her manager, claiming in later years that "her career had more to do with that famous picture of her with those funny painted eyelashes, which appeared in the Daily Express under the headline 'The Face of '66' " than with his promotional efforts. She has stated several times that she is only really remembered for her modelling career although it was "only a short part of my life". She began to develop a film interest through her weekly visits to Ken Russell's house; they would watch old films together, which featured Greta Garbo, Clark Gable, and other Hollywood actors and actresses. This began to give Twiggy a new outlook on the way she dressed and the way she wore her hair; she began wearing a beret, longer skirts, and flowers as the hippie look was beginning to take over London. Ken and Twiggy worked on a film together, called The Boy Friend (1971), after watching a performance of the original musical, staged by Ken's mother's amateur dramatics group. Twiggy then embarked on an award-winning acting and singing career, starring in a variety of roles on stage and screen, and recording albums. In 1971, she made her film debut as an extra, dressed as a male courtier, in Ken Russell's The Devils. The same year, she performed her first leading role as Polly Browne, in Russell's adaptation of Sandy Wilson's pastiche of 1920s hit musicals, The Boy Friend (1971). This marked her initial collaboration with Tommy Tune, and won her two Golden Globe Awards in 1972 (New Star of the Year – Actress and Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy). Also in 1971, Twiggy released the single "Zoo de Zoo Zong", written by Roger Cook and Roger Greenaway, and credited to Twiggy and Friends. In 1974, she made her West End stage debut in Cinderella; made a second feature, the thriller W (co-starring with her future husband Michael Witney); and hosted her own British television series, Twiggs (later renamed Twiggy). In 1973, she appeared with David Bowie on the cover of his seventh album, Pin Ups. which entered the UK chart on 3 November 1973 and stayed there for 21 weeks, peaking at No. 1. She was also name-checked ("She'd sigh like Twig the wonder kid") in Bowie's song Drive-In Saturday for his Aladdin Sane album. In October 1975, she sang at the live performance of Roger Glover's The Butterfly Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast album at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The concert was filmed and produced by Tony Klinger and released to cinemas in 1976. In November 1976, she made an appearance on The Muppet Show, in which she sang the Beatles song, "In My Life". In 1976, she signed to Mercury Records and released the albums Twiggy and Please Get My Name Right, that contained both pop and country tunes. Twiggy sold very well, peaking on the UK charts at No. 33, and gave Twiggy a silver disc for good sales. The album contains Twiggy's top-20 hit single, "Here I Go Again". "Please Get My Name Right" made it to No. 35 in 1977. The single, "A Woman in Love", failed to chart for Twiggy in 1977 but was a hit for the Three Degrees in 1979. Twiggy also sang some of the songs in the first volume of Captain Beaky and His Band in 1977. In 1978, the television distribution arm of American International Pictures, in an effort to gain additional syndication value in the US to the LWT rock music series Supersonic, repackaged the musical performances with Twiggy replacing Mike Mansfield's introductions. The new series, titled Twiggy's Jukebox, ran in most of the major television markets in the US during the 1978–79 TV season. Coincidentally, Twiggy had performed "Here I Go Again" and "Vanilla Olay" on Supersonic in September 1976, and these performances were included in the refurbished programme. After the initial season, Twiggy left the series, and American International Television continued Jukebox with Britt Ekland as host, using standard music videos rather than clips from Supersonic. Twiggy appeared in "There Goes the Bride" with Tom Smothers in 1979. 1980–1999 In 1980, Twiggy made a cameo appearance in The Blues Brothers. She starred as Eliza Doolittle in 1981, opposite Robert Powell, in the Yorkshire TV production of Pygmalion. In 1983, she made her Broadway debut in the musical, My One and Only, starring and co-staged by Tommy Tune, for which she earned a Tony nomination. She played opposite Robin Williams in the 1986 comedy Club Paradise. In 1987, she played a vaudeville performer in the British television special The Little Match Girl, and in 1988, she appeared in a supporting role in Madame Sousatzka opposite her second husband Leigh Lawson. In 1989, she was cast as Hannah Chaplin, mother to Charles, in the British television movie Young Charlie Chaplin, aired in the United States on PBS' WonderWorks. In 1991, she co-starred in her first American network dramatic television series, the short-lived CBS sitcom Princesses. Of eight episodes completed, only five aired. (Her Princesses co-star, Fran Drescher, later spent some time with Twiggy and her family in England while developing Drescher's hit series The Nanny, and modelled the character Maxwell Sheffield on Twiggy's husband Leigh Lawson.) In 1993, Twiggy appeared alongside Mark Hamill in the short segment "Eye" from the made-for-cable horror anthology, Body Bags. In 1994, Twiggy guest starred in the first ever Heartbeat Christmas special (in series 4), playing Lady Janet Whitley. In 1997, Twiggy acted in the Chichester Festival Theatre revival of Noël Coward's Blithe Spirit. A year later, she played Gertrude Lawrence in the biographical stage revue Noel and Gertie at Bay Street Theatre in Sag Harbor, Long Island. In 1999, she returned to the New York stage in an off-Broadway production If Love Were All, a revised version of Noel and Gertie, written and directed by Leigh Lawson; what set this edition apart were its tap numbers in period style. She starred as Gertrude Lawrence opposite Harry Groener's Noël Coward. 2000–2009 In 2001, Twiggy co-hosted the British magazine programme This Morning. In 2003, she released another album, Midnight Blue. Seventeen of the CD's 20 tracks had previously unreleased material from 1982 to 1990, including a duet with Leo Sayer, "Save the Last Dance for Me", and a cover of the Rolling Stones' "Ruby Tuesday". Two of the tracks ("Feel Emotion" and "Diamond") had been issued as singles in the mid-1980s. In 2005, she joined the cast of the television show America's Next Top Model for Cycles 5–9 as one of four judges, and a year later, she appeared on the cover of the "Icons" issue of Swindle magazine. She also returned to modelling, fronting a major television, press, and billboard campaign for Marks & Spencer, the British department-store chain. Her involvement in the advertising campaign has been credited for reviving Marks and Spencer's fortunes. In 2006, she portrayed herself as a 19-year-old in the radio play Elevenses with Twiggy, for BBC Radio 4's The Afternoon Play series. She did not return to America's Next Top Model in its tenth season due to scheduling conflicts. Her replacement was model Paulina Porizkova. Also in 2007, Sepia Records released a previously shelved album that Twiggy recorded in 1979, produced by Donna Summer and Juergen Koppers. Heaven in My Eyes ["Discotheque"] contains the eight original tracks due to be released, plus four remixes by The OUTpsiDER. The album was also made available on iTunes. In 2008, she supported the "Fashion Targets Breast Cancer" campaign in support of Breakthrough Breast Cancer, alongside fellow celebrities –comedian Alan Carr, singer Natalie Imbruglia, actress Anna Friel, and DJ & presenter Edith Bowman. In the summer of 2009, the beauty products company Olay debuted its "Definity Eye Cream" campaign depicting Twiggy. Accusations of airbrushing created a stir with the media and public. A website campaign set up by Jo Swinson, the Scottish Liberal Democrat MP, attracted 700 individual complaints. Procter & Gamble admitted to minor retouching and replaced the image. The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) announced that the ad gave a "misleading" impression, but that no further action was required because the image had already been withdrawn. Its announcement said: Later career 2010–present Twiggy remains in the forefront of fashion for women of her age. She was one of the few famous celebrities to survive being cut from the Marks & Spencer fashion team in 2009–2010, when Dannii Minogue joined her for the spring/summer women's wear campaign. She also started a Home Shopping Network fashion line called the "Twiggy London" collection, and has begun a fashion blog to discuss the line. On 21 November 2011, she released an album, Romantically Yours, through EMI. A collection of pop and easy listening standards spanning several generations, the album features versions of such compositions as "Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered", "Blue Moon", "My Funny Valentine", "Someone to Watch over Me" and "They Can't Take That Away from Me", and London anthem "Waterloo Sunset". The album also includes a guest vocal appearance by Twiggy's daughter, Carly Lawson, on Neil Young's "Only Love Can Break Your Heart", a guitar solo by Bryan Adams, and a version of Richard Marx's "Right Here Waiting" featuring duet vocals with the American songwriter himself. In 2016, archive images of Twiggy, alongside images of Shrimpton and Jane Birkin were used for Tod's Fall/Winter campaign. Honours She was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2019 New Year Honours for services to fashion, to the arts and to charity. She was gazetted under her married name, Lesley Lawson. Personal life Twiggy married American actor Michael Witney in 1977. Their daughter, Carly, was born in 1978. They remained married until his death in 1983 from a heart attack. She met Leigh Lawson in 1984. In 1988, they worked on the film Madame Sousatzka and married that year in Sag Harbor, New York (on Long Island). Lawson adopted Twiggy's daughter, who took his surname. The couple reside in London and own a home in Southwold, Suffolk. On Twiggy's official website, she states she is a supporter of breast cancer research, animal welfare, and anti-fur campaigns. She was one of the celebrities, including Tom Hiddleston, Jo Brand, E. L. James, Benedict Cumberbatch, and Rachel Riley, to design and sign her own card for the UK-based charity Thomas Coram Foundation for Children. The campaign was launched by crafting company Stampin' Up! UK, and the cards were auctioned off on eBay during May 2014. Filmography Film Television Twiggs (1974) Twiggy (1975) The Muppet Show (1976) (episode 21) Victorian Scandals (1976) Bing Crosby's Merrie Olde Christmas (1977) The Hanna-Barbera Happy Hour (1978) The Donna Summer Special (1980) A Gift of Music (1981) Pygmalion, Eliza Doolittle. Celebrity Playhouse, Yorkshire Television (December 1981) Young Charlie Chaplin (1989) Princesses (1991) Tales from the Crypt (1992) (1 episode) The Nanny (1994) (1 episode) Heartbeat (1994) (1 episode) Absolutely Fabulous (2000–2001) This Morning (presenter) (2001) Take Time With Twiggy (host) (2001) America's Next Top Model (judge, cycles 5–9) (2005–2007) ShakespeaRe-Told: The Taming of the Shrew (2005) Friday Night with Jonathan Ross (guest) (2008) Twiggy's Frock Exchange (2008) Alan Titchmarsh's Walks of Fame (2010) Who Do You Think You Are? (episode 100) (2014) The People's History Of Pop (host, 1 episode) (2016) RuPaul's Drag Race UK (judge, 1 episode) (2019) Stage Cinderella, Casino Theatre, London, (1974) The Butterfly Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast, the Royal Albert Hall, London (1975) Captain Beaky and His Musical Christmas (pantomime), Apollo Victoria Theatre, London (1981) My One and Only, St. James Theatre, New York (1983–1984) Blithe Spirit, Chichester Festival Theatre, (1997) Noel and Gertie, Bay Street Theatre, Long Island, New York, (1998) If Love Were All, Lucille Lortel Theatre, New York City (1999) Blithe Spirit, Bay Street Theatre, Long Island, New York (2002) Mrs. Warren's Profession, on tour, England (2003) Discography Albums 1971 The Boyfriend (Original Soundtrack) (MGM Records) 1972 Twiggy and the Girlfriends (Ember) 1976 Twiggy (Mercury) (UK #33) 1977 Please Get My Name Right (Mercury) (UK #35) 1977 Captain Beaky and His Band 1983 My One and Only (with Tommy Tune) (Atlantic) 2003 Midnight Blue (Eureka) (unreleased material from the 1980s) 2007 Heaven In My Eyes - Discotheque (Eureka) (unreleased material from the 1970s) 2009 Gotta Sing Gotta Dance (Stage Door) 2011 Romantically Yours (EMI) Singles 1966 "Some Do Some Don't (Some Will Some Won't)" (with Anne) (Columbia) 1967 "Beautiful Dreams" (Ember) 1967 "When I Think of You" (Ember) 1971 "Zoo De Zoo Zong" (with Friends) (Bell) 1972 "A Room in Bloomsbury" (with Christopher Gable) (Columbia) 1976 "Here I Go Again" (Mercury) (UK #17) 1976 "Vanilla Olay" (Mercury) 1977 "Rings" ((UK #35) from her album Please Get My Name Right) 1977 "Please Get My Name Right" (Mercury) 1977 "I Hope We Get to Love in Time" (Mercury) 1977 "A Woman in Love" (Mercury) 1977 "Tomorrow is Another Day" (Mercury) 1978 "Falling Angel" (Mercury) 1985 "Feel Emotion" (Arista) (UK #81) 1986 "Diamond" (Arista) 1989 "Winter Wonderland" (Object) Books and exhibits Twiggy, Twiggy: An Autobiography (1975), Twiggy, Twiggy's Guide to Looking Good (1986), Twiggy, Twiggy in Black and White (1997), Emma Midgley, "London Swings Again With Ossie Clark Show At The V&A" (22 July 2003), Culture24 Twiggy, Twiggy: Please Get My Name Right (2004), Word Power Books, Iain R Webb, Bill Gibb: Fashion and Fantasy (2008), foreword by Twiggy, Twiggy, A Guide to Looking and Feeling Fabulous Over Forty (2008), The Model as Muse: Embodying Fashion, Metropolitan Museum of Art, May–August 2009 Twiggy: A Life in Photographs, Terence Pepper, Robin Muir, and Melvin Sokolsky (2009), Twiggy: A Life in Photographs, National Portrait Gallery (2009–2010) References Further reading Gross, Michael. Model: The ugly business of beautiful women (Harper Collins, 2011). Sandbrook, Dominic. White Heat: A history of Britain in the swinging sixties (Abacus, 2015) pp 283–308. External links 1967 Newsweek cover and Twiggy article Images of Twiggy, National Portrait Gallery "My Best Shot: Twiggy" by Barry Lategan Twiggy at Internet Off-Broadway Database Twiggy interview in Swindle magazine "Twiggy: You Ask the Questions", The Independent "Twiggy: Fashion Icon " – slideshow by Life magazine Twiggy interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, 13 January 1989 1949 births Living people Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English female models English women singers English film actresses English stage actresses New Star of the Year (Actress) Golden Globe winners Actresses from London People from Neasden Actresses awarded British damehoods Singers awarded knighthoods Women autobiographers	[ 0.28635263442993164, -0.5036374926567078, -0.7887014746665955, -0.2104676514863968, 0.07317125052213669, 0.8356910943984985, 0.8157485127449036, -0.017059428617358208, -0.4775666296482086, 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206997	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine	Alsace–Lorraine	Alsace–Lorraine is a historical region, now called Alsace–Moselle, located in France. It was created in 1871 by the German Empire after seizing the region from the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War and Treaty of Frankfurt. Alsace–Lorraine was reverted to French ownership in 1918 as part of the Treaty of Versailles and Germany's defeat in World War I. When created in 1871, the region was named the Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine ( or ; ; Moselle Franconian/) and as a new territory of the German Empire. The Empire annexed most of Alsace and the Moselle department of Lorraine, following its victory in the Franco-Prussian War. The Alsatian part lay in the Rhine Valley on the west bank of the Rhine River, east of the Vosges Mountains; the section originally in Lorraine was in the upper Moselle valley to the north of the Vosges. The territory encompassed almost all of Alsace (93%) and over a quarter of Lorraine (26%), while the rest of these regions remained parts of France. For historical reasons, specific legal dispositions are still applied in the territory in the form of a "local law in Alsace–Moselle". In relation to its special legal status, since reversion to France, the territory has been referred to administratively as Alsace–Moselle (). Since 2016, the historical territory has been part of the French administrative region of Grand Est. Geography Alsace–Lorraine had a land area of . Its capital was Straßburg. It was divided in three districts (Bezirke in German): Oberelsaß (Upper Alsace), whose capital was Kolmar, had a land area of and corresponds exactly to the current department of Haut-Rhin Unterelsaß, (Lower Alsace), whose capital was Straßburg, had a land area of and corresponds exactly to the current department of Bas-Rhin Bezirk Lothringen, (Lorraine), whose capital was Metz, had a land area of and corresponds exactly to the current department of Moselle Towns and cities The largest urban areas in Alsace–Lorraine at the 1910 census were: Straßburg (now Strasbourg): 220,883 inhabitants Mülhausen (Mulhouse): 128,190 inhabitants Metz: 102,787 inhabitants Diedenhofen (Thionville): 69,693 inhabitants Colmar (also historically Kolmar): 44,942 inhabitants History Background The modern history of Alsace–Lorraine was largely influenced by the rivalry between French and German nationalism. France long sought to attain and then preserve what it considered to be its "natural boundaries", which it considered the Pyrenees to the southwest, the Alps to the southeast, and the Rhine River to the northeast. These strategic claims led to the annexation of territories located west of the Rhine river in the Holy Roman Empire. What is now known as Alsace was progressively conquered by France under and in the 17th century, while Lorraine was incorporated from the 16th century under Henry II to the 18th century under (in the case of the Three Bishoprics, as early as 1552). These border-changes, at the time, meant more or less that one ruler (the local princes and city-governments, with some remaining power of the Holy Roman Emperor) was exchanged for another (the King of France); it was the French revolution that turned what might have been called "the King of France's German territories" into parts of France proper. German nationalism on the other hand, which in its 19th century form originated as a reaction against the French occupation of large areas of Germany under Napoleon, sought to unify all the German-speaking populations of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation into a single nation-state. As various German dialects were spoken by most of the population of Alsace and Moselle (northern Lorraine), these regions were viewed by German nationalists to be rightfully part of hoped-for united Germany in the future. From annexation to World War I In 1871, the newly created German Empire's demand for Alsace from France after its victory in the Franco-Prussian War was not simply a punitive measure. The transfer was controversial even among the Germans: The German Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, was initially opposed to it, as he thought (correctly) it would engender permanent French enmity toward Germany. Some German industrialists did not want the competition from Alsatian industries, such as the cloth makers who would be exposed to competition from the sizeable industry in Mulhouse. Karl Marx also warned his fellow Germans: "If Alsace and Lorraine are taken, then France will later make war on Germany in conjunction with Russia. It is unnecessary to go into the unholy consequences." Bismarck and the South German industrialists proposed to have Alsace ceded to Switzerland, while Switzerland would compensate Germany with another territory. The Swiss rejected the proposal, preferring to remain neutral between the French and Germans. The German Emperor, Wilhelm I, eventually sided with army commander Helmuth von Moltke, other Prussian generals and other officials who argued that a westward shift in the French border was necessary for strategic military and ethnographic reasons. From a linguistic perspective, the transfer involved people who for the most part spoke Alemannic German dialects. At the time, ethnic identity was often based primarily on language, unlike the more multifaceted approach focusing on self identification in use today. From a military perspective, by early 1870s standards, shifting the frontier away from the Rhine would give the Germans a strategic buffer against feared future French attacks. Due to the annexation, the Germans gained control of the fortifications of Metz and Strasbourg (Straßburg) on the left bank of the Rhine and most of the iron resources of Lorraine. Creating a new Imperial Territory () out of formerly French territory would achieve this goal: Although a Reichsland would not technically be part of the Kingdom of Prussia, being governed directly by the Empire (headed by the King of Prussia as Emperor, and the minister-president of Prussia as Imperial Chancellor) would in practical terms amount to the same thing. Thus, by annexing Alsace–Lorraine, Berlin was able to avoid complications with Baden and Bavaria on matters such as new fortifications. Memory of the Napoleonic Wars was still fresh in the 1870s. Wilhelm I himself had had to flee with the Prussian royal family to East Prussia as a nine year old in 1806 and had served in the Battle of Waterloo. Until the Franco-Prussian War, the French had maintained a long-standing desire to establish their entire eastern frontier on the Rhine, and thus they were viewed by most 19th century Germans as an aggressive and acquisitive people. In the years before 1870 the Germans feared the French more than the French feared the Germans. Many Germans at the time thought that the creation of the new Empire in itself would be enough to earn permanent French enmity, and thus desired a defensible border with their long-standing enemy. Any additional enmity that would be earned from territorial concessions was downplayed as marginal and insignificant in the overall scheme of things. The annexed area consisted of the northern part of Lorraine, along with Alsace. The area around the town of Belfort (now the French Territoire de Belfort) was unaffected, because Belfort had been defended by Colonel Denfert-Rochereau, who surrendered only after receiving orders from Paris, and was compensated by another territory. The town of Montbéliard and its surrounding area to the south of Belfort, which have been part of the Doubs department since 1816, and therefore were not considered part of Alsace, were not included, although they were a Protestant enclave belonging to Württemberg from 1397–1806. This area corresponded to the present French départements of Bas-Rhin (in its entirety), Haut-Rhin (except the area of Belfort and Montbéliard), and a small northeast section of the Vosges département, all of which made up Alsace, and most of the départements of Moselle (four-fifths of Moselle) and the northeast of Meurthe (one-third of Meurthe), which were the eastern part of Lorraine. The remaining two-thirds of the département of Meurthe and the westernmost one-fifth of Moselle, which had escaped German annexation were joined to form the new French département of Meurthe-et-Moselle. The new border between France and Germany mainly followed the geolinguistic divide between French and German dialects, except in a few valleys of the Alsatian side of the Vosges mountains, the city of Metz and its region and in the area of Château-Salins (formerly in the Meurthe département), which were annexed by Germany although most people there spoke French. In 1900, 11.6% of the population of Alsace–Lorraine spoke French as their first language (11.0% in 1905, 10.9% in 1910). That small francophone areas were affected was used in France to denounce the new border as hypocrisy, since Germany had justified the annexation on linguistic grounds. The German administration was tolerant of the use of the French language (in sharp contrast to the use of the Polish language in the Province of Posen), and French was permitted as an official language and school language in those areas where it was spoken by a majority. This changed in 1914 with the First World War. The Treaty of Frankfurt gave the residents of the region until 1 October 1872, to choose between emigrating to France or remaining in the region and having their nationality legally changed to German. About 161,000 people, or around 10.4% of the Alsace–Lorraine population, opted for French citizenship (the so-called Optanden); but, only about 50,000 actually emigrated, while the rest acquired German citizenship. The sentiment of attachment to France stayed strong at least during the first 16 years of the annexation. During the Reichstag elections, the 15 deputies of 1874, 1881, 1884 (but one) and 1887 were called protester deputies (fr: ) because they expressed to the Reichstag their opposition to the annexation by means of the 1874 motion in the French language: "May it please the Reichstag to decide that the populations of Alsace–Lorraine that were annexed, without having been consulted, to the German Reich by the treaty of Frankfurt have to come out particularly about this annexation." The abusive and oppressive behaviour by the German military towards the population of the town of Saverne (the Saverne Affair, usually known in English-language accounts as the Zabern Affair) led to protests not just in Alsace, but in other regions, which put a severe strain on the relationship between the people of Alsace–Lorraine and the rest of the German Empire. Under the German Empire of 1871–1918, the annexed territory constituted the Reichsland or Imperial Territory of (German for Alsace–Lorraine). The area was administered directly from Berlin, but was granted limited autonomy in 1911. This included its constitution and state assembly, its own flag, and the ("Alsatian Flag Song") as its anthem. Reichstag election results 1874–1912 FVp: Progressive People's Party. formed in 1910 as a merger of all leftist liberal parties. During World War I In French foreign policy, the demand for the return of Alsace and Lorraine faded in importance after 1880 with the decline of the monarchist element. When the World War broke out in 1914, recovery of the two lost provinces became the top French war goal. In the early 20th century, the increased militarization of Europe, and the lack of negotiation between major powers, led to harsh and rash actions taken by both sides in respect to Alsace–Lorraine during World War I. As soon as war was declared, both the French and German authorities used the inhabitants of Alsace–Lorraine as propaganda pawns. Germans living in France were arrested and placed into camps by the French authorities. Upon occupying certain villages, veterans of the 1870 conflict were sought out and arrested by the French army. The Germans responded to the outbreak of war with harsh measures against the Alsace–Lorraine populace: the Saverne Affair had convinced the high command that the population was hostile to the German Empire and that it should be forced into submission. German troops occupied some homes. The German military feared French partisans – or francs-tireurs, as they had been called during the Franco-Prussian War – would reappear. German authorities developed policies aimed at reducing the influence of French. In Metz, French street names, which had been displayed in French and German, were suppressed in January 1915. Six months later, on 15 July 1915, German became the only official language in the region, leading to the Germanization of the towns’ names effective 2 September 1915. Prohibiting the speaking of French in public further increased the exasperation of some of the natives, who were long accustomed to mixing their conversation with French language (see code-switching); still, the use even of one word, as innocent as "bonjour", could incur a fine. Some ethnic Germans in the region cooperated in the persecution as a way to demonstrate German patriotism. German authorities became increasingly worried about renewed French nationalism. The Reichsland governor stated in February 1918: "Sympathies towards France and repulsion for Germans have penetrated to a frightening depth the petty bourgeoisie and the peasantry". But in order to spare them possible confrontations with relatives in France but also to avoid any desertion from the Alsatian soldiers to the French army, German Army draftees from Alsace–Lorraine were sent mainly to the Eastern front, or the Navy (). About 15,000 Alsatians and Lorrainers served in the German Navy. Annexation to the French Republic In the general revolutionary atmosphere of the expiring German Empire, Marxist councils of workers and soldiers () formed in Mulhouse, in Colmar and Strasbourg in November 1918, in parallel to other such bodies set up in Germany, in imitation of the Russian equivalent soviets. In this chaotic situation, Alsace–Lorraine's Landtag proclaimed itself the supreme authority of the land with the name of , the Soviet of Strasbourg claimed the foundation of a Republic of Alsace–Lorraine, while SPD Reichstag representative for Colmar, Jacques Peirotes, announced the establishment of the French rule, urging Paris to send troops quickly. While the soviet councils disbanded themselves with the departure of the German troops between 11–17 November, the arrival of the French Army stabilized the situation: French troops put the region under military occupation and entered Strasbourg on 5 November. The Nationalrat proclaimed the annexation of Alsace to France on 5 December, even though this process did not gain international recognition until the signature of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. France divided Alsace–Lorraine into the départements of Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin, and Moselle (the same political structure as before the annexation and as created by the French Revolution, with slightly different limits). Even today, laws in these three regions are somewhat different from the rest of France – these specific provisions are known as the local law in Alsace–Moselle. The département Meurthe-et-Moselle was maintained even after France recovered Alsace–Lorraine in 1919. The area of Belfort became a special-status area and was not reintegrated into Haut-Rhin in 1919 but instead was made a full-status département in 1922 under the name Territoire-de-Belfort. The French Government immediately started a Francization campaign that included the forced deportation of all Germans who had settled in the area after 1870. For that purpose, the population was divided in four categories: (French citizens before 1870), (descendants of such French citizens), (citizens of Allied or neutral states), and (enemy aliens – Germans). By July 1921, 111,915 people categorized as "" were expelled to Germany. All place names were francizised (e.g., Straßburg → Strasbourg, Mülhausen → Mulhouse, Schlettstadt → Sélestat, etc.). World War II Evacuation and deportations On 1 September 1939 the population of Alsace and Moselle living in the Franco-German border region were evacuated. This comprised about one third of the population of Alsace and Moselle, or about 600,000 residents. The evacuation was aimed at providing space for military operations and for protecting citizens from attack. Evacuees were allowed to return in July 1940. Since German legislation that repressed homosexuality applied to Alsace–Moselle, homosexuals were deported. Refugee and resident Jews were also expelled. German control and the Malgré-nous After the defeat of France in the spring of 1940, Alsace and Moselle were not formally annexed by Nazi Germany. Although the terms of the armistice specified that the integrity of the whole French territory could not be modified in any way, Adolf Hitler, the German Führer, drafted an annexation law in 1940 that he kept secret, expecting to announce it in the event of a German victory. Through a series of laws which individually seemed minor, Berlin took de facto control of Alsace–Lorraine, and Alsatians–Lorrainians could be drafted into the German Army. During the occupation, Moselle was integrated into a Reichsgau named Westmark and Alsace was amalgamated with Baden. Beginning in 1942, people from Alsace and Moselle were made German citizens by decree of the Nazi government. Beginning in October 1942, young Alsatian and Lorrainian men were inducted into the German armed forces. Sometimes they were known as the , which could be translated into English as "against our will". A small minority volunteered, notably the author of The Forgotten Soldier, known by the pseudonym Guy Sajer. Ultimately, 100,000 Alsatians and 30,000 Mosellans were enrolled, many of them to fight against the Soviet Red Army, on Germany's Eastern Front. Most of those who survived the war were interned in Tambov in Russia in 1945. Many others fought in Normandy against the Allies as the of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich, some of whom were involved in the Oradour sur Glane and Tulle war crimes. Speaking Alsatian, Lorraine Franconian, or French was prohibited under German occupation, and learning German was obligatory. Demographics First language (1900) German and Germanic dialects: 1,492,347 (86.8%) Other languages: 219,638 (12.8%) French and Romance dialects: 198,318 (11.5%) Italian: 18,750 (1.1%) German and a second language: 7,485 (0.4%) Polish: 1,410 (0.1%) Religion When Alsace and the Lorraine department became part of Germany, the French laws regarding religious bodies were preserved, with special privileges to the then recognised religions of Calvinism, Judaism, Lutheranism and Roman Catholicism, under a system known as the Concordat. However, the Roman Catholic dioceses of Metz and of Strasbourg became exempt jurisdictions. The , with its directory, supreme consistory and the bulk of its parishioners residing in Alsace, was reorganised as the Protestant Church of Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine (EPCAAL) in 1872, but territorially reconfined to Alsace–Lorraine only. The five local Calvinist consistories, originally part of the Reformed Church of France, formed a statewide synod in 1895, the Protestant Reformed Church of Alsace and Lorraine (EPRAL). The three Israelite consistories in , and were disentangled from supervision by the Israelite Central Consistory of France and continued as separate statutory corporations which never formed a joint body, but cooperated. All the mentioned religious bodies retained the status as établissements publics de culte (public bodies of Religion). When the new Alsace–Lorraine constitution of 1911 provided for a bicameral state parliament () each recognised religion was entitled to send a representative into the first chamber of the Landtag as ex officio members (the bishops of Strasbourg and of Metz, the presidents of EPCAAL and EPRAL, and a delegate of the three Israelite consistories). Religious statistics in 1910 Population 1,874,014: Catholic: 76.22% Protestant: 21.78% (18.87% Lutherans, 2.91% Calvinists) Jewish: 1.63% Other Christian: 0.21% Atheist: 0.12% Statistics (1866–2018) Languages Both Germanic and Romance dialects were traditionally spoken in Alsace–Lorraine before the 20th century. Germanic dialects: Central German dialects: Luxembourgish Franconian aka Luxembourgish in the north-west of Moselle (Lothringen) around Thionville (Diddenuewen in the local Luxembourgish dialect) and Sierck-les-Bains (Siirk in the local Luxembourgish dialect). Moselle Franconian in the central northern part of Moselle around Boulay-Moselle (Bolchin in the local Moselle Franconian dialect) and Bouzonville (Busendroff in the local Moselle Franconian dialect). Rhine Franconian in the north-east of Moselle around Forbach (Fuerboch in the local Rhine Franconian dialect), Bitche (Bitsch in the local Rhine Franconian dialect), and Sarrebourg (Saarbuerj in the local Rhine Franconian dialect), as well as in the north-west of Alsace around Sarre-Union (Buckenum in the local Rhine Franconian dialect) and La Petite-Pierre (Lítzelstain in the local Rhine Franconian dialect). Transitional between Central German and Upper German: South Franconian in the northernmost part of Alsace around Wissembourg (Waisseburch in the local South Franconian dialect). Upper German dialects: Alsatian in the largest part of Alsace and in a few villages around Phalsbourg in the extreme south-east of Moselle. Alsatian was the most spoken dialect in Alsace–Lorraine. High Alemannic in the southernmost part of Alsace, around Saint-Louis and Ferrette (Pfirt in the local High Alemannic dialect). Romance dialects (belonging to the langues d'oïl like French): Lorrain in roughly the southern half of Moselle, including its capital Metz, as well as in some valleys of the Vosges Mountains in the west of Alsace around Schirmeck and Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines. Franc-Comtois in 12 villages in the extreme south-west of Alsace. See also Alsace–Lorraine Regional Party Independent Regional Party for Alsace–Lorraine Unification of Germany Gare de Metz-Ville German Lorraine Moselle (department) Notes References Further reading Bankwitz, Philip Charles Farwell. Alsatian autonomist leaders, 1919-1947 (UP of Kansas, 1978). Byrnes, Joseph F. "The relationship of religious practice to linguistic culture: language, religion, and education in Alsace and the Roussillon, 1860–1890." Church History 68#3 (1999): 598–626. Harp, Stephen L. "Building the German nation. Primary schooling in Alsace–Lorraine, 1870–1918." Paedagogica Historica 32.supplement 1 (1996): 197–219. Hazen, Charles Downer. Alsace–Lorraine Under German Rule (New York: H. Holt, 1917). online; scholarly history Höpel, Thomas: The French-German Borderlands: Borderlands and Nation-Building in the 19th and 20th Centuries, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: December 17, 2012. Klein, Detmar. "German-Annexed Alsace and Imperial Germany: A Process of Colonisation?." in Róisín Healy and Enrico Dal Lago, eds. The Shadow of Colonialism on Europe’s Modern Past (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014). 92-108. Putnam, Ruth. Alsace and Lorraine from Cæsar to Kaiser, 58 B.C.–1871 A.D. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1915. Seager, Frederic H. "The Alsace–Lorraine Question in France, 1871-1914." in Charles K. Warner, ed., From the Ancien Regime to the Popular Front (1969): 111–126. Silverman, Dan P. Reluctant Union; Alsace–Lorraine and Imperial Germany, 1871-1918 (Pennsylvania State UP, 1972). Varley, Karine. Under the Shadow of Defeat (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2008) pp. 175–202. Other languages Baumann, Ansbert. « Die Erfindung des Grenzlandes Elsass-Lothringen », in: Burkhard Olschowsky (ed.), Geteilte Regionen – geteilte Geschichtskulturen? Muster der europäischen Identitätsbildung im europäischen Vergleich, Munich: Oldenbourg 2013, , S. 163–183. Roth, François. Alsace–Lorraine, De 1870 À Nos Jours: Histoire d'un "pays perdu". Nancy: Place Stanislas, 2010. . External links http://www.geocities.com/bfel/geschichte5b.html (Archived 2009-10-25) http://www.elsass-lothringen.de/ https://web.archive.org/web/20090730200508/http://geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Alsace_Lorraine.html France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland Elsass-Lothringen video Annuary of Cultur and Artists from Elsass-Lothringen History of Alsace History of Lorraine Alsace-Lorraine, Republic of Political history of France States and territories established in 1871 States of the German Empire Treaty of Versailles Geography of Grand Est	[ -0.3431215286254883, 0.3282286524772644, -0.06592297554016113, -0.19504716992378235, -0.20551684498786926, 0.43634888529777527, 0.029847808182239532, 0.5206292867660522, -0.5154423117637634, -0.9600006341934204, -0.21548479795455933, 0.04428594931960106, 0.19425924122333527, 0.7943445444107056, -0.45492398738861084, 0.8184136152267456, 0.17282725870609283, 0.050465177744627, 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206998	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Buffalo	USS Buffalo	Five ships of the United States Navy have been named Buffalo, the first after the large mammal, the others after the city of Buffalo, New York. was a 3-gun sloop purchased April 1813 at Philadelphia and attached to the Delaware Flotilla. She took part in the 29 July 1813 attack on HMS Junon and HMS Martin. She was sold 12 August 1816. was an auxiliary cruiser purchased for use in the Spanish–American War. was a planned light cruiser that was converted into the light aircraft carrier . was a planned light cruiser, laid down on 3 April 1944 but the contract for her construction was canceled on 12 August 1945. Her unfinished hull was scrapped. is the inactivated 25th nuclear attack submarine, currently in the process of decommissioning. 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206999	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Sidgwick	Henry Sidgwick	Henry Sidgwick (; 31 May 1838 – 28 August 1900) was an English utilitarian philosopher and economist. He was the Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1883 until his death, and is best known in philosophy for his utilitarian treatise The Methods of Ethics. He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research and a member of the Metaphysical Society and promoted the higher education of women. His work in economics has also had a lasting influence. In 1875, with Millicent Garrett Fawcett, he co-founded Newnham College, a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. It was the second Cambridge college to admit women, after Girton College. In 1856, Sidgwick joined the Cambridge Apostles intellectual secret society. Biography Henry Sidgwick was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Reverend W. Sidgwick (died 1841), was headmaster of the local grammar school, Ermysted's Grammar School. Henry's mother was Mary Sidgwick, née Crofts (1807–79). Henry Sidgwick was educated at Rugby (where his cousin, subsequently his brother-in-law, Edward White Benson, later Archbishop of Canterbury, was a master), and at Trinity College, Cambridge. While at Trinity, Sidgwick became a member of the Cambridge Apostles. In 1859, he was senior classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellor's medallist and Craven scholar. In the same year, he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity and soon afterwards he became a lecturer in classics there, a post he held for ten years. The Sidgwick Site, home to several of the university's arts and humanities faculties, is named after him. In 1869, he exchanged his lectureship in classics for one in moral philosophy, a subject to which he had been turning his attention. In the same year, deciding that he could no longer in good conscience declare himself a member of the Church of England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship and in 1881 he was elected an honorary fellow. In 1874 he published The Methods of Ethics (6th ed. 1901, containing emendations written just before his death), by common consent a major work, which made his reputation outside the university. John Rawls called it the "first truly academic work in moral theory, modern in both method and spirit". In 1875, he was appointed praelector on moral and political philosophy at Trinity, and in 1883 he was elected Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy. In 1885, the religious test having been removed, his college once more elected him to a fellowship on the foundation. Besides his lecturing and literary labours, Sidgwick took an active part in the business of the university and in many forms of social and philanthropic work. He was a member of the General Board of Studies from its foundation in 1882 to 1899; he was also a member of the Council of the Senate of the Indian Civil Service Board and the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate and chairman of the Special Board for Moral Science. While at Cambridge Sidgwick taught a young Bertrand Russell. A 2004 biography of Sidgwick by Bart Schultz sought to establish that Sidgwick was a lifelong homosexual, but it is unknown whether he ever consummated his inclinations. According to the biographer, Sidgwick struggled internally throughout his life with issues of hypocrisy and openness in connection with his own forbidden desires. He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research, and was a member of the Metaphysical Society. He also promoted the higher education of women. He helped to start the higher local examinations for women, and the lectures held at Cambridge in preparation for these. It was at his suggestion and with his help that Anne Clough opened a house of residence for students, which developed into Newnham College, Cambridge. When, in 1880, the North Hall was added, Sidgwick lived there for two years. His wife became principal of the college after Clough's death in 1892, and they lived there for the rest of his life. During this whole period, Sidgwick took the deepest interest in the welfare of the college. In politics, he was a liberal, and became a Liberal Unionist (a party that later effectively merged with the Conservative party) in 1886. In 1892 Sidgwick was the president of the second international congress for experimental psychology and delivered the opening address. From the first twelve such international congresses, the International Union of Psychological Science eventually emerged. Early in 1900 he was forced by ill-health to resign his professorship, and died a few months later. Sidgwick, who died an agnostic, is buried in Terling All Saints Churchyard, Terling, Essex, with his wife. Ethics Sidgwick summarizes his position in ethics as utilitarianism "on an Intuitional basis". This reflects, and disputes, the rivalry then felt among British philosophers between the philosophies of utilitarianism and ethical intuitionism, which is illustrated, for example, by John Stuart Mill's criticism of ethical intuitionism in the first chapter of his book Utilitarianism. Sidgwick developed this position due to his dissatisfaction with an inconsistency in Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism, between what he labels "psychological hedonism" and "ethical hedonism". Psychological hedonism states that everyone always will do what is in their self interest, whereas ethical hedonism states that everyone ought to do what is in the general interest. Sidgwick believed neither Bentham nor Mill had an adequate answer as to how the prescription that someone ought to sacrifice their own interest to the general interest could have any force, given they combined that prescription with the claim that everyone will in fact always pursue their own individual interest. Ethical intuitions, such as those argued for by philosophers such as William Whewell, could, according to Sidgwick, provide the missing force for such normative claims. For Sidgwick, ethics is about which actions are objectively right. Our knowledge of right and wrong arises from common-sense morality, which lacks a coherent principle at its core. The task of philosophy in general and ethics in particular is not so much to create new knowledge but to systematize existing knowledge. Sidgwick tries to achieve this by formulating methods of ethics, which he defines as rational procedures "for determining right conduct in any particular case". He identifies three methods: intuitionism, which involves various independently valid moral principles to determine what ought to be done, and two forms of hedonism, in which rightness only depends on the pleasure and pain following from the action. Hedonism is subdivided into egoistic hedonism, which only takes the agent's own well-being into account, and universal hedonism or utilitarianism, which is concerned with everyone's well-being. As Sidgwick sees it, one of the central issues of ethics is whether these three methods can be harmonized with each other. Sidgwick argues that this is possible for intuitionism and utilitarianism. But a full success of this project is impossible since egoism, which he considers as equally rational, cannot be reconciled with utilitarianism unless religious assumptions are introduced. Such assumptions, for example, the existence of a personal God who rewards and punishes the agent in the afterlife, could reconcile egoism and utilitarianism. But without them, we have to admit a "dualism of practical reason" that constitutes a "fundamental contradiction" in our moral consciousness. Meta-ethics Sidgwick's meta-ethics involve an explicit defense of a non-naturalist form of moral realism. He is committed to moral cognitivism: that moral language is robustly truth-apt, and that moral properties are not reducible to any natural properties. This non-naturalist realism is combined with an ethical intuitionist epistemology to account for the possibility of knowing moral truths. Esoteric morality Sidgwick is closely, and controversially, associated with esoteric morality: the position that a moral system (such as utilitarianism) may be acceptable, but that it is not acceptable for that moral system to be widely taught or accepted. Bernard Williams would refer to Sidgwickian esoteric utilitarianism as "Government House Utilitarianism" and claim that it reflects the elite British colonialist setting of Sidgwick's thought. Philosophical legacy According to John Rawls, Sidgwick's importance to modern ethics rests with two contributions: providing the most sophisticated defense available of utilitarianism in its classical form, and providing in his comparative methodology an exemplar for how ethics is to be researched as an academic subject. Allen Wood describes Sidgwick-inspired comparative methodology as the "standard model" of research methodology among contemporary ethicists. Despite his importance to contemporary ethicists, Sidgwick's reputation as a philosopher fell precipitously in the decades following his death, and he would be regarded as a minor figure in philosophy for a large part of the first half of the 20th century. Bart Schultz argues that this negative assessment is explained by the tastes of groups which would be influential at Cambridge in the years following Sidgwick's death: Wittgensteinian ordinary language philosophers, the remnants of British idealism, and, most importantly, the Bloomsbury Group. John Deigh, however, disputes Schultz's explanation, and instead attributes this fall in interest in Sidgwick to changing philosophical understandings of axioms in mathematics, which would throw into question whether axiomatization provided an appropriate model for a foundationalist epistemology of the sort Sidgwick tried to build for ethics. Economics Sidgwick worked in economics at a time when the British economics mainstream was undergoing the transition from the classical economics of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill to the neo-classical economics of William Stanley Jevons and Alfred Marshall. Sidgwick responded to these changes by preferring to emphasize the similarities between the old economics and the new, choosing to base his work on J.S. Mill's Principles of Political Economy, incorporating the insights of Jevons. Sidgwick believed self interest to be a centerpiece of human motivation. He believed that this self interest had immense utility in the economic world, and that people should not be blamed for wanting to sell a good for the highest possible price, or buy a good for the lowest possible price. He distinguished though a difference between the ability for an individual to properly judge their own interests and the ability of a group of people to properly come to a point of maximum group happiness. He found two divergences in the outcomes of the decisions of the individual and of the group. One instance of this is the idea that there is more to life than the accumulation of wealth, so it is not always in the best interest of society to simply aim for wealth maximizing results. This effect may be due limitations of the individual, from attributes such as ignorance, immaturity, and disability. This can be a moral judgement, such as the decision to limit the sale of alcohol to an individual out of a concern of their well being. The second instance is the fact that wealth maximizing outcomes for society are simply not always a possibility when individuals within that society are all attempting to maximize their individual wealth. Contradictions are likely to emerge that cause one individual a lower maximum wealth due to another individual's actions, therefore disallowing the possibility of a society-wide wealth maximization. Problems also are possible to occur due to monopoly. Sidgwick would have a major influence on the development of welfare economics, due to his own work on the subject inspiring Arthur Cecil Pigou's work The Economics of Welfare. Alfred Marshall, founder of the Cambridge School of economics, would describe Sidgwick as his "spiritual mother and father." Parapsychology Sidgwick had a lifelong interest in the paranormal. This interest, combined with his personal struggles with religious belief, motivated his gathering of young colleagues interested in assessing the empirical evidence for paranormal or miraculous phenomena. This gathering would be known as the "Sidgwick Group", and would be a predecessor of the Society for Psychical Research, which would count Sidgwick as founder and first president. Sidgwick would connect his concerns with parapsychology to his research in ethics. He believed the dualism of practical reason might be solved outside of philosophical ethics if it were shown, empirically, that the recommendations of rational egoism and utilitarianism coincided due to the reward of moral behaviour after death. According to Bart Schultz, despite Sidgwick's prominent role in institutionalizing parapsychology as a discipline, he had upon it an "overwhelmingly negative, destructive effect, akin to that of recent debunkers of parapsychology"; he and his Sidgwick Group associates became notable for exposing fraud mediums. One such incident was the exposure of the fraud of Eusapia Palladino. Religion Brought up in the Church of England, Sidgwick drifted away from orthodox Christianity, and as early as 1862 he described himself as a theist, independent from established religion. For the rest of his life, although he regarded Christianity as "indispensable and irreplaceable – looking at it from a sociological point of view," he found himself unable to return to it as a religion. Works by Sidgwick The Ethics of Conformity and Subscription. 1870. The Methods of Ethics. London, 1874, 7th edition 1907. The Theory of Evolution in its application to Practice, in Mind, Volume I, Number 1 January 1876, 52–67, [http://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/sidgwick/Principles of Political Economy]. London, 1883, 3rd edition 1901. The Scope and Method of Economic Science. 1885. Outlines of the History of Ethics for English Readers. 1886 5th edition 1902 (enlarged from his article Ethics in the Encyclopædia Britannica). The Elements of Politics. London, 1891, 4th edition 1919. "The Philosophy of Common Sense", in Mind, New Series, Volume IV, Number 14, April 1895, 145–158. Economic science and economics, Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, 1896, v. 1, (reprinted in The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, 1987, v. 2, 58–59.) Practical Ethics. London, 1898, 2nd edition 1909. Philosophy; its Scope and Relations. London, 1902. Lectures on the Ethics of T. H. Green, Mr Herbert Spencer and J. Martineau. 1902. The Development of European Polity. 1903, 3rd edition 1920 Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses. 1904. Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant and other philosophical lectures and essays. 1905. Sidgwick's writings available online Family Sidgwick married Eleanor Mildred Balfour. She was sister to Arthur Balfour, and a member of the Cambridge Ladies Dining Society. See also Palm Sunday Case Citations Sources Further reading - Study of rational egoism that focuses on Sidgwick's thought on the subject, alongside that of Thomas Hobbes. External links Henry Sidgwick Website Official website of the 2nd International congress : Henry Sidgwick Ethics, Psychics, Politics. University of Catania – Italy Henry Sidgwick. Comprehensive list of online writings by and about Sidgwick. Contains Sidgwick's "Methods of Ethics", modified for easier reading Henry Sidgwick, Leslie Stephen, Mind, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 37 (January 1901), pp. 1–17 [At Internet Archive] The Ethical System of Henry Sidgwick, James Seth, Mind, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 38 (April 1901), pp. 172–187 [At Internet Archive] Henry Sidgwick, biographical profile, including quotes and further resources, at Utilitarianism.net. 1838 births 1900 deaths 19th-century British male writers 19th-century British philosophers 19th-century English philosophers Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge British agnostics British economists British ethicists British feminists British political philosophers Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club Consequentialists English agnostics English economists English feminists English male non-fiction writers English political philosophers Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge Feminist philosophers Individualist feminists Male feminists Moral philosophers Moral realists 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207003	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Boy%20Friend%20%28musical%29	The Boy Friend (musical)	The Boy Friend (sometimes misspelled The Boyfriend) is a musical by Sandy Wilson. The musical's original 1954 London production ran for 2,078 performances, making it briefly the third-longest running musical in West End or Broadway history (after Chu Chin Chow and Oklahoma!) until these were all surpassed by Salad Days. The Boy Friend marked Julie Andrews' American stage debut. Set in the carefree world of the French Riviera in the Roaring Twenties, The Boy Friend is a comic pastiche of 1920s shows (in particular early Rodgers and Hart musicals such as The Girl Friend). Its relatively small cast and low cost of production makes it a continuing popular choice for amateur and student groups. Sandy Wilson wrote a sequel to The Boy Friend. Set ten years later, and, appropriately, a pastiche of 1930s musicals (in particular those of Cole Porter) it was titled Divorce Me, Darling! and ran for 91 performances at London's old Globe Theatre in 1965. It is sometimes revived as a "double bill" with The Boy Friend. The original score and manuscripts for the script and lyrics can be found in Wilson's archive at the Harry Ransom Center. Productions London The musical was first performed in London in 1953. It opened at the Players' Theatre Club on 14 April 1953, and reopened in an expanded version on 13 October. It transferred for a short season to the Embassy Theatre, Swiss Cottage and then opened at Wyndham's Theatre in the West End on 14 January 1954. Choreography was by John Heawood. The light, tuneful piece proved immensely popular with the British public, including the Queen, and ran for more than five years, a total of 2,082 performances. The principal role of Polly Browne was to have been played by Diana Maddox, who fell ill on the afternoon of the final dress rehearsal. Anne Rogers (at that point playing a minor role) volunteered to take over, having learnt the role on her own. The show opened the following evening and made an overnight star of Rogers, who stayed with the production through its expanded versions to the triumphant West End first night at Wyndham's. The cast also included Hugh Paddick in his first leading West End role as Percival Browne, Joan Sterndale-Bennett as Madam Dubonnet, and Violetta Farjeon as Hortense. Broadway The Boy Friend opened on Broadway at the Royale Theatre on 30 September 1954 and closed on 26 November 1955 after 485 performances. Starring was newcomer Julie Andrews in her Broadway debut as Polly, with a cast including Eric Berry, John Hewer, Geoffrey Hibbert, Dilys Laye, Bob Scheerer, Stella Claire, Ann Wakefield, Millicent Martin and Moyna Macgill. Some of them had connections with The Players' Theatre in London, but only Wakefield had appeared in the show's London production (in the very first run at the Players'). For the Broadway opening, veteran orchestrator Ted Royal and jazzman Charles L. Cooke contributed 1920s-style arrangements. For her Broadway debut, Andrews received the Theatre World Award. My Fair Lady producers saw her in this piece, prompting her casting in the lead in that production, which led to her wider fame on Broadway and beyond in the following years. Jo Anne Bayless (known as Jean Bayless in London) played Polly for the final three months of the Broadway production and reprised the role on the subsequent US tour. Broadway revival A revival directed by Gus Schirmer opened on Broadway at the Ambassador Theatre on 14 April 1970, and ran for 111 performances. Starring were Judy Carne as Polly, Sandy Duncan as Maisie, Ronald Young as Tony, Jeanne Beauvais as Madame Dubonnet, Leon Shaw as Percival Browne, Simon McQueen as Dulcie, Harvey Evans as Bobby Van Husen, David Vaughn as Lord Brockhurst, Barbara Andres as Hortense, Marie Paxton as Lady Brockhurst, Lesley Secombe and Mary Zahn. Duncan received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance as well as a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical. West End revival 1984 saw Cameron Macintosh's 30th anniversary production opened at The Churchill Theatre in Bromley. Directed by its creator, Sandy Wilson, it starred Glynis Johns as Madam Dubonett and Derek Waring as Percival Browne. It transferred to The Old Vic Theatre (London) then The Ed Mirvish Theatre (Toronto) before starting a West End run at The Albery Theatre in St Martins Lane. Glynis Johns was replaced by Anna Quayle when it reached the West End. International productions On 29 November 1967 a new production opened at the Comedy Theatre, directed by Sandy Wilson and co-produced by Michael Codron and the Yvonne Arnaud Theatre. It starred Tony Adams as Tony, Frances Barlow as Maisie, Marion Grimaldi as Mdm Dubonnet, Jeremy Hawk as Percival Browne, Geoffrey Hibbert as Lord Brockhurst, Celia Helda as Lady Brockhurst, Cheryl Kennedy as Polly Browne. It closed on 12 October 1968 after 365 performances. In 1995, on its 40th anniversary, the musical returned to The Players' Theatre in London in a new production that was as near a reproduction of the original as possible. It was directed by Maria Charles, who had played the original Dulcie. The choreography was by Geoffrey Webb who was also in the original production. It was originally planned that the choreography would be done by Larry Drew, the original Bobby van Husen, but he died suddenly during the early planning stages of the production. Set design was by Disley Jones who was responsible for the hat designs in the original production. Among the cast were Gemma Page, Oliver Hickey, Sophie Louise Dann and John Rutland (in his original role as Lord Brockhurst). Following its success at the Players' it went on a nationwide tour and was very successful. In 2003, Julie Andrews made her directorial debut with a production of The Boy Friend at the Bay Street Theater in Sag Harbor, NY, starring Meredith Patterson as Polly Browne and Sean Palmer as Tony Brockhurst. This production was presented at the Goodspeed Opera House, running from July 2005 through 24 September 2005, where Sean Palmer returned as Tony and Jessica Grové took over the role of Polly after Meredith Patterson was unable to do the role due to scheduling conflicts with her new role in Irving Berlin's White Christmas. Costume and scenic design were by Tony Walton, with choreography by John DeLuca. The show was performed in two acts, instead of three, and the song "Safety in Numbers" was moved from the scene on the beach to the Carnival Ball. The production then toured the United States and Canada, playing 11 cities, including Chicago, Boston, Orange County, and Toronto, from October 2005 through March 2006. The touring cast included Bethe Austin as Hortense, Paul Carlin as Percival, Andrea Chamberlain as Maisie, Drew Eshelman as Lord Brockhurst, Rick Faugno as Bobby Van Husen, Nancy Hess as Mme Dubonnet, Darcy Pulliam as Lady Brockhurst, Scott Barnhardt as Alphonse, Andrew Briedis as Pierre, Jordan Cable as Marcel, Margot de La Barre as Nancy, Pamela Otterson as Monica, Krysta Rodriguez as Fay, Eric Daniel Santagata as Phillipe, Tom Souhrada as Garcon, and Kirsten Wyatt as Dulcie. A production played in 2006 at the Open Air Theatre at Regent's Park, London. This also proved to be acclaimed, and was revived during the Open Air Theatre's 2007 season. The Boy Friend was the chosen title for the Showtime Challenge 2011 at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, produced by Eyebrow Productions. Rehearsals took place over a 48-hour period immediately prior to the performance on Sunday 8 May, and all proceeds went to The Prince's Foundation for Children and The Arts. Plot Act I The whole musical is set in the Villa Caprice where Maisie, the girls (Dulcie, Nancy, Fay), Hortense the maid, and Mme Dubonnet live at Mme Dubonnet's School for Young Ladies. Act I begins when Hortense orders a costume for "a Miss Polly Browne" and Maisie and the other girls sing the ironic "Perfect Young Ladies" with Hortense. Polly arrives and tells everyone about her made-up boy friend who is "motoring down from Paris" to meet her for the upcoming carnival ball, and sings about "The Boy Friend". Later, Bobby surprises Maisie, and they dance to "Won't You Charleston With Me?" Polly's widowed father Percy arrives at the school to discover that the headmistress, Mme Dubonnet, is an old flame of his. They sing "Fancy Forgetting" to rekindle the spark. Though Polly is a millionaire's daughter, she feels left out because she's the only one in her crowd who doesn't have a boyfriend and she needs a partner for the fancy dress ball. The errand boy, Tony, arrives to deliver her Pierrette costume and they are immediately attracted to each other and sing "I Could Be Happy With You." Act II The curtain opens with the chorus number "Sur la Plage". After this, Polly and Tony meet at the beach and Polly lies that she is not rich, to fit in with Tony. They sing about their future lives together in "A Room in Bloomsbury." They are about to kiss when Hortense interrupts them and is shocked to find Polly with a poor messenger boy. Polly begs Hortense to keep her secret and Hortense agrees. After Tony and Polly leave, Hortense sings how everything is "Nicer in Nice" with the ensemble. Then the "aging roué" character Lord Brockhurst arrives, leading to a comical meeting with the rigidly-mannered Percival Browne. Lord Brockhurst's domineering wife Lady Brockhurst is also introduced. Percival Browne and Mme Dubonnet then sing "The 'You-Don't-Want-To-Play-With-Me' Blues". Polly goes to meet Tony on the promenade just as Lord and Lady Brockhurst are passing by, and they recognize him. When he runs off, everyone else assumes that he is a thief. The act ends with a sadder reprise of "I Could be Happy with You" sung by Polly and the other characters. Act III At the ball, Bobby and the three boys propose to Maisie and the three girls, but the girls reply in unison that "we'll let you know at midnight" and everyone dances to "The Riviera". After everyone has left, Tony and Hortense run into each other. Hortense scolds Tony and tells him to meet Polly at the ball because she loves him as much as he loves her. Tony leaves to prepare for the ball as Lord Brockhurst sings "It's Never Too Late To Fall In Love" with the flirty Dulcie, and is caught by Lady Brockhurst. At the Carnival ball, Polly is sad that Tony is not there and she is thinking about leaving. Hortense tells Mme Dubonnet to persuade Polly to stay, so Polly sings "Poor Little Pierrette" with Mme Dubonnet. Tony later arrives at the ball and takes Polly by surprise. He asks "May I have this dance, Pierrette?" to which Polly replies, "I'm afraid I can't dance with a stranger". He then kisses her to remind her that it is he. When Tony removes his mask, Lord and Lady Brockhurst run to him, exclaiming they found their son at last. Polly and the others discover that Tony is really the son of the rich Lord and Lady Brockhurst, and he had left home to try to make his own way in the world. Polly tells Tony that she is actually rich as well, and Percy and Mme Dubonnet announce that they are getting married. The clock strikes midnight, and the girls unanimously say yes to the boys' proposals. The last scene has everyone dancing as soon as Bobby, with the last spoken line in the play, asks "So how about that dance?" The show ends with a reprise of "The Boy Friend", "I Could Be Happy With You", and "A Room In Bloomsbury". Musical Numbers Act I Perfect Young Ladies - Hortense, Maisie, Dulcie, Fay, Nancy, Ensemble The Boy Friend - Polly, Dulcie, Maisie, Fay, Nancy, Marcel, Pierre, Alphonse, Ensemble Won't You Charleston With Me? - Bobby, Maisie Fancy Forgetting - Mme Dubonnet, Percival I Could Be Happy with You - Polly, Tony Finale Act 1 - Ensemble Act II Sur La Plage - Dulcie, Nancy, Ensemble A Room in Bloomsbury - Tony, Polly Nicer in Nice - Hortense ensemble The You-Don't-Want-to-Play-with-Me Blues - Mme Dubonnet, Percival Safety in Numbers - Maisie, Bobby, Marcel, Alphonse, Pierre I Could Be Happy with You (Reprise) - Polly, Tony Finale Act 2 - ALL Act III The Riviera - Bobby, Maisie, Dulcie, Fay, Nancy, Marcel, Alphonse, Pierre, Ensemble It's Never Too Late to Fall in Love - Lord Brockhurst, Dulcie Carnival Tango - Tango Dancers Poor Little Pierrette - Mme Dubonnet, Polly Finale Act 3 - ALL Film version Ken Russell's 1971 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film version of the show, starring Twiggy and Christopher Gable, was an alternative interpretation, weaving the basic plot into a more complicated story in which a seaside dramatic company performing the show, is visited by an influential film producer (Vladek Sheybal) on the very night that the leading lady (Glenda Jackson) has to be replaced by the assistant stage manager Polly Browne (Twiggy). The film contains numerous references to the 1930s movie musicals of Busby Berkeley and MGM. It marked one of the final screen appearances of actor/director Max Adrian. The National Board of Review voted Ken Russell best director, and Twiggy won two Golden Globe awards as best newcomer and best actress (musical/comedy), but the film did not make a significant impact on the American box-office, perhaps because MGM edited it down to 109 minutes. (MGM reissued the full version theatrically in 1987.) It was released to DVD on 12 April 2011, as part of the Warner Archive Collection, a series of made-to-order DVDs. The disc is remastered and is the 136-minute version. Wilson's original score was freely adapted and augmented by Peter Maxwell Davies for the film. Davies subsequently prepared (and recorded) a concert suite based on the music. Sequel A sequel musical titled Divorce Me, Darling! was created by Sandy Wilson in 1964. The musical is set ten years later after The Boy Friend. The original production premiered at The Players' Theatre in London before moving to the West End's Globe Theatre in 1965. References External links The Guide to Musical Theatre The Boy Friend at the Music Theatre International website 2016 City Center interview with John Guare about The Boy Friend Sandy Wilson Papers at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin 1953 musicals Broadway musicals Original musicals West End musicals Musicals set in the Roaring Twenties British musicals ca:El xicot ru:Приятель (фильм)	[ -0.44379740953445435, 0.0756654366850853, 0.0735919177532196, -0.2915688455104828, 0.3758234977722168, 0.03398364409804344, 0.18412907421588898, 0.24086925387382507, 0.11902318894863129, -0.17327411472797394, -0.30952000617980957, 0.47935619950294495, -0.08625151962041855, -0.35319504141807556, -0.49984538555145264, 0.2198757827281952, 0.6129950881004333, 0.05150320380926132, -0.09461305290460587, -0.905549943447113, -0.5892120599746704, -0.21064482629299164, -0.19174934923648834, 0.16396160423755646, 0.18528857827186584, 0.24542076885700226, -0.016350891441106796, 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207007	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Blanco%20White	Joseph Blanco White	Joseph Blanco White, born José María Blanco y Crespo (11 July 1775 – 20 May 1841), was an Anglo-Spanish political thinker, theologian, and poet. Life Blanco White was born in Seville, Spain. He had Irish ancestry and was the son of the merchant Guillermo Blanco (alias White, an English viceconsul, who had established himself in Seville during the reign of Fernando VI) and María Gertrudis Crespo y Neve. Blanco White was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood. In Seville, Spain, he had worked with Melchor de Jovellanos, an adviser to the king who advocated reform. After his ordination in 1800, White's religious doubts led him to leave Spain and go to England in 1810. There he ultimately entered the Anglican Church, having studied theology at Oxford and made the friendship of Thomas Arnold, John Henry Newman the Reverend E.T. Daniell and Richard Whately. He became tutor in Whately's family when Whately became the Archbishop of Dublin in 1831. While in this position White embraced Unitarian views. He found asylum amongst the Unitarians of Liverpool, and he died in the city on 20 May 1841. Pro-Spanish America writings Blanco White edited El Español, a monthly Spanish magazine in London, from 1810 to 1814, which was strongly for the independence of Spanish America. In its pages, he commented on the course of the insurgency based on information from Spanish America and British sources. The Regency banned it in Spain, since it undermined the pro-Cádiz position on trade, which gave peninsular merchants a monopoly on trade. Juan Bautista Arriaza published a pamphlet against him in London and suffered other attacks in the Cádiz newspapers; even in the Cortes of Cádiz, in his session of 24 May 1811, he was attacked. Articles in El Español were reprinted in the insurgent press. He was not for complete independence for Spanish America, but rather a moderate position. He advocated that the Spanish Cortes (parliament) recognize juntas in Spanish America that remained loyal to the Spanish monarchy after the Napoleon's 1808 invasion of Spain and ouster of Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII and Napoleon's placement of his brother Joseph on the throne. He also was in favor of free trade, not just the closed Spanish system of comercio libre that allowed free trade ports in Spain with Spanish America and all ports within Spanish America. Other works His other principal writings include Doblado's Letters from Spain (1822) (under the pseudonym of "Don Leucado Doblado", and written in part at Holland House in London), Evidence against Catholicism (1825), Second Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion (2 vols., 1834) and Observations on Heresy and Orthodoxy (1835). They all show literary ability and were extensively read in their day. He also translated Paley's Evidences and the Book of Common Prayer into Spanish. White is also remembered for his sonnet "Night and Death" ("Mysterious Night! when our first parent knew"), which was dedicated to Samuel Taylor Coleridge on its appearance in the Bijou for 1828 and has since found its way into several anthologies. Three versions are given in the Academy of 12 September 1891. References Further reading Goytisolo, Juan, ed. Obra inglesa de D. José María Blanco White. Buenos Aires 1972. Life of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White, written by himself, with portions of his Correspondence, edited by John Hamilton Thom (London, 3 vols., 1845). Martin Murphy, Blanco White: Self-banished Spaniard, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. External links El Español, en la Hemeroteca Digital de la Biblioteca Nacional de España Attribution 1775 births 1841 deaths Exophonic writers People from Seville British poets Spanish emigrants to the United Kingdom Alumni of the University of Oxford Converts to Unitarianism Spanish poets Spanish people of Irish descent Converts to Protestantism from Catholicism Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism Spanish Protestants Spanish Unitarians British male writers Spanish male poets People of the Spanish American wars of independence	[ -0.37382322549819946, 0.29302775859832764, -1.0831109285354614, -0.2430366724729538, -0.09349759668111801, 0.9991815090179443, 1.0042617321014404, 0.2644718885421753, -0.024997832253575325, -0.4942985475063324, -0.2626056671142578, 0.42113393545150757, -0.07877302169799805, 0.12300163507461548, -0.3130415380001068, 0.2662932872772217, 0.09733542054891586, -0.41144779324531555, -0.059084970504045486, 0.21142400801181793, -0.43425053358078003, 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207009	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohousing	Cohousing	Cohousing is an intentional community of private homes clustered around shared space. The term originated in Denmark in late 1960s. Each attached or single family home has traditional amenities, including a private kitchen. Shared spaces typically feature a common house, which may include a large kitchen and dining area, laundry, and recreational spaces. Shared outdoor space may include parking, walkways, open space, and gardens. Neighbors also share resources like tools and lawnmowers. Households have independent incomes and private lives, but neighbors collaboratively plan and manage community activities and shared spaces. The legal structure is typically a homeowner association or housing cooperative. Community activities feature regularly scheduled shared meals, meetings, and workdays. Neighbors gather for parties, games, movies, or other events. Cohousing makes it easy to form clubs, organize child and elder care, and carpool. Cohousing facilitates interaction among neighbors and thereby provides social, practical, economic, and environmental benefits. Characteristics Cohousing communities are usually structured – in principle and often in architecture – to encourage frequent interactions and the formation of close relationships among their members. Neighbors are encouraged to cooperate within the community and to care for their neighbors. Cohousing developments are usually intentionally limited to around 20–40 homes and frequently feature large common areas for residents to interact in. While cohousing developments are designed to encourage community, residents usually still have as much personal privacy as they want. Residents are able to choose how much they engage in order to find the right balance between their privacy and the community. Decision making in cohousing communities is often based on forming a consensus within the community. Residents have shared space which they can all use, usually saving money; however, residents can still manage their own space to appeal to them. Cohousing is similar to coliving, distinguished by individual units in Cohousing with personal amenities such as kitchens and bathrooms, while coliving involves the communal use of shared bathrooms and common spaces such as kitchens and living rooms. Origins The modern theory of cohousing originated in Denmark in the 1960s among groups of families who were dissatisfied with existing housing and communities that they felt did not meet their needs. Bodil Graae wrote a newspaper article titled "Children Should Have One Hundred Parents", spurring a group of 50 families to organize around a community project in 1967. This group split into two groups who developed the cohousing projects Sættedammen and Skråplanet, which are the oldest known modern cohousing communities. The key organizer was Jan Gudmand Høyer who drew inspiration from his architectural studies at Harvard and interaction with experimental U.S. communities of the era. He published the article "The Missing Link between Utopia and the Dated Single Family House" in 1968, converging a second group. The Danish term bofællesskab (living community) was introduced to North America as cohousing by two American architects, Kathryn McCamant and Charles Durrett, who visited several cohousing communities and wrote a book about it. The book resonated with some existing and forming communities, such as Sharingwood in Washington state and N Street in California, who embraced the cohousing concept as a crystallization of what they were already about. Though most cohousing groups seek to develop multi-generational communities, some focus on creating senior communities. Charles Durrett later wrote a handbook on creating senior cohousing. The first community in the United States to be designed, constructed and occupied specifically for cohousing is Muir Commons in Davis, California. There are precedents for cohousing in the 1920s in New York with the cooperative apartment housing with shared facilities and good social interaction. The Siheyuan, or quadrangle design of housing in China has a shared courtyard and is thus similar in some respects to cohousing. Growth Cohousing communities are part of the new cooperative economy in the United States and are predicted to expand rapidly in the next few decades as individuals and families seek to live more sustainably, and in community with neighbors. Since the first cohousing community was completed in the U.S. – Muir Commons in Davis, California – more than 160 communities have been established in 25 states plus the District of Columbia, with more than 125 in process. Most cohousing communities are intergenerational with both children and elders; in recent years, senior cohousing focused on older adult needs have grown. These communities come in a variety, but are often environment friendly and socially sustainable. Hundreds of cohousing communities exist in Denmark and other countries in northern Europe. In Canada, there are 17 completed communities, and approximately 42 in the forming, development, or construction phase (see The Canadian Cohousing Network). There are more than 300 cohousing communities in the Netherlands (73 mixed-generation and 231 senior cohousing), with about 60 others in planning or construction phases. There are also communities in Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and other parts of the world. Cohousing started to develop in the UK at the end of the 1990s. The movement has gradually built up momentum and there are now 14 purpose built cohousing communities. A further 40+ cohousing groups are developing projects and new groups are forming all the time. Cohousing communities in the UK range from around 8 households to around 30 households. Most communities are mixed communities with single people, couples and families but some are only for people over 50 and one is only for women over 50 years. The communities themselves range from new developments built to modern eco standards to conversions of everything from farms to Jacobean mansions to former hospital buildings and are in urban, rural and semi- rural locations. Design Because each cohousing community is planned in its context, following the principles of complementary architecture. A key feature of this model is its flexibility to the needs and values of its residents and the characteristics of the site. Cohousing can be urban, suburban or rural. The physical form is typically compact but varies from low-rise apartments to townhouses to clustered detached houses. They tend to keep cars to the periphery which promotes walking through the community and interacting with neighbors as well as increasing safety for children at play within the community. Shared green space is another characteristic, whether for gardening, play, or places to gather. When more land is available than is needed for the physical structures, the structures are usually clustered closely together, leaving as much of the land as possible "open" for shared use. This aspect of cohousing directly addresses the growing problem of suburban sprawl. In addition to "from-scratch" new-built communities (including those physically retrofitting/re-using existing structures), there are also "retrofit" (aka "organic") communities, in which neighbors create "intentional neighborhoods" by buying adjacent properties and removing fences. Often, they create common amenities such as common houses after the fact while living there. N Street Cohousing in Davis, California, is the canonical example of this type; it came together before the term Cohousing was popularized in the United States. Cohousing differs from some types of intentional communities in that the residents do not have a shared economy or a common set of beliefs or religion, but instead invest in creating a socially rich and interconnected community. A non-hierarchical structure employing a consensus decision-making model is common in managing cohousing. Individuals do take on leadership roles, such as being responsible for coordinating a garden or facilitating a meeting. Ownership form Cohousing communities in the U.S. currently rely on one of two existing legal forms of real estate ownership: individually titled houses with common areas owned by a homeowner association (condominiums) or a housing cooperative. Condo ownership is most common because it fits financial institutions' and cities' models for multi-unit owner-occupied housing development. U.S. banks lend more readily on single-family homes and condominiums than housing cooperatives. Charles Durrett points out that rental cohousing is a very likely future model, as it already is being practiced in Europe. In Australia, due to higher legal complexity of cooperatives, cohousing projects are most commonly developed under limited proprietary company with cooperative-like rules. Cohousing differs from standard condominium development and master-planned subdivisions because the development is designed by, or with considerable input from, its future residents. The design process invariably emphasizes consciously fostering social relationships among its residents. Common facilities are based on the actual needs of the residents, rather than on what a developer thinks will help sell units. Turnover in cohousing developments is typically very low, and there is usually a waiting list for units to become available. In Europe the term "joint building ventures" has been coined to define the form of ownership and housing characterized as cohousing. According to the European Urban Knowledge Network (EUKN): "Joint building ventures are a legal federation of persons willing to build who want to create owner-occupied housing and to participate actively in planning and building." See also Diggers and Dreamers Permaculture Transgenerational design References Further reading Gresleri, Jacopo. Cohousing. Esperienze internazionali di abitare condiviso, Genova: Plug in, 2015, McCamant, Kathryn; Durrett, Charles. Creating Cohousing: Building Sustainable Communities, New Society Publishers, 2011, . Durrett, Charles. The Senior Cohousing Handbook: A Community Approach to Independent Living", 2nd Ed., New Society Publishers, 2009, . McCamant, Kathryn; Durrett, Charles. Cohousing: A Contemporary Approach to Housing Ourselves (2nd Edition), Ten Speed Press, 1994, . Meltzer, Graham S. "Sustainable Community: Learning from the Cohousing Model." Victoria, B.C.: Trafford Press, 2005, . Williams, Jo. Designing neighbourhoods for social interaction: The case of cohousing'', " Journal of Urban Design," 2005, Vol.10, No. 2, 195–227. External links Communities Self-Identifying as "Uses Cohousing Model" in FIC's Communities Directory CohoUS an association a community of communities, includes directory of US cohousing communities Cohousing-L, mailing list about cohousing (45,000 messages 1993–2020). 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207011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Buffalo%20%281893%29	USS Buffalo (1893)	The second USS Buffalo (later AD-8) was an auxiliary cruiser of the United States Navy, and later a destroyer tender. Buffalo was launched on 31 May 1893 by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, in Newport News, Virginia, as El Cid for the Southern Pacific Railroad's Morgan Line. She was completed in August 1893 and sold to Brazil and renamed Nictheroy. Purchased by the Navy from the Brazilian Government on 11 July 1898, she was renamed Buffalo, commissioned in ordinary a week later, fitted out as an auxiliary cruiser at New York Navy Yard; and placed in full commission on 22 September 1898, with Lieutenant Commander Joseph Newton Hemphill in command. Service history 1898–1915 Her first cruise, from 7 December 1898 to 7 May 1899, was from New York City to Manila and return, sailing east. Upon her return she was placed out of commission on 3 July 1899. On 2 April 1900, she was recommissioned and served as a training vessel. As a training vessel, Buffalo traveled widely. She made four voyages to the Philippines with replacement crews for the Asiatic Fleet (24 April – 20 October 1900, 24 December 1900 – 13 May 1901, 5 June – 13 October 1902, and 17 December 1903 – 14 July 1904). All except the last, which terminated at Mare Island, began and ended at east coast ports. On her last voyage, Buffalo conveyed the 1st Torpedo Flotilla to Manila. Between 12 September and 23 November 1904 she cruised in the Pacific, returning to Mare Island. Out of commission at Mare Island from April 1905 to 17 November 1906, she then served as a transport until 1915 in the Pacific. During 17–20 December 1909, she carried Marines to Nicaragua and remained there in support until 16 March 1910. In 1911–12, she served briefly with the Asiatic Fleet in Chinese waters; and then from 14 November through 4 December 1914 operated off Mexico. She spent 27 January through 29 November 1915 out of commission at Mare Island, and then rejoined the Pacific Fleet. 1916–1927 In 1916, she again served in Mexican waters, and between May and August 1917, Buffalo transported the Special Diplomatic Mission of the United States to Russia. Upon her return she was ordered into Philadelphia Navy Yard for conversion to a destroyer tender and reclassified AD-8. Conversion was completed in June 1918, and after loading torpedo equipment at Newport, Rhode Island, she departed for Brest, France, via Bermuda. She then proceeded to Gibraltar, where she operated as station and repair ship to destroyers and subchasers. From February until September 1919 she had similar duty with the Azores Detachment at Ponta Delgada and then returned to New York. On 31 December 1919, Buffalo arrived at San Diego, California to commence her duties as repair ship and tender to Destroyer Squadrons 5 and 11, Pacific Fleet. In November 1921, she was ordered to the Asiatic Station as tender to Destroyer Squadron, Asiatic Fleet, and arrived at Manila in December. During the summer of 1922 she cruised with the fleet in Chinese waters and in September arrived at Yokohama, Japan. She returned to the west coast on 8 October and was decommissioned on 15 November 1922 at San Diego. She was used as a barracks ship until stricken from the Navy List on 27 May 1927. She was sold four months later. References External links United States Navy New York (state)-related ships United States Navy Buffalo, New York-related ships Spanish–American War auxiliary ships of the United States World War I auxiliary ships of the United States 1893 ships Ships built in Newport News, Virginia Tenders of the United States Navy Destroyer tenders of the United States	[ -0.447503000497818, -0.07972609251737595, -0.8299840688705444, 0.5376971364021301, -0.3312479257583618, 0.32380685210227966, 0.5524446964263916, -0.4960244596004486, -0.4598086178302765, 0.015470237471163273, 0.6643339395523071, 0.18559011816978455, -0.42099347710609436, 0.514957070350647, 0.07980252057313919, -0.032854337245225906, 0.08901682496070862, 0.3375164568424225, -0.36216920614242554, -0.506294846534729, -0.19202865660190582, -0.166244238615036, 0.4914501905441284, 0.4132710099220276, -0.10858363658189774, 0.4523960053920746, 0.5403994917869568, 0.3417353630065918, 0.39109987020492554, 0.05639393627643585, 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207014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy%20Wilson	Sandy Wilson	Alexander Galbraith "Sandy" Wilson (19 May 1924 – 27 August 2014) was an English composer and lyricist, best known for his musical The Boy Friend (1953). Biography Wilson was born in Sale, Cheshire, England, and was educated at Harrow School. In 1942 he won a State Scholarship for a wartime course at SOAS and was assigned to study Japanese. He was thus one of the so-called 'Dulwich Boys' who studied at SOAS and boarded at Dulwich College. While there he put together a satirical review titled 'A Matter of Course' based on his experiences on the Japanese course. He was one of the few not to complete the course and he subsequently served in the Royal Army Ordnance Corps in Great Britain, Egypt and Iraq. After the war he went to Oriel College, Oxford and while a student wrote revues for the Oxford University Experimental Theatre Club and then attended the Old Vic Theatre School on a production course. Most of his work for the stage was material for revues, such as Hermione Gingold's Slings and Arrows, Laurier Lister's Oranges and Lemons, and See You Later, starring such performers as Peter Cook. He wrote the book, music and lyrics for The Boy Friend for the Players' Theatre in 1953. Its success resulted in a longer version being produced in the West End at Wyndhams Theatre. After its opening in January 1954, over 2,000 performances were put on there. It opened on Broadway in 1954, at the Royale Theater, and introduced Julie Andrews in her Broadway debut. The show ran on Broadway for over 480 performances. Wilson wrote the musical Valmouth in 1958, based on a Ronald Firbank novel set in a seaside resort. In 1964 he wrote Divorce Me, Darling!, a sequel to The Boy Friend. His last work was a version of Aladdin (1979) for the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith. His autobiography, published in 1975, is titled I Could Be Happy. Sandy Wilson died in Taunton, England in 2014, aged 90. His longtime partner was Chak Yui. Wilson was a member of the Labour Party and contributed to the Elizabethan magazine during his years of greatest fame. In 1999, Wilson donated his papers to the Harry Ransom Center. The papers include produced and unproduced plays, mostly musicals but also plays for stage and TV, as well as drafts of Wilson's published and unpublished works including an autobiography, illustrated book, novels, articles, and short stories, along with correspondence. Musicals Caprice (1950) The Boy Friend (1953) The Buccaneer (1955) Valmouth (1958) Pieces of Eight (1959) Divorce Me, Darling! (1964) As Dorothy Parker Once Said (1969) His Monkey Wife (1971) The Clapham Wonder (1978, based on the novel The Vet's Daughter by Barbara Comyns) Aladdin (1979) Notes References Gale, Steven. Encyclopedia of British Humorists: Geoffrey Chaucer to John Cleese, Volume 2, Taylor & Francis, 1996, , p. 1216. External links Sandy Wilson Papers at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin Sandy Wilson Neglected master of the British musical [Cached page retrieved from Archive.org] Sandy Wilson at The Playwrights Database 1924 births 2014 deaths Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford English musical theatre composers English male composers People educated at Harrow School People from Sale, Greater Manchester Musicians from Greater Manchester British Army personnel of World War II Royal Army Ordnance Corps soldiers British expatriates in Egypt British expatriates in Iraq Alumni of SOAS University of London	[ -0.541118860244751, 0.2076287418603897, -0.22354623675346375, -0.8727759718894958, 0.27297377586364746, 0.6603180170059204, 0.2661093473434448, -0.2730993330478668, -0.14517417550086975, -0.15953528881072998, -0.39123114943504333, 0.3399656116962433, -0.3932463824748993, -0.19428667426109314, -0.48773160576820374, 0.06070307269692421, -0.13305748999118805, -0.40392473340034485, 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207020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega%20baryon	Omega baryon	The omega baryons are a family of subatomic hadron (a baryon) particles that are represented by the symbol and are either neutral or have a +2, +1 or −1 elementary charge. They are baryons containing no up or down quarks. Omega baryons containing top quarks are not expected to be observed. This is because the Standard Model predicts the mean lifetime of top quarks to be roughly , which is about a twentieth of the timescale for strong interactions, and therefore that they do not form hadrons. The first omega baryon discovered was the , made of three strange quarks, in 1964. The discovery was a great triumph in the study of quark processes, since it was found only after its existence, mass, and decay products had been predicted in 1961 by the American physicist Murray Gell-Mann and, independently, by the Israeli physicist Yuval Ne'eman. Besides the , a charmed omega particle () was discovered, in which a strange quark is replaced by a charm quark. The decays only via the weak interaction and has therefore a relatively long lifetime. Spin (J) and parity (P) values for unobserved baryons are predicted by the quark model. Since omega baryons do not have any up or down quarks, they all have isospin 0. Omega baryons † Particle (or quantity, i.e. spin) has neither been observed nor indicated. Recent discoveries The particle is a "doubly strange" baryon containing two strange quarks and a bottom quark. A discovery of this particle was first claimed in September 2008 by physicists working on the DØ experiment at the Tevatron facility of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. However, the reported mass of was significantly higher than expected in the quark model. The apparent discrepancy from the Standard Model has since been dubbed the " puzzle". In May 2009, the CDF collaboration made public their results on the search for the based on analysis of a data sample roughly four times the size of the one used by the DØ experiment. CDF measured the mass to be , which was in excellent agreement with the Standard Model prediction. No signal has been observed at the DØ reported value. The two results differ by , which is equivalent to 6.2 standard deviations and are therefore inconsistent. Excellent agreement between the CDF measured mass and theoretical expectations is a strong indication that the particle discovered by CDF is indeed the . In February 2013 the LHCb collaboration published a measurement of the mass that is consistent with, but more precise than, the CDF result. In March 2017, the LHCb collaboration announced the observation of five new narrow states decaying to , where the was reconstructed in the decay mode . The states are named (3000)0, (3050)0, (3066)0, (3090)0 and (3119)0. Their masses and widths were reported, but their quantum numbers could not be determined due to the large background present in the sample. See also Delta baryon Hyperon Lambda baryon List of mesons List of particles Nucleon Physics portal Sigma baryon Timeline of particle discoveries Xi baryon References External links Picture of the first event containing the , which happens to contain the complete decay chain of the . 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207021	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Stanley%20Jevons	William Stanley Jevons	William Stanley Jevons (; 1 September 183513 August 1882) was an English economist and logician. Irving Fisher described Jevons's book A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy (1862) as the start of the mathematical method in economics. It made the case that economics as a science concerned with quantities is necessarily mathematical. In so doing, it expounded upon the "final" (marginal) utility theory of value. Jevons' work, along with similar discoveries made by Carl Menger in Vienna (1871) and by Léon Walras in Switzerland (1874), marked the opening of a new period in the history of economic thought. Jevons's contribution to the marginal revolution in economics in the late 19th century established his reputation as a leading political economist and logician of the time. Jevons broke off his studies of the natural sciences in London in 1854 to work as an assayer in Sydney, where he acquired an interest in political economy. Returning to the UK in 1859, he published General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy in 1862, outlining the marginal utility theory of value, and A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold in 1863. For Jevons, the utility or value to a consumer of an additional unit of a product is inversely related to the number of units of that product he already owns, at least beyond some critical quantity. Jevons received public recognition for his work on The Coal Question (1865), in which he called attention to the gradual exhaustion of Britain's coal supplies and also put forth the view that increases in energy production efficiency leads to more, not less, consumption. This view is known today as the Jevons paradox, named after him. Due to this particular work, Jevons is regarded today as the first economist of some standing to develop an 'ecological' perspective on the economy. The most important of his works on logic and scientific methods is his Principles of Science (1874), as well as The Theory of Political Economy (1871) and The State in Relation to Labour (1882). Among his inventions was the logic piano, a mechanical computer. Background Jevons was born in Liverpool, Lancashire, England. His father, Thomas Jevons, was an iron merchant who wrote about legal and economic subjects as well. His mother Mary Anne Jevons was the daughter of William Roscoe. At the age of fifteen he was sent to London to attend the University College School. Around this time, he seemed to have formed the belief that he was capable of important achievements as a thinker. Towards the end of 1853, after having spent two years at University College, where his favourite subjects were chemistry and botany, he received an offer as metallurgical assayer for the new mint in Australia. The idea of leaving the UK was distasteful, but pecuniary considerations had, in consequence of the failure of his father's firm in 1847, become of vital importance, and he accepted the post. Jevons left the UK for Sydney in June 1854 to take up a role as an Assayer at the Mint. Jevons lived with his colleague and his wife first at Church Hill, then in Annangrove at Petersham and at Double Bay before returning to England. In letters to his family he described his life, took photographs and produced a social map of Sydney. Jevons returned to England via America five years later. He resigned his appointment, and in the autumn of 1859 re-entered the University College London as a student. He was granted B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of London. He now gave his principal attention to the moral sciences, but his interest in natural science was by no means exhausted: throughout his life he continued to write occasional papers on scientific subjects, and his knowledge of the physical sciences greatly contributed to the success of his chief logical work, The Principles of Science. Not long after taking his M.A. degree, Jevons obtained a post as tutor at Owens College, Manchester. In 1866, he was elected professor of logic and mental and moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy at Owens College. Theory of utility Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the keynote of his general theory of political economy, was practically formulated in a letter written in 1860; and the germ of his logical principles of the substitution of similars may be found in the view which he propounded in another letter written in 1861, that "philosophy would be found to consist solely in pointing out the likeness of things." The theory of utility above referred to, namely, that the degree of utility of a commodity is some continuous mathematical function of the quantity of the commodity available, together with the implied doctrine that economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more definite form in a paper on "A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy", written for the British Association in 1862. This paper does not appear to have attracted much attention either in 1862 or on its publication four years later in the Journal of the Statistical Society; and it was not till 1871, when the Theory of Political Economy appeared, that Jevons set forth his doctrines in a fully developed form. It was not until after the publication of this work that Jevons became acquainted with the applications of mathematics to political economy made by earlier writers, notably Antoine Augustin Cournot and H.H. Gossen. The theory of utility was at about 1870 being independently developed on somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and Léon Walras in Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the connection between value in exchange and final (or marginal) utility, the priority belongs to Gossen, but this in no way detracts from the great importance of the service which Jevons rendered to British economics by his fresh discovery of the principle, and by the way in which he ultimately forced it into notice. In his reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes expressed himself without due qualification: the declaration, for instance, made at the commencement of the Theory of Political Economy, that value depends entirely upon utility, lent itself to misinterpretation. But a certain exaggeration of emphasis may be pardoned in a writer seeking to attract the attention of an indifferent public. The Neoclassical Revolution, which would reshape economics, had been started. Jevons did not explicitly distinguish between the concepts of ordinal and cardinal utility. Cardinal utility allows the relative magnitude of utilities to be discussed, while ordinal utility only implies that goods can be compared and ranked according to which good provided the most utility. Although Jevons predated the debate about ordinality or cardinality of utility, his mathematics required the use of cardinal utility functions. For example, in "The Theory of Political Economy", Chapter II, the subsection on "Theory of Dimensions of Economic Quantities", Jevons makes the statement that "In the first place, pleasure and pain must be regarded as measured upon the same scale, and as having, therefore, the same dimensions, being quantities of the same kind, which can be added and subtracted...." Speaking of measurement, addition and subtraction requires cardinality, as does Jevons's heavy use of integral calculus. Note that cardinality does not imply direct measurability, in which Jevons did not believe. Practical economics It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with the fundamental data of economic science, but as a writer on practical economic questions, that Jevons first received general recognition. A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold (1863) and The Coal Question (1865) placed him in the front rank as a writer on applied economics and statistics; and he would be remembered as one of the leading economists of the 19th century even had his Theory of Political Economy never been written. His economic works include Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875) written in a popular style, and descriptive rather than theoretical; a Primer on Political Economy (1878); The State in Relation to Labour (1882), and two works published after his death, Methods of Social Reform" and "Investigations in Currency and Finance, containing papers that had appeared separately during his lifetime. The last-named volume contains Jevons's speculations on the connection between commercial crises and sunspots. He was engaged at the time of his death upon the preparation of a large treatise on economics and had drawn up a table of contents and completed some chapters and parts of chapters. This fragment was published in 1905 under the title of The Principles of Economics: a fragment of a treatise on the industrial mechanism of society, and other papers. In The Coal Question, Jevons covered a breadth of concepts on energy depletion that have recently been revisited by writers covering the subject of peak oil. For example, Jevons explained that improving energy efficiency typically reduced energy costs and thereby increased rather than decreased energy use, an effect now known as the Jevons paradox. The Coal Question remains a paradigmatic study of resource depletion theory. Jevons's son, H. Stanley Jevons, published an 800-page follow-up study in 1915 in which the difficulties of estimating recoverable reserves of a theoretically finite resource are discussed in detail. In 1875, Jevons read a paper On the influence of the sun-spot period upon the price of corn at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This captured the attention of the media and led to the coining of the word sunspottery for claims of links between various cyclic events and sun-spots. In a later work, "Commercial Crises and Sun-Spots", Jevons analyzed business cycles, proposing that crises in the economy might not be random events, but might be based on discernible prior causes. To clarify the concept, he presented a statistical study relating business cycles with sunspots. His reasoning was that sunspots affected the weather, which, in turn, affected crops. Crop changes could then be expected to cause economic changes. Subsequent studies have found that sunny weather has a small but significant positive impact on stock returns, probably due to its impact on traders' moods. Logic In 1864 Jevons published a Pure Logic; or, the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity, which was based on Boole's system of logic, but freed from what he considered the false mathematical dress of that system. In the years immediately following he devoted considerable attention to the construction of a logical machine, exhibited before the Royal Society in 1870, by means of which could be mechanically obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and universal principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in 1869 he published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the title of The Substitution of Similars. He expressed this principle in its simplest form by saying: "Whatever is true of a thing is true of its like", and he worked out in detail its various applications including the logical abacus (a cross between logical abacus and a piano – "Logic Piano"), a mechanical computer he designed and had built in 1866. In the following year appeared the Elementary Lessons on Logic, which soon became the most widely read elementary textbook on logic in the English language. In the meantime he was engaged upon a much more important logical treatise, which appeared in 1874 under the title of The Principles of Science. In this work Jevons embodied the substance of his earlier works on pure logic and the substitution of similars; he also enunciated and developed the view that induction is simply an inverse employment of deduction; he treated in a luminous manner the general theory of probability, and the relation between probability and induction; and his knowledge of the various natural sciences enabled him throughout to relieve the abstract character of logical doctrine by concrete scientific illustrations, often worked out in great detail. An example is his discussion of the use of one-way functions in cryptography, including remarks on the integer factorization problem that foreshadowed its use in public-key cryptography. Jevons's general theory of induction was a revival of the theory laid down by Whewell and criticised by John Stuart Mill; but it was put in a new form, and was free from some of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell's exposition open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in the UK in the 19th century. "Though less attractively written than Mill's System of Logic, Principles of Science is a book that keeps much closer to the facts of scientific practice." His Studies in Deductive Logic, consisting mainly of exercises and problems for the use of students, was published in 1880. In 1877 and the following years Jevons contributed to the Contemporary Review some articles on Mill, which he had intended to supplement by further articles, and eventually publish in a volume as a criticism of Mill's philosophy. These articles and one other were republished after Jevons's death, together with his earlier logical treatises, in a volume, entitled Pure Logic, and other Minor Works. The criticisms on Mill contain much that is ingenious and much that is forcible, but on the whole they cannot be regarded as taking rank with Jevons's other work. His strength lay in his power as an original thinker rather than as a critic; and he will be remembered by his constructive work as logician, economist and statistician. Jevons's number Jevons wrote in his 1874 book Principles of Science: "Can the reader say what two numbers multiplied together will produce the number 8,616,460,799? I think it unlikely that anyone but myself will ever know." This became known as Jevons's number and was factored by Charles J. Busk in 1889, Derrick Norman Lehmer in 1903, and later on a pocket calculator by Solomon W. Golomb. It is the product of two prime numbers, 89,681 and 96,079. Geometry One of Jevons's contemporaries, Hermann von Helmholtz, who was interested in non-Euclidean geometry, discussed two groups of two-dimensional creatures with one group living in the plane while the other living in the surface of a sphere. He asserted that since these creatures were embedded in two dimensions, they would develop a planar version of Euclidean geometry, but that since the nature of these surfaces were different, they would arrive at very different versions of this geometry. He then extended this argument into three dimensions, noting that this raises fundamental questions of the relationship of spatial perception to mathematical truth. Jevons made an almost immediate response to this article. While Helmholtz focused on how humans perceived space, Jevons focused on the question of truth in geometry. Jevons agreed that while Helmholtz's argument was compelling in constructing a situation where the Euclidean axioms of geometry would not apply, he believed that they had no effect on the truth of these axioms. Jevons hence makes the distinction between truth and applicability or perception, suggesting that these concepts were independent in the domain of geometry. Jevons did not claim that geometry was developed without any consideration for spatial reality. Instead, he suggested that his geometric systems were representations of reality but in a more fundamental way that transcends what one can perceive about reality. Jevons claimed that there was a flaw in Helmholtz's argument relating to the concept of infinitesimally small. This concept involves how these creatures reason about geometry and space at a very small scale, which is not necessarily the same as the reasoning that Helmholtz assumed on a more global scale. Jevons claimed that the Euclidean relations could be reduced locally in the different scenarios that Helmholtz created and hence the creatures should have been able to experience the Euclidean properties, just in a different representation. For example, Jevons claimed that the two-dimensional creatures living on the surface of a sphere should be able to construct the plane and even construct systems of higher dimensions and that although they may not be able to perceive such situations in reality, it would reveal fundamental mathematical truths in their theoretical existence. In 1872, Helmholtz gave a response to Jevons, who claimed that Helmholtz failed to show why geometric truth should be separate from the reality of spatial perception. Helmholtz criticized Jevons's definition of truth and in particular, experiential truth. Helmholtz asserts that there should be a difference between experiential truth and mathematical truth and that these versions of truth are not necessarily consistent. This conversation between Helmholtz and Jevons was a microcosm of an ongoing debate between truth and perception in the wake of the introduction of non-Euclidean geometry in the late 19th century. Personal life In 1867, Jevons married Harriet Ann Taylor, whose father, John Edward Taylor, had been the founder and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian. Jevons suffered from ill health and sleeplessness, and found the delivery of lectures covering so wide a range of subjects very burdensome. In 1876, he was glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship of political economy in University College, London. Travelling and music were the principal recreations of his life; but his health continued to be bad, and he suffered from depression. He found his professorial duties increasingly irksome, and feeling that the pressure of literary work left him no spare energy, he decided in 1880 to resign the post. On 13 August 1882 he drowned whilst bathing near Hastings. Jevons was brought up a Christian Unitarian. Excerpts from his journals indicate he remained committed to his Christian beliefs until death. He is buried in the Hampstead Cemetery. Legacy Jevons was a prolific writer, and at the time of his death was a leader in the UK both as a logician and as an economist. Alfred Marshall said of his work in economics that it "will probably be found to have more constructive force than any, save that of Ricardo, that has been done during the last hundred years." Jevons's theory of induction has continued to be influential: "Jevons's general view of induction has received a powerful and original formulation in the work of a modern-day philosopher, Professor K. R. Popper." Works 1862. A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy 1863. A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold, Edward Stanford. 1864. Pure Logic; or, the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity, Edward Stanford, London 1865. The Coal Question, Macmillan and Co. 1869. The Substitution of Similars, The True Principle of Reasoning, Macmillan & Co. 1870. Elementary Lessons on Logic, Macmillan & Co., London 1871. The Match Tax: A Problem in Finance, Edward Stanford. 1871. The Theory of Political Economy, Macmillan & Co. "Theory of Political Economy". In James R. Newman, ed., The World of Mathematics, Vol. 2, Part IV, 1956. 1874. Principles of Science, Macmillan & Co. 1875. Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, D. Appleton and Co. 1878. A Primer on Political Economy 1880. Studies in Deductive Logic – 1884 edition (Macmillan & Co., London) 1882. The State in Relation to Labour 1883. Methods of Social Reform and Other Papers, Macmillan and Co. Methods of Social Reform, and Other Papers, Kelley, 1965. 1884. Investigations in Currency and Finance, Macmillan and Co. 1884. 1886. Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons, Ed. by Harriet A. Jevons, Macmillan & Co. 1972–81. Papers and Correspondence, edited by R. D. Collison Black, Macmillan & the Royal Economic Society (7 vol.) Articles "On the Variation of Prices and the Value of the Currency since 1782", Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Vol. 28, No. 2, June 1865. "On the Frequent Autumnal Pressure in the Money Market, and the Action of the Bank of England", Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Vol. 29, No. 2, June 1866. "On the Condition of the Metallic Currency of the United Kingdom, with Reference to the Question of International Coinage", Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Vol. 31, No. 4, December 1868. "Who Discovered the Quantification of the Predicate?", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXI, December 1872/May 1873. "The Philosophy of Inductive Inference", Fortnightly Review, Vol. XIV, New Series, 1873. "The Use of Hypothesis", Fortnightly Review, Vol. XIV, New Series, 1873. "The Railways and the State". In: Essays and Addresses, Macmillan & Co., 1874. "The Future of Political Economy", Fortnightly Review, Vol. XX, New Series, 1876. "Cruelty to Animals: A Study in Sociology", Fortnightly Review, Vol. XIX, New Series, 1876. "The Silver Question", Journal of Social Science, No. IX, January 1878. "John Stuart Mill's Philosophy Tested", Part II, The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXI, December 1877/January 1878; Part III, Vol. XXXII, April 1878. "Methods of Social Reform, I: Amusements of the People", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXIII, October 1878. "Methods of Social Reform, II: A State Parcel Post", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXIV, January 1879. "The Periodicity of Commercial Crises, and its Physical Explanation," Journal of The Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland, Vol. VII, Part 54, 1878/1879. "Experimental Legislation and the Drink Traffic", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXVII, January/June 1880. "Recent Mathematico-Logical Memoirs", Nature, Vol. XXIII, 24 March 1881. "Richard Cantillon and the Nationality of Political Economy", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXIX, January/June 1881. "The Rationale of Free Public Libraries", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXIX, January/June 1881. "Bimetallism", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXXIX, January/June 1881. "Married Women in Factories", The Contemporary Review, Vol. XLI, January/June 1882. Miscellany Luigi Cossa, Guide to the Study of Political Economy, with a Preface by W. Stanley Jevons, Macmillan & Co., 1880. Jevons & his theory on a possible ommection between sunspots & economic activity cycles, were mentioned by Lovecraft in his The Shadow out of Time as discussed by Nathaniel Wingate Peaslee just before he was abducted by the Great Race. References Sources R.D. Collison Black (1987). "Jevons, William Stanley", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 1008–14. Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940. Princeton University Press. Terry Peach (1987). "Jevons as an economic theorist", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 1014–19. The first part of this article was based on an article in the Encyclopedia of Marxism at www.marxists.org. Further reading Bam, Vincent, et al. "Hypothetical Fallibilism in Peirce and Jevons", Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, Vol. 15, No. 2, Spring, 1979. Barrett, Lindsay and Connell, Matthew. "Jevons and the Logic 'Piano’", The Rutherford Journal, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2006. Collison Black, R. D. "Jevons and Cairnes", Economica, New Series, Vol. 27, No. 107, Aug., 1960. Collison Black, R. D. "Jevons, Bentham and De Morgan", Economica, New Series, Vol. 39, No. 154, May, 1972. De Marchi, N. B. "The Noxious Influence of Authority: A Correction of Jevons' Charge", Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 16, No. 1, Apr., 1973. Grattan-Guinness, I. "'In Some Parts Rather Rough': A Recently Discovered Manuscript Version of William Stanley Jevons's 'General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy' (1862)", History of Political Economy, Vol. 34, Number 4, Winter 2002. Jevons, H. Winefrid. "William Stanley Jevons: His Life", Econometrica, Vol. 2, No. 3, Jul., 1934. Keynes, J. M. "William Stanley Jevons 1835–1882: A Centenary Allocation on his Life and Work as Economist and Statistician", Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 99, No. 3, 1936. Könekamp, Rosamund. "William Stanley Jevons (1835–1882). Some Biographical Notes", Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3, Sept. 1962. Konvitz, Milton R. "An Empirical Theory of the Labor Movement: W. Stanley Jevons", The Philosophical Review, Vol. 57, No. 1, Jan., 1948. La Nauze, J. A. "The Conception of Jevon's Utility Theory", Economica, New Series, Vol. 20, No. 80, Nov., 1953. Maas, Harro. William Stanley Jevons and the Making of Modern Economics, Cambridge University Press, 2005. Madureira, Nuno Luis. "The Anxiety of Abundance: William Stanley Jevons and Coal Scarcity in the Nineteenth Century", Environment and History, Volume 18, Number 3, August 2012. Mays, W. and Henry, D. P. "Jevons and Logic", Mind, New Series, Vol. 62, No. 248, Oct., 1953. Mosselmans, Bert. "William Stanley Jevons and the Extent of Meaning in Logic and Economics", History and Philosophy of Logic, Volume 19, Issue 2, 1998. Mosselmans, Bert. William Stanley Jevons and the Cutting Edge of Economics, Routledge, 2007. Noller, Carl W. "Jevons on Cost", Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 39, No. 1, Jul., 1972. Paul, Ellen Frankel. "W. Stanley Jevons: Economic Revolutionary, Political Utilitarian", Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 40, No. 2, Apr./Jun., 1979. Peart, Sandra. "'Disturbing Causes', 'Noxious Errors', and the Theory-Practice Distinction in the Economics of J.S. Mill and W.S. Jevons", The Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol. 28, No. 4b, Nov., 1995. Peart, Sandra. The Economics of W. S. Jevons, Routledge, 1996. Peart, Sandra. "Jevons and Menger Re-Homogenized?: Jaffé after 20 Years", The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 57, No. 3, Jul., 1998. Peart, Sandra. "Facts Carefully Marshalled' in the Empirical Studies of William Stanley Jevons", History of Political Economy, Vol. 33, Annual Supplement, 2001. Robertson, Ross M. "Jevons and His Precursors", Econometrica, Vol. 19, No. 3, Jul., 1951. Schabas, Margaret. "The 'Worldly Philosophy' of William Stanley Jevons", Victorian Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1, Autumn, 1984. Schabas, Margaret. "Alfred Marshall, W. Stanley Jevons, and the Mathematization of Economics", Isis, Vol. 80, No. 1, Mar., 1989. Schabas, Margaret. A World Ruled by Number: William Stanley Jevons and the Rise of Mathematical Economics, Princeton University Press, 1990. Strong, John V. "The Infinite Ballot Box of Nature: De Morgan, Boole, and Jevons on Probability and the Logic of Induction", PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 1976, Volume One: Contributed Papers, 1976. Wood, John C. William Stanley Jevons: Critical Assessments, 2 vol., Routledge, 1988. York, Richard. "Ecological Paradoxes: William Stanley Jevons and the Paperless Office", Human Ecology Review, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2006. Young, Allyn A. "Jevons' 'Theory of Political Economy'", The American Economic Review, Vol. 2, No. 3, Sep., 1912. Shepherdson, John C. "W. S. Jevons: his Logical Machine and Work Induction and Boolean Algebra" Machine Intelligence 15. eds. K. Furukawa; D. Michie; S. Muggleton. OUP, 1998. p. 489–505. External links New School: William Stanley Jevons Royal Society certificate of election 1872 Jevons and the Logic 'Piano' at The Rutherford Journal The Coal Question – Encyclopedia of Earth Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons, edited by his wife (1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons's writings. Jevons Family Archive at John Rylands Library, Manchester. Works available online The Coal Question (also available here) The Theory of Political Economy Money and the Mechanism of Exchange Elementary Lessons in Logic Money and the Mechanism of Exchange The Theory of Political Economy William Stanley Jevons Brief Account of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy The Principles of Political Economy, 1871, The Theory of Political Economy, 1879, 2nd ed. The Theory of Political Economy, 1888, 3rd ed. (1879 ed. + 3rd Preface by Harriet A. Jevons & adds to bibliographic 1st Appendix). Academics from Liverpool Academics of University College London Accidental deaths in England Alumni of University College London Burials at Hampstead Cemetery Deaths by drowning English economists English logicians English philosophers English statisticians Environmental economists Fellows of the Royal Society Neoclassical economics Neoclassical economists People educated at University College School 1835 births 1882 deaths 19th-century British philosophers 19th-century economists 19th-century English mathematicians Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society	[ -0.27047887444496155, 0.5923910737037659, -0.49218103289604187, -0.32657405734062195, 0.013554999604821205, 1.3246320486068726, 0.9605799913406372, -0.22199979424476624, -0.32645729184150696, -0.00895858183503151, -0.04385433346033096, 0.3668532371520996, -0.35610729455947876, 0.4809142053127289, 0.3531687557697296, -0.4619286358356476, -0.3891003131866455, -0.803740918636322, -0.04075203463435173, -0.27527284622192383, 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207027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20krill	Northern krill	Northern krill, Meganyctiphanes norvegica, is a species of krill that lives in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is an important component of the zooplankton, providing food for whales, fish and birds. (In the Southern Ocean, Antarctic krill Euphausia superba fills a similar role.) M. norvegica is the only species recognised in the genus Meganyctiphanes, although it has been known by several synonyms: Euphausia intermedia Euphausia lanei Holt & Tattersall, 1905 Meganyctiphanes calmani Nyctiphanes norvegicus G. O. Sars, 1883 Thysanopoda norvegica References External links Krill Crustaceans of the Atlantic Ocean Crustaceans described in 1856	[ -0.20662231743335724, -0.11877194046974182, 0.09567047655582428, 0.030814113095402718, 0.06886591017246246, 0.20929069817066193, 0.2881563901901245, 0.7472769021987915, -0.7351484298706055, -0.05468066781759262, 0.02101774699985981, -0.4916495978832245, -0.6277221441268921, 0.33921191096305847, 0.09699730575084686, 0.6794062852859497, 0.5547647476196289, 0.42515870928764343, 0.3081861436367035, 0.04787740483880043, -0.5869421362876892, -0.7642220854759216, 0.6672256588935852, -0.575374186038971, 1.0205668210983276, -0.06892503052949905, 0.2740944027900696, 0.619190514087677, 0.027012942358851433, 0.36429211497306824, -0.17102842032909393, 0.8309215903282166, -0.08552537113428116, 0.391104131937027, 0.009861333295702934, 0.3553639054298401, -0.8480576872825623, -0.5467051267623901, -0.35650205612182617, -0.25912269949913025, 0.28101933002471924, 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207031	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Baghdad%20%282003%29	Battle of Baghdad (2003)	The Battle of Baghdad, also known as the Fall of Baghdad, was a military invasion of Baghdad that took place in early April 2003, as part of the invasion of Iraq. Three weeks into the invasion of Iraq, Coalition Forces Land Component Command elements, led by the U.S. Army 3rd Infantry Division moved into Baghdad. The United States declared victory on April 14, and President George W. Bush gave his Mission Accomplished Speech on May 1. Baghdad suffered serious damage to its civilian infrastructure, economy, and cultural inheritance from the fighting, as well as looting and arson. During the invasion, the Al-Yarmouk Hospital in south Baghdad saw a steady rate of about 100 new patients an hour. Over 2,000 Iraqi soldiers as well as 34 coalition troops were killed in the battle. After the fall of Baghdad, Coalition forces entered the city of Kirkuk on April 10 and Tikrit on April 15, 2003. Preparation Limited bombing began on March 19, 2003 as United States forces unsuccessfully attempted to kill Saddam Hussein. Attacks continued against a small number of targets until March 21, 2003, when, at 17:00 UTC, the main bombing campaign of the US and their allies began. Its forces launched approximately 1700 air sorties (504 using cruise missiles). The invasion of the city commenced three days after Allied forces led by Major General Buford Blount and the 3rd Infantry Division had secured the Baghdad airport. US officials said that their forces fought skirmishes there with Iraq's Special Republican Guard, with two task forces going up to the Tigris river from the southern outskirts of the city before moving west towards the airport. Major General Victor Renuart said the intention was to indicate to the Iraqi leader that coalition forces could move in and out of Baghdad whenever they wished. The Guardian reported that US forces occupied two "presidential palaces". The Army also surrounded the Information Ministry and other key government installations for a while. On March 24, retired US Army general Barry McCaffrey, told BBC Newsnight: "If [the Iraqis] actually fight, clearly it's going to be brutal, dangerous work and we could take, bluntly, a couple to 3,000 casualties". In order to avoid the disastrous effects of house to house urban combat, US military planners agreed that seizing western Baghdad (now known as the Green Zone) was one of the main military objectives for securing Baghdad. By seizing only critical nodes and infrastructure in a rapid manner, it was believed such targeted assaults would weaken the regime of Saddam Hussein and hasten its collapse, all the while avoiding the deployment of troops to clear every single block of Baghdad. In preparation for the impending attack, Iraqi military planners organised hybrid groups of paramilitary and regular army units, deployed improvised barriers and destroyed the eastern Diyala River bridges to block US army mechanised units. Forces The invasion of Baghdad was led by the United States Army's 3rd Infantry Division and the United States Marine Corps' 1st Marine Division, equipped with M1 Abrams tanks, Bradley Fighting Vehicles and M113 armored personnel carriers, LAV 25s, and Amphibious Assault Vehicles. These forces, supported by American and British aircraft including B-52s, Harrier GR7 attack jets and A10 Warthogs, confronted 36,000 soldiers of the Iraqi Special Republican Guard protected in sprawling bunkers outside Baghdad, armed with Asad Babil tanks and heavy artillery. Aerial bombing At the time of invasion, coalition aircraft were making bombing runs on Baghdad at the rate of 1,000 sorties a day, most of them aimed at the Republican Guard and Special Republican Guard. U.S. planes also dropped about 200,000 leaflets warning civilians to stay in their homes. Royal Air Force Tornados from 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked the radar defense systems protecting Baghdad, but lost a Tornado on March 22 along with the pilot and navigator (Flight Lieutenant Kevin Main and Flight Lieutenant Dave Williams) in a friendly fire incident, shot down by an American Patriot missile as they returned to their airbase in Kuwait. On April 2, a US Army Black Hawk helicopter and a United States Navy F/A-18C Hornet were shot down near Karbala. On 8 April, an A-10 Warthog attack plane was shot down in the fighting around Jumhuriya Bridge by an Iraqi surface-to-air missile. At Tuwayhah On April 4, 2003, the 2nd Tank Battalion Marine Corps had a stiff fight with the Al Nida Division of the Republican Guards and foreign Islamist fighters on the outskirts of Baghdad. By the end of the day, the Al Nida was considered rendered "combat-ineffective", but three US Marines (1st Lieutenant Brian McPhillips, Sergeant Duane Rios and Corporal Bernard Gooden) were killed in the At Tuwayhah fighting and a tank lost. That day, the 5th Regimental Combat Team reported that two supporting Abrams tanks were destroyed battling the Fedayeen and Al Nida Republican Guards, the latter attempting to use anti-aircraft guns in the ground role. Baghdad International Airport On the morning of April 3, 2003, US forces advanced on Saddam International Airport. This location turned out to be the best defended Iraqi position of the entire war and two US soldiers were killed by mortar fire early in the fighting. After several hours of combat, the First Brigade, Third Infantry Division succeeded in taking control of Baghdad International Airport, which would become the hub of American logistics in Iraq for the next seven years. Before sunrise on April 4, the Americans were subjected to a fierce counter-attack by Iraqi troops. The First Brigades Tactical Operations Center (TOC) began receiving small arms and mortar fire. Under the cover of darkness, a number of T-72 tanks managed to get within several hundred meters of their position. According to one source: "It was not until a chemical reconnaissance vehicle was fired on, and a Bradley actually was hit by a T-72 main gun round, that the battalion became aware of its peril." Fortunately for the crew, the hit was only a glancing one, and they were able to drive their vehicle to safety. A fireteam with a Javelin ATGM destroyed two of the Iraqi tanks, while the rest were destroyed by a passing M1 Abrams. As dawn approached, the attack on the TOC intensified, and Iraqi infantry flooded into the position on foot. During the fighting, Sergeant First Class Paul Ray Smith was killed by enemy fire while fighting off an Iraqi attack on his team in an action that resulted in the posthumous awarding of division's first Medal of Honor since World War II. During the softening up bombardment of Baghdad Airport on April 3, 2003, an Air Force F-15E fighter mistakenly attacked Battery C, First Battalion, 3-13th Field Artillery (supporting Third Infantry Division), destroying two Humvees and killing Sergeant 1st Class Randy Rehn and Sergeants Donald Oaks and Todd Robins. Five other soldiers from the unit were injured in the air attack. Sergeant 1st Class Wilbert Davis is also reported to have been killed along with American journalist Michael Kelly on April 3 after coming under fire, during operations to secure Baghdad Airport. Thunder Runs On April 5, Task Force 1–64 Armor of the US Army's 3rd Infantry Division, 2nd Brigade, executed a raid, later called the "Thunder Run", to test remaining Iraqi defenses. The operation began south of Baghdad and went through main roads to the newly secured airport. Iraqi resistance was disorganized, and the unit sustained few casualties. The unit was forced to abandon one tank due to a recoilless rifle or RPG strike in the rear that penetrated a fuel cell and set the engine on fire. The crew was unharmed. Later, the Air Force bombed the tank to destroy it in place, and the Iraqi Information Ministry claimed credit for destroying it. Two days later, the entire 2nd Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division was ordered to conduct another "Thunder Run", following the same route as before. This route had been fortified in the intervening period, and senior leaders feared much more substantial resistance than during the prior encounter. Colonel David Perkins, the brigade's commander, followed the original Thunder Run route north into Baghdad, but then veered east into the government districts instead of west towards the airport. The 2nd Brigade easily took control of what is now the "Green Zone" in one day, dramatically speeding up the end of conventional ground combat in Iraq. This portion of the battle was described in detail in the book Thunder Run: The Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad by David Zucchino, published March 22, 2004. The April 6 death of journalist David Bloom, who had been embedded with the 3–15 Infantry, prevented the dramatic fighting from coming to public attention at the time of the battle. Objectives Moe, Larry, and Curly On April 7, 2003, intense fighting took place at three locations known as objectives Moe, Larry, and Curly (named after the characters in The Three Stooges). Each objective was a cloverleaf where east–west roads intersected with the main north–south route (Highway 8) being used for the Thunder run. Successfully holding these highway interchanges was essential to keep Highway 8 open thus allowing US forces to remain in the city center following the second Thunder run. Objective Moe was at the junction of Highway 8 and the Qadisiyah expressway, Larry at Qatar Al-Nada street leading to the Al Jadriyah bridge, and Curly at the Dora expressway. At the southernmost location, Objective Curly, an 18-hour battle by the 3–15 Infantry resulted in the deaths of two US soldiers (Staff Sergeant Robert Stever and Sergeant 1st Class John Marshall) killed by RPG rounds and about 40 wounded with 350 to 500 Iraqi casualties (Special Republican Guard, Fedayeen and Syrian fighters). US tank (1st and 4th Battalions of the 64th Armored Regiments) and infantry units nearly ran out of fuel and ammunition and were almost overrun until reinforcements broke through and were able to resupply Objective Curly. Toward the end of the fighting, an Ababil-100 SSM missile or an Iraqi FROG-7 rocket exploded among the parked vehicles of the headquarters of 2nd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, killing two soldiers (Private 1st Class Anthony Miller and Staff Sergeant Lincoln Hollinsaid) and two embedded journalists (Julio Parrado and Christian Liebig), wounding 15 others and destroying 17 military vehicles. Tharthar Palace On April 7, US troops took control of a major presidential palace along the Tigris river. It had been hoped that leaders of the regime would be found in the complex, located near Saddam Hussein's home town of Tikrit. American commanders on the ground said that they would remain in the city center rather than return to the outskirts as they had done previously. Within hours of a palace seizure and with television coverage of this spreading through Iraq, US forces ordered Iraqi forces within Baghdad to surrender, or the city would face a full-scale assault. Iraqi government officials had either disappeared or had conceded defeat. Jumhuriya Bridge On April 8, 2003, some 500 Iraqi soldiers, including Republican Guard mounted a fierce counterattack across the Jumhuriya Bridge, forcing part of the US forces on the western side of Baghdad to initially retreat, but the Iraqis reportedly lost 50 soldiers in the fighting that included the use of A-10 Warthogs on the part of the US forces. An A-10 attack plane was shot down in combating the counterattack by an Iraqi surface-to-air missile. Looting As the American forces secured control of the capital, Iraqi civilians immediately began looting the palaces, as well as government offices. At the Yarmuk Hospital, not only all beds, but all medical equipment was stolen. One other hospital managed to keep on functioning in a manner by organizing local civilians as armed guards. Serious looting was described at National Museum of Iraq, and the Saddam Arts Center, the University of Baghdad, three five-star hotels: the Al-Rashid, the Al-Mansour and Babel Hotel, state-owned supermarkets, many embassies, and state-owned factories. At the National Museum of Iraq, which had been a virtual repository of treasures from the ancient Mesopotamian cultures as well as early Islamic culture, many of the 170,000 irreplaceable artifacts were either stolen or broken (partially found safe and well later). On April 14, the Iraq National Library and National Archives were burned down, destroying thousands of manuscripts from civilizations dating back as far as 7,000 years. Within eight days following the 2003 invasion, only 35, or 5% of the 700 animals in the Baghdad Zoo survived. This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food or water. Survivors included larger animals like lions, tigers, and bears. Notwithstanding the chaos brought by the invasion, South African Lawrence Anthony and some of the zoo keepers cared for the animals and fed the carnivores with donkeys they had bought locally. Political control As the U.S. forces were occupying the Republican Palace and other central landmarks and ministries on April 9, Saddam Hussein had emerged from his command bunker beneath the Al A'Zamiyah district of northern Baghdad, and greeted excited members of the local public. This impromptu walkabout was probably his last and his reasons for doing so are still unclear. It is possible that he wished to take what he thought might be his last opportunity to greet his people as their country's president. The walkabout was captured on film and broadcast several days after the event on Al-Arabia Television and was also witnessed by ordinary people who corroborated the date afterwards. He was accompanied by bodyguards and other loyal supporters including at least one of his sons and his personal secretary. After the walkabout Hussein returned to his bunker and made preparations for his family. On April 9, 2003, Baghdad was formally occupied by Coalition forces. Much of Baghdad remained unsecured however, and fighting continued within the city and its outskirts well into the period of occupation. Saddam, certain members of his family and close subordinates had vanished, and his whereabouts were unknown. Many Iraqis celebrated the downfall of Saddam by vandalizing the many portraits and statues of him together with other pieces of his legacy. One widely publicized event was the dramatic toppling of a large statue of Saddam in Baghdad's Firdus Square. This attracted considerable media coverage at the time. Firdus Square statue destruction Before a conglomerate of international press (and small crowd of around 100 U.S.-supported Iraqi militia), a statue of Saddam in Firdus Square was toppled by a U.S. Marine Corps M88 Recovery Vehicle. Initially, a Marine corporal named Edward Chin of the 3rd Battalion, 4th Marines Regiment placed a United States flag on the statue's head, though it was replaced with an Iraqi flag. Various other symbols of the president were defaced. Search for Saddam Hussein The Americans had meanwhile started receiving rumors that Saddam was in Al A'Zamiyah and at dawn on April 10, they dispatched three companies of U.S. Marines to capture him. The Marines fought a fierce four-hour battle at a Baghdad mosque where senior Iraqi leaders had been thought to be holed up, as American warplanes attacked areas of the city under the control of Iraqi fighters. "We had information that a group of regime leadership was attempting to organize a meeting. The fighting in and around the mosque complex could not be avoided as enemy forces were firing from the area of the mosque." said Navy captain Frank Thorp. Marines came under fire from rocket-propelled grenades, mortars and assault rifles. One Marine was killed and more than 20 were wounded, but neither Saddam nor any of his aides were found. Reporting Prior to the invasion, the US policy was that journalists reporting from the ground should be "embedded", that is, be stationed within military units. Such reporters were required to sign contracts with the military and agree to rules that restricted what they could report on. Journalists found breaking those rules risked losing their embedded accreditation and being expelled from Iraq. Iraq, initially issued a statement contradicting western reporters' accounts of the invasion. Muhammed Saeed al-Sahaf, head of the Information Ministry, told a press conference on April 7 that there were no U.S. troops in Baghdad, saying: "Their infidels are committing suicide by the hundreds on the gates of Baghdad. Be assured, Baghdad is safe, protected. Iraqis are heroes." On April 8, two American air-to-surface missiles hit Al Jazeera's office in a residential area of Baghdad killing a reporter and wounding a cameraman. The nearby office of Arab satellite channel Abu Dhabi TV was also hit by air strikes. Al Jazeera and Abu Dhabi TV were the only international media organizations to continue operating from their headquarters in Baghdad. Since the war started, other international media organizations had moved their operations to the Palestine Hotel in Baghdad. On the same day a U.S. Army tank fired into the 15th floor of the Palestine Hotel, killing two cameramen and wounding three. These attacks prompted accusations that the US was deliberately targeting news media outlets. Al Jazeera had provided the Pentagon with co-ordinates of its office in Baghdad; the Abu Dhabi TV building was clearly identified by a large blue sign on its roof, and, for the Palestine Hotel, according to Geert Linnebank, Reuters editor-in-chief, "US troops who have known all along that this hotel is the main base for almost all foreign journalists in Baghdad". In the Abu Dhabi case, the station aired the picture of Iraqi fire from beneath the camera. In the hotel case, however, other journalists on the scene stated that there was no fire from or around the hotel. External links U.S. Forces Enter the Heart of Baghdad US Forces Occupy Palaces – The Guardian Washington Post Daybook – Tuesday, April 8, 2003; Page A25 Iraqi museum of antiquities looted; 8000 year old treasures lost forever Iraqi Perspectives Report, Joint Center for Operational Analysis at United States Department of Defense, March 2006 References Conflicts in 2003 Battles of the Iraq War in 2003 Battles of the Iraq War involving the United States Battles of the Iraq War involving Iraq Last stands Sieges of Baghdad United States Marine Corps in the Iraq War 2000s in Baghdad Articles containing video clips April 2003 events in Asia	[ -0.4148169457912445, 0.5680909752845764, -0.2638761103153229, -0.16000913083553314, -0.8185941576957703, -0.18722650408744812, 0.47276750206947327, -0.05044492334127426, 0.06055447459220886, 0.13867957890033722, -0.14500412344932556, 0.7211161255836487, -0.4067991375923157, 0.6740785837173462, -0.4611207842826843, 0.4477084279060364, 0.17292721569538116, 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207035	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atropa%20belladonna	Atropa belladonna	Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. Its distribution extends from Great Britain in the west to western Ukraine and the Iranian province of Gilan in the east. It is also naturalised or introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States. The foliage and berries are extremely toxic when ingested, containing tropane alkaloids. These toxins include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, which cause delirium and hallucinations, and are also used as pharmaceutical anticholinergics. Tropane alkaloids are of common occurrence not only in the Old World tribes Hyoscyameae (to which the genus Atropa belongs) and Mandragoreae, but also in the New World tribe Datureae - all of which belong to subfamily Solanoideae of the plant family Solanaceae. Atropa belladonna has unpredictable effects. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine. History Atropa belladonna has a long history of use as a medicine, cosmetic, and poison. Known originally under various folk names (such as "deadly nightshade" in English), the plant was baptized Atropa belladonna by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) when he devised his classification system. Linnaeus chose the genus name Atropa because of the poisonous properties of these plants. Atropos (lit. "unturning one"), one of the Three Fates in Greek mythology, is said to have cut a person's thread of life after her sisters had spun and measured it. Linnaeus chose the species name belladonna ("beautiful woman" in Italian) in reference to the cosmetic use of the plant during the Renaissance, when women used the juice of the berries in eyedrops intended to dilate the pupils and make the eyes appear more seductive. Extracts of plants in the deadly nightshade family have been in use since at least the 4th century BC, when Mandragora (mandrake) was recommended by Theophrastus for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a love potion. In the first century BC, Cleopatra used Atropine-rich extracts from the Egyptian henbane plant (another nightshade) for the above-mentioned purpose of dilating the pupils of her eyes. The use of deadly nightshades as a poison was known in ancient Rome, as attested by the rumor that the Roman empress Livia Drusilla used the juice of Atropa belladonna berries to murder her husband, the emperor Augustus. In the first century A.D. Dioscorides recognized wine of mandrake as an anaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery. The use of nightshade preparations for anesthesia, often in combination with opium, persisted throughout the Roman and Islamic Empires and continued in Europe until superseded in the 19th century by modern anesthetics. The modern pharmacological study of Atropa belladonna extracts was begun by the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (1795–1867). In 1831, the German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein (1799–1864) succeeded in preparing a pure crystalline form of the active substance, baptized atropine. Description Atropa belladonna is a branching herbaceous perennial rhizomatous hemicryptophyte, often growing as a subshrub from a fleshy rootstock. Plants grow to tall with ovate leaves long. The bell-shaped flowers are dull purple with green tinges and faintly scented. The fruits are berries, which are green, ripening to a shiny black, and approximately in diameter. The berries are sweet and are consumed by animals that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though they contain toxic alkaloids (see Toxicity). There is a pale-yellow flowering form called Atropa belladonna var. lutea with pale yellow fruit. A. belladonna is sometimes confused with the much less poisonous black nightshade, Solanum nigrum, belonging to a different genus within Solanaceae. A comparison of the fruit shows that the black nightshade berries grow in bunches, whereas the deadly nightshade berries grow individually. Another distinction is black nightshade flowers have white petals. Distribution Atropa belladonna is native to temperate southern, Central and Eastern Europe; North Africa, Turkey, Iran and the Caucasus, but has been cultivated and introduced outside its native range. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in apothecary gardens near Malmö. In Britain it is native only on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows and open woodland. More widespread as an alien, it is often a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb. Seed is spread mainly by birds. It is naturalized in parts of North America, where it is often found in shady, moist locations with limestone-rich soils. It is considered a weed species in parts of the world, where it colonizes areas with disturbed soils. Cultivation Atropa belladonna is rarely used in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its large upright habit and showy berries. Germination of the small seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid. The seedlings need sterile soil to prevent damping off and resent root disturbance during transplanting. Taxonomy Atropa belladonna is in the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which it shares with potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, jimsonweed, tobacco, wolfberry, and chili peppers. The common names for this species include belladonna, deadly nightshade, divale, dwale, banewort, devil's berries, death cherries, beautiful death, devil's herb, great morel, and dwayberry. Etymology The name Atropa belladonna was published by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Atropa is derived from the name of the Greek goddess Atropos ('she who may not be turned aside' i.e. 'the inflexible' or 'the implacable')—one of the three Greek fates or destinies who would determine the course of a man's life by the weaving of threads that symbolized his birth, the events in his life, and finally his death, with Atropos cutting these threads to mark the last of these. The name "belladonna" comes from the Italian language, meaning 'beautiful lady'; originating either from its usage as a cosmetic to beautify pallid skin, or more probably, from its usage to increase the pupil size in women. Toxicity Belladonna is one of the most toxic plants known, and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such as complications of pregnancy, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and psychiatric disorders, among others. All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids. Roots have up to 1.3%, leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period. Belladonna nectar is transformed by bees into honey that also contains tropane alkaloids. The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste. The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another. The active agents in belladonna, atropine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and hyoscyamine, have anticholinergic properties. The symptoms of belladonna poisoning include dilated pupils, sensitivity to light, blurred vision, tachycardia, loss of balance, staggering, headache, rash, flushing, severely dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention, constipation, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and convulsions. In 2009, A. belladonna berries were mistaken for blueberries by an adult woman; the six berries she ate were documented to result in severe anticholinergic syndrome. The plant's deadly symptoms are caused by atropine's disruption of the parasympathetic nervous system's ability to regulate involuntary activities, such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is an anticholinesterase (such as physostigmine) or a cholinomimetic (such as pilocarpine), the same as for atropine. Atropa belladonna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causing narcosis and paralysis. However, cattle and rabbits eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects. In humans, its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities, such as memory and learning. Legal status Belladonna cultivation is legal in Southern and Eastern Europe, Pakistan, North America, and Brazil. Belladonna leaves and roots can be bought with a medical prescription in pharmacies throughout Germany. In the United States, there is only one approved prescription drug containing belladonna alkaloids such as atropine, and the FDA regards any over-the-counter products claiming efficacy and safety as an anticholinergic drug, to be illegal. Uses Cosmetics The common name belladonna originates from its historic use by women, as bella donna is Italian for "beautiful woman". Drops prepared from the belladonna plant were used to dilate women's pupils, an effect considered to be attractive and seductive. Belladonna drops act as a muscarinic antagonist, blocking receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size. Belladonna is currently rarely used cosmetically, as it carries the adverse effects of causing minor visual distortions, inability to focus on near objects, and increased heart rate. Prolonged usage was reputed to cause blindness. Dietary supplements In the United States, belladonna is marketed as a dietary supplement, typically as an atropine ingredient in over-the-counter cold medicine products. Although such cold medicine products are probably safe for oral use at typical atropine dosages (0.2 milligram), there is inadequate scientific evidence to assure their effectiveness. By FDA guidelines for supplements, there are no regulated manufacturing standards for cold medicines containing atropine, with some belladona supplements found to contain contaminants. Medicinal uses Scientific evidence to recommend the use of A. belladonna in its natural form for any condition is insufficient, although some of its components, in particular l-atropine, which was purified from belladonna in the 1830s, have accepted medical uses. Donnatal is a prescription pharmaceutical, that combines natural belladonna alkaloids in a specific, fixed ratio with phenobarbital to provide peripheral anticholinergic or antispasmodic action and mild sedation. Donnatal contains 0.0194 mg of atropine. According to the FDA and Donnatal labeling, it is possibly effective for use as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis) and acute enterocolitis. Donnatal is not approved by the FDA as being either safe or effective. According to the FDA, Donnatal use has significant risks: it can cause harm to a fetus if administered to a pregnant woman, can lead to heat prostration if used in hot climates, may cause constipation, and may produce drowsiness or blurred vision. The Towns-Lambert or Bella Donna Cure was a regimen for treating alcohol use disorder in the early 20th century. Alternative medicine and toxicity risk Belladonna has been used in herbal medicine for centuries as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, and anti-inflammatory, and to treat menstrual problems, peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness. At least one 19th-century eclectic medicine journal explained how to prepare a belladonna tincture for direct administration. In homeopathic practices, belladonna was prescribed by German physician Samuel Hahnemann as a topical medication for inflammation and pain. In the form of Doktor Koster's Antigaspills, belladonna was a homeopathic medication for upset stomach and excessive flatulence. There is insufficient scientific evidence justifying the use of belladonna for these or any other clinical disorders. In 2010 and 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration warned consumers against the use of homeopathic teething tablets and gels containing belladonna as used for infants and children, stating that the products may be toxic, causing "seizures, difficulty breathing, lethargy, excessive sleepiness, muscle weakness, skin flushing, constipation, difficulty urinating, or agitation". Recreational drug Atropa belladonna and related plants, such as Datura stramonium (commonly known as jimson weed), have occasionally been used as recreational drugs because of the vivid hallucinations and delirium they produce. These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fatal overdose. The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine and, to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine. The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion. The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days. Poison The tropane alkaloids of A. belladonna were used as poisons, and early humans made poisonous arrows from the plant. In Ancient Rome, it was used as a poison by Agrippina the Younger, wife of Emperor Claudius on the advice of Locusta, a woman who specialized in poisons, and Livia, who is rumored to have used it to kill her husband Emperor Augustus. Macbeth of Scotland, when he was still one of the lieutenants of King Duncan I of Scotland, used it during a truce to poison the troops of the invading Harold Harefoot, King of England, to the point that the English troops were unable to stand their ground and had to retreat to their ships. Medical historians also suspect that Solomon Northup, a free black man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841, was poisoned using a combination of Atropa belladonna and laudanum. Folklore Flying ointment In the past, witches were believed to use a mixture of belladonna, opium poppy and other plants, typically poisonous (such as monkshood and hemlock), in flying ointment, which they allegedly applied to help them fly to gatherings with other witches or to experience bacchanalian carousal. Carlo Ginzburg and others have argued that flying ointments were preparations meant to encourage hallucinatory dreaming; a possible explanation for the inclusion of belladonna and opium poppy in flying ointments concerns the known antagonism between tropane alkaloids of belladonna (scopolamine) and opiate alkaloids in the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum (to be specific, morphine), which produces a dream-like waking state (hypnagogia) or potentiated dreams while the user is asleep. This antagonism was known in folk medicine and discussed in traditional medicine formularies. Belladonna is also notable for the unpredictability of its toxic effects. Female attractiveness Among the ancient folk traditions of the Romanian (Moldavian) / Ukrainian region of Bukovina in the Carpathians is the ritual for a Bukovinian girl to enhance her attractiveness by making an offering to deadly nightshade. She entered the fields on a Sunday in Shrovetide, clad in her Sunday best, accompanied by her mother and bringing a bag of bread, salt, and brandy. She would dig up a deadly nightshade root and leave the three offerings in its place. As she returned home, she carried the root on the top of her head. On the way both to and from home, she avoided all quarrels and arguments. If asked by anyone on the way back what she was taking home, she would not divulge the truth or the spell would break. Gallery See also List of poisonous plants List of plants poisonous to equines Donnatal, a pharmaceutical containing the active alkaloids in belladonna: scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and atropine, as a medication. 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207036	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copepod	Copepod	Copepods (; meaning "oar-feet") are a group of small crustaceans found in nearly every freshwater and saltwater habitat. Some species are planktonic (inhabiting sea waters), some are benthic (living on the ocean floor), a number of species have parasitic phases, and some continental species may live in limnoterrestrial habitats and other wet terrestrial places, such as swamps, under leaf fall in wet forests, bogs, springs, ephemeral ponds, and puddles, damp moss, or water-filled recesses (phytotelmata) of plants such as bromeliads and pitcher plants. Many live underground in marine and freshwater caves, sinkholes, or stream beds. Copepods are sometimes used as biodiversity indicators. As with other crustaceans, copepods have a larval form. For copepods, the egg hatches into a nauplius form, with a head and a tail but no true thorax or abdomen. The larva molts several times until it resembles the adult and then, after more molts, achieves adult development. The nauplius form is so different from the adult form that it was once thought to be a separate species. The metamorphosis had, until 1832, led to copepods being misidentified as zoophytes or insects (albeit aquatic ones), or, for parasitic copepods, 'fish lice'. Classification and diversity Copepods form a subclass belonging to class Hexanauplia in the subphylum Crustacea (crustaceans); they are divided into 10 orders. Some 13,000 species of copepods are known, and 2,800 of them live in fresh water. Characteristics Copepods vary considerably, but are typically long, with a teardrop-shaped body and large antennae. Like other crustaceans, they have an armoured exoskeleton, but they are so small that in most species, this thin armour and the entire body is almost totally transparent. Some polar copepods reach . Most copepods have a single median compound eye, usually bright red and in the centre of the transparent head; subterranean species may be eyeless. Like other crustaceans, copepods possess two pairs of antennae; the first pair is often long and conspicuous. Free-living copepods of the orders Calanoida, Cyclopoida, and Harpacticoida typically have a short, cylindrical body, with a rounded or beaked head, although considerable variation exists in this pattern. The head is fused with the first one or two thoracic segments, while the remainder of the thorax has three to five segments, each with limbs. The first pair of thoracic appendages is modified to form maxillipeds, which assist in feeding. The abdomen is typically narrower than the thorax, and contains five segments without any appendages, except for some tail-like "rami" at the tip. Parasitic copepods (the other seven orders) vary widely in morphology and no generalizations are possible. Because of their small size, copepods have no need of any heart or circulatory system (the members of the order Calanoida have a heart, but no blood vessels), and most also lack gills. Instead, they absorb oxygen directly into their bodies. Their excretory system consists of maxillary glands. Behavior The second pair of cephalic appendages in free-living copepods is usually the main time-averaged source of propulsion, beating like oars to pull the animal through the water. However, different groups have different modes of feeding and locomotion, ranging from almost immotile for several minutes (e.g. some harpacticoid copepods) to intermittent motion (e.g., some cyclopoid copepods) and continuous displacements with some escape reactions (e.g. most calanoid copepods.) Some copepods have extremely fast escape responses when a predator is sensed, and can jump with high speed over a few millimetres. Many species have neurons surrounded by myelin (for increased conduction speed), which is very rare among invertebrates (other examples are some annelids and malacostracan crustaceans like palaemonid shrimp and penaeids). Even rarer, the myelin is highly organized, resembling the well-organized wrapping found in vertebrates (Gnathostomata). Despite their fast escape response, copepods are successfully hunted by slow-swimming seahorses, which approach their prey so gradually, it senses no turbulence, then suck the copepod into their snout too suddenly for the copepod to escape. Finding a mate in the three-dimensional space of open water is challenging. Some copepod females solve the problem by emitting pheromones, which leave a trail in the water that the male can follow. Copepods experience a low Reynolds number and therefore a high relative viscosity. One foraging strategy involves chemical detection of sinking marine snow aggregates and taking advantage of nearby low-pressure gradients to swim quickly towards food sources. Diet Most free-living copepods feed directly on phytoplankton, catching cells individually. A single copepod can consume up to 373,000 phytoplankton per day. They generally have to clear the equivalent to about a million times their own body volume of water every day to cover their nutritional needs. Some of the larger species are predators of their smaller relatives. Many benthic copepods eat organic detritus or the bacteria that grow in it, and their mouth parts are adapted for scraping and biting. Herbivorous copepods, particularly those in rich, cold seas, store up energy from their food as oil droplets while they feed in the spring and summer on plankton blooms. These droplets may take up over half of the volume of their bodies in polar species. Many copepods (e.g., fish lice like the Siphonostomatoida) are parasites, and feed on their host organisms. In fact, three of the 10 known orders of copepods are wholly or largely parasitic, with another three comprising most of the free-living species. Life cycle Most nonparasitic copepods are holoplanktonic, meaning they stay planktonic for all of their lifecycles, although harpacticoids, although free-living, tend to be benthic rather than planktonic. During mating, the male copepod grips the female with his first pair of antennae, which is sometimes modified for this purpose. The male then produces an adhesive package of sperm and transfers it to the female's genital opening with his thoracic limbs. Eggs are sometimes laid directly into the water, but many species enclose them within a sac attached to the female's body until they hatch. In some pond-dwelling species, the eggs have a tough shell and can lie dormant for extended periods if the pond dries up. Eggs hatch into nauplius larvae, which consist of a head with a small tail, but no thorax or true abdomen. The nauplius moults five or six times, before emerging as a "copepodid larva". This stage resembles the adult, but has a simple, unsegmented abdomen and only three pairs of thoracic limbs. After a further five moults, the copepod takes on the adult form. The entire process from hatching to adulthood can take a week to a year, depending on the species and environmental conditions such as temperature and nutrition (e.g., egg-to-adult time in the calanoid Parvocalanus crassirostris is ~7 days at but 19 days at . Biophysics Copepods jump out of the water - porpoising. The biophysics of this motion has been described by Waggett and Buskey 2007 and Kim et al 2015. Ecology Planktonic copepods are important to global ecology and the carbon cycle. They are usually the dominant members of the zooplankton, and are major food organisms for small fish such as the dragonet, banded killifish, Alaska pollock, and other crustaceans such as krill in the ocean and in fresh water. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on earth. Copepods compete for this title with Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). C. glacialis inhabits the edge of the Arctic icepack, especially in polynyas where light (and photosynthesis) is present, in which they alone comprise up to 80% of zooplankton biomass. They bloom as the ice recedes each spring. The ongoing large reduction in the annual ice pack minimum may force them to compete in the open ocean with the much less nourishing C. finmarchicus, which is spreading from the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea into the Barents Sea. Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the secondary productivity of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean carbon sink than krill, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are currently believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tons of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of human carbon emissions, thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink (by changing oils into more dense fats) into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons, faecal pellets, and respiration at depth all bring carbon to the deep sea. About half of the estimated 14,000 described species of copepods are parasitic and many have adapted extremely modified bodies for their parasitic lifestyles. They attach themselves to bony fish, sharks, marine mammals, and many kinds of invertebrates such as corals, other crustaceans, molluscs, sponges, and tunicates. They also live as ectoparasites on some freshwater fish. Copepods as parasitic hosts In addition to being parasites themselves, copepods are subject to parasitic infection. The most common parasite is the marine dinoflagellates, Blastodinium spp., which are gut parasites of many copepod species. Currently, 12 species of Blastodinium are described, the majority of which were discovered in the Mediterranean Sea. Most Blastodinium species infect several different hosts, but species-specific infection of copepods does occur. Generally, adult copepod females and juveniles are infected. During the naupliar stage, the copepod host ingests the unicellular dinospore of the parasite. The dinospore is not digested and continues to grow inside the intestinal lumen of the copepod. Eventually, the parasite divides into a multicellular arrangement called a trophont. This trophont is considered parasitic, contains thousands of cells, and can be several hundred micrometers in length. The trophont is greenish to brownish in color as a result of well-defined chloroplasts. At maturity, the trophont ruptures and Blastodinium spp. are released from the copepod anus as free dinospore cells. Not much is known about the dinospore stage of Blastodinium and its ability to persist outside of the copepod host in relatively high abundances. The copepod Calanus finmarchicus, which dominates the northeastern Atlantic coast, has been shown to be greatly infected by this parasite. A 2014 study in this region found up to 58% of collected C. finmarchicus females to be infected. In this study, Blastodinium-infected females had no measurable feeding rate over a 24-hour period. This is compared to uninfected females which, on average, ate 2.93 × 104 cells copepod−1 d−1. Blastodinium-infected females of C. finmarchicus exhibited characteristic signs of starvation, including decreased respiration, fecundity, and fecal pellet production. Though photosynthetic, Blastodinium spp. procure most of their energy from organic material in the copepod gut, thus contributing to host starvation. Underdeveloped or disintegrated ovaries, as well as decreased fecal pellet size, are a direct result of starvation in female copepods. Infection from Blastodinium spp. could have serious ramifications on the success of copepod species and the function of entire marine ecosystems. Parasitism via Blastodinium spp.' is not lethal, but has negative impacts on copepod physiology, which in turn may alter marine biogeochemical cycles. Freshwater copepods of the Cyclops genus are the intermediate host of Dracunculus medinensis, the Guinea worm nematode that causes dracunculiasis disease in humans. This disease may be close to being eradicated through efforts at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization. Practical aspects In marine aquaria Live copepods are used in the saltwater aquarium hobby as a food source and are generally considered beneficial in most reef tanks. They are scavengers and also may feed on algae, including coralline algae. Live copepods are popular among hobbyists who are attempting to keep particularly difficult species such as the mandarin dragonet or scooter blenny. They are also popular to hobbyists who want to breed marine species in captivity. In a saltwater aquarium, copepods are typically stocked in the refugium. Water supplies Copepods are sometimes found in public main water supplies, especially systems where the water is not mechanically filtered, such as New York City, Boston, and San Francisco. This is not usually a problem in treated water supplies. In some tropical countries, such as Peru and Bangladesh, a correlation has been found between copepods' presence and cholera in untreated water, because the cholera bacteria attach to the surfaces of planktonic animals. The larvae of the guinea worm must develop within a copepod's digestive tract before being transmitted to humans. The risk of infection with these diseases can be reduced by filtering out the copepods (and other matter), for example with a cloth filter. Copepods have been used successfully in Vietnam to control disease-bearing mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti that transmit dengue fever and other human parasitic diseases. The copepods can be added to water-storage containers where the mosquitoes breed. Copepods, primarily of the genera Mesocyclops and Macrocyclops (such as Macrocyclops albidus), can survive for periods of months in the containers, if the containers are not completely drained by their users. They attack, kill, and eat the younger first- and second-instar larvae of the mosquitoes. This biological control method is complemented by community trash removal and recycling to eliminate other possible mosquito-breeding sites. Because the water in these containers is drawn from uncontaminated sources such as rainfall, the risk of contamination by cholera bacteria is small, and in fact no cases of cholera have been linked to copepods introduced into water-storage containers. Trials using copepods to control container-breeding mosquitoes are underway in several other countries, including Thailand and the southern United States. The method, though, would be very ill-advised in areas where the guinea worm is endemic. The presence of copepods in the New York City water supply system has caused problems for some Jewish people who observe kashrut. Copepods, being crustaceans, are not kosher, nor are they quite small enough to be ignored as nonfood microscopic organisms, since some specimens can be seen with the naked eye. When a group of rabbis in Brooklyn, New York, discovered the copepods in the summer of 2004, they triggered such debate in rabbinic circles that some observant Jews felt compelled to buy and install filters for their water. The water was ruled kosher by posek Yisrael Belsky. In popular culture In the Nickelodeon television series SpongeBob SquarePants, Sheldon J. Plankton is a copepod. See also Hunting copepods Particle (ecology) World Association of Copepodologists References External links Copepod fact sheet – Guide to the marine zooplankton of south eastern Australia Diversity and geographical distribution of pelagic copepoda Copepod World Neotropical Copepoda Database Project The World Copepod Culture Database Bioindicators Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances Maxillopoda	[ 0.5480542182922363, 0.022780073806643486, -0.6918985247612, 0.20445159077644348, -0.08008022606372833, 0.5689323544502258, 0.1340726912021637, 0.35507819056510925, -0.18827033042907715, -0.35798078775405884, 0.3529326319694519, -0.046842269599437714, -0.25901252031326294, 0.08455563336610794, 0.009973113425076008, 0.6917266845703125, 0.5784153342247009, 0.0325465053319931, 0.09986681491136551, 0.13711044192314148, -0.7181553840637207, -0.4823615550994873, 0.2671218514442444, -0.11214608699083328, 0.26070940494537354, 0.06748662143945694, 0.10881709307432175, 0.18624895811080933, 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207038	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrobatics	Acrobatics	Acrobatics (from Ancient Greek ἀκροβατέω, akrobateo, "walk on tiptoe, strut") is the performance of human feats of balance, agility, and motor coordination. Acrobatic skills are used in performing arts, sporting events, and martial arts. Extensive use of acrobatic skills are most often performed in acro dance, circus, and gymnastics, and to a lesser extent in other athletic activities including ballet, slacklining and diving. Although acrobatics is most commonly associated with human body performance, the term is used to describe other types of performance, such as aerobatics. History Acrobatic traditions are found in many cultures, and there is evidence that the earliest such traditions occurred thousands of years ago. For example, Minoan art from c. 2000 BC contains depictions of acrobatic feats on the backs of bulls. Ancient Greeks practiced acrobatics, and the noble court displays of the European Middle Ages would often include acrobatic performances that included juggling. In China, acrobatics have been a part of the culture since the Tang Dynasty (203 BC). Acrobatics were part of village harvest festivals. During the Tang Dynasty, acrobatics saw much the same sort of development as European acrobatics saw during the Middle Ages, with court displays during the 7th through 10th century dominating the practice. Acrobatics continues to be an important part of modern Chinese variety art. Though the term initially applied to tightrope walking, in the 19th century, a form of performance art including circus acts began to use the term as well. In the late 19th century, tumbling and other acrobatic and gymnastic activities became competitive sport in Europe. Acrobatics has often served as a subject for fine art. Examples of this are paintings such as Acrobats at the Cirque Fernando (Francisca and Angelina Wartenberg) by Impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir, which depicts two German acrobatic sisters, Pablo Picasso's 1905 Acrobat and Young Harlequin, and Acrobats in a Paris suburb by Viktor Vasnetsov. Types Acrobalance Acrobalance is a floor based acrobatic art that involves balances, lifts and creating shapes performed in pairs or groups. Acro dance Acro dance is a style of dance that combines classical dance technique with precision acrobatic elements. Aerial Aerial is acrobatics performed in the air on a suspended apparatus. Trapeze A trapeze is a short horizontal bar hung by ropes or metal straps from a support. Trapeze acts may be static, spinning (rigged from a single point), swinging or flying, and may be performed solo, double, triple or as a group act. Cord lisse Corde lisse is a skill or act that involves acrobatics on a vertically hanging rope. The name is French for "smooth rope". Cloud swing Cloud swing is a skill that usually combines static and swinging trapeze skills, drops, holds and rebound lifts. Cradle Cradle (also known as aerial cradle or casting cradle) is a type of aerial circus skill in which a performer hangs by their knees from a large rectangular frame and swings, tosses, and catches another performer Silks Aerial silks is a type of aerial skill in which one or more artists perform aerial acrobatics while hanging from a long length of fabric suspended from a frame or ceiling. Hoop Aerial hoop (also known as the lyra, aerial ring or cerceau/cerceaux''') is a circular steel apparatus (resembling a hula hoop) suspended from the ceiling or a frame, on which artists may perform aerial acrobatics. It can be used static, spinning, or swinging. Gallery of aerial artists ContortionContortion (sometimes contortionism) is a performance art in which performers called contortionists showcase their skills of extreme physical flexibility Rope and wire walkingTightrope walking, also called funambulism, is the skill of walking along a thin wire or rope. Its earliest performance has been traced to Ancient Greece. It is commonly associated with the circus. Other skills similar to tightrope walking include slack rope walking and slacklining. TumblingTumbling'' is an acrobatic skill involving rolls, twists, somersaults and other rotational activities using the whole body. Its origin can be traced to ancient China, Ancient Greece and ancient Egypt. Tumbling continued in medieval times and then in circuses and theatre before becoming a competitive sport. See also Acrobatic gymnastics List of acrobatic activities References External links Acrobatic gymnastics Circus skills Performing arts	[ 0.28592437505722046, -0.19483590126037598, -0.6348198652267456, 0.26367077231407166, -0.28612154722213745, 0.19088950753211975, 0.5826166272163391, -0.21656855940818787, -0.6300812363624573, 0.1369636207818985, -0.32675883173942566, 0.2814235985279083, -0.6264886856079102, -0.40539833903312683, -0.48225200176239014, 0.12982584536075592, 0.27615511417388916, 0.3104854226112366, 0.02970018982887268, 0.016210831701755524, -0.2103981226682663, 0.34477007389068604, 0.2185775339603424, -0.5332144498825073, 0.7028403282165527, -0.10628488659858704, -0.04945032298564911, 0.8647582530975342, -0.315536230802536, -0.03647591918706894, 0.14661765098571777, 0.6865044236183167, -0.07249338179826736, -0.48232871294021606, -0.3901813328266144, 0.09265689551830292, 0.08048275113105774, -0.18005314469337463, -0.6856818795204163, -1.0956275463104248, 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207040	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20aid%20kit	First aid kit	A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment that is used to give medical treatment. There is a wide variation in the contents of first aid kits based on the knowledge and experience of those putting it together, the differing first aid requirements of the area where it may be used, and variations in legislation or regulation in a given area. The international standard for first aid kits is that they should be identified with the ISO graphical symbol for first aid (from ISO 7010) which is an equal white cross on a green background. Standard kits often come in durable plastic boxes, fabric pouches or in wall mounted cabinets. The type of container will vary depending on the purpose, and they range in size from wallet-sized through to a large box. It is recommended that all kits are kept in a clean dust and damp proof container to keep the contents safe and aseptic. Kits should be checked regularly and restocked if any items are damaged or are out of date. Appearance The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets a standard for first aid kits of being green, with a white cross, in order to make them easily recognizable to anyone requiring first aid. The ISO only endorse the use of the green background and white cross, and this has been adopted as a standard across many countries and regions, including the entire EU. First aid kits are sometimes marked (by an individual or organization) with a red cross on white background, but use of this symbol by anyone but the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) or associated agency is illegal under the terms of the First Geneva Convention, which designates the red cross as a protected symbol in all countries signatory to it. One of the few exceptions is in North America, where despite the passing of the First Geneva convention in 1864, and its ratification in the United States in 1881, Johnson & Johnson has used the red cross as a mark on its products since 1887 and registered the symbol as a U.S. trademark for medicinal and surgical plasters in 1905. Some first aid kits may also feature the Star of Life, normally associated with emergency medical services, but which are also used to indicate that the service using it can offer an appropriate point of care. Though not supported by the ISO, a white cross on red background is also widely recognized as a first aid symbol. However, for very small medical institutions and domestic purposes, the white cross on a plain green background is preferred. Contents of first aid kits Commercially available first aid kits available via normal retail routes have traditionally been intended for treatment of minor injuries only. Typical contents include adhesive bandages, regular strength pain medication, gauze and low grade disinfectant. Specialized first aid kits are available for various regions, vehicles or activities, which may focus on specific risks or concerns related to the activity. For example, first aid kits sold through marine supply stores for use in watercraft may contain seasickness remedies. Airway, Breathing and Circulation First aid treats the ABCs as the foundation of good treatment. For this reason, most modern commercial first aid kits (although not necessarily those assembled at home) will contain a suitable infection barrier for performing artificial respiration as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, examples include: Pocket mask Face shield Advanced first aid kits may also contain items such as: Oropharyngeal airway Nasopharyngeal airway Bag valve mask Manual aspirator or suction unit Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) Stethoscope Some first aid kits, specifically those used by event first aiders and emergency services, include bottled oxygen for resuscitation and therapy. Common Items Common kits may contain: Thermometer Adhesive dressings Antiseptic solution Bandages Cotton balls or swabs Emergency blanket Gauze Gloves Hand sanitizer Ice pack Saline Tweezers Trauma injuries Trauma injuries, such as bleeding, bone fractures or burns, are usually the main focus of most first aid kits, with items such as bandages and dressings being found in the vast majority of all kits. Adhesive bandages (band-aids, sticking plasters) - can include ones shaped for particular body parts, such as knuckles Moleskin— for blister treatment and prevention Dressings (sterile, applied directly to the wound) Sterile eye pads Sterile gauze pads Sterile non-adherent pads, containing a non-stick teflon layer Petrolatum gauze pads, used as an occlusive ( air-tight) dressing for sucking chest wounds, as well as a non-stick dressing Bandages (for securing dressings, not necessarily sterile) Gauze roller bandages - absorbent, breathable, and often elastic Elastic bandages - used for sprains, and pressure bandages Adhesive, elastic roller bandages (commonly called 'Vet wrap') - very effective pressure bandages and durable, waterproof bandaging Triangular bandages - used as slings, tourniquets, to tie splints, and many other uses Butterfly closure strips - used like stitches to close wounds, usually only included for higher level response as can seal in infection in uncleaned wounds. Saline-used for cleaning wounds or washing out foreign bodies from eyes Soap - used with water to clean superficial wounds once bleeding is stopped Antiseptic wipes or sprays for reducing the risk of infection in abrasions or around wounds. Dirty wounds must be cleaned for antiseptics to be effective. Burn dressing, which is usually a sterile pad soaked in a cooling gel Adhesive tape, hypoallergenic Hemostatic agents may be included in first aid kits, especially military or tactical kits, to promote clotting for severe bleeding. Personal protective equipment The use of personal protective equipment or PPE will vary by the kit, depending on its use and anticipated risk of infection. The adjuncts to artificial respiration are covered above, but other common infection control PPE includes: Gloves which are single-use and disposable to prevent cross infection Goggles or other eye protection Surgical mask or N95 mask to reduce the possibility of airborne infection transmission (sometimes placed on patient instead of caregivers. For this purpose the mask should not have an exhale valve) Apron Instruments and equipment Trauma shears for cutting clothing and general use Scissors are less useful but often included (usually to cut medical equipment off or smaller) Tweezers, for removing splinters amongst others. Lighter for sanitizing tweezers or pliers etc. Alcohol pads for sanitizing equipment, or unbroken skin. This is sometimes used to debride wounds, however some training authorities advise against this as it may kill cells which bacteria can then feed on Irrigation syringe - with catheter tip for cleaning wounds with sterile water, saline solution, or a weak iodine solution. The stream of liquid flushes out particles of dirt and debris. Torch (also known as a flashlight) Instant-acting chemical cold packs Alcohol rub (hand sanitizer) or antiseptic hand wipes Thermometer Space blanket (lightweight plastic foil blanket, also known as "emergency blanket") Penlight Cotton swab Cotton wool, for applying antiseptic lotions. Safety pins, for pinning bandages. Medication Medication can be a controversial addition to a first aid kit, especially if it is for use on members of the public. It is, however, common for personal or family first aid kits to contain certain medications. Dependent on scope of practice, the main types of medicine are life saving medications, which may be commonly found in first aid kits used by paid or assigned first aiders for members of the public or employees, painkillers, which are often found in personal kits, but may also be found in public provision and lastly symptomatic relief medicines, which are generally only found in personal kits. Life saving Aspirin primarily used for central medical chest pain as an anti-platelet Epinephrine autoinjector (brand name Epipen) - often included in kits for wilderness use and in places such as summer camps, to temporarily reduce airway swelling in the event of anaphylactic shock. Note that epinephrine does not treat the anaphylactic shock itself, it only opens the airway to prevent suffocation and allow time for other treatments to be used or help to arrive. The effects of epinephrine (adrenaline) are short-lived, and swelling of the throat may return, requiring the use of additional epipens until other drugs can take effect, or more advanced airway methods (such as intubation) can be established. Diphenhydramine (brand name Benadryl) - Used to treat or prevent anaphylactic shock. Best administered as soon as symptoms appear when impending anaphylactic shock is suspected- Once the airway is restricted, oral drugs can no longer be administered until the airway is clear again, such as after the administration of an epipen. A common recommendation for adults is to take two 25mg pills. Non-solid forms of the drug, such as liquid or dissolving strips, may be absorbed more rapidly than tablets or capsules, and therefore more effective in an emergency. Pain killers Paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen) is one of the most common pain killing medication, as either tablet or syrup Anti-inflammatory painkillers such as ibuprofen, naproxen or other NSAIDs can be used as part of treating sprains and strains Codeine which is both a painkiller and anti-diarrheal Symptomatic relief Anti diarrhea medication such as loperamide - especially important in remote or third world locations where dehydration caused by diarrhea is a leading killer of children Oral rehydration salts Antihistamine, such as diphenhydramine Poison treatments Absorption, such as activated charcoal, Enterosgel and Atoxyl. Emetics to induce vomiting, such as syrup of ipecac although first aid manuals now advise against inducing vomiting. Smelling salts (ammonium carbonate) Topical medications Antiseptics / disinfectants Antiseptic fluid, moist wipe or spray- For cleaning and disinfecting a wound. Typically benzalkonium chloride, which disinfects wounds with minimal stinging or harm to exposed tissue. Can also be used as an antibacterial hand wipe for the person providing aid. Povidone iodine is an antiseptic in the form of liquid, swabstick, or towelette. Can be used in a weak dilution of clean water to prepare an irrigation solution for cleaning a wound. Hydrogen peroxide is often included in home first aid kits, but is a poor choice for disinfecting wounds- it kills cells and delays healing Alcohol pads- sometimes included for disinfecting instruments or unbroken skin (for example prior to draining a blister), or cleaning skin prior to applying an adhesive bandage. Alcohol should not be used on an open wound, as it kills skin cells and delays healing. Medicated antiseptic ointments- for preventing infection in a minor wound, after it is cleaned. Not typically used on wounds that are bleeding heavily. Ointments typically contain one, two, or all three of the following antibacterial ingredients (those containing all three are typically called 'triple-antibiotic ointment') neomycin, polymyxin B sulfate or bacitracin zinc. Burn gel - a water-based gel that acts as a cooling agent and often includes a mild anaesthetic such as lidocaine and, sometimes, an antiseptic such as tea tree oil Anti-itch ointment Hydrocortisone cream antihistamine cream containing diphenhydramine Calamine lotion, for skin inflammations. Anti-fungal cream Tincture of benzoin - often in the form of an individually sealed swabstick or ampule, protects the skin and aids the adhesion of adhesive bandages, such as moleskin, Band-Aids, or wound closure ('butterfly') strips. Benzoin swabsticks are very prone to leaking and making a mess when kept in portable first aid kits, ampules are a more durable option. If swabsticks are used, it is advisable to keep them in a sealed zip lock bag. Improvised uses Besides the regular uses for first aid kits, they can be helpful in wilderness or survival situations. First aid kits can make up a part of a survival kit or a mini survival kit in addition to other tools. Workplace first aid kits In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires all job sites and workplaces to make available first aid equipment for use by injured employees. While providing regulations for some industries such as logging in general the regulation lack specifics on the contents of the first aid kit. This is understandable, as the regulation covers every means of employment, and different jobs have different types of injuries and different first-aid requirements. However, in a non-mandatory section, the OSHA regulations do refer to ANSI/ISEA Specification Z308.1 as the basis for the suggested minimum contents of a first aid kit. Another source for modern first aid kit information is United States Forest Service Specification 6170-6, which specifies the contents of several different-sized kits, intended to serve groups of differing size. In general, the type of first aid facilities required in a workplace are determined by many factors, such as: the laws and regulation of the state or territory in which it is located; the type of industry concerned; for example, industries such as mining may have specific industry regulations detailing specialised instructions; the type of hazards present in the workplace; the number of employees in the workplace; the number of different locations that the workplace is spread over; the proximity to local services (doctors, hospital, ambulance). Historic first aid kits As the understanding of first aid and lifesaving measures has advanced, and the nature of public health risks has changed, the contents of first aid kits have changed to reflect prevailing understandings and conditions. For example, earlier US Federal specifications for first aid kits included incision/suction-type snakebite kits and mercurochrome antiseptic. There are many historic components no longer used today, of course; some notable examples follow. As explained in the article on snakebite, the historic snakebite kit is no longer recommended. Mercurochrome was removed in 1998 by the US FDA from the generally recognized as safe category due to concerns over its mercury content. Another common item in early 20th century first aid kits, picric acid gauze for treating burns, is today considered a hazardous material due to its forming unstable and potentially explosive picrates when in contact with metal. Examples of modern additions include the CPR face shields and specific body-fluid barriers included in modern kits, to assist in CPR and to help prevent the spread of bloodborne pathogens such as HIV. See also First aid IFAK (individual first aid kit), US military equipment Bug-out bag Medical bag Injury Emergency References External links How to make your own first-aid kit, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Red Cross' Anatomy of a First Aid Kit Kit Camping equipment Medical equipment	[ 0.7563874125480652, 0.2923015058040619, -0.6016367077827454, 0.031917717307806015, 0.08405040204524994, -0.031585536897182465, 0.402214914560318, -0.39944010972976685, -0.13096055388450623, -0.714771032333374, -0.3434804379940033, 0.4808325469493866, -0.22742682695388794, -0.426235169172287, -0.6487756371498108, 0.5432584285736084, 0.21131089329719543, 0.7133638262748718, 0.13082963228225708, 0.0886177122592926, -0.4013980031013489, -0.5448712110519409, 0.021087560802698135, 0.016797348856925964, 0.2618164122104645, 0.05408628284931183, 0.2669784724712372, 0.30804067850112915, 0.21589575707912445, -0.23967966437339783, 0.29859933257102966, 0.16045404970645905, 0.2144353836774826, 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207041	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Hassan%20al-Majid	Ali Hassan al-Majid	Ali Hassan Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (; 30 November 1941 – 25 January 2010), nicknamed Chemical Ali (), was an Iraqi politician and military commander under Saddam Hussein who served as defence minister, interior minister, and chief of the Iraqi Intelligence Service. He was also the governor of Kuwait during much of the 1990–91 Gulf War. A first cousin of former Ba'athist Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, he became notorious in the 1980s and 1990s for his alleged role in the Iraqi government's campaigns against internal opposition forces, namely the ethnic Kurdish rebels of the north, and the Shia rebels of the south. Repressive measures included deportations and mass killings; al-Majid was dubbed "Chemical Ali" (, Ali Al-Kīmāwī) by Iraqis for his use of chemical weapons in attacks against the Kurds. Al-Majid was captured following the 2003 invasion of Iraq and was charged by the Iraqi government with war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide. He was convicted in June 2007 and was sentenced to death for crimes of genocide against the Kurds committed in the al-Anfal campaign of the 1980s. His appeal of the death sentence was rejected on 4 September 2007, and he was sentenced to death for the fourth time on 17 January 2010 and was hanged eight days later, on 25 January 2010. Early life Ali Hassan al-Majid is thought to have been born in 1941 in al-Awja near Tikrit, though he claimed in court that he was born three years later in 1944. The US, the United Nations and the Bank of England have also listed possible alternative birth years of 1943, 1939 & 1940. Official Iraqi court documents and the vast majority of journalistic obituaries cite 1941 as his approximate year of birth. Al-Majid was a member of the Bejat clan of the Al-Bu Nasir tribe, to which his elder cousin Saddam Hussein also belonged. Saddam later relied heavily on the clan & tribe to fill senior posts in his government. Like Saddam, al-Majid also was a Sunni Muslim who came from a poor tribal family and had little formal education. He worked as a motorcycle messenger and driver in the Iraqi Army from 1959 until the Ba'ath Party seized power in 1968. Thereafter, he was able to gain entry into the Military Academy and was commissioned as an officer in the Infantry. His rise thereafter, aided by his cousin Saddam, was swift. He initially became an aide to Iraqi defence minister Hammadi Shihab in the early 1970s after joining the Ba'ath party. He then became head of the government's Security Office, serving as an enforcer for the increasingly powerful Saddam. In 1979 Saddam seized power, ousting President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. At a videotaped assembly of Ba'ath party officials in July 1979, Saddam read out the names of political opponents, denouncing them as 'traitors', ordering that they be removed one by one from the room; many were later executed. Al-Majid could be seen in the background telling Saddam, "What you have done in the past was good. What you will do in the future is good. But there's this one small point. You have been too gentle, too merciful." Al-Majid became one of Saddam's closest military advisors and head of the Iraqi Intelligence Service, Iraqi secret police known as the Mukhabarat. Following an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Saddam in 1983 in the town of Dujail, north of Baghdad, al-Majid directed the subsequent collective punishment operations in which scores of local men were killed, thousands more inhabitants were deported and the entire town was razed to the ground. Al-Anfal campaign During the late stages of the Iran–Iraq War al-Majid was given the post of Secretary General of the Northern Bureau of the Ba'ath Party, in which capacity he served from March 1987 to April 1989. This effectively made him Saddam's proconsul in the north of the country, commanding all state agencies in the rebellious Kurdish-populated region of the country. He was known for his ruthlessness, ordering the indiscriminate use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas, sarin, tabun and VX against Kurdish targets during a genocidal campaign dubbed Al-Anfal or "The Spoils of War". The first such attacks occurred as early as April 1987 and continued into 1988, culminating in the notorious attack on Halabja in which over 5,000 people were killed. With Kurdish resistance continuing, al-Majid decided to cripple the rebellion by eradicating the civilian population of the Kurdish regions. His forces embarked on a systematic campaign of mass killings, property destruction and forced population transfer (called "Arabization") in which thousands of Kurdish and Assyrian villages were razed and their inhabitants either killed or deported to the south of Iraq. He signed a decree in June 1987 stating that "Within their jurisdiction, the armed forces must kill any human being or animal present in these areas." By 1988, some 4,000 villages had been destroyed, an estimated 180,000 Kurds had been killed and some 1.5 million had been deported. The Kurds called him Chemical Ali ("Ali Kimawy") for his role in the campaign; according to Iraqi Kurdish sources, Ali Hassan openly boasted of this nickname. Others dubbed him the "Butcher of Kurdistan". Persian Gulf War and Iraq War He was appointed Minister of Local Government following the war's end in 1988, with responsibility for the repopulation of the Kurdish and Assyrian region with Arab settlers relocated from elsewhere in Iraq. Two years later, after the invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, he became the military governor of the occupied emirate. He instituted a violent regime under which Kuwait was systematically looted and purged of "disloyal elements". In November 1990, he was recalled to Baghdad and was appointed Interior Minister in March 1991. Following the Iraqi defeat in the war, he was given the task of quelling the uprisings in the Shi'ite south of Iraq as well as the Kurdish and Assyrian north. Both revolts were crushed with great brutality, with many thousands killed. He was subsequently given the post of Defense Minister, though he briefly fell from grace in 1995 when Saddam dismissed him after it was discovered that al-Majid was involved in illegally smuggling grain to Iran. In December 1998, however, Saddam recalled him and appointed him commander of the southern region of Iraq, where the United States was increasingly carrying out air strikes in the northern no-fly zone. Al-Majid was re-appointed to this post in March 2003, immediately before the start of the Iraq War. He based himself in the southern port city of Basra and in April 2003 he was mistakenly reported to have been killed there in a U.S. air strike. He survived the April 2003 attack but was arrested by American forces on 17 August 2003 in Basra. He had been listed as the fifth most-wanted man in Iraq, shown as the King of Spades in the deck of most-wanted Iraqi playing cards. In 2006 he was charged with genocide and crimes against humanity for his part in the Anfal campaign and was transferred to the Iraq Special Tribunal for trial. He received four death sentences for his role in killing Shia Muslims in 1991 and 1999, the genocide of the Kurds in the 1980s, and ordering the gassing of Kurds at Halabja. Trial and execution The trial began on 21 August 2006, in acrimonious circumstances when al-Majid refused to enter a plea. He subsequently had a not guilty plea entered on his behalf by the court. He was unapologetic about his actions, telling the court that he had ordered the destruction of Kurdish and Assyrian villages because they were "full of Iranian agents". At one hearing, he declared: "I am the one who gave orders to the army to demolish villages and relocate the villagers. The army was responsible to carry out those orders. I am not defending myself. I am not apologizing. I did not make a mistake." During the trial, the court heard tape-recorded conversations between al-Majid and senior Ba'ath party officials regarding the use of chemical weapons. Responding to a question about the success of the deportation campaign, Ali Hassan told his interlocutors: I went to Sulaymaniyah and hit them with the special ammunition [i.e. chemical weapons]. That was my answer. We continued the deportations. I told the mustashars [village heads] that they might say that they like their villages and that they won't leave. I said I cannot let your village stay because I will attack it with chemical weapons. Then you and your family will die. You must leave right now. Because I cannot tell you the same day that I am going to attack with chemical weapons. I will kill them all with chemical weapons! Who is going to say anything? The international community? Fuck them! The international community and those who listen to them. ... This is my intention, and I want you to take serious note of it. As soon as we complete the deportations, we will start attacking them everywhere according to a systematic military plan. Even their strongholds. In our attacks we will take back one third or one half of what is under their control. If we can try to take two-thirds, then we will surround them in a small pocket and attack them with chemical weapons. I will not attack them with chemicals just one day, but I will continue to attack them with chemicals for fifteen days. Then I will announce that anyone who wishes to surrender with his gun will be allowed to do so. Anyone willing to come back is welcome, and those who do not return will be attacked again with new, destructive chemicals. I will not mention the name of the chemical because that is classified information. But I will say with new destructive weapons that will destroy you. So I will threaten them and motivate them to surrender. During the next few days of the trial, more recordings of al-Majid were heard in which he once again discussed the government's goals in dealing with the Iraqi Kurds. In the recordings, Ali Hassan calls the Iraqi Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani "wicked and a pimp," and promises not to leave alive anyone who speaks the Kurdish language. Ali Hassan's defence claimed that he used such language as "psychological and propaganda" tools against the Kurds, to prevent them from fighting government forces. "All the words used by me, such as 'deport them' or 'wipe them out,' were only for psychological effect," Ali Hassan said. On 24 June 2007, the court returned a verdict of guilty on all counts. The presiding judge, Mohammed Oreibi al-Khalifa, told al-Majid: "You had all the civil and military authority for northern Iraq. You gave orders to the troops to kill Kurdish and Assyrian civilians and put them in severe conditions. You subjected them to wide and systematic attacks using chemical weapons and artillery. You led the killing of villagers. You ... committed genocide. There are enough documents against you." He received five death sentences for genocide, crimes against humanity (specifically willful killing, forced disappearances and extermination), and war crimes (intentionally directing attacks against a civilian population). He was also sentenced to multiple prison terms ranging from seven years to life for other crimes. As his sentences were upheld, under Iraqi law, sentence was to be carried out by hanging, subject to the convictions being upheld following an automatic appeal, and he was to be executed in the following 30 days along with two others – Sultan Hashim Ahmad al-Tai, military commander of the Anfal campaign; and Hussein Rashid Mohammed, deputy general commander of the Iraqi armed force, assistant chief of staff for military operations, and former Republican Guard commander. However, the executions were postponed to 16 October, because of the arrival of the holy month of Ramadan. He was supposed to be executed 16 October 2007, but the execution was delayed when Iraqi President Jalal Talabani and Vice President Tariq al-Hashemi expressed opposition to the sentences of al-Majid's co-defendants and refused to sign the execution orders. He then entered into a legal row with Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, and as a result the Americans refused to hand any of the condemned prisoners over until the issue was resolved. In February 2008 an anonymous informant stated that Ali Hassan al-Majid's execution was finally approved by Talabani, al-Hashemi, and al-Maliki; this was the final hurdle in the way of the execution. On 2 December 2008, al-Majid was once again sentenced to death, but this time for playing a role in killing between 20,000 and 100,000 Shi'ite Muslims during the revolt in southern Iraq that followed the 1991 Persian Gulf War. On 2 March 2009, al-Majid was sentenced to death for the third time, this for the assassination of Grand-Ayatollah Mohammad al-Sadr in 1999. The Iraqi Cabinet put pressure on the Presidential council on 17 March 2009 for Al-Majid's execution. The situation was similar on 17 January 2010 prior to 9 am (GMT); a fourth death penalty was issued against him in response to his acts of genocide against Kurds in the 1980s. He was also convicted of killing Shia Muslims in 1991 and 1999. Alongside him in the trial was former defense minister Sultan Hashem, who was also found guilty by The Iraqi High Tribunal for the Halabja attack and sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment. Al-Majid was executed by hanging on 25 January 2010. He was buried in Saddam's family cemetery in al-Awja the next day; near Saddam's sons, half-brother and the former vice president, but outside the mosque housing the tomb of Saddam. While he was sentenced to death on four separate occasions, the original 2007 verdict sentenced him to five death sentences, and so the combined tally of death sentences handed out was eight. Amnesty International's Middle East and North Africa Director Malcolm Smart later criticized the execution as "only the latest of a mounting number of executions, some of whom did not receive fair trials, in gross violation of human rights..." Sources External links Ali Hassan Al Majeed 1940s births 2010 deaths 21st-century executions by Iraq Executed military leaders Executed politicians Genocide perpetrators Government ministers of Iraq Governors of Kuwait Governorate Iraqi generals Iraqi people convicted of crimes against humanity Iraqi people convicted of genocide Iraqi people of the Iran–Iraq War Iraqi Sunni Muslims Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region Military leaders of the Gulf War People executed for war crimes People of the 1991 uprisings in Iraq Executed Iraqi people People from Tikrit Tulfah family People executed by Iraq by hanging Iraqi military personnel of the Iran–Iraq War People executed for crimes against humanity Iraqi politicians convicted of crimes Directors of intelligence agencies	[ 0.2749427855014801, 0.8434832096099854, -0.6381165385246277, -0.3614795207977295, -0.3198022246360779, 0.3641214966773987, 0.20854288339614868, -0.4551595151424408, 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207042	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halabja%20massacre	Halabja massacre	The Halabja massacre (), also known as the Halabja chemical attack, was a massacre of Kurdish people that took place on 16 March 1988, during the closing days of the Iran–Iraq War in the Kurdish city of Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. The attack was part of the Al-Anfal Campaign in Kurdistan, as well as part of the Iraqi Army's attempt to repel the Iranian Operation Zafar 7. It took place 48 hours after the capture of the town by the Iranian Army. A United Nations (UN) medical investigation concluded that mustard gas was used in the attack, along with unidentified nerve agents. The incident was the largest chemical weapons attack directed against a civilian-populated area in history, killing between 3,200 and 5,000 people and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, most of them civilians. Preliminary results from surveys of the affected region showed an increased rate of cancer and birth defects in the years afterward. The Halabja attack has been officially defined by the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal as a genocidal massacre against the Kurdish people in Iraq under Saddam Hussein. The attack was also condemned as a crime against humanity by the Parliament of Canada. Ali Hassan al-Majid, a high-ranking Iraqi official who led the Anfal campaign, was found guilty of ordering the attack and subsequently executed in 2010. Background Northern Iraq was an area of general unrest during the early stage of the Iran–Iraq War, with the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) militias joining forces, with Iranian support, in 1982 and 1983, respectively. From 1985, the Iraqi Ba'athist government under Saddam Hussein decided to eradicate pockets of Kurdish insurgents in the north and strike down the peshmerga rebels by all means possible, including large-scale punishment of civilians and the use of chemical weapons. The Halabja event was also part of Iraqi efforts to counter-attack Kurdish and Iranian forces in the final stages of Operation Zafar 7. Chemical attack The five-hour attack began in the evening of 16 March 1988, following a series of indiscriminate conventional (rocket and napalm) attacks. Iraqi Migs and Mirages aircraft began dropping chemical bombs on Halabja's residential areas, far from the besieged Iraqi army base on the outskirts of the town. According to regional Kurdish rebel commanders, Iraqi aircraft, coordinated by helicopters, conducted up to 14 bombings in sorties of seven to eight planes each. Eyewitnesses told of clouds of white, black and then yellow smoke billowing upward and rising as a column about in the air. It was a beautiful spring day. As the clock approached 11:00 in the morning, I felt a strange sensation; my heart convulsed as if it were telling me that we were on the verge of a major calamity. Within minutes, artillery rounds began to explode in Halabja and planes began dropping bombs on the town. The bombing was concentrated on the northern neighborhoods, so we ran and hid in our basement. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon, as the intensity of the bombing wound down, I carefully sneaked out of the basement to the kitchen and carried food to my family. When the bombing stopped, we began to hear noises that sounded like metal pieces falling on the ground. But I didn’t find an explanation. I saw things that I won't forget for as long as I live. It started with a loud strange noise that sounded like bombs exploding, and a man came running into our house, shouting, 'Gas! Gas!' We hurried into our car and closed its windows. I think the car was rolling over the bodies of innocent people. I saw people lying on the ground, vomiting a green-colored liquid, while others became hysterical and began laughing loudly before falling motionless onto the ground. Later, I smelled an aroma that reminded me of apples and I lost consciousness. When I awoke, there were hundreds of bodies scattered around me. After that I took shelter again in a nearby basement and the area was engulfed by an ugly smell. It was similar to rotting garbage, but then it changed to a sweet smell similar to that of apples. Then I smelled something that was like eggs. When you hear people shouting the words 'gas' or 'chemicals'—and you hear those shouts spreading among the people—that is when terror begins to take hold, especially among the children and the women. Your loved ones, your friends, you see them walking and then falling like leaves to the ground. It is a situation that cannot be described—birds began falling from their nests; then other animals, then humans. It was total annihilation. Whoever was able to walk out of the town, left on foot. Whoever had a car, left by car. But whoever had too many children to carry on their shoulders, they stayed in the town and succumbed to the gas. Survivors said the gas at first smelled of sweet apples and reported that people died in a number of ways, suggesting a combination of toxic chemicals. Some of the victims "just dropped dead" while others "died of laughing," while still others took a few minutes to die, first "burning and blistering" or coughing up green vomit. Many were injured or perished in the panic that followed the attack, especially those who were blinded by the chemicals. "Iranian physicians reported that victims of the chemical attacks on Halabja showed characteristic symptoms of cyanide poisoning," while other reports indicated substantial quantities of mustard gas and other chemical weapons were used. Most of the wounded taken to hospitals in the Iranian capital Tehran were suffering from mustard gas exposure. A United Nations (UN) medical investigation concluded that mustard gas was used in the attack, along with unidentified nerve agents; the UN's investigator was "unable to obtain any definitive information about the [reported] use of hydrocyanic gas as an aggressive chemical." It is generally accepted that "a lethal cocktail of mustard gas and the nerve agents Tabun, Sarin and VX" was used, as reported by the BBC. Prior to the Halabja incident there were at least 21 documented smaller-scale chemical attacks against Iraqi Kurds, none of which prompted any serious response from the international community. Aftermath Discovery and response The first images after the attack were taken by Iranian journalists who later spread the pictures in Iranian newspapers. Footage taken by a British ITN camera crew, airlifted by the Iranians, was also shown worldwide via news programmes. Some of those first pictures were taken by Iranian photographer Kaveh Golestan, who described the scene to Guy Dinmore of the Financial Times. He was about eight kilometres outside Halabja with a military helicopter when the Iraqi MiG-23 fighter-bombers flew in. He said "it was not as big as a nuclear mushroom cloud, but several smaller ones: thick smoke." Golestan was shocked by the scenes on his arrival in the town, though he had seen gas attacks before at the front lines: It was life frozen. Life had stopped, like watching a film and suddenly it hangs on one frame. It was a new kind of death to me. (…) The aftermath was worse. Victims were still being brought in. Some villagers came to our chopper. They had 15 or 16 beautiful children, begging us to take them to hospital. So all the press sat there and we were each handed a child to carry. As we took off, fluid came out of my little girl's mouth and she died in my arms. The Iraqi government did not publicly comment on the use of chemical weapons at Halabja until 23 March, and early statements by Iraqi officials on the matter were inconsistent. Although Iraq ultimately denied responsibility for the attack and blamed it on Iran, its initial silence, as well as the fact that Halabja was never a major part of Iraq's wartime propaganda campaign against Iran, raises questions about the sincerity of this deflection. International response at the time was muted. The United States government and its intelligence agencies suggested that Kurdish civilians had not been deliberately targeted, and attempted to place responsibility for the attack on Iran. The United States Defense Intelligence Agency and Central Intelligence Agency analyst Stephen C. Pelletiere claimed at the time that Iran was responsible for the gassing, an allegation which Pelletiere repeated in a 2003 op-ed in The New York Times. However, these claims were subsequently discredited. A briefing paper produced by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about how the British government should respond to the massacre, and whether or not economic sanctions should be imposed, came to the following conclusion: "We believe it better to maintain a dialogue with others if we want to influence their actions. Punitive measures such as unilateral sanctions would not be effective in changing Iraq's behaviour over chemical weapons, and would damage British interests to no avail." According to Tony Benn, the issue was raised in Parliament, but he was told that "Saddam was an ally". Iraqi government documents dating from 16 March 1988 to several weeks later refer to "a firm escalation of military might and cruelty [in Halabja]," "the bombing by our planes and our artillery on the area of Halabja and Khurmal, [killing] approximately 2,000 enemy forces of the Persians and Iranian agents [the PUK]," the "recent attack on Halabja with special ammunition," and, in one case, explicitly refer to "the Iraqi chemical attack on Halabja." An Iraqi pilot explained in 2003 that the attack was motivated, in part, by the Iraqi perception that Kurdish collaboration with invading Iranian soldiers constituted "high treason." Destruction and partial restoration of Halabja Survivors assisted by peshmerga and Iranians hastily buried most of the dead in makeshift mass graves. After Halabja was retaken from Iranian and Kurdish rebel forces, Iraqi troops in NBC suits came to Halabja to study the effectiveness of their weapons and attacks. The town, still littered with unburied dead, was then systematically razed by Iraqi forces using bulldozers and explosives. The Japanese government financed a $70 million project to provide access to safe drinking water in response to this. In the meanwhile, an Iraqi high-ranking authority officially confessed in a meeting with Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, the Secretary-General of the United Nations for the utilization of chemical weapons by Iraq. Medical and genetic consequences Ten years later, in 1998, at least 700 people were still being treated for the severe after effects of the attack and 500 of them were judged to be critically ill, even as "the most severe cases may already have died." In surveys by local doctors, a higher percentage of medical disorders, miscarriages (outnumbering live births and 14 times higher than normal), colon cancer (10 times higher than normal), and heart diseases (quadrupled between 1990 and 1996) were found in Halabja compared to Chamchamal. Additionally, "other cancers, respiratory ailments, skin and eye problems, fertility and reproductive disorders are measurably higher in Halabja and other areas caught in chemical attacks." Some of those who survived the attack or were apparently injured only lightly at the time later developed medical problems doctors believe stemmed from the chemicals, and there are concerns that the attack may be having a lasting genetic impact on the Kurdish population, as preliminary surveys showed increased rates of birth defects. Some reports indicated that "survivors of this particular attack have permanent injuries, including burns, and some exhibit symptoms of neurological damage, although this cannot yet be adequately confirmed." Trials of Saddam and 'Chemical Ali' Saddam Hussein was not charged by the Iraqi Special Tribunal for crimes against humanity based on the events at Halabja. However, Iraqi prosecutors had "500 documented baskets of crimes during the Hussein regime" and Hussein was condemned to death based on just one case, the 1982 Dujail Massacre. Among several documents revealed during the trial of Saddam Hussein, one was a 1987 memo from Iraq's military intelligence seeking permission from the president's office to use mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin and tabun against Kurds. A second document said in reply that Saddam had ordered military intelligence to study the possibility of a "sudden strike" using such weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces. An internal memo written by military intelligence confirmed it had received approval from the president's office for a strike using "special ammunition" and emphasized that no strike would be launched without first informing the president. Saddam himself told the court: "In relation to Iran, if any military or civil official claims that Saddam gave orders to use either conventional or special ammunition, which as explained is chemical, I will take responsibility with honor. But I will discuss any act committed against our people and any Iraqi citizen, whether Arab or Kurdish. I don't accept any insult to my principles or to me personally." Kurdish survivors had no doubt Saddam was personally responsible and were disappointed he was being tried only over the killings in Dujail. Saddam was executed by hanging on 30 December 2006. Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (who commanded Iraqi forces in northern Iraq during that period, which earned him a nickname of 'Chemical Ali') was condemned to death by hanging by an Iraqi court in January 2010, after being found guilty of orchestrating the Halabja massacre. Al-Majid was first sentenced to hang in 2007 for his role in a 1988 military campaign against ethnic Kurds, codenamed Anfal, and in 2008 he also twice received a death sentence for his crimes against the Iraqi Shia Muslims, in particular for his role in crushing the 1991 uprisings in southern Iraq and his involvement in the 1999 killings in the Sadr City district of Baghdad (then called Saddam City). Al-Majid did not express remorse at his trials, stating his actions were in the interests of Iraqi security. He was executed by hanging on 25 January 2010. Among many other captured Iraqi government documents proving Iraqi responsibility for the attack, there is a recording of al-Majid boasting about the Kurds: "I will kill them all with chemical weapons. Who is going to say anything? The international community? Fuck the international community and those who listen to them!" International sources for technology and chemical precursors The know-how and material for developing chemical weapons were obtained by Saddam's regime from foreign sources. Most precursors for chemical weapons production came from Singapore (4,515 tons), the Netherlands (4,261 tons), Egypt (2,400 tons), India (2,343 tons), and West Germany (1,027 tons). One Indian company, Exomet Plastics, sent 2,292 tons of precursor chemicals to Iraq. Singapore-based firm Kim Al-Khaleej, affiliated to the United Arab Emirates, supplied more than 4,500 tons of VX, sarin and mustard gas precursors and production equipment to Iraq. Dieter Backfisch, managing director of West German company Karl Kolb GmbH, was quoted by saying in 1989 that "for people in Germany poison gas is something quite terrible, but this does not worry customers abroad." The 2002 International Crisis Group (ICG) no. 136 "Arming Saddam: The Yugoslav Connection" concludes it was "tacit approval" by many world governments that led to the Iraqi regime being armed with weapons of mass destruction, despite sanctions, because of the ongoing Iranian conflict. Among the dual-use exports provided to Iraq from American companies such as Alcolac International and Phillips was thiodiglycol, a substance which can also be used to manufacture mustard gas, according to leaked portions of Iraq's "full, final and complete" disclosure of the sources for its weapons programs. The dual-use exports from United States companies to Iraq was enabled by a Ronald Reagan Administration policy that removed Iraq from the State Department's list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Alcolac was named as a defendant in the Aziz v. Iraq case presently pending in the United States District Court (Case No. 1:09-cv-00869-MJG). Both companies have since undergone reorganization. Phillips, once a subsidiary of Phillips Petroleum is now part of ConocoPhillips, an American oil and discount fossil fuel company. Alcolac International has since dissolved and reformed as Alcolac Inc. On 23 December 2005, a Dutch court sentenced Frans van Anraat, a businessman who bought chemicals on the world market and sold them to Saddam's regime, to 15 years in prison. The court ruled that the chemical attack on Halabja constituted genocide, but van Anraat was found guilty only of complicity in war crimes. In March 2008, the government of Iraq announced plans to take legal action against the suppliers of chemicals used in the attack. In 2013, 20 Iraqi Kurds who were victims of the attack requested a judicial investigation into two unnamed French companies, saying that they were among 20 or more companies that helped Saddam Hussein construct a chemical weapons arsenal. The Kurds sought for an investigating judge to open a case. Controversies Allegations of Iranian involvement The U.S. State Department, in the immediate aftermath of the incident, took the official position that Iran was partly to blame. A preliminary Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) study at the time reported that Iran was responsible for the attack, an assessment which was used subsequently by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for much of the early 1990s. The CIA's senior political analyst for the Iran-Iraq war, Stephen C. Pelletiere, co-authored an unclassified analysis of the war which contained a brief summary of the DIA study's key points. Pelletiere claimed that blue discolorations around the mouths of the victims and in their extremities suggested that a blood agent using cyanide was used in the attack at Halabja, and that only Iran was known to have used blood agents during the war. No proof that Iran had previously used hydrocyanic gas, as asserted by the DIA, was ever presented. Joost Hiltermann, who was the principal researcher for Human Rights Watch between 1992–1994, conducted a two-year study of the massacre, including a field investigation in northern Iraq. His analysis of thousands of captured Iraqi secret police documents and declassified U.S. government documents—as well as interviews with scores of Kurdish survivors, senior Iraqi defectors, and retired U.S. intelligence officers—demonstrates that Iraq carried out the attack on Halabja, and that the United States, fully aware of this, nevertheless accused Iran, Iraq's enemy in a fierce war, of being partly responsible for the attack. This research concluded there were numerous other gas attacks, unquestionably perpetrated against the Kurds by the Iraqi armed forces. In 2001, Jean Pascal Zanders of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)'s Chemical and Biological Warfare Project also dismissed the allegations, arguing that "The coloring of the victims is more suggestive of sarin, which was in Iraq's arsenal." Leo Casey, writing in Dissent Magazine in 2003, observed that Pelletiere's analysis was based solely on images and testimony of blue discolorations and ignored all other evidence—including the recollections of hundreds of Kurdish witnesses; academic studies based on medical examinations, soil samples, and autopsies; and captured Iraqi government documents—proving Iraqi culpability. Hiltermann noted that although cyanosis (the medical term for the blue discolorations in question) is etymologically related to cyanide, the former condition indicates only a blood supply deprived of oxygen, and is in no way sufficient to diagnose cyanide poisoning; in fact, "it could just as easily suggest the use of a nerve agent." Furthermore, "Even the proven presence of cyanide gas at Halabja would not necessarily implicate Iran," for two reasons outlined by Hiltermann. Prior to Halabja, Iranian forces made widespread use of amyl nitrite to counter what they repeatedly alleged was Iraqi cyanide gas. If those Iranian claims are accepted, then "By that logic, Iraq could also be implicated in any Halabja deaths by cyanide." However, cyanide evaporates rapidly and tabun—a major part of Iraq's chemical arsenal at the time—contains cyanide as an essential ingredient, factors that rendered it impossible for the UN to confirm any Iraqi use of cyanide gas during the Iran–Iraq war: "Because of its connection to tabun, if hydrocyanide is found in a given environment, it could be either the residual effect of poorly manufactured tabun or a breakdown element when tabun decomposes." According to Hiltermann, the literature on the Iran–Iraq war reflects a number of allegations of chemical weapons use by Iran, but these are "marred by a lack of specificity as to time and place, and the failure to provide any sort of evidence." Hiltermann called these allegations "mere assertions" and added that "no persuasive evidence of the claim that Iran was the primary culprit was ever presented." Many sources state that Iran's chemical weapons capability at the time was extremely limited to non-existent, although it is possible that Iran could have captured chemical munitions from Iraqi troops; for example, military analyst Ahmed Hashim recounted that "The Iranians only had tear gas. No cyanide." In fact, far from having a meaningful chemical warfare capability, Iran's effectiveness merely in protecting its own soldiers from chemical attacks is open to question as the low-quality protective equipment that it belatedly received from East Germany and North Korea was intended for use against paint fumes; the unwillingness of many Iranians to shave their beards also limited the efficacy of the masks. A 1987 UN report conducted at the behest of both belligerents discovered weapon fragments that established Iraqi responsibility for chemical attacks on Iranian soldiers and civilians, but could not substantiate Iraq's allegations of Iranian chemical weapons use: "Iraqi forces have been affected by mustard gas and a pulmonary element, possibly phosgene. In the absence of conclusive evidence of the weapons used, it could not be determined how the injuries were caused." Evidence suggests that these Iraqi chemical casualties were likely the result of "blowback," whereas the evidence that Iraq submitted to the UN—such as two Iranian 130 mm shells that UN specialists found had "no internal chemical-resistant coating" and were "normally used for filling with high explosives"—did not withstand scrutiny; UN official Iqbal Riza later acknowledged that Iraq's evidence was "clearly fabricated." However, the report's phrasing—"chemical weapons were again used against Iranian forces by Iraqi forces ... now also Iraqi forces have sustained injuries from chemical warfare"—contributed to an erroneous perception that Iran and Iraq were equally at fault. Documents uncovered after the 2003 invasion of Iraq show that Iraqi military intelligence was not aware of any large-scale chemical attacks by Iranian forces, although a March 1987 document describes five small-scale chemical attacks perpetrated by the Iranians (four involving mustard gas and one involving phosgene, with the likely source being captured Iraqi munitions), and there are also reports of Iranian use of tear gas and white phosphorus. 2006 Halabja memorial riot In March 2003, the Monument of Halabja Martyrs was built in the still largely ruined city. On 16 March 2006, a few thousand angry residents, many of them students in high school or university, rioted at the site in protest of what they perceived as the neglect of the living and capitalizing on the tragedy by the Kurdish leadership. The memorial was set on fire, destroying most of its archives; a student protester was shot dead by the police and dozens of people were injured. It was later rebuilt as the Halabja Memorial Monument, also known as Halabja Monument and Peace Museum. In popular culture In 2008, Kayhan Kalhor and Brooklyn Rider released the album Silent City in memory of the Halabja Massacre. As Kalhor writes on the back cover, "The piece commemorates the Kurdish village of Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. It is based on an altered A-minor scale and uses Kurdish themes to remember the Kurdish people." In 2011, Kayhan Kalhor, Yo-Yo Ma and The Silk Road Ensemble performed Silent City at Sanders Theater. Silk Road Project released video of the last part of the performance on YouTube. Canadian industrial-electronic band Skinny Puppy comments upon the Halabja chemical attacks in their song "VX Gas Attack" on their 1988 album VIVIsectVI. In 2002, the movie Jiyan about the Halabja attack was released. This movie was written and directed by Jano Rosebiani. See also 1991 uprisings in Iraq 2013 Ghouta attacks Chemical attack on Behbahan battalion Anfal campaign Dujail Massacre List of events named massacres Iraq chemical attacks against Iran Chemical bombing of Sardasht References Literature Joost R. Hiltermann, A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja (2007) Michael J. Kelly, Ghosts of Halabja: Saddam Hussein & the Kurdish Genocide (2008) Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (2003) Lawrence Potter, Gary Sick, Iran, Iraq, and the Legacies of War (2004) External links Halabja gas attack and the Al-Anfal campaign, Human Rights Watch report, 11 March 1991 Iraqi Kurds remember day Saddam gassed them, The Telegraph, 17 March 2003 Experiencing chemical warfare: Two physicians tell their story of Halabja in Northern Iraq, CMA, 9 September 2004 Eyewitness in Halabja, Wildcat 13, 1989 Halabja: the politics of memory by Joost R Hiltermann, openDemocracy, 14 March 2008 Halabja: Lessons of a tragedy, interview with Joost Hiltermann, Kurd Net, 15 March 2008 Iraqi Kurds mourn Halabja attack victims, AFP, 16 March 2008 20th-century mass murder in Iraq Halabja 1988 in Iraq Mass murder in 1988 Military operations involving chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War Military operations of the Iran–Iraq War involving the Peshmerga 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207059	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thumbcuffs	Thumbcuffs	Thumbcuffs are a metal restraining device that lock thumbs in proximity to each other. Thumbcuffs were originally intended for use by detectives, narcotics officers and off-duty policemen, their size allowing them to be carried in the pocket. Most are rigid devices, while some used in Asian countries are chain-linked, like miniature handcuffs. Thumbcuffs are rarely used due to an increased possibility of injury, most commonly by tight cuffs blocking blood circulation. Handcuffs are usually used instead. Thumbcuffs may also be used as improvised toecuffs by locking the big toes in proximity to each other. Thumbcuffs with double locks have a lockspring which, when engaged, usually using the top of the key, stops the thumbcuff from ratcheting tighter and prevents the subject from tightening them, possibly causing injury. Double locks also make picking the locks more difficult. 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207060	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalia%20%28moon%29	Himalia (moon)	Himalia (), or Jupiter VI, is the largest irregular satellite of Jupiter, with a diameter of at least . It is the sixth largest Jovian satellite, after the four Galilean moons and Amalthea. It was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at the Lick Observatory on 3 December 1904 and is named after the nymph Himalia, who bore three sons of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter). It is one of the largest planetary moons in the Solar System not imaged in detail, and the third largest not imaged in detail within the orbit of Neptune. Discovery Himalia was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at the Lick Observatory on 3 December 1904 in photographs taken with the 36-inch Crossley reflecting telescope which he had recently rebuilt. Himalia is Jupiter's most easily observed small satellite; though Amalthea is brighter, its proximity to the planet's brilliant disk makes it a far more difficult object to view. Name Himalia is named after the nymph Himalia, who bore three sons of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter). The moon did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as or Jupiter Satellite VI, although calls for a full name appeared shortly after its and Elara's discovery; A.C.D. Crommelin wrote in 1905: The moon was sometimes called Hestia, after the Greek goddess, from 1955 to 1975. Orbit At a distance of about from Jupiter, Himalia takes about 250 Earth days to complete one orbit around Jupiter. It is the largest member of the Himalia group, which are a group of small moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance from to , with inclined orbits at an angle of 27.5 degrees to Jupiter's equator. Their orbits are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations. Physical characteristics Himalia's rotational period is . Himalia appears neutral in color (grey), like the other members of its group, with colour indices B−V=0.62, V−R=0.4, similar to a C-type asteroid. Measurements by Cassini confirm a featureless spectrum, with a slight absorption at , which could indicate the presence of water. Resolved images of Himalia by Cassini have led to a size estimate of , while ground-based estimates suggest that Himalia is large, with a diameter around . In May 2018, Himalia occulted a star, allowing for precise measurements of its size. The occultation was observed from the US state of Georgia. From the occultation, Himalia was given a size estimate of , in agreement with earlier ground-based estimates. Mass In 2005, Emelyanov estimated Himalia to have a mass of (GM=0.28±0.04), based on a perturbation of Elara on July 15, 1949. JPL's Solar System dynamics web site assumes that Himalia has a mass of (GM=0.45) with a radius of . Himalia's density will depend on whether it has an average radius of about (geometric mean from Cassini) or a radius closer to . Exploration In November 2000, the Cassini spacecraft, en route to Saturn, made a number of images of Himalia, including photos from a distance of 4.4 million km. Himalia covers only a few pixels, but seems to be an elongated object with axes and , close to the Earth-based estimations. In February and March 2007, the New Horizons spacecraft en route to Pluto made a series of images of Himalia, culminating in photos from a distance of 8 million km. Again, Himalia appears only a few pixels across. Himalia ring In September 2006, as NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto approached Jupiter for a gravity assist, it photographed what appeared to be a faint new planetary ring parallel with and slightly inside Himalia's orbit. Because the small (4-km) moon Dia, which had a similar orbit to Himalia, had gone missing since its discovery in 2000, there was some speculation that the ring could be debris from an impact of Dia into Himalia, suggesting that Jupiter continued to gain and lose small moons through collisions. However, an impact by an object the size of Dia would produce far more material than the calculated amount of ejected material needed to form the ring, although it is possible that a smaller, unknown moon may have been involved instead. The recovery of Dia in 2010 and 2011 disproved any connection between Dia and the Himalia ring. Notes See also Moons of Jupiter References External links "Himalia: Overview" by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewitt pages Jupiter's Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard) Two Irregular Satellites of Jupiter (Himalia & Elara: Remanzacco Observatory: November 23, 2012) Himalia group Moons of Jupiter Irregular satellites 19041203	[ -0.021631496027112007, -0.013257169164717197, 0.8606435060501099, 0.06015149503946304, -0.678837776184082, 0.5638327598571777, -0.004768125247210264, 0.33054524660110474, -0.7066643238067627, -0.11492983996868134, -0.13669192790985107, -0.1578097939491272, -0.4085407555103302, 0.6012327671051025, 0.374347984790802, 0.14416642487049103, 0.6504495739936829, 0.4023073613643646, -0.6854857802391052, -0.34873294830322266, 0.5416563153266907, 0.27196410298347473, 0.7258901000022888, -0.5314865112304688, -0.5422568917274475, 0.4669770896434784, 0.004407007247209549, 0.2857722043991089, 0.38887330889701843, 0.021864738315343857, -0.6882133483886719, 0.3180687427520752, 0.22844678163528442, 0.24137915670871735, 0.2240362912416458, -0.006676676217466593, 0.10034192353487015, -0.01612609066069126, -0.2099982500076294, 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207062	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elara%20%28moon%29	Elara (moon)	Elara is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at Lick Observatory in 1905 in photographs taken with the 36" Crossley reflecting telescope which he had recently rebuilt. It is the eighth-largest moon of Jupiter and is named after Elara, one of Zeus's lovers and the mother of the giant Tityos. Elara did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as . It was sometimes called "Hera" between 1955 and 1975. It has a mean radius of just , thus it is 2% of the size of Europa. However, it is half the size of Himalia, so it is the second-biggest moon in the Himalia group. It might be a captured type C or D asteroid, for it reflects very little light. Elara belongs to the Himalia group, five moons orbiting between 11 and 13 gigametres from Jupiter at an inclination of about 27.5°. Its orbital elements are as of January 2000. They are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations. New Horizons encounter In February and March 2007, the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto captured Elara in several LORRI images from a distance of five million miles. See also Jupiter's moons in fiction References External links Elara on 1998-08-15 03:21 UTC(Crédit: OHP/IMCCE/CNRS) SkyView 23 47 09 -02 40 46 HORIZONS Web-Interface, JPL Elara: Overview by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewitt pages "Two Irregular Satellites of Jupiter" (Himalia & Elara: Remanzacco Observatory: November 23, 2012) Himalia group Moons of Jupiter Irregular satellites 19050105	[ -0.20428946614265442, 0.3954760730266571, 0.47116562724113464, -0.058510903269052505, -0.5397125482559204, 0.2724999189376831, -0.22267135977745056, 0.14612483978271484, -0.09524273127317429, -0.2392701506614685, -0.07779478281736374, -0.029371509328484535, -0.40301045775413513, 0.6480717062950134, 0.19357383251190186, 0.06954902410507202, 0.40856629610061646, 0.8356286287307739, -0.39053189754486084, -0.37644463777542114, 0.5023816227912903, 0.03183376044034958, 0.5676042437553406, -0.5463619828224182, -0.3467402458190918, 0.23833386600017548, -0.1032925695180893, 0.3794757127761841, 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207063	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khon%20Kaen%20province	Khon Kaen province	Khon Kaen (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) which lies in central northeastern Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from north, clockwise) Nong Bua Lamphu, Udon Thani, Kalasin, Maha Sarakham, Buriram, Nakhon Ratchasima, Chaiyaphum, Phetchabun, and Loei. History The first city of the area was established in 1783 when Rajakruluang settled there with 330 people. King Rama I made Rajakruluang the first governor of the area when establishing tighter connections with the Isan area. The main city was moved six times until in 1879 it reached its present-day location at Nuang Kaw. Khon Kaen was under the governance of Udon in the early period of Rattanakosin, c. 2450 BCE. The Integrated Opisthorchiasis Control Program, also known as the Lawa Project, an internationally recognized liver fluke control program, has its offices in the Ban Phai and Ban Haet Districts south of Khon Kaen city. In 1789, Thao Pia Mueang Pan has taken children with around 330 families evacuated from Ban Chee Lon to be located at Ban Bueng Bon. King Rama I ordered to raised the status of Ban Bueng Bon to be the city of "Khon Kaen" in 1797. All immigration In 1896, during the reign of King Rama V, the government changed the rule of distant districts. By changing to the northern Lao districts to be a Lao Phuan city, Khon Kaen city is under the rule of Udon Thani city or Monthon Udon with Krom Luang Prajak Silapakhom as the governor of the county. Udon Thani center Krom Luang Prajak Silapakhom (Provincial governor of Udon Thani at that time), thought that Khon Kaen political office located at Ban Don Bom not convenient for the government and ordered to moved Khon Kaen city to be located at Ban Thum (Mueang Khon Kaen District at present) in late 1896. In 1899, Khon Kaen was moved from Ban Thum back to Ban Muang Kao as it was. In 1901, the government has required labor to help build a flood barrier to form a road around the old city marsh to hold water for use in the dry season, because this pond is an important water source for people of Khon Kaen. Later on May 19, 1916, the county system in the country was abolished and the word "city" was changed to "province" instead. Since that time, Khon Kaen has become "Khon Kaen province". Geography Khon Kaen occupies part of the Khorat Plateau. The Chi and Phong Rivers flow through the province. The total forest area is or 11.5 percent of provincial area. Symbols Culture Sinxay The mayor of Khon Kaen in 2005 chose Sinxay to be the new identity of the Khon Kaen and had finials designed representing Sinxay and his two brothers, Siho and Sangthong. The story of Sang Sinxay, one of the masterpieces of Lao literature written by Pang Kham in 1649, during the Lan Xang period. Administrative divisions Provincial government The province is divided into 26 districts (amphoes). The districts are further divided into 198 subdistricts (tambons) and 2,139 villages (mubans). The numbers 26 to 28 were reserved for three other planned (minor) districts: Phu Kham Noi, Nong Kae, and Non Han. There are plans to split off the northwestern part of the province to form a new province centered at Phu Wiang. The other districts which will belong to this new province are Nong Ruea, Chum Phae, Si Chomphu, Phu Pha Man, Nong Na Kham, and Wiang Kao. Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Khon Kaen Provincial Administration Organisation () and 84 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Khon Kaen has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Ban Phai, Ban Thum, Chum Pae, Kranuan, Mueang Phon and Sila have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 77 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 140 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Education Universities Khon Kaen University Schools Khon Kaen Wittayayon School Health Khon Kaen has hospitals operated by both the public and private sectors. Its main hospital operated by the Ministry of Public Health is Khon Kaen Hospital. The province also has a university hospital, Srinagarind Hospital of the Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University. Transport Air Khon Kaen Airport. Rail The railway system in Khon Kaen is on both northeastern routes from Bangkok Railway Station. Khon Kaen province's main railway stations was Khon Kaen Railway Station. In 2017, a 60 kilometre dual-track line will connect Khon Kaen to Nakhon Ratchasima province. It is the first segment of a dual track network that will connect Isan with the Laem Chabang seaport. Road The city is bisected by Mittraphap Road, also known as "Friendship Highway", or Asian Highway 2 (AH2), the road linking Bangkok to the Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge. A multi-lane by-pass enables through-traffic to avoid the city centre to the west, and connects to the airport and to the main roads to Kalasin province and Maha Sarakham province in the east, and Udon Thani province in the north. Sport The sports teams listed below are based in Khon Kaen. Football Khon Kaen (Thai League 2)—Khon Kaen Provincial Stadium Khon Kaen United (Thai League 2)—Khon Kaen Provincial Stadium Volleyball Khonkaen Star (Women's Volleyball Thailand League)—Khonkaen International Convention and Exhibition Center Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. Sister cities Nanning, Guangxi, China (2001) Gaborone, Botswana Notable residents Paradorn Srichaphan, tennis player, the first Asian to reach top ten of the ATP rankings Somluck Kamsing, boxer, the first Thai athlete to win a gold medal at the Olympics Nadech Kugimiya, actor Sukollawat Kanarot, actor Peechaya Wattanamontree, actress Apichatpong Weerasethakul, filmmaker Kanphanitnan Muangkhumsakul, professional golfer (LPGA Tour) Gallery References External links Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand Official website of province (Thai only) Isan Provinces of Thailand	[ -0.1744842827320099, 0.36486947536468506, 0.3940485417842865, -0.11631043255329132, -0.28446516394615173, -0.21700091660022736, 0.4229019582271576, 0.7652715444564819, -0.43430912494659424, 0.11970920115709305, -0.23075047135353088, -0.28476136922836304, -0.24091151356697083, 0.18624618649482727, -0.41512438654899597, 0.8202245235443115, 0.9985377788543701, -0.047862887382507324, 0.2484789341688156, 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207064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20presidents%20of%20Finland	List of presidents of Finland	The president of Finland is Finland's head of state. Under the Constitution of Finland, executive power is vested in the president and the government, with the president possessing limited powers. Since 1994 no president may be elected for more than two consecutive terms. Presidents used to be elected indirectly, by an electoral college or by Parliament, but since 1994 the president has been elected directly by the people for a term of six years. The president must be a native-born Finnish citizen. The office was established by the Constitution Act of 1919. The current office-holder is Sauli Niinistö. List of presidents See also 2018 Finnish presidential election President of Finland List of presidents of Finland by time in office First Ladies and Gentlemen of Finland List of monarchs of Finland Prime Minister of Finland List of prime ministers of Finland Politics of Finland Parliament of Finland Government of Finland Council of State Elections in Finland Political parties in Finland Lists of incumbents External links Official site The Constitution of Finland Finland Presidentsi	[ 0.12763677537441254, 0.4722004234790802, 0.12477315217256546, 0.521116316318512, -0.5979863405227661, -0.09846220910549164, 0.365670382976532, 0.5646951198577881, -0.7561785578727722, 0.029333189129829407, -0.398643434047699, -0.06333940476179123, -0.12453314661979675, 0.3526010513305664, -0.24949653446674347, 0.023250048980116844, 0.31769996881484985, 1.200037956237793, -0.5117056965827942, -0.5658936500549316, 0.030042871832847595, 0.4238794445991516, 0.7229145169258118, -0.3054179847240448, 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207066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ananke%20%28moon%29	Ananke (moon)	Ananke is a retrograde irregular moon of Jupiter. It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Mount Wilson Observatory in 1951 and is named after the mythological Ananke, the personification of Necessity, and the mother of the Moirai (Fates) by Zeus. The adjectival form of the name is Anankean. Ananke did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as . It was sometimes called "Adrastea" between 1955 and 1975 (Adrastea is now the name of another satellite of Jupiter). Ananke gives its name to the Ananke group, retrograde irregular moons which orbit Jupiter between 19.3 and 22.7 Gm, at inclinations of roughly 150°. Orbit Ananke orbits Jupiter on a high-eccentricity and high-inclination retrograde orbit. Fifteen irregular satellites orbiting Jupiter have been discovered since 2000 following similar orbits. The orbital elements are as of January 2000. They are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations. The diagram illustrates Ananke's orbit in relation to other retrograde irregular satellites of Jupiter. The eccentricity of selected orbits is represented by the yellow segments (extending from the pericentre to the apocentre). The outermost regular satellite Callisto is located for reference. Given these orbital elements and the physical characteristics known so far, Ananke is thought to be the largest remnant of an original break-up forming the Ananke group. Physical characteristics In the visible spectrum, Ananke appears neutral to light-red (colour indices B-V=0.90 V-R=0.38). The infrared spectrum is similar to P-type asteroids but with a possible indication of water. See also Irregular satellites References Sources Ephemeris IAU-MPC NSES External links Ananke Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewitt pages Scott Sheppard pages Ananke group Moons of Jupiter Irregular satellites 19510928	[ -0.3804452419281006, 0.2659120559692383, 0.2682592570781708, 0.007558971643447876, -0.8407334685325623, 0.41314929723739624, 0.14188934862613678, 0.10690528899431229, -0.19200584292411804, -0.4575969874858856, -0.13315622508525848, 0.026974685490131378, -0.2482379823923111, 0.7136656045913696, 0.08723437041044235, 0.003929996397346258, 0.3551872968673706, 0.8494526743888855, -0.3704873025417328, -0.7370659112930298, 0.12487854063510895, -0.10077418386936188, 0.7980958223342896, -0.4547816812992096, -0.3523614704608917, 0.06492169201374054, 0.326363742351532, -0.00943603366613388, 0.35362040996551514, 0.45211297273635864, -0.6386652588844299, 0.6618667244911194, -0.04880102723836899, -0.2627827525138855, 0.053343530744314194, 0.04641320928931236, 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207068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%27awiya%20I	Mu'awiya I	Mu'awiya I (; –April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and immediately after the four Rashidun ('rightly-guided') caliphs. Unlike his predecessors, who had been close, early companions of Muhammad, Mu'awiya was a relatively late follower of the Islamic prophet. Mu'awiya and his father Abu Sufyan had opposed Muhammad, their distant Qurayshite kinsman and later Mu'awiya's brother-in-law, until Muhammad captured Mecca in 630. Afterward, Mu'awiya became one of Muhammad's scribes. He was appointed by Caliph Abu Bakr () as a deputy commander in the conquest of Syria. He moved up the ranks through Umar's caliphate () until becoming governor of Syria during the reign of his Umayyad kinsman, Caliph Uthman (). He allied with the province's powerful Banu Kalb tribe, developed the defenses of its coastal cities, and directed the war effort against the Byzantine Empire, including the first Muslim naval campaigns. In response to Uthman's assassination in 656, Mu'awiya took up the cause of avenging the caliph and opposed his successor, Ali. During the First Muslim Civil War, the two led their armies to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657, prompting an abortive series of arbitration talks to settle the dispute. Afterward, Mu'awiya gained recognition as caliph by his Syrian supporters and his ally Amr ibn al-As, who conquered Egypt from Ali's governor in 658. Following the assassination of Ali in 661, Mu'awiya compelled Ali's son and successor Hasan to abdicate and Mu'awiya's suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Caliphate. Domestically, Mu'awiya relied on loyalist Syrian Arab tribes and Syria's Christian-dominated bureaucracy. He is credited with establishing government departments responsible for the postal route, correspondence, and chancellery. He was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. Externally, he engaged his troops in almost yearly land and sea raids against the Byzantines, including a failed siege of Constantinople, though the tide turned against the Arabs toward the end of his reign and he sued for a truce. In Iraq and the eastern provinces, he delegated authority to the powerful governors al-Mughira and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan, the latter of whom he controversially adopted as his brother. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of Ifriqiya (central North Africa) was launched by the commander Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, while the conquests in Khurasan and Sijistan on the eastern frontier were resumed. Although Mu'awiya confined the influence of his Umayyad clan to the governorship of Medina, he nominated his own son, Yazid I, as his successor. It was an unprecedented move in Islamic politics and opposition to it by prominent Muslim leaders, including Ali's son Husayn, and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, persisted after Mu'awiya's death, culminating with the outbreak of the Second Muslim Civil War. While there is considerable admiration for Mu'awiya in the contemporary sources, he has been criticized for lacking the justice and piety of the Rashidun and transforming the office of the caliphate into a kingship. Besides these criticisms, Sunni Muslim tradition honors him as a companion of Muhammad and a scribe of Qur'anic revelation. In Shia Islam, Mu'awiya is reviled for opposing Ali, accused of poisoning his son Hasan, and held to have accepted Islam without conviction. Origins and early life Mu'awiya's year of birth is uncertain, with 597, 603 or 605 cited by early Islamic sources. His father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb was a prominent Meccan merchant who led trade caravans to Syria, then part of the Byzantine Empire. He emerged as the leader of the Banu Abd Shams clan of the polytheistic Quraysh, the dominant tribe of Mecca, during the early stages of the Quraysh's conflict with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The latter also hailed from the Quraysh and was distantly related to Mu'awiya via their common paternal ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy. Mu'awiya's mother, Hind bint Utba, was also a member of the Banu Abd Shams. In 624, Muhammad and his followers attempted to intercept a Meccan caravan led by Mu'awiya's father on its return from Syria, prompting Abu Sufyan to call for reinforcements. The Qurayshite relief army was routed in the ensuing Battle of Badr, in which Mu'awiya's elder brother Hanzala and their maternal grandfather, Utba ibn Rabi'a, were killed. Abu Sufyan replaced the slain leader of the Meccan army, Abu Jahl, and led the Meccans to victory against the Muslims at the Battle of Uhud in 625. After his abortive siege of Muhammad in Medina at the Battle of the Trench in 627, he lost his leadership position among the Quraysh. Mu'awiya's father was not a participant in the truce negotiations at Hudaybiyya between the Quraysh and Muhammad in 628. The following year, Muhammad married Mu'awiya's widowed sister Umm Habiba, who had embraced Islam fifteen years earlier. The marriage may have reduced Abu Sufyan's hostility toward Muhammad and Abu Sufyan negotiated with him in Medina in 630 after confederates of the Quraysh violated the Hudaybiyya truce. When Muhammad captured Mecca in 630, Mu'awiya, his father, and his elder brother Yazid embraced Islam. According to accounts cited by the early Muslim historians al-Baladhuri and Ibn Hajar, Mu'awiya had secretly become a Muslim from the time of the Hudaybiyya negotiations. By 632 Muslim authority extended across Arabia with Medina as the seat of the Muslim government. As part of Muhammad's efforts to reconcile with the Quraysh, Mu'awiya was made one of his (scribes), being one of seventeen literate members of the Quraysh at that time. Abu Sufyan moved to Medina to maintain his newfound influence in the nascent Muslim community. Governorship of Syria Early military career and administrative promotions After Muhammad died in 632, Abu Bakr became caliph (leader of the Muslim community). He and his successors Umar, Uthman, and Ali are often known as the ('rightly-guided') caliphs to distinguish them from Mu'awiya and his Umayyad dynastic successors. Having to contend with challenges to his leadership from the Ansar, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven from his erstwhile Meccan opponents, and the mass defections of several Arab tribes, Abu Bakr reached out to the Quraysh, particularly its two strongest clans, the Banu Makhzum and Banu Abd Shams, to shore up support for the Caliphate. Among those Qurayshites whom he appointed to suppress the rebel Arab tribes during the Ridda wars (632–633) was Mu'awiya's brother Yazid. Afterward, he was dispatched as one of four commanders in charge of the Muslim conquest of Byzantine Syria in . The caliph appointed Mu'awiya commander of Yazid's vanguard. Through these appointments Abu Bakr gave the family of Abu Sufyan a stake in the conquest of Syria, where Abu Sufyan already owned property in the vicinity of Damascus. Abu Bakr's successor Umar () appointed a leading companion of Muhammad, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, as the general commander of the Muslim army in Syria in 636 after the rout of the Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk, which paved the way for the conquest of the rest of Syria. Mu'awiya was among the Arab troops that entered Jerusalem with Caliph Umar in 637. Afterward, Mu'awiya and Yazid were dispatched by Abu Ubayda to conquer the coastal towns of Sidon, Beirut and Byblos. Following the death of Abu Ubayda in the plague of Amwas in 639, Umar split the command of Syria, appointing Yazid as governor of the military districts of Damascus, Jordan and Palestine, and the veteran commander Iyad ibn Ghanm governor of Homs and the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia). When Yazid succumbed to the plague later that year, Umar appointed Mu'awiya the military and fiscal governor of Damascus, and possibly Jordan as well. In 640 or 641, Mu'awiya captured Caesarea, the district capital of Byzantine Palestine, and then captured Ascalon, completing the Muslim conquest of Palestine. As early as 640 or 641, Mu'awiya may have led a campaign against Cilicia and proceeded to Euchaita, deep in Byzantine Anatolia. In 644, he led a foray against the Anatolian city of Amorium. The successive promotions of Abu Sufyan's sons contradicted Umar's efforts to otherwise curtail the influence of the Qurayshite aristocracy in the Muslim state in favor of the earliest Muslim converts (i.e. the Muhajirun and Ansar groups). According to the historian Leone Caetani, this exceptional treatment stemmed from Umar's personal respect for the Umayyads, the branch of the Banu Abd Shams to which Mu'awiya belonged. This is doubted by the historian Wilferd Madelung, who surmises that Umar had little choice, due to the lack of a suitable alternative to Mu'awiya in Syria and the ongoing plague in the region, which precluded the deployment of commanders more preferable to Umar from Medina. Upon the accession of Caliph Uthman (), Mu'awiya's governorship was enlarged to include Palestine, while a companion of Muhammad, Umayr ibn Sa'd al-Ansari, was confirmed as governor of the Homs-Jazira district. In late 646 or early 647, Uthman attached the Homs-Jazira district to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship, greatly increasing the military manpower at his disposal. Consolidation of local power During the reign of Uthman, Mu'awiya allied with the Banu Kalb, the predominant tribe in the Syrian steppe extending from the oasis of Dumat al-Jandal in the south to the approaches of Palmyra and the chief component of the Quda'a confederation present throughout Syria. Medina consistently courted the Kalb, which had remained mostly neutral during the Arab–Byzantine wars, particularly after the central government's entreaties to the Byzantines' principal Arab allies, the Christian Ghassanids, were rebuffed. Before the advent of Islam in Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a, long under the influence of Greco-Aramaic culture and the Monophysite church, had served Byzantium as subordinates of its Ghassanid client kings to guard the Syrian frontier against invasions by the Sasanian Persians and the latter's Arab clients, the Lakhmids. By the time the Muslims entered Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a had accumulated significant military experience and were accustomed to hierarchical order and military obedience. To harness their strength and thereby secure his foothold in Syria, Mu'awiya consolidated ties to the Kalb's ruling house, the clan of Bahdal ibn Unayf, by wedding the latter's daughter Maysun in . He also married Maysun's paternal cousin, Na'ila bint Umara, for a short period. Mu'awiya's reliance on the native Syrian Arab tribes was compounded by the heavy toll inflicted on the Muslim troops in Syria by the plague of Amwas, which caused troop numbers to dwindle from 24,000 in 637 to 4,000 in 639. Moreover, the focus of Arabian tribal migration was toward the Sasanian front in Iraq. Mu'awiya oversaw a liberal recruitment policy that resulted in considerable numbers of Christian tribesmen and frontier peasants filling the ranks of his regular and auxiliary forces. Indeed, the Christian Tanukhids and the mixed Muslim–Christian Banu Tayy formed part of Mu'awiya's army in northern Syria. To help pay for his troops, Mu'awiya requested and was granted ownership by Uthman of the abundant, income-producing, Byzantine crown lands in Syria, which were previously designated by Umar as communal property for the Muslim army. Although Syria's rural, Aramaic-speaking Christian population remained largely intact, the Muslim conquest had caused a mass flight of Greek Christian urbanites from Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia and Tripoli to Byzantine territory, while those who remained held pro-Byzantine sympathies. In contrast to the other conquered regions of the Caliphate, where new garrison cities were established to house Muslim troops and their administration, in Syria the troops settled in existing cities, including Damascus, Homs, Jerusalem, Tiberias, Aleppo and Qinnasrin. Mu'awiya restored, repopulated and garrisoned the coastal cities of Antioch, Balda, Tartus, Maraqiya and Baniyas. In Tripoli he settled significant numbers of Jews, while sending to Homs, Antioch and Baalbek Persian holdovers from the Sasanian occupation of Byzantine Syria in the early 7th century. Upon Uthman's direction, Mu'awiya settled groups of the nomadic Tamim, Asad and Qays tribes to areas north of the Euphrates in the vicinity of Raqqa. Naval campaigns against Byzantium and conquest of Armenia Mu'awiya initiated the Arab naval campaigns against the Byzantines in the eastern Mediterranean, requisitioning the harbors of Tripoli, Beirut, Tyre, Acre, and Jaffa. Umar had rejected Mu'awiya's request to launch a naval invasion of Cyprus, citing concerns about the Muslim forces' safety at sea, but Uthman allowed him to commence the campaign in 647, after refusing an earlier entreaty. Mu'awiya's rationale was that the Byzantine-held island posed a threat to Arab positions along the Syrian coast, and that it could be easily neutralized. The exact year of the raid is unclear, with the early Arabic sources providing a range between 647 and 650, while two Greek inscriptions in the Cypriot village of Solois cite two raids launched between 648 and 650. According to the 9th-century historians al-Baladhuri and Khalifa ibn Khayyat, Mu'awiya led the raid in person accompanied by his wife, Katwa bint Qaraza ibn Abd Amr of the Qurayshite Banu Nawfal, alongside the commander Ubada ibn al-Samit. Katwa died on the island and at some point Mu'awiya married her sister Fakhita. In a different narrative by the early Muslim sources, the raid was instead conducted by Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays, who landed at Salamis before occupying the island. In either case, the Cypriots were forced to pay a tribute equal to that which they had paid the Byzantines. Mu'awiya established a garrison and a mosque to maintain the Caliphate's influence on the island, which became a staging ground for the Arabs and the Byzantines to launch raids against each other's territories. The inhabitants of Cyprus were largely left to their own devices and archaeological evidence indicates uninterrupted prosperity during this period. Dominance of the eastern Mediterranean enabled Mu'awiya's naval forces to raid Crete and Rhodes in 653. From the raid on Rhodes, Mu'awiya remitted significant war spoils to Uthman. In 654 or 655, a joint naval expedition launched from Alexandria, Egypt and the harbors of Syria routed a Byzantine fleet commanded by the Byzantine Emperor Constans II () off the Lycian coast at the Battle of the Masts. Constans II was forced to sail to Sicily, opening the way for an ultimately unsuccessful Arab naval attack on Constantinople. The Arabs were commanded by either the governor of Egypt, Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh, or Mu'awiya's lieutenant Abu'l-A'war. Meanwhile, after two previous attempts by the Arabs to conquer Armenia, the third attempt in 650 ended with a three-year truce reached between Mu'awiya and the Byzantine envoy Procopios in Damascus. In 653, Mu'awiya received the submission of the Armenian leader Theodore Rshtuni, which the Byzantine emperor practically conceded when he withdrew from Armenia that year. In 655, Mu'awiya's lieutenant commander Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri captured Theodosiopolis and deported Rshtuni to Syria, solidifying Arab rule over Armenia. First Fitna Mu'awiya's domain was generally immune to the growing discontent prevailing in Medina, Egypt and Kufa against Uthman's policies in the 650s. The exception was Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, who had been sent to Damascus for openly condemning Uthman's enrichment of his kinsmen. He criticized the lavish sums that Mu'awiya invested in building his Damascus residence, the Khadra Palace, prompting Mu'awiya to expel him. Uthman's confiscation of crown lands in Iraq and his alleged nepotism drove the Quraysh and the dispossessed elites of Kufa and Egypt to oppose the caliph. Uthman sent for assistance from Mu'awiya when rebels from Egypt besieged his home in June 656. Mu'awiya dispatched a relief army toward Medina, but it withdrew at Wadi al-Qura when word reached them of Uthman's killing. Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was recognized as caliph in Medina. Mu'awiya withheld allegiance to Ali and, according to some reports, the latter deposed him by sending his own governor to Syria, who was denied entry into the province by Mu'awiya. This is rejected by Madelung, according to whom no formal relations existed between the caliph and the governor of Syria for seven months from the date of Ali's election. Soon after becoming caliph, Ali was opposed by much of the Quraysh led by al-Zubayr and Talha, both prominent companions of Muhammad, and Muhammad's wife A'isha, who feared the loss of their own influence under Ali. The ensuing civil war became known as the First Fitna. Ali defeated the triumvirate near Basra at the Battle of the Camel, which ended in the deaths of al-Zubayr and Talha, both potential contenders for the caliphate, and the retirement of A'isha to Medina. With his position in Iraq, Egypt and Arabia secure, Ali turned his attention toward Mu'awiya. Unlike the other provincial governors, Mu'awiya had a strong and loyal power base, demanded revenge for the slaying of his Umayyad kinsman Uthman, and could not be easily replaced. At this point, Mu'awiya did not yet claim the caliphate and his principal aim was keeping power in Syria. Preparations for war Ali's victory in Basra left Mu'awiya vulnerable, his territory wedged between Ali's forces in Iraq and Egypt, while the war with the Byzantines was ongoing in the north. In 657 or 658 Mu'awiya secured his northern frontier with Byzantium by making a truce with the emperor, enabling him to focus the bulk of his troops on the impending battle with the caliph. After failing to gain the defection of Egypt's governor, Qays ibn Sa'd, he resolved to end the Umayyad family's hostility to Amr ibn al-As, the conqueror and former governor of Egypt, whom they accused of involvement in Uthman's death. Mu'awiya and Amr, who was popular with the Arab troops of Egypt, made a pact whereby the latter joined the coalition against Ali and Mu'awiya publicly agreed to install Amr as Egypt's lifetime governor should they oust Ali's appointee. Although he had the firm backing of the Kalb, to shore up the rest of his base in Syria, Mu'awiya was advised by his kinsman al-Walid ibn Uqba to secure an alliance with the Yemenite tribes of Himyar, Kinda and Hamdan, who collectively dominated the Homs garrison. He employed the veteran commander and Kindite nobleman Shurahbil ibn Simt, who was widely respected in Syria, to rally the Yemenites to his side. He then enlisted support from the dominant tribal leader of Palestine, the Judham chief Natil ibn Qays, by allowing the latter's confiscation of the district's treasury to go unpunished. The efforts bore fruit and demands for war against Ali grew throughout Mu'awiya's domain. When Ali sent his envoy, the veteran commander and chieftain of the Bajila, Jarir ibn Abd Allah, to Mu'awiya, the latter responded with a letter that amounted to a declaration of war against the caliph, whose legitimacy he refused to recognize. Battle of Siffin and arbitration In the first week of June 657, the armies of Mu'awiya and Ali met at Siffin near Raqqa and engaged in days of skirmishes interrupted by a month-long truce on 19 June. During the truce, Mu'awiya dispatched an embassy led by Habib ibn Maslama, who presented Ali with an ultimatum to hand over Uthman's alleged killers, abdicate and allow a (consultative council) to decide the caliphate. Ali rebuffed Mu'awiya's envoys and on 18 July declared that the Syrians remained obstinate in their refusal to recognize his sovereignty. On the following day, a week of duels between Ali's and Mu'awiya's top commanders ensued. The main battle between the two armies commenced on 26 July. As Ali's troops advanced toward Mu'awiya's tent, the governor of Syria ordered his elite troops forward and they bested the Iraqis before the tide turned against the Syrians the next day with the deaths of two of Mu'awiya's leading commanders, Ubayd Allah, a son of Caliph Umar, and Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa, the so-called 'king of Himyar'. Mu'awiya rejected suggestions from his advisers to engage Ali in a duel and definitively end hostilities. The battle climaxed on the so-called 'Night of Clamor' on 28 July, which saw Ali's forces take the advantage in a melée as the death toll mounted on both sides. According to the account of the scholar al-Zuhri (d. 742), this prompted Amr ibn al-As to counsel Mu'awiya the following morning to have a number of his men tie leaves of the Qur'an on their lances in an appeal to the Iraqis to settle the conflict through consultation. According to the scholar al-Sha'bi (d. 723), al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, who was in Ali's army, expressed his fears of Byzantine and Persian attacks were the Muslims to exhaust themselves in the civil war. Upon receiving intelligence of this, Mu'awiya ordered the raising of the Qur'an leaves. Though this act represented a surrender of sorts as Mu'awiya abandoned, at least temporarily, his previous insistence on settling the dispute with Ali militarily and pursuing Uthman's killers into Iraq, it had the effect of sowing discord and uncertainty in Ali's ranks. The caliph adhered to the will of the majority in his army and accepted the proposal to arbitrate. Moreover, Ali agreed to Amr's, or Mu'awiya's, demand to omit his formal title, (commander of the faithful, the traditional title of a caliph), from the initial arbitration document. According to the historian Hugh N. Kennedy, the agreement forced Ali "to deal with Mu'awiya on equal terms and abandon his unchallenged right to lead the community". Madelung asserts it "handed Mu'awiya a moral victory" before inducing a "disastrous split in the ranks of Ali's men". Indeed, upon Ali's return to his capital Kufa in September 658, a large segment of his troops who had opposed the arbitration defected, inaugurating the Kharijite movement. The initial agreement postponed the arbitration to a later date. Information in the early Muslim sources about the time, place and outcome of the arbitration is contradictory, but there were likely two meetings between Mu'awiya's and Ali's respective representatives, Amr and Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, the first in Dumat al-Jandal and the last in Adhruh. Ali abandoned the arbitration after the first meeting in which Abu Musa—who, unlike Amr, was not particularly attached to his principal's cause— accepted the Syrian side's claim that Uthman was wrongfully killed, a verdict that Ali opposed. The final meeting in Adhruh, which had been convened at Mu'awiya's request, collapsed, but by then Mu'awiya had emerged as a major contender for the caliphate. Claim to the caliphate and resumption of hostilities Following the breakdown of the arbitration talks, Amr and the Syrian delegates returned to Damascus, where they greeted Mu'awiya as , signaling their recognition of him as caliph. In April or May 658, Mu'awiya received a general pledge of allegiance from the Syrians. In response, Ali broke off communications with Mu'awiya, mobilized for war and invoked a curse against Mu'awiya and his close retinue as a ritual in the morning prayers. Mu'awiya reciprocated in kind against Ali and his closest supporters in his own domain. In July, Mu'awiya dispatched an army under Amr to Egypt after a request for intervention from pro-Uthman mutineers in the province who were being suppressed by the governor, Caliph Abu Bakr's son and Ali's stepson, Muhammad. The latter's troops were defeated by Amr's forces, the provincial capital Fustat was captured and Muhammad was executed on the orders of Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj, leader of the pro-Uthman rebels. The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the authority of Ali, who was bogged down battling Kharijite defectors in Iraq and whose grip in Basra and Iraq's eastern and southern dependencies was eroding. Though his hand was strengthened, Mu'awiya refrained from launching a direct assault against Ali. Instead, his strategy was to bribe the tribal chieftains in Ali's army to his side and harry the inhabitants along Iraq's western frontier. The first raid was conducted by al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri against nomads and Muslim pilgrims in the desert west of Kufa. This was followed by Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari's abortive attack on Ayn al-Tamr then, in the summer of 660, Sufyan ibn Awf's successful raids against Hit and Anbar. In 659 or 660, Mu'awiya expanded the operations to the Hejaz (western Arabia, where Mecca and Medina are located), sending Abd Allah ibn Mas'ada al-Fazari to collect the alms tax and oaths of allegiance to Mu'awiya from the inhabitants of the Tayma oasis. This initial foray was defeated by the Kufans, while an attempt to extract oaths of allegiance from the Quraysh of Mecca in April 660 also failed. In the summer, Mu'awiya dispatched a large army under Busr ibn Abi Artat to conquer the Hejaz and Yemen. He directed Busr to intimidate Medina's inhabitants without harming them, spare the Meccans and kill anyone in Yemen who refused to pledge their allegiance. Busr advanced through Medina, Mecca and Ta'if, encountering no resistance and gaining those cities' recognition of Mu'awiya. In Yemen, Busr executed several notables in Najran and its vicinity on account of past criticism of Uthman or ties to Ali, massacred numerous tribesmen of the Hamdan and townspeople from Sana'a and Ma'rib. Before he could continue his campaign in Hadhramawt, he withdrew upon the approach of a Kufan relief force. News of Busr's actions in Arabia spurred Ali's troops to rally behind his planned campaign against Mu'awiya, but the expedition was aborted as a result of Ali's assassination by a Kharijite in January 661. Caliphate Accession After Ali was killed, Mu'awiya left al-Dahhak ibn Qays in charge of Syria and led his army toward Kufa, where Ali's son al-Hasan had been nominated as his successor. He successfully bribed Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas, the commander of al-Hasan's vanguard, to desert his post and sent envoys to negotiate with al-Hasan. In return for a financial settlement, al-Hasan abdicated and Mu'awiya entered Kufa in July or September 661 and was recognized as caliph. This year is considered by a number of the early Muslim sources as 'the year of unity' and is generally regarded as the start of Mu'awiya's caliphate. Before and/or after Ali's death, Mu'awiya received oaths of allegiance in one or two formal ceremonies in Jerusalem, the first in late 660 or early 661 and the second in July 661. The 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer al-Maqdisi holds that Mu'awiya had further developed a mosque originally built by Caliph Umar on the Temple Mount, the precursor of the al-Aqsa Mosque, and received his formal oaths of allegiance there. According to the earliest extant source about Mu'awiya's accession in Jerusalem, the near-contemporaneous Maronite Chronicles, composed by an anonymous Syriac author, Mu'awiya received the pledges of the tribal chieftains and then prayed at Golgotha and the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in Gethsemane, both adjacent to the Temple Mount. The Maronite Chronicles also maintain that Mu'awiya "did not wear a crown like other kings in the world". Domestic rule and administration There is little information in the early Muslim sources about Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, the center of his caliphate. He established his court in Damascus and moved the caliphal treasury there from Kufa. He relied on his Syrian tribal soldiery, numbering about 100,000 men, increasing their pay at the expense of the Iraqi garrisons, also about 100,000 soldiers combined. The highest stipends were paid on an inheritable basis to 2,000 nobles of the Quda'a and Kinda tribes, the core components of his support base, who were further awarded the privilege of consultation for all major decisions and the rights to veto or propose measures. The respective leaders of the Quda'a and the Kinda, the Kalbite chief Ibn Bahdal and the Homs-based Shurahbil, formed part of his Syrian inner circle along with the Qurayshites Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid, son of the distinguished commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, and al-Dahhak ibn Qays. Mu'awiya is credited by the early Muslim sources for establishing (government departments) for correspondences (), chancellery () and the postal route (). According to al-Tabari, following an assassination attempt by the Kharijite al-Burak ibn Abd Allah on Mu'awiya while he was praying in the mosque of Damascus in 661, Mu'awiya established a caliphal (personal guard) and (select troops) and the (reserved area) within mosques. The caliph's treasury was largely dependent on the tax revenues of Syria and income from the crown lands that he confiscated in Iraq and Arabia. He also received the customary fifth of the war booty acquired by his commanders during expeditions. In the Jazira, Mu'awiya coped with the tribal influx, which spanned previously established groups such as the Sulaym, newcomers from the Mudar and Rabi'a confederations and civil war refugees from Kufa and Basra, by administratively detaching the military district of Qinnasrin–Jazira from Homs, according to the 8th-century historian Sayf ibn Umar. However, al-Baladhuri attributes this change to Mu'awiya's successor Yazid I (). Syria retained its Byzantine-era bureaucracy, which was staffed by Christians including the head of the tax administration, Sarjun ibn Mansur. The latter had served Mu'awiya in the same capacity before his attainment of the caliphate, and Sarjun's father was the likely holder of the office under Emperor Heraclius (). Mu'awiya was tolerant toward Syria's native Christian majority. In turn, the community was generally satisfied with his rule, under which their conditions were at least as favorable as under the Byzantines. Mu'awiya attempted to mint his own coins, but the new currency was rejected by the Syrians as it omitted the symbol of the cross. The sole epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, a Greek inscription dated to 663 discovered at the hot springs of Hamat Gader near the Sea of Galilee, refers to the caliph as Abd Allah Mu'awiya, amir al-mu'minin ("God's Servant Mu'awiya, commander of the faithful"; the caliph's name is preceded by a cross) and credits him for restoring Roman-era bath facilities for the benefit of the sick. According to the historian Yizhar Hirschfeld, "by this deed, the new caliph sought to please" his Christian subjects. The caliph often spent his winters at his Sinnabra palace near the Sea of Galilee. Mu'awiya was also credited with ordering the restoration of Edessa's church after it was ruined in an earthquake in 679. He demonstrated a keen interest in Jerusalem. Although archaeological evidence is lacking, there are indications in medieval literary sources that a rudimentary mosque on the Temple Mount existed as early as Mu'awiya's time or was built by him. Governance in the provinces Mu'awiya's primary internal challenge was overseeing a Syria-based government that could reunite the politically and socially fractured Caliphate and assert authority over the tribes which formed its armies. He applied indirect rule to the Caliphate's provinces, appointing governors with full civil and military authority. Although in principle governors were obliged to forward surplus tax revenues to the caliph, in practice most of the surplus was distributed among the provincial garrisons and Damascus received a negligible share. During Mu'awiya's caliphate, the governors relied on the (tribal chieftains), who served as intermediaries between the authorities and the tribesmen in the garrisons. Mu'awiya's statecraft was likely inspired by his father, who utilized his wealth to establish political alliances. The caliph generally preferred bribing his opponents over direct confrontation. In the summation of Kennedy, Mu'awiya ruled by "making agreements with those who held power in the provinces, by building up the power of those who were prepared to co-operate with him and by attaching as many important and influential figures to his cause as possible". Iraq and the east Challenges to central authority in general, and to Mu'awiya's rule in particular, were most acute in Iraq, where divisions were rife between the upstarts and the nascent Muslim elite, the latter of which was further divided between Ali's partisans and the Kharijites. Mu'awiya's ascent signaled the rise of the Kufan represented by Ali's erstwhile backers al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and Jarir ibn Abd Allah, at the expense of Ali's old guard represented by Hujr ibn Adi and Ibrahim, the son of Ali's leading aide Malik al-Ashtar. Mu'awiya's initial choice to govern Kufa in 661 was al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba, who possessed considerable administrative and military experience in Iraq and was highly familiar with the region's inhabitants and issues. Under his nearly decade-long administration, al-Mughira maintained peace in the city, overlooked transgressions that did not threaten his rule, allowed the Kufans to keep possession of the lucrative Sasanian crown lands in the Jibal district and, unlike under past administrations, consistently and timely paid the garrison's stipends. In Basra, Mu'awiya reappointed his Abd Shams kinsman Abd Allah ibn Amir, who had served in the office under Uthman. During Mu'awiya's reign, Ibn Amir recommenced expeditions into Sistan, reaching as far as Kabul. He was unable to maintain order in Basra, where there was growing resentment toward the distant campaigns. Consequently, Mu'awiya replaced Ibn Amir with Ziyad ibn Abihi in 664 or 665. The latter had been the longest of Ali's loyalists to withhold recognition of Mu'awiya's caliphate and had barricaded himself in the Istakhr fortress in Fars. Busr had threatened to execute three of Ziyad's young sons in Basra to force his surrender, but Ziyad was ultimately persuaded by al-Mughira, his mentor, to submit to Mu'awiya's authority in 663. In a controversial step that secured the loyalty of the fatherless Ziyad, whom the caliph viewed as the most capable candidate to govern Basra, Mu'awiya adopted him as his paternal half-brother, to the protests of his own son Yazid, Ibn Amir and his Umayyad kinsmen in the Hejaz. Following al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to Ziyad's Basran governorship, making him the caliph's virtual viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate. Ziyad tackled Iraq's core economic problem of overpopulation in the garrison cities and the consequent scarcity of resources by reducing the number of troops on the payrolls and dispatching 50,000 Iraqi soldiers and their families to settle Khurasan. This also consolidated the previously weak and unstable Arab position in the Caliphate's easternmost province and enabled conquests toward Transoxiana. As part of his reorganization efforts in Kufa, Ziyad confiscated its garrison's crown lands, which thenceforth became the possession of the caliph. Opposition to the confiscations raised by Hujr ibn Adi, whose pro-Alid advocacy had been tolerated by al-Mughira, was violently suppressed by Ziyad. Hujr and his retinue were sent to Mu'awiya for punishment and were executed on the caliph's orders, marking the first political execution in Islamic history and serving as a harbinger for future pro-Alid uprisings in Kufa. Ziyad died in 673 and his son Ubayd Allah was appointed gradually by Mu'awiya to all of his father's former offices. In effect, by relying on al-Mughira and Ziyad and his sons, Mu'awiya franchised the administration of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate to members of the elite Thaqif clan, which had long-established ties to the Quraysh and were instrumental in the conquest of Iraq. Egypt In Egypt Amr governed more as a partner of Mu'awiya than a subordinate until his death in 664. He was permitted to retain the surplus revenues of the province. The caliph ordered the resumption of Egyptian grain and oil shipments to Medina, ending the hiatus caused by the First Fitna. After Amr's death, Mu'awiya's brother Utba () and an early companion of Muhammad, Uqba ibn Amir (), successively served as governors before Mu'awiya appointed Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari in 667. Maslama remained governor for the duration of Mu'awiya's reign, significantly expanding Fustat and its mosque and boosting the city's importance in 674 by relocating Egypt's main shipyard to the nearby Roda Island from Alexandria due to the latter's vulnerability to Byzantine naval raids. The Arab presence in Egypt was mostly limited to the central garrison at Fustat and the smaller garrison at Alexandria. The influx of Syrian troops brought by Amr in 658 and the Basran troops sent by Ziyad in 673 swelled Fustat's 15,000-strong garrison to 40,000 during Mu'awiya's reign. Utba increased the Alexandria garrison to 12,000 men and built a governor's residence in the city, whose Greek Christian population was generally hostile to Arab rule. When Utba's deputy in Alexandria complained that his troops were unable to control the city, Mu'awiya deployed a further 15,000 soldiers from Syria and Medina. The troops in Egypt were far less rebellious than their Iraqi counterparts, though elements in the Fustat garrison occasionally raised opposition to Mu'awiya's policies, culminating during Maslama's term with the widespread protest at Mu'awiya's seizure and allotment of crown lands in Fayyum to his son Yazid, which compelled the caliph to reverse his order. Arabia Although revenge for Uthman's assassination had been the basis upon which Mu'awiya claimed the right to the caliphate, he neither emulated Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyad clan nor used them to assert his own power. With minor exceptions, members of the clan were not appointed to the wealthy provinces nor the caliph's court, Mu'awiya largely limiting their influence to Medina, the old capital of the Caliphate where most of the Umayyads and the wider Qurayshite former aristocracy remained headquartered. The loss of political power left the Umayyads of Medina resentful toward Mu'awiya, who may have become wary of the political ambitions of the much larger Abu al-As branch of the clan—to which Uthman had belonged—under the leadership of Marwan ibn al-Hakam. The caliph attempted to weaken the clan by provoking internal divisions. Among the measures taken was the replacement of Marwan from the governorship of Medina in 668 with another leading Umayyad, Sa'id ibn al-As. The latter was instructed to demolish Marwan's house, but refused and when Marwan was restored in 674, he also refused Mu'awiya's order to demolish Sa'id's house. Mu'awiya dismissed Marwan once more in 678, replacing him with his own nephew, al-Walid ibn Utba. Besides his own clan, Mu'awiya's relations with the Banu Hashim (the clan of Muhammad and Caliph Ali), the families of Muhammad's closest companions, the once-prominent Banu Makhzum, and the Ansar was generally characterized by suspicion or outright hostility. Despite his relocation to Damascus, Mu'awiya remained fond of his original homeland and made known his longing for "the spring in Juddah [sic], the summer in Ta'if, [and] the winter in Mecca". He purchased several large tracts throughout Arabia and invested considerable sums to develop the lands for agricultural use. According to the Muslim literary tradition, in the plain of Arafat and the barren valley of Mecca he dug numerous wells and canals, constructed dams and dikes to protect the soil from seasonal floods, and built fountains and reservoirs. His efforts saw extensive grain fields and date palm groves spring up across Mecca's suburbs, which remained in this state until deteriorating during the Abbasid era, which began in 750. In the Yamama region in central Arabia, Mu'awiya confiscated from the Banu Hanifa the lands of Hadarim, where he employed 4,000 slaves, likely to cultivate its fields. The caliph gained possession of estates in and near Ta'if which, together with the lands of his brothers Anbasa and Utba, formed a considerable cluster of properties. One of the earliest known Arabic inscriptions from Mu'awiya's reign was found at a soil-conservation dam called Sayisad east of Ta'if, which credits Mu'awiya for the dam's construction in 677 or 678 and asks God to give him victory and strength. Mu'awiya is also credited as the patron of a second dam called al-Khanaq east of Medina, according to an inscription found at the site. This is possibly the dam between Medina and the gold mines of the Banu Sulaym tribe attributed to Mu'awiya by the historians al-Harbi (d. 898) and al-Samhudi (d. 1533). War with Byzantium Mu'awiya possessed more personal experience than any other caliph fighting the Byzantines, the principal external threat to the Caliphate, and pursued the war against the Empire more energetically and continuously than his successors. The First Fitna caused the Arabs to lose control over Armenia to native, pro-Byzantine princes, but in 661 Habib ibn Maslama re-invaded the region. The following year, Armenia became a tributary of the Caliphate and Mu'awiya recognized the Armenian prince Grigor Mamikonian as its commander. Not long after the civil war, Mu'awiya broke the truce with Byzantium, and on a near-annual or bi-annual basis the caliph engaged his Syrian troops in raids across the mountainous Anatolian frontier, the buffer zone between the Empire and the Caliphate. At least until Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid's death in 666, Homs served as the principal marshaling point for the offensives, and afterward Antioch served this purpose as well. The bulk of the troops fighting on the Anatolian and Armenian fronts hailed from the tribal groups that arrived from Arabia during and after the conquest. During his caliphate, Mu'awiya continued his past efforts to resettle and fortify the Syrian port cities. Due to the reticence of Arab tribesmen to inhabit the coastlands, in 663 Mu'awiya moved Persian civilians and personnel that he had previously settled in the Syrian interior into Acre and Tyre, and transferred Asawira, elite Persian soldiers, from Kufa and Basra to the garrison at Antioch. A few years later, Mu'awiya settled Apamea with 5,000 Slavs who had defected from the Byzantines during one of his forces' Anatolian campaigns. Based on the histories of al-Tabari (d. 923) and Agapius of Hierapolis (d. 941), the first raid of Mu'awiya's caliphate occurred in 662 or 663, during which his forces inflicted a heavy defeat on a Byzantine army with numerous patricians slain. In the next year a raid led by Busr reached Constantinople and in 664 or 665, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid raided Koloneia in northeastern Anatolia. In the late 660s, Mu'awiya's forces attacked Antioch of Pisidia or Antioch of Isauria. Following the death of Constans II in July 668, Mu'awiya oversaw an increasingly aggressive policy of naval warfare against the Byzantines. According to the early Muslim sources, raids against the Byzantines peaked between 668 and 669. In each of those years there occurred six ground campaigns and a major naval campaign, the first by an Egyptian and Medinese fleet and the second by an Egyptian and Syrian fleet. The culmination of the campaigns was an assault on Constantinople, but the chronologies of the Arabic, Syriac, and Byzantine sources are contradictory. The traditional view by modern historians is of a great series of naval-borne assaults against Constantinople in , based on the history of the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor (d. 818). However, the dating and the very historicity of this view has been challenged; the Oxford scholar James Howard-Johnston considers that no siege of Constantinople took place, and that the story was inspired by the actual siege a generation later. The historian Marek Jankowiak on the other hand, in a revisionist reconstruction of the events reliant on the Arabic and Syriac sources, asserts that the assault came earlier than what is reported by Theophanes, and that the multitude of campaigns that were reported during 668–669 represented the coordinated efforts by Mu'awiya to conquer the Byzantine capital. Al-Tabari reports that Mu'awiya's son Yazid led a campaign against Constantinople in 669 and Ibn Abd al-Hakam reports that the Egyptian and Syrian navies joined the assault, led by Uqba ibn Amir and Fadala ibn Ubayd respectively. According to Jankowiak, Mu'awiya likely ordered the invasion during an opportunity presented by the rebellion of the Byzantine Armenian general Saborios, who formed a pact with the caliph, in spring 667. The caliph dispatched an army under Fadala, but before it could be joined by the Armenians, Saborios died. Mu'awiya then sent reinforcements led by Yazid who led the Arab army's invasion in the summer. An Arab fleet reached the Sea of Marmara by autumn, while Yazid and Fadala, having raided Chalcedon through the winter, besieged Constantinople in spring 668, but due to famine and disease, lifted the siege in late June. The Arabs continued their campaigns in Constantinople's vicinity before withdrawing to Syria most likely in late 669. In 669, Mu'awiya's navy raided as far as Sicily. The following year, the wide-scale fortification of Alexandria was completed. While the histories of al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri report that Mu'awiya's forces captured Rhodes in 672–674 and colonized the island for seven years before withdrawing during the reign of Yazid I, the modern historian Clifford Edmund Bosworth casts doubt on these events and holds that the island was only raided by Mu'awiya's lieutenant Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi in 679 or 680. Under Emperor Constantine IV (), the Byzantines began a counteroffensive against the Caliphate, first raiding Egypt in 672 or 673, while in winter 673, Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays led a large fleet that raided Smyrna and the coasts of Cilicia and Lycia. The Byzantines landed a major victory against an Arab army and fleet led by Sufyan ibn Awf, possibly at Sillyon, in 673 or 674. The next year, Abd Allah ibn Qays and Fadala landed in Crete and in 675 or 676, a Byzantine fleet assaulted Maraqiya, killing the governor of Homs. In 677, 678 or 679 Mu'awiya sued for peace with Constantine IV, possibly as a result of the destruction of his fleet or the Byzantines' deployment of the Mardaites in the Syrian littoral during that time. A thirty-year treaty was concluded, obliging the Caliphate to pay an annual tribute of 3,000 gold coins, 50 horses and 30 slaves, and withdraw their troops from the forward bases they had occupied on the Byzantine coast. Although the Muslims did not achieve any permanent territorial gains in Anatolia during Mu'awiya's career, the frequent raids provided Mu'awiya's Syrian troops with war spoils and tribute, which helped ensure their continued allegiance, and sharpened their combat skills. Moreover, Mu'awiya's prestige was boosted and the Byzantines were precluded from any concerted campaigns against Syria. Conquest of central North Africa Although the Arabs had not advanced beyond Cyrenaica since the 640s other than periodic raids, the expeditions against Byzantine North Africa were renewed during Mu'awiya's reign. In 665 or 666 Ibn Hudayj led an army which raided Byzacena (southern district of Byzantine Africa) and Gabes and temporarily captured Bizerte before withdrawing to Egypt. The following year Mu'awiya dispatched Fadala and Ruwayfi ibn Thabit to raid the commercially valuable island of Djerba. Meanwhile, in 662 or 667, Uqba ibn Nafi, a Qurayshite commander who had played a key role in the Arabs' capture of Cyrenaica in 641, reasserted Muslim influence in the Fezzan region, capturing the Zawila oasis and the Garamantes capital of Germa. He may have raided as far south as Kawar in modern-day Niger. The struggle over the succession of Constantine IV drew Byzantine focus away from the African front. In 670, Mu'awiya appointed Uqba as Egypt's deputy governor over the North African lands under Arab control west of Egypt. At the head of a 10,000-strong force, Uqba commenced his expedition against the territories west of Cyrenaica. As he advanced, his army was joined by Islamized Luwata Berbers and their combined forces conquered Ghadamis, Gafsa and the Jarid. In the last region he established a permanent Arab garrison town called Kairouan, at a relatively safe distance from Carthage and the coastal areas, which had remained under Byzantine control, to serve as a base for further expeditions. It also aided Muslim conversion efforts among the Berber tribes that dominated the surrounding countryside. Mu'awiya dismissed Uqba in 673, probably out of concern that he would form an independent power base in the lucrative regions that he had conquered. The new Arab province, Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), remained subordinate to the governor of Egypt, who sent his (non-Arab, Muslim freedman) Abu al-Muhajir Dinar to replace Uqba, who was arrested and transferred to Mu'awiya's custody in Damascus. Abu al-Muhajir continued the westward campaigns as far as Tlemcen and defeated the Awraba Berber chief Kasila, who subsequently embraced Islam and joined his forces. In 678, a treaty between the Arabs and the Byzantines ceded Byzacena to the Caliphate, while forcing the Arabs to withdraw from the northern parts of the province. After Mu'awiya's death, his successor Yazid reappointed Uqba, Kasila defected and a Byzantine–Berber alliance ended Arab control over Ifriqiya, which was not reestablished until the reign of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (). Nomination of Yazid as successor In a move unprecedented in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, Yazid, as his successor. The caliph likely held ambitions for his son's succession over a considerable period. In 666, he allegedly had his governor in Homs, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid, poisoned to remove him as a potential rival to Yazid. The Syrian Arabs, with whom Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid was popular, had viewed the governor as the caliph's most suitable successor by dint of his military record and descent from Khalid ibn al-Walid. It was not until the latter half of his reign that Mu'awiya publicly declared Yazid heir apparent, though the early Muslim sources offer divergent details about the timing and location of the events relating to the decision. The accounts of al-Mada'ini (752–843) and Ibn al-Athir (1160–1232) agree that al-Mughira was the first to suggest that Yazid be acknowledged as Mu'awiya's successor and that Ziyad supported the nomination with the caveat that Yazid abandon impious activities which could arouse opposition from the Muslim polity. According to al-Tabari, Mu'awiya publicly announced his decision in 675 or 676 and demanded oaths of allegiance be given to Yazid. Ibn al-Athir alone relates that delegations from all the provinces were summoned to Damascus where Mu'awiya lectured them on his rights as ruler, their duties as subjects and Yazid's worthy qualities, which was followed by the calls of al-Dahhak ibn Qays and other courtiers that Yazid be recognized as the caliph's successor. The delegates lent their support, with the exception of the senior Basran nobleman al-Ahnaf ibn Qays, who was ultimately bribed into compliance. Al-Mas'udi (896–956) and al-Tabari do not mention provincial delegations other than a Basran embassy led by Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad in 678–679 or 679–680, respectively, which recognized Yazid. According to Hinds, in addition to Yazid's nobility, age and sound judgement, "most important of all" was his connection to the Kalb. The Kalb-led Quda'a confederation was the foundation of Sufyanid rule and Yazid's succession signaled the continuation of this alliance. In nominating Yazid, the son of the Kalbite Maysun, Mu'awiya bypassed his older son Abd Allah from his Qurayshite wife Fakhita. Alhough support from the Kalb and the Quda'a was guaranteed, Mu'awiya exhorted Yazid to widen his tribal support base in Syria. As the Qaysites were the predominant element in the northern frontier armies, Mu'awiya's appointment of Yazid to lead the war efforts with Byzantium may have served to foster Qaysite support for his nomination. Mu'awiya's efforts to that end were not entirely successful as reflected in a line by a Qaysite poet: "we will never pay allegiance to the son of a Kalbi woman [i.e. Yazid]". In Medina, Mu'awiya's distant kinsmen Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Sa'id ibn al-As and Ibn Amir accepted Mu'awiya's succession order, albeit disapprovingly. Most opponents of Mu'awiya's order in Iraq and among the Umayyads and Quraysh of the Hejaz were ultimately threatened or bribed into acceptance. The remaining principle opposition emanated from Husayn ibn Ali, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Umar and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, all prominent Medina-based sons of earlier caliphs or close companions of Muhammad. As they possessed the nearest claims to the caliphate, Mu'awiya was determined to obtain their recognition. According to the historian Awana ibn al-Hakam (d. 764), before his death, Mu'awiya ordered certain measures to be taken against them, entrusting these tasks to his loyalists al-Dahhak ibn Qays and Muslim ibn Uqba. Death Mu'awiya died from an illness in Damascus in Rajab 60 AH (April or May 680 CE), at around the age of 80. The medieval accounts vary regarding the specific date of his death, with Hisham ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819) placing it on 7 April, al-Waqidi on 21 April and al-Mada'ini on 29 April. Yazid, who was away from Damascus at the time of his father's death, is held by Abu Mikhnaf (d. 774) to have succeeded him on 7 April, while the Nestorian chronicler Elias of Nisibis (d. 1046) says it occurred on 21 April. In his last testament, Mu'awiya told his family "Fear God, Almighty and Great, for God, praise Him, protects whoever fears Him, and there is no protector for one who does not fear God". He was buried next to the Bab al-Saghir gate of the city and the funeral prayers were led by al-Dahhak ibn Qays, who mourned Mu'awiya as the "stick of the Arabs and the blade of the Arabs, by means of whom God, Almighty and Great, cut off strife, whom He made sovereign over mankind, by means of whom he conquered countries, but now he has died". Mu'awiya's grave was a visitation site as late as the 10th century. Al-Mas'udi holds that a mausoleum was built over the grave and was open to visitors on Mondays and Thursdays. Ibn Taghribirdi asserts that Ahmad ibn Tulun, the autonomous 9th-century ruler of Egypt and Syria, erected a structure on the grave in 883 or 884 and employed members of the public to regularly recite the Qur'an and light candles around the tomb. Assessment and legacy Like Uthman, Mu'awiya adopted the title ('deputy of God'), instead of ('deputy of the messenger of God'), the title used by the other caliphs who preceded him. The title may have implied political as well as religious authority and divine sanctioning. He is reported by al-Baladhuri to have said "The earth belongs to God and I am the deputy of God". Nevertheless, whatever the absolutist connotations the title may have had, Mu'awiya evidently did not impose this religious authority. Instead, he governed indirectly like a supra-tribal chief using alliances with provincial , his personal skills, persuasive power, and wit. Apart from his war with Ali, he did not deploy his Syrian troops domestically, and often used monetary gifts as a tool to avoid conflict. In Julius Wellhausen's assessment, Mu'awiya was an accomplished diplomat "allowing matters to ripen of themselves, and only now and then assisting their progress". He further states that Mu'awiya had the ability to identify and employ the most talented men at his service and made even those whom he distrusted work for him. In the view of the historian Patricia Crone, Mu'awiya's successful rule was facilitated by the tribal composition of Syria. There, the Arabs who formed his support base were distributed throughout the countryside and were dominated by a single confederation, the Quda'a. This was in contrast to Iraq and Egypt, where the diverse tribal composition of the garrison towns meant that the government had no cohesive support base and had to create a delicate balance between the opposing tribal groups. As evidenced by the disintegration of Ali's Iraqi alliance, maintaining this balance was untenable. In her view, Mu'awiya's taking advantage of the tribal circumstances in Syria prevented the dissolution of the Caliphate in the civil war. In the words of the orientalist Martin Hinds, the success of Mu'awiya's style of governance is "attested by the fact that he managed to hold his kingdom together without ever having to resort to using his Syrian troops". In the long-term, Mu'awiya's system proved precarious and unviable. Reliance on personal relations meant his government was dependent on paying and pleasing its agents instead of commanding them. This created a "system of indulgence", according to Crone. The governors became increasingly unaccountable and amassed personal wealth. The tribal balance on which he relied was insecure and a slight fluctuation would lead to factionalism and infighting. When Yazid became caliph, he continued his father's model. Controversial as his nomination had been, he had to face the rebellions of Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr. Although he was able to defeat them with the help of his governors and the Syrian army, the system fractured as soon as he died in November 683. The provincial defected to Ibn al-Zubayr, as did the Qaysite tribes, who had migrated to Syria during Mu'awiya's reign and were opposed to the Quda'a confederation on whom Sufyanid power rested. In a matter of months the authority of Yazid's successor, Mu'awiya II, was restricted to Damascus and its environs. Although the Umayyads, backed by the Quda'a, were able to reconquer the Caliphate after the decade-long second civil war, it was under the leadership of Marwan, founder of the new ruling Umayyad house, the Marwanids, and his son Abd al-Malik. Having realized the weakness of Mu'awiya's model and lacking in his political skill, the Marwanids abandoned his system in favor of a more traditional form of governance where the caliph was the central authority. Nonetheless, the hereditary succession introduced by Mu'awiya became a permanent feature of many of the Muslim governments that followed. Kennedy views the preservation of the Caliphate's unity as Mu'awiya's greatest achievement. Expressing a similar viewpoint, Mu'awiya's biographer R. Stephen Humphreys states that although maintaining the integrity of the Caliphate would have been an achievement on its own, Mu'awiya was intent on vigorously continuing the conquests that had been initiated by Abu Bakr and Umar. By creating a formidable navy, he made the Caliphate the dominant force in the eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean. Control of northeastern Iran was secured and the Caliphate's frontier was expanded in North Africa. Madelung deems Mu'awiya a corruptor of the caliphal office, under whom the precedence in Islam (), which was the determining factor in the choice of earlier caliphs, gave way to the might of the sword, the people became his subjects and he became the "absolute lord over their life and death". He strangled the communal spirit of Islam and used the religion as a tool of "social control, exploitation and military terrorization". Mu'awiya was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. The inscriptions from his reign lacked any explicit reference to Islam or Muhammad and the only titles that appear are 'servant of God' and 'commander of the faithful'. This has led some modern historians to question Mu'awiya's commitment to Islam. They have proposed that he adhered to a non-confessional or indeterminate form of monotheism, or may have been a Christian. Asserting that the earliest Muslims did not see their faith as different from other monotheistic faiths, these historians see the earlier Medina-based caliphs in the same vein, but no public proclamations from their period exist. On the other hand, the historian Robert Hoyland notes that Mu'awiya gave a very Islamic challenge to the Byzantine emperor Constans to "deny [the divinity of] Jesus and turn to the Great God who I worship, the God of our father Abraham" and speculates that Mu'awiya's tour of Christian sites in Jerusalem was done to demonstrate "the fact that he, and not the Byzantine emperor, was now God's representative on earth". Early historical tradition The surviving Muslim histories originated in Abbasid-era Iraq. The compilers, the narrators from whom the stories were collected, and the overall public sentiment in Iraq were hostile to the Syria-based Umayyads, under whom Syria was a privileged province and Iraq was locally perceived as a Syrian colony. Moreover, the Abbasids, having overthrown the Umayyads in 750, saw them as illegitimate rulers and further tarnished their memory to enhance their own legitimacy. Abbasid caliphs like al-Saffah, al-Ma'mun, and al-Mu'tadid publicly condemned Mu'awiya and other Umayyad caliphs. As such, the Muslim historical tradition is by and large anti-Umayyad. Nonetheless, in the case of Mu'awiya it portrays him in a relatively balanced manner. On the one hand, it portrays him as a successful ruler who implemented his will with persuasion instead of force. It stresses his quality of , which in his case meant mildness, slowness to anger, subtlety, and management of people by perceiving their needs and desires. The historical tradition is rife with anecdotes of his political acumen and self-control. In one such anecdote, when inquired about allowing one of his courtiers to address him with arrogance, he remarked: The tradition presents him operating in the way of a traditional tribal sheikh who lacks absolute authority; summoning delegations () of tribal chiefs, and persuading them with flattery, arguments, and presents. This is exemplified in a saying attributed to him: "I never use my voice if I can use my money, never my whip if I can use my voice, never my sword if I can use my whip; but, if I have to use my sword, I will." On the other hand, the tradition also portrays him as a despot who perverted the caliphate into kingship. In the words of al-Ya'qubi (d. 898): Al-Baladhuri calls him the 'Khosrow of the Arabs' (). 'Khosrow' was used by the Arabs as a reference to Sasanian Persian monarchs in general, who the Arabs associated with worldly splendor and authoritarianism, as opposed to the humility of Muhammad. Mu'awiya was compared to these monarchs mainly because he appointed his son Yazid as the next caliph, which was viewed as a violation of the Islamic principle of and an introduction of dynastic rule on par with the Byzantines and Sasanians. The civil war that erupted after Mu'awiya's death is asserted to have been the direct consequence of Yazid's nomination. In the Islamic tradition, Mu'awiya and the Umayyads are given the title of (king) instead of (caliph), though the succeeding Abbasids are recognized as caliphs. The contemporary non-Muslim sources generally present a benign image of Mu'awiya. The Greek historian Theophanes calls him a , 'first among equals'. According to Kennedy, the Nestorian Christian chronicler John bar Penkaye writing in the 690s "has nothing but praise for the first Umayyad caliph ... of whose reign he says 'the peace throughout the world was such that we have never heard, either from our fathers or from our grandparents, or seen that there had ever been any like it'". Muslim view In contrast to the four earlier caliphs, who are considered as models of piety and having governed with justice, Mu'awiya is not recognized as a rightly-guided caliph () by the Sunnis. He is seen as transforming the caliphate into a worldly and despotic kingship. His acquisition of the caliphate through the civil war and his institution of the hereditary succession by appointing his son Yazid as heir apparent are the principal charges made against him. Although Uthman and Ali had been highly controversial during the early period, religious scholars in the 8th and 9th centuries compromised in order to appease and absorb the Uthmanid and pro-Alid factions. Uthman and Ali were thus regarded along with the first two caliphs as divinely guided, whereas Mu'awiya and those who came after him were viewed as oppressive tyrants. Nevertheless, the Sunnis accord him the status of a companion of Muhammad and consider him a scribe of the Qur'anic revelation (). On these accounts, he is also respected. Some Sunnis defend his war against Ali holding that although he was in error, he acted according to his best judgment and had no evil intentions. Mu'awiya's war with Ali, whom the Shia hold as the true successor of Muhammad, has made him a reviled figure in Shia Islam. According to the Shia, based on this alone Mu'awiya qualifies as an unbeliever, if he was a believer to begin with. In addition, he is held responsible for the killing of a number of Muhammad's companions at Siffin, having ordered the cursing of Ali from the pulpit, appointing Yazid as his successor, who went on to kill Husayn at Karbala, executing the pro-Alid Kufan nobleman Hujr ibn Adi, and assassinating Hasan by poisoning. As such, he has been a particular target of Shia traditions. Some traditions hold him to have been born of an illegitimate relationship between Abu Sufyan's wife Hind and Muhammad's uncle Abbas. His conversion to Islam is held to be devoid of any conviction and to have been motivated by convenience after Muhammad conquered Mecca. On this basis he is given the title of (freed slave of Muhammad). A number of hadiths are ascribed to Muhammad condemning Mu'awiya and his father Abu Sufyan in which he is called "an accursed man () son of an accursed man" and prophesying that he will die as an unbeliever. Unlike the Sunnis, the Shia deny him the status of a companion and also refute the Sunni claims that he was a scribe of the Qur'anic revelation. Like other opponents of Ali, Mu'awiya is cursed in a ritual called , which is held by many Shia to be an obligation. Amid rising religious sectarianism among Muslims in the 10th century, while the Abbasid Caliphate was dominated by the Twelver Shia emirs of the Buyid dynasty, the figure of Mu'awiya became a propaganda tool used by the Shia and the Sunnis opposed to them. Strong pro-Mu'awiya sentiments were voiced by Sunnis in several Abbasid cities, including Baghdad, Wasit, Raqqa and Isfahan. At about the same time, the Shia were permitted by the Buyids and the Sunni Abbasid caliphs to perform the ritual cursing of Mu'awiya in mosques. In 10th–11th-century Egypt, the figure of Mu'awiya occasionally played a similar role, with the Ismaili Shia Fatimid caliphs introducing measures opposed to Mu'awiya's memory and opponents of the government using him as a tool to berate the Shia. Notes References Bibliography Further reading 600s births 680 deaths 7th-century Umayyad caliphs Generals of the Rashidun Caliphate Rashidun governors of Syria Companions of the Prophet People of the First Fitna People from Mecca One Thousand and One Nights characters Rashidun governors of Jordan	[ -0.5468832850456238, 0.3323172926902771, -0.7866843342781067, -0.4038848876953125, -0.9413599371910095, 0.532631516456604, 0.8344569206237793, 0.03216875344514847, -0.29329344630241394, -0.5625038743019104, -0.36859503388404846, 0.16531291604042053, -0.8023938536643982, 0.21357542276382446, 0.17813289165496826, 0.4418086111545563, 0.2917342185974121, -0.2466859519481659, -0.8037011623382568, 0.493361234664917, 0.12539564073085785, 0.09239683300256729, -0.020028097555041313, -0.10253757983446121, 0.7735955119132996, -0.08091618120670319, 0.8802099227905273, 0.13717488944530487, -0.2594285309314728, -0.21047458052635193, 0.07081570476293564, -0.09497855603694916, -0.09340956062078476, 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207069	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasiphae%20%28moon%29	Pasiphae (moon)	Pasiphae , formerly spelled Pasiphaë, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered in 1908 by Philibert Jacques Melotte and later named after the mythological Pasiphaë, wife of Minos and mother of the Minotaur from Greek legend. The moon was first spotted on a plate taken at the Royal Greenwich Observatory on the night of 28 February 1908. Inspection of previous plates found it as far back as January 27. It received the provisional designation , as it was not clear whether it was an asteroid or a moon of Jupiter. The recognition of the latter case came by April 10. Pasiphae did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as . It was sometimes called "Poseidon" between 1955 and 1975. Orbit Pasiphae orbits Jupiter on a high eccentricity and high inclination retrograde orbit. It gives its name to the Pasiphae group, irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22.8 and 24.1 million km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°. The orbital elements are as of January 2000. They are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations. The diagram illustrates its orbit in relation to other retrograde irregular satellites of Jupiter. The eccentricity of selected orbits is represented by the yellow segments (extending from the pericentre to the apocentre). The outermost regular satellite Callisto is located for reference. Pasiphae is also known to be in a secular resonance with Jupiter (tying the longitude of its perijove with the longitude of perihelion of Jupiter). Physical characteristics With diameter estimated at 60 km Pasiphae is the largest retrograde and third largest irregular satellite after Himalia and Elara. Spectroscopical measurements in infrared indicate that Pasiphae is a spectrally featureless object, consistent with the suspected asteroidal origin of the object. Pasiphae is believed to be a fragment from a captured asteroid along with other Pasiphae group satellites. In the visual spectrum the satellite appears grey (colour indices B-V=0.74, R-V=0.38) similar to C-type asteroids. See also Irregular satellites References External links Pasiphae Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewitt pages Scott Sheppard pages MPC: Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service Moons of Jupiter Irregular satellites 19080127 Pasiphae group	[ -0.24609066545963287, 0.19799953699111938, 0.573846697807312, 0.17098590731620789, -0.44324567914009094, 0.37213966250419617, -0.16312061250209808, 0.4687792956829071, -0.3512229919433594, -0.2658790349960327, -0.2488071769475937, -0.4358316957950592, -0.633367657661438, 0.2782858610153198, 0.3384520411491394, -0.03844178840517998, 0.33942922949790955, 0.7687867879867554, -0.6670031547546387, -0.4576663374900818, 0.4720669388771057, 0.18463300168514252, 0.834551990032196, -0.8723499774932861, -0.09291767328977585, 0.3795582056045532, -0.1629914790391922, 0.620194673538208, 0.4156981110572815, 0.3302405774593353, -0.30625176429748535, 0.10982454568147659, -0.10567200928926468, 0.05136803165078163, 0.12079538404941559, 0.2764345109462738, 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207072	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle-class%20patrol%20craft	Eagle-class patrol craft	The Eagle-class patrol craft were a set of steel ships smaller than contemporary destroyers but having a greater operational radius than the wooden-hulled, submarine chasers developed in 1917. The submarine chasers' range of about at a cruising speed of restricted their operations to off-shore anti-submarine work and denied them an open-ocean escort capability; their high consumption of gasoline and limited fuel storage were handicaps the Eagle class sought to remedy. They were originally commissioned USS Eagle Boat No.1 (or 2,3..etc.) but this was changed to PE-1 (or 2,4.. etc.) in 1920. They never officially saw combat in World War I, but some were used during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. PE-19, 27, 32, 38, 48 and 55–57 survived to be used in World War II. Attention turned to building steel patrol vessels. In their construction, it was necessary to eliminate the established shipbuilding facilities as possible sources of construction as they were totally engaged in the building of destroyers, larger warships, and merchant shipping. Accordingly, a design was developed by the Bureau of Construction and Repair which was sufficiently simplified to permit speedy construction by less experienced shipyards. Involvement of Ford Motor Company In June 1917, President of the United States Woodrow Wilson had summoned auto-builder Henry Ford to Washington in the hope of getting him to serve on the United States Shipping Board. Wilson felt that Ford, with his knowledge of mass production techniques, could immensely speed the building of ships in quantity. Apprised of the need for antisubmarine vessels to combat the U-boat menace, Ford replied, "what we want is one type of ship in large numbers." On 7 November, Ford accepted membership on the Shipping Board and an active advisory role. Examining the Navy's plans for the projected steel patrol ships, Ford urged that all hull plates be flat so that they could be produced quickly in quantity and he also persuaded the Navy to accept steam turbines instead of reciprocating steam engines. At this point, Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels was drawn into the project. He recognized that no facilities were available at the Navy yards for building new craft and asked Ford if he would undertake the task. Ford agreed, and, in January 1918, he was directed to proceed with the building of 100 of them. Later on, 12 more were added for delivery to the Italian government. The first boat was launched on 11 July 1918. According to Ford, "They were built simply by applying our production principles to a new product." Construction Ford's plan for building the ships was revolutionary. Establishing a new plant on the River Rouge on the outskirts of Detroit, he proposed to turn them out as factory products, using mass production techniques, and employing factory workers. He would then send the boats by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River to the Atlantic coast. However, Ford had little part in the design of the boats. Except for his insistence upon simple plans and the use of steam turbines, he contributed little of a fundamental nature to the design concept. First, Ford engineers built a full-scale pattern at the company's Highland Park facility, giving both the Ford team and the Naval officers an opportunity to correct flaws in the rough initial design and decide on the placement of all rivet holes in the craft, as well as allowing the carmaker's production experts the chance to compose specifications for the manufacturing and assembly processes. The assembly plant was completed in five months, and the first keel was laid in May 1918. The machinery and fittings were largely built at Ford's Highland Park plant in Detroit, although the new River Rouge plant, given impetus by the war, saw a good deal of the steel sheets and other parts formed and fabricated there in the A-Building, or fabricating building. At first, Ford believed that boats could be sent down a continuously moving assembly line like automobiles. The size of the craft made this too difficult, however, and a "step-by-step" movement was instituted on the line, entailing seven separate assembly areas, followed by the addition of a 200-foot (61 m) extension to the assembly facility, or B-Building, to support a pre-assembly stage. Unfortunately, the Eagles suffered from various issues due to Ford's institutional inexperience with shipbuilding: for instance, the Model T did not use electric arc welding, and the resulting workmanship on the Eagle boats was so poor that the superintending constructor requested that Ford workers do as little welding as possible on water-tight and oil-tight bulkheads. Additionally, the use of ladders instead of scaffolds caused major difficulties—the attempted bolting of plates, carried out by workers wielding short-handled wrenches on ladders meant that the bolters were unable to apply sufficient force to bring the plates together tightly. Metal shavings between plates then made the riveters' task of pulling the plates together for a seal practically impossible. The first Eagle boat was launched on 11 July. The launching of these craft was a formidable operation. Not built on ways from which they could slide into the water, the hulls moved slowly from the assembly line on enormous, tractor-drawn flatcars. They were then placed on a steel trestle alongside the water's edge which could be sunk into the water by hydraulic action. The plan was to fit the Eagles out with all the basic equipment of a warship—turbines, weaponry, wiring, etc.--after launch, but this quickly became a choke point due to the cramped spaces on the boats themselves, and violated Ford's own mass production ethos. The original expectation, set out in a contract between Ford and the Navy on 1 March 1918, was for delivery of 100 ships: "one by mid-July, ten by mid-August, twenty by mid-September, and twenty-five each month thereafter," or approximately one new Eagle boat completed each working day of the month. The first seven boats were not completed until the end of 1918, and succeeding boats were plagued by issues such as leaky fuel oil compartments. This state of affairs continued, even though the labor force reached 4,380 by July and later peaked at 8,000. The chief reasons were Ford's excessive initial optimism and the inexperience of labor and supervisory personnel in shipbuilding. Upon the signing of the Armistice in November 1918, the number under contract, previously raised from 100 to 112, was cut to 60. Of these, seven were commissioned in 1918, and the remaining 53 were commissioned in 1919. The entire Eagle Boat operation came briefly under challenge by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts in December 1918. At the ensuing Congressional hearings, Navy officials successfully defended the boats as being a necessary experiment and well made while Ford profits were proved to be modest. However, historian David Hounshell states that "the Eagle boat venture cannot be considered successful by the standards of the war era or the present," and today serves as a case study in the history of technology to illustrate the difficulty in transferring knowledge and techniques between superficially similar, but fundamentally different, fields of endeavor. U.S. service The term "Eagle Boat" stemmed from a wartime editorial in The Washington Post which called for "...an eagle to scour the seas and pounce upon and destroy every German submarine." However, the Eagle Boats never saw service in World War I. Reports on their performance at sea were mixed. The introduction, at Ford's insistence, of flanged plates instead of rolled plates facilitated production but resulted in sea-keeping characteristics which were far from ideal. In the first years after the war, a number of them were used as aircraft tenders. Despite the handicap of their size, they serviced photographic reconnaissance planes at Midway in 1920 and in the Hawaiian Islands in 1921 before being supplanted by larger ships. Eagle boat 34, as related in Max Miller's 1932 book I Cover The Waterfront, shared the yearly duty alternately with the Navy tug of capturing elephant seals on Mexico's Guadalupe Island for the San Diego Zoo. A number of the Eagle Boats were transferred to the United States Coast Guard in 1919, and the balance were sold in the 1930s and early 1940s. Eight Eagle boats saw service during World War II. One was stationed in Miami as a training vessel., while one, Eagle 56, was sunk by a German submarine near Portland, Maine in April 1945. After the war, the seven remaining Eagle Boats were decommissioned. Ships PE-61 through PE-112 were canceled on 30 November 1918. PE-5, PE-15, PE-25, PE-45, PE-65, PE-75, PE-86, PE-95, PE-105, and PE-112 were allotted for transfer to Italy, though this plan was cancelled and none were ever delivered. See also Patrol boat List of patrol vessels of the United States Navy References See here for text External links Mare Island Navy Yard – 1928. Elbridge Ayer Burbank pencil sketch. 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207073	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Mulock	William Mulock	Sir William Mulock, (January 19, 1843 – October 1, 1944) was a Canadian lawyer, businessman, educator, farmer, politician, judge, and philanthropist. He served as vice-chancellor of the University of Toronto from 1881 to 1900, negotiating the federation of denominational colleges and professional schools into a modern university. He was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal Member of Parliament and served from 1882 to 1905. Sir Wilfrid Laurier appointed him to the Canadian Cabinet as Postmaster General from 1896 to 1905. In 1900, Mulock established the Department of Labour, bringing William Lyon Mackenzie King into public life as his Deputy Minister. He initiated the final agreement for a transpacific cable linking Canada to Australia and New Zealand, and he funded Marconi to establish the first transatlantic radio link from North America to Europe. In 1905, he chaired the parliamentary inquiry into telephones that led to regulation of Canadian telecommunications, and he participated in the negotiations that led to the creation of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. He was Chief Justice of the Exchequer Division of the Supreme Court of Ontario from 1905 until appointed by King in 1923 as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Ontario, a position he held until 1936. From 1931 to 1932, he served as the acting Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. Mulock was extremely active in both business and the community, being involved in the foundation of organizations as diverse as the Toronto-Dominion Bank, the Toronto Star, Toronto Wellesley Hospital, and Canada's first national peace organization. In later life, he was known as the "Grand Old Man" of Canada. Early life Mulock was born in Bond Head, Canada West, the son of Irish immigrant Thomas Homan Mulock and Mary, the daughter of John Cawthra. His father, a physician educated in Dublin at the Royal College of Surgeons and the Medical School of Trinity College, died when Mulock was 4 years old. His mother then moved the family to Newmarket, Ontario, where he was educated at the Newmarket Grammar School. Mulock's older brother, John, died in 1852; he had two sisters, Marian and Rosamund (later married to George W. Monk). The family endured genteel poverty after the father's death, so Mulock spent much time chopping wood, milking the family cow, growing vegetables in the family garden, and on outside work such as repairing the local corduroy roads. University of Toronto Student Mulock entered the new University College in Toronto in 1859; his classmates included J.M. Gibson, W.D. Lesueur, and W.B. McMurrich. On November 9, 1861, Mulock captained one of the teams in the first gridiron football game ever recorded. During the Trent Affair of 1862, Mulock asked the head of the college, John McCaul, to call a student meeting that led to the formation of the University Company of volunteers, later K Company of the Queen's Own Rifles. At the time of the Fenian Raids in 1866, Mulock received training at the Royal Military School and served in the regiment for three weeks, but he never saw action. Starting at the same time that Mulock arrived, Egerton Ryerson led a sustained attack on the University over money and the proper purpose of a university education. Ryerson did not think that modern languages or history, practical courses, nor even law or medicine belonged in a university, and a Royal Commission was struck which recommended that the endowment of the University be distributed among all Ontario colleges. The defence of the university culminated in a large meeting at the St. Lawrence Hall on March 5, 1863, where Mulock moved the concluding motion. These efforts allowed the University to "escape extinction", according to Sir Daniel Wilson. After graduating in 1863 with the Gold Medal for Modern Languages, Mulock became a law student, first articled to Alfred Boultbee in Newmarket, and then in Toronto, eventually in the firm of Senator John Ross. To support himself, Mulock became a house-master at Upper Canada College. Mulock was called to the bar in 1868. University Senator (1873–1944) After graduating, Mulock, Edward Blake, Thomas Moss, and James Loudon led the struggle to broaden the University of Toronto Senate to include elected members. As a result, Ontario Minister of Education Adam Crooks passed legislation in 1873 that added 15 new senators elected by the alumni. Mulock was elected and remained a member for 71 years. Mulock moved and passed the first requirement that University finances be reported to the senate and made public. Largely due to the efforts of Mulock and Loudon, in 1876 a School of Science was established and in 1878 an independent School of Practical Science (which joined the university in 1889 as the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering). In 1873, the Law Society of Upper Canada established a law school, and Mulock soon became Lecturer and Examiner in Equity. After the school closed in 1878, the Osgoode Literary and Legal Society attempted to provide replacement instruction, with Mulock lecturing on partnership. When Mulock became Vice-Chancellor, one of his goals was to establish the best law faculty on the continent. Vice-Chancellor (1881–1900) Mulock was elected Vice-Chancellor in 1881. The University of Toronto then consisted of two small buildings, and the rest of higher education in Ontario was distributed among a variety of denominational colleges and small independent professional schools. Mulock believed that a single federated university would be more efficient, less expensive, and provide better educational opportunities to students, especially in sciences and the professions. He negotiated around resistance from many quarters, leading to the Federation Act in 1887 and affiliation (and later federation) with St. Michael's College in 1881, Wycliffe College and Knox College in 1885, the Ontario College of Agriculture and the Royal College of Dental Surgeons in 1888, Victoria College, the Ontario Medical College for Women and the Toronto College of Music in 1890, the College of Pharmacy in 1891, the Toronto Conservatory of Music in 1896, and the Ontario Veterinary College in 1897. In opposition to followers of John Rolph who believed medical education should be paid for by students since they would soon have a good income treating patients, Mulock thought it better to reduce disease by spending public money to train doctors. The Federation Act established new faculties of medicine and law. Mulock efforts were not popular with everyone, but he survived several attempts to remove him from office, resigning in 1900 because of his increased political responsibilities. As part of his internecine battles, Mulock secretly aided William Lyon Mackenzie King and other student leaders of the February 1895 student strike. In June 1893, Mulock provided the articling position needed by pioneering student-at-law Clara Brett Martin. Martin was so badly treated by her fellow male students that she eventually switched to another firm, but in 1897 she became the first female lawyer in the British Empire. In 1897, Mulock hired surgeon Herbert Bruce into the Faculty of Medicine without consultation. Mulock later helped finance Bruce's new Wellesley Hospital and was the first chair of its board of directors. The University awarded Mulock an Honorary Doctorate of Laws in 1894. While Vice-Chancellor, Mulock accepted no salary, and the money accumulated was donated to the university. In 1906, the elected office of Vice-Chancellor was abolished; the unelected President of the University took over as Chair of the Senate. Mulock later spoke out against this "reactionary step", especially since the act also "put the elected members of the senate in a hopeless minority" and reduced the senate's responsibilities to academic matters only. Chancellor (1924–1944) After Sir William Meredith's death in 1923, Mulock was nominated for the primarily ceremonial role of Chancellor. Mulock was supported by most elected representatives, but opposed by most professors. The senate elected Sir Edmund Walker, but Walker died shortly thereafter. Mulock was subsequently elected unanimously as Chancellor on April 28, 1924 and served until his death. Mulock's proudest achievements were his contributions to the University of Toronto. His memorials at the university include the Mulock Cup, Canada's oldest continuously awarded sporting trophy, the William Mulock Prize in Mathematics and Physics, the William Mulock Prize in Classics, and Mulock House in Whitney Hall residence. Politics and law Mulock entered politics in 1881, unsuccessfully seeking the Liberal nomination in the then strongly Conservative federal riding of York North. The winning nominee, Dr. John Widderfield, later withdrew and was replaced by Mulock, who then unexpectedly defeated the Conservative incumbent in the 1882 election. Mulock remained in Opposition through two subsequent elections until 1896 when the Liberals under Wilfrid Laurier took power. In order to provide "clean government", Mulock raised sufficient funds that year to provide Laurier with financial independence. Postmaster General (1896–1905) Laurier appointed Mulock as Postmaster General. He inherited an inefficient bureaucracy that was losing almost a million dollars a year, but he believed that improved service and lower prices would increase revenue and better connect Canada and the British Empire. He campaigned for lower rates throughout the Empire, and when met by resistance decided to go it alone, announcing that at the end of 1897 Canada would unilaterally lower the letter rate to Britain from five to three cents. In response, a conference of all British Empire postal authorities was called for the summer of 1898. Over the objections of the Australian colonies and New Zealand, Mulock succeeded in implementing an Imperial Penny Post. Mulock also took advantage of this meeting to negotiate the final financial agreement for the transpacific cable first proposed by Sir Sandford Fleming to link Canada to Australia and New Zealand. The cable was completed on October 31, 1902, finishing the All Red Line. By 1903, the Post Office was generating a surplus of almost a million dollars a year. To mark the start of the Imperial Penny Post, Mulock personally designed and issued a new stamp with a map of the world showing the extent of the British Empire. Partly by accident, this became the world's first Christmas stamp. On April 1, 1898, Mulock introduced an amendment to the Post Office Act that made Canada the first country in the world to give franking privileges, i.e. free postage, for Braille materials and books for the blind. He also initiated a program to provide Post Office employment for the deaf. After the first successful transatlantic radio communication in 1901 to his station at Signal Hill, Newfoundland, Guglielmo Marconi learned that the Anglo-American Cable Company had a monopoly on transatlantic telegraphy from Newfoundland, so he planned to move to a new location in the United States. When Mulock learned this, he immediately negotiated an agreement with Marconi for him to set up his North American radio station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, where the first transatlantic message from North America was sent on December 17, 1902. Mulock was Canada's representative at the opening of Australia's first Parliament in 1901, and was one of Canadian representatives at the coronation of King Edward VII. Mulock was knighted in 1902 for his services, in particular for the Penny Post, Transpacific Cable, and wireless telegraphy between Canada and Great Britain. In order to protect the public against quackery Mulock amended the Post Office Act in 1904 to curtail advertising of "marvellous, extravagant or grossly improbable cures". Mulock was also active in the negotiations that led to the formation of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905. In 1905, Mulock chaired the select parliamentary inquiry into telephone systems, especially the unregulated Bell Telephone monopoly. The committee shed much light on the operations and finances of Bell, but Mulock was replaced when it became apparent that he was likely to recommend the telephone service be a government owned utility. The committee's work nevertheless led in 1906 to the first federal regulation of telephone and telegram service by the Board of Railway Commissioners, the ancestor of the current Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. Despite being a wealthy businessman and fervent anticommunist, Mulock believed that government operation of public franchises provided better service at lower cost, with greater protection of personal privacy and public interest. Mulock was probably the best administrator in the Laurier Cabinet, but he did not always consider the political consequences of his actions. Without consulting Laurier, he fired the influential journalist Arthur Dansereau as Montreal's Postmaster. Mulock had ample cause, but Laurier immediately ordered Dansereau reinstated, straining Laurier's relationship with Mulock. Mulock once let politics try to overrule physics. He proposed the Newmarket Canal to the centre of his riding to help local industry, despite engineering reports that that natural water flow would leave the canal dry for much of the year. "Mulock's Madness" was cancelled when Robert Borden became Prime Minister in 1911, but its partially completed remains are still prominent. Minister of Labour (1900–1905) While Postmaster-General, Mulock learned from Mackenzie King that Post Office uniforms were being produced in sweatshops. He immediately revised Post Office contracting policy so that all uniforms would be produced under Government approved conditions. In 1900, Mulock introduced "The Fair Wages Resolution" governing all Canadian government contracting, and an act that created the Department of Labour and the Labour Gazette (one of the ancestors of Statistics Canada). Mulock became Canada's first Minister of Labour in addition to his Post Office responsibilities. In response to an urgent telegram from Mulock, Mackenzie King turned down a better paid academic position at Harvard to become Editor of the Labour Gazette and subsequently the first Deputy Minister of Labour. King eventually became Canada's longest serving Prime Minister, and remained friends with Mulock for the rest of his life. In 1903 Mulock introduced compulsory arbitration to Canada through the Railway Disputes Act. Mulock retired from politics in 1905 due to rheumatism and neuritis exacerbated by overwork, but the movement of his political views to the left may also have contributed to his decision. Chief Justice Mulock was appointed Chief Justice of the Exchequer (1905–1923) and subsequently Chief Justice of Ontario (1923–1936). He served until age 93, probably a record for a Canadian court; lawyers referred to Mulock and his elderly colleagues as "murderers' row". As Chief Justice of Ontario, Mulock participated in many widely publicized cases, such as quashing the rape conviction from Louis-Mathias Auger's first trial in 1929. On February 28, 1930, a Ku Klux Klan mob invaded the home of a mixed race couple in Oakville, Ontario. Several men were eventually convicted, but given only a small fine. On appeal, Mulock described the fine as a "travesty of justice", and replaced it with a three-month prison term. Mulock reported himself as an ardent abolitionist in his youth, and as a politician he actively campaigned in black communities, but in his ruling Mulock denounced only mob law, not the underlying racial issues. This ruling marked the start of a significant decline in Klan activity in Canada. In 1931, Tim Buck and seven other members of the Communist Party of Canada were convicted of seditious conspiracy and membership in an unlawful organization. The strongly anticommunist Mulock presided over the appeal of the convictions in 1932, and despite dismissing the conspiracy charge, upheld the other convictions and his lengthy written decision established the Communist Party as an unlawful organization, effectively banning it. By modern standards, Mulock's judgements were not always free of apparent bias or conflicts of interest. In the long and very public case of Campbell v Hogg, he was close to all participants, and Elizabeth Campbell was so unhappy with his court's judgement that to overturn it she became the first woman to argue a case before the Privy Council. Business and community Farming In 1880, Mulock purchased a large property on what is now the northwest corner of Mulock Drive and Yonge Street in Newmarket. On almost 400 acres Mulock established a manorial estate and model farm, known for its flowers, black walnut grove, apple orchard, and prize shorthorn cattle and Shetland ponies. In political life, Mulock was often referred to as "Farmer Bill". The farm was used to try out new methods and crops, and provided agricultural and leadership training for many students from the Ontario College of Agriculture. In 1926, Mulock purchased a second farm in Markdale, Ontario for trout fishing and reforestation. Banking and commerce Mulock's (and later his son's) firm represented many commercial interests, including Consumers Gas (Enbridge), the American Bank Note Company, and Sun Life. He was President of the Victoria Rolling Stock Company and the Farmers' Loan and Savings Co., and had real estate interests. In 1911, Mulock, Sir Henry Pellatt, and Charles Millar took control of O'Keefe Brewing, a brand now owned by Molson Coors Brewing Company. Mulock was one of the founders of The Dominion Bank, which opened for business in 1871 and in 1955 merged with the Bank of Toronto to form the Toronto-Dominion Bank, currently Canada's second largest bank. He was also one of the founders (1882) and Directors of Toronto General Trusts, Canada's first trust company and an ancestor of TD Canada Trust. In 1899, as chief Liberal Party organizer in Ontario, Mulock wanted a Liberal paper to counterbalance the Conservative Toronto Telegram. He led a group that purchased the ailing Toronto Star and offered Joseph Atkinson the position as editor. Atkinson accepted on the condition that he have editorial independence and that part of his pay would be in shares. Mulock unhappily agreed, and Mulock and Atkinson clashed for the rest of their lives. It gave Atkinson great pleasure at the 1913 annual shareholders' meeting to interrupt Mulock in mid-tirade to announce that he was now the majority shareholder and would do what he chose. Community and philanthropy Throughout his life, Mulock's strong interest in "plain people (and) public practical problems" involved him in leadership in innumerable community organizations. These included the CNIB, the Federation for Community Service (an ancestor of the United Way), St. John Ambulance, the Working Boys Home, and the Soldiers Rehabilitation Fund. Cardinal McQuigan credited Mulock with helping Catholics fully participate in the civic life of Ontario. In 1925, Mulock was the leading organizer of the Banting Research Foundation, Canada's first medical research foundation. Despite playing a key role in forcing Laurier to commit Canadian forces in the Boer War, after his retirement from politics, Mulock spoke out against militarism. Mulock became the first president of Canada's first national, secular peace organization, the Canadian Peace and Arbitration Society, founded in 1905 by Charles Ambrose Zavitz. When Britain entered World War I, Mulock immediately started organizing the Toronto and York County Patriotic Fund (later part of the Canadian Patriotic Fund) to assist soldier's families. Mulock was President of the Toronto and York Fund for its entire existence (and chair of the Canadian executive); the Toronto fund raised $8,939,143, with only about 2% spent on expenses. At age 99 during World War II, he served as Chair of the Canadian Committee of the International YMCA, responsible for supervising enemy prisoners in Canada. He considered information from Canadian prison camp officials to be hearsay that could not replace direct inspection. Personal life and character William Mulock married in May 1870 Sarah Ellen Crowther, daughter of James Crowther. She was born and educated in Toronto. The couple lived at 518 Jarvis Street in Toronto. The couple had six children (William, Edith, Sarah, Ethel, James, Cawthra). Mulock's grandson William Pate Mulock was also an MP for York North. Mulock's use of profanity was said to be the most picturesque in parliament, and he was known for his consumption of Cuban cigars and rye whisky. Just before Prohibition came into force in Ontario in 1916, he had special concrete compartments built in his house into which he stored a lifetime supply of whisky. Mulock was described as "The man who did", his work ethic recognized even by those who sometimes disagreed with what he did. Sir Daniel Wilson referred to him as "the mule". At a luncheon in his honour shortly after his 87th birthday, Mulock described his attitude on growing old: Mulock is buried in Newmarket Cemetery. Named is his honour in Ontario are: Sir William Mulock Secondary School and Mulock Drive (York Regional Road 74) in the town of Newmarket; Mulock Drive in his birthplace, the town of Bond Head; the dispersed rural communities of Mulock in Grey County and Mulock in Nipissing District, and geographic Mulock Township in Nipissing District; Mulock Island in the North Channel, Lake Huron, in Algoma District; Mulock Creek, a tributary of the Barron River (Ontario), in Nipissing District; and Little Mulock Lake in Nipissing District. Notes References External links Mulock Family Tree Ontario Plaques – Sir William Mulock Some editorial cartoons featuring Mulock from the Conservative Toronto Telegram at the McCord Museum: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Sir William Mulock archival papers held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services Cawthra family Lieutenant Governors of Ontario Justices of the Court of Appeal for Ontario Ministers of Labour of Canada Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada Canadian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Canadian Anglicans Lawyers in Ontario Chancellors of the University of Toronto Canadian Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Canadian knights University of Toronto alumni People from Simcoe County Pre-Confederation Ontario people Canadian centenarians Men centenarians 1843 births 1944 deaths Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council	[ 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207074	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta%20distribution	Beta distribution	In probability theory and statistics, the beta distribution is a family of continuous probability distributions defined on the interval [0, 1] parameterized by two positive shape parameters, denoted by α and β, that appear as exponents of the random variable and control the shape of the distribution. The generalization to multiple variables is called a Dirichlet distribution. The beta distribution has been applied to model the behavior of random variables limited to intervals of finite length in a wide variety of disciplines. In Bayesian inference, the beta distribution is the conjugate prior probability distribution for the Bernoulli, binomial, negative binomial and geometric distributions. The beta distribution is a suitable model for the random behavior of percentages and proportions. The formulation of the beta distribution discussed here is also known as the beta distribution of the first kind, whereas beta distribution of the second kind is an alternative name for the beta prime distribution. Definitions Probability density function The probability density function (pdf) of the beta distribution, for , and shape parameters α, β > 0, is a power function of the variable x and of its reflection as follows: where Γ(z) is the gamma function. The beta function, , is a normalization constant to ensure that the total probability is 1. In the above equations x is a realization—an observed value that actually occurred—of a random process X. This definition includes both ends and , which is consistent with definitions for other continuous distributions supported on a bounded interval which are special cases of the beta distribution, for example the arcsine distribution, and consistent with several authors, like N. L. Johnson and S. Kotz. However, the inclusion of and does not work for ; accordingly, several other authors, including W. Feller, choose to exclude the ends and , (so that the two ends are not actually part of the domain of the density function) and consider instead . Several authors, including N. L. Johnson and S. Kotz, use the symbols p and q (instead of α and β) for the shape parameters of the beta distribution, reminiscent of the symbols traditionally used for the parameters of the Bernoulli distribution, because the beta distribution approaches the Bernoulli distribution in the limit when both shape parameters α and β approach the value of zero. In the following, a random variable X beta-distributed with parameters α and β will be denoted by: Other notations for beta-distributed random variables used in the statistical literature are and . Cumulative distribution function The cumulative distribution function is where is the incomplete beta function and is the regularized incomplete beta function. Alternative parameterizations Two parameters Mean and sample size The beta distribution may also be reparameterized in terms of its mean μ and the sum of the two shape parameters ( p. 83). Denoting by αPosterior and βPosterior the shape parameters of the posterior beta distribution resulting from applying Bayes theorem to a binomial likelihood function and a prior probability, the interpretation of the addition of both shape parameters to be sample size = ν = α·Posterior + β·Posterior is only correct for the Haldane prior probability Beta(0,0). Specifically, for the Bayes (uniform) prior Beta(1,1) the correct interpretation would be sample size = α·Posterior + β Posterior − 2, or ν = (sample size) + 2. For sample size much larger than 2, the difference between these two priors becomes negligible. (See section Bayesian inference for further details.) In the rest of this article ν = α + β will be referred to as "sample size", but one should remember that it is, strictly speaking, the "sample size" of a binomial likelihood function only when using a Haldane Beta(0,0) prior in Bayes theorem. This parametrization may be useful in Bayesian parameter estimation. For example, one may administer a test to a number of individuals. If it is assumed that each person's score (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) is drawn from a population-level Beta distribution, then an important statistic is the mean of this population-level distribution. The mean and sample size parameters are related to the shape parameters α and β via α = μν, β = (1 − μ)ν Under this parametrization, one may place an uninformative prior probability over the mean, and a vague prior probability (such as an exponential or gamma distribution) over the positive reals for the sample size, if they are independent, and prior data and/or beliefs justify it. Mode and concentration The mode and "concentration" can also be used to calculate the parameters for a beta distribution. Mean (allele frequency) and (Wright's) genetic distance between two populations The Balding–Nichols model is a two-parameter parametrization of the beta distribution used in population genetics. It is a statistical description of the allele frequencies in the components of a sub-divided population: where and ; here F is (Wright's) genetic distance between two populations. See the articles Balding–Nichols model, F-statistics, fixation index and coefficient of relationship, for further information. Mean and variance Solving the system of (coupled) equations given in the above sections as the equations for the mean and the variance of the beta distribution in terms of the original parameters α and β, one can express the α and β parameters in terms of the mean (μ) and the variance (var): This parametrization of the beta distribution may lead to a more intuitive understanding than the one based on the original parameters α and β. For example, by expressing the mode, skewness, excess kurtosis and differential entropy in terms of the mean and the variance: Four parameters A beta distribution with the two shape parameters α and β is supported on the range [0,1] or (0,1). It is possible to alter the location and scale of the distribution by introducing two further parameters representing the minimum, a, and maximum c (c > a), values of the distribution, by a linear transformation substituting the non-dimensional variable x in terms of the new variable y (with support [a,c] or (a,c)) and the parameters a and c: The probability density function of the four parameter beta distribution is equal to the two parameter distribution, scaled by the range (c-a), (so that the total area under the density curve equals a probability of one), and with the "y" variable shifted and scaled as follows: That a random variable Y is Beta-distributed with four parameters α, β, a, and c will be denoted by: The measures of central location are scaled (by (c-a)) and shifted (by a), as follows: (the geometric mean and harmonic mean cannot be transformed by a linear transformation in the way that the mean, median and mode can.) The shape parameters of Y can be written in term of its mean and variance as The statistical dispersion measures are scaled (they do not need to be shifted because they are already centered on the mean) by the range (c-a), linearly for the mean deviation and nonlinearly for the variance: Since the skewness and excess kurtosis are non-dimensional quantities (as moments centered on the mean and normalized by the standard deviation), they are independent of the parameters a and c, and therefore equal to the expressions given above in terms of X (with support [0,1] or (0,1)): Properties Measures of central tendency Mode The mode of a Beta distributed random variable X with α, β > 1 is the most likely value of the distribution (corresponding to the peak in the PDF), and is given by the following expression: When both parameters are less than one (α, β < 1), this is the anti-mode: the lowest point of the probability density curve. Letting α = β, the expression for the mode simplifies to 1/2, showing that for α = β > 1 the mode (resp. anti-mode when ), is at the center of the distribution: it is symmetric in those cases. See Shapes section in this article for a full list of mode cases, for arbitrary values of α and β. For several of these cases, the maximum value of the density function occurs at one or both ends. In some cases the (maximum) value of the density function occurring at the end is finite. For example, in the case of α = 2, β = 1 (or α = 1, β = 2), the density function becomes a right-triangle distribution which is finite at both ends. In several other cases there is a singularity at one end, where the value of the density function approaches infinity. For example, in the case α = β = 1/2, the Beta distribution simplifies to become the arcsine distribution. There is debate among mathematicians about some of these cases and whether the ends (x = 0, and x = 1) can be called modes or not. Whether the ends are part of the domain of the density function Whether a singularity can ever be called a mode Whether cases with two maxima should be called bimodal Median The median of the beta distribution is the unique real number for which the regularized incomplete beta function . There is no general closed-form expression for the median of the beta distribution for arbitrary values of α and β. Closed-form expressions for particular values of the parameters α and β follow: For symmetric cases α = β, median = 1/2. For α = 1 and β > 0, median (this case is the mirror-image of the power function [0,1] distribution) For α > 0 and β = 1, median = (this case is the power function [0,1] distribution) For α = 3 and β = 2, median = 0.6142724318676105..., the real solution to the quartic equation 1 − 8x3 + 6x4 = 0, which lies in [0,1]. For α = 2 and β = 3, median = 0.38572756813238945... = 1−median(Beta(3, 2)) The following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: A reasonable approximation of the value of the median of the beta distribution, for both α and β greater or equal to one, is given by the formula When α, β ≥ 1, the relative error (the absolute error divided by the median) in this approximation is less than 4% and for both α ≥ 2 and β ≥ 2 it is less than 1%. The absolute error divided by the difference between the mean and the mode is similarly small: Mean The expected value (mean) (μ) of a Beta distribution random variable X with two parameters α and β is a function of only the ratio β/α of these parameters: Letting in the above expression one obtains , showing that for the mean is at the center of the distribution: it is symmetric. Also, the following limits can be obtained from the above expression: Therefore, for β/α → 0, or for α/β → ∞, the mean is located at the right end, . For these limit ratios, the beta distribution becomes a one-point degenerate distribution with a Dirac delta function spike at the right end, , with probability 1, and zero probability everywhere else. There is 100% probability (absolute certainty) concentrated at the right end, . Similarly, for β/α → ∞, or for α/β → 0, the mean is located at the left end, . The beta distribution becomes a 1-point Degenerate distribution with a Dirac delta function spike at the left end, x = 0, with probability 1, and zero probability everywhere else. There is 100% probability (absolute certainty) concentrated at the left end, x = 0. Following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: While for typical unimodal distributions (with centrally located modes, inflexion points at both sides of the mode, and longer tails) (with Beta(α, β) such that ) it is known that the sample mean (as an estimate of location) is not as robust as the sample median, the opposite is the case for uniform or "U-shaped" bimodal distributions (with Beta(α, β) such that ), with the modes located at the ends of the distribution. As Mosteller and Tukey remark ( p. 207) "the average of the two extreme observations uses all the sample information. This illustrates how, for short-tailed distributions, the extreme observations should get more weight." By contrast, it follows that the median of "U-shaped" bimodal distributions with modes at the edge of the distribution (with Beta(α, β) such that ) is not robust, as the sample median drops the extreme sample observations from consideration. A practical application of this occurs for example for random walks, since the probability for the time of the last visit to the origin in a random walk is distributed as the arcsine distribution Beta(1/2, 1/2): the mean of a number of realizations of a random walk is a much more robust estimator than the median (which is an inappropriate sample measure estimate in this case). Geometric mean The logarithm of the geometric mean GX of a distribution with random variable X is the arithmetic mean of ln(X), or, equivalently, its expected value: For a beta distribution, the expected value integral gives: where ψ is the digamma function. Therefore, the geometric mean of a beta distribution with shape parameters α and β is the exponential of the digamma functions of α and β as follows: While for a beta distribution with equal shape parameters α = β, it follows that skewness = 0 and mode = mean = median = 1/2, the geometric mean is less than 1/2: . The reason for this is that the logarithmic transformation strongly weights the values of X close to zero, as ln(X) strongly tends towards negative infinity as X approaches zero, while ln(X) flattens towards zero as . Along a line , the following limits apply: Following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: The accompanying plot shows the difference between the mean and the geometric mean for shape parameters α and β from zero to 2. Besides the fact that the difference between them approaches zero as α and β approach infinity and that the difference becomes large for values of α and β approaching zero, one can observe an evident asymmetry of the geometric mean with respect to the shape parameters α and β. The difference between the geometric mean and the mean is larger for small values of α in relation to β than when exchanging the magnitudes of β and α. N. L.Johnson and S. Kotz suggest the logarithmic approximation to the digamma function ψ(α) ≈ ln(α − 1/2) which results in the following approximation to the geometric mean: Numerical values for the relative error in this approximation follow: []; []; []; []; []; []; []; []. Similarly, one can calculate the value of shape parameters required for the geometric mean to equal 1/2. Given the value of the parameter β, what would be the value of the other parameter, α, required for the geometric mean to equal 1/2?. The answer is that (for ), the value of α required tends towards as . For example, all these couples have the same geometric mean of 1/2: [], [], [], [], [], [], []. The fundamental property of the geometric mean, which can be proven to be false for any other mean, is This makes the geometric mean the only correct mean when averaging normalized results, that is results that are presented as ratios to reference values. This is relevant because the beta distribution is a suitable model for the random behavior of percentages and it is particularly suitable to the statistical modelling of proportions. The geometric mean plays a central role in maximum likelihood estimation, see section "Parameter estimation, maximum likelihood." Actually, when performing maximum likelihood estimation, besides the geometric mean GX based on the random variable X, also another geometric mean appears naturally: the geometric mean based on the linear transformation ––, the mirror-image of X, denoted by G(1−X): Along a line , the following limits apply: Following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: It has the following approximate value: Although both GX and G(1−X) are asymmetric, in the case that both shape parameters are equal , the geometric means are equal: GX = G(1−X). This equality follows from the following symmetry displayed between both geometric means: Harmonic mean The inverse of the harmonic mean (HX) of a distribution with random variable X is the arithmetic mean of 1/X, or, equivalently, its expected value. Therefore, the harmonic mean (HX) of a beta distribution with shape parameters α and β is: The harmonic mean (HX) of a Beta distribution with α < 1 is undefined, because its defining expression is not bounded in [0, 1] for shape parameter α less than unity. Letting α = β in the above expression one obtains showing that for α = β the harmonic mean ranges from 0, for α = β = 1, to 1/2, for α = β → ∞. Following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: The harmonic mean plays a role in maximum likelihood estimation for the four parameter case, in addition to the geometric mean. Actually, when performing maximum likelihood estimation for the four parameter case, besides the harmonic mean HX based on the random variable X, also another harmonic mean appears naturally: the harmonic mean based on the linear transformation (1 − X), the mirror-image of X, denoted by H1 − X: The harmonic mean (H(1 − X)) of a Beta distribution with β < 1 is undefined, because its defining expression is not bounded in [0, 1] for shape parameter β less than unity. Letting α = β in the above expression one obtains showing that for α = β the harmonic mean ranges from 0, for α = β = 1, to 1/2, for α = β → ∞. Following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: Although both HX and H1−X are asymmetric, in the case that both shape parameters are equal α = β, the harmonic means are equal: HX = H1−X. This equality follows from the following symmetry displayed between both harmonic means: Measures of statistical dispersion Variance The variance (the second moment centered on the mean) of a Beta distribution random variable X with parameters α and β is: Letting α = β in the above expression one obtains showing that for α = β the variance decreases monotonically as increases. Setting in this expression, one finds the maximum variance var(X) = 1/4 which only occurs approaching the limit, at . The beta distribution may also be parametrized in terms of its mean μ and sample size () (see subsection Mean and sample size): Using this parametrization, one can express the variance in terms of the mean μ and the sample size ν as follows: Since , it follows that . For a symmetric distribution, the mean is at the middle of the distribution, , and therefore: Also, the following limits (with only the noted variable approaching the limit) can be obtained from the above expressions: Geometric variance and covariance The logarithm of the geometric variance, ln(varGX), of a distribution with random variable X is the second moment of the logarithm of X centered on the geometric mean of X, ln(GX): and therefore, the geometric variance is: In the Fisher information matrix, and the curvature of the log likelihood function, the logarithm of the geometric variance of the reflected variable 1 − X and the logarithm of the geometric covariance between X and 1 − X appear: For a beta distribution, higher order logarithmic moments can be derived by using the representation of a beta distribution as a proportion of two Gamma distributions and differentiating through the integral. They can be expressed in terms of higher order poly-gamma functions. See the section . The variance of the logarithmic variables and covariance of ln X and ln(1−X) are: where the trigamma function, denoted ψ1(α), is the second of the polygamma functions, and is defined as the derivative of the digamma function: Therefore, The accompanying plots show the log geometric variances and log geometric covariance versus the shape parameters α and β. The plots show that the log geometric variances and log geometric covariance are close to zero for shape parameters α and β greater than 2, and that the log geometric variances rapidly rise in value for shape parameter values α and β less than unity. The log geometric variances are positive for all values of the shape parameters. The log geometric covariance is negative for all values of the shape parameters, and it reaches large negative values for α and β less than unity. Following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other approaching these limits: Limits with two parameters varying: Although both ln(varGX) and ln(varG(1 − X)) are asymmetric, when the shape parameters are equal, α = β, one has: ln(varGX) = ln(varG(1−X)). This equality follows from the following symmetry displayed between both log geometric variances: The log geometric covariance is symmetric: Mean absolute deviation around the mean The mean absolute deviation around the mean for the beta distribution with shape parameters α and β is: The mean absolute deviation around the mean is a more robust estimator of statistical dispersion than the standard deviation for beta distributions with tails and inflection points at each side of the mode, Beta(α, β) distributions with α,β > 2, as it depends on the linear (absolute) deviations rather than the square deviations from the mean. Therefore, the effect of very large deviations from the mean are not as overly weighted. Using Stirling's approximation to the Gamma function, N.L.Johnson and S.Kotz derived the following approximation for values of the shape parameters greater than unity (the relative error for this approximation is only −3.5% for α = β = 1, and it decreases to zero as α → ∞, β → ∞): At the limit α → ∞, β → ∞, the ratio of the mean absolute deviation to the standard deviation (for the beta distribution) becomes equal to the ratio of the same measures for the normal distribution: . For α = β = 1 this ratio equals , so that from α = β = 1 to α, β → ∞ the ratio decreases by 8.5%. For α = β = 0 the standard deviation is exactly equal to the mean absolute deviation around the mean. Therefore, this ratio decreases by 15% from α = β = 0 to α = β = 1, and by 25% from α = β = 0 to α, β → ∞ . However, for skewed beta distributions such that α → 0 or β → 0, the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean absolute deviation approaches infinity (although each of them, individually, approaches zero) because the mean absolute deviation approaches zero faster than the standard deviation. Using the parametrization in terms of mean μ and sample size ν = α + β > 0: α = μν, β = (1−μ)ν one can express the mean absolute deviation around the mean in terms of the mean μ and the sample size ν as follows: For a symmetric distribution, the mean is at the middle of the distribution, μ = 1/2, and therefore: Also, the following limits (with only the noted variable approaching the limit) can be obtained from the above expressions: Mean absolute difference The mean absolute difference for the Beta distribution is: The Gini coefficient for the Beta distribution is half of the relative mean absolute difference: Skewness The skewness (the third moment centered on the mean, normalized by the 3/2 power of the variance) of the beta distribution is Letting α = β in the above expression one obtains γ1 = 0, showing once again that for α = β the distribution is symmetric and hence the skewness is zero. Positive skew (right-tailed) for α < β, negative skew (left-tailed) for α > β. Using the parametrization in terms of mean μ and sample size ν = α + β: one can express the skewness in terms of the mean μ and the sample size ν as follows: The skewness can also be expressed just in terms of the variance var and the mean μ as follows: The accompanying plot of skewness as a function of variance and mean shows that maximum variance (1/4) is coupled with zero skewness and the symmetry condition (μ = 1/2), and that maximum skewness (positive or negative infinity) occurs when the mean is located at one end or the other, so that the "mass" of the probability distribution is concentrated at the ends (minimum variance). The following expression for the square of the skewness, in terms of the sample size ν = α + β and the variance var, is useful for the method of moments estimation of four parameters: This expression correctly gives a skewness of zero for α = β, since in that case (see ): . For the symmetric case (α = β), skewness = 0 over the whole range, and the following limits apply: For the asymmetric cases (α ≠ β) the following limits (with only the noted variable approaching the limit) can be obtained from the above expressions: Kurtosis The beta distribution has been applied in acoustic analysis to assess damage to gears, as the kurtosis of the beta distribution has been reported to be a good indicator of the condition of a gear. Kurtosis has also been used to distinguish the seismic signal generated by a person's footsteps from other signals. As persons or other targets moving on the ground generate continuous signals in the form of seismic waves, one can separate different targets based on the seismic waves they generate. Kurtosis is sensitive to impulsive signals, so it's much more sensitive to the signal generated by human footsteps than other signals generated by vehicles, winds, noise, etc. Unfortunately, the notation for kurtosis has not been standardized. Kenney and Keeping use the symbol γ2 for the excess kurtosis, but Abramowitz and Stegun use different terminology. To prevent confusion between kurtosis (the fourth moment centered on the mean, normalized by the square of the variance) and excess kurtosis, when using symbols, they will be spelled out as follows: Letting α = β in the above expression one obtains . Therefore, for symmetric beta distributions, the excess kurtosis is negative, increasing from a minimum value of −2 at the limit as {α = β} → 0, and approaching a maximum value of zero as {α = β} → ∞. The value of −2 is the minimum value of excess kurtosis that any distribution (not just beta distributions, but any distribution of any possible kind) can ever achieve. This minimum value is reached when all the probability density is entirely concentrated at each end x = 0 and x = 1, with nothing in between: a 2-point Bernoulli distribution with equal probability 1/2 at each end (a coin toss: see section below "Kurtosis bounded by the square of the skewness" for further discussion). The description of kurtosis as a measure of the "potential outliers" (or "potential rare, extreme values") of the probability distribution, is correct for all distributions including the beta distribution. When rare, extreme values can occur in the beta distribution, the higher its kurtosis; otherwise, the kurtosis is lower. For α ≠ β, skewed beta distributions, the excess kurtosis can reach unlimited positive values (particularly for α → 0 for finite β, or for β → 0 for finite α) because the side away from the mode will produce occasional extreme values. Minimum kurtosis takes place when the mass density is concentrated equally at each end (and therefore the mean is at the center), and there is no probability mass density in between the ends. Using the parametrization in terms of mean μ and sample size ν = α + β: one can express the excess kurtosis in terms of the mean μ and the sample size ν as follows: The excess kurtosis can also be expressed in terms of just the following two parameters: the variance var, and the sample size ν as follows: and, in terms of the variance var and the mean μ as follows: The plot of excess kurtosis as a function of the variance and the mean shows that the minimum value of the excess kurtosis (−2, which is the minimum possible value for excess kurtosis for any distribution) is intimately coupled with the maximum value of variance (1/4) and the symmetry condition: the mean occurring at the midpoint (μ = 1/2). This occurs for the symmetric case of α = β = 0, with zero skewness. At the limit, this is the 2 point Bernoulli distribution with equal probability 1/2 at each Dirac delta function end x = 0 and x = 1 and zero probability everywhere else. (A coin toss: one face of the coin being x = 0 and the other face being x = 1.) Variance is maximum because the distribution is bimodal with nothing in between the two modes (spikes) at each end. Excess kurtosis is minimum: the probability density "mass" is zero at the mean and it is concentrated at the two peaks at each end. Excess kurtosis reaches the minimum possible value (for any distribution) when the probability density function has two spikes at each end: it is bi-"peaky" with nothing in between them. On the other hand, the plot shows that for extreme skewed cases, where the mean is located near one or the other end (μ = 0 or μ = 1), the variance is close to zero, and the excess kurtosis rapidly approaches infinity when the mean of the distribution approaches either end. Alternatively, the excess kurtosis can also be expressed in terms of just the following two parameters: the square of the skewness, and the sample size ν as follows: From this last expression, one can obtain the same limits published practically a century ago by Karl Pearson in his paper, for the beta distribution (see section below titled "Kurtosis bounded by the square of the skewness"). Setting α + β= ν = 0 in the above expression, one obtains Pearson's lower boundary (values for the skewness and excess kurtosis below the boundary (excess kurtosis + 2 − skewness2 = 0) cannot occur for any distribution, and hence Karl Pearson appropriately called the region below this boundary the "impossible region"). The limit of α + β = ν → ∞ determines Pearson's upper boundary. therefore: Values of ν = α + β such that ν ranges from zero to infinity, 0 < ν < ∞, span the whole region of the beta distribution in the plane of excess kurtosis versus squared skewness. For the symmetric case (α = β), the following limits apply: For the unsymmetric cases (α ≠ β) the following limits (with only the noted variable approaching the limit) can be obtained from the above expressions: Characteristic function The characteristic function is the Fourier transform of the probability density function. The characteristic function of the beta distribution is Kummer's confluent hypergeometric function (of the first kind): where is the rising factorial, also called the "Pochhammer symbol". The value of the characteristic function for t = 0, is one: . Also, the real and imaginary parts of the characteristic function enjoy the following symmetries with respect to the origin of variable t: The symmetric case α = β simplifies the characteristic function of the beta distribution to a Bessel function, since in the special case α + β = 2α the confluent hypergeometric function (of the first kind) reduces to a Bessel function (the modified Bessel function of the first kind ) using Kummer's second transformation as follows: Another example of the symmetric case α = β = n/2 for beamforming applications can be found in Figure 11 of In the accompanying plots, the real part (Re) of the characteristic function of the beta distribution is displayed for symmetric (α = β) and skewed (α ≠ β) cases. Other moments Moment generating function It also follows that the moment generating function is In particular MX(α; β; 0) = 1. Higher moments Using the moment generating function, the k-th raw moment is given by the factor multiplying the (exponential series) term in the series of the moment generating function where (x)(k) is a Pochhammer symbol representing rising factorial. It can also be written in a recursive form as Since the moment generating function has a positive radius of convergence, the beta distribution is determined by its moments. Moments of transformed random variables Moments of linearly transformed, product and inverted random variables One can also show the following expectations for a transformed random variable, where the random variable X is Beta-distributed with parameters α and β: X ~ Beta(α, β). The expected value of the variable 1 − X is the mirror-symmetry of the expected value based on X: Due to the mirror-symmetry of the probability density function of the beta distribution, the variances based on variables X and 1 − X are identical, and the covariance on X(1 − X is the negative of the variance: These are the expected values for inverted variables, (these are related to the harmonic means, see ): The following transformation by dividing the variable X by its mirror-image X/(1 − X) results in the expected value of the "inverted beta distribution" or beta prime distribution (also known as beta distribution of the second kind or Pearson's Type VI): Variances of these transformed variables can be obtained by integration, as the expected values of the second moments centered on the corresponding variables: The following variance of the variable X divided by its mirror-image (X/(1−X) results in the variance of the "inverted beta distribution" or beta prime distribution (also known as beta distribution of the second kind or Pearson's Type VI): The covariances are: These expectations and variances appear in the four-parameter Fisher information matrix (.) Moments of logarithmically transformed random variables Expected values for logarithmic transformations (useful for maximum likelihood estimates, see ) are discussed in this section. The following logarithmic linear transformations are related to the geometric means GX and G(1−X) (see ): Where the digamma function ψ(α) is defined as the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function: Logit transformations are interesting, as they usually transform various shapes (including J-shapes) into (usually skewed) bell-shaped densities over the logit variable, and they may remove the end singularities over the original variable: Johnson considered the distribution of the logit - transformed variable ln(X/1−X), including its moment generating function and approximations for large values of the shape parameters. This transformation extends the finite support [0, 1] based on the original variable X to infinite support in both directions of the real line (−∞, +∞). Higher order logarithmic moments can be derived by using the representation of a beta distribution as a proportion of two Gamma distributions and differentiating through the integral. They can be expressed in terms of higher order poly-gamma functions as follows: therefore the variance of the logarithmic variables and covariance of ln(X) and ln(1−X) are: where the trigamma function, denoted ψ1(α), is the second of the polygamma functions, and is defined as the derivative of the digamma function: . The variances and covariance of the logarithmically transformed variables X and (1−X) are different, in general, because the logarithmic transformation destroys the mirror-symmetry of the original variables X and (1−X), as the logarithm approaches negative infinity for the variable approaching zero. These logarithmic variances and covariance are the elements of the Fisher information matrix for the beta distribution. They are also a measure of the curvature of the log likelihood function (see section on Maximum likelihood estimation). The variances of the log inverse variables are identical to the variances of the log variables: It also follows that the variances of the logit transformed variables are: Quantities of information (entropy) Given a beta distributed random variable, X ~ Beta(α, β), the differential entropy of X is(measured in nats), the expected value of the negative of the logarithm of the probability density function: where f(x; α, β) is the probability density function of the beta distribution: The digamma function ψ appears in the formula for the differential entropy as a consequence of Euler's integral formula for the harmonic numbers which follows from the integral: The differential entropy of the beta distribution is negative for all values of α and β greater than zero, except at α = β = 1 (for which values the beta distribution is the same as the uniform distribution), where the differential entropy reaches its maximum value of zero. It is to be expected that the maximum entropy should take place when the beta distribution becomes equal to the uniform distribution, since uncertainty is maximal when all possible events are equiprobable. For α or β approaching zero, the differential entropy approaches its minimum value of negative infinity. For (either or both) α or β approaching zero, there is a maximum amount of order: all the probability density is concentrated at the ends, and there is zero probability density at points located between the ends. Similarly for (either or both) α or β approaching infinity, the differential entropy approaches its minimum value of negative infinity, and a maximum amount of order. If either α or β approaches infinity (and the other is finite) all the probability density is concentrated at an end, and the probability density is zero everywhere else. If both shape parameters are equal (the symmetric case), α = β, and they approach infinity simultaneously, the probability density becomes a spike (Dirac delta function) concentrated at the middle x = 1/2, and hence there is 100% probability at the middle x = 1/2 and zero probability everywhere else. The (continuous case) differential entropy was introduced by Shannon in his original paper (where he named it the "entropy of a continuous distribution"), as the concluding part of the same paper where he defined the discrete entropy. It is known since then that the differential entropy may differ from the infinitesimal limit of the discrete entropy by an infinite offset, therefore the differential entropy can be negative (as it is for the beta distribution). What really matters is the relative value of entropy. Given two beta distributed random variables, X1 ~ Beta(α, β) and X2 ~ Beta(α′, β′), the cross entropy is (measured in nats) The cross entropy has been used as an error metric to measure the distance between two hypotheses. Its absolute value is minimum when the two distributions are identical. It is the information measure most closely related to the log maximum likelihood (see section on "Parameter estimation. Maximum likelihood estimation")). The relative entropy, or Kullback–Leibler divergence DKL(X1 \|\| X2), is a measure of the inefficiency of assuming that the distribution is X2 ~ Beta(α′, β′) when the distribution is really X1 ~ Beta(α, β). It is defined as follows (measured in nats). The relative entropy, or Kullback–Leibler divergence, is always non-negative. A few numerical examples follow: X1 ~ Beta(1, 1) and X2 ~ Beta(3, 3); DKL(X1 \|\| X2) = 0.598803; DKL(X2 \|\| X1) = 0.267864; h(X1) = 0; h(X2) = −0.267864 X1 ~ Beta(3, 0.5) and X2 ~ Beta(0.5, 3); DKL(X1 \|\| X2) = 7.21574; DKL(X2 \|\| X1) = 7.21574; h(X1) = −1.10805; h(X2) = −1.10805. The Kullback–Leibler divergence is not symmetric DKL(X1 \|\| X2) ≠ DKL(X2 \|\| X1) for the case in which the individual beta distributions Beta(1, 1) and Beta(3, 3) are symmetric, but have different entropies h(X1) ≠ h(X2). The value of the Kullback divergence depends on the direction traveled: whether going from a higher (differential) entropy to a lower (differential) entropy or the other way around. In the numerical example above, the Kullback divergence measures the inefficiency of assuming that the distribution is (bell-shaped) Beta(3, 3), rather than (uniform) Beta(1, 1). The "h" entropy of Beta(1, 1) is higher than the "h" entropy of Beta(3, 3) because the uniform distribution Beta(1, 1) has a maximum amount of disorder. The Kullback divergence is more than two times higher (0.598803 instead of 0.267864) when measured in the direction of decreasing entropy: the direction that assumes that the (uniform) Beta(1, 1) distribution is (bell-shaped) Beta(3, 3) rather than the other way around. In this restricted sense, the Kullback divergence is consistent with the second law of thermodynamics. The Kullback–Leibler divergence is symmetric DKL(X1 \|\| X2) = DKL(X2 \|\| X1) for the skewed cases Beta(3, 0.5) and Beta(0.5, 3) that have equal differential entropy h(X1) = h(X2). The symmetry condition: follows from the above definitions and the mirror-symmetry f(x; α, β) = f(1−x; α, β) enjoyed by the beta distribution. Relationships between statistical measures Mean, mode and median relationship If 1 < α < β then mode ≤ median ≤ mean. Expressing the mode (only for α, β > 1), and the mean in terms of α and β: If 1 < β < α then the order of the inequalities are reversed. For α, β > 1 the absolute distance between the mean and the median is less than 5% of the distance between the maximum and minimum values of x. On the other hand, the absolute distance between the mean and the mode can reach 50% of the distance between the maximum and minimum values of x, for the (pathological) case of α = 1 and β = 1 (for which values the beta distribution approaches the uniform distribution and the differential entropy approaches its maximum value, and hence maximum "disorder"). For example, for α = 1.0001 and β = 1.00000001: mode = 0.9999; PDF(mode) = 1.00010 mean = 0.500025; PDF(mean) = 1.00003 median = 0.500035; PDF(median) = 1.00003 mean − mode = −0.499875 mean − median = −9.65538 × 10−6 (where PDF stands for the value of the probability density function) Mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean relationship It is known from the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means that the geometric mean is lower than the mean. Similarly, the harmonic mean is lower than the geometric mean. The accompanying plot shows that for α = β, both the mean and the median are exactly equal to 1/2, regardless of the value of α = β, and the mode is also equal to 1/2 for α = β > 1, however the geometric and harmonic means are lower than 1/2 and they only approach this value asymptotically as α = β → ∞. Kurtosis bounded by the square of the skewness As remarked by Feller, in the Pearson system the beta probability density appears as type I (any difference between the beta distribution and Pearson's type I distribution is only superficial and it makes no difference for the following discussion regarding the relationship between kurtosis and skewness). Karl Pearson showed, in Plate 1 of his paper published in 1916, a graph with the kurtosis as the vertical axis (ordinate) and the square of the skewness as the horizontal axis (abscissa), in which a number of distributions were displayed. The region occupied by the beta distribution is bounded by the following two lines in the (skewness2,kurtosis) plane, or the (skewness2,excess kurtosis) plane: or, equivalently, (At a time when there were no powerful digital computers), Karl Pearson accurately computed further boundaries, for example, separating the "U-shaped" from the "J-shaped" distributions. The lower boundary line (excess kurtosis + 2 − skewness2 = 0) is produced by skewed "U-shaped" beta distributions with both values of shape parameters α and β close to zero. The upper boundary line (excess kurtosis − (3/2) skewness2 = 0) is produced by extremely skewed distributions with very large values of one of the parameters and very small values of the other parameter. Karl Pearson showed that this upper boundary line (excess kurtosis − (3/2) skewness2 = 0) is also the intersection with Pearson's distribution III, which has unlimited support in one direction (towards positive infinity), and can be bell-shaped or J-shaped. His son, Egon Pearson, showed that the region (in the kurtosis/squared-skewness plane) occupied by the beta distribution (equivalently, Pearson's distribution I) as it approaches this boundary (excess kurtosis − (3/2) skewness2 = 0) is shared with the noncentral chi-squared distribution. Karl Pearson (Pearson 1895, pp. 357, 360, 373–376) also showed that the gamma distribution is a Pearson type III distribution. Hence this boundary line for Pearson's type III distribution is known as the gamma line. (This can be shown from the fact that the excess kurtosis of the gamma distribution is 6/k and the square of the skewness is 4/k, hence (excess kurtosis − (3/2) skewness2 = 0) is identically satisfied by the gamma distribution regardless of the value of the parameter "k"). Pearson later noted that the chi-squared distribution is a special case of Pearson's type III and also shares this boundary line (as it is apparent from the fact that for the chi-squared distribution the excess kurtosis is 12/k and the square of the skewness is 8/k, hence (excess kurtosis − (3/2) skewness2 = 0) is identically satisfied regardless of the value of the parameter "k"). This is to be expected, since the chi-squared distribution X ~ χ2(k) is a special case of the gamma distribution, with parametrization X ~ Γ(k/2, 1/2) where k is a positive integer that specifies the "number of degrees of freedom" of the chi-squared distribution. An example of a beta distribution near the upper boundary (excess kurtosis − (3/2) skewness2 = 0) is given by α = 0.1, β = 1000, for which the ratio (excess kurtosis)/(skewness2) = 1.49835 approaches the upper limit of 1.5 from below. An example of a beta distribution near the lower boundary (excess kurtosis + 2 − skewness2 = 0) is given by α= 0.0001, β = 0.1, for which values the expression (excess kurtosis + 2)/(skewness2) = 1.01621 approaches the lower limit of 1 from above. In the infinitesimal limit for both α and β approaching zero symmetrically, the excess kurtosis reaches its minimum value at −2. This minimum value occurs at the point at which the lower boundary line intersects the vertical axis (ordinate). (However, in Pearson's original chart, the ordinate is kurtosis, instead of excess kurtosis, and it increases downwards rather than upwards). Values for the skewness and excess kurtosis below the lower boundary (excess kurtosis + 2 − skewness2 = 0) cannot occur for any distribution, and hence Karl Pearson appropriately called the region below this boundary the "impossible region." The boundary for this "impossible region" is determined by (symmetric or skewed) bimodal "U"-shaped distributions for which parameters α and β approach zero and hence all the probability density is concentrated at the ends: x = 0, 1 with practically nothing in between them. Since for α ≈ β ≈ 0 the probability density is concentrated at the two ends x = 0 and x = 1, this "impossible boundary" is determined by a 2-point distribution: the probability can only take 2 values (Bernoulli distribution), one value with probability p and the other with probability q = 1−p. For cases approaching this limit boundary with symmetry α = β, skewness ≈ 0, excess kurtosis ≈ −2 (this is the lowest excess kurtosis possible for any distribution), and the probabilities are p ≈ q ≈ 1/2. For cases approaching this limit boundary with skewness, excess kurtosis ≈ −2 + skewness2, and the probability density is concentrated more at one end than the other end (with practically nothing in between), with probabilities at the left end x = 0 and at the right end x = 1. Symmetry All statements are conditional on α, β > 0 Probability density function reflection symmetry Cumulative distribution function reflection symmetry plus unitary translation Mode reflection symmetry plus unitary translation Median reflection symmetry plus unitary translation Mean reflection symmetry plus unitary translation Geometric Means each is individually asymmetric, the following symmetry applies between the geometric mean based on X and the geometric mean based on its reflection (1-X) Harmonic means each is individually asymmetric, the following symmetry applies between the harmonic mean based on X and the harmonic mean based on its reflection (1-X) . Variance symmetry Geometric variances each is individually asymmetric, the following symmetry applies between the log geometric variance based on X and the log geometric variance based on its reflection (1-X) Geometric covariance symmetry Mean absolute deviation around the mean symmetry Skewness skew-symmetry Excess kurtosis symmetry Characteristic function symmetry of Real part (with respect to the origin of variable "t") Characteristic function skew-symmetry of Imaginary part (with respect to the origin of variable "t") Characteristic function symmetry of Absolute value (with respect to the origin of variable "t") Differential entropy symmetry Relative Entropy (also called Kullback–Leibler divergence) symmetry Fisher information matrix symmetry Geometry of the probability density function Inflection points For certain values of the shape parameters α and β, the probability density function has inflection points, at which the curvature changes sign. The position of these inflection points can be useful as a measure of the dispersion or spread of the distribution. Defining the following quantity: Points of inflection occur, depending on the value of the shape parameters α and β, as follows: (α > 2, β > 2) The distribution is bell-shaped (symmetric for α = β and skewed otherwise), with two inflection points, equidistant from the mode: (α = 2, β > 2) The distribution is unimodal, positively skewed, right-tailed, with one inflection point, located to the right of the mode: (α > 2, β = 2) The distribution is unimodal, negatively skewed, left-tailed, with one inflection point, located to the left of the mode: (1 < α < 2, β > 2, α+β>2) The distribution is unimodal, positively skewed, right-tailed, with one inflection point, located to the right of the mode: (0 < α < 1, 1 < β < 2) The distribution has a mode at the left end x = 0 and it is positively skewed, right-tailed. There is one inflection point, located to the right of the mode: (α > 2, 1 < β < 2) The distribution is unimodal negatively skewed, left-tailed, with one inflection point, located to the left of the mode: (1 < α < 2, 0 < β < 1) The distribution has a mode at the right end x=1 and it is negatively skewed, left-tailed. There is one inflection point, located to the left of the mode: There are no inflection points in the remaining (symmetric and skewed) regions: U-shaped: (α, β < 1) upside-down-U-shaped: (1 < α < 2, 1 < β < 2), reverse-J-shaped (α < 1, β > 2) or J-shaped: (α > 2, β < 1) The accompanying plots show the inflection point locations (shown vertically, ranging from 0 to 1) versus α and β (the horizontal axes ranging from 0 to 5). There are large cuts at surfaces intersecting the lines α = 1, β = 1, α = 2, and β = 2 because at these values the beta distribution change from 2 modes, to 1 mode to no mode. Shapes The beta density function can take a wide variety of different shapes depending on the values of the two parameters α and β. The ability of the beta distribution to take this great diversity of shapes (using only two parameters) is partly responsible for finding wide application for modeling actual measurements: Symmetric (α = β) the density function is symmetric about 1/2 (blue & teal plots). median = mean = 1/2. skewness = 0. variance = 1/(4(2α + 1)) α = β < 1 U-shaped (blue plot). bimodal: left mode = 0, right mode =1, anti-mode = 1/2 1/12 < var(X) < 1/4 −2 < excess kurtosis(X) < −6/5 α = β = 1/2 is the arcsine distribution var(X) = 1/8 excess kurtosis(X) = −3/2 CF = Rinc (t) α = β → 0 is a 2-point Bernoulli distribution with equal probability 1/2 at each Dirac delta function end x = 0 and x = 1 and zero probability everywhere else. A coin toss: one face of the coin being x = 0 and the other face being x = 1. a lower value than this is impossible for any distribution to reach. The differential entropy approaches a minimum value of −∞ α = β = 1 the uniform [0, 1] distribution no mode var(X) = 1/12 excess kurtosis(X) = −6/5 The (negative anywhere else) differential entropy reaches its maximum value of zero CF = Sinc (t) α = β > 1 symmetric unimodal mode = 1/2. 0 < var(X) < 1/12 −6/5 < excess kurtosis(X) < 0 α = β = 3/2 is a semi-elliptic [0, 1] distribution, see: Wigner semicircle distribution var(X) = 1/16. excess kurtosis(X) = −1 CF = 2 Jinc (t) α = β = 2 is the parabolic [0, 1] distribution var(X) = 1/20 excess kurtosis(X) = −6/7 CF = 3 Tinc (t) α = β > 2 is bell-shaped, with inflection points located to either side of the mode 0 < var(X) < 1/20 −6/7 < excess kurtosis(X) < 0 α = β → ∞ is a 1-point Degenerate distribution with a Dirac delta function spike at the midpoint x = 1/2 with probability 1, and zero probability everywhere else. There is 100% probability (absolute certainty) concentrated at the single point x = 1/2. The differential entropy approaches a minimum value of −∞ Skewed (α ≠ β) The density function is skewed. An interchange of parameter values yields the mirror image (the reverse) of the initial curve, some more specific cases: α < 1, β < 1 U-shaped Positive skew for α < β, negative skew for α > β. bimodal: left mode = 0, right mode = 1, anti-mode = 0 < median < 1. 0 < var(X) < 1/4 α > 1, β > 1 unimodal (magenta & cyan plots), Positive skew for α < β, negative skew for α > β. 0 < median < 1 0 < var(X) < 1/12 α < 1, β ≥ 1 reverse J-shaped with a right tail, positively skewed, strictly decreasing, convex mode = 0 0 < median < 1/2. (maximum variance occurs for , or α = Φ the golden ratio conjugate) α ≥ 1, β < 1 J-shaped with a left tail, negatively skewed, strictly increasing, convex mode = 1 1/2 < median < 1 (maximum variance occurs for , or β = Φ the golden ratio conjugate) α = 1, β > 1 positively skewed, strictly decreasing (red plot), a reversed (mirror-image) power function [0,1] distribution mean = 1 / (β + 1) median = 1 - 1/21/β mode = 0 α = 1, 1 < β < 2 concave 1/18 < var(X) < 1/12. α = 1, β = 2 a straight line with slope −2, the right-triangular distribution with right angle at the left end, at x = 0 var(X) = 1/18 α = 1, β > 2 reverse J-shaped with a right tail, convex 0 < var(X) < 1/18 α > 1, β = 1 negatively skewed, strictly increasing (green plot), the power function [0, 1] distribution mean = α / (α + 1) median = 1/21/α mode = 1 2 > α > 1, β = 1 concave 1/18 < var(X) < 1/12 α = 2, β = 1 a straight line with slope +2, the right-triangular distribution with right angle at the right end, at x = 1 var(X) = 1/18 α > 2, β = 1 J-shaped with a left tail, convex 0 < var(X) < 1/18 Related distributions Transformations If X ~ Beta(α, β) then 1 − X ~ Beta(β, α) mirror-image symmetry If X ~ Beta(α, β) then . The beta prime distribution, also called "beta distribution of the second kind". If X ~ Beta(α, β) then . If X ~ Beta(n/2, m/2) then (assuming n > 0 and m > 0), the Fisher–Snedecor F distribution. If then min + X(max − min) ~ PERT(min, max, m, λ) where PERT denotes a PERT distribution used in PERT analysis, and m=most likely value. Traditionally λ = 4 in PERT analysis. If X ~ Beta(1, β) then X ~ Kumaraswamy distribution with parameters (1, β) If X ~ Beta(α, 1) then X ~ Kumaraswamy distribution with parameters (α, 1) If X ~ Beta(α, 1) then −ln(X) ~ Exponential(α) Special and limiting cases Beta(1, 1) ~ U(0, 1). Beta(n, 1) ~ Maximum of n independent rvs. with U(0, 1), sometimes called a a standard power function distribution with density n xn-1 on that interval. Beta(1, n) ~ Minimum of n independent rvs. with U(0, 1) If X ~ Beta(3/2, 3/2) and r > 0 then 2rX − r ~ Wigner semicircle distribution. Beta(1/2, 1/2) is equivalent to the arcsine distribution. This distribution is also Jeffreys prior probability for the Bernoulli and binomial distributions. The arcsine probability density is a distribution that appears in several random-walk fundamental theorems. In a fair coin toss random walk, the probability for the time of the last visit to the origin is distributed as an (U-shaped) arcsine distribution. In a two-player fair-coin-toss game, a player is said to be in the lead if the random walk (that started at the origin) is above the origin. The most probable number of times that a given player will be in the lead, in a game of length 2N, is not N. On the contrary, N is the least likely number of times that the player will be in the lead. The most likely number of times in the lead is 0 or 2N (following the arcsine distribution). the exponential distribution. the gamma distribution. For large , the normal distribution. Derived from other distributions The kth order statistic of a sample of size n from the uniform distribution is a beta random variable, U(k) ~ Beta(k, n+1−k). If X ~ Gamma(α, θ) and Y ~ Gamma(β, θ) are independent, then . If and are independent, then . If X ~ U(0, 1) and α > 0 then X1/α ~ Beta(α, 1). The power function distribution. If , then for discrete values of n and k where and . If X ~ Cauchy(0, 1) then Combination with other distributions X ~ Beta(α, β) and Y ~ F(2β,2α) then for all x > 0. Compounding with other distributions If p ~ Beta(α, β) and X ~ Bin(k, p) then X ~ beta-binomial distribution If p ~ Beta(α, β) and X ~ NB(r, p) then X ~ beta negative binomial distribution Generalisations The generalization to multiple variables, i.e. a multivariate Beta distribution, is called a Dirichlet distribution. Univariate marginals of the Dirichlet distribution have a beta distribution. The beta distribution is conjugate to the binomial and Bernoulli distributions in exactly the same way as the Dirichlet distribution is conjugate to the multinomial distribution and categorical distribution. The Pearson type I distribution is identical to the beta distribution (except for arbitrary shifting and re-scaling that can also be accomplished with the four parameter parametrization of the beta distribution). the noncentral beta distribution The generalized beta distribution is a five-parameter distribution family which has the beta distribution as a special case. The matrix variate beta distribution is a distribution for positive-definite matrices. Statistical inference Parameter estimation Method of moments Two unknown parameters Two unknown parameters ( of a beta distribution supported in the [0,1] interval) can be estimated, using the method of moments, with the first two moments (sample mean and sample variance) as follows. Let: be the sample mean estimate and be the sample variance estimate. The method-of-moments estimates of the parameters are if if When the distribution is required over a known interval other than [0, 1] with random variable X, say [a, c] with random variable Y, then replace with and with in the above couple of equations for the shape parameters (see the "Alternative parametrizations, four parameters" section below)., where: Four unknown parameters All four parameters ( of a beta distribution supported in the [a, c] interval -see section "Alternative parametrizations, Four parameters"-) can be estimated, using the method of moments developed by Karl Pearson, by equating sample and population values of the first four central moments (mean, variance, skewness and excess kurtosis). The excess kurtosis was expressed in terms of the square of the skewness, and the sample size ν = α + β, (see previous section "Kurtosis") as follows: One can use this equation to solve for the sample size ν= α + β in terms of the square of the skewness and the excess kurtosis as follows: This is the ratio (multiplied by a factor of 3) between the previously derived limit boundaries for the beta distribution in a space (as originally done by Karl Pearson) defined with coordinates of the square of the skewness in one axis and the excess kurtosis in the other axis (see ): The case of zero skewness, can be immediately solved because for zero skewness, α = β and hence ν = 2α = 2β, therefore α = β = ν/2 (Excess kurtosis is negative for the beta distribution with zero skewness, ranging from -2 to 0, so that -and therefore the sample shape parameters- is positive, ranging from zero when the shape parameters approach zero and the excess kurtosis approaches -2, to infinity when the shape parameters approach infinity and the excess kurtosis approaches zero). For non-zero sample skewness one needs to solve a system of two coupled equations. Since the skewness and the excess kurtosis are independent of the parameters , the parameters can be uniquely determined from the sample skewness and the sample excess kurtosis, by solving the coupled equations with two known variables (sample skewness and sample excess kurtosis) and two unknowns (the shape parameters): resulting in the following solution: Where one should take the solutions as follows: for (negative) sample skewness < 0, and for (positive) sample skewness > 0. The accompanying plot shows these two solutions as surfaces in a space with horizontal axes of (sample excess kurtosis) and (sample squared skewness) and the shape parameters as the vertical axis. The surfaces are constrained by the condition that the sample excess kurtosis must be bounded by the sample squared skewness as stipulated in the above equation. The two surfaces meet at the right edge defined by zero skewness. Along this right edge, both parameters are equal and the distribution is symmetric U-shaped for α = β < 1, uniform for α = β = 1, upside-down-U-shaped for 1 < α = β < 2 and bell-shaped for α = β > 2. The surfaces also meet at the front (lower) edge defined by "the impossible boundary" line (excess kurtosis + 2 - skewness2 = 0). Along this front (lower) boundary both shape parameters approach zero, and the probability density is concentrated more at one end than the other end (with practically nothing in between), with probabilities at the left end x = 0 and at the right end x = 1. The two surfaces become further apart towards the rear edge. At this rear edge the surface parameters are quite different from each other. As remarked, for example, by Bowman and Shenton, sampling in the neighborhood of the line (sample excess kurtosis - (3/2)(sample skewness)2 = 0) (the just-J-shaped portion of the rear edge where blue meets beige), "is dangerously near to chaos", because at that line the denominator of the expression above for the estimate ν = α + β becomes zero and hence ν approaches infinity as that line is approached. Bowman and Shenton write that "the higher moment parameters (kurtosis and skewness) are extremely fragile (near that line). However, the mean and standard deviation are fairly reliable." Therefore, the problem is for the case of four parameter estimation for very skewed distributions such that the excess kurtosis approaches (3/2) times the square of the skewness. This boundary line is produced by extremely skewed distributions with very large values of one of the parameters and very small values of the other parameter. See for a numerical example and further comments about this rear edge boundary line (sample excess kurtosis - (3/2)(sample skewness)2 = 0). As remarked by Karl Pearson himself this issue may not be of much practical importance as this trouble arises only for very skewed J-shaped (or mirror-image J-shaped) distributions with very different values of shape parameters that are unlikely to occur much in practice). The usual skewed-bell-shape distributions that occur in practice do not have this parameter estimation problem. The remaining two parameters can be determined using the sample mean and the sample variance using a variety of equations. One alternative is to calculate the support interval range based on the sample variance and the sample kurtosis. For this purpose one can solve, in terms of the range , the equation expressing the excess kurtosis in terms of the sample variance, and the sample size ν (see and ): to obtain: Another alternative is to calculate the support interval range based on the sample variance and the sample skewness. For this purpose one can solve, in terms of the range , the equation expressing the squared skewness in terms of the sample variance, and the sample size ν (see section titled "Skewness" and "Alternative parametrizations, four parameters"): to obtain: The remaining parameter can be determined from the sample mean and the previously obtained parameters: : and finally, . In the above formulas one may take, for example, as estimates of the sample moments: The estimators G1 for sample skewness and G2 for sample kurtosis are used by DAP/SAS, PSPP/SPSS, and Excel. However, they are not used by BMDP and (according to ) they were not used by MINITAB in 1998. Actually, Joanes and Gill in their 1998 study concluded that the skewness and kurtosis estimators used in BMDP and in MINITAB (at that time) had smaller variance and mean-squared error in normal samples, but the skewness and kurtosis estimators used in DAP/SAS, PSPP/SPSS, namely G1 and G2, had smaller mean-squared error in samples from a very skewed distribution. It is for this reason that we have spelled out "sample skewness", etc., in the above formulas, to make it explicit that the user should choose the best estimator according to the problem at hand, as the best estimator for skewness and kurtosis depends on the amount of skewness (as shown by Joanes and Gill). Maximum likelihood Two unknown parameters As is also the case for maximum likelihood estimates for the gamma distribution, the maximum likelihood estimates for the beta distribution do not have a general closed form solution for arbitrary values of the shape parameters. If X1, ..., XN are independent random variables each having a beta distribution, the joint log likelihood function for N iid observations is: Finding the maximum with respect to a shape parameter involves taking the partial derivative with respect to the shape parameter and setting the expression equal to zero yielding the maximum likelihood estimator of the shape parameters: where: since the digamma function denoted ψ(α) is defined as the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function: To ensure that the values with zero tangent slope are indeed a maximum (instead of a saddle-point or a minimum) one has to also satisfy the condition that the curvature is negative. This amounts to satisfying that the second partial derivative with respect to the shape parameters is negative using the previous equations, this is equivalent to: where the trigamma function, denoted ψ1(α), is the second of the polygamma functions, and is defined as the derivative of the digamma function: These conditions are equivalent to stating that the variances of the logarithmically transformed variables are positive, since: Therefore, the condition of negative curvature at a maximum is equivalent to the statements: Alternatively, the condition of negative curvature at a maximum is also equivalent to stating that the following logarithmic derivatives of the geometric means GX and G(1−X) are positive, since: While these slopes are indeed positive, the other slopes are negative: The slopes of the mean and the median with respect to α and β display similar sign behavior. From the condition that at a maximum, the partial derivative with respect to the shape parameter equals zero, we obtain the following system of coupled maximum likelihood estimate equations (for the average log-likelihoods) that needs to be inverted to obtain the (unknown) shape parameter estimates in terms of the (known) average of logarithms of the samples X1, ..., XN: where we recognize as the logarithm of the sample geometric mean and as the logarithm of the sample geometric mean based on (1 − X), the mirror-image of X. For , it follows that . These coupled equations containing digamma functions of the shape parameter estimates must be solved by numerical methods as done, for example, by Beckman et al. Gnanadesikan et al. give numerical solutions for a few cases. N.L.Johnson and S.Kotz suggest that for "not too small" shape parameter estimates , the logarithmic approximation to the digamma function may be used to obtain initial values for an iterative solution, since the equations resulting from this approximation can be solved exactly: which leads to the following solution for the initial values (of the estimate shape parameters in terms of the sample geometric means) for an iterative solution: Alternatively, the estimates provided by the method of moments can instead be used as initial values for an iterative solution of the maximum likelihood coupled equations in terms of the digamma functions. When the distribution is required over a known interval other than [0, 1] with random variable X, say [a, c] with random variable Y, then replace ln(Xi) in the first equation with and replace ln(1−Xi) in the second equation with (see "Alternative parametrizations, four parameters" section below). If one of the shape parameters is known, the problem is considerably simplified. The following logit transformation can be used to solve for the unknown shape parameter (for skewed cases such that , otherwise, if symmetric, both -equal- parameters are known when one is known): This logit transformation is the logarithm of the transformation that divides the variable X by its mirror-image (X/(1 - X) resulting in the "inverted beta distribution" or beta prime distribution (also known as beta distribution of the second kind or Pearson's Type VI) with support [0, +∞). As previously discussed in the section "Moments of logarithmically transformed random variables," the logit transformation , studied by Johnson, extends the finite support [0, 1] based on the original variable X to infinite support in both directions of the real line (−∞, +∞). If, for example, is known, the unknown parameter can be obtained in terms of the inverse digamma function of the right hand side of this equation: In particular, if one of the shape parameters has a value of unity, for example for (the power function distribution with bounded support [0,1]), using the identity ψ(x + 1) = ψ(x) + 1/x in the equation , the maximum likelihood estimator for the unknown parameter is, exactly: The beta has support [0, 1], therefore , and hence , and therefore In conclusion, the maximum likelihood estimates of the shape parameters of a beta distribution are (in general) a complicated function of the sample geometric mean, and of the sample geometric mean based on (1−X), the mirror-image of X. One may ask, if the variance (in addition to the mean) is necessary to estimate two shape parameters with the method of moments, why is the (logarithmic or geometric) variance not necessary to estimate two shape parameters with the maximum likelihood method, for which only the geometric means suffice? The answer is because the mean does not provide as much information as the geometric mean. For a beta distribution with equal shape parameters α = β, the mean is exactly 1/2, regardless of the value of the shape parameters, and therefore regardless of the value of the statistical dispersion (the variance). On the other hand, the geometric mean of a beta distribution with equal shape parameters α = β, depends on the value of the shape parameters, and therefore it contains more information. Also, the geometric mean of a beta distribution does not satisfy the symmetry conditions satisfied by the mean, therefore, by employing both the geometric mean based on X and geometric mean based on (1 − X), the maximum likelihood method is able to provide best estimates for both parameters α = β, without need of employing the variance. One can express the joint log likelihood per N iid observations in terms of the sufficient statistics (the sample geometric means) as follows: We can plot the joint log likelihood per N observations for fixed values of the sample geometric means to see the behavior of the likelihood function as a function of the shape parameters α and β. In such a plot, the shape parameter estimators correspond to the maxima of the likelihood function. See the accompanying graph that shows that all the likelihood functions intersect at α = β = 1, which corresponds to the values of the shape parameters that give the maximum entropy (the maximum entropy occurs for shape parameters equal to unity: the uniform distribution). It is evident from the plot that the likelihood function gives sharp peaks for values of the shape parameter estimators close to zero, but that for values of the shape parameters estimators greater than one, the likelihood function becomes quite flat, with less defined peaks. Obviously, the maximum likelihood parameter estimation method for the beta distribution becomes less acceptable for larger values of the shape parameter estimators, as the uncertainty in the peak definition increases with the value of the shape parameter estimators. One can arrive at the same conclusion by noticing that the expression for the curvature of the likelihood function is in terms of the geometric variances These variances (and therefore the curvatures) are much larger for small values of the shape parameter α and β. However, for shape parameter values α, β > 1, the variances (and therefore the curvatures) flatten out. Equivalently, this result follows from the Cramér–Rao bound, since the Fisher information matrix components for the beta distribution are these logarithmic variances. The Cramér–Rao bound states that the variance of any unbiased estimator of α is bounded by the reciprocal of the Fisher information: so the variance of the estimators increases with increasing α and β, as the logarithmic variances decrease. Also one can express the joint log likelihood per N iid observations in terms of the digamma function expressions for the logarithms of the sample geometric means as follows: this expression is identical to the negative of the cross-entropy (see section on "Quantities of information (entropy)"). Therefore, finding the maximum of the joint log likelihood of the shape parameters, per N iid observations, is identical to finding the minimum of the cross-entropy for the beta distribution, as a function of the shape parameters. with the cross-entropy defined as follows: Four unknown parameters The procedure is similar to the one followed in the two unknown parameter case. If Y1, ..., YN are independent random variables each having a beta distribution with four parameters, the joint log likelihood function for N iid observations is: Finding the maximum with respect to a shape parameter involves taking the partial derivative with respect to the shape parameter and setting the expression equal to zero yielding the maximum likelihood estimator of the shape parameters: these equations can be re-arranged as the following system of four coupled equations (the first two equations are geometric means and the second two equations are the harmonic means) in terms of the maximum likelihood estimates for the four parameters : with sample geometric means: The parameters are embedded inside the geometric mean expressions in a nonlinear way (to the power 1/N). This precludes, in general, a closed form solution, even for an initial value approximation for iteration purposes. One alternative is to use as initial values for iteration the values obtained from the method of moments solution for the four parameter case. Furthermore, the expressions for the harmonic means are well-defined only for , which precludes a maximum likelihood solution for shape parameters less than unity in the four-parameter case. Fisher's information matrix for the four parameter case is positive-definite only for α, β > 2 (for further discussion, see section on Fisher information matrix, four parameter case), for bell-shaped (symmetric or unsymmetric) beta distributions, with inflection points located to either side of the mode. The following Fisher information components (that represent the expectations of the curvature of the log likelihood function) have singularities at the following values: (for further discussion see section on Fisher information matrix). Thus, it is not possible to strictly carry on the maximum likelihood estimation for some well known distributions belonging to the four-parameter beta distribution family, like the uniform distribution (Beta(1, 1, a, c)), and the arcsine distribution (Beta(1/2, 1/2, a, c)). N.L.Johnson and S.Kotz ignore the equations for the harmonic means and instead suggest "If a and c are unknown, and maximum likelihood estimators of a, c, α and β are required, the above procedure (for the two unknown parameter case, with X transformed as X = (Y − a)/(c − a)) can be repeated using a succession of trial values of a and c, until the pair (a, c) for which maximum likelihood (given a and c) is as great as possible, is attained" (where, for the purpose of clarity, their notation for the parameters has been translated into the present notation). Fisher information matrix Let a random variable X have a probability density f(x;α). The partial derivative with respect to the (unknown, and to be estimated) parameter α of the log likelihood function is called the score. The second moment of the score is called the Fisher information: The expectation of the score is zero, therefore the Fisher information is also the second moment centered on the mean of the score: the variance of the score. If the log likelihood function is twice differentiable with respect to the parameter α, and under certain regularity conditions, then the Fisher information may also be written as follows (which is often a more convenient form for calculation purposes): Thus, the Fisher information is the negative of the expectation of the second derivative with respect to the parameter α of the log likelihood function. Therefore, Fisher information is a measure of the curvature of the log likelihood function of α. A low curvature (and therefore high radius of curvature), flatter log likelihood function curve has low Fisher information; while a log likelihood function curve with large curvature (and therefore low radius of curvature) has high Fisher information. When the Fisher information matrix is computed at the evaluates of the parameters ("the observed Fisher information matrix") it is equivalent to the replacement of the true log likelihood surface by a Taylor's series approximation, taken as far as the quadratic terms. The word information, in the context of Fisher information, refers to information about the parameters. Information such as: estimation, sufficiency and properties of variances of estimators. The Cramér–Rao bound states that the inverse of the Fisher information is a lower bound on the variance of any estimator of a parameter α: The precision to which one can estimate the estimator of a parameter α is limited by the Fisher Information of the log likelihood function. The Fisher information is a measure of the minimum error involved in estimating a parameter of a distribution and it can be viewed as a measure of the resolving power of an experiment needed to discriminate between two alternative hypothesis of a parameter. When there are N parameters then the Fisher information takes the form of an N×N positive semidefinite symmetric matrix, the Fisher Information Matrix, with typical element: Under certain regularity conditions, the Fisher Information Matrix may also be written in the following form, which is often more convenient for computation: With X1, ..., XN iid random variables, an N-dimensional "box" can be constructed with sides X1, ..., XN. Costa and Cover show that the (Shannon) differential entropy h(X) is related to the volume of the typical set (having the sample entropy close to the true entropy), while the Fisher information is related to the surface of this typical set. Two parameters For X1, ..., XN independent random variables each having a beta distribution parametrized with shape parameters α and β, the joint log likelihood function for N iid observations is: therefore the joint log likelihood function per N iid observations is: For the two parameter case, the Fisher information has 4 components: 2 diagonal and 2 off-diagonal. Since the Fisher information matrix is symmetric, one of these off diagonal components is independent. Therefore, the Fisher information matrix has 3 independent components (2 diagonal and 1 off diagonal). Aryal and Nadarajah calculated Fisher's information matrix for the four-parameter case, from which the two parameter case can be obtained as follows: Since the Fisher information matrix is symmetric The Fisher information components are equal to the log geometric variances and log geometric covariance. Therefore, they can be expressed as trigamma functions, denoted ψ1(α), the second of the polygamma functions, defined as the derivative of the digamma function: These derivatives are also derived in the and plots of the log likelihood function are also shown in that section. contains plots and further discussion of the Fisher information matrix components: the log geometric variances and log geometric covariance as a function of the shape parameters α and β. contains formulas for moments of logarithmically transformed random variables. Images for the Fisher information components and are shown in . The determinant of Fisher's information matrix is of interest (for example for the calculation of Jeffreys prior probability). From the expressions for the individual components of the Fisher information matrix, it follows that the determinant of Fisher's (symmetric) information matrix for the beta distribution is: From Sylvester's criterion (checking whether the diagonal elements are all positive), it follows that the Fisher information matrix for the two parameter case is positive-definite (under the standard condition that the shape parameters are positive α > 0 and β > 0). Four parameters If Y1, ..., YN are independent random variables each having a beta distribution with four parameters: the exponents α and β, and also a (the minimum of the distribution range), and c (the maximum of the distribution range) (section titled "Alternative parametrizations", "Four parameters"), with probability density function: the joint log likelihood function per N iid observations is: For the four parameter case, the Fisher information has 4*4=16 components. It has 12 off-diagonal components = (4×4 total − 4 diagonal). Since the Fisher information matrix is symmetric, half of these components (12/2=6) are independent. Therefore, the Fisher information matrix has 6 independent off-diagonal + 4 diagonal = 10 independent components. Aryal and Nadarajah calculated Fisher's information matrix for the four parameter case as follows: In the above expressions, the use of X instead of Y in the expressions var[ln(X)] = ln(varGX) is not an error. The expressions in terms of the log geometric variances and log geometric covariance occur as functions of the two parameter X ~ Beta(α, β) parametrization because when taking the partial derivatives with respect to the exponents (α, β) in the four parameter case, one obtains the identical expressions as for the two parameter case: these terms of the four parameter Fisher information matrix are independent of the minimum a and maximum c of the distribution's range. The only non-zero term upon double differentiation of the log likelihood function with respect to the exponents α and β is the second derivative of the log of the beta function: ln(B(α, β)). This term is independent of the minimum a and maximum c of the distribution's range. Double differentiation of this term results in trigamma functions. The sections titled "Maximum likelihood", "Two unknown parameters" and "Four unknown parameters" also show this fact. The Fisher information for N i.i.d. samples is N times the individual Fisher information (eq. 11.279, page 394 of Cover and Thomas). (Aryal and Nadarajah take a single observation, N = 1, to calculate the following components of the Fisher information, which leads to the same result as considering the derivatives of the log likelihood per N observations. Moreover, below the erroneous expression for in Aryal and Nadarajah has been corrected.) The lower two diagonal entries of the Fisher information matrix, with respect to the parameter "a" (the minimum of the distribution's range): , and with respect to the parameter "c" (the maximum of the distribution's range): are only defined for exponents α > 2 and β > 2 respectively. The Fisher information matrix component for the minimum "a" approaches infinity for exponent α approaching 2 from above, and the Fisher information matrix component for the maximum "c" approaches infinity for exponent β approaching 2 from above. The Fisher information matrix for the four parameter case does not depend on the individual values of the minimum "a" and the maximum "c", but only on the total range (c−a). Moreover, the components of the Fisher information matrix that depend on the range (c−a), depend only through its inverse (or the square of the inverse), such that the Fisher information decreases for increasing range (c−a). The accompanying images show the Fisher information components and . Images for the Fisher information components and are shown in . All these Fisher information components look like a basin, with the "walls" of the basin being located at low values of the parameters. The following four-parameter-beta-distribution Fisher information components can be expressed in terms of the two-parameter: X ~ Beta(α, β) expectations of the transformed ratio ((1-X)/X) and of its mirror image (X/(1-X)), scaled by the range (c−a), which may be helpful for interpretation: These are also the expected values of the "inverted beta distribution" or beta prime distribution (also known as beta distribution of the second kind or Pearson's Type VI) and its mirror image, scaled by the range (c − a). Also, the following Fisher information components can be expressed in terms of the harmonic (1/X) variances or of variances based on the ratio transformed variables ((1-X)/X) as follows: See section "Moments of linearly transformed, product and inverted random variables" for these expectations. The determinant of Fisher's information matrix is of interest (for example for the calculation of Jeffreys prior probability). From the expressions for the individual components, it follows that the determinant of Fisher's (symmetric) information matrix for the beta distribution with four parameters is: Using Sylvester's criterion (checking whether the diagonal elements are all positive), and since diagonal components and have singularities at α=2 and β=2 it follows that the Fisher information matrix for the four parameter case is positive-definite for α>2 and β>2. Since for α > 2 and β > 2 the beta distribution is (symmetric or unsymmetric) bell shaped, it follows that the Fisher information matrix is positive-definite only for bell-shaped (symmetric or unsymmetric) beta distributions, with inflection points located to either side of the mode. Thus, important well known distributions belonging to the four-parameter beta distribution family, like the parabolic distribution (Beta(2,2,a,c)) and the uniform distribution (Beta(1,1,a,c)) have Fisher information components () that blow up (approach infinity) in the four-parameter case (although their Fisher information components are all defined for the two parameter case). The four-parameter Wigner semicircle distribution (Beta(3/2,3/2,a,c)) and arcsine distribution (Beta(1/2,1/2,a,c)) have negative Fisher information determinants for the four-parameter case. Bayesian inference The use of Beta distributions in Bayesian inference is due to the fact that they provide a family of conjugate prior probability distributions for binomial (including Bernoulli) and geometric distributions. The domain of the beta distribution can be viewed as a probability, and in fact the beta distribution is often used to describe the distribution of a probability value p: Examples of beta distributions used as prior probabilities to represent ignorance of prior parameter values in Bayesian inference are Beta(1,1), Beta(0,0) and Beta(1/2,1/2). Rule of succession A classic application of the beta distribution is the rule of succession, introduced in the 18th century by Pierre-Simon Laplace in the course of treating the sunrise problem. It states that, given s successes in n conditionally independent Bernoulli trials with probability p, that the estimate of the expected value in the next trial is . This estimate is the expected value of the posterior distribution over p, namely Beta(s+1, n−s+1), which is given by Bayes' rule if one assumes a uniform prior probability over p (i.e., Beta(1, 1)) and then observes that p generated s successes in n trials. Laplace's rule of succession has been criticized by prominent scientists. R. T. Cox described Laplace's application of the rule of succession to the sunrise problem ( p. 89) as "a travesty of the proper use of the principle." Keynes remarks ( Ch.XXX, p. 382) "indeed this is so foolish a theorem that to entertain it is discreditable." Karl Pearson showed that the probability that the next (n + 1) trials will be successes, after n successes in n trials, is only 50%, which has been considered too low by scientists like Jeffreys and unacceptable as a representation of the scientific process of experimentation to test a proposed scientific law. As pointed out by Jeffreys ( p. 128) (crediting C. D. Broad ) Laplace's rule of succession establishes a high probability of success ((n+1)/(n+2)) in the next trial, but only a moderate probability (50%) that a further sample (n+1) comparable in size will be equally successful. As pointed out by Perks, "The rule of succession itself is hard to accept. It assigns a probability to the next trial which implies the assumption that the actual run observed is an average run and that we are always at the end of an average run. It would, one would think, be more reasonable to assume that we were in the middle of an average run. Clearly a higher value for both probabilities is necessary if they are to accord with reasonable belief." These problems with Laplace's rule of succession motivated Haldane, Perks, Jeffreys and others to search for other forms of prior probability (see the next ). According to Jaynes, the main problem with the rule of succession is that it is not valid when s=0 or s=n (see rule of succession, for an analysis of its validity). Bayes-Laplace prior probability (Beta(1,1)) The beta distribution achieves maximum differential entropy for Beta(1,1): the uniform probability density, for which all values in the domain of the distribution have equal density. This uniform distribution Beta(1,1) was suggested ("with a great deal of doubt") by Thomas Bayes as the prior probability distribution to express ignorance about the correct prior distribution. This prior distribution was adopted (apparently, from his writings, with little sign of doubt) by Pierre-Simon Laplace, and hence it was also known as the "Bayes-Laplace rule" or the "Laplace rule" of "inverse probability" in publications of the first half of the 20th century. In the later part of the 19th century and early part of the 20th century, scientists realized that the assumption of uniform "equal" probability density depended on the actual functions (for example whether a linear or a logarithmic scale was most appropriate) and parametrizations used. In particular, the behavior near the ends of distributions with finite support (for example near x = 0, for a distribution with initial support at x = 0) required particular attention. Keynes ( Ch.XXX, p. 381) criticized the use of Bayes's uniform prior probability (Beta(1,1)) that all values between zero and one are equiprobable, as follows: "Thus experience, if it shows anything, shows that there is a very marked clustering of statistical ratios in the neighborhoods of zero and unity, of those for positive theories and for correlations between positive qualities in the neighborhood of zero, and of those for negative theories and for correlations between negative qualities in the neighborhood of unity. " Haldane's prior probability (Beta(0,0)) The Beta(0,0) distribution was proposed by J.B.S. Haldane, who suggested that the prior probability representing complete uncertainty should be proportional to p−1(1−p)−1. The function p−1(1−p)−1 can be viewed as the limit of the numerator of the beta distribution as both shape parameters approach zero: α, β → 0. The Beta function (in the denominator of the beta distribution) approaches infinity, for both parameters approaching zero, α, β → 0. Therefore, p−1(1−p)−1 divided by the Beta function approaches a 2-point Bernoulli distribution with equal probability 1/2 at each end, at 0 and 1, and nothing in between, as α, β → 0. A coin-toss: one face of the coin being at 0 and the other face being at 1. The Haldane prior probability distribution Beta(0,0) is an "improper prior" because its integration (from 0 to 1) fails to strictly converge to 1 due to the singularities at each end. However, this is not an issue for computing posterior probabilities unless the sample size is very small. Furthermore, Zellner points out that on the log-odds scale, (the logit transformation ln(p/1−p)), the Haldane prior is the uniformly flat prior. The fact that a uniform prior probability on the logit transformed variable ln(p/1−p) (with domain (-∞, ∞)) is equivalent to the Haldane prior on the domain [0, 1] was pointed out by Harold Jeffreys in the first edition (1939) of his book Theory of Probability ( p. 123). Jeffreys writes "Certainly if we take the Bayes-Laplace rule right up to the extremes we are led to results that do not correspond to anybody's way of thinking. The (Haldane) rule dx/(x(1−x)) goes too far the other way. It would lead to the conclusion that if a sample is of one type with respect to some property there is a probability 1 that the whole population is of that type." The fact that "uniform" depends on the parametrization, led Jeffreys to seek a form of prior that would be invariant under different parametrizations. Jeffreys' prior probability (Beta(1/2,1/2) for a Bernoulli or for a binomial distribution) Harold Jeffreys proposed to use an uninformative prior probability measure that should be invariant under reparameterization: proportional to the square root of the determinant of Fisher's information matrix. For the Bernoulli distribution, this can be shown as follows: for a coin that is "heads" with probability p ∈ [0, 1] and is "tails" with probability 1 − p, for a given (H,T) ∈ {(0,1), (1,0)} the probability is pH(1 − p)T. Since T = 1 − H, the Bernoulli distribution is pH(1 − p)1 − H. Considering p as the only parameter, it follows that the log likelihood for the Bernoulli distribution is The Fisher information matrix has only one component (it is a scalar, because there is only one parameter: p), therefore: Similarly, for the Binomial distribution with n Bernoulli trials, it can be shown that Thus, for the Bernoulli, and Binomial distributions, Jeffreys prior is proportional to , which happens to be proportional to a beta distribution with domain variable x = p, and shape parameters α = β = 1/2, the arcsine distribution: It will be shown in the next section that the normalizing constant for Jeffreys prior is immaterial to the final result because the normalizing constant cancels out in Bayes theorem for the posterior probability. Hence Beta(1/2,1/2) is used as the Jeffreys prior for both Bernoulli and binomial distributions. As shown in the next section, when using this expression as a prior probability times the likelihood in Bayes theorem, the posterior probability turns out to be a beta distribution. It is important to realize, however, that Jeffreys prior is proportional to for the Bernoulli and binomial distribution, but not for the beta distribution. Jeffreys prior for the beta distribution is given by the determinant of Fisher's information for the beta distribution, which, as shown in the is a function of the trigamma function ψ1 of shape parameters α and β as follows: As previously discussed, Jeffreys prior for the Bernoulli and binomial distributions is proportional to the arcsine distribution Beta(1/2,1/2), a one-dimensional curve that looks like a basin as a function of the parameter p of the Bernoulli and binomial distributions. The walls of the basin are formed by p approaching the singularities at the ends p → 0 and p → 1, where Beta(1/2,1/2) approaches infinity. Jeffreys prior for the beta distribution is a 2-dimensional surface (embedded in a three-dimensional space) that looks like a basin with only two of its walls meeting at the corner α = β = 0 (and missing the other two walls) as a function of the shape parameters α and β of the beta distribution. The two adjoining walls of this 2-dimensional surface are formed by the shape parameters α and β approaching the singularities (of the trigamma function) at α, β → 0. It has no walls for α, β → ∞ because in this case the determinant of Fisher's information matrix for the beta distribution approaches zero. It will be shown in the next section that Jeffreys prior probability results in posterior probabilities (when multiplied by the binomial likelihood function) that are intermediate between the posterior probability results of the Haldane and Bayes prior probabilities. Jeffreys prior may be difficult to obtain analytically, and for some cases it just doesn't exist (even for simple distribution functions like the asymmetric triangular distribution). Berger, Bernardo and Sun, in a 2009 paper defined a reference prior probability distribution that (unlike Jeffreys prior) exists for the asymmetric triangular distribution. They cannot obtain a closed-form expression for their reference prior, but numerical calculations show it to be nearly perfectly fitted by the (proper) prior where θ is the vertex variable for the asymmetric triangular distribution with support [0, 1] (corresponding to the following parameter values in Wikipedia's article on the triangular distribution: vertex c = θ, left end a = 0,and right end b = 1). Berger et al. also give a heuristic argument that Beta(1/2,1/2) could indeed be the exact Berger–Bernardo–Sun reference prior for the asymmetric triangular distribution. Therefore, Beta(1/2,1/2) not only is Jeffreys prior for the Bernoulli and binomial distributions, but also seems to be the Berger–Bernardo–Sun reference prior for the asymmetric triangular distribution (for which the Jeffreys prior does not exist), a distribution used in project management and PERT analysis to describe the cost and duration of project tasks. Clarke and Barron prove that, among continuous positive priors, Jeffreys prior (when it exists) asymptotically maximizes Shannon's mutual information between a sample of size n and the parameter, and therefore Jeffreys prior is the most uninformative prior (measuring information as Shannon information). The proof rests on an examination of the Kullback–Leibler divergence between probability density functions for iid random variables. Effect of different prior probability choices on the posterior beta distribution If samples are drawn from the population of a random variable X that result in s successes and f failures in "n" Bernoulli trials n = s + f, then the likelihood function for parameters s and f given x = p (the notation x = p in the expressions below will emphasize that the domain x stands for the value of the parameter p in the binomial distribution), is the following binomial distribution: If beliefs about prior probability information are reasonably well approximated by a beta distribution with parameters α Prior and β Prior, then: According to Bayes' theorem for a continuous event space, the posterior probability is given by the product of the prior probability and the likelihood function (given the evidence s and f = n − s), normalized so that the area under the curve equals one, as follows: The binomial coefficient appears both in the numerator and the denominator of the posterior probability, and it does not depend on the integration variable x, hence it cancels out, and it is irrelevant to the final result. Similarly the normalizing factor for the prior probability, the beta function B(αPrior,βPrior) cancels out and it is immaterial to the final result. The same posterior probability result can be obtained if one uses an un-normalized prior because the normalizing factors all cancel out. Several authors (including Jeffreys himself) thus use an un-normalized prior formula since the normalization constant cancels out. The numerator of the posterior probability ends up being just the (un-normalized) product of the prior probability and the likelihood function, and the denominator is its integral from zero to one. The beta function in the denominator, B(s + α Prior, n − s + β Prior), appears as a normalization constant to ensure that the total posterior probability integrates to unity. The ratio s/n of the number of successes to the total number of trials is a sufficient statistic in the binomial case, which is relevant for the following results. For the Bayes' prior probability (Beta(1,1)), the posterior probability is: For the Jeffreys' prior probability (Beta(1/2,1/2)), the posterior probability is: and for the Haldane prior probability (Beta(0,0)), the posterior probability is: From the above expressions it follows that for s/n = 1/2) all the above three prior probabilities result in the identical location for the posterior probability mean = mode = 1/2. For s/n < 1/2, the mean of the posterior probabilities, using the following priors, are such that: mean for Bayes prior > mean for Jeffreys prior > mean for Haldane prior. For s/n > 1/2 the order of these inequalities is reversed such that the Haldane prior probability results in the largest posterior mean. The Haldane prior probability Beta(0,0) results in a posterior probability density with mean (the expected value for the probability of success in the "next" trial) identical to the ratio s/n of the number of successes to the total number of trials. Therefore, the Haldane prior results in a posterior probability with expected value in the next trial equal to the maximum likelihood. The Bayes prior probability Beta(1,1) results in a posterior probability density with mode identical to the ratio s/n (the maximum likelihood). In the case that 100% of the trials have been successful s = n, the Bayes prior probability Beta(1,1) results in a posterior expected value equal to the rule of succession (n + 1)/(n + 2), while the Haldane prior Beta(0,0) results in a posterior expected value of 1 (absolute certainty of success in the next trial). Jeffreys prior probability results in a posterior expected value equal to (n + 1/2)/(n + 1). Perks (p. 303) points out: "This provides a new rule of succession and expresses a 'reasonable' position to take up, namely, that after an unbroken run of n successes we assume a probability for the next trial equivalent to the assumption that we are about half-way through an average run, i.e. that we expect a failure once in (2n + 2) trials. The Bayes–Laplace rule implies that we are about at the end of an average run or that we expect a failure once in (n + 2) trials. The comparison clearly favours the new result (what is now called Jeffreys prior) from the point of view of 'reasonableness'." Conversely, in the case that 100% of the trials have resulted in failure (s = 0), the Bayes prior probability Beta(1,1) results in a posterior expected value for success in the next trial equal to 1/(n + 2), while the Haldane prior Beta(0,0) results in a posterior expected value of success in the next trial of 0 (absolute certainty of failure in the next trial). Jeffreys prior probability results in a posterior expected value for success in the next trial equal to (1/2)/(n + 1), which Perks (p. 303) points out: "is a much more reasonably remote result than the Bayes-Laplace result 1/(n + 2)". Jaynes questions (for the uniform prior Beta(1,1)) the use of these formulas for the cases s = 0 or s = n because the integrals do not converge (Beta(1,1) is an improper prior for s = 0 or s = n). In practice, the conditions 0<s<n necessary for a mode to exist between both ends for the Bayes prior are usually met, and therefore the Bayes prior (as long as 0 < s < n) results in a posterior mode located between both ends of the domain. As remarked in the section on the rule of succession, K. Pearson showed that after n successes in n trials the posterior probability (based on the Bayes Beta(1,1) distribution as the prior probability) that the next (n + 1) trials will all be successes is exactly 1/2, whatever the value of n. Based on the Haldane Beta(0,0) distribution as the prior probability, this posterior probability is 1 (absolute certainty that after n successes in n trials the next (n + 1) trials will all be successes). Perks (p. 303) shows that, for what is now known as the Jeffreys prior, this probability is ((n + 1/2)/(n + 1))((n + 3/2)/(n + 2))...(2n + 1/2)/(2n + 1), which for n = 1, 2, 3 gives 15/24, 315/480, 9009/13440; rapidly approaching a limiting value of as n tends to infinity. Perks remarks that what is now known as the Jeffreys prior: "is clearly more 'reasonable' than either the Bayes-Laplace result or the result on the (Haldane) alternative rule rejected by Jeffreys which gives certainty as the probability. It clearly provides a very much better correspondence with the process of induction. Whether it is 'absolutely' reasonable for the purpose, i.e. whether it is yet large enough, without the absurdity of reaching unity, is a matter for others to decide. But it must be realized that the result depends on the assumption of complete indifference and absence of knowledge prior to the sampling experiment." Following are the variances of the posterior distribution obtained with these three prior probability distributions: for the Bayes' prior probability (Beta(1,1)), the posterior variance is: for the Jeffreys' prior probability (Beta(1/2,1/2)), the posterior variance is: and for the Haldane prior probability (Beta(0,0)), the posterior variance is: So, as remarked by Silvey, for large n, the variance is small and hence the posterior distribution is highly concentrated, whereas the assumed prior distribution was very diffuse. This is in accord with what one would hope for, as vague prior knowledge is transformed (through Bayes theorem) into a more precise posterior knowledge by an informative experiment. For small n the Haldane Beta(0,0) prior results in the largest posterior variance while the Bayes Beta(1,1) prior results in the more concentrated posterior. Jeffreys prior Beta(1/2,1/2) results in a posterior variance in between the other two. As n increases, the variance rapidly decreases so that the posterior variance for all three priors converges to approximately the same value (approaching zero variance as n → ∞). Recalling the previous result that the Haldane prior probability Beta(0,0) results in a posterior probability density with mean (the expected value for the probability of success in the "next" trial) identical to the ratio s/n of the number of successes to the total number of trials, it follows from the above expression that also the Haldane prior Beta(0,0) results in a posterior with variance identical to the variance expressed in terms of the max. likelihood estimate s/n and sample size (in ): with the mean μ = s/n and the sample size ν = n. In Bayesian inference, using a prior distribution Beta(αPrior,βPrior) prior to a binomial distribution is equivalent to adding (αPrior − 1) pseudo-observations of "success" and (βPrior − 1) pseudo-observations of "failure" to the actual number of successes and failures observed, then estimating the parameter p of the binomial distribution by the proportion of successes over both real- and pseudo-observations. A uniform prior Beta(1,1) does not add (or subtract) any pseudo-observations since for Beta(1,1) it follows that (αPrior − 1) = 0 and (βPrior − 1) = 0. The Haldane prior Beta(0,0) subtracts one pseudo observation from each and Jeffreys prior Beta(1/2,1/2) subtracts 1/2 pseudo-observation of success and an equal number of failure. This subtraction has the effect of smoothing out the posterior distribution. If the proportion of successes is not 50% (s/n ≠ 1/2) values of αPrior and βPrior less than 1 (and therefore negative (αPrior − 1) and (βPrior − 1)) favor sparsity, i.e. distributions where the parameter p is closer to either 0 or 1. In effect, values of αPrior and βPrior between 0 and 1, when operating together, function as a concentration parameter. The accompanying plots show the posterior probability density functions for sample sizes n ∈ {3,10,50}, successes s ∈ {n/2,n/4} and Beta(αPrior,βPrior) ∈ {Beta(0,0),Beta(1/2,1/2),Beta(1,1)}. Also shown are the cases for n = {4,12,40}, success s = {n/4} and Beta(αPrior,βPrior) ∈ {Beta(0,0),Beta(1/2,1/2),Beta(1,1)}. The first plot shows the symmetric cases, for successes s ∈ {n/2}, with mean = mode = 1/2 and the second plot shows the skewed cases s ∈ {n/4}. The images show that there is little difference between the priors for the posterior with sample size of 50 (characterized by a more pronounced peak near p = 1/2). Significant differences appear for very small sample sizes (in particular for the flatter distribution for the degenerate case of sample size = 3). Therefore, the skewed cases, with successes s = {n/4}, show a larger effect from the choice of prior, at small sample size, than the symmetric cases. For symmetric distributions, the Bayes prior Beta(1,1) results in the most "peaky" and highest posterior distributions and the Haldane prior Beta(0,0) results in the flattest and lowest peak distribution. The Jeffreys prior Beta(1/2,1/2) lies in between them. For nearly symmetric, not too skewed distributions the effect of the priors is similar. For very small sample size (in this case for a sample size of 3) and skewed distribution (in this example for s ∈ {n/4}) the Haldane prior can result in a reverse-J-shaped distribution with a singularity at the left end. However, this happens only in degenerate cases (in this example n = 3 and hence s = 3/4 < 1, a degenerate value because s should be greater than unity in order for the posterior of the Haldane prior to have a mode located between the ends, and because s = 3/4 is not an integer number, hence it violates the initial assumption of a binomial distribution for the likelihood) and it is not an issue in generic cases of reasonable sample size (such that the condition 1 < s < n − 1, necessary for a mode to exist between both ends, is fulfilled). In Chapter 12 (p. 385) of his book, Jaynes asserts that the Haldane prior Beta(0,0) describes a prior state of knowledge of complete ignorance, where we are not even sure whether it is physically possible for an experiment to yield either a success or a failure, while the Bayes (uniform) prior Beta(1,1) applies if one knows that both binary outcomes are possible. Jaynes states: "interpret the Bayes-Laplace (Beta(1,1)) prior as describing not a state of complete ignorance, but the state of knowledge in which we have observed one success and one failure...once we have seen at least one success and one failure, then we know that the experiment is a true binary one, in the sense of physical possibility." Jaynes does not specifically discuss Jeffreys prior Beta(1/2,1/2) (Jaynes discussion of "Jeffreys prior" on pp. 181, 423 and on chapter 12 of Jaynes book refers instead to the improper, un-normalized, prior "1/p dp" introduced by Jeffreys in the 1939 edition of his book, seven years before he introduced what is now known as Jeffreys' invariant prior: the square root of the determinant of Fisher's information matrix. "1/p" is Jeffreys' (1946) invariant prior for the exponential distribution, not for the Bernoulli or binomial distributions). However, it follows from the above discussion that Jeffreys Beta(1/2,1/2) prior represents a state of knowledge in between the Haldane Beta(0,0) and Bayes Beta (1,1) prior. Similarly, Karl Pearson in his 1892 book The Grammar of Science (p. 144 of 1900 edition) maintained that the Bayes (Beta(1,1) uniform prior was not a complete ignorance prior, and that it should be used when prior information justified to "distribute our ignorance equally"". K. Pearson wrote: "Yet the only supposition that we appear to have made is this: that, knowing nothing of nature, routine and anomy (from the Greek ανομία, namely: a- "without", and nomos "law") are to be considered as equally likely to occur. Now we were not really justified in making even this assumption, for it involves a knowledge that we do not possess regarding nature. We use our experience of the constitution and action of coins in general to assert that heads and tails are equally probable, but we have no right to assert before experience that, as we know nothing of nature, routine and breach are equally probable. In our ignorance we ought to consider before experience that nature may consist of all routines, all anomies (normlessness), or a mixture of the two in any proportion whatever, and that all such are equally probable. Which of these constitutions after experience is the most probable must clearly depend on what that experience has been like." If there is sufficient sampling data, and the posterior probability mode is not located at one of the extremes of the domain (x=0 or x=1), the three priors of Bayes (Beta(1,1)), Jeffreys (Beta(1/2,1/2)) and Haldane (Beta(0,0)) should yield similar posterior probability densities. Otherwise, as Gelman et al. (p. 65) point out, "if so few data are available that the choice of noninformative prior distribution makes a difference, one should put relevant information into the prior distribution", or as Berger (p. 125) points out "when different reasonable priors yield substantially different answers, can it be right to state that there is a single answer? Would it not be better to admit that there is scientific uncertainty, with the conclusion depending on prior beliefs?." Occurrence and applications Order statistics The beta distribution has an important application in the theory of order statistics. A basic result is that the distribution of the kth smallest of a sample of size n from a continuous uniform distribution has a beta distribution. This result is summarized as: From this, and application of the theory related to the probability integral transform, the distribution of any individual order statistic from any continuous distribution can be derived. Subjective logic In standard logic, propositions are considered to be either true or false. In contradistinction, subjective logic assumes that humans cannot determine with absolute certainty whether a proposition about the real world is absolutely true or false. In subjective logic the posteriori probability estimates of binary events can be represented by beta distributions. Wavelet analysis A wavelet is a wave-like oscillation with an amplitude that starts out at zero, increases, and then decreases back to zero. It can typically be visualized as a "brief oscillation" that promptly decays. Wavelets can be used to extract information from many different kinds of data, including – but certainly not limited to – audio signals and images. Thus, wavelets are purposefully crafted to have specific properties that make them useful for signal processing. Wavelets are localized in both time and frequency whereas the standard Fourier transform is only localized in frequency. Therefore, standard Fourier Transforms are only applicable to stationary processes, while wavelets are applicable to non-stationary processes. Continuous wavelets can be constructed based on the beta distribution. Beta wavelets can be viewed as a soft variety of Haar wavelets whose shape is fine-tuned by two shape parameters α and β. Project management: task cost and schedule modeling The beta distribution can be used to model events which are constrained to take place within an interval defined by a minimum and maximum value. For this reason, the beta distribution — along with the triangular distribution — is used extensively in PERT, critical path method (CPM), Joint Cost Schedule Modeling (JCSM) and other project management/control systems to describe the time to completion and the cost of a task. In project management, shorthand computations are widely used to estimate the mean and standard deviation of the beta distribution: where a is the minimum, c is the maximum, and b is the most likely value (the mode for α > 1 and β > 1). The above estimate for the mean is known as the PERT three-point estimation and it is exact for either of the following values of β (for arbitrary α within these ranges): β = α > 1 (symmetric case) with standard deviation , skewness = 0, and excess kurtosis = or β = 6 − α for 5 > α > 1 (skewed case) with standard deviation skewness = , and excess kurtosis = The above estimate for the standard deviation σ(X) = (c − a)/6 is exact for either of the following values of α and β: α = β = 4 (symmetric) with skewness = 0, and excess kurtosis = −6/11. β = 6 − α and (right-tailed, positive skew) with skewness , and excess kurtosis = 0 β = 6 − α and (left-tailed, negative skew) with skewness , and excess kurtosis = 0 Otherwise, these can be poor approximations for beta distributions with other values of α and β, exhibiting average errors of 40% in the mean and 549% in the variance.—Beamforming—An application to Beamforming can be found in and applies a form of pattern synthesis. Computational methods Generating beta-distributed random variates If X and Y are independent, with and then So one algorithm for generating beta variates is to generate , where X is a gamma variate with parameters (α, 1) and Y is an independent gamma variate with parameters (β, 1). In fact, here and are independent, and . If and is independent of and , then and is independent of . This shows that the product of independent and random variables is a random variable. Also, the kth order statistic of n uniformly distributed variates is , so an alternative if α and β are small integers is to generate α + β − 1 uniform variates and choose the α-th smallest. Another way to generate the Beta distribution is by Pólya urn model. According to this method, one start with an "urn" with α "black" balls and β "white" balls and draw uniformly with replacement. Every trial an additional ball is added according to the color of the last ball which was drawn. Asymptotically, the proportion of black and white balls will be distributed according to the Beta distribution, where each repetition of the experiment will produce a different value. It is also possible to use the inverse transform sampling. History Thomas Bayes, in a posthumous paper published in 1763 by Richard Price, obtained a beta distribution as the density of the probability of success in Bernoulli trials (see ), but the paper does not analyze any of the moments of the beta distribution or discuss any of its properties. The first systematic modern discussion of the beta distribution is probably due to Karl Pearson FRS (27 March 1857 – 27 April 1936), an influential English mathematician who has been credited with establishing the discipline of mathematical statistics. In Pearson's papers the beta distribution is couched as a solution of a differential equation: Pearson's Type I distribution which it is essentially identical to except for arbitrary shifting and re-scaling (the beta and Pearson Type I distributions can always be equalized by proper choice of parameters). In fact, in several English books and journal articles in the few decades prior to World War II, it was common to refer to the beta distribution as Pearson's Type I distribution. William P. Elderton (1877–1962) in his 1906 monograph "Frequency curves and correlation" further analyzes the beta distribution as Pearson's Type I distribution, including a full discussion of the method of moments for the four parameter case, and diagrams of (what Elderton describes as) U-shaped, J-shaped, twisted J-shaped, "cocked-hat" shapes, horizontal and angled straight-line cases. Elderton wrote "I am chiefly indebted to Professor Pearson, but the indebtedness is of a kind for which it is impossible to offer formal thanks." Elderton in his 1906 monograph provides an impressive amount of information on the beta distribution, including equations for the origin of the distribution chosen to be the mode, as well as for other Pearson distributions: types I through VII. Elderton also included a number of appendixes, including one appendix ("II") on the beta and gamma functions. In later editions, Elderton added equations for the origin of the distribution chosen to be the mean, and analysis of Pearson distributions VIII through XII. As remarked by Bowman and Shenton "Fisher and Pearson had a difference of opinion in the approach to (parameter) estimation, in particular relating to (Pearson's method of) moments and (Fisher's method of) maximum likelihood in the case of the Beta distribution." Also according to Bowman and Shenton, "the case of a Type I (beta distribution) model being the center of the controversy was pure serendipity. A more difficult model of 4 parameters would have been hard to find." Ronald Fisher (17 February 1890 – 29 July 1962) was one of the giants of statistics in the first half of the 20th century, and his long running public conflict with Karl Pearson can be followed in a number of articles in prestigious journals. For example, concerning the estimation of the four parameters for the beta distribution, and Fisher's criticism of Pearson's method of moments as being arbitrary, see Pearson's article "Method of moments and method of maximum likelihood" (published three years after his retirement from University College, London, where his position had been divided between Fisher and Pearson's son Egon) in which Pearson writes "I read (Koshai's paper in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 1933) which as far as I am aware is the only case at present published of the application of Professor Fisher's method. To my astonishment that method depends on first working out the constants of the frequency curve by the (Pearson) Method of Moments and then superposing on it, by what Fisher terms "the Method of Maximum Likelihood" a further approximation to obtain, what he holds, he will thus get, "more efficient values" of the curve constants." David and Edwards's treatise on the history of statistics cites the first modern treatment of the beta distribution, in 1911, using the beta designation that has become standard, due to Corrado Gini, an Italian statistician, demographer, and sociologist, who developed the Gini coefficient. N.L.Johnson and S.Kotz, in their comprehensive and very informative monograph on leading historical personalities in statistical sciences credit Corrado Gini as "an early Bayesian...who dealt with the problem of eliciting the parameters of an initial Beta distribution, by singling out techniques which anticipated the advent of the so called empirical Bayes approach." References External links "Beta Distribution" by Fiona Maclachlan, the Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. Beta Distribution – Overview and Example, xycoon.com Beta Distribution, brighton-webs.co.uk Beta Distribution Video, exstrom.com Harvard University Statistics 110 Lecture 23 Beta Distribution, Prof. Joe Blitzstein Continuous distributions Factorial and binomial topics Conjugate prior distributions Exponential family distributions	[ 0.09681408852338791, -0.5871372222900391, -0.25125056505203247, -0.27699029445648193, -0.13829770684242249, 0.303078830242157, -0.24585065245628357, 0.2057313770055771, 0.04079359024763107, -0.795280396938324, -0.20461955666542053, 0.2673413157463074, -0.7510364055633545, 0.5339821577072144, -0.1933511346578598, 0.5610951781272888, 0.7407180070877075, 0.3864056169986725, 0.11422831565141678, -0.21206407248973846, 0.22670967876911163, 0.21862420439720154, 0.11994225531816483, -0.19334158301353455, -0.37131112813949585, -0.4566904306411743, -0.041111961007118225, -0.03790750354528427, 0.4227522015571594, 0.49933990836143494, -0.6356148719787598, 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207076	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confused%20deputy%20problem	Confused deputy problem	In information security, the confused deputy problem is often cited as an example of why capability-based security is important. A confused deputy is a legitimate, more privileged computer program that is tricked by another program into misusing its authority on the system. It is a specific type of privilege escalation. Capability systems protect against the confused deputy problem, whereas access control list-based systems do not. Example In the original example of a confused deputy, there is a compiler program provided on a commercial timesharing service. Users could run the compiler and optionally specify a filename where it would write debugging output, and the compiler would be able to write to that file if the user had permission to write there. The compiler also collected statistics about language feature usage. Those statistics were stored in a file called "(SYSX)STAT", in the directory "SYSX". To make this possible, the compiler program was given permission to write to files in SYSX. But there were other files in SYSX: in particular, the system's billing information was stored in a file "(SYSX)BILL". A user ran the compiler and named "(SYSX)BILL" as the desired debugging output file. This produced a confused deputy problem. The compiler made a request to the operating system to open (SYSX)BILL. Even though the user did not have access to that file, the compiler did, so the open succeeded. The compiler wrote the compilation output to the file (here "(SYSX)BILL") as normal, overwriting it, and the billing information was destroyed. The confused deputy In this example, the compiler program is the deputy because it is acting at the request of the user. The program is seen as 'confused' because it was tricked into overwriting the system's billing file. Whenever a program tries to access a file, the operating system needs to know two things: which file the program is asking for, and whether the program has permission to access the file. In the example, the file is designated by its name, “(SYSX)BILL”. The program receives the file name from the user, but does not know whether the user had permission to write the file. When the program opens the file, the system uses the program's permission, not the user's. When the file name was passed from the user to the program, the permission did not go along with it; the permission was increased by the system silently and automatically. It is not essential to the attack that the billing file be designated by a name represented as a string. The essential points are that: the designator for the file does not carry the full authority needed to access the file; the program's own permission to access the file is used implicitly. Other examples A cross-site request forgery (CSRF) is an example of a confused deputy attack that uses the web browser to perform sensitive actions against a web application. A common form of this attack occurs when a web application uses a cookie to authenticate all requests transmitted by a browser. Using JavaScript, an attacker can force a browser into transmitting authenticated HTTP requests. The Samy computer worm used cross-site scripting (XSS) to turn the browser's authenticated MySpace session into a confused deputy. Using XSS the worm forced the browser into posting an executable copy of the worm as a MySpace message which was then viewed and executed by friends of the infected user. Clickjacking is an attack where the user acts as the confused deputy. In this attack a user thinks they are harmlessly browsing a website (an attacker-controlled website) but they are in fact tricked into performing sensitive actions on another website. An FTP bounce attack can allow an attacker to connect indirectly to TCP ports to which the attacker's machine has no access, using a remote FTP server as the confused deputy. Another example relates to personal firewall software. It can restrict Internet access for specific applications. Some applications circumvent this by starting a browser with instructions to access a specific URL. The browser has authority to open a network connection, even though the application does not. Firewall software can attempt to address this by prompting the user in cases where one program starts another which then accesses the network. However, the user frequently does not have sufficient information to determine whether such an access is legitimate—false positives are common, and there is a substantial risk that even sophisticated users will become habituated to clicking "OK" to these prompts. Not every program that misuses authority is a confused deputy. Sometimes misuse of authority is simply a result of a program error. The confused deputy problem occurs when the designation of an object is passed from one program to another, and the associated permission changes unintentionally, without any explicit action by either party. It is insidious because neither party did anything explicit to change the authority. Solutions In some systems it is possible to ask the operating system to open a file using the permissions of another client. This solution has some drawbacks: It requires explicit attention to security by the server. A naive or careless server might not take this extra step. It becomes more difficult to identify the correct permission if the server is in turn the client of another service and wants to pass along access to the file. It requires the client to trust the server to not abuse the borrowed permissions. Note that intersecting the server and client's permissions does not solve the problem either, because the server may then have to be given very wide permissions (all of the time, rather than those needed for a given request) in order to act for arbitrary clients. The simplest way to solve the confused deputy problem is to bundle together the designation of an object and the permission to access that object. This is exactly what a capability is. Using capability security in the compiler example, the client would pass to the server a capability to the output file, such as a file descriptor, rather than the name of the file. Since it lacks a capability to the billing file, it cannot designate that file for output. In the cross-site request forgery example, a URL supplied "cross"-site would include its own authority independent of that of the client of the web browser. See also Setuid executables in Unix Ambient authority References External links Norman Hardy, The Confused Deputy: (or why capabilities might have been invented), ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review, Volume 22, Issue 4 (October 1988). ACM published document. Document text on Norm Hardy's website. Document text on University of Pennsylvania's website. Citeseer cross reference. Capability Theory Notes from several sources (collated by Norm Hardy). Everything2: Confused Deputy (some introductory level text). 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207078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horrible%20Histories%20%28book%20series%29	Horrible Histories (book series)	Horrible Histories is a series of illustrated history books published in the United Kingdom by Scholastic, and part of the Horrible Histories franchise. The books are written by Terry Deary, Peter Hepplewhite, and Neil Tonge, and illustrated by Martin Brown, Mike Phillips, Phillip Reeve, and Kate Sheppard. The first titles in the series, The Terrible Tudors and The Awesome Egyptians, were published in June 1993. As of 2011, with more than 60 titles, the series had sold over 25 million copies in over 30 languages. The books have had tie-ins with newspapers such as The Telegraph, as well as audio-book tie-ins distributed with breakfast cereals. Concept and creation Development Terry Deary studied at drama college and worked as an actor-teacher at the TIE company in Wales. He then became a theatre director and began to write plays for children. Many of his TIE plays were eventually rewritten and adapted into the Horrible Histories book series. Deary said "I was in this small touring company, taking plays for children round Welsh village halls. I did find I had this facility for knocking ideas into scripts." By the time the idea of Horrible Histories was presented to him by his publisher, Deary had written around 50 children's novels. The Guardian explains, "they wanted a 'history joke book' and—when he protested that he knew nothing about history–offered to provide the facts to go with the gags." Deary explains the series' inception thus: "The publishers originally asked for a joke book with a history theme. They said, 'Put in a few interesting facts to break up the jokes because some of your jokes are very bad.' And when I looked at the facts, I found they were much more interesting than the jokes. So we ended up with a fact book with jokes. We created a new genre." The fifth book in the series, Blitzed Brits, was published in 1995, by chance coinciding with the 50th anniversary of VE day. The book reached number one on the bestseller list. Deary decided the book only gave the British viewpoint during World War II and in the interests of balance wrote Woeful Second World War which focused on the wartime experiences in France, Poland, Germany, and Russia. This book was published in September 1999, which coincided with the 60th anniversary of the outbreak of World War II. In 2003, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the Horrible Histories book series, Scholastic held a competition to find Horrible Histories Brainiest Boffin. 500 applicants were invited to answer a series of questions, as well as submit an original design for a birthday card. The resulting six regional finalists were then invited to London to appear before Deary himself playing the role of quizmaster in a mock-up TV studio complete with Roman Pillars and Egyptian mummies. A glittering party followed. Deary eventually returned to the stage. Mad Millennium was commissioned by director Phil Clark, who was a fellow TIE participant 25 years before. He suggested turning the books into large-scale theatre productions. Deary was happy to return to writing plays. In 2007, the original series began to be republished with a new look and new content. The new books had altered information on the back cover, an index, and a brighter, redesigned front cover. Around the same time the Horrible Histories live-action TV series aired; many of the books were republished as TV tie-ins. In 2013, many of the books were republished in a "20 horrible years" theme. By the early 2010s, Deary decided that the series had naturally come to an end. He said, "It has had a good run, it's had a better run than most children's series", and added that while his publishers have not officially stopped the series, there was "a general feeling" it would finish. The Guardian explains, "Deary long ago handed over the reins for [his franchise], saying he's more than happy to leave it in the hands of others." This includes to companies like the Birmingham Stage Company that puts on stage plays adapted from his books, and CBBC that has broadcast an award-winning live-action adaption of his books since 2009. The Horrible Histories franchise has expanded into video games, toys, magazines, and a game show. Educational goals Deary commented in an interview, "If I had it my way, I wouldn't have schools at all. They don't educate, they just keep kids off the streets. But my books educate because they prepare kids for life ... It's outrageous, why don't we start telling children the truth about history? I hope my books do just that." The Horrible Histories series was written with the express intention of engaging and enthusing the reader on various historical topics while appearing subversive, primarily aiming to entertain with a background purpose of being educational as well. Deary had stated that when writing the series he viewed himself as a child who wishes to share knowledge with other children, and as a writer who wishes to "entertain first and inform second". He does not respect authors who follow either extreme, that is, those who either only inform or only entertain. He believes that "readers are more important than writers and their needs have to come first" and that if the writer engages the reader, they will retain more knowledge from the work. The series has a skeptical view on the accuracy and validity of history. An introduction to one of the books in series states, "History can be horrible. Horribly hard to learn. The trouble is it keeps on changing ... In history, a 'fact' is sometimes not a fact at all. Really it's just someone's 'opinion'. And opinions can be different for different people ... Teachers will try to tell you there are 'right' and 'wrong' answers even if there aren't." Many of Deary's books are intended to convey serious political messages underneath the humour presented. In the series, he has often inserted commentary concerning social issues in the 21st century, contrasting them to those of previous centuries. Deary has also inserted commentary rhetorically questioning the reader's morals and patriotism. He has stated in a Guardian interview that his political outlook was inspired by his anti-imperialist viewpoints, and he intended to portray history as the weak being oppressed by the strong. As he continued in the interview, "the last chapter of Ruthless Romans portrays modern-day Zimbabwe and essentially asks, is this any different?" The musical stage show Barmy Britain, co-written by Deary, "features a finale whose sarcastic references to burger bars, bankers, and internet dating leave its young audience in little doubt that whatever the crazed excesses of our ancestors, future generations will doubtless consider us every bit as loopy." Deary has expressed strong anti-establishment viewpoints. According to Deary, "I was beaten, bullied and abused at school in the name of passing exams. It taught me nothing and I had to break out. So I started challenging authority at school, really, and just kind of never stopped." He did not reply to Tony Blair's invitation to visit 10 Downing Street, telling The Guardian, "The only politician ever to have entered parliament with honourable intentions, was Guy Fawkes." He also declined an invitation to meet the Queen and said he was "deeply disappointed" that the BBC's diamond jubilee coverage included a Horrible Histories sketch live from Tower Bridge. Deary uses researchers for all Horrible Histories often in specialized fields, such as a military history. While researching his books, he immerses himself in the period so he is in the right context, compiling much more information than he needs. He tends to exclude all the 'boring facts' such as dates, because, he maintains "dates don't matter. Human experience matters." He wishes to avoid 'preaching' the value of history, instead focusing on the wonders of human nature and asking how we each would behave in other people's shoes. Deary uses many generic literary conventions to make his books more accessible to his readers. He deliberately writes in prose styles that follow natural speech cadences. He also frequently uses alliteration and assonance. Deary considered poetry to be "another weapon in the writer's armory" rather than a specialized form that may only be used in specific circumstances. He maintains that the impersonal language used in textbooks alienates the reader. He, therefore, uses the second person to talk directly to the reader, as if he were talking to them in real life. He views Horrible Histories as one of the few non-fiction or fiction series which utilize this "underused style of writing". Deary uses the newspaper style to make the serious material more accessible so that the reader approaches the piece in "a more relaxed frame of mind than they would a school text", as in an article about the massacre at Lidice. Newspapers are also used to illustrate light-hearted stories, such as might appear in a tabloid. Newspaper extracts, along with letters and diaries, are used to tell stories from the perspectives of individual people, in order "to get away from the objective, and to get [his] readers to view history subjectively." When writing about events and historical periods that are still in living memory, such as the Second World War, the series aims to maintain sensitivity. Deary argues that a story about a Tudor executioner who needs ten hacks to chop off someone's head, for example, can, however, afford to be comical as contemporary society is so far removed from the event. Deary believes it is important for children to know about recent events, such as The Holocaust, not relegating them as taboo subjects that cannot be discussed. When informed by a Jewish mother that her Rabbi told her not to introduce her children to the Holocaust before 13 years old, and that her 6-year-old had read it in Horrible Histories, Deary replied: "Sorry, but what am I supposed to do – lie to children?". He has commented that the books do have borders they will not cross. They would not, for example, describe violence against babies, such as the Vikings inflicted, and aside from some snogging, the series does not venture into the realms of sex. The majority of the series' demographic are 'reluctant readers', who like books where they can "pick one up, read a small section, and then put it down again." Deary attributes this to the use of short chapters, the fact that one may read the book in a non-linear order, and the varying uses of media in each book, such as quizzes and comic strips. Publication history Book series There are 23 books in the original Horrible Histories book series. The first titles in the series, The Terrible Tudors and The Awesome Egyptians, were published in 1993 and 1994. The series also includes two-in-one books, a box set, special books, handbooks, city guides, comic-strips, annuals, novelty books, and more. Deary announced that the series would officially come to an end in 2013. The Telegraph said, "After Deary was reported to have given up the bestselling series because he had run out of tales to tell ... his publisher would not risk putting out any new ones." Deary says he cannot write a new book unless commissioned. He has not been told to stop writing but neither has he explicitly been asked to continue, citing as a probable cause the gamble involved in publishing a new book. He believes that "...when you've got 60 titles there that you can rework and freshen up for the new audiences that are growing up all the time writing new books can be seen as unacceptably risky in the current publishing climate." Translations The books have been issued in Denmark since 1997 by the publishing house Egmont. In Poland, the series' common name, Strrraszna historia, includes Strrraszna historia (Horrible Histories), Strrraszne sławy (Horribly Famous), and Sławy z krypty (Dead Famous). There is also a sub-series describing various aspects of Polish history and society (written by Małgorzata Fabianowska and Małgorzata Nesteruk, illustrated by Jędrzej Łaniecki). These titles were written and published exclusively in Poland and have not yet been published in English. Ci Sprytni Słowianie (The Clever Slavs) (Slavs) Pokrętni Piastowie (Piast Dynasty) (Piast Dynasty) Dynamiczna Dynastia Jagiellonów (Dynamic Jagiellon Dynasty) (Jagiellon Dynasty) Sakramencki Sarmatyzm (Bloody Sarmatism) (Sarmatism) Atrakcyjni Królowie Elekcyjni (Sovereign Election Appeal) (Polish elections and Polish Elective Monarchy) Zagmatwane Zabory – (Invasive Embroilment) (Partitions of Poland) Nieznośna Niepodległość (Vexing Independence) (History of Poland) The collection Os Horríveis (The Horribles) in Portugal and Saber Horrível (Horrible knowledge) in Brazil are designed to create interest in history, geography, science and other school subjects. The collection has become a great commercial success. In Brazil, Saber Horrível is published by Editora Melhoramentos and has sold more than one million copies. In Portugal, the collection Os Horríveis is published by Publicações Europa-América and is subdivided into História Horrível (Horrible History), Ciência Horrível (Horrible Science), Geografia Horrível (Horrible Geography) and Cultura Horrível (Horrible Culture). The Czech version is known as Děsivé dějiny (Horrible History). As well as translating the English books, it also includes translations of the Polish sub-series. Other books are specific to Czech History, such as Děsné české dějiny (Horrible Czech History). They are mainly written by Roman Ferstl, however, Martin Pitro wrote Pyskatí Habsburkové. The first Horrible Histories video game was published in Germany, translating the series' titled Schauderhafte Geschichten. The Dutch series Waanzinnig om te weten (Amazing to know) is a translation and an adaptation of the English series Horrible Histories, Horrible Science, Horrible Geography and Murderous Maths, but not all books from all series have been translated into Dutch. As of January 2009, this series includes 36 books. Other translations into include Thai and Spanish. Cut-Throat Celts is known as Y Celtiaid Cythryblus in the Welsh edition. Reception Critical reception Horrible Histories has received much praise and been generally well received. It is cited as a non-fiction series which has successfully used a formula to entice young children into reading: "The information here is densely packed, at a suitable level for Key Stages 2 and 3, historically accurate and complete with cautions about history being interpretive, but the success lies in the humorous and varied way that the subjects are presented." In Words, words, words, Janet Allen notes the books are "delightful combinations or cartoons, graphs and charts, narration, letters and wanted posters that convey a vast amount of information about those periods." Other critics also praise the wide variety of media in the books, such as recipes, quizzes and newspaper extracts; use of comic strip is particularly noted. The series is also recognised as an effective trigger for debates in English lessons. The Daily Telegraph wrote "Terry Deary is the most influential historian in Britain today." The books' humour has been identified as a major aspect of the series' success along with the story-telling skill. The series is notable for being historical non-fiction that young people read for pleasure, the first of its kind, pioneering a genre. Consuming history by Jerome De Groot, cites Horrible Histories as a series which demonstrates the "flexibility and dynamism of the 'historical' form" in children's books, another possible market for those types of books. It explains that the books "play on children's fascination with goriness" and that they are "mischievous, irreverent and iconoclastic, appealing to a child audience's desire for silly jokes, presenting history as something tactile and simple." Interactivity is attributed to the re-printable recipes and "what would you do?" multiple choice sections. Groot compares the use of illustration to Glenn Thompson's For Beginners comic books of the mid-1980s. Horrible Histories are noted for making "heavy use of visual and verbal textual interplay". While the series' direct address to its child audience makes it a popular choice for independent reading, it can make the books ineffective as read-aloud books due to their personalized style of writing and the visual aspects of the books. However, some teachers have reported using these books in a read-aloud manner. Consuming history by Jerome De Groot suggests that "the series' wider popularity is due to their tone and style rather than their content". While discussing the graphic violence in games such as Counter-Strike, Grand Theft Auto and Half Life, the author Judy Arnall notes that children in many societies, current and historical, often witness events much more horrific than those featured in the games. She cites The Wicked History of the World as giving a good context for this. Controversy The book Bloody Scotland drew the ire of the Scottish Separatist Group, who claimed it promoted a "UK centric, anti-Scottish viewpoint of Scottish history". They pointed to a featured haggis recipe: "cook the haggis until it looks like a hedgehog after the fifteenth lorry has run over it". They reported the book to the Commission for Racial Equality, who rejected their claim. The National Trust was unhappy with Cruel Kings and Mean Queens because it made fun of Prince Charles, the trust's patron, and Queen Elizabeth II. Slimy Stuarts has been accused of anti-Catholic views. In the series, there are two books entitled The Horrible History of the World and The Wicked History of the World; however, they are the same book with different headings. To confuse things further, compact and mini editions were planned for release at the end of 2007. The same incident occurred with The Horribly Huge Quiz Book/Massive Millennium Quiz Book, and The Mad Millennium/Mad Millennium Play. Also, there were two different covers for Horrible Christmas, as well as new paperback, compact and mini editions. All of this resulted in people buying multiples of the same books. Many of what are proclaimed as 'facts' are, debatably, exciting myths and legends. The books, for example, claim that Shakespeare invented the evil actions he attributed to Richard III and present Caligula as being insane. Some of these falsities are listed in the song "It's Not True" in the CBBC TV series. Promoting Reading for Pleasure in the Primary School argues that the series provides an extensive level of detail for the subject material, and uses strong, authentic sources. The series has been described as a "popular iconoclasm, a challenge to standard narratives". However other critics suggest that this is a "deliberate attempt to provide alternate readings" on principle. Teachers' omniscient authority is undermined in sections such as 'Test Your Teacher', which says "Your teachers will tell you all about the legions and what they wore and how they lived. But they don't know everything." By these tokens, the series could be taken to suggest that formal education provides an approved, abridged version of history, one which leaves out all the gory, interesting bits. Thus certain authors argue that any histories that do not focus on spectacular events are now deemed boring to younger readers. The use of non-linear structure has raised the concern that the books are encouraging shorter concentration spans, that longer narratives develop. Awards and nominations Best Book with Facts in the Blue Peter Book Awards 2000 Best Book for Knowledge Award at the Blue Peter Book Awards 2001 Terry Deary tops the list of most-borrowed non-fiction children's authors every year (figures based on the Library Survey). Deary was voted the fifth most popular living children's author in a 2005 Guardian survey. Spin-offs Horrible Geography (written by Anita Ganeri and illustrated by Mike Phillips) Horrible Science (written by Nick Arnold and illustrated by Tony de Saulles) Horribly Famous (previously Dead Famous, written and illustrated by a variety of authors and illustrators) Totally (previously The Knowledge, written and illustrated by a variety of authors and illustrators). Foul Football (spinoff of Totally) Murderous Maths (spinoff of Totally, written by Kjartan Poskitt and illustrated by a variety of artists, the most common being Philip Reeve) America's Funny But True History (written by Elizabeth Levy) Boring Bible (twelve books written and illustrated by Andy Robb) Fair Dinkum Histories (written by Jackie French, illustrated by Peter Sheehan) References External links The Horrible Zone at Scholastic publications Horrible Histories official website "Horribly good" 10 May 2003 The Guardian Guardian "Writing history" 12 August 2003. Interview with Dreary "Terry Deary interview" Daily Telegraph 5 June 2011' Episode of Panel Borders featuring Horrible Histories illustrator Martin Brown (6 August 2009) Horrible Histories: 20 years of entertaining children Talking Books Book series introduced in 1993 20th-century history books 21st-century history books Series of children's books Series of history books Scholastic Corporation books	[ 0.33820509910583496, 0.26216211915016174, -0.1344386786222458, -0.16227085888385773, -0.28786203265190125, 0.046009186655282974, 0.5399056077003479, 0.6724392175674438, -0.1415475755929947, -0.09902814030647278, -0.7602884769439697, -0.05029815062880516, -0.18341031670570374, 0.4888111352920532, 0.18507379293441772, 0.34959620237350464, -0.058819495141506195, 0.8151077628135681, -0.5785055756568909, -0.59402996301651, -0.2461991161108017, -0.8992266058921814, 0.51212477684021, -0.21517431735992432, -0.1997174769639969, 0.1394784301519394, 0.7503960132598877, -0.1945597529411316, 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207079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma%20distribution	Gamma distribution	In probability theory and statistics, the gamma distribution is a two-parameter family of continuous probability distributions. The exponential distribution, Erlang distribution, and chi-square distribution are special cases of the gamma distribution. There are two different parameterizations in common use: With a shape parameter k and a scale parameter θ. With a shape parameter and an inverse scale parameter , called a rate parameter. In each of these forms, both parameters are positive real numbers. The gamma distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution (both with respect to a uniform base measure and with respect to a 1/x base measure) for a random variable X for which E[X] = kθ = α/β is fixed and greater than zero, and E[ln(X)] = ψ(k) + ln(θ) = ψ(α) − ln(β) is fixed (ψ is the digamma function). Definitions The parameterization with k and θ appears to be more common in econometrics and certain other applied fields, where for example the gamma distribution is frequently used to model waiting times. For instance, in life testing, the waiting time until death is a random variable that is frequently modeled with a gamma distribution. See Hogg and Craig for an explicit motivation. The parameterization with α and β is more common in Bayesian statistics, where the gamma distribution is used as a conjugate prior distribution for various types of inverse scale (rate) parameters, such as the λ of an exponential distribution or a Poisson distribution – or for that matter, the β of the gamma distribution itself. The closely related inverse-gamma distribution is used as a conjugate prior for scale parameters, such as the variance of a normal distribution. If k is a positive integer, then the distribution represents an Erlang distribution; i.e., the sum of k independent exponentially distributed random variables, each of which has a mean of θ. Characterization using shape α and rate β The gamma distribution can be parameterized in terms of a shape parameter α = k and an inverse scale parameter β = 1/θ, called a rate parameter. A random variable X that is gamma-distributed with shape α and rate β is denoted The corresponding probability density function in the shape-rate parametrization is where is the gamma function. For all positive integers, . The cumulative distribution function is the regularized gamma function: where is the lower incomplete gamma function. If α is a positive integer (i.e., the distribution is an Erlang distribution), the cumulative distribution function has the following series expansion: Characterization using shape k and scale θ A random variable X that is gamma-distributed with shape k and scale θ is denoted by The probability density function using the shape-scale parametrization is Here Γ(k) is the gamma function evaluated at k. The cumulative distribution function is the regularized gamma function: where is the lower incomplete gamma function. It can also be expressed as follows, if k is a positive integer (i.e., the distribution is an Erlang distribution): Both parametrizations are common because either can be more convenient depending on the situation. Properties Skewness The skewness of the gamma distribution only depends on its shape parameter, k, and it is equal to Higher moments The nth raw moment is given by: Median approximations and bounds Unlike the mode and the mean, which have readily calculable formulas based on the parameters, the median does not have a closed-form equation. The median for this distribution is defined as the value such that A rigorous treatment of the problem of determining an asymptotic expansion and bounds for the median of the gamma distribution was handled first by Chen and Rubin, who proved that (for ) where is the mean and is the median of the distribution. For other values of the scale parameter, the mean scales to , and the median bounds and approximations would be similarly scaled by . K. P. Choi found the first five terms in a Laurent series asymptotic approximation of the median by comparing the median to Ramanujan's function. Berg and Pedersen found more terms: Partial sums of these series are good approximations for high enough ; they are not plotted in the figure, which is focused on the low- region that is less well approximated. Berg and Pedersen also proved many properties of the median, showed that it is a convex function of , and that the asymptotic behavior near is (where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant), and that for all the median is bounded by . A closer linear upper bound, for only, was provided in 2021 by Gaunt and Merkle, relying on the Berg and Pedersen result that the slope of is everywhere less than 1: for (with equality at ) which can be extended to a bound for all by taking the max with the chord shown in the figure, since the median was proved convex. An approximation to the median that is asymptotically accurate at high and reasonable down to or a bit lower follows from the Wilson–Hilferty transformation: which goes negative for . In 2021, Lyon proposed several closed-form approximations of the form . He conjectured closed-form values of and for which this approximation is an asymptotically tight upper or lower bound for all . In particular: is a lower bound, asymptotically tight as is an upper bound, asymptotically tight as Lyon also derived two other lower bounds that are not closed-form expressions, including this one based on solving the integral expression substituting 1 for : (approaching equality as ) and the tangent line at where the derivative was found to be : (with equality at ) where Ei is the exponential integral. Additionally, he showed that interpolations between bounds can provide excellent approximations or tighter bounds to the median, including an approximation that is exact at (where ) and has a maximum relative error less than 0.6%. Interpolated approximations and bounds are all of the form where is an interpolating function running monotonically from 0 at low to 1 at high , approximating an ideal, or exact, interpolator : For the simplest interpolating function considered, a first-order rational function the tightest lower bound has and the tightest upper bound has The interpolated bounds are plotted (mostly inside the yellow region) in the log–log plot shown. Even tighter bounds are available using different interpolating functions, but not usually with closed-form parameters like these. Summation If Xi has a Gamma(ki, θ) distribution for i = 1, 2, ..., N (i.e., all distributions have the same scale parameter θ), then provided all Xi are independent. For the cases where the Xi are independent but have different scale parameters see Mathai or Moschopoulos. The gamma distribution exhibits infinite divisibility. Scaling If then, for any c > 0, by moment generating functions, or equivalently, if (shape-rate parameterization) Indeed, we know that if X is an exponential r.v. with rate λ then cX is an exponential r.v. with rate λ/c; the same thing is valid with Gamma variates (and this can be checked using the moment-generating function, see, e.g.,these notes, 10.4-(ii)): multiplication by a positive constant c divides the rate (or, equivalently, multiplies the scale). Exponential family The gamma distribution is a two-parameter exponential family with natural parameters k − 1 and −1/θ (equivalently, α − 1 and −β), and natural statistics X and ln(X). If the shape parameter k is held fixed, the resulting one-parameter family of distributions is a natural exponential family. Logarithmic expectation and variance One can show that or equivalently, where is the digamma function. Likewise, where is the trigamma function. This can be derived using the exponential family formula for the moment generating function of the sufficient statistic, because one of the sufficient statistics of the gamma distribution is ln(x). Information entropy The information entropy is In the k, θ parameterization, the information entropy is given by Kullback–Leibler divergence The Kullback–Leibler divergence (KL-divergence), of Gamma(αp, βp) ("true" distribution) from Gamma(αq, βq) ("approximating" distribution) is given by Written using the k, θ parameterization, the KL-divergence of Gamma(kp, θp) from Gamma(kq, θq) is given by Laplace transform The Laplace transform of the gamma PDF is Related distributions General Let be independent and identically distributed random variables following an exponential distribution with rate parameter λ, then ~ Gamma(n, λ) where n is the shape parameter and λ is the rate, and where the rate changes nλ. If X ~ Gamma(1, 1/λ) (in the shape–scale parametrization), then X has an exponential distribution with rate parameter λ. If X ~ Gamma(ν/2, 2) (in the shape–scale parametrization), then X is identical to χ2(ν), the chi-squared distribution with ν degrees of freedom. Conversely, if Q ~ χ2(ν) and c is a positive constant, then cQ ~ Gamma(ν/2, 2c). If k is an integer, the gamma distribution is an Erlang distribution and is the probability distribution of the waiting time until the kth "arrival" in a one-dimensional Poisson process with intensity 1/θ. If then If X has a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution with parameter a, then If X ~ Gamma(k, θ), then follows an exponential-gamma (abbreviated exp-gamma) distribution. It is sometimes referred to as the log-gamma distribution. Formulas for its mean and variance are in the section #Logarithmic expectation and variance. If X ~ Gamma(k, θ), then follows a generalized gamma distribution with parameters p = 2, d = 2k, and . More generally, if X ~ Gamma(k,θ), then for follows a generalized gamma distribution with parameters p = 1/q, d = k/q, and . If X ~ Gamma(k, θ) with shape k and scale θ, then 1/X ~ Inv-Gamma(k, θ−1) (see Inverse-gamma distribution for derivation). Parametrization 1: If are independent, then , or equivalently, Parametrization 2: If are independent, then , or equivalently, If X ~ Gamma(α, θ) and Y ~ Gamma(β, θ) are independently distributed, then X/(X + Y) has a beta distribution with parameters α and β, and X/(X + Y) is independent of X + Y, which is Gamma(α + β, θ)-distributed. If Xi ~ Gamma(αi, 1) are independently distributed, then the vector (X1/S, ..., Xn/S), where S = X1 + ... + Xn, follows a Dirichlet distribution with parameters α1, ..., αn. For large k the gamma distribution converges to normal distribution with mean μ = kθ and variance σ2 = kθ2. The gamma distribution is the conjugate prior for the precision of the normal distribution with known mean. The Wishart distribution is a multivariate generalization of the gamma distribution (samples are positive-definite matrices rather than positive real numbers). The gamma distribution is a special case of the generalized gamma distribution, the generalized integer gamma distribution, and the generalized inverse Gaussian distribution. Among the discrete distributions, the negative binomial distribution is sometimes considered the discrete analogue of the gamma distribution. Tweedie distributions – the gamma distribution is a member of the family of Tweedie exponential dispersion models. Compound gamma If the shape parameter of the gamma distribution is known, but the inverse-scale parameter is unknown, then a gamma distribution for the inverse scale forms a conjugate prior. The compound distribution, which results from integrating out the inverse scale, has a closed-form solution, known as the compound gamma distribution. If instead the shape parameter is known but the mean is unknown, with the prior of the mean being given by another gamma distribution, then it results in K-distribution. Statistical inference Parameter estimation Maximum likelihood estimation The likelihood function for N iid observations (x1, ..., xN) is from which we calculate the log-likelihood function Finding the maximum with respect to θ by taking the derivative and setting it equal to zero yields the maximum likelihood estimator of the θ parameter: Substituting this into the log-likelihood function gives Finding the maximum with respect to k by taking the derivative and setting it equal to zero yields where is the digamma function. There is no closed-form solution for k. The function is numerically very well behaved, so if a numerical solution is desired, it can be found using, for example, Newton's method. An initial value of k can be found either using the method of moments, or using the approximation If we let then k is approximately which is within 1.5% of the correct value. An explicit form for the Newton–Raphson update of this initial guess is: Closed-form estimators Consistent closed-form estimators of k and θ exists that are derived from the likelihood of the generalized gamma distribution. The estimate for the shape k is and the estimate for the scale θ is If the rate parameterization is used, the estimate of . These estimators are not strictly maximum likelihood estimators, but are instead referred to as mixed type log-moment estimators. They have however similar efficiency as the maximum likelihood estimators. Although these estimators are consistent, they have a small bias. A bias-corrected variant of the estimator for the scale θ is A bias correction for the shape parameter k is given as Bayesian minimum mean squared error With known k and unknown θ, the posterior density function for theta (using the standard scale-invariant prior for θ) is Denoting Integration with respect to θ can be carried out using a change of variables, revealing that 1/θ is gamma-distributed with parameters α = Nk, β = y. The moments can be computed by taking the ratio (m by m = 0) which shows that the mean ± standard deviation estimate of the posterior distribution for θ is Bayesian inference Conjugate prior In Bayesian inference, the gamma distribution is the conjugate prior to many likelihood distributions: the Poisson, exponential, normal (with known mean), Pareto, gamma with known shape σ, inverse gamma with known shape parameter, and Gompertz with known scale parameter. The gamma distribution's conjugate prior is: where Z is the normalizing constant, which has no closed-form solution. The posterior distribution can be found by updating the parameters as follows: where n is the number of observations, and xi is the ith observation. Occurrence and applications The gamma distribution has been used to model the size of insurance claims and rainfalls. This means that aggregate insurance claims and the amount of rainfall accumulated in a reservoir are modelled by a gamma process – much like the exponential distribution generates a Poisson process. The gamma distribution is also used to model errors in multi-level Poisson regression models, because a mixture of Poisson distributions with gamma distributed rates has a known closed form distribution, called negative binomial. In wireless communication, the gamma distribution is used to model the multi-path fading of signal power; see also Rayleigh distribution and Rician distribution. In oncology, the age distribution of cancer incidence often follows the gamma distribution, whereas the shape and scale parameters predict, respectively, the number of driver events and the time interval between them. In neuroscience, the gamma distribution is often used to describe the distribution of inter-spike intervals. In bacterial gene expression, the copy number of a constitutively expressed protein often follows the gamma distribution, where the scale and shape parameter are, respectively, the mean number of bursts per cell cycle and the mean number of protein molecules produced by a single mRNA during its lifetime. In genomics, the gamma distribution was applied in peak calling step (i.e. in recognition of signal) in ChIP-chip and ChIP-seq data analysis. The gamma distribution is widely used as a conjugate prior in Bayesian statistics. It is the conjugate prior for the precision (i.e. inverse of the variance) of a normal distribution. It is also the conjugate prior for the exponential distribution. Generating gamma-distributed random variables Given the scaling property above, it is enough to generate gamma variables with θ = 1 as we can later convert to any value of β with simple division. Suppose we wish to generate random variables from Gamma(n + δ, 1), where n is a non-negative integer and 0 < δ < 1. Using the fact that a Gamma(1, 1) distribution is the same as an Exp(1) distribution, and noting the method of generating exponential variables, we conclude that if U is uniformly distributed on (0, 1], then −ln(U) is distributed Gamma(1, 1) (i.e. inverse transform sampling). Now, using the "α-addition" property of gamma distribution, we expand this result: where Uk are all uniformly distributed on (0, 1] and independent. All that is left now is to generate a variable distributed as Gamma(δ, 1) for 0 < δ < 1 and apply the "α-addition" property once more. This is the most difficult part. Random generation of gamma variates is discussed in detail by Devroye, noting that none are uniformly fast for all shape parameters. For small values of the shape parameter, the algorithms are often not valid. For arbitrary values of the shape parameter, one can apply the Ahrens and Dieter modified acceptance–rejection method Algorithm GD (shape k ≥ 1), or transformation method when 0 < k < 1. Also see Cheng and Feast Algorithm GKM 3 or Marsaglia's squeeze method. The following is a version of the Ahrens-Dieter acceptance–rejection method: Generate U, V and W as iid uniform (0, 1] variates. If then and . Otherwise, and . If then go to step 1. ξ is distributed as Γ(δ, 1). A summary of this is where is the integer part of k, ξ is generated via the algorithm above with δ = {k} (the fractional part of k) and the Uk are all independent. While the above approach is technically correct, Devroye notes that it is linear in the value of k and in general is not a good choice. Instead he recommends using either rejection-based or table-based methods, depending on context. For example, Marsaglia's simple transformation-rejection method relying on one normal variate X and one uniform variate U: Set and . Set . If and return , else go back to step 2. With generates a gamma distributed random number in time that is approximately constant with k. The acceptance rate does depend on k, with an acceptance rate of 0.95, 0.98, and 0.99 for k=1, 2, and 4. For k < 1, one can use to boost k to be usable with this method. Notes External links ModelAssist (2017) Uses of the gamma distribution in risk modeling, including applied examples in Excel. 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207081	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinope%20%28moon%29	Sinope (moon)	Sinope is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Lick Observatory in 1914, and is named after Sinope of Greek mythology. Sinope did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as . It was sometimes called "Hades" between 1955 and 1975. Orbit Sinope orbits Jupiter on a high-eccentricity and high-inclination retrograde orbit. Its orbit is continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations. Sinope is believed to belong to the Pasiphae group of retrograde irregular moons. However, given its mean inclination and different colour, Sinope could be also an independent object, captured independently, unrelated to the collision and break-up at the origin of the group. The diagram illustrates Sinope's orbital elements in relation to other satellites of the group. Sinope is also known to be in a secular resonance with Jupiter, similar to Pasiphae. However, Sinope can drop out of this resonance and has periods of both resonant and non-resonant behaviour in time scales of 107 years. Physical characteristics From measurements of its thermal emission, Sinope has an estimated diameter of . Sinope is red (colour indices B−V=0.84, R−V=0.46), unlike Pasiphae, which is grey. Sinope's infrared spectrum is similar to those of D-type asteroids but different from that of Pasiphae. These dissimilarities of the physical parameters suggest a different origin from the core members of the group. See also Sinope in fiction References External links Sinope Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewitt pages Jupiter's Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard) Ephemeris IAU-MPC NSES Moons of Jupiter Irregular satellites 19140721 Pasiphae group	[ -0.13175730407238007, 0.20256084203720093, -0.1687927097082138, 0.08126852661371231, -0.6440374851226807, 0.35846760869026184, -0.0392024926841259, 0.4144524931907654, -0.2016589343547821, -0.4322673976421356, -0.20583371818065643, -0.1603124737739563, -0.3358807861804962, 0.4089988172054291, -0.0408233143389225, -0.17583218216896057, 0.49449422955513, 0.7010852098464966, -0.4416097104549408, -0.5331049561500549, -0.035458266735076904, 0.009994168765842915, 0.5350711941719055, 0.08909285068511963, -0.4123617708683014, -0.14190323650836945, 0.23872186243534088, 0.021250810474157333, 0.8599002361297607, 0.07890729606151581, -0.3700030446052551, 0.7600042223930359, -0.06456802785396576, -0.21668225526809692, 0.03491491824388504, 0.3032703101634979, -0.2850854694843292, 0.4882691502571106, -0.07613499462604523, -0.34644198417663574, 0.09256922453641891, 0.24807904660701752, 0.3565288782119751, 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207082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Wark	David Wark	David Wark, (February 19, 1804 – August 20, 1905) Irish-born, was a prominent Canadian Senator who served nearly 38 years in office. He represented Kent County in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick from 1843 to 1850. In 1847, he introduced a resolution calling for free trade among the British North American colonies and was, therefore, among the first to seek the closer relations among the colonies that eventually led, 20 years later, to Confederation. Wark was named to the Legislative Council in 1850 and served until Confederation. He served in the province's Executive Council as a minister without portfolio from 1858 to 1862 and as Receiver General from 1866 to 1867. Wark was named Senator by a Royal Proclamation in 1867. Known as the "Grand Old Man of the Canadian Senate", he served until his death at the age of 101. At the time of his demise, Wark was the longest lived legislator in the world; he was later surpassed by another Canadian Senator, Georges-Casimir Dessaulles, who died in 1930 at the age of 102. Family background David Wark's family originated in Scotland, but his forebears emigrated to Ireland in the early 17th century as part of an organized colonization known as the Plantation of Ulster. His father was a farmer near Derry and David Wark was born there on February 19, 1804. He received his elementary education in Derry schools before pursuing more advanced studies under the supervision of the resident Presbyterian clergyman. Emigration and business career In 1825, at the age of 21, Wark emigrated to eastern New Brunswick's Richibucto, Rexton area where he worked as a bookkeeper for local merchants and for six years, taught their children. By 1836, he had saved enough money to buy his own general store and later, he began a successful, 40-year career in the lumber business. His long public service career began when he was appointed county magistrate and then, a judge in the Court of Common Pleas. Political career In 1842, Wark was elected to the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick as a Liberal. He was re-elected in 1846. In 1850, he was appointed to the upper house or Legislative Council of New Brunswick where he served for 16 years. During that time, he was appointed to the cabinet or Executive Council of New Brunswick as Minister Without Portfolio (1858-1862) and Receiver General (1866-1867). When New Brunswick joined Confederation in 1867, Wark was appointed to the Senate of Canada. He sat in the senate for 37 years, nine months and 28 days until his death in 1905. During his time there, he served continuously as a member of the powerful standing committee on banking, commerce and railways which became the standing committee on banking and commerce in 1875. By 1871, he had earned enough money to retire from business pursuits and move to Fredericton. References External links 1804 births 1905 deaths Canadian centenarians Men centenarians Canadian senators from New Brunswick Liberal Party of Canada senators Members of the Legislative Council of New Brunswick Members of the Executive Council of New Brunswick Canadian people of Irish descent Colony of New Brunswick people	[ -0.3951846659183502, 0.2855570316314697, -0.730877697467804, 0.26323720812797546, -0.3537242114543915, 0.7756881713867188, 0.7767709493637085, 0.20354817807674408, -0.4373598098754883, -0.44713497161865234, 0.06602750718593597, -0.05801971256732941, -0.1571708768606186, 0.503879964351654, 0.3149353861808777, 0.6994946002960205, -0.6173457503318787, 0.2704978585243225, -0.13375458121299744, -0.2651936709880829, -0.3712403178215027, -0.17788365483283997, 0.30144670605659485, 0.07883693277835846, 0.010880297049880028, 0.4666820764541626, 0.11015567928552628, -0.2680533528327942, -0.619422972202301, 0.12769761681556702, 0.18129681050777435, 0.6288669109344482, 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207083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian%20jiu-jitsu	Brazilian jiu-jitsu	Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ; ; , , jiu-jitsu brasileiro) is a martial art and combat sport based on ground fighting (ne-waza) and submission holds. BJJ focuses on the skill of taking an opponent to the ground, controlling one's opponent, gaining a dominant position, and using a number of techniques to force them into submission via joint locks or chokeholds. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu was first developed around 1920 by Brazilian brothers Carlos, Oswaldo, Gastão Jr., George, and Hélio Gracie, after Carlos was taught traditional Kodokan judo by a travelling Japanese judoka, Mitsuyo Maeda, in 1917. Later, they developed their own self-defense system and named it Gracie Jiu-Jitsu. BJJ eventually came to be its own defined combat sport through the innovations, practices, and adaptation of Gracie Jiu-Jitsu and Judo, and became an essential martial art for modern MMA. Governing bodies such as the IBJJF work worldwide, and set the rules and standards to be held in sport BJJ competitions. BJJ revolves around the concept that a smaller, weaker person can successfully defend him/herself against a bigger, stronger, heavier opponent by using leverage and weight distribution, taking the fight to the ground and using a number of holds and submissions to defeat them. BJJ training can be used for sport grappling and self-defense situations. Sparring, commonly referred to as "rolling" within the BJJ community, and live drilling plays a major role in training and the practitioner's development. BJJ can also be used as a method of promoting physical fitness, building character, and as a way of life. History Origins Mitsuyo Maeda, one of five Kodokan's top groundwork experts trained by judo's founder Kano Jigoro, was sent overseas to demonstrate and spread his art to the world. He left Japan in 1904 and visited a number of countries giving "jiu-do" demonstrations and accepting challenges from wrestlers, boxers, savate fighters, and various other martial artists, and arrived in Brazil on 14 November 1914. Maeda had trained first in sumo as a teenager, and after the interest generated by stories about the success of Kodokan judo at competitions with other jujutsu schools of the time, he became a student of Kano. Maeda & Gracie Gastão Gracie was a business partner of the American Circus in Belém. In 1916, Italian Argentine circus Queirolo Brothers staged shows there and presented Maeda. In 1917 Carlos Gracie (eldest son of Gastão Gracie) watched a ‘Kano Jiu-Jitsu’ demonstration by Maeda at the Da Paz Theatre and decided he wanted to learn. Maeda accepted Carlos as a student. He taught Carlos for several years (perhaps 5–6 years), eventually passing his knowledge on to his brothers. Gracie's account of the events is that his younger sibling Hélio Gracie gradually developed Gracie jiu-jitsu as a softer, pragmatic adaptation that focused more on the ground fighting and leverage aspect of Jiu-Jitsu/Judo (ne-waza) rather than the throws, as he was unable to perform many Judo throws, due to his size, that required direct opposition to an opponent's strength. Although the Gracie family is typically recognized as the main family to first promote Brazilian jiu-jitsu as it is known today, there was also another prominent lineage derived from Maeda via another Brazilian disciple, Luiz França. This lineage had been represented particularly by Oswaldo Fadda. Fadda and his students were famous for the influential use of footlocks, and the lineage still survives through Fadda's links in teams such as Nova União and Grappling Fight Team (GF Team). Name The name "jiu-jitsu" derives from an older romanization of its original spelling in the West; the modern Hepburn romanization of 柔術 is "jūjutsu". When Maeda left Japan, judo was still often referred to as "Kano jiu-jitsu", or, even more generically, simply as jiu-jitsu. Higashi, the co-author of Kano Jiu-Jitsu wrote in the foreword: Outside Japan, however, this distinction was noted even less. Thus, when Maeda and Satake arrived in Brazil in 1914, every newspaper announced their art as being "jiu-jitsu", despite both men being Kodokan judoka. It was not until 1925 that the Japanese government itself officially mandated that the correct name for the martial art taught in the Japanese public schools should be "judo" rather than "jujutsu". In Brazil, the art is still called "jiu-jitsu". When the Gracies went to the United States and spread jiu-jitsu, they used the terms "Gracie jiu-jitsu" and non-Gracies using the term "Brazilian jiu-jitsu" to differentiate from the already present styles using similar-sounding names. In a 1994 interview with Yoshinori Nishi, Hélio Gracie said that he did not even know the word Judo itself until the sport came in the 1950s to Brazil, because he heard that Mitsuyo Maeda called his style "jiu-jitsu". The art is sometimes referred to as Gracie jiu-jitsu (GJJ), a name trademarked by Rorion Gracie, but after a legal dispute with his cousin Carley Gracie, his trademark to the name was voided. Other members of the Gracie family often call their style by personalized names, such as Ceaser Gracie Jiu-Jitsu or Renzo Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, and similarly, the Machado family call their style Machado Jiu-Jitsu (MJJ). While each style and its instructors have their own unique aspects, they are all basic variations of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. There are currently four major BJJ branches in Brazil: Gracie Humaita, Gracie Barra, Carlson Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, and Alliance Jiu Jitsu. Each branch traces its roots back to Mitsuyo Maeda via Donato Pires Dos Reis, and then through the Gracie family or Oswaldo Fadda. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu share some techniques with the original Kodokan Judo, especially certain styles practiced before Judo became part of the Olympics such as Kosen Judo, and still practiced to a lesser extent, as well as with the earlier ryu school of Jujutsu. Some practitioners have suggested that Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu should just be called "Jiu-Jitsu". Divergence from Kodokan rules Certain changes were made to the rules of sport judo after judo was introduced to Brazil. Some of these rule changes sought to enhance it as a spectator sport, and others aimed to improve safety. Several of these rule changes de-emphasized the groundwork aspects of judo, and others have reduced the range of joint locks application. Brazilian jiu-jitsu did not follow these changes to judo rules, and this divergence gave BJJ a distinct identity as a ground focused grappling art, this difference was later consolidated with the creation of a new set of rules that guide BJJ practice today. Even though BJJ permits the same techniques as judo, especially when taking the combat to the ground, they are not scored in the same way. In Judo, throwing techniques are scored higher and can give a direct victory if executed correctly, the emphasis of the fight is to sweep or throw the opponent to the ground to win. In BJJ, ground fighting positions such as the rear mount receive higher scores and the focus of the fight is to establish a dominant position against the adversary on the ground and submit them using chokeholds or joint locks. BJJ also allows heelhooks and knee-reaping which are prohibited in Judo, and any takedowns used in wrestling, sambo, or other grappling arts, including direct attempts to take down by touching the legs or dragging the opponent to the ground. Spinal locks and cervical locks are not allowed in gi jiu-jitsu, amateur MMA, multiple forms of no-gi jiu-jitsu, Judo, and other martial arts, due to potential to cause serious bodily injury. BJJ also has become more "sports-oriented" in recent years, prohibiting techniques such as slams. Another divergence of BJJ from Judo and Jujutsu is that the first allows no-gi practice and competition, with its own subset of rules. Use of holds and takedowns from wrestling and other grappling styles is common in no-gi BJJ, and strikes may also be used when the competition rules permit, such as the open palm strike in CJJ (Combat jiu-jitsu). Prominence In 1972, Carley Gracie moved to the United States to teach jiu-jitsu, and in 1978 was followed by Rorion Gracie, who co-founded the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993. Jiu-jitsu came to international prominence in martial arts circles when Brazilian jiu-jitsu expert Royce Gracie won the first, second and fourth Ultimate Fighting Championships, which at the time were single elimination martial arts tournaments. Royce fought successfully against several larger opponents proficient in other fighting styles, including boxing, shoot-fighting, muay thai, karate, wrestling, and taekwondo. BJJ has since become an elementary aspect of MMA, revealing the importance of ground fighting in a fight. Sport BJJ tournaments continue to grow in popularity and have given rise to no-gi submission grappling tournaments, such as the ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship and NAGA, the North American Grappling Association. Sport BJJ has also become a popular method of fitness around the world in recent years. Style of fighting Brazilian jiu-jitsu focuses on getting an opponent to the ground in order to neutralize possible strength or size advantages through ground fighting techniques and submission holds involving joint-locks and chokeholds. On the ground, physical strength can be offset or enhanced through proper grappling techniques. BJJ employs a wide range of takedown techniques to bring an opponent to the ground such as "pulling guard", which is not used in other combat sports such as Judo or Wrestling. Once the opponent is on the ground, a number of manoeuvres (and counter-manoeuvres) are available to manipulate the opponent into a suitable position for the application of a submission technique. Achieving a dominant position on the ground is one of the hallmarks of BJJ, which includes effective use of the guard position to defend oneself from bottom (using both submissions and sweeps, with sweeps leading to the possibility of dominant position or an opportunity to pass the guard), and passing the guard to dominate from top position with side control, mount, and back mount positions. This system of manoeuvring and manipulation can be likened to a form of kinetic or physical chess when executed by two experienced practitioners. A submission hold in BJJ is often assimilated to the equivalent of "checkmate", where the opponent is left with no other option but to tap, be injured, or choked. Renzo Gracie wrote in his book Mastering JUJITSU: The book details Maeda's theory as arguing that physical combat could be broken down into distinct phases, such as the striking phase, the grappling phase, the ground phase, etc. Thus, it was a smart fighter's task to keep the fight located in the phase of combat best suited to his own strengths. Renzo Gracie stated that this was a fundamental influence of the Gracie approach to combat. These strategies were further developed over time by the Gracie family, among others, and became prominent in contemporary MMA. Ground fighting Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu is mainly differentiated from other martial arts by its greater emphasis on ground fighting. BJJ places less emphasis on standing techniques, such as striking and throws, although takedowns score points and the rules allows for a diverse range of techniques such as single, double leg takedowns, or foot sweeps. Some BJJ practitioners also cross train with wrestling, judo, and sambo. Training methods As BJJ focuses on submissions, sparring and live drilling become the most essential part of the training regime, this type of training allows practitioners to practice at full speed and with full strength, resembling the effort made in a competition. Training methods include drills in which techniques are practiced against a non-resisting and resisting partners; isolation sparring (commonly referred to as positional drilling) where only a certain technique or sets of techniques are used; and full sparring where each practitioner tries to submit their opponent through technique. Physical conditioning is also an important aspect of training. The Gracie family lineage descended from Helio Gracie focuses on practical applications of BJJ that apply primarily to self-defense. They will often run development drills in which a person is surrounded by a circle of other students who will attempt to attack the defending student, who in turn must defend themselves using techniques. Primary ground positions Once on the ground, the BJJ practitioner strives to take a dominant or controlling position from where to apply submissions. These positions provide different submission or transition options. Side control In side control, the practitioner pins his opponent to the ground from the side of their torso. The top grappler lies across the opponent with weight applied to the opponent's chest. The opponent may be further controlled by pressure on either side of the shoulders and hips from the practitioner's elbows, shoulders, and knees. A wide variety of submissions can be initiated from side control. It is also referred to as the side mount. Additionally, the typical side mount increases opportunity for the top grappler to advance to other dominant positions. This position is often used in MMA as it allows the top fighter to strike whilst overcoming their opponents defense. There are many variants of the side control position, including kesa gatame, standard side control, reverse side control, and other positions. Knee on belly position The knee on belly position is a modified side pin that is distinctly separated from the side control position. The knee on belly position is characterized primarily by the control of the opponent with one leg out for base and balance and the other leg positioned across the opponent's torso pinning them to the ground. This form of pin is a mobile pin rather than a static pin and is considered a more dominant position in many grappling formats. The knee on belly position is worth additional points because it provides a greater striking platform than traditional side control and is closer to achieving the more ideal mounted position. Full mount In the mount (or full mount) position, the practitioner sits astride the opponent's front torso or chest, controlling the opponent with his bodyweight and hips. In the strongest form of this position, the practitioner works his knees into the opponent's armpits to reduce arm movements and ability to move or counter submission attempts. Full Mount can be used to apply a variety of submissions including armlocks or chokes. Back mount When taking the back mount position (often known in Brazilian jiu-jitsu as the back grab or attacking the back), the practitioner attaches to the back of the opponent by wrapping his legs around and hooking the opponent's thighs with their heel, or locking in a body triangle by crossing one shin across the waist like a belt then placing the back of the opposing knee over the instep as if finishing a triangle choke. Simultaneously, the upper body is controlled by wrapping the arms around the chest or neck of the opponent. This position is often used to apply chokeholds, as well as arm bars and triangles, and neutralizes an opponent's potential size or strength advantage. North south position The North South position occurs when a practitioner is lying on their back on the ground and their opponent is lying on top, with the head over the chest area and controlling the bottom practitioner's arms. As with most top controlling positions in BJJ, the top practitioner applies pressure by bringing their hips downwards towards the ground, generating what is referred to as dead weight. There are several submissions and transitions that are possible from the North South position, most commonly the North South choke, North South kimura, and others. Guards When in the "Guard" position, the practitioner is on their back controlling an opponent with his legs. The bottom practitioner pushes and pulls with the legs or feet to unbalance and limit the movements of his opponent. This position allows practitioners a wide variety of counter-attacks from the bottom position, including submissions and sweeps. The three most common types of guards include the Closed Guard, Half Guard, and Open Guard. In closed guard, the bottom grappler has his legs around the opponent's hips, with ankles closed together to control their opponent. The closed guard can be an effective position. This guard allows many setups for submissions such as joint locks and chokes, as well as sweeps. In the open guard, the legs are not hooked together and the bottom grappler uses his legs or feet to push or pull their opponent. There are many variations of open guard with distinct names and positioning including the Butterfly Guard, De La Riva Guard, X-Guard, Rubber guard, Spider Guard, Octopus Guard, Lapel Guard, Worm Guard (made popular by Keenan Cornelius) and others. Butterfly guard is when the bottom grappler brings his legs up and feet together against the inner thighs of top opponent. The name is derived from the resulting butterfly wing shape. Butterfly guard increases both space to maneuver and the ability to counter the opponent with the shins or arches of the feet against the competitor's inner thighs. Spider guard is when the bottom grappler puts one or two of his feet on his opponents arms, this guard is effective at keeping control on the bottom and can be used to setup sweeps or submissions. In the half guard, one of the top grappler's legs is controlled by the bottom grappler's legs, preventing the top opponent from passing side control or full mount positions. There is also a variant of half guard called "50/50 guard", which consist of each opponent usually in sitting positions with one of their legs hooking the same leg of their opponent in a mirrored fashion. This position is called 50/50 because neither opponent has a distinct advantage, where both sides have the same possibilities of sweeps and attacks. Another variation of the half guard position is the "deep half guard", which involves the bottom grappler positioning themselves underneath their opponent, grabbing the top grappler's thigh. This gives the individual on the bottom the opportunity to sweep their opponent, and end up on a more dominant, top position. This position was popularized by American BJJ Black Belt, Jeff Glover. Submissions The majority of submission holds can be grouped into two broad categories: joint locks and chokes. Joint locks typically involve isolating an opponent's limb and creating a lever with the body position, which will force the joint to move past its normal range of motion. Pressure is increased in a controlled manner and released if the opponent cannot escape the hold and signals defeat by tapping. A choke hold can disrupt the blood supply to the brain and cause unconsciousness if the opponent does not tap when required. Compression locks See also Compression lock A less common type of submission hold is a compression lock, where the muscle of an opponent is compressed against a hard, large bone (commonly the shin or wrist), causing significant pain to the opponent. These types of locks are not usually allowed in competition due to the high risk of tearing muscle tissue. This type of lock also often hyper-extends the joint in the opposite direction, pulling it apart. Some compression locks include the Achilles lock, Biceps slicer, and Leg slicer (or Calf slicer). Joint locks While many joint locks are permitted in BJJ, most competitions ban or restrict some or all joint locks that involve the knees, ankles, and spine. The reason for this is that the angles of manipulation required to cause pain are nearly the same as those that would cause serious injury. Joint locks that require a twisting motion of the knee (such as heel hooks or knee bars) are usually banned in competitions because successfully completing the move can frequently result in permanent damage, often requiring surgery. Similarly, joint manipulations of the spine are typically barred due to the inherent danger of crushing or misaligning cervical vertebrae. Leglocks are allowed in varying degrees depending on skill level, with the most prominent BJJ tournaments typically allowing only the straight ankle lock and muscle stretching submissions such as the "banana split" from white through purple belt, with the kneebar, toehold, and calf slicer submissions being permitted at brown and black belt. Heel hooks and knee-reaping are illegal in gi BJJ, since they are considered to be exceptionally dangerous techniques, but are allowed by IBJJF rules in no-gi competitions. Most joint locks involving the wrist, elbow, shoulder or ankle are permitted as there is a great deal more flexibility in those joints and those locks are usually safe. Joint locks include armbars, kimuras, Americanas, straight-arm lock, omoplata, marceloplata, banana split (or electric chair), twister, wrist lock, heel hook, toehold, kneebar, straight ankle lock, and others. Chokes Chokes are common forms of submission. In BJJ, the chokes that are used put pressure on the carotid arteries, and may also apply pressure to the nerve baroreceptors in the neck. This kind of choke is very fast acting (if done properly) with victims typically losing consciousness in around 3–5 seconds. In contrast, an air choke (involving constriction of the windpipe) can take up to two minutes, depending on how long the person can hold their breath, and may cause serious damage to the throat. Chokes include rear-naked choke, bow and arrow choke, triangle, Guillotine choke, sleeve choke (or Ezekiel choke), cross collar choke (or X choke), baseball choke, Clock choke, D'Arce choke, Anaconda choke, Arm triangle choke, north–south choke, crucifix choke, Gogoplata, loop choke, lapel half nelson choke, and others. Uniform The Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioner's uniform commonly referred to as gi or kimono is similar to a judogi, but with slight differences in the dimensions and often made of lighter material with tighter cuffs on the pants and jacket. This allows the practitioner to benefit from a closer fit, providing less material for an opponent to manipulate. Traditionally, to be promoted in Brazilian jiu-jitsu, the wearing of the Jiu-Jitsu gi while training is a requirement. Recently with the growing popularity of "no-gi" Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu the practice of giving out belts to no-gi practitioners (e.g., Rolles Gracie awarding Rashad Evans a black belt) has become more common. There are certain differences between gi jiu-jitsu and "no-gi" jiu-jitsu. In gi jiu-jitsu one can grip an opponent's uniform, using it to submit or advance position. There are a number of submissions that are specific to the gi, such as the "Loop choke", "Collar choke", and others. A specific set of rules to guide no-gi competitions is issued by the IBJJF, but there may be variation in the set of rules applied in each competition. By IBJJF rules uniform grips are not permitted in "no-gi" jiu-jitsu. No-gi Jiu-Jitsu practitioners, therefore, don't wear the traditional gi or kimono (which increases the athlete's weight and limits mobility). BJJ athletes who practice no-gi usually wear a rash guard and MMA shorts or Spats. Grading The Brazilian jiu-jitsu ranking system awards a practitioner different coloured belts to signify increasing levels of technical knowledge and practical skill. While the system's structure shares its origins with the judo ranking system and the origins of all coloured belts, it now contains many of its own unique aspects and themes. Some of these differences are relatively minor, such as the division between youth and adult belts and the stripe/degree system. Others are quite distinct and have become synonymous with the art, such as a marked informality in promotional criteria, including as a focus on a competitive demonstration of skill, and a conservative approach to promotion in general. Traditionally, the concept of competitive skill demonstration as a quickened and earned route of promotion holds true. Some schools have placed a green belt for adults between the white and blue belt ranks due to the long periods between advancement. In addition, the use of a grey belt has been instituted for many children's programs to signal progress between the white and yellow belt rankings. Unlike in some martial arts such as taekwondo and karate, a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu commonly takes more than several years to earn, and the rank is generally considered expert level. The amount of time it takes to achieve the rank of black belt varies between the practitioner. Some notable individuals who had previous backgrounds in other martial arts have been promoted directly to black belt rank without going through any intermediate rank, though this has fallen out of favour in recent times. Others have achieved the rank in relatively short time frames. Outside of exceptions such as these, the average time frame is around 10 years with a consistent training schedule. However, Ryron Gracie (grandson/grandnephew of founders Hélio and Carlos Gracie) has stated that the average of 10–12 years is longer than necessary, suggesting that the ego of the practitioner often hinders progress, and advancement to black belt should take about 7 years. Federations Since its inception Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu has had different registered federations and tournaments (some organizations illegitimately calling themselves federations). The first jiu-jitsu federation was the Jiu-Jitsu Federation of Guanabara, which has remained a regional federation of Rio de Janeiro, while many others were founded. Among the most prestigious of the many federations are the Sport Jiu Jitsu International Federation (SJJIF), a nonprofit organization with federations and tournaments around the globe with the mission of making jiu-jitsu an Olympic sport. The International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation, a for-profit organization that hosts a number of tournaments and JJGF, founded by Rickson Gracie, which has focus on both BJJ as self-defense and as a sport. Weight classes The weight classes for BJJ competitions can differ depending on the organisation that is promoting the event. The IBJJF weight classes are the most commonly used, under the IBJJF rules, the weight classes vary by age, sex and competition type (Gi vs Nogi). Tournaments While there are numerous local and regional tournaments administered regularly by private individuals and academies, there are two major entities in jiu-jitsu circles. First, is the Sport Jiu Jitsu International Federation (SJJIF), a (nonprofit) organization with international federations and tournaments. Second, is the International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation (IBJJF), a for-profit company that hosts a number of major tournaments worldwide. These include the Pan American Championship, European Championship, and the Mundials. California, New York, and Texas are the three states in the US which host tournaments most frequently. Other promotions within North America, such as Battleground Grappling Championship, American Grappling Federation (AGF), North American BJJ Federation (NABJJF), and North American Grappling Association (NAGA) host tournaments nationwide, but visit these states multiple times within a tournament season. Another tournament to spring from the founding Gracie lineage is the Gracie Nationals or Gracie Worlds. Founded in 2007 by Rose Gracie, daughter of Ultimate Fighting Championship creator and Brazilian jiu-jitsu grandmaster Rorion Gracie. Gracie Nationals/Worlds followed the guidelines of other major tournaments of the time, implementing a points systems In 2012, the Gracie Worlds introduced a new submission-only format, removing certain judging systems that many interpreted as an outdated scoring system. Rose spoke about this change when she said, "Today's tournaments aren't what my grandfather [Helio Gracie] envisioned. There's so many rules that it takes away from the actual art of jiu-jitsu. We don't see many submissions. We see cheating, we see decisions made by a referee. We need to stand together against this and support a submission only kind of revolution." Cheating in jiu-jitsu, Rose said, comes in many forms. "[A competitor] will earn a point, then hold for the entire match so they can win with that one little advantage they got at the start," Rose said. "That's not jiu-jitsu. That's cheating." This discontent with points-based and advantage-style competition has been echoed throughout the jiu-jitsu community, leading to many prominent submission-only style events. At these events, the winner of a match is determined only by submission, and these tournaments at times have no time limit, or are timed with a result of double disqualification if there is no submission victory. This form of tournament have yet to become widespread, but is gaining in popularity especially amongst MMA competitors. Metamoris, a grappling competition event run by Rose's brother Ralek Gracie, has helped advocate this tournament form. Another notable example of a submission-only format is the EBI (Eddie Bravo Invitational), which was the first televised event of its kind, and is now being featured on UFC Fight Pass. Other submission-only events have cropped up all over the world including TUFF invitational, Polaris Pro Grappling based in the United Kingdom, Submission Underground backed by longtime MMA star Chael Sonnen, and the QUINTET promotion, devised by Japanese MMA legend Kazushi Sakuraba and based around teams of five players each representing a different gym or background. At tournaments, especially those hosted by the International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation (IBJJF), some athletes engage in a practice called "closing out". This occurs when two athletes, usually friends or members of the same team, meet in a match but refuse to fight. Tournament organizers can minimize the chance of close-outs by placing athletes from the same team on opposite sides of the bracket, a practice which makes the finals the only match in which they could possibly meet (assuming each team has no more than two competitors in a given bracket). When two athletes close out a match, they agree which one of them will technically forfeit to the other. As this most often occurs in the final matches of tournaments, this usually means deciding which of the two will win the gold medal and which will win the silver. Notable examples of closing out include Marcus "Buchecha" Almeida forfeiting the finals of the Absolute division at the 2018 IBJJF World Championship to his friend Leandro Lo, who had suffered a shoulder injury during a previous match, and frequent close outs between the brothers Paulo and Joao Miyao, who often compete in the same weight division. Proponents of close-outs claim it fosters team unity and allows competitors to train as hard and as freely as they can with their teammates. They say that facing a teammate in a competition would make them hold back in training. Critics of the practice say it diminishes audience enjoyment of tournaments where it is allowed, and some tournaments, notably the ADCC, ban it. Health considerations Safety Brazilian jiu-jitsu is one of the safest full contact martial arts. Its injury rate is around 9.2-38.6 per 1000 athlete exposures. This is lower than in mixed martial arts (236-286 per 1000), boxing (210-420 per 1000), judo (25.3-130.6) and taekwondo (20.5-139.5). It is similar to wrestling, which also uses grappling instead of striking. The few injuries that may be incurred in Brazilian jiu-jitsu usually affect the joints and rarely the head. The most common injuries Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners suffer from are ACL tears, rotator cuff tears in the shoulders and spinal disc herniations, most commonly in the neck region. Many are repairable via surgery that require an extended rehab period before the athlete can return to BJJ training. Also many athletes suffer from minor injuries, such as elbow and wrist tendonitis, due to overtraining and the grappling nature of the martial art, which can be strenuous and taxing for the joints and the tendons. Skin health Besides the normal strains and pulls associated with most martial arts, Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners (along with Wrestlers, Judoka, and other grapplers ) are exposed to regular skin abrasions and potential unsanitary mat conditions. They are thus at higher risk for developing skin disease. Several commonly contracted skin diseases include ringworm, impetigo, herpes gladiatorum, and staph infection. Proper hygiene practices, including regular cleaning of classroom mats, showering immediately after class with soap, disinfecting and covering any open wounds, thorough cleaning of any gi/rashguard/headgear used before the next class, not sharing used towels/uniforms, and using a barrier cream greatly reduces the chance of contracting a disease. Cauliflower ear Due to the use of the head to maintain position and attack in jiu-jitsu, the ears can easily be damaged and begin to swell. Without immediate medical treatment, the cartilage in a swollen ear will separate from the perichondrium that supplies its nutrients and will become permanently swollen/deformed (cauliflower ear). Wrestling headgear is sometimes used for the prevention of this condition. Treatment includes draining the hematoma or surgery. Performance-enhancing drugs The practice of taking performance-enhancing drugs, including anabolic steroids, is believed to be relatively commonplace among competitors in jiu-jitsu tournaments and has sparked letters and public statements by some of jiu-jitsu's top competitors, including Comprido and Caio Terra. In response, the IBJJF began testing for performance-enhancing drugs at IBJJF sponsored events, starting with the 2013 Pan American Championship. However, most other tournaments tend to lack PED testing. Cervical and spinal lock "neck cranks" A spinal lock is a multiple joint lock applied to the spinal column, which is performed by forcing the spine beyond its normal ranges of motion. This is typically done by bending or twisting the head or upper body into abnormal positions. Commonly, spinal locks might strain the spinal musculature or result in a mild spinal sprain, while a forcefully and/or suddenly applied spinal lock may cause severe ligament damage or damage to the vertebrae, and possibly result in serious spinal cord injury, strokes, or death. Spinal locks and cervical locks are forbidden in gi jiu-jitsu, amateur MMA, multiple forms of no-gi jiu-jitsu, Judo, and other martial arts. Due to its illegal nature and express purpose to cause serious, irrevocable bodily injury, paralysis, and death. The forceful application of chokes such as the Rear Naked Choke and subsequent cranking of the neck whilst being choked can potentially lead to arterial dissection, which could lead to stroke. Due care should be exercised when applying these chokes in sparring situations. Notable fighters World Champions International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation world champions include the following: Mario Sperry (Brazilian) Clark Gracie (American) Roger Gracie (Brazilian) Amaury Bitetti (Brazilian) Romulo Barral (Brazilian) Oswaldo Fadda (Brazilian) Ricardo Liborio (Brazilian) Kyra Gracie (Brazilian) Claudia Gadelha (Brazilian) Andre Galvao (Brazilian) Leandro Lo (Brazilian) Marcelo Garcia (Brazilian) Mikey Musumeci (American) Cristiane Justino (Brazilian) Rafael Lovato Jr. (American) Demian Maia (Brazilian) Fredson Paixão (Brazilian) Tarsis Humphreys (Brazilian) B.J. Penn (American) Pablo Popovitch (Brazilian) Ronaldo Souza (Brazilian) Saulo Ribeiro (Brazilian) Xande Ribeiro (Brazilian) Marcus "Buchecha" Almeida (Brazilian) Rodolfo Vieira (Brazilian) Bernardo Faria (Brazilian) Leticia Ribeiro (Brazilian) Gabrielle Garcia (Brazilian) Vítor Ribeiro (Brazilian) Fabio Gurgel (Brazilian) Fabio Leopoldo (Brazilian) Braulio Estima (Brazilian) Rafael Mendes (Brazilian) Venla Luukkonen (Finnish) Guilherme Mendes (Brazilian) Leonardo Vieira (Brazilian) Ricardo Vieira (Brazilian) Paulo Miyao (Brazilian) Caio Terra (Brazilian) Claudio Calasans (Brazilian) Bruno Malfacine (Brazilian) Fabricio Werdum (Brazilian) Sérgio Moraes (Brazilian) Robson Moura (Brazilian) Rubens Charles Maciel (Brazilian) Dominyka Obelenyte (Lithuanian) Michael Langhi (Brazilian) Andresa Correa (Brazilian) Tayane Porfirio (Brazilian) Beatriz Mesquita (Brazilian) Michelle Nicolini (Brazilian) Mackenzie Dern (Brazilian/American) Luana Alzuguir (Brazilian) Claudia do Val (Brazilian) Rikako Yuasa (Japanese) Lana Stefanac (American) Hannette Staack (Brazilian) Paulo Sergio dos Santos (Brazilian) Roberto "Roleta" Magalhães (Brazilian) Mario Reis (Brazilian) Márcio Cruz (Brazilian) Lucas Lepri (Brazilian) João Roque (Angolan/Portuguese) Nicholas Meregali (Brazilian) Milton Regis de Almeida (Brazilian/American) Jiu-Jitsu Masters (Coral Belts: 7th & 8th Degree) Murilo Bustamante Carlos Gracie Jr. Márcio Stambowsky Carlos Machado Rigan Machado Jean Jacques Machado John Machado Mauricio Motta Gomes Romero "Jacare" Cavalcanti Joe Moreira Geny Rebello Sérgio Penha Royler Gracie Fabio Santos Carlos "Caique" Elias Rolker Gracie Jorge Pereira Hilton Leão Luiz Palhares Hercules Baptista Sylvio Behring Pedro Sauer Ricardo De La Riva Luiz Fux Jiu-Jitsu Grand Masters (9th degree Red Belts) Carlson Gracie Carley Gracie Geny Rebello Armando Wridt Flavio Behring Rorion Gracie Relson Gracie Carlos Robson Gracie Rickson Gracie Rolls Gracie Oswaldo Fadda Francisco Mansor Francisco Sá Jiu-Jitsu Grand Masters (10th degree Red Belts) Carlos Gracie Oswaldo Gracie Gastao Gracie, Jr. George Gracie Helio Gracie Luiz França Filho In popular culture Keanu Reeves trained in Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Rigan Machado for John Wick 3. Robert Pattinson trained in Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Rigan Machado for the 2021 film The Batman. Russell Brand trains in BJJ at Genesis Gym Marlow. The Marvel Cinematic Universe features Brazilian jiu-jitsu being used by Hope van Dyne. See also References External links International Brazilian jiu-jitsu Federation, Retrieved 2010-10-12. Oliver, BC, Retrieved 2017-08-08. 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207085	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Hockey%20League	American Hockey League	The American Hockey League (AHL) is a professional ice hockey league based in the United States and Canada that serves as the primary developmental league for the National Hockey League (NHL). Since the 2010–11 season, every team in the league has an affiliation agreement with one NHL team. When NHL teams do not have an AHL affiliate, players are assigned to AHL teams affiliated with other NHL teams. Twenty-six AHL teams are located in the United States and the remaining five are in Canada. The league offices are located in Springfield, Massachusetts, and its current president is Scott Howson. In general, a player must be at least 18 years of age to play in the AHL or not currently be beholden to a junior ice hockey team. The league limits the number of experienced professional players on a team's active roster during any given game; only five skaters can have accumulated four full seasons of play or more at the professional level (goaltenders are exempt from this rule and can stay in the AHL indefinitely without being subject to this cap). The AHL allows for practice squad contracts. The annual playoff champion is awarded the Calder Cup, named for Frank Calder, the first President (1917–1943) of the NHL. The most recent champions are the Charlotte Checkers in 2019 as the Calder Cup playoffs were not held in 2020 or 2021. History Predecessor leagues The AHL traces its origins directly to two predecessor professional leagues: the Canadian-American Hockey League (the "Can-Am" League), founded in 1926, and the first International Hockey League, established in 1929. Although the Can-Am League never operated with more than six teams, the departure of the Boston Bruin Cubs after the 1935–36 season reduced it down to just four member clubs – the Springfield Indians, Philadelphia Ramblers, Providence Reds, and New Haven Eagles – for the first time in its history. At the same time, the then-rival IHL lost half of its eight members after the 1935–36 season, also leaving it with just four member teams: the Buffalo Bisons, Syracuse Stars, Pittsburgh Hornets, and Cleveland Falcons. 1936–1938 With both leagues down to the bare minimum number of teams to be viable, the governors of both leagues recognized the need for action to assure their member clubs' long-term survival. Their solution was to play an interlocking schedule. While the Can-Am was based in the Northeast and the IHL in the Great Lakes, their footprints were close enough for this to be a viable option. The two leagues' eight surviving clubs began joint play in November 1936 as a new two-division "circuit of mutual convenience" known as the International-American Hockey League. The four Can-Am teams became the I-AHL East Division, with the IHL quartet playing as the West Division. The IHL also contributed its former championship trophy, the F. G. "Teddy" Oke Trophy, which would go to the regular-season winners of the merged league's West Division until 1952. The Oke Trophy is now awarded to the regular-season winners of the AHL's Northeast Division. A little more than a month into that first season, the balance and symmetry of the new combined circuit suffered a setback when its membership unexpectedly fell to seven teams. The West's Buffalo Bisons were forced to cease operations on December 6, 1936, after playing just 11 games, because of what proved to be insurmountable financial problems and lack of access to a suitable arena; the Bisons' original arena, Peace Bridge Arena, had collapsed the previous season (a new Buffalo Bisons team would return to the league in 1940 after a new arena was constructed for them). The makeshift new I-AHL played out the rest of its first season (as well as all of the next) with just seven teams. At the end of the 1936–37 season, a modified three-round playoff format was devised and a new championship trophy, the Calder Cup, was established. The Syracuse Stars defeated the Philadelphia Ramblers in the final, three-games-to-one, to win the first-ever Calder Cup championship. The Calder Cup continues on today as the AHL's playoff championship trophy. Formal consolidation of the I-AHL After two seasons of interlocking play, the governors of the two leagues' seven active teams met in New York City on June 28, 1938, and agreed that it was time to formally consolidate. Maurice Podoloff of New Haven, the former head of the Can-Am League, was elected the I-AHL's first president. The former IHL president, John Chick of Windsor, Ontario, became vice-president in charge of officials. The new I-AHL also added an eighth franchise at the 1938 meeting to fill the void in its membership left by the loss of Buffalo two years earlier with the admission of the then two-time defending Eastern Amateur Hockey League (EAHL) champion Hershey Bears. The Bears remain the only one of these eight original I-AHL/AHL franchises to have been represented in the league without interruption since the 1938–39 season. The newly merged circuit also increased its regular-season schedule for each team by six games from 48 to 54. Contraction, resurrection, and expansion After the 1939–40 season the I-AHL renamed itself the American Hockey League. It generally enjoyed both consistent success on the ice and relative financial stability over its first three decades of operation. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, the cost of doing business in professional ice hockey began to rise sharply with NHL expansion and relocation (the NHL placed teams in Pittsburgh and Buffalo, forcing two long-time AHL clubs, the Pittsburgh Hornets and Buffalo Bisons, to fold) and especially the 1972 formation of the World Hockey Association (WHA), which forced the relocation and subsequent folding of the Cleveland Barons, Baltimore Clippers, and Quebec Aces. The number of major-league teams competing for players rose from six to thirty in just seven years. Player salaries at all levels shot up dramatically with the increased demand and competition for their services. This did not seem to affect the AHL at first, as it expanded to 12 teams by 1970. However, to help compensate for the rise in player salaries, many NHL clubs cut back on the number of players they kept under contract for development, and players under AHL contracts could now also demand much higher paychecks to remain with their clubs. As a result, half of the AHL's teams folded from 1974 to 1977. The league bottomed out in the summer of 1977, with news that the Rhode Island (formerly Providence) Reds – the last remaining uninterrupted franchise from the 1936–37 season, and the oldest continuously operating minor league franchise in North America – had decided to cease operations after 51 years in Rhode Island. The AHL appeared in serious danger of folding altogether if this downward trend was not reversed. However, two events in the fall of 1977 helped reverse the trend. The first of these was the decision of the NHL's Philadelphia Flyers to return to the league as a team owner, and the second was the unexpected collapse of the North American Hockey League just weeks before the start of the 1977–78 season. The Flyers' new AHL franchise became the immediately successful Maine Mariners, which brought the new AHL city of Portland, Maine both the regular-season and Calder Cup playoff titles in each of that club's first two seasons of operation. The folding of the NAHL, meanwhile, suddenly left two of its stronger teams, the Philadelphia Firebirds and Binghamton, New York-based Broome Dusters, without a league to play in. The owners of the Dusters solved their problem by buying the Reds franchise and moving it to Binghamton as the Binghamton Dusters, while the Firebirds crossed over to the AHL from the NAHL. The Dusters and Firebirds, together with the Hampton Gulls (who had joined the league from the Southern Hockey League), boosted the AHL to nine member clubs as the 1977–78 season opened. Hampton folded on February 10, 1978, but was replaced the next year by the New Brunswick Hawks. With franchise stability improving after the demise of the WHA in 1979, the league continued to grow steadily over the years, reaching 20 clubs by the 2000–01 season. Absorption of the IHL In 2001–02, the AHL's membership jumped dramatically to 27 teams, mostly by the absorption of six teams—Milwaukee, Chicago, Houston, Utah, Manitoba, and Grand Rapids—from the International Hockey League. The IHL had established itself as the second top-level minor league circuit in North America, but folded in 2001 due to financial problems. One oddity caused by the AHL's 2001 expansion was that the league had two teams with the same nickname: the Milwaukee Admirals and the Norfolk Admirals. The latter team transferred to the league from the mid-level ECHL in 2000. This situation lasted until the end of the 2014–15 season when the Norfolk team moved to San Diego and was replaced by another ECHL team with the same name. The Utah Grizzlies suspended operations after the 2004–05 season (the franchise was sold in 2006 and returned to the ice in Cleveland in 2007 as the Lake Erie Monsters, now known as the Cleveland Monsters). The Chicago Wolves (2002, 2008), Houston Aeros (2003), Milwaukee Admirals (2004), and Grand Rapids Griffins (2013, 2017) have all won Calder Cup titles since joining the AHL from the IHL. Chicago and Milwaukee have also made multiple trips to the Calder Cup Finals, and Houston made their second Finals appearance in 2011. The Manitoba Moose moved to St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador in 2011 and were renamed the St. John's IceCaps after the NHL's Atlanta Thrashers moved to Winnipeg as the second incarnation of the Winnipeg Jets. In 2013, Houston moved to Des Moines, Iowa to become the Iowa Wild. This left Chicago, Grand Rapids and Milwaukee as the only ex-IHL teams still in their original cities until the 2015 relocations when the IceCaps moved back to Winnipeg as the Manitoba Moose. Relocations and western shift Beginning with the 2015–16 season, twelve franchises have since relocated due to NHL parent clubs' influence on their development teams and players. Of the twelve relocated franchises, nine were relocated because they were directly owned by NHL teams and the NHL parent club wished to make call-ups from the AHL more practical by having closer affiliates. In January 2015, the AHL announced the relocation of five existing AHL franchises—Adirondack, Manchester, Norfolk, Oklahoma City, and Worcester—to California as the basis for a new "Pacific Division" becoming Stockton, Ontario, San Diego, Bakersfield, and San Jose respectively. The relocated teams were all affiliated and owned or purchased by teams in the NHL's Pacific Division. The franchise movements continued with two more relocations involving Canadian teams with the St. John's IceCaps going back to Winnipeg as the Manitoba Moose and the Hamilton Bulldogs becoming another iteration of the IceCaps to fulfill the arena contract in St. John's. In the following seasons, more NHL organizations influenced league membership. In 2016, the Springfield Falcons franchise was purchased by the Arizona Coyotes and relocated to become the Tucson Roadrunners and join the one-year-old Pacific Division. The Falcons were subsequently replaced by the Springfield Thunderbirds, the relocated Portland Pirates franchise under a new ownership group. The Montreal Canadiens-owned IceCaps relocated to the Montreal suburb of Laval, Quebec, and became the Laval Rocket in 2017. The Binghamton Senators were also purchased by the Ottawa Senators and were relocated to Belleville, Ontario, to become the Belleville Senators while the New Jersey Devils' owned Albany Devils were relocated to become the Binghamton Devils. For the 2018–19 season, a 31st team joined the league with the Colorado Eagles as the NHL's Colorado Avalanche affiliate. With the NHL planning to expand to 32 teams in 2021 with the Seattle Kraken, the Seattle ownership group was approved for a 2021 AHL expansion team, later announced to be the Coachella Valley Firebirds based in Palm Springs, California, following the construction of a new arena. The original plans for the new arena was eventually cancelled and the team postponed their launch by year while new arena plans were developed. In February 2020, the San Antonio Rampage franchise was bought and relocated by the NHL's Vegas Golden Knights for the 2020–21 season as the Henderson Silver Knights and was moved to the Pacific Division. For the 2021–22 season, the Vancouver Canucks relocated their franchise from Utica to Abbotsford while the Utica Comets agreed to relocate and operate the franchise that was operating as the Binghamton Devils. Teams Teams as of the 2021–22 season On June 7, 2021, the alignment for the 2021–22 season was announced. Future teams Notes Timeline AHL teams of the past and present Bold teams means they are still active Buffalo Bisons (1) (1936; folded) Cleveland Falcons (1936–37; renamed the Cleveland Barons) New Haven Eagles (1936–43; folded during World War II resurrected 1945) Philadelphia Ramblers (1936–41, renamed Philadelphia Rockets) Pittsburgh Hornets (1936–56; went on hiatus to wait for new arena, returned 1961) Providence Reds (1936–76; renamed Rhode Island Reds) Springfield Indians (1936–42; suspended during World War II; returned 1946) Syracuse Stars (1936–40; became Buffalo Bisons) Cleveland Barons (1937–1973; became Jacksonville Barons) Hershey Bears (1938–present) Indianapolis Capitals (1939–52; folded) Buffalo Bisons (2) (1940–70; folded) Philadelphia Rockets (1941–42; folded) Washington Lions (1941–43; folded) St. Louis Flyers (1944–53; folded) New Haven Eagles (1945–46, renamed New Haven Ramblers) Springfield Indians (1946–51; became Syracuse Warriors) Philadelphia Rockets (1946–49; folded) New Haven Ramblers (1946–50, renamed New Haven Eagles) Washington Lions (1947–49; became Cincinnati Mohawks) Cincinnati Mohawks (1949–52; transferred to IHL) New Haven Eagles (1950–51, folded) Syracuse Warriors (1951–54; became Springfield Indians) Springfield Indians (1954–67; renamed Springfield Kings) Rochester Americans (1956–present) Quebec Aces (1959–71; became Richmond Robins) Pittsburgh Hornets (1961–67; folded) Baltimore Clippers (1962–76; folded) Springfield Kings (1967–74; renamed Springfield Indians) Montreal Voyageurs (1969–71; became Nova Scotia Voyageurs) Nova Scotia Voyageurs (1971–84; became Sherbrooke Canadiens) Boston Braves (1971–74; suspended, became Moncton Hawks) Cincinnati Swords (1971–74; folded) Richmond Robins (1971–76; folded) Tidewater Wings (1971–72; played in Norfolk; renamed Virginia Wings) Virginia Wings (1972–75; played in Norfolk; became Adirondack Red Wings) Jacksonville Barons (1973–74; folded, franchise purchased and became Syracuse Eagles) New Haven Nighthawks (1972–92; became New Haven Senators) Springfield Indians (1974–94; became Worcester IceCats) Syracuse Eagles (1974–75; folded) Rhode Island Reds (1976–77; became Binghamton Dusters) Hampton Gulls (1977–78; folded midseason) Binghamton Dusters (1977–80; renamed Binghamton Whalers) Maine Mariners (1977–92; original franchise became Utica Devils; expansion franchise became Providence Bruins) Philadelphia Firebirds (1977–79; became Syracuse Firebirds) New Brunswick Hawks (1978–82; became St. Catharines Saints) Adirondack Red Wings (1979–99; became San Antonio Rampage) Syracuse Firebirds (1979–80; folded) Binghamton Whalers (1980–90; renamed Binghamton Rangers) Erie Blades (1981–82; merged into Baltimore Skipjacks) Fredericton Express (1981–88; became Halifax Citadels) Baltimore Skipjacks (1982–93; became Portland Pirates) Moncton Alpines (1982–84; renamed Moncton Golden Flames) Sherbrooke Jets (1982–84; folded) St. Catharines Saints (1982–86; became Newmarket Saints) Nova Scotia Oilers (1984–88; became Cape Breton Oilers) Sherbrooke Canadiens (1984–90; became Fredericton Canadiens) Moncton Golden Flames (1984–87; folded) Newmarket Saints (1986–91; became St. John's Maple Leafs) Moncton Hawks (1987–94; folded) Utica Devils (1987–93; became Saint John Flames) Cape Breton Oilers (1988–96; became Hamilton Bulldogs) Halifax Citadels (1988–93; became Cornwall Aces) Binghamton Rangers (1990–97; became Hartford Wolf Pack) Capital District Islanders (1990–93; became Albany River Rats) Fredericton Canadiens (1990–99; became Quebec Citadelles) St. John's Maple Leafs (1991–2005; became Toronto Marlies) Providence Bruins (1992–present) Hamilton Canucks (1992–94; became Syracuse Crunch) New Haven Senators (1992–93; became Prince Edward Island Senators) Albany River Rats (1993–2010; became Charlotte Checkers) Portland Pirates (1993–2016, became Springfield Thunderbirds) Prince Edward Island Senators (1993–96; became Binghamton Senators) Saint John Flames (1993–2003; became Omaha Ak-Sar-Ben Knights) Cornwall Aces (1993–96; dormant until 1999 and became Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins) Springfield Falcons (1994–2016; became Tucson Roadrunners) Syracuse Crunch (1994–present) Worcester IceCats (1994–2005; became Peoria Rivermen) Baltimore Bandits (1995–97; became Cincinnati Mighty Ducks) Carolina Monarchs (1995–97; became Beast of New Haven) Philadelphia Phantoms (1996–2009; became Adirondack Phantoms) Hamilton Bulldogs (1996–2015; became second version of the St. John's IceCaps) Kentucky Thoroughblades (1996–2001; became Cleveland Barons) Cincinnati Mighty Ducks (1997–2005; became Rockford IceHogs) Beast of New Haven (1997–99; folded) Hartford Wolf Pack (1997–2010, 2013–present; became Connecticut Whale from 2010–13) Lowell Lock Monsters (1998–2006; became Lowell Devils) Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins (1999–present) Louisville Panthers (1999–2001; became Iowa Stars) Quebec Citadelles (1999–2002; merged with Hamilton Bulldogs) Norfolk Admirals (2000–15; became the San Diego Gulls) Bridgeport Sound Tigers (2001–2021; became Bridgeport Islanders) Chicago Wolves (2001–present) Grand Rapids Griffins (2001–present) Houston Aeros (2001–13; became Iowa Wild) Manchester Monarchs (2001–15; became the Ontario Reign) Milwaukee Admirals (2001–present) Cleveland Barons (2001–06; became Worcester Sharks) Manitoba Moose (2001–11, 2015–present; were the St. John's IceCaps from 2011–2015) Utah Grizzlies (2001–05; became Lake Erie Monsters) Binghamton Senators (2002–17; became the Belleville Senators in 2017) San Antonio Rampage (2002–20; became Henderson Silver Knights) Toronto Roadrunners (2003–04; split from Hamilton Bulldogs, became Edmonton Road Runners) Edmonton Road Runners (2004–05; dormant 2005–2010, became the Oklahoma City Barons) Iowa Stars (2005–08; became Iowa Chops) Omaha Ak-Sar-Ben Knights (2005–07; became Quad City Flames) Peoria Rivermen (2005–13; became Utica Comets) Toronto Marlies (2005–present) Lowell Devils (2006–10; became Albany Devils) Worcester Sharks (2006–15; became the San Jose Barracuda) Lake Erie Monsters (2007–16; became Cleveland Monsters) Quad City Flames (2007–09; became Abbotsford Heat) Rockford IceHogs (2007–present) Iowa Chops (2008–09; became Texas Stars) Adirondack Phantoms (2009–14; became Lehigh Valley Phantoms) Texas Stars (2009–present) Abbotsford Heat (2009–14; became Adirondack Flames) Albany Devils (2010–17; became the Binghamton Devils in 2017) Charlotte Checkers (2010–present) Oklahoma City Barons (2010–15; became the Bakersfield Condors) Connecticut Whale (2010–13; reverted to Hartford Wolf Pack) St. John's IceCaps (2011–17; original franchise became the Manitoba Moose in 2015, second franchise became the Laval Rocket in 2017) Iowa Wild (2013–present) Utica Comets (2013–present; original franchise relocated to Abbotsford in 2021) Adirondack Flames (2014–15; became the Stockton Heat) Lehigh Valley Phantoms (2014–present) Bakersfield Condors (2015–present) Ontario Reign (2015–present) San Diego Gulls (2015–present) San Jose Barracuda (2015–present) Stockton Heat (2015–present) Cleveland Monsters (2016–present) Springfield Thunderbirds (2016–present) Tucson Roadrunners (2016–present) Belleville Senators (2017–present) Binghamton Devils (2017–21; became second version of the Utica Comets) Laval Rocket (2017–present) Colorado Eagles (2018–present) Henderson Silver Knights (2020–present) Abbotsford Canucks (2021–present) Bridgeport Islanders (2021–present) All-Star Game The American Hockey League first held an All-Star Game in the 1941–42 season. The event was not played again until the 1954–55 season, and was then held annually until the 1959–60 season. In the 1994–95 season, the AHL revived the events again, and has been played every season until the COVID-19 pandemic cancelled the events in 2021 and 2022. The skills competition was first introduced for the 1995–96 season. From 1996 to 2010, the game took place between a team of players born outside of Canada and a team of players born within Canada. The All-Star Game was replaced by an all-star challenge between the league's divisions from the 2015–16 season onward. The challenge consists of six round-robin games between the league's divisions; the top two divisions in the challenge's round-robin phase advance to a six-minute championship game. The winning division of the championship game is declared the winner of the all-star challenge. Outdoor games Since the 2009–10 season, at least one team in the AHL has hosted an outdoor ice hockey game each year. The Syracuse Crunch was the first organization to put on an outdoor game in the AHL on February 20, 2010, building a rink at the New York State Fairgrounds in Syracuse, New York, and packing a record 21,508 fans in for the Mirabito Outdoor Classic against the Binghamton Senators. The contest, which was also televised to an international audience on NHL Network, was won by the Crunch, 2–1. The Connecticut Whale hosted the Whale Bowl—the AHL's second outdoor game—on February 19, 2011, as part of a 10-day Whalers Hockey Fest at Rentschler Field in East Hartford, Conn. Attendance for Connecticut's game against the Providence Bruins was announced at 21,673, the largest in AHL history to that point. Providence won, 5–4, in a shootout. On January 6, 2012, the largest crowd in AHL history saw the Adirondack Phantoms defeat the Hershey Bears, 4–3, in overtime before 45,653 fans at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the final event of the week-long activities associated with the 2012 NHL Winter Classic, which also included a game between the Philadelphia Flyers and the New York Rangers on Jan 2 and an alumni game between retired players (including eight honored members of the Hockey Hall of Fame) of those two clubs on December 31, 2011. The contest was the third outdoor game in AHL history and it more than doubled the league's previous single-game attendance mark. On January 21, 2012, the Steeltown Showdown between Ontario rivals the Toronto Marlies and Hamilton Bulldogs was held at Ivor Wynne Stadium in Hamilton, Ont., with the Marlies winning 7–2 in front of 20,565 fans, the largest crowd ever for an AHL game in Canada. The AHL game was preceded the previous night by a game between Toronto Maple Leafs and Montreal Canadiens alumni. Two outdoor games were announced for the 2012–13 AHL season, but a meeting between the Grand Rapids Griffins and Toronto Marlies at Comerica Park in Detroit as part of the festivities surrounding the NHL Winter Classic was not held because of the cancellation of the NHL Winter Classic. On January 20, 2013, the Hershey Bears and Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins met outdoors at Hersheypark Stadium in Hershey, Pa. The Penguins earned a 2–1 overtime victory in front of 17,311 fans. The Rochester Americans hosted an outdoor game in 2013–14, the Frozen Frontier, which was held at Frontier Field in Rochester on December 13, 2013. The Americans took a 5–4 decision in a shootout against the Lake Erie Monsters before a standing-room crowd of 11,015 fans. A year after their originally scheduled date, the Griffins and Marlies played at Comerica Park on December 30, 2013, and Toronto prevailed in a shootout, 4–3, becoming the first AHL team ever with two outdoor wins. Attendance in Detroit was 20,337. As part of the recent addition of the Pacific Division, the AHL played its first outdoor hockey game in California during the 2015–16 season called the Golden State Hockey Rush. On December 18, 2015, the Stockton Heat hosted the Bakersfield Condors at Raley Field in West Sacramento, California. Stockton defeated Bakersfield 3–2 in front of 9,357 fans. For the second consecutive season, the AHL played an outdoor game in California. The Bakersfield Condors were named as hosts for their second outdoor game against the Ontario Reign to be held on January 7, 2017, at Bakersfield College's Memorial Stadium and was called the Condorstown Outdoor Classic. Despite sometimes heavy rain during the first period, the game went on as scheduled and the Condors defeated the Reign 3–2 in overtime. Although technically not an outdoor game, the Syracuse Crunch defeated the Utica Comets 2–1 on November 22, 2014 at the Carrier Dome, normally a college football stadium. AHL Hall of Fame The formation of an American Hockey League Hall of Fame was announced by the league on December 15, 2005, created to recognize, honor and celebrate individuals for their outstanding achievements and contributions specifically in the AHL. Trophies and awards The following is a list of awards of the American Hockey League. The season the award was first handed out is listed in parentheses. Individual awards Les Cunningham Award – Most valuable player (1947–48) John B. Sollenberger Trophy – Top point scorer (1947–48) Willie Marshall Award – Top goal scorer (2003–04) Dudley "Red" Garrett Memorial Award – Rookie of the year (1947–48) Eddie Shore Award – Defenceman of the year (1958–59) Aldege "Baz" Bastien Memorial Award – Best Goaltender (1983–84) Harry "Hap" Holmes Memorial Award – Lowest Goals against average (1947–48) Louis A.R. Pieri Memorial Award – Coach of the year (1967–68) Fred T. Hunt Memorial Award – Sportsmanship / Perseverance (1977–78) Yanick Dupre Memorial Award – Community Service Award (1997–98) Jack A. Butterfield Trophy – MVP of the playoffs (1983–84) Team awards Calder Cup – Playoffs champions (1936–37) Richard F. Canning Trophy – Eastern Conference playoff champions (1989–90) Robert W. Clarke Trophy – Western Conference playoff champions (1989–90) Macgregor Kilpatrick Trophy – Regular season champions, League (1997–98) Frank Mathers Trophy – Regular Season champions, Eastern Conference (1995–96) Norman R. "Bud" Poile Trophy – Regular Season champions, Western Conference (2001–02) Emile Francis Trophy – Regular Season champions, Atlantic Division (2001–02) F. G. "Teddy" Oke Trophy – Regular Season champions, North Division (1936–37)† Sam Pollock Trophy – Regular Season champions, Central Division (1995–96) John D. Chick Trophy – Regular Season champions, Pacific Division (1961–62) † Trophy predates American Hockey League, established 1926–27 in the Canadian Professional Hockey League. Other awards James C. Hendy Memorial Award – Executive of the Year (1961–62) Thomas Ebright Memorial Award – Outstanding career contributions (1997–98) James H. Ellery Memorial Awards – Outstanding media coverage (1964–65) Ken McKenzie Award – Marketing Executive of the Year (1978–79) Michael Condon Memorial Award – Outstanding service, On-ice official (2001–02) President's Awards – two annual awards given out by the AHL. The first award is presented to an AHL organization and recognizes "excellence in all areas off the ice." The second is given to a player as recognition of outstanding accomplishments in that year (2008–09) Sources: AHL Hall of Fame hockeydb.com See also American Hockey Association (1926–1942) List of AHL seasons List of American Hockey League arenas List of sports attendance figures Minor league List of ice hockey leagues Professional Hockey Players' Association, the collective bargaining union for AHL players References External links Official AHL website Historic standings and statistics – at Internet Hockey Database Minor league hockey 2 2 Articles which contain graphical timelines 1936 establishments in North America Sports leagues established in 1936 Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in Canada Multi-national professional sports leagues	[ 0.08650262653827667, -0.14489838480949402, -0.19919143617153168, 0.02397892437875271, 0.029928866773843765, -0.43748512864112854, 0.4625299572944641, 0.28323209285736084, 0.20519711077213287, 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207089	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Arkansas%20%28BB-33%29	USS Arkansas (BB-33)	USS Arkansas (BB-33) was a dreadnought battleship, the second member of the , built by the United States Navy. She was the third ship of the US Navy named in honor of the 25th state, and was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation. She was laid down in January 1910, launched in January 1911, and commissioned into the Navy in September 1912. Arkansas was armed with a main battery of twelve guns and capable of a top speed of . Arkansas served in both World Wars. During World War I, she was part of Battleship Division Nine, which was attached to the British Grand Fleet, but she saw no action during the war. During the interwar years, Arkansas performed a variety of duties, including training cruises for midshipmen and goodwill visits overseas. Following the outbreak of World War II, Arkansas conducted Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic prior to America's entry into the war. Thereafter, she escorted convoys to Europe through 1944; in June, she supported the invasion of Normandy, and in August she provided gunfire support to the invasion of southern France. In 1945, she transferred to the Pacific, and bombarded Japanese positions during the invasions of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. After the end of the war, she ferried troops back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet. Arkansas was expended as a target in Operation Crossroads, a pair of nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946. Design Arkansas was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers rated at , generating a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 12-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns guns in six twin Mark 9 gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one /51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. The main armored belt was thick, while the gun turrets had thick faces. The conning tower had thick sides. Modifications In 1925, Arkansas was modernized in the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Her displacement increased significantly, to standard and full load. Her beam was widened to , primarily from the installation of anti-torpedo bulges, and draft increased to . Her twelve coal-fired boilers were replaced with four White-Forster oil-fired boilers that had been intended for the ships cancelled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty; performance remained the same as the older boilers. The ship's deck armor was strengthened by the addition of of armor to the second deck between the end barbettes, plus of armor on the third deck on the bow and stern. The deck armor over the engines and boilers was increased by and , respectively. Five of the 5-inch guns were removed and eight /50 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. The mainmast was removed to provide space for an aircraft catapult mounted on the Number 3 turret amidships. Service history Pre-World War I Arkansas was laid down on 25 January 1910, at New York Shipbuilding in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 14 January 1911, after which fitting-out work was effected. The ship was completed by September 1912, and was commissioned into the US Navy on 17 September, at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, under the command of Captain Roy C. Smith. Following her commissioning, Arkansas participated in a fleet review on 14 October 1912, for President William Howard Taft. The ship took Taft aboard that day for a trip to Panama to inspect the Panama Canal, which was still under construction. Arkansas began her shakedown cruise after delivering Taft and his entourage to the Canal Zone. During this cruise, the Navy's first long-distance, continuous-wave, wireless telegraphy system was successfully tested, with regular transmissions received by Arkansas from a prototype Poulsen-arc transmission facility located in Arlington, Virginia. On 26 December, she returned to the Canal Zone to take Taft to Key West, Florida. After completing the voyage, Arkansas was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and participated in fleet maneuvers off the east coast of the United States. Arkansass first overseas cruise, to the Mediterranean Sea, began in late October 1913. While there, she stopped in several ports, including Naples, Italy on 11 November, where the ship celebrated the birthday of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. In early 1914, an international incident with Mexico culminated in the American occupation of Veracruz. Arkansas participated in the occupation, contributing four companies of naval infantry, which amounted to 17 officers and 313 enlisted men. The American forces fought their way through the city until they secured it. Two of Arkansass crewmen were killed in the fighting, and another two, John Grady and Jonas H. Ingram, received the Medal of Honor for actions during the occupation. The ship's detachment returned on 30 April; Arkansas remained in Mexican waters until she departed on 30 September, to return to the United States. While stationed in Veracruz, the ship was visited by Captain Franz von Papen, the German military attaché to the United States and Mexico, and Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock, the commander of the British 4th Cruiser Squadron, on 10 May and 30 May 1914, respectively. Arkansas arrived in Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 7 October, after which she took part in exercises for a week. She then sailed to the New York Navy Yard for periodic maintenance. After repairs were completed, the ship steamed down to the Virginia Capes area for training maneuvers. She returned to the New York Navy Yard on 12 December, for additional maintenance. The repairs were completed within a month, and on 16 January 1915, Arkansas departed for the Virginia Capes for exercises on 19–21 January. The ship then steamed down to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba for exercises with the fleet. Arkansas returned for training off Hampton Roads on 7 April, followed by another maintenance period at the New York Navy Yard, starting on 23 April. On 25 June, the repairs were complete, and Arkansas departed for Newport, Rhode Island, for torpedo practice and tactical maneuvers in Narragansett Bay, which lasted through late August. On 27 August, the ship was back in Hampton Roads. There, she participated in exercises off Norfolk through 4 October. She then returned to Newport, where she took part in strategic maneuvers on 5–14 October. She went to the New York Navy Yard on 15 October, where she was drydocked for extensive maintenance. The work was completed by 8 November, when Arkansas returned to Hampton Roads. The ship was in Brooklyn for repairs on 19 November, which lasted until 5 January 1916, when she steamed south to the Caribbean Sea, via Hampton Roads, for winter exercises. She steamed to Mobile Bay on 12 March, for torpedo practice, before returning to Guantánamo Bay. She returned to the New York Navy Yard on 15 April, for an overhaul. World War I The United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917, joining the Allied Powers in World War I. Arkansas was at the time assigned to Battleship Division 7 stationed in Virginia. The ship patrolled the east coast and trained gun crews for the next fourteen months. The ship was sent to Britain in July 1918 to relieve the battleship , which had been assigned to operate with the Grand Fleet in the 6th Battle Squadron since December 1917. Arkansas departed the United States on 14 July; while approaching the Royal Navy base in Rosyth, the battleship fired on what was thought to be a periscope from a German U-boat. The destroyers escorting Arkansas dropped depth charges but did not hit the alleged submarine. Arkansas arrived in Rosyth on 28 July, and joined the rest of Battleship Division 9 stationed there. For the remainder of the conflict, Battleship Division 9 operated as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet. On 11 November, the Armistice with Germany that ended World War I went into effect. The terms of the Armistice required Germany to intern the bulk of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow, under the supervision of the Grand Fleet. Arkansas and the other American warships participated in the internment; a combined fleet of 370 British, American, and French warships met the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea on 21 November, and escorted it into Scapa Flow. On 1 December, Battleship Division 9 was detached from the Grand Fleet, after which Arkansas departed the Firth of Forth for the Isle of Portland. She then went to sea to meet the ocean liner , which was carrying President Wilson to Europe. Arkansas and the other American naval forces in Europe escorted the ship into Brest, France, on 13 December. After completing the escort, Arkansas sailed for New York City, arriving on 26 December, where the fleet participated in a Naval Review for Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. Inter-war period 1919–1927 The peacetime training regimen for Arkansas consisted of individual training, an annual fleet maneuver, and periodic maintenance in drydock. She also participated in gunnery and engineering competitions. After returning to the United States, Arkansas went into drydock at the Norfolk Navy Yard for an extensive overhaul. She then rejoined the fleet to conduct training exercises off Cuba, after which she crossed the Atlantic, bound for Europe. She reached Plymouth, on 12 May 1919, and then took weather observations on 19 May, and later served as a reference vessel to guide the Navy Curtiss NC flying boats flying from Trepassey Bay, Newfoundland, to Europe. After completing that task, she steamed to Brest, on 10 June, and picked up Admiral William S. Benson, the Chief of Naval Operations, and his wife. Arkansas carried them back to New York, after Benson was finished at the Peace Conference in Paris, arriving on 20 June. On 19 July, Arkansas departed Hampton Roads, to join her new assignment, the US Pacific Fleet, bound for San Francisco. She arrived 6 September, via the Panama Canal, and embarked Secretary and Mrs. Josephus Daniels. She took Daniels and his wife to Blakely Harbor, Washington, on 12 September, and the following day, participated in a naval review for President Wilson. On 19 September, Arkansas entered the Puget Sound Navy Yard for a general overhaul. She returned to the fleet in May 1920 for training operations off California. The Navy adopted a hull classification system, and on 17 July, assigned Arkansas the designation "BB-33". She steamed to Hawaii, in September, the first time she went to the islands. In early 1921, Arkansas visited Valparaíso, Chile, where she was received by President Arturo Alessandri Palma; the ship's crew manned the rail to honor the Chilean president. In August 1921, Arkansas returned to the Atlantic Fleet, where she became the flagship of the Commander, Battleship Force, Atlantic Fleet. Throughout the 1920s, Arkansas carried midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy on summer cruises. She went on a tour of Europe in 1923; there, on 2 July, she stopped in Copenhagen, and was visited by King Christian X of Denmark. She also stopped in Lisbon and Gibraltar. Another midshipmen cruise to Europe followed in 1924; the cruise for the next year went to the west coast of the United States. On 30 June 1925, she stopped in Santa Barbara, California, to assist in the aftermath of the 1925 Santa Barbara earthquake. Arkansas, the destroyer , and the patrol craft PE-34 sent detachments ashore to help the police in Santa Barbara. They also established a temporary radio station in the city. After returning from the 1925 cruise, the ship was modernized at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She had her twelve old coal-fired boilers replaced with four oil-fired models, which were trunked into a single larger funnel. She also had more deck armor added to protect her from plunging fire, and a short tripod mast was installed in place of the aft cage mast. The modernization was completed in November 1926, after which Arkansas conducted a shakedown cruise in the Atlantic. She returned to Philadelphia, where she ran acceptance trials before she could rejoin the fleet. On 5 September 1927, Arkansas was present for ceremonies unveiling a memorial tablet honoring the French soldiers and sailors who died during the Yorktown campaign in 1781. 1928–1941 She returned to training cruises in May 1928, when she took a crew of midshipmen into the Atlantic along the east coast, along with a trip down to Cuba. In June, she participated in a join Army-Navy coast defense exercise as part of the hostile "attacking" fleet. In early 1929, Arkansas cruised in the Caribbean and near the Canal Zone. She returned to the United States in May 1929, for an overhaul in the New York Navy Yard. After emerging from drydock, she conducted another training cruise, this time to European waters; she spent time in the Mediterranean and visited Britain. Arkansas returned to the United States in August and operated with the Scouting Fleet off the east coast. The training cruise for 1930 again went to Europe. She called in Cherbourg, France, Kiel, Germany, Oslo, Norway, and Edinburgh, Scotland. The cruise continued through the end of the year, and in 1931, the battleship visited Copenhagen, Greenock, Scotland, and Cádiz and Gibraltar in Spain. By September, the ship had crossed the Atlantic, and she stopped in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In February, Arkansas participated in Fleet Problem XII. During the maneuvers, she served as Admiral Arthur L. Willard's flagship, and she was "sunk" by a submarine. A month later, on 21–22 March, Arkansas conducted exercises with the carriers and . Arkansas participated in the Yorktown Sesquicentennial celebrations in October 1931, marking the 150th anniversary of the Siege of Yorktown. She embarked President Herbert Hoover and his entourage on 17 October, and took them to the exposition, and returned them to Annapolis on 19–20 October. She then went into drydock for an extensive refit in the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which lasted until January 1932. During this time, she was under the command of George Landenberger. Arkansas was transferred to the Pacific Fleet after completing the refit; while en route, she stopped in New Orleans to participate in the Mardi Gras celebration. She operated off the west coast through early 1934, at which point she was transferred back to the Atlantic Fleet, where she served as the flagship of the Training Squadron. She conducted another training cruise to Europe in the summer of 1934. She stopped in Plymouth, England, Nice, France, Naples, Italy, and Gibraltar. She returned to Annapolis in August, after which she steamed to Newport. In Newport, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt reviewed the battleship from the yacht Nourmahal. While there, Arkansas entered one of her cutters in a competition with the British cruiser for the Battenberg Cup, and the City of Newport Cup; Arkansass cutter won both races. The ship carried the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines to Culebra, for a Fleet Landing Exercise No. 1 (FLEX 1) in January 1935. She returned to training cruise duties in June, and she again took the midshipmen to Europe. Among the stops were Edinburgh, Oslo, Copenhagen, Gibraltar, and Funchal, on the island of Madeira. She disembarked the Naval Academy crew in August and began another training cruise to Halifax, this time for Naval Reservists, the following month. A refit was conducted in October after completing the cruise. Arkansas participated in the FLEX 2 at Culebra in January 1936, and then visited New Orleans, during Mardi Gras. She went to Norfolk for a major overhaul that lasted through the spring of 1936. After completing the overhaul, the ship took another midshipmen crew to European waters; she called in the ports of Portsmouth, England, Gothenburg, Sweden, and Cherbourg, and returned to Annapolis, in August. As in the previous year, she conducted another Reserve training cruise, and then went into drydock for an overhaul in Norfolk. The remainder of the 1930s followed a similar pattern; in 1937, the midshipmen training cruise went to Europe, but the 1938 and 1939 cruises remained in the western Atlantic. At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Arkansas was moored at Hampton Roads, preparing to depart on a training cruise for the Naval Reserve. She departed to transport seaplane mooring and aviation equipment from Norfolk to Narragansett Bay, where the Navy planned to set up a seaplane base. While in Newport, Arkansas picked up ordnance for destroyers and brought it back to Hampton Roads. After returning to Virginia, Arkansas was assigned to a reserve force for the Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic, along with her sister , the battleships and and the carrier . On 11 January 1940, Arkansas, New York, and Texas left for fleet maneuvers off Cuba. She underwent an overhaul at Norfolk between 18 March and 24 May. After emerging from her refit, Arkansas conducted another midshipman training cruise, along with Texas and New York, to Panama and Venezuela. In late 1940, she conducted three Naval Reserve training cruises in the Atlantic. On 19 December 1940, with 500 naval reservists on board, the Arkansas collided at ~0300 hrs. with the outbound Collier Melrose, of the Mystic Steamship Company of Boston, off of Sea Girt, New Jersey. Although a glancing blow, the collier's below-water plates were cracked, and she sank just short of a Brooklyn drydock after a 40-mile race to port. "The warship proceeded to her Hudson river anchorage, minus only some paint and with a smashed lifeboat." Over the months that followed, the United States gradually edged toward war in the Atlantic. The ship was assigned to the escort force for the Marines deployed to occupy Iceland, in July 1941, along with New York, two cruisers, and eleven destroyers. The task force deployed from NS Argentia, Newfoundland, on 1 July, and were back in port by 19 July. Starting on 7 August, Arkansas went on a neutrality patrol in the mid-Atlantic that lasted a week. After returning to port, Arkansas traveled to the Atlantic Charter conference with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, which took place on board . While there, the US Under Secretary of State, Sumner Welles, stayed aboard Arkansas. She conducted another neutrality patrol between 2 and 11 September. World War II Arkansas was anchored in Casco Bay, Maine, on 7 December 1941, when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and brought the United States into the war. A week later, she steamed to Hvalfjordur, Iceland, and returned to Boston on 24 January 1942. She conducted training maneuvers in Casco Bay, to prepare her crew for convoy escort duties. On 6 March, she arrived at Norfolk, to begin overhaul. The secondary battery was reduced to six 5-inch/51 cal guns. Also, 36 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft (AA) guns (in quadruple mounts) and 26 20 mm Oerlikon AA guns were added, the experience at Pearl Harbor having made the US Navy aware of the need for increased light AA armament. The 3-inch/50 caliber gun armament was also increased from 8 guns to 10. Work lasted until 2 July, after which time Arkansas conducted a shakedown cruise in Chesapeake Bay; she then proceeded to New York, arriving on 27 July. There, she became the flagship of Task Force 38 (TF 38), the escort for a convoy of twelve transports bound for Scotland. The convoy arrived in Greenock, on 17 August, and Arkansas returned to New York on 4 September. Arkansas again escorted a convoy to Scotland, returning to New York by 20 October. Thereafter, convoys were sent to North Africa, to support the invasion of North Africa. Arkansas covered her first such convoy, along with eight destroyers, on 3 November. She returned to New York on 11 December, where she went into dock for another overhaul. On 2 January 1943, Arkansas departed New York to conduct gunnery training in Chesapeake Bay. Back in New York by 30 January, the ship's crew prepared for a return to convoy escort duty. She escorted two convoys to Casablanca, between February and April, before returning to New York, for yet another period in drydock, which lasted until 26 May. Arkansas returned to duty as a training ship for midshipmen based at Norfolk. She resumed her convoy escort duties after four months, and on 8 October, she steamed to Bangor, Northern Ireland. She remained in Northern Ireland, through November, and departed on 1 December, bound for New York. After arriving on 12 December, Arkansas went into dock for more repairs, and then returned to Norfolk, on 27 December. The ship escorted another convoy bound for Ireland, on 19 January 1944, before returning to New York, on 13 February. Another round of gunnery drills followed on 28 March, after which Arkansas went to Boston for more drydock period. On 18 April, Arkansas departed for Northern Ireland, where she trained for shore bombardment duties, as she had been assigned to the shore bombardment force in support of Operation Overlord, the invasion of northern France. She was assigned to Group II, along with Texas and five destroyers. Her float plane artillery observer pilots were temporarily assigned to VOS-7 flying Spitfires from RNAS Lee-on-Solent (HMS Daedalus). On 3 June, she left her moorings, and on the morning of 6 June, took up a position about from Omaha Beach. At 05:52, the battleship's guns fired in anger for the first time in her career. She bombarded German positions around Omaha Beach until 13 June, when she was moved to support ground forces in Grandcamp les Bains. On 25 June, Arkansas bombarded Cherbourg, in support of the American attack on the port; German coastal guns straddled her several times, but scored no hits. Cherbourg fell to the Allies the next day, after which Arkansas returned to port, first in Weymouth, England, and then to Bangor, Wales, on 30 June. On 4 July, Arkansas departed Northern Ireland for the Mediterranean Sea; she reached Oran, Algeria, on 10 July, before proceeding on to Taranto, arriving on 21 July. There, she joined the support force for Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France. Again, the battleship provided gunfire support to the amphibious invasion along with six Allied cruisers, starting on 15 August. The bombardment lasted for two more days, after which she withdrew, first to Palermo, and then to Oran. Arkansas then returned to the United States, arriving in Boston, on 14 September, where she underwent another refit that lasted until early November. She then steamed to California, via the Panama Canal, and spent the rest of the year conducting training maneuvers. On 20 January 1945, Arkansas departed California for Pearl Harbor, and then proceeded to Ulithi, to join the fleet in preparation for the amphibious assault on Iwo Jima. There, she was assigned to Task Force 54 (TF 54), which included five other battleships, four cruisers, and sixteen destroyers. On 16 February, Arkansas was in position off Iwo Jima, and at 06:00, she opened fire on Japanese positions on the island's west coast. The bombardment lasted until 19 February, though she remained off the island throughout the Battle of Iwo Jima, ready to provide fire support to the American Marines ashore. She departed on 7 March, bound for Ulithi, and arrived on 10 March, where she rearmed and refueled in preparation for the next major operation in the Pacific War, the invasion of Okinawa. She departed Ulithi, on 21 March, and arrived off Okinawa, four days later, when she began the bombardment along with the rest of Task Force 54. The soldiers and Marines went ashore on 1 April, and Arkansas continued to provide gunfire support over the course of 46 days throughout the Battle of Okinawa. Kamikazes repeatedly attacked the ship, though none struck her. She left the island in May, arriving in Guam on 14 May. She then proceeded to Leyte Gulf, on 12 June, arriving four days later. There, she was assigned to Task Group 95.7, along with Texas and three cruisers. She remained in the Philippines until 20 August, when she departed for Okinawa, arriving in Buckner Bay on 23 August, by which time Japan had surrendered, ending World War II. Over the course of the war, Arkansas earned four battle stars. Post-war After the end of the war, Arkansas participated in Operation Magic Carpet, the repatriation of American servicemen from the Pacific. She took around 800 men back to the United States, departing on 23 September, and reaching Seattle, Washington on 15 October. She made another three Magic Carpet trips between Pearl Harbor and the continental United States to ferry more soldiers home. During the first months of 1946, Arkansas lay at San Francisco. In late April, the ship got underway for Hawaii. She reached Pearl Harbor on 8 May, and departed Pearl Harbor on 20 May, bound for Bikini Atoll, earmarked for use as target for atomic bomb testing in Operation Crossroads. On 1 July, Arkansas was exposed to an air burst in ABLE, but survived with extensive shock damage to her upper works, while her hull and armored turrets were lightly damaged. On 25 July, the battleship was sunk by the underwater nuclear test BAKER at Bikini Atoll. Unattenuated by air, the shock was "transmitted directly to underwater hulls", and Arkansas, only from the epicenter, appeared to have been "crushed as if by a tremendous hammer blow from below". It appears that the wave of water from the blast capsized the ship, which was then hammered down into the shallow bottom by the descent of the water column thrown up by the blast. Decommissioned on 29 July, Arkansas was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 August. The ship lies inverted in about of water at the bottom of Bikini Lagoon, where it acts as an artificial reef. There are many pictures of the wreck on the National Park Service website. Relationship with the Arkansas Flag The USS Arkansas was the catalyst to the creation of the Arkansas Flag. In 1912 the Daughters of the Revolution (DAR) decided that they would present three flags to the battleship as she was nearing her commission date. The three flags the DAR choose to present were the American Flag, Navy battalion Ensign and a state flag. Upon the DAR learning from the Arkansas Secretary of State, Earle W. Hodges, that Arkansas possessed no official state flag, they decided to hold a statewide competition to come up with one. The winning design was from Willie Kavanaugh Hocker of Pine Bluff, Arkansas and also a member of the DAR. On 26 February 1913, with a few alterations, Hockers design become the official flag of Arkansas and was soon thereafter presented to the USS Arkansas by the DAR. Notes Footnotes Citations References External links Deck Log Book of the U.S.S. 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207091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand%20art%20and%20play	Sand art and play	Sand art is the practice of modelling sand into an artistic form, such as a sand brushing, sand sculpture, sandpainting, or sand bottles. A sandcastle is a type of sand sculpture resembling a miniature building, often a castle. The drip castle variation uses wet sand that is dribbled down to form organic shapes before the sands dries. Most sand play takes place on sandy beaches, where the two basic building ingredients, sand and water, are available in abundance. Sandpits are also common. Tidal beaches generally have sand that limits height and structure because of the shape of the sand grains. Good sculpture sand is somewhat dirty, having silt and clay that helps lock the irregular-shaped sand grains together. Sand castles are typically made by children for fun, but there are also sand-sculpture contests for adults that involve large, complex constructions. The largest sandcastle made in a contest was 18 feet tall; the owner, Ronald Malcnujio, a five-foot-high man, had to use several ladders, each the height of the sandcastle. His sculpture consisted of one ton of sand and 10 litres of water to sculpt. Construction Sand grains will always stick together unless the sand is reasonably fine. While dry sand is loose, wet sand is adherent if the proper amounts of sand and water are used in the mixture. The reason for this is that water forms little "bridges" between the grains of sand when it is damp due to the forces of surface tension. When the sand dries out or gets wet, the shape of a structure may change, and "landslides" are common. Furthermore, the mixture of fine (mostly sharper) and coarse sand granules is very important to achieve good "sand construction" results. Fine granules that have been rounded by the natural influences of seas, rivers or fluvials, in turn negatively influence the bonding between the individual granules as they more easily slide past each other. Research is thus necessary to find the most suitable sand to achieve an optimal, landslide-free construction. Shovels and buckets are the main construction tools used in creating sand castles and sand sculptures, although some people use only their hands. A simple sand castle can be made by filling a bucket with damp sand, placing it upside-down on the beach, and removing the bucket. For larger constructions, water from the sea to mix with the sand can be brought to the building site with a bucket or other container. Sometimes other materials, such as pieces of wood and plastic are constructed to hold piles of sand in place and in specific shapes—these are called forms. Sand sculpting as an art form has become very popular in recent years, especially in coastal beach areas. Hundreds of annual competitions are held all over the world. Techniques can be quite sophisticated, and record-breaking achievements have been noted in the Guinness World Records. Sometimes, contests are staged as advertising or promotional events. Most sand sculptors come from other disciplines but there are a few that earn their living solely from sand related activities. Drip castles A variant on the sandcastle is the drip castle, made by mixing the sand with water and dripping it from a fist held above. Some call the technique dribbling. When the slurry of sand and water lands on existing sand structures, the effect is Gaudi-esque. Festivals and competitions From 1989 until 2009, a World Championship in Sand Sculpture was held in Harrison Hot Springs in Harrison, British Columbia, Canada, also known as "Harrisand". The competition had solo, double and team categories. The world championship was held in Ft. Myers, Florida, and other venues for a limited time. Other countries hold their own versions of the world championships as it is not possible to get all the people who may qualify in the same place at the same time due to the expense and logistics. The world's tallest sand castle was built on Myrtle Beach in South Carolina by Team Sandtastic as part of the 2007 Sun Fun Festival. The structure was 49.55 feet (15.1 m) high. It took 10 days to construct and used 300 truckloads of sand. This record was broken in 2019 when a 58-feet tall sand castle was unveiled at Rügen in Germany. The tallest-ever sand castle was built by a group of international artists and was constructed with 11,000 tons of sand. The world's record for the most simultaneous sand angels made at one time was done in Ludington, Michigan, on June 10, 2017. It was performed by 1,387 sand angel people at the same time. This is almost four times the previous record of 352 made in Pembrokeshire, Wales, on June 6, 2015. The duration they lasted making sand angels was for 30 seconds—twice as long as the 15 seconds at Pembrokeshire. Since 2003, Bettystown beach, Meath in Ireland has been home to the Irish annual National Sandcastle and Sand Sculpturing competition. In Lappeenranta, Finland, there is an annual tourist sight called the Sandcastle (Hiekkalinna), where a work of art made of sand according to a changing theme is created every year. Fight against the tide A popular game is building a heap of sand, as high as possible, to withstand the upcoming tide. Other sand games One of the main attractions of a sandy beach, especially for children, is playing with the sand, as it presents more possibilities than an ordinary sandbox. One can make a mountain, a pit (encountering clay or the water table), canals, tunnels, bridges, a sculpture (representing a person, animal, etc., like a statue, or a scale model of a building), and many other things. Tunnels large enough to enter are extremely hazardous; children and adults die every year when such underground chambers collapsed under weight and instability of sand, or due to the tide coming up or the structure being hit by a wave. Sometimes, a dam can be built to hold back the water, tidal forts, which are incredibly large sandcastles with thick walls to protect the keep from the sea, can be built, or canals can be dug to contain the water. Burying someone up to his or her neck in sand, or burying oneself, is another popular beach activity. A sand glass is a display in which there are multiple colors of sand in water between two sheets of glass. Unlike sand paintings, a sand glass is meant to be turned; the sand, traditionally in black and a light color, moves into new shapes with each turn. The term "sand glass" is a translation of the Portuguese phrase quadro de areia, literally "sand frame" or "sand picture". Unlike sand paintings, which are a traditional craft, these are found around the world in many colors and sizes. See also Andrew Clemens Dorodango Granular material Ice sculpture Alexandra Konofalskaya Joe Mangrum Sand animation The Sand Castle Kseniya Simonova Marc Treanor Sudarsan Pattnaik References External links Drone footage shows sand angel Guinness World Record from above Some Pics from Sand Art Competition Hawaii Sand Art Competition Site with Photos Real sand art by "Sand-Show" theater/studio Leisure activities Outdoor sculptures Sculpture techniques Beaches	[ 0.4569375813007355, 0.17597566545009613, -0.7618333697319031, 0.028784481808543205, -0.20783674716949463, 0.4303053319454193, -0.05484800413250923, 0.12292636185884476, -0.2991054058074951, -0.7646762132644653, -0.32618704438209534, 0.6808616518974304, 0.13871164619922638, 0.07125745713710785, -0.2734554708003998, 0.4199177920818329, 0.6021215915679932, 0.33025121688842773, 0.37626680731773376, 0.1042751893401146, -0.6746925115585327, -0.30066731572151184, -0.12152248620986938, -0.3181411623954773, 0.3159750998020172, 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207101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton%20Trappers	Edmonton Trappers	The Edmonton Trappers were a minor league baseball team in Edmonton, Alberta. They were a part of the Triple-A level in the Pacific Coast League, ending with the 2004 season. Their home games were played at Telus Field in downtown Edmonton. The Trappers joined the PCL in 1981 when Edmonton businessman Peter Pocklington purchased the Ogden A's franchise from Utah trucker Dennis Job. The team's games were originally played in Renfrew Park (later called John Ducey Park). The Trappers were immediately popular with the community, often above the league average in attendance, attracting almost half a million fans every season. A total of 8 million fans came to see them play over the course of their 24-year existence. In 1984, the Trappers (then the Triple-A affiliate of the California Angels) became the first Canadian franchise to win a championship. They were also the only team to win a PCL championship, and first to win any championship, under affiliation with the Angels. The manager was Moose Stubing. In 1995, John Ducey Park was torn down and replaced by Telus Field where the Trappers celebrated three PCL titles in their last decade, most recently in 2002 under the affiliation of the Minnesota Twins. In 2003, the team became the major affiliate of the Montréal Expos. The Trappers were one of the most successful, longest running, and second-to-last affiliated team in Canada. In 2004, future Montreal Expos and Toronto Blue Jays pitcher Scott Downs threw a no-hitter against Las Vegas on June 11. It was the first no hitter by a Trapper since August 8, 1996, when Aaron Small threw one against the Vancouver Canadians. Edmonton qualified for playoffs for the last time in September 2003. They defeated the Portland Beavers to make the post-season, but were eliminated immediately by the Sacramento River Cats in a three-game sweep. In October 2003, the Trappers' fate in Edmonton was sealed when the team, then owned by the Canadian Football League's Edmonton Eskimos, was sold to a group led by hall of famer Nolan Ryan and his son Reid. The sale shocked many fans in Edmonton. The Ryans moved the team after the 2004 season to Round Rock, Texas, a suburb north of Austin, and it was renamed the Round Rock Express. The last home game in Edmonton had a sizeable crowd against the Las Vegas 51s, but it was rained out after only one inning. Notable former Trappers Baseball Hall of Fame Bert Blyleven (player, 2011 induction) References External links Edmonton Trappers website (archive.org) Baseball teams established in 1981 Sports clubs disestablished in 2004 Baseball teams in Alberta Tra Defunct baseball teams in Canada Defunct Pacific Coast League teams Anaheim Angels minor league affiliates Chicago White Sox minor league affiliates California Angels minor league affiliates Miami Marlins minor league affiliates Oakland Athletics minor league affiliates Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim minor league affiliates Minnesota Twins minor league affiliates Montreal Expos minor league affiliates Baseball teams disestablished in 2004	[ 0.29750993847846985, 0.3808702528476715, -0.8184021711349487, 0.20095208287239075, -0.22587113082408905, 0.028304632753133774, 0.8394581079483032, 0.5690391659736633, -0.05013048276305199, -0.3552253246307373, 0.13703590631484985, -0.0433298759162426, -0.5790208578109741, 0.07726766914129257, 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207103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vince%20Clarke	Vince Clarke	Vincent John Martin (born 3 July 1960), known professionally as Vince Clarke, is an English synth-pop musician and songwriter. Clarke has been the main composer and musician of the band Erasure since its inception in 1985, and was previously the main songwriter of several groups, including Depeche Mode, Yazoo, and the Assembly. In Erasure he is known for his deadpan and low-key onstage demeanour, often remaining motionless over his keyboard, in sharp contrast to vocalist Andy Bell's animated and hyperactive frontman antics. Erasure have recorded over 200 songs and have sold over 28 million albums worldwide. Vince Clarke was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020 as a member of Depeche Mode. Early life Vincent John Martin was born in South Woodford, Essex; he later moved to Basildon, Essex. He initially studied the violin and then the piano, but he was inspired to make electronic music upon hearing Wirral synth band Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD). Along with OMD, other early influences included The Human League, Daniel Miller, and Fad Gadget. Career Early bands In the late 1970s, Clarke and schoolmate Andy Fletcher formed a short-lived band called No Romance In China. In 1980, he teamed up with Robert Marlow and Martin Gore to form French Look. Depeche Mode Another band, named Composition of Sound, followed in 1980; it featured Gore and Fletcher. Clarke provided vocals until singer Dave Gahan joined the band, which was renamed Depeche Mode. At that time he adopted the stage name Vince Clarke, by which he is currently known. The band initially adopted a slick synthesised electropop sound, which produced the album Speak & Spell and the Clarke-penned singles "Dreaming of Me", "New Life", and "Just Can't Get Enough" in 1981. Clarke left Depeche Mode shortly thereafter. There were many rumoured reasons for his departure. He commented on Depeche Mode's later material as being a little dark for his taste, but good nonetheless. Clarke also stated that he did not enjoy the public aspects of success, such as touring and interviews, and found himself frequently at odds with his bandmates, particularly on the tour bus. He also stated: "I think everybody in the band, especially myself, imagined that the reason we were doing so well was because of themselves ... We were pretty young and very lucky, and things had happened very quickly for us, and I don't think we were really mature to handle the situation." Clarke was replaced by musician Alan Wilder, and Depeche Mode went on to achieve international stardom. Yazoo Clarke then teamed up with singer Alison Moyet (at the time known by the nickname of Alf) to form the popular synthpop band Yazoo (known as Yaz in the U.S.), which produced two albums and a string of hits including "Only You", "Don't Go", "Situation", "The Other Side of Love", "Nobody's Diary", and "Walk Away from Love". Yazoo disbanded in 1983, and Moyet went on to have a successful solo career. Yazoo reformed in 2008 for a series of live dates to celebrate 25 years since the duo's split. The Assembly Clarke teamed up with Eric Radcliffe in 1983. Their idea was to collaborate with different artists on each new single, under the name The Assembly. With singer Feargal Sharkey, lead vocalist of The Undertones, they scored the top 5 UK hit "Never Never". Meanwhile, Clarke founded the label Reset Records with Radcliffe. During 1983 and 1984 he produced four singles, "The Face of Dorian Gray", "I Just Want to Dance", "Claudette", and "Calling All Destroyers" for his friend Robert Marlow, which were released on this label. They also produced an album, at first shelved but released in 1999, under the name The Peter Pan Effect. In 1985, another collaboration took place with Paul Quinn of Bourgie Bourgie; the result was the single "One Day" by Vince Clarke & Paul Quinn. However, the project never took off, and Clarke moved on to other projects. Erasure In early 1985, Clarke put an ad in Melody Maker for a singer, and one applicant was Andy Bell, who was a fan of his earlier projects. He teamed with Bell to form the group Erasure, and the duo became one of the major selling acts in British music with international hits like "Oh L'amour", "Sometimes", "Chains of Love", "A Little Respect", "Drama!", "Blue Savannah", "Chorus", "Love to Hate You", "Take a Chance on Me", and "Always". As of March 2021, the duo have released 18 studio albums and have enjoyed a long string of hit singles spanning their four decades together. VCMG In 2011, Clarke collaborated with his former Depeche Mode colleague Martin Gore for the first time since 1981, as techno duo VCMG, on an instrumental minimalist electronic dance album called Ssss, released on 12 March 2012. The first EP, entitled Spock, was released worldwide exclusively on Beatport on 30 November 2011. The second EP, Single Blip, was once again first released exclusively on Beatport on 20 February 2012. Their third EP, Aftermaths, was released on 20 August 2012. Collaborations and other work In July 1984, Clarke teamed up with Stephen Luscombe of Blancmange, Pandit Dinesh, and Asha Bhosle. The group, West India Company, released a four-track, self-titled EP. Clarke worked with synthpop producer Martyn Ware (of Heaven 17 and The Human League) in 1999 as The Clarke & Ware Experiment and released the album Pretentious. The duo collaborated again in 2001 for the album Spectrum Pursuit Vehicle, which was created with "3D music technology" specifically designed for listening in headphones. That same year also saw the release of the Clarke-produced album Erasure's Vince Clarke, which featured The Peter Pan Effect, an album that he and Eric Radcliffe produced for his long-time friend Robert Marlow. Clarke wrote "Let's Get Together" for the pop girl group Girl Authority for their second album, Road Trip. The song was originally meant to be for Depeche Mode but was never recorded by them. Clarke also co-wrote "What Do I Want From You?" with Freeform Five, for their album Strangest Things (2005). Also in 2001, Clarke founded Illustrious Co. Ltd. with Martyn Ware, to create new forms of spatialised sound composition using their unique 3D AudioScape system, collaborating with fine artists, educational establishments, the performing arts, live events, corporate clients, and educational settings round the world. In 2004, Clarke provided additional music for an episode of Johnny Bravo entitled "The Time of My Life". This was a collaboration with Richard Butler of the Psychedelic Furs. Clarke was an essential component of a 2000 project called Family Fantastic. They produced the album Nice!. In 2008 Family Fantastic released a second album, entitled Wonderful. On 21 May 2009, Clarke was awarded with an "Outstanding Song Collection" prize, during the Ivor Novello Awards ceremony of the same day, in recognition of 30 years in the music industry. Clarke was featured in the BBC Four documentary Synth Britannia. In 2012, Clarke collaborated with the band The Good Natured on a track called "Ghost Train", available as a free download on their website, in exchange for a Tweet. Also in 2012, Clarke produced a cover of the Depeche Mode song "Fly on the Windscreen" featuring Ane Brun. Clarke also did DJ sets in various locations in North America and Europe and also continued his production work of remixing songs for Dido and Chad Valley. In October 2013, Clarke announced on his Twitter page that he was providing assistance to musicians BT and Christian Burns for their All Hail the Silence project. On 14 July 2015, Clarke announced a collaboration with Jean Michel Jarre called "Automatic", which was released as a part of the full album Electronica 1: The Time Machine on 16 October 2015. On 10 June 2016, in collaboration with Paul Hartnoll, Clarke digitally released the album "2 Square" on his new record label, VeryRecords. Since 2017, Clarke has hosted The Synthesizer Show with VeryRecords artist Reed Hays on Maker Park Radio, a non-profit community streaming radio station from Staten Island, New York. The first episode aired Dec 20, 2017. Influences In December 2013, Clarke listed his "13 LPs that mean the most to him" for The Quietus: Pink Floyd – The Dark Side of the Moon Kraftwerk – Computer World The Human League – Travelogue Simon & Garfunkel – Bookends T. Rex – Electric Warrior David Bowie – "Heroes" The Eagles – Hotel California Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark – Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark Philip Glass – Glassworks Genesis – A Trick of the Tail Michael Jackson – Dangerous The Sex Pistols – Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols Led Zeppelin – Led Zeppelin IV Production and recording methods When Clarke started making music, synthesisers were predominantly analogue - digital synthesisers were rare, and would remain that way until the launch of the Yamaha DX7 in 1983. In order to connect analogue synthesisers, analogue drum machines and analogue sequencers together, multiple CV/Gate cables were required between each device. This system was not standardised, so inter-operability between instruments from different manufacturers was not always straightforward. In addition, some manufacturers used their own proprietary interfaces. When an industry-wide standard called MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was introduced in 1983, Clarke, like most other electronic musicians, gradually migrated to the new technology. However, he continued to prefer his older analogue instruments: "... CV and Gate is tighter. I can hear and feel that it's tighter than MIDI – we can even prove it using 'scopes. Because everything is clocked simply, it arrives bang on the beat. The whole production starts to 'tick over'. Just look at Kraftwerk's stuff. I think that 'feel' has been lost with MIDI sequencers. No matter what you do with MIDI, the music will never sound as good as it did in the good old Futurist days. That's why our tracks sound the way they do. " For the Chorus album in 1991, he gathered together his collection of analogue synthesisers from various recording studio locations in London and set up a small studio in Amsterdam. This led Clarke to assemble an intricate patch system to more easily enable the control of his analogue instruments: "... the secret is having a good patch system – not as in patching to the mixing desk, but in patching CV and Gate. Because we don't use MIDI at all, you have to run three or four cables between each synth module – CV, Gate, Filter, Amplitude or whatever – and you've got to have a really unique system to do that."" In 1993 Clarke described his approach to songwriting: "Andy [Bell] and I get together with a guitar and a tape recorder, I'll strum some chords, he'll sing a melody, and we work in little sections, four or eight bars long. Then we'll try stringing the sections together. It's like a jigsaw puzzle. I find it very hard to relate songwriting to synthesisers, actually – we write songs in a very traditional way. The electronic side of things is just to create the atmosphere. It's mostly just messing about..! Once we've worked out a song, I start programming up the arrangement on the BBC UMI sequencer, which lets me run 16 synths simultaneously. That way you get a better idea if parts are working together or not. Then we start refining the individual sounds. And finally the whole lot is transferred to my Roland MC4, piece by piece, so it's being run in CV and Gate. Once we've got that, it's a case of Andy sketching out vocal ideas – in the studio we use two 48 track digital tape machines, which gives Dinger 24 tracks just for his voice!" " Clarke continued to expand his collection of analogue synthesisers and in 1994 set up "37B", a recording studio built adjacent to his custom-made home, "Ammonite", in Chertsey, Surrey. From 1994 to 2003, all Erasure albums were either wholly or in part recorded at "37B". In 2004 Clarke moved to Maine. While waiting for his studio equipment to be shipped from the UK he began using an Apple Mac laptop with Logic Pro, Max/MSP, and various software synthesisers (many of which were analogue emulations). Since then he has continued to use Logic Pro, along with both software and analogue synthesisers: "Nowadays, you can take the best bits from digital and analogue. On certain projects – say, if I'm doing library music – where you need to have instant recall all the time, then it's obviously much more convenient to use the computer. When it comes to writing a new song, though, I still like to have the old analogue gear there, too. But, a lot of soft synths have a character of their own, too; the Moog Modular V is just crazy! I think that analogue has an inherent sound to it – it's like the old argument over vinyl versus CD. It seems that you hear more frequencies coming from an analogue synth than you do from a software synth, but the great thing about the latter is that you can do far more complex modulation, both within the synth itself and on the keyboard. To emulate any of those really complex modulations on an analogue ... well, you'd need a mile of cable." " As of 2009, Clarke has installed his analogue synthesisers alongside his Logic Pro-based workstation in a custom-built commercial studio called "The Cabin" in Maine. Current & past studio equipment: Dave Smith Instruments Mopho, Roland System 700, Roland System-100M, Roland Jupiter-8, Roland Jupiter-4, Roland MKS-80, Roland SH-1, Roland VP-330, Roland JP-8000, Roland Juno-60, Roland Juno-106, Roland Super JX, Roland D-550, ARP 2500 Modular, ARP 2600, PPG Wave 2.2, Waldorf Microwave, Waldorf Pulse, Moog Modular, Minimoog, Moog Source, E-Mu Modular System, Buchla 100 series Modular, Sequential Circuits Prophet-5, Sequential Circuits Pro-One, Oxford Synthesiser Company OSCar, Synton Syrinx, Korg MS-20, Korg MS-10, Korg 700, Korg M1, Korg DVP, Serge Modular, Polyfusion Modular, Oberheim Xpander, Oberheim SEM System, RSF Kobol, Electronic Music Studios VCS 3, Matten and Wiechers x2 48 track sequencers total 96 track, Sennheiser Vocoder VSM201, Apple iPad 2, Apple Power Mac G5, Apple MacBook Pro. Current & past software: Apple Logic Pro, Cycling '74 Max/MSP, Arturia ARP 2600 V, Arturia Minimoog V, Arturia Moog Modular V, GForce impOSCar, GForce Oddity, LinPlug Octopus, Muon Tau Pro, Native Instruments Absynth, Native Instruments Reaktor, Native Instruments FM7, Native Instruments FM8, Vienna Symphonic String & Choir Libraries. Personal life Clarke has been married to Tracy Hurley since 2004. They have a son named Oscar and live in Brooklyn, New York City, with another home in Maine. Tracy Hurley is co-founder of the Morbid Anatomy Museum (now closed) in Brooklyn. Her twin sister, the American author Tonya Hurley, is married to Michael Pagnotta, the former manager of Erasure. In 2012, Clarke and his family moved into a new house in Brooklyn, to which he also relocated his Cabin studio and synthesizer collection. Discography with Depeche Mode Speak & Spell (1981, album) "Dreaming of Me" (1981, single) "New Life" (1981, single) "Just Can't Get Enough" (1981, single) The Singles 81>85 (1985, compilation - only the tracks noted above as singles plus the bonus tracks on the 1998 reissue: "Just Can't Get Enough" (Schizo Mix) and "Photographic" (Some Bizzare version)) Catching Up with Depeche Mode (1985, compilation - only the tracks noted above as singles) Some Great Videos (1985, video album - only "Just Can't Get Enough" clip) Remixes 81–04 (2004, compilation - only tracks "Shout!" (Rio Remix) and "Just Can't Get Enough" (Schizo Mix)) The Best of Depeche Mode Volume 1 (2006, compilation - only "Just Can't Get Enough" track) The Best of Videos Volume 1 (2006, video album - only "Just Can't Get Enough" clip) Remixes 2: 81–11 (2011, compilation - only "Puppets" (Röyksopp Remix) track) Video Singles Collection (2016, video album - only "Just Can't Get Enough" clip) with Yazoo Upstairs at Eric's (1982, album) "Only You" (1982, single) "Don't Go" (1982, single) "The Other Side of Love" (1982, single) "Situation" (1982, single) You and Me Both (1983, album) "Nobody's Diary" (1983, single) with The Assembly "Never Never" (1983, single) In collaboration with Paul Quinn (singer) "One Day" (1985, single) With Erasure See Erasure discography Solo Lucky Bastard (1993, Sample CD) In collaboration with Martyn Ware Pretentious (1999, as The Clarke and Ware Experiment) Spectrum Pursuit Vehicle (2001, as Vincent Clarke & Martyn Ware) The House of Illustrious (2012, as The Clarke and Ware Experiment) with Family Fantastic Nice! (2000) Wonderful (2008) In RadioActivators "Knock on Your Door" (2001, single) In VCMG Ssss (2012, album) "Spock" (2011, EP) "Single Blip" (2012, EP) "Aftermaths" (2012, EP) In collaboration with Paul Hartnoll 2Square (2016, album) "Better Have a Drink to Think" (2016, single) Remixes He has remixed the following songs for artists other than Erasure: 1988 Happy Mondays – "WFL (Wrote for Luck)" 1990 Betty Boo – "24 Hours" (Oratronic Mix) 1991 Fortran 5 – "Heart on the Line" (V.C. Mix) 1991 Habit – "Power" 1992 Nitzer Ebb – "Ascend" (Anonymous Mix) 1992 The Wolfgang Press – "Angel" 1992 Betty Boo – "I'm On My Way" (The Batman And Robin Mix) 1993 The Time Frequency – "Real Love '93" (Vince Clarke Remix) 1994 Sparks – "When Do I Get to Sing 'My Way'" (Vince Clarke Remix & Vince Clarke Extended Remix) 1994 Alison Moyet – "Whispering Your Name" (A Remix) 1995 Egebamyasi – "Remont" (Vince Version) 1995 Wubble-U – "Down – Get 'Em Down" (Vince Clarke Remix) 1997 White Town – "Wanted" (Vince Clarke Mix) 2001 Marlow – "My Teenage Dream" (Stealth Mix) 2001 Marlow – "No Heart" (Vince Clarke 2001 Dance Mix) 2002 Simple Minds – "Homosapien" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2005 Andy Bell – "Crazy" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2005 Rammstein – "Mann Gegen Mann" (Popular Music Mix) 2006 Rosenstolz – "Nichts Von Alledem (Tut Mir Leid)" (Mixed Up Mix & Maxed Up Mix) 2006 Noirhaus – "It's Over" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2009 The Saturdays – "Issues" (Vince Clarke Extended & Vince Clarke Radio Edit) 2009 Marlow – "Home" (Vince Clarke's Starstruck Mix) 2009 Polly Scattergood – "Other Too Endless" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2009 Franz Ferdinand – "No You Girls" (Vince Clarke Mix) 2009 The Presets – "If I Know You" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2009 Space Cowboy – "Falling Down" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2009 A Place to Bury Strangers – "In Your Heart" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2009 Ash – "True Love 1980" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2010 Andy Bell – "Call On Me" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2010 Andy Bell – "Non-Stop" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2010 Goldfrapp – "Believer" (Vince Clarke Remix & Vince Clarke Remix Edit) 2011 Billie Ray Martin – "Sweet Suburban Disco" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2011 Depeche Mode – "Behind the Wheel" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2011 Plastikman – "Elektrostatik" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2011 The Present Moment – "Loyal to a Fault" (Analogue Edit) 2012 Liars – "No.1 Against the Rush" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2012 VCMG – "Aftermaths" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2012 Kidnap Kid – "Lazarus Taxon" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2013 Chad Valley – "Up & Down" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2013 Dido – "End of Night" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2013 Blancmange – "Living on the Ceiling" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2014 Polly Scattergood – "Subsequently Lost" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2014 Bleachers – "I Wanna Get Better" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2014 Future Islands – "Doves" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2015 Simon Lowery – "I am an Astronaut" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2016 Nitzer Ebb – "Once You Say" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2016 Andy Bell – "My Precious One" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2016 Reed & Caroline – "Electrons" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2017 Bright Light Bright Light – "Running Back to You" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2017 Miss Kittin & Dubfire – "Ride" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2017 The Overlords – "God's Eye" (Vince Clarke Loony Remix) 2017 Alka – "Truncate" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2018 Ladytron – "The Animals" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2018 Robert Görl – "Part 1" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2018 Lanah P – "Pistol in My Pocket" (Erasure 2018 Mix) 2018 Reed & Caroline – "Before" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2018 Soft Cell – "Bedsitter" (Erasure Remix) 2018 Space – "Magic Fly" (Vince Clarke Rework) 2018 Benjamin Lowery – "Imagine" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2019 James Yorkston – "Shallow" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2019 All Hail the Silence – "The Alarm" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2019 Fujiya & Miyagi – "Fear Of Missing Out" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2019 Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark - "Almost" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2020 Yova - "Rain" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2020 Alka - "Faito" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2021 Tiny Magnetic Pets - "Automation" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2021 Saint Etienne - "Blue Kite" (Vince Clarke Remix) 2021: Xqui - "Martha" (Vince Clarke Remix) References External links Erasure Information Service, the official Erasure website Vince Clarke Feature by Cold War Night Life 1960 births 20th-century English musicians 21st-century English musicians Depeche Mode members English electronic musicians English expatriates in the United States English new wave musicians English record producers English songwriters 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207105	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RE/MAX%20Field	RE/MAX Field	RE/MAX Field (formerly Edmonton Ballpark, and Telus Field) is a baseball stadium in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It has served as home to several minor league baseball clubs; its last affiliated tenant was the Edmonton Trappers, a AAA Pacific Coast League club. It was also home to the Edmonton Capitals, an independent team that has been inactive since 2011. The Edmonton Prospects of the Western Canadian Baseball League (WCBL) were the main tenant from 2012 to 2019. The ballpark was mostly unused in 2020 and 2021 because of the COVID-19 pandemic, but the Edmonton Riverhawks of the West Coast League will be the main tenants starting in 2022. The facility is located in the North Saskatchewan River Valley, in the neighbourhood of Rossdale. History Opened in 1995, Telus Field replaced the 60-year-old John Ducey Park (formerly Renfrew Park) on the same site. The stadium's naming rights were purchased by the Telus telecommunications company in September 1995 for a 14-year deal. It has walls all the way around except in centre field, where the batter's eye is a green monster which is the third highest wall in professional baseball. Three players, Matthew LeCroy, Michael Cuddyer, and Todd Sears have hit home runs over it. Telus Field held the IBAF World Cup Women's baseball in the summer of 2004 and from July 25 to August 3, 2008, the park held the IBAF AAA World Junior Championships for the 7th time since it started in 1981. Despite Telus's naming rights expiring in 2009 the stadium continued to use the name Telus Field until opening the 2016 season as Edmonton Ballpark, or simply Ballpark. Being displaced by the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire, the Fort McMurray Giants played their inaugural season at the then Edmonton Ballpark. In May 2017 the stadium was renamed RE/MAX Field by the Edmonton Prospects; gaining naming rights and naming the park after the team's sponsor, RE/MAX, for three years. On May 20, 2020, Baseball Edmonton Inc., a group led by former Edmonton Oilers player Randy Gregg, reached a deal with the city of Edmonton to lease the stadium for ten years. Gregg said that his group would try to secure an agreement for a second WCBL team to play at RE/MAX field, but he hoped the Prospects would continue to play there as well. However, the owner of the Prospects claimed the ongoing negotiations regarding their use of the field "[seemed] fraught with challenges." Gregg also outlined several possible plans to expand use of the field throughout the year, including the inclusion of minor baseball leagues, collaborations with local cultural and music groups, and an indoor attachment under the left field bleachers to allow for greater use of the facility during the winter. Baseball Edmonton Inc. advocated for the stadium to be included in the planned redevelopment of the Rossdale neighbourhood. The Prospects played the 2021 season as a road team and plan to move to the Spruce Grove Metro Ballpark in 2023. The Edmonton Riverhawks of the West Coast League will be the main tenant at RE/MAX Field beginning with the 2022 season. Features RE/MAX Field uses natural grass in the outfield and FieldTurf in the infield; originally AstroTurf was used, before replaced in 2005 and again in 2021. Artificial turf was chosen for lower maintenance costs, because it allows for a better drainage system so the infield can return to a playable state quicker than a grass infield would, and to minimize damage to the infield when concerts are held at the stadium. The park has ground-level luxury suites with box and general seating built on top. The Home Plate VIP Lounge on the main concourse is located directly behind the plate, incorporating a bar and a restaurant with a view of the field from seats inside and outside. The lounge includes trophies and pictures of early Edmonton baseball teams. The capacity of the stadium is 9,200. The dimensions are to left field, to left centre, to centre field, to right centre and to right field. The stadium concourse features pictures of historic moments in Trapper history, including Ron Kittle's 50-home-run season. There are also pictures from every Trapper championship and trophies. Concerts Concerts have been held at the stadium on occasion: 1995 concerts included Tom Cochrane; Jeff Healey; The Beach Boys; The Village People and others. July 15, 2000: Briefcase Blues in concert following an Edmonton Trappers game - after which the band members signed baseballs for fans. August 22, 2001: Blink-182 with Jimmy Eat World, New Found Glory, Sum 41 June 13, 2002: Newsboys November 20, 2005: 2005 Tuyul Rugby Sevens August 25, 2009: Big & Rich with Cowboy Troy, Dean Brody, Mike Plume Band September 4, 2009: Bryan Adams August 28, 2010: Rock the River West Tour (featuring Flyleaf, Skillet, Hawk Nelson, Starfield, Downhere, and Tedashii) References External links 1995 establishments in Alberta Baseball in Edmonton Baseball venues in Alberta Minor league baseball venues Rugby union stadiums in Canada Sports venues in Edmonton Tourist attractions in Edmonton Sports venues completed in 1995 Music venues in Edmonton	[ 0.7805014848709106, -0.2687141001224518, 0.09501064568758011, 0.012039096094667912, 0.05795584246516228, -0.41285011172294617, 0.11313799768686295, 0.33270174264907837, 0.38317498564720154, -0.8126193881034851, -0.23255984485149384, -0.027913885191082954, -0.4322078227996826, -0.07628963887691498, -0.00435011088848114, 0.6043606400489807, 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207106	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1839%20in%20literature	1839 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1839. Events January 21 – Åbo Svenska Teater in Åbo (Turku), Finland, opens with a performance of the Swedish-language play Gubben i Bergsbygden. March – W. Harrison Ainsworth takes over editorship of Bentley's Miscellany from Charles Dickens at the end of the year. Until April serializations of their respective novels Jack Sheppard and Oliver Twist have been running simultaneously in the magazine. April – Washington Irving begins contributing regularly to The Knickerbocker, and will publish thirty new pieces in the magazine through March 1841 — including "The Creole Village," where he coins the phrase "the almighty dollar". May 31 – An important British constitutional case of Stockdale v Hansard begins when publisher John Joseph Stockdale sues for libel after John Roberton's pseudo-medical work On Diseases of the Generative System (1811) is declared in a parliamentary report to be indecent. September – The first known London production of Love's Labour's Lost after Shakespeare's era opens at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, with Madame Vestris as Rosaline. unknown dates Mikhail Lermontov publishes the first two parts of A Hero of Our Time (Герой нашего времени, Geroy nashevo vremeni) in Otechestvennye Zapiski. The novel comes to be seen as a pioneering classic of Russian psychological realism. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a late 14th-century Middle English alliterative romance by the 'Pearl Poet', is first published complete in Syr Gawayne, a collection of early romance poems by Scottish and English authors relating to that knight of the Round Table, edited by Frederic Madden for the Bannatyne Club. George Bell establishes the London publisher George Bell & Sons as an educational bookseller in Bouverie Street. New books Fiction W. Harrison Ainsworth – Jack Sheppard Carl Jonas Love Almqvist – Det går an (It's Acceptable, translated as Sara Videbeck and the Chapel) Honoré de Balzac Béatrix Illusions perdues, II: Un Grand homme de province à Paris (Lost Illusions, II: A Distinguished Provincial in Paris) Pierre Grassou Nicolaas Beets (as Hildebrand) – Camera Obscura Fredrika Bremer – Hemmet eller familje-sorger och fröjder Sarah Burney – The Romance of Private Life: The Renunciation and The Hermitage Charles Dickens – Nicholas Nickleby (serialization completed and in book form) Alexandre Dumas - Captain Pamphile Maurits Hansen – Mordet paa Maskinbygger Roolfsen (The Murder of Engine-maker Roolfsen) Frederick Marryat – Diary in America Harriet Martineau – Deerbrook Ellen Pickering Nan Darrell, or The Gypsy Mother The Fright Edgar Allan Poe The Fall of the House of Usher William Wilson George Sand Pauline Spiridion Jules Sandeau – Marianna Stendhal – The Charterhouse of Parma (La Chartreuse de Parme) Philip Meadows Taylor – Confessions of a Thug Cirilo Villaverde – Cecilia Valdés Children and young people Catherine Sinclair – Holiday House: A Book for the Young Frederick Marryat – The Phantom Ship Hans Christian Andersen – Fairy Tales Told for Children. New Collection. Second Booklet (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Ny Samling. Andet Hefte) comprising "The Garden of Paradise" ("Paradisets have"), "The Flying Trunk" ("Den flyvende Kuffert") and "The Storks" ("Storkene") Drama Edward Bulwer – Richelieu Felicia Hemans – De Chatillon George Sand – Gabriel Juliusz Słowacki – Balladyna Poetry Philip James Bailey (anonymous) – Festus Cláudio Manuel da Costa (posthumous) – Vila Rica Théodore Hersart de la Villemarqué (compiler) – Barzaz Breiz (Breton Ballads) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Voices of the Night Non-fiction Louis Blanc – L'Organisation du travail Charles Darwin – The Voyage of the Beagle Mrs William Ellis – The Women of England: their social duties and domestic habits Michael Faraday – Experimental Researches in Electricity George W. M. Reynolds – Grace Darling; or, the Heroine of the Ferne Islands Jared Sparks – Life of Washington John Tallis – Tallis Directory Births January 7 – Ouida, English novelist (died 1908) January 26 – Mary Ann Maitland, Scottish-born Canadian author (died 1919) February 1 – James Herne, American dramatist (died 1901) February 22 – Francis Pharcellus Church, American editor and publisher (died 1906) March 16 – Sully Prudhomme, French poet and essayist, winner of the first Nobel Prize in Literature (died 1907) April 18 – Henry Kendall, Australian poet (died 1882) June 21 – Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, Brazilian poet and novelist (died 1908) June 22 – Clara Augusta Jones Trask, American dime novelist (died 1905) July 5 – Helen Stuart Campbell, American author, editor, and reformer (died 1918) July 11 – Kate Sanborn, American author and essayist (died 1917) August 4 – Walter Pater, English writer (died 1894) August 9 – Gaston Paris, French writer and scholar (died 1903) August 25 – Martha E. Cram Bates, American writer, journalist, and editor (died 1905) September 10 – Charles Sanders Peirce, American philosopher (died 1914) November 4 – S. M. I. Henry, American author, evangelist, and reformer (died 1900) November 16 – William De Morgan (sic), English novelist and potter (died 1917) November 29 – Ludwig Anzengruber, Austrian dramatist (died 1889) December 12 – Charlotte Frances Wilder, American writer (died 1916) December 23 – Lucinda Barbour Helm, American author, editor, and activist (died 1897) Deaths January 16 – Edmund Lodge, English biographer and writer on heraldry (born 1756) April 11 – John Galt, Scottish novelist and entrepreneur (born 1779) April 13 – Robert Millhouse, English weaver poet (born 1788) April 22 – Thomas Haynes Bayly, English poet, songwriter and dramatist (born 1797) May 9 – Joseph Fiévée, French journalist, novelist, essayist and playwright (born 1767) May 17 – Archibald Alison, Scottish author (born 1757) May 21 – José María Heredia y Campuzano, Cuban poet (born 1803) June 26 – Winifred Gales, English novelist and memoirist (born 1761) August 3 – Dorothea von Schlegel, German novelist and translator (born 1764) September 4 – Hermann Olshausen, German theologian (born 1796) September 28 – William Dunlap, American dramatist (born 1766) October 11 – Leonor de Almeida Portugal, 4th Marquise of Alorna, Portuguese noblewoman, painter, and poet (born 1750) October 22 – Alexander Odoevsky, Russian poet (born 1802) unknown dates Elizabeth Dawbarn, English writer on religion and child care (year of birth not known) Mary Pilkington, English novelist, poet and children's writer (born 1761) Awards Newdigate prize – John Ruskin References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.2491803765296936, 0.25730183720588684, -0.7659786343574524, -0.06515257805585861, -0.5102853178977966, 0.10300127416849136, 0.607994019985199, 0.5872285962104797, -0.6772366166114807, -0.7727391123771667, -0.11500313133001328, 0.06782600283622742, -0.1006418988108635, 0.3122299015522003, -0.11532922834157944, 0.2635974586009979, -0.0904635414481163, -0.10751127451658249, -0.03813288360834122, -0.39988937973976135, 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207107	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1838%20in%20literature	1838 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1838. Events January 25 – William Macready opens a performance of King Lear at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, restoring most of Shakespeare's original text, including the character of the Fool. January 28 – The second night of Henrik Wergeland's satirical musical play Campbellerne (The Campbells) in Christiania (Norway) provokes a riot. March – The Monthly Chronicle, "a national journal of politics, literature, science, and art", begins publication by Longman in London. June 7 – English poet and novelist Letitia Elizabeth Landon marries George Maclean, travelling with him in early August to Cape Coast Castle, Gold Coast, where she dies on October 15 of a spasm arising from a heart defect. October 19 – Poet Alfred de Musset is appointed librarian of the Ministry of the Interior in France. November 3 – The Times of India is founded as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce by Raobahadur Narayan Dinanath Velkar in Bombay. November 8 – French novelist George Sand begins an uncomfortable winter living with her lover, the ailing Polish-born composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin, on the Mediterranean island of Majorca in the abandoned Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa. unknown dates Anna Maria Bunn's Gothic fiction The Guardian: a tale ("by an Australian") is published in Sydney. It is the first Australian novel printed and published in mainland Australia (although set in the author's native Ireland) and the first by a woman. George Palmer Putnam and John Wiley form the book publishing and retail firm of Wiley & Putnam in New York City. It is the forerunner of G. P. Putnam's Sons. Lady Charlotte Guest begins publication of her translation into English of the Welsh traditional tales known as the Mabinogion. New books Fiction Hendrik Conscience – De Leeuw van Vlaanderen (The Lion of Flanders) Charles Dickens Nicholas Nickleby (serialization begins) Oliver Twist (in book form) Théophile Gautier – "One of Cleopatra's Nights" (short story) William Nugent Glascock – Land Sharks and Sea Gulls Edward Howard (as "edited by the author of Peter Simple") – Rattling the Reefer Karl Leberecht Immermann – Münchhausen John Pendleton Kennedy – Rob of the Bowl Edgar Allan Poe The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket "Ligeia" (short story) George Sand L'Orco L'Uscoque Ann Sophia Stephens – Mary Derwent Robert Smith Surtees – Jorrocks' Jaunts and Jollities Children Hans Christian Andersen – Fairy Tales Told for Children. New Collection. First Booklet (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Ny Samling. Første Hefte) comprising "The Daisy" ("Gåseurten"), "The Steadfast Tin Soldier" ("Den standhaftige tinsoldat") and "The Wild Swans" ("De vilde svaner") Drama Dion Boucicault – A Legend of the Devil's Dyke Edward Bulwer – The Lady of Lyons Charles Dickens – The Lamplighter: a farce in one act (rejected for performance) Franz Grillparzer – Victor Hugo – Ruy Blas Martins Pena – (The Roça Justice of the Peace) Poetry Elizabeth Barrett Browning – The Seraphim and Other Poems Eliza Hamilton Dunlop – "The Aboriginal Mother" Non-fiction Lady Charlotte Bury – Diary Illustrative of the Times of George IV Giacomo Casanova – Memoirs (final volume) Ralph Waldo Emerson – The Divinity School AddressAnna Brownell Jameson – Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in CanadaGideon Mantell – The Wonders of Geology, or, A Familiar Exposition of Geological Phenomena...Harriet Martineau – How to Observe Morals and MannersSamuel Smiles – Physical EducationBaron Jules Dupotet de Sennevoy – Introduction to the Study of Animal MagnetismBirths January 4 – Eliza Archard Conner, American novelist, journalist, and feminist (died 1912) February 6 – Henry Irving, English actor and theatre manager (died 1905) February 22 – Margaret Elizabeth Sangster, American author, poet, and editor (died 1912) March 6 – Mary Dickens, English memoirist, editor and novelist (died 1896) April 25 – Mary Torrans Lathrap, American author and reformer (died 1895) April 30 – Abba Goold Woolson, American writer (died 1921) June 26 – Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Bengali writer (died 1894) July – Emma Pike Ewing, American author and educator (died 1917) July 20 – Augustin Daly, American dramatist and theatre manager (died 1899) October 25 – Annie Hall Cudlip, English novelist, journalist and editor (died 1918) November 7 – Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, French Symbolist writer (died 1889) December 22 – Clara Doty Bates, American author (died 1895)unknown date – Josephine E. Keating, American literary critic, musician and music teacher (died 1908) Deaths March 28 – Thomas Morton, English playwright (born 1764) April 12 – Johann Adam Möhler, German theologian (born 1796) April 18 – Mariana Starke, English playwright and travel writer (born 1761 or 1762) July 12 – John Jamieson, Scottish lexicographer (born 1759) August 24 – Ferenc Kölcsey, Hungarian poet and critic (born 1790) October 15 – Letitia Elizabeth Landon, English poet and novelist (born 1802) November 10 (October 29 O.S.) – Ivan Kotliarevsky, Ukrainian writer (born 1769) December 17 – Józef Zawadzki, Polish publisher (born 1781) December 20 – Hégésippe Moreau, French poet (born 1810) December 26 – Ann Hatton, English novelist (born 1764)unknown date'' – Amhlaoibh Ó Súilleabháin, Irish writer in Gaelic (born 1780) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.2262873351573944, 0.33898335695266724, -0.7864686846733093, -0.05005578696727753, -0.6933935284614563, -0.007977706380188465, 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207108	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1837%20in%20literature	1837 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1837. Events June 16 – Charles Dickens is introduced to the actor William Macready by John Forster backstage at a rehearsal of Othello. July – The English "peasant poet" John Clare first enters an asylum for the insane, at High Beach in Essex. September – In Burton's Gentleman's Magazine (Philadelphia), William Evans Burton publishes an early example of the detective story, "The Secret Cell", featuring a London police officer and his wife. October – The United States Magazine and Democratic Review is first published. October 4 – Andreas Munch's first play, Kong Sverres Ungdom, opens the Christiania Theatre's new building in Norway. unknown date – The publishers Little, Brown and Company open their doors in Boston, Massachusetts. New books Fiction W. Harrison Ainsworth – Crichton Honoré de Balzac César Birotteau Lost Illusions, Part I: The Two Poets Richard Harris Barham – The Ingoldsby Legends (serialization begins in Bentley's Miscellany) Robert Montgomery Bird – Nick of the Woods Sara Coleridge – Phantasmion Hendrik Conscience – In 't Wonderjaar 1566 Charles Dickens Oliver Twist (serialization begins in Bentley's Miscellany, February) The Pickwick Papers (serialization completed in November; first book publication) Benjamin Disraeli Henrietta Temple Venetia Lady Mary Fox – An Account of an Expedition to the Interior of New Holland Phillipe-Ignace François Aubert du Gaspé – L'Influence d'un livre Jeremias Gotthelf – Bauernspiegel Nathaniel Hawthorne – Twice-Told Tales Julia Kavanagh – Adele Letitia Elizabeth Landon (writing as L.E.L.) – Ethel Churchill, or The Two Brides Catharine Maria Sedgwick – Live and Let Live Victor Séjour – Le Mulâtre (earliest known work of African American fiction, published in Revue des Colonies, March) Mary Shelley – Falkner Children and young people Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales Told for Children. First Collection. Third Booklet (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Første Samling. Tredie Hefte) comprising "The Little Mermaid" ("Den lille havfrue") and "The Emperor's New Clothes" ("Kejserens nye klæder") Only a Fiddler Georgiana Chatterton – Aunt Dorothy's Tales Frederick Marryat – Snarleyyow or the Dog Fiend George Ayliffe Poole – The Exile's Return; or a Cat's Journey from Glasgow to Edinburgh Robert Southey – "The Story of the Three Bears" (in The Doctor) Drama Joanna Baillie – The Separation Manuel Bretón de los Herreros – Muérete y verás Robert Browning – Strafford Edward Bulwer-Lytton – The Duchess de la Vallière (posthumously performed) Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch – Los Amantes de Teruel Henrik Hertz – Svend Dyrings Huus Alfred de Musset – Un caprice Jules-Édouard Alboize de Pujol – L'Idiote Poetry José de Espronceda – El estudiante de Salamanca Louisa Jane Hall – Miriam, a Dramatic Sketch (written 1826) Alphonse de Lamartine – Chute d'un ange Alexander Pushkin – The Bronze Horseman (Медный всадник) See also 1837 in poetry Non-fiction Charles Babbage – Ninth Bridgewater Treatise. On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation Charles Ball – Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball, A Black Man Bernard Bolzano – Wissenschaftslehre (Theory of Science) Thomas Carlyle – The French Revolution: A History Washington Irving – The Adventures of Captain Bonneville Harriet Martineau – Society in America William H. Prescott – The History of Ferdinand and Isabella Ferenc Pulszky – Aus dem Tagebuch eines in Grossbritannien reisenden Ungarns (From the Diary of a Hungarian Travelling in Britain) Martin Tupper – Proverbial Philosophy Andrew Ure – A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines Adelbert von Chamisso – Über die Hawaiische Sprache (On the Hawaiian Language) Births January 16 – Ellen Russell Emerson, American author and ethnologist (died 1907) January 23 – Agnes Maule Machar, Canadian novelist (died 1927) February 13 – Emily St. John Bouton, American author, editor, and educator (died 1927) February 24 – Rosalía de Castro, Spanish Galician poet and writer (died 1885) March 1 Ion Creangă, Romanian raconteur (died 1889) William Dean Howells, American realist novelist (died 1920) March 6 – Sully Prudhomme, French poet (died 1907) April 1 – Jorge Isaacs (Ferrer), Colombian writer, politician and explorer (died 1895) April 5 – Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet (died 1909) April 7 – Lou Singletary Bedford, American author and editor (unknown year of death) June 9 – Anne Thackeray Ritchie, English novelist and essayist (died 1919) June 28 – Petre P. Carp, Romanian politician, polemicist, and translator (died 1919) July 13 – Mary Allen West, American writer, editor, and philanthropist (died 1892) August 24 – Bertha Jane Grundy, English novelist (died 1912) October 15 – Leo Königsberger, German historian of science (died 1921) October 21 – Mary Alice Fonda, American music critic and editor (died 1897) December 4 – Angelia Thurston Newman, American poet, author, and editor (died 1910) December 10 – Edward Eggleston, American novelist and historian (died 1902) December 11 – Esther Saville Allen, American author (died 1913) December 17 – Celia Logan, American actress and playwright (died 1904) unknown dates Teodor Boldur-Lățescu, Romanian journalist and publisher (died 1891) Florence Caddy (née Tompson), English non-fiction writer (died 1923) Anna Augusta Truitt, American essayist, philanthropist, and reformer (died 1920) Deaths January 29 – Alexander Pushkin, Russian poet (killed in duel, born 1799) February 7 – Mary Robinson (Maid of Buttermere), English literary muse (born 1778) February 12 – Ludwig Börne, German Jewish political writer and satirist (born 1786) February 19 – Georg Büchner German dramatist, poet and author (typhus, born 1813). March 9 – Alexandru Hrisoverghi, Moldavian writer and translator (tabes dorsalis, born 1811) March 15 – Lukijan Mušicki, Serbian poet (born 1777) June 12 – Carl Friedrich Ernst Frommann, German bookseller (born 1765) June 14 – Giacomo Leopardi, Italian poet (cholera, born 1798) September 21 – Georg Ludolf Dissen, German philologist (born 1784) October 19 – Hendrik Doeff, Dutch travel writer (born 1764) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.1922328919172287, 0.21175040304660797, -0.853672444820404, -0.07351726293563843, -0.5096154808998108, 0.04960440844297409, 0.7845420837402344, 0.7362584471702576, -0.719926118850708, -0.8277451992034912, -0.07468867301940918, -0.04822077229619026, 0.01780218631029129, 0.3646520674228668, -0.02097506821155548, 0.1936669498682022, -0.06584704667329788, -0.08759942650794983, 0.2388308048248291, -0.33085235953330994, -0.6167011857032776, 0.05685172975063324, 0.46056419610977173, -0.2790693938732147, 0.3500650227069855, 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207109	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1836%20in%20literature	1836 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1836. Events March 31 (dated April) – The first monthly part of The Pickwick Papers by Charles Dickens is issued in London. On April 20, the original illustrator, Robert Seymour, shoots himself and Dickens has more freedom to develop the story in his own way. April 2 – Dickens marries Catherine Hogarth at St Luke's Church, Chelsea (London). They honeymoon at Chalk, Kent. April 19 – Nikolai Gogol's satire The Government Inspector («Ревизор») is premièred at the Alexandra Theatre in Saint Petersburg before the Emperor Nicholas I of Russia and first published there. June – Georg Büchner begins work on his play Woyzeck; it remains unfinished when he dies the following year in Zurich. August 20 – The legal deposit privilege in the U.K. is removed from the libraries of Sion College in London, the four universities in Scotland and King's Inns in Dublin and replaced by a government grant for the purchase of books. September – The Flinders Island Chronicle is founded in Australia, the first newspaper produced by indigenous Australians. October 23 – Honoré de Balzac's novel La Vieille Fille (The Old Maid) begins a 12-day serialization in the newly established Paris newspaper La Presse, as the first novel serialized in the French press. November 6 – The funeral of Czech romantic poet Karel Hynek Mácha takes place on what should have been the day of his wedding to Eleonora Šomková, about a month after the birth of their child. Mácha had overexerted himself in helping put out a fire and died just before his 26th birthday of pneumonia in Litoměřice. December – Charles Dickens first meets, in London, a lifelong friend, the biographer and critic John Forster. unknown dates The Russian literary, social and political quarterly Sovremennik («Современник», The Contemporary), edited by Alexander Pushkin, begins publication in Saint Petersburg. It publishes Fyodor Tyutchev's poetry, and the fourth issue contains Pushkin's historical novel The Captain's Daughter («Капитанская дочка», ). The first printed literature in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic is produced by Justin Perkins, an American Presbyterian missionary in Persia. The dissertation of the German writer Georg Büchner on the common barbel (fish), Barbus barbus, "Mémoire sur le Système Nerveux du Barbeaux (Cyprinus barbus L.)", appears in Paris and Strasbourg. After receiving his doctorate, he is appointed in October by the University of Zurich as a lecturer in anatomy. New books Fiction Hans Christian Andersen – O. T. Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk, or, The Hidden Secrets of a Nun's Life in a Convent Exposed (January) Honoré de Balzac Le Lys dans la vallée (The Lily of the Valley) Facino Cane Alfred de Musset – La Confession d'un enfant du siècle (The Confession of a Child of the Century) Charles Dickens – The Pickwick Papers Théophile Gautier – "La Morte amoureuse" (short story) Louis Geoffroy – Histoire de la Monarchie universelle: Napoléon et la conquête du monde (1812–1832) William Nugent Glascock – Tales of a Tar, with characteristic Anecdotes Nikolai Gogol "The Carriage" (short story) "The Nose" («Нос», short story) Thomas Chandler Haliburton – The Clockmaker Washington Irving – Astoria Alexander Pushkin – The Captain's Daughter X. B. Saintine – Picciola Nathaniel Beverley Tucker George Balcombe The Partisan Leader Children Letitia Elizabeth Landon – Traits and Trials of Early Life William Holmes McGuffey (ed.) – first McGuffey Readers Frederick Marryat Japhet, in Search of a Father Mr Midshipman Easy The Pirate The Three Cutters Agnes Strickland – Tales and Stories From History Drama Georg Büchner – Leonce and Lena (Leonce und Lena) Alexandre Dumas – Kean Nikolai Gogol – Leaving the Theater, (After the Staging of a New Comedy) Henrik Hertz – The Savings Bank (Sparekassen) Poetry Robert Browning – "Porphyria's Lover" Girolamo de Rada – Këngët e Milosaos Oliver Wendell Holmes – Poems Andreas Munch – Ephemerer Non-fiction Ralph Waldo Emerson – Nature William Nugent Glascock – Naval Service, or Officers' Manual Washington Irving – Astoria Søren Kierkegaard – On the Polemic of Fædrelandet Claude François Lallemand – (On involuntary seminal losses, 3 vols, to 1842) John Murray III – A Hand-book for Travellers on the Continent; being a guide through Holland, Belgium, Prussia and northern Germany, and along the Rhine from Holland to Switzerland A. W. N. Pugin – Contrasts G. W. M. Reynolds – Grace Darling Arthur Schopenhauer – Über den Willen in der Natur (On the Will in Nature) Catharine Parr Traill – The Backwoods of Canada Births January 27 – Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer (died 1895) February 17 – Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Spanish Andalusian poet and short-story writer (died 1870) March 4 – Matilda Betham-Edwards, English novelist, poet and travel writer (died 1919) April 25 – Emily Sarah Holt, English novelist (died 1893) May 17 – Virginie Loveling, Belgian author and poet (died 1923) July 16 – Marietta Holley, American humorist (died 1926) August 25 – Bret Harte, American author (died 1902) August 27 – Lizzie P. Evans-Hansell, American novelist and short-story writer (died 1922) September 11 – Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author (died 1870) September 22 – Emeline S. Burlingame, American editor and reformer (died 1923) October 4 – Juliette Adam, French author (died 1936) November 4 – Annie Ryder Gracey, American writer and missionary (died 1908) November 11 – Thomas Bailey Aldrich, American poet and novelist (died 1870) November 18 – W. S. Gilbert, English humorist, playwright and librettist (died 1911) November 20 – Lucy Morris Chaffee Alden, American author, educator, and hymnwriter (died 1912) December 7 – Nellie Blessing Eyster, American journalist, writer, and reformer (died 1922) Deaths February 5 – Dorothy Kilner, English children's writer (born 1755) March 5 – William Taylor, English man of letters (born 1765) March 9 – Antoine Destutt de Tracy, French philosopher (born 1754) April 7 – William Godwin, English political writer and novelist (born 1756) June 7 – Nathan Drake, English essayist and physician (born 1766) September 5 – Ferdinand Raimund, Austrian playwright (born 1790) September 6 – Louisa Gurney Hoare, English diarist and writer on education (born 1784) September 12 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German playwright (born 1801) November 5 – Karel Hynek Mácha, Czech poet (born 1810) December 1 – Jozef Ignác Bajza, Slovak satirist (born 1755) unknown date – Don Vincente, Spanish ex-monk, bibliomaniac, book-thief and murderer (executed) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.16502167284488678, 0.30531951785087585, -0.8718224763870239, -0.069261334836483, -0.4587417244911194, -0.03488202393054962, 0.772810697555542, 0.5658105611801147, -0.6060312390327454, -0.7638337016105652, -0.04455168545246124, -0.060346607118844986, -0.12918522953987122, 0.37710171937942505, -0.11076335608959198, 0.36694303154945374, 0.12640202045440674, -0.22531060874462128, 0.19496126472949982, -0.3641148507595062, -0.580297589302063, 0.19043666124343872, 0.6179566979408264, -0.3222987949848175, 0.3265151083469391, -0.8700551986694336, 0.24883157014846802, -0.4834378659725189, 0.16718710958957672, -0.1996641308069229, -0.30932381749153137, 0.4195109009742737, 0.570835530757904, 0.6533707976341248, -0.3735220432281494, -0.5320719480514526, -0.668213963508606, -0.2464301437139511, 0.36177244782447815, -0.6143918633460999, -0.5719866752624512, -0.34382128715515137, 0.6495240330696106, 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207110	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1835%20in%20literature	1835 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1835. Events January 21 – Abolitionist Susan Paul officiates at a meeting of the New England Anti-Slavery Society (NEASS) in Boston. Later in the year, her Memoir of James Jackson becomes the earliest-known published narrative by an African-American woman and the first account documenting the life of a free black child in the United States. February 17 – William Colenso prints the first book in New Zealand, a translation into the Māori language of the Epistle to the Philippians and Epistle to the Ephesians. c. early March – John Stuart Mill's maid accidentally burns the unpublished first volume manuscript of Thomas Carlyle's The French Revolution: A History. May 8 – The first of Hans Christian Andersen's 168 fantastic stories are published as Fairy Tales Told for Children. First Collection (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn) by C. A. Reitzel in Copenhagen, including "The Tinderbox" ("Fyrtøiet") and "The Princess and the Pea" ("Prinsessen paa Ærten"). On December 16 a second collection including "Thumbelina" ("Tommelise") is published. July – Bertelsmann is founded by Carl Bertelsmann as a religious printer and publisher in Prussia. November/December – The German Federal Convention prohibits circulation of work by members of the "Young Germany" group of writers (Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Heine, Heinrich Laube, Theodor Mundt and Ludolf Wienbarg) and the exiled poet Heinrich Heine. unknown dates The annual Icelandic language journal Fjölnir is first published in Copenhagen by four Icelanders, Jónas Hallgrímsson, Konráð Gíslason, Brynjólfur Pétursson and Tómas Sæmundsson (the Fjölnismenn), promoting romanticism in Icelandic literature and the Icelandic independence movement. The remains of Jonathan Swift are uncovered during work on St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, and inspected by William Wilde, an apprentice surgeon at this time. New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac - Le Contrat de mariage Séraphîta Edward Bulwer-Lytton – The Student Théophile Gautier – Mademoiselle de Maupin Nikolai Gogol Arabesques (short story collection), including "Diary of a Madman" and "The Portrait" Mirgorod (short story collection), including "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich" and "Taras Bulba" Karl Gutzkow – Wally die Zweiflerin (Wally the Sceptic) Joseph C. Hart – Miriam Coffin, or The Whale-Fisherman Nathaniel Hawthorne The Devil in Manuscript "Young Goodman Brown" (short story) Washington Irving – The Crayon Miscellany (three short stories), including "A Tour on the Prairies" Hannah Maria Jones – The Gipsy Mother, or, The miseries of enforced marriage: a tale of mystery John P. Kennedy – Horseshoe Robinson Prosper Mérimée – "La Vénus d'Ille" (short story) Hugh Miller – Scenes and Legends in the North of Scotland Mary Russell Mitford – Belford Regis Caroline Norton – The Wife, and Woman's Reward Julia Pardoe – The Mardens and the Daventrys G. W. M. Reynolds – The Youthful Impostor Catharine Maria Sedgwick – The Linwoods Mary Shelley – Lodore Alfred de Vigny – Servitude et grandeur militaires Children and young people Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales Told for Children. First Collection. First Booklet (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Første Samling. Første Hefte) comprising "The Tinderbox" ("Fyrtøiet"), "Little Claus and Big Claus" ("Lille Claus og store Claus"), "The Princess and the Pea" ("Prindsessen paa Ærten") and "Little Ida's Flowers" ("Den lille Idas Blomster") Fairy Tales Told for Children. First Collection. Second Booklet (Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Første Samling. Andet Hefte) comprising "Thumbelina" ("Tommelise"), "The Naughty Boy" ("Den uartige Dreng") and "The Traveling Companion" ("Reisekammeraten") The Improvisatore (Improvisatoren) Edward Augustus Kendall Burford Cottage and Its Robin Red Breast The English Boy at the Cape: An Anglo-African Story Jane Marcet – Mary's Grammar Frederick Marryat – The Pacha of Many Tales Agnes Strickland – Tales of the School Room Drama Georg Büchner – Danton's Death (Dantons Tod, published) Christian Dietrich Grabbe – Hannibal Victor Hugo – Angelo, Tyrant of Padua (Angelo, tyran de Padoue) Friedrich Kaiser – Hans Hasenkopf William Thomas Moncrieff – The Jewess John Neal — Our Ephraim, or The New Englanders, A What-d’ye-call-it?–in three Acts John Oxenford My Fellow Clerk Twice Killed A Day Well Spent (1-act) Thomas Noon Talfourd – Ion Alfred de Vigny – Chatterton Poetry Robert Browning – Paracelsus Elias Lönnrot (comp.) – Kalevala Karl August Nicander – Hesperider See also 1835 in poetry Non-fiction Edward Blyth – "An Attempt to Classify the 'Varieties' of Animals..." (first of three articles up to 1837) Maria Callcott – Little Arthur's History of England James Cowles Prichard – Treatise on Insanity and Other Disorders Affecting the Mind Alexis de Tocqueville – Democracy in America, vol. 1 David Strauss – Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet (The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined; publication begins) Connop Thirlwall – History of Greece (publication begins) Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun – Souvenirs (autobiography) Births January 20 – Lucy Hamilton Hooper, American writer (died 1893) January 29 – Sarah Chauncey Woolsey (Susan Coolidge), American children's writer (died 1905) February 14 – Mary Spear Nicholas Tiernan, American writer (died 1891) February 22 – Lillian Spender (née Headland), English novelist (died 1895) March 25 – Minnie S. Davis, American author and mental scientist (unknown year of death) March 28 – Mary H. Gray Clarke, American writer (died 1892) April 3 – Harriet Elizabeth Prescott Spofford, American writer (died 1921) April 10 – Charlotte Louisa Hawkins Dempster, Scottish novelist and essayist (died 1913 in literature) April 10 – Louise Chandler Moulton, American writer and critic (died 1908) April 23 – Luisa Cappiani, Austrian soprano, educator and essayist (died 1919) April 25 – Emma Scarr Booth, English-born American author (died 1927) May 8 – Augusta Jane Evans, American author (died 1909) June 5 – Amanda Kerfstedt, Swedish novelist and playwright (died 1920) June 26 – Thomas W. Knox, American journalist and travel writer (died 1896) June 29 – Celia Laighton Thaxter, American writer (died 1894) July 1 (probable year) – Mary Catherine Chase (Sister Mary Francis de Sales), American nun and writer (died c. 1905) October – Emilia Marryat, English children's writer (died 1875) October 4 – Mary Elizabeth Braddon, English novelist (died 1915) November – Shoqan Walikhanov, Russian Kazakh historian and folklorist (died 1865) November 30 – Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens), American novelist and humorist (died 1910) December 4 – Samuel Butler, English novelist (died 1902) unknown date – Henrietta Gould Rowe, American litterateur and author (died 1910) Deaths January 1 – Mátyás Godina, Hungarian hymnist and educational writer in Prekmurje dialect of Slovenian (born 1768) March 30 – Richard Sharp ("Conversation Sharp"), English poet, critic and wit (born 1759) April 8 – Wilhelm von Humboldt, German philosopher (born 1767) April 2 – István Ballér (Števan Baler), Slovene hymnist and Lutheran minister (born 1760) April 17 – William Henry Ireland, English poet and forger of Shakespeariana (born 1775) June 18 – William Cobbett, English journalist and social commentator (born 1763) August 23 – Isaac Pocock, English dramatist (born 1782) December 17 – Pierre Louis Roederer, French politician, economist, and historian (born 1754) December 25 – Antoine Ó Raifteiri, Irish poet writing in Gaelic (born 1779) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.03676875680685043, 0.44680726528167725, -0.868087887763977, -0.1588115096092224, -0.5751427412033081, 0.011272518895566463, 0.6662665605545044, 0.59718918800354, -0.7437357306480408, -0.7140734791755676, -0.039422549307346344, 0.022348560392856598, -0.20977605879306793, 0.3675559163093567, -0.0003346567682456225, 0.30062136054039, 0.0663636103272438, -0.03176521509885788, 0.08606535941362381, -0.352617472410202, -0.44433391094207764, 0.15780240297317505, 0.48175346851348877, 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207111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Smart%20%28Canadian%20author%29	Elizabeth Smart (Canadian author)	Elizabeth Smart (December 27, 1913 – March 4, 1986) was a Canadian poet and novelist. Her best-known work is the novel By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept (1945), an extended prose poem inspired by her romance with the poet George Barker. Early life and education Smart was born to a prominent family in Ottawa, Ontario; her father, Russel Smart, was a lawyer, and the family had a summer house on Kingsmere Lake located next door to the future Prime Minister of Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie King. Her sister, Jane became a filmmaker, teacher and sculptor. Smart attended the Ottawa Normal School in her formative years, but was soon transferred to the Elmwood School, a private prep school for girls located in an affluent Ottawa neighbourhood. She later attended Hatfield Hall in Cobourg, Ontario for secondary school. At the age of 11, Smart was confined to bed for a year due to a misdiagnosed "leaky heart valve". She began writing at an early age, publishing her first poem at the age of 10 and compiling a collection of poetry at 15. In her youth, she often kept regular journals, a habit she would keep up throughout most of her life. Smart grew up among the social elite of Ottawa through her father's connections as a lawyer. Her mother often hosted parties for prominent politicians and civil servants. As a result, Smart socialized with many members of Ottawa's political class who were or would become important figures in Canadian history, including acquaintances such as Graham Spry, Charles Ritchie, Lester B. Pearson, and William Lyon Mackenzie King. At the age of 18, following graduation from secondary school, Smart traveled to England to study music at the University of London. In 1937, Smart took a job as secretary to the noted Mrs. Alfred Watt, head of the Associated Country Women of the World, an international organization for rural women, travelling extensively throughout the world accompanying Watt to various conferences. It was during this time that Smart happened across a book of poetry by George Barker, immediately falling in love not only with the poetry, but with the man himself. After her travels with Mrs. Watt, Smart returned to Ottawa, where she spent six months writing society notes for the women's page of The Ottawa Journal. At parties she would often ask about Barker, saying she wanted to meet and marry him. Soon Smart began a correspondence with the poet. Relationship with George Barker Eager to launch her writing career, Smart quit the Journal and left Ottawa for good. Traveling on her own, she visited New York, Mexico and California, joining a writers' colony at Big Sur. While there, Smart made contact with Barker through Lawrence Durrell, paying to fly Barker and his wife to the United States from Japan where he was teaching. Soon after meeting, they began a tumultuous affair which was to last for years. In 1941, after becoming pregnant, Smart returned to Canada, settling in Pender Harbour, British Columbia to have the child she would name Georgina. Barker attempted to visit her in Canada, but Smart's family influenced government officials: he was stopped at the border and turned back because of "moral turpitude". During this time Smart produced her best-known work, By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept (1945). Smart soon returned to the United States and began work as a file clerk for the British embassy in Washington. Two years later, in 1943, during the height of the war, she sailed to the United Kingdom to join Barker. There she gave birth to their second child, Christopher Barker, and obtained employment at the British Ministry of Defence to support her children. Just 2000 copies of By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept were published in 1945 by Editions Poetry London, and it did not achieve popularity until its paperback reissue in 1966. It is a fictional work, largely based on Smart's affair with Barker up until that point. "The power of emotion to transform one's perspective on the world," a recent Open Letters Monthly review of the novel states, "is the theme of this wildly poetic novel. The inspiration for Smart's classic work of prose poetry is just as famous as the book itself. Smart's mother Louise ("Louie") was not pleased with the book. Again availing influence with government officials, she led a successful campaign to have its publication banned in Canada. Of those copies that made their way into the country from overseas, Louise Smart bought up as many as she could find and had them burned. Barker visited Smart often in London where she worked. She became pregnant again, and was fired from the Ministry of Information. Their affair produced two more children (Sebastian, born 1945, and Rose Emma, born 1947). Through it all Barker, who was Catholic, said he would leave his wife for Smart, but this never happened (he was to have fifteen children by several different women). They lived a bohemian lifestyle and associated with many of the 'Soho' artists. Christopher Barker writing in the Guardian about this period noted: "On many occasions through the early Sixties, writers and painters such as David Gascoyne, Paddy Kavanagh, Roberts MacBryde and Colquhoun and Paddy Swift [Swift lived downstairs from Smart and his wife, Agnes, wrote cookbooks with Smart] would gather at Westbourne Terrace in Paddington, our family home at that time. They came for editorial discussions about their poetry magazine, X." In addition to the unconventional nature of the relationship, the affair was fraught with turmoil. Barker was a heavy drinker and Smart took up the habit, which intensified when the two were together. The couple were involved in numerous fights; during one argument, Smart bit off part of Barker's upper lip. Nonetheless, as evidenced from writings in her journals, Smart's love for Barker continued for the remainder of her life. Single mother and writer Raising four children on her own, Smart worked for 13 years as an advertising copywriter. She then joined the staff of Queen magazine in 1963, later becoming an editor. She became at length the highest-paid copywriter in England. During this time her physical involvement with Barker waned; she lived a bohemian lifestyle in Soho and took several other lovers, some men and some women. Meanwhile, By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept had been circulating in London and New York, acquiring a cult following that led to its paperback reissue in 1966 and critical acclaim. In the same year, Smart retired from commercial writing and relocated to a cottage in north Suffolk named "The Dell". It was at The Dell that Smart produced the bulk of her subsequent literary work, much of which has been published posthumously. Eager to make up for the time away from creative writing forced by the demands of raising her children, Smart wrote voluminously and on a number of subjects, poetry and prose, even her passion for gardening. In 1977, following a 32-year absence from the book world, Smart published two new works, The Assumption of the Rogues & Rascals and a small collection of poetry, titled A Bonus. Later, In the Meantime (1984), a collection of Smart's unpublished poetry and prose appeared, and her two volumes of journals, Necessary Secrets: The Journals of Elizabeth Smart (1986) were published posthumously. Smart returned to Canada for a brief stay from 1982 to 1983, becoming writer-in-residence at the University of Alberta. Afterward she spent a year in Toronto on a Canada Council writer's grant before returning to England. In 1986 she died in London of a heart attack. She is buried in St George's churchyard, Saint Cross South Elmham, Suffolk. An hour-long documentary, Elizabeth Smart: On the Side of the Angels (1991) by Maya Gallus starred actor Jackie Burroughs as Elizabeth Smart and was narrated by author Michael Ondaatje. The publication of her journals in On The Side of the Angels brought further posthumous critical appreciation Influence Morrissey, former lead singer of the British band the Smiths, has talked of his love for Elizabeth Smart. References to By Grand Station Central I Sat Down And Wept are found in a number of Smiths songs, in particular "The Headmaster Ritual", "Reel Around The Fountain" and "Shakespeare's Sister", and as well, the title of the Smiths compilation album Louder Than Bombs. Ian Brown used a passage from Elizabeth's poem A Musical Note to name his third solo album The Music of the Spheres. Canadian playwright Wendy Lill wrote a play entitled Memories of You (1989) about the life of Elizabeth Smart. Works Smart, Elizabeth. The Assumption of the Rogues and Rascals. New York: HarperCollins, 1978. . Smart, Elizabeth. A Bonus. London: Jay Landesman Publishing, 1977. . Smart, Elizabeth. By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept. New York: Vintage Press, 1992, First edition 1945. . Smart, Elizabeth.The Collected Poems of Elizabeth Smart. London: Paladin, 1992. . Smart, Elizabeth. Eleven Poems. Bath, UK: Bath Place Community Arts Press, 1982. Smart, Elizabeth. In the Meantime. Ottawa: Deneau, 1984. . Smart, Elizabeth. Ten Poems. Bath, UK: Bath Place Community Arts Press, 1981. Smart, Elizabeth. Elizabeth's Garden: Elizabeth Smart on the Art of Gardening. Toronto: Coach House Press, 1989. . Smart, Elizabeth and Agnes Ryan. Cooking the French Way (%00 Recipes). London: Littlehampton Book Services Ltd., 1966, first edition 1958. . Edited collections Smart, Elizabeth, Christina Burridge ed. Autobiographies. Vancouver: William Hoffer, 1987. Smart, Elizabeth, Alice Van Wart, ed. Necessary Secrets: The Journals of Elizabeth Smart. Toronto: Harper/Collins Canada, 1987. . Smart, Elizabeth, Alice Van Wart, ed. Juvenilia: Early Writings of Elizabeth Smart. Toronto: Coach House Press, 1987. . Smart, Elizabeth, Alice Van Wart, ed. On the Side of the Angels: The Second Volume of the Journals of Elizabeth Smart. Toronto: Harper/Collins Canada, 1997. . References Notes Bibliography Barker, Christopher. The Arms of the Infinite. Keighley, UK: Pomona Press, 2006. . Barker, Christopher. "Life at Tilty Mill" (A sketch by Smart's son Christopher.). Granta Issue 80, Winter 2002. Carson, Marilyn. "Elizabeth Smart: Poetry and Passion in Ottawa". in Brooks, Victoria. Literary Trips: Following in the Footsteps of Fame 1. Vancouver: Greatest Escapes, 2000. . Echlin, Kim. Elizabeth Smart: A Fugue Essay on Women and Creativity. Toronto: Women's Press, 2004. "Elizabeth Smart." Canadian Writers, an examination of archival manuscripts, typescripts, correspondence, journals and notebooks at Library and Archives Canada. Fraser, Robert. The Chameleon Poet: A Life of George Barker. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd, 2002. . Ritchie, Charles. My Grandfather's House. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2002. . Smart, Elizabeth.Necessary Secrets: The Journals of Elizabeth Smart. Toronto: Deneau, 1986. . Sullivan, Rosemary. By Heart: Elizabeth Smart a Life. Toronto: Viking Canada, 1991. . External links Elizabeth Smart's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia Elizabeth Smart's Grave Elizabeth Smart: On The Side of the Angels, produced & directed by Maya Gallus Archives of Elizabeth Smart (Elizabeth Smart fonds, R12494) are held at Library and Archives Canada Correspondence between Elizabeth Smart and Alice Van Wart are held in the archives of Alice Van Wart (Alice Van Wart fonds, R16263) at Library and Archives Canada Some archives of Elizabeth Smart collected by Kim Echlin (Kimberly Echlin Collection of Elizabeth Smart Letters, Scrip, and Photographs, R12501) are held at Library and Archives Canada. The collection consists of materials gathered by Kim Echlin while she conducted research for her biography of Elizabeth Smart, including letters, a radio script from a BBC production; and publicity photographs of Smart. 1913 births 1986 deaths Alumni of King's College London Canadian women poets 20th-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian poets Canadian diarists Canadian women novelists Writers from Ottawa 20th-century Canadian women writers Bisexual writers Canadian women non-fiction writers Women diarists Women's page journalists 20th-century diarists 20th-century LGBT people Canadian LGBT novelists Canadian LGBT poets	[ -0.43171435594558716, 0.29358524084091187, -1.0002144575119019, 0.014696828089654446, -0.27970758080482483, 0.8827059268951416, 1.181597113609314, 0.32036203145980835, -0.23292699456214905, -0.5782803297042847, 0.0899965763092041, -0.1053711548447609, 0.15264487266540527, 0.14061984419822693, -0.07881201803684235, 0.17740441858768463, -0.5065643787384033, 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207112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Smart	Elizabeth Smart	Elizabeth Ann Gilmour (née Smart; born November 3, 1987) is an American child safety activist and commentator for ABC News. She gained national attention at the age of 14 when she was abducted from her home in Salt Lake City by Brian David Mitchell. Mitchell and his wife, Wanda Barzee, held Smart captive for nine months until she was rescued by police officers on a street in Sandy, Utah. Smart has since gone on to work as an activist and advocate for missing persons. Her life and abduction have been the subject of numerous non-fiction books and films. Early life Elizabeth Ann Smart was born November 3, 1987, in Salt Lake City, Utah, to Edward "Ed" and Lois Smart. Her family was part of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with four brothers and one sister; she is the second-oldest child in her family. Smart attended Bryant Middle School and East High School in Salt Lake City. She later enrolled in Brigham Young University, where she earned her Bachelor of Music in harp performance. Kidnapping On June 5, 2002, at the age of 14, Smart was abducted at knifepoint from her bedroom in her family's house in Salt Lake City, Utah. For the next nine months, Smart was raped daily, tied up, and threatened with death if she attempted to escape. She was rescued by police officers on March 12, 2003, on a public street in Sandy, Utah, from her home. Two witnesses recognized abductors Brian David Mitchell and Wanda Ileen Barzee from an America's Most Wanted episode. On November 16, 2009, Barzee pled guilty to assisting in the kidnapping of Elizabeth Smart as part of a plea bargain with prosecutors. On May 19, 2010, federal Judge Dale A. Kimball sentenced Barzee to 15 years in federal prison. As part of a plea deal between the defense and federal prosecutors, he gave Barzee credit for seven years that she had already served. The court found Mitchell competent to stand trial for kidnapping and sexual assault charges. He was found guilty on both counts and sentenced in May 2011 to two life terms in federal prison. Activism and media coverage On March 8, 2006, Smart went before the United States Congress to support sexual predator legislation and the AMBER Alert system. On July 26, 2006, she spoke after the signing of the Adam Walsh Act. In May 2008, she traveled to Washington, D.C., where she helped present a book, You're Not Alone, published by the U.S. Department of Justice. It contained entries from her as well as four other recovered young adults. In 2009, Smart commented on the kidnapping of Jaycee Lee Dugard, stressing that dwelling upon the past is unproductive. On October 27, 2009, Smart spoke at the 2009 Women's Conference in California, hosted by Maria Shriver, on overcoming obstacles in life. In 2011, Smart founded the Elizabeth Smart Foundation, which aims to bring hope and end the victimization and exploitation of sexual assault through prevention, recovery, and advocacy. In March 2011, Smart was one of four women awarded the Diane von Furstenberg Award. On July 7, 2011, ABC News announced that she would work as a commentator for them, mainly focusing on missing persons. In July 2012, Theta Phi Alpha National Fraternity honored Smart with the Siena Medal award. The medal is the highest honor the organization bestows upon a non-member. They named it after their patroness, St. Catherine of Siena. On May 1, 2013, in a speech at a human trafficking conference at Johns Hopkins University, Smart discussed the need to emphasize individual self-worth in fighting human trafficking and the importance of dispelling cultural myths surrounding girls' loss of value upon sexual contact. Having been raped by her captor, she recalled the destructive impact of exposure to illicit sexual education programs. Many of them teach that a sexually active girl is akin to a chewed piece of gum. "I thought, 'Oh, my gosh, I'm that chewed up piece of gum, nobody re-chews a piece of gum, you throw it away.' And that's how easy it is to feel like you no longer have worth, you no longer have value," Smart said. "Why would it even be worth screaming out? Why would it even make a difference if you are rescued? Your life still has no value." Smart went on to ask that listeners educate children on having self-worth, avoiding viewing themselves as victims. In February 2014, Smart testified before the Utah State House of Representatives in favor of HB 286. The bill would create an optional curriculum for use in Utah schools to provide training on child sexual abuse prevention. In early 2015, Faith Counts featured Smart in a video in which she explains how her religion sustained her through her ordeal and helped her heal. As of September 2016, Smart is a correspondent for the true-crime show Crime Watch Daily. Various state politicians have proposed bills that would require all computers to have a pornography filter, branding it the "Elizabeth Smart Law." However, in March 2018, her spokesman denied her relationship to the proposal. Her lawyer sent a cease and desist letter to the politicians in which they were ordered not to use her name. On June 5, 2017, on the 15th anniversary of her abduction, Lifetime aired the made-for-TV film titled I Am Elizabeth Smart, narrated and produced by Smart, which tells the story of her kidnapping from her perspective. The film starred Alana Boden as Elizabeth Smart, Skeet Ulrich as Brian David Mitchell, Deirdre Lovejoy as Wanda Ileen Barzee, George Newbern as Ed Smart, and Anne Openshaw as Lois Smart. In 2018, Smart published Where There's Hope: Healing, Moving Forward, and Never Giving Up with St. Martin's Press. In 2021, Smart competed on The Masked Dancer as "Moth". She was eliminated during the third episode of the series, placing eighth overall in the competition. Her abduction and rescue were widely reported and were the subject of a made-for-TV movie, The Elizabeth Smart Story, Lifetime's I Am Elizabeth Smart and non-fiction books. In October 2013, My Story, a memoir of Smart's experience co-written with Chris Stewart, was published by St. Martin's Press. The book details both Smart's kidnapping and the formation of the Elizabeth Smart Foundation, which works to promote awareness about abductions. Smart has played the harp on national television in the United States. Smart's uncle, Tom Smart, and author Lee Benson wrote a book about the search for Smart, In Plain Sight: The Startling Truth Behind the Elizabeth Smart Investigation. Her father wrote another book about Smart's kidnapping, called Bringing Elizabeth Home. A television movie, The Elizabeth Smart Story, was made in 2003, based on the book by Smart's father. Personal life On November 11, 2009, Smart left Salt Lake City to serve as a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Paris. Smart temporarily returned from her mission in November 2010 to serve as the chief witness in the federal trial of Brian David Mitchell. After the trial, she returned to France to finish her mission, coming home to Utah in early 2011. While serving as missionaries in the Paris Mission, Smart met Scotland native Matthew Gilmour. In January 2012, after a courtship of one year, they became engaged. They married on February 18, 2012, in a private ceremony in the Laie Hawaii Temple. Since then, Elizabeth has had three children: Chloé (born February 2015), James (born April 2017), and Olivia (born November 2018). In 2019, while traveling home to Utah aboard a Delta Airlines flight, Smart was awakened by the passenger next to her rubbing her inner thigh. She reported the incident and began a self defense program for women and girls called Smart Defense. See also Alicia Kozakiewicz References Citations Sources External links Elizabeth Smart inspirational documentary: "Your Past Does Not Dictate Your Future" Elizabeth Smart Missing Child Profile at America's Most Wanted Elizabeth Smart's TEDx Talk 1987 births 21st-century Mormon missionaries ABC News personalities American Christian writers American classical harpists American founders Latter Day Saints from Utah American memoirists American Mormon missionaries in France American nonprofit executives American women activists Activists from Utah Anti–human trafficking activists Brigham Young University alumni Child crime victim advocates Female Mormon missionaries Kidnapped American children Living people Musicians from Salt Lake City Writers from Salt Lake City Sexual abuse victim advocates Women founders American women memoirists Mormon memoirists Women harpists	[ 0.1494036614894867, -0.442282497882843, -0.3796679675579071, 0.0795944333076477, 0.9209342002868652, 0.43450161814689636, 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207114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Overseas%20Territories	British Overseas Territories	The British Overseas Territories (BOTs), also known as United Kingdom Overseas Territories (UKOTs), are fourteen territories all with a constitutional and historical link with the United Kingdom. They are the last remnants of the former British Empire and do not form part of the United Kingdom itself. Some of the permanently inhabited territories are internally self-governing, with the UK retaining responsibility for defence and foreign relations. Three of the territories are inhabited only by a transitory population of military or scientific personnel. All but one of the rest are listed by the UN Special Committee on Decolonization as non-self-governing territories. All fifteen have the British monarch as head of state. , three Territories (the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar and the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia in Cyprus) are the responsibility of the Minister of State for Europe and the Americas; the Minister responsible for the remaining Territories is the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Overseas Territories and Sustainable Development. Current overseas territories The fourteen British Overseas Territories are: Map Collective titles The term "British Overseas Territory" was introduced by the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, replacing the term British Dependent Territory, introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981. Prior to 1 January 1983, the territories were officially referred to as British Crown Colonies. Although the Crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey, and the Isle of Man are also under the sovereignty of the British monarch, they are in a different constitutional relationship with the United Kingdom. The British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies are themselves distinct from the Commonwealth realms, a group of 15 independent countries (including the United Kingdom) each having Elizabeth II as their reigning monarch, and from the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of 54 countries mostly with historic links to the British Empire (which also includes all Commonwealth realms). Population With the exceptions of the British Antarctic Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (which host only officials and research station staff) and the British Indian Ocean Territory (used as a military base), the Territories retain permanent civilian populations. Permanent residency for the approximately 7,000 civilians living in the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia is limited to citizens of the Republic of Cyprus. Collectively, the Territories encompass a population of about 250,000 people and a land area of about . The vast majority of this land area constitutes the almost uninhabited British Antarctic Territory (the land area of all the territories excepting the Antarctic territory is only ), while the two largest territories by population, the Cayman Islands and Bermuda, account for about half of the total BOT population. At the other end of the scale, three territories have no civilian population; the Antarctic territory, the British Indian Ocean Territory (from which the Chagos Islanders were controversially removed) and South Georgia. Pitcairn Islands, settled by the survivors of the Mutiny on the Bounty, is the smallest settled territory with 49 inhabitants, while the smallest by land area is Gibraltar on the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. The United Kingdom participates in the Antarctic Treaty System and, as part of a mutual agreement, the British Antarctic Territory is recognised by four of the six other sovereign nations making claims to Antarctic territory. History Early colonies, in the sense of English subjects residing in lands hitherto outside the control of the English government, were generally known as "Plantations". The first, unofficial, colony was Newfoundland, where English fishermen routinely set up seasonal camps in the 16th century. It is now a province of Canada known as Newfoundland and Labrador. It retains strong cultural ties with Britain. After failed attempts, including the Roanoke Colony, permanent English colonisation of North America began officially in 1607 with the settlement of Jamestown, the first successful permanent colony in Virginia (a term that was then applied generally to North America). Its offshoot, Bermuda, was settled inadvertently after the wrecking of the Virginia Company's flagship there in 1609, with the Virginia Company's charter extended to officially include the archipelago in 1612. St. George's town, founded in Bermuda in that year, remains the oldest continuously inhabited British settlement in the New World (with some historians stating that – its formation predating the 1619 conversion of "James Fort" into "Jamestown" – St. George's was actually the first successful town the English established in the New World). Bermuda and Bermudians have played important, sometimes pivotal, but generally underestimated or unacknowledged roles in the shaping of the English and British trans-Atlantic Empires. These include maritime commerce, settlement of the continent and of the West Indies, and the projection of naval power via the colony's privateers, among other areas. The growth of the British Empire in the 19th century, to its territorial peak in the 1920s, saw Britain acquire nearly one quarter of the world's land mass, including territories with large indigenous populations in Asia and Africa. From the mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, the larger settler colonies – in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa – first became self-governing colonies and then achieved independence in all matters except foreign policy, defence and trade. Separate self-governing colonies federated to become Canada (in 1867), Australia (in 1901), South Africa (in 1910), and Rhodesia (in 1965). These and other large self-governing colonies had become known as Dominions by the 1920s. The Dominions achieved almost full independence with the Statute of Westminster (1931).Through a process of decolonisation following the Second World War, most of the British colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean chose independence. Some colonies became Commonwealth realms, retaining the British monarch as their own head of state. Most former colonies and protectorates became member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. After the independence of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in Africa in 1980 and British Honduras (now Belize) in Central America in 1981, the last major colony that remained was Hong Kong, with a population of over 5 million. With 1997 approaching, the United Kingdom and China negotiated the Sino-British Joint Declaration, which led to the whole of Hong Kong becoming a "special administrative region" of China in 1997, subject to various conditions intended to guarantee the preservation of Hong Kong's capitalist economy and its way of life under British rule for at least 50 years after the handover. George Town in the Cayman Islands has consequently become the largest city in the Overseas Territories. In 2002, the British Parliament passed the British Overseas Territories Act 2002. This reclassified the UK's dependent territories as overseas territories and, with the exception of those people solely connected with the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus, restored full British citizenship to their inhabitants. During the European Union (EU) membership of the UK the main body of EU law did not apply and, although certain slices of EU law were applied to the overseas territories as part of the EU's Association of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT Association), they were not commonly enforceable in local courts. The OCT Association also provided overseas territories with structural funding for regeneration projects. Gibraltar was the only overseas territory that was part of the EU, although it was not part of the European Customs Union, the European Tax Policy, the European Statistics Zone or the Common Agriculture Policy. Gibraltar was not a member of the European Union in its own right, having had its representation in the European Parliament through its Members from South West England. Overseas citizens held concurrent European Union citizenship, having given them rights of free movement across all EU member states. The Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus were never part of the European Union, but they are the only British overseas territory to use the Euro as official currency, having previously had the Cypriot pound as their currency until 1 January 2008. Government Head of state The head of state in the overseas territories is the British monarch, Elizabeth II. The Queen appoints a representative in each territory to exercise her executive power. In territories with a permanent population, a Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government. Currently (2019) all but two Governors are either career diplomats or have worked in other Civil Service departments. The remaining two Governors are former members of the British armed forces. In territories without a permanent population, a Commissioner is usually appointed to represent the Queen. Exceptionally, in the overseas territories of Saint Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha and the Pitcairn Islands, an Administrator is appointed to be the Governor's representative. In the territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, there is an Administrator in each of the two distant parts of the territory, namely Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha. The Administrator of the Pitcairn Islands resides on Pitcairn, with the Governor based in New Zealand. Following the Lords' decision in Ex parte Quark, 2005, it is held that the Queen in exercising her authority over British Overseas Territories does not act on the advice of the government of the UK, but in her role as Queen of each territory, with the exception of fulfilling the UK's international responsibilities for its territories. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government. To comply with the court's decision, the territorial governors now act on the advice of each territory's executive and the UK government can no longer disallow legislation passed by territorial legislatures. The role of the Governor is to act as the de facto head of state, and they are usually responsible for appointing the head of government, and senior political positions in the territory. The Governor is also responsible for liaising with the UK Government, and carrying out any ceremonial duties. A Commissioner has the same powers as a Governor, but also acts as the head of government. Local government All the overseas territories have their own system of government, and localized laws. The structure of the government appears to be closely correlated to the size and political development of the territory. Legal system Each overseas territory has its own legal system independent of the United Kingdom. The legal system is generally based on English common law, with some distinctions for local circumstances. Each territory has its own attorney general, and court system. For the smaller territories, the UK may appoint a UK-based lawyer or judge to work on legal cases. This is particularly important for cases involving serious crimes and where it is impossible to find a jury who will not know the defendant in a small population island. The Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004 is an example of how the UK may choose to provide the legal framework for particular cases where the territory cannot do so alone. The highest court for all the British Overseas Territories is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London. Police and Enforcement The British Overseas Territories generally look after their own policing matters and have their own police forces. In smaller territories, the senior officer(s) may be recruited or seconded from a UK police force, and specialist staff and equipment may be sent to assist the local force. Some territories may have other forces beyond the main territorial police, for instance an airport police, such as Airport Security Police (Bermuda), or a defence police force, such as the Gibraltar Defence Police. In addition, most territories have customs, immigration, border, and coastguard agencies. Territories with military bases or responsibilities may also have "Overseas Service Police", members of the British or Commonwealth Armed Forces. Joint Ministerial Council A Joint Ministerial Council of UK ministers, and the leaders of the Overseas Territories has been held annually since 2012 to provide representation between UK Government departments and Overseas Territory Governments. Disputed sovereignty The British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) is the subject of a territorial dispute with Mauritius, the government of which claims that the separation of the Chagos Archipelago from the rest of British Mauritius in 1965, three years before Mauritius was granted independence from the United Kingdom, was not lawful. The long-running dispute was referred in 2017 to the International Court of Justice, which issued an advisory opinion on 25 February 2019 which supported the position of the Government of Mauritius. The British Antarctic Territory has some overlap with territorial claims by both Argentina and Chile. However, territorial claims on the continent may not currently be advanced, under the holding measures of the Antarctic Treaty System. United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories Of the eleven territories with a permanent population, all except Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia in Cyprus continue to be listed by the UN Special Committee on Decolonization as non-self-governing territories since they were listed as dependent territories by the UK when it joined the UN in 1947. Relations with the United Kingdom Historically the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Colonial Office were responsible for overseeing all British Colonies, but today the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) has the responsibility of looking after the interests of all overseas territories except the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence. Within the FCDO, the general responsibility for the territories is handled by the Overseas Territories Directorate. In 2012, the FCO published The Overseas Territories: security, success and sustainability which set out Britain's policy for the Overseas Territories, covering six main areas: Defence, security and safety of the territories and their people Successful and resilient economies Cherishing the environment Making government work better Vibrant and flourishing communities Productive links with the wider world Britain and the overseas territories do not have diplomatic representations, although the governments of the overseas territories with indigenous populations all retain a representative office in London. The United Kingdom Overseas Territories Association (UKOTA) also represents the interests of the territories in London. The governments in both London and territories occasionally meet to mitigate or resolve disagreements over the process of governance in the territories and levels of autonomy. Britain provides financial assistance to the overseas territories via the FCDO (previously the Department for International Development). Currently only Montserrat and Saint Helena receive budgetary aid (i.e. financial contribution to recurrent funding). Several specialist funds are made available by the UK, including: The Good Government Fund which provides assistance on government administration; The Economic Diversification Programme Budget which aim to diversify and enhance the economic bases of the territories. The territories have no official representation in the UK Parliament, but have informal representation through the All-Party Parliamentary Group, and can petition the UK Government through the Directgov e-Petitions website. Two national parties, UKIP and the Liberal Democrats, have endorsed calls for direct representation of overseas territories in the UK Parliament, as well as backbench members of the Conservative Party and Labour Party. Andrew Rosindell, MP for Romford, is an advocate of reserving seats in the British House of Commons for the British Overseas Territories, especially for the Falkland Islands and Gibraltar. Foreign affairs Foreign affairs of the overseas territories are handled by the FCDO in London. Some territories maintain diplomatic officers in nearby countries for trade and immigration purposes. Several of the territories in the Americas maintain membership within the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, the Caribbean Community, the Caribbean Development Bank, Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency, and the Association of Caribbean States. The territories are members of the Commonwealth of Nations through the United Kingdom. The inhabited territories compete in their own right at the Commonwealth Games, and three of the territories (Bermuda, the Cayman Islands and the British Virgin Islands) sent teams to the 2016 Summer Olympics. Full British citizenship has been granted to most 'belongers' of overseas territories (mainly since the British Overseas Territories Act 2002). Most countries do not recognize the sovereignty claims of any other country, including Britain's, to Antarctica and its off-shore islands. Five nations contest, with counter-claims, the UK's sovereignty in the following overseas territories: British Antarctic Territory – Territory overlaps Antarctic claims made by Chile and Argentina British Indian Ocean Territory – claimed by Mauritius Falkland Islands – claimed by Argentina Gibraltar – border disputed by Spain South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands – claimed by Argentina Citizenship The people of the British Overseas Territories are British Nationals. Most of the overseas territories distinguish between those British nationals who have rights reserved under the local government for those with a qualifying connection to the territory. In Bermuda, by example, this is called "Bermudian status", and can be inherited or obtained subject to conditions laid down by the local government (non-British nationals must necessarily obtain British nationality in order to obtain Bermudian status). Although the expression "belonger status" is not used in Bermuda, it is used elsewhere in Wikipedia to refer to all such statuses of various of the British Overseas Territories collectively. This status is neither a nationality nor a citizenship, though it confers rights under local legislation. Prior to 1968, the British government made no citizenship (or connected rights) distinction between its nationals in the United Kingdom and those in the British colonies (as the British Overseas Territories were then termed). Indeed, the people of Bermuda had been explicitly guaranteed by Royal Charters for the Virginia Company in 1607 (extended to Bermuda in 1612) and the Somers Isles Company (in 1615) that they and their descendants would have exactly the same rights as they would if they had they been born in England. Despite this, British Colonials without a qualifying connection to the United Kingdom were stripped of the rights of abode and free entry in 1968, and in 1983 the British Government replaced Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies with British Citizenship (with rights of abode and free entry to the United Kingdom) for those with a qualifying connection to the United Kingdom or British Dependent Territories Citizenship for those with a connection only to a colony, at the same time re-designated a British Dependent Territory. This category of citizenship was distinguished from British Citizenship by what it did not include, the rights of abode and free entry to the United Kingdom, and was not specific to any colony but to all collectively, except for Gibraltar and the Falklands Islands, the people of which retained British Citizenship. It was stated by some Conservative Party backbench MPs that the secret intent of the Conservative Government was to restore a single citizenship with full rights across the United Kingdom and the British Dependent Territories once Hong Kong and its British Dependent Territories Citizens had been returned to the People's Republic of China in 1997. By that time, the Labour Party was in government with Tony Blair as Prime Minister. Labour had decried discrimination against the people of the British Dependent Territories (other than those of Gibraltar and the Falklands), which was understood universally as intended to raise a colour bar, and had done so given that most white colonials were not affected by it, and had made restoration of a single citizenship part of its election manifesto. In 2002, when the British Dependent Territories became the British Overseas Territories, the default citizenship was renamed British Overseas Territories Citizenship (except still for Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands, for which British Citizenship remained the default), the immigration bars against its holders were lowered, and its holders were also entitled to obtain British Citizenship by obtaining a second British Passport (something that had previously been illegal) with the citizenship so indicated. As British Overseas Territories Citizens must provide their British Passport with the citizenship shown as British Overseas Territories Citizen in order to prove their entitlement to obtain a passport with the citizenship shown as British Citizen, most now have two passports, though the local governments of the territories do not distinguish an individual's local status based on either form of citizenship, and the passport with the citizenship shown as British Citizen consequently shows the holder to be entitled to all of the same right as does the passport with the citizenship shown as British Overseas Territories Citizen, and is often required to access services in the United Kingdom, and is accepted by the immigration authorities of more foreign countries, many of which have barriers against holders of British Overseas Territories Citizen passport holders that do not apply to British Citizen passport holders (the exception being the United States in relation to Bermuda, with which it has retained close links since Bermuda was founded as an extension of Virginia). In regard to movement within British sovereign territory, only British citizenship grants the right of abode in a specific country or territory, namely, the United Kingdom proper (which includes its three Crown Dependencies). Individual overseas territories have legislative independence over immigration, and consequently, BOTC status, as noted above, does not automatically grant the right of abode in any of the territories, as it depends on the territory's immigration laws. A territory may issue belonger status to allow a person to reside in the territory that they have close links with. The governor or immigration department of a territory may also grant the territorial status to a resident who does not hold it as a birthright. From 1949 to 1983, the nationality status of Citizenship of UK and Colonies (CUKC) was shared by residents of the UK proper and residents of overseas territories, although most residents of overseas territories lost their automatic right to live in the UK after the ratification of Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 that year unless they were born in the UK proper or had a parent or a grandparent born in the UK. In 1983, CUKC status of residents of overseas territories without the right of abode in the UK was replaced by British Dependent Territories citizenship (BDTC) in the newly minted British Nationality Act 1981, a status that does not come with it the right of abode in the UK or any overseas territory. For these residents, registration as full British citizens then required physical residence in the UK proper. There were only two exceptions: Falkland Islanders, who were automatically granted British citizenship and was treated as a part of the UK proper through the enactment of British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 due to the Falklands War with Argentina, and Gibraltarians who were given the special entitlement to be registered as British citizens upon request without further conditions because of its individual membership in the European Economic Area and the European Community. Five years after the handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997, the British government amended the 1981 Act to give British citizenship without restrictions to all BDTCs (the status was also renamed BOTC at the same time) except for those solely connected with Akrotiri and Dhekelia (whose residents already held Cypriot citizenship). This restored the right of abode in the UK to residents of overseas territories after a 34-year hiatus from 1968 to 2002. Military Defence of the Overseas Territories is the responsibility of the UK. Many of the overseas territories are used as military bases by the UK and its allies. Ascension Island (part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) – the Base known as RAF Ascension Island is used by both the Royal Air Force and the United States Air Force. Bermuda – became the primary Royal Navy base in North America, following US independence. The Naval establishment included an admiralty, a dockyard, and a naval squadron. A considerable military garrison was built up to protect it, and Bermuda, which the British Government came to see as a base, rather than as a colony, was known as Fortress Bermuda, and the Gibraltar of the West (Bermudians, like Gibraltarians, also dub their territory "The Rock"). Canada and the USA also established bases in Bermuda during the Second World War, which were maintained through the Cold War. Four air bases were located in Bermuda during the Second World War (operated by the Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, US Navy, and US Army/Army Air Force). Since 1995, the military force in Bermuda has been reduced to the local territorial battalion, the Royal Bermuda Regiment. British Indian Ocean Territory – the island of Diego Garcia is home to a large naval base and airbase leased to the United States by the United Kingdom until 2036 (unless renewed). There are British forces in small numbers in the BIOT for administrative and immigration purposes. Falkland Islands – the British Forces Falkland Islands includes commitments from the British Army, Royal Air Force and Royal Navy, along with the Falkland Islands Defence Force. Gibraltar – British Forces Gibraltar includes a Royal Navy dockyard (also used by NATO), RAF Gibraltar – used by the RAF and NATO and a local garrison – the Royal Gibraltar Regiment. The Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia in Cyprus – maintained as strategic British military bases in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Montserrat – the Royal Montserrat Defence Force, historically connected with the Irish Guards, is a body of twenty volunteers, whose duties are primarily ceremonial. Cayman Islands - The Cayman Regiment is the home defence unit of the Cayman Islands. It is a single territorial infantry battalion of the British Armed Forces that was formed in 2020. Turks and Caicos - The Turks and Caicos Regiment is the home defence unit of the British Overseas Territory of the Turks and Caicos Islands. It is a single territorial infantry battalion of the British Armed Forces that was formed in 2020, similar to the Cayman Regiment. Languages Most of the languages other than English spoken in the territories contain a large degree of English, either as a root language, or in codeswitching, e.g. Llanito. They include: Llanito or Yanito and Spanish (Gibraltar) Cayman Creole (Cayman Islands) Turks-Caicos Creole (Turks and Caicos Islands) Pitkern (Pitcairn Islands) Greek (Akrotiri and Dhekelia) Forms of English: Bermudian English (Bermuda) Falkland Islands English Currencies The 14 British overseas territories use a varied assortment of currencies, including the Euro, British pound, United States dollar, New Zealand dollar, or their own currencies, which may be pegged to one of these. Part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Symbols and insignia Each overseas territory has been granted its own flag and coat of arms by the British monarch. Traditionally, the flags follow the Blue Ensign design, with the Union Flag in the canton, and the territory's coat of arms in the fly. Exceptions to this are Bermuda which uses a Red Ensign; British Antarctic Territory which uses a White Ensign, but without the overall cross of St. George; British Indian Ocean Territory which uses a Blue Ensign with wavy lines to symbolise the sea; and Gibraltar which uses a banner of its coat of arms (the flag of the city of Gibraltar). Akrotiri and Dhekelia and Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha are the only British overseas territories without their own flag, though Saint Helena, Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha have their own individual flags. The Union Flag is used in these territories. Sports Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands are the only British Overseas Territories with recognised National Olympic Committees (NOCs); the British Olympic Association is recognised as the appropriate NOC for athletes from the other territories, and thus athletes who hold a British passport are eligible to represent Great Britain at the Olympic Games. Shara Proctor from Anguilla, Delano Williams from the Turks and Caicos Islands, Jenaya Wade-Fray from Bermuda and Georgina Cassar from Gibraltar strived to represent Team GB at the London 2012 Olympics. Proctor, Wade-Fray and Cassar qualified for Team GB, with Williams missing the cut, however wishing to represent the UK in 2016. The Gibraltar national football team was accepted into UEFA in 2013 in time for the 2016 European Championships. It has been accepted by FIFA and went into the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying, where they achieved 0 points. Gibraltar has hosted and competed in the Island Games, most recently in 2019. Biodiversity The British Overseas Territories have more biodiversity than the entire UK mainland. There are at least 180 endemic plant species in the overseas territories as opposed to only 12 on the UK mainland. Responsibility for protection of biodiversity and meeting obligations under international environmental conventions is shared between the UK Government and the local governments of the territories. Two areas, Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Islands as well as the Gough and Inaccessible Islands of Tristan Da Cunha are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and two other territories, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and Saint Helena are on the United Kingdom's tentative list for future UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Gibraltar's Gorham's Cave Complex is also found on the UK's tentative UNESCO World Heritage Site list. The three regions of biodiversity hotspots situated in the British Overseas Territories are the Caribbean Islands, the Mediterranean Basin and the Oceania ecozone in the Pacific. The UK created the largest continuous marine protected areas in the world, the Chagos Marine Protected Area, and announced in 2015 funding to establish a new, larger, reserve around the Pitcairn Islands. In January 2016, the UK government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around Ascension Island. The protected area would be 234,291 square kilometers, half of which would be closed to fishing. See also British overseas territory citizens in the mainland United Kingdom Colonial Department Depopulation of Chagossians from the Chagos Archipelago to enable building of a UK-US military base in the British Indian Ocean Territory on Diego Garcia List of British Army installations List of leaders of Overseas Territories List of stock exchanges in the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies and United Kingdom Overseas Territories List of universities in British Overseas Territories List of postcodes in Overseas Territories Secretary of State for the Colonies Tax haven lists UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum United Kingdom Overseas Territories Association (UKOTA) Overseas France Notes References Further reading Charles Cawley. Colonies in Conflict: The History of the British Overseas Territories (2015) 444pp Harry Ritchie, The Last Pink Bits: Travels Through the Remnants of the British Empire (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1997) Simon Winchester, Outposts: Journeys to the Surviving Relics of the British Empire (London & New York, 1985) George Drower, Britain's Dependent Territories (Dartmouth, 1992) George Drower, Overseas Territories Handbook (London: TSO, 1998) Ian Hendry and Susan Dickson, "British Overseas Territories Law" (London: Hart Publishing, 2011) Ben Fogle, The Teatime Islands: Adventures in Britain's Faraway Outposts (London: Michael Joseph, 2003) External links Foreign and Commonwealth Office – UK Overseas Territories United Kingdom Overseas Territories Association British Overseas Territories Act 2002 – Text of the Act British colonization of the Americas Foreign relations of the United Kingdom Dependent territories of European countries Governance of the British Empire History of the British 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207115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1834%20in%20literature	1834 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1834. Events April – W. Harrison Ainsworth's first novel, the historical romance Rookwood, is published anonymously in London by Richard Bentley, with illustrations by George Cruikshank. Romanticising the highwayman Dick Turpin, it succeeds enough for the author to take up full-time writing. Bentley also publishes Edward Bulwer-Lytton's anonymous popular novel The Last Days of Pompeii in the same year. June 10 – The Scottish philosopher and writer Thomas Carlyle moves to Cheyne Row (Carlyle's House) in London. August – Charles Dickens first uses the pen name Boz, in the second installment of "The Boarding-House", one of the Sketches by Boz, originally published in the Monthly Magazine (London). November 24 – George Sand begins her journal addressed to Alfred de Musset. unknown date – Carl Jonas Love Almqvist's fourth novel in the "Törnrosens bok" series, The Queen's Tiara (Drottningens juvelsmycke) is published anonymously. Set around the assassination of King Gustav III of Sweden in 1792, it is the first original historical novel written in Sweden, and features a bisexual character, Tintomara. New books Fiction W. Harrison Ainsworth – Rookwood Carl Jonas Love Almqvist – The Queen's Tiara Honoré de Balzac The Quest of the Absolute La Fille aux yeux d'or (The Girl with Eyes of Gold) Le Père Goriot Edward Bulwer – The Last Days of Pompeii Selina Davenport – Personation Benjamin Disraeli – The Infernal Marriage Catherine Gore – The Hamiltons Tommaso Grossi – Marco Visconti Barbara Hofland – The Captives in India Harriet Martineau – Illustrations of Political Economy (nine volumes, in fictional form) Frederick Maurice – Eustace Conway Aleksandr Pushkin – The Queen of Spades ( – Pikovaya dama) Agnes C. Hall (as Rosalia St. Clair) – The Pauper Boy Children and young people Frederick Marryat Jacob Faithful Peter Simple Drama John Baldwin Buckstone – Isabelle; or, A Woman's Life Alfred de Musset – Lorenzaccio Aleksander Fredro – Zemsta (Revenge) Franz Grillparzer – Der Traum, ein Leben (The Dream, a Life) Juliusz Słowacki Balladyna Kordian Henry Taylor – Philip van Artevelde Poetry Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Poetical Works (last edition read in proof by author) Adam Mickiewicz – Pan Tadeusz Non-fiction George Bancroft – History of the United States, volume 1 Davy Crockett – A Narrative of the Life of David Crockett, written by himself Henry Hallam, ed. – Remains in Verse and Prose of Arthur Henry Hallam Heinrich Heine – Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland (The History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany) Søren Kierkegaard writing as 'A' – "Another Defense Of Woman's Great Abilities" ("Ogsaa et Forsvar for Qvindens hoie Anlæg" Richard Monckton Milnes – Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece, Chiefly Poetical Lancelot Edward Threlkeld – An Australian Grammar Births January 1 – Ludovic Halévy, French playwright and author (died 1908) January 22 – Jennie Fowler Willing, American author, educator and reformer (died 1916) January 28 – Julia Carter Aldrich, American author and editor (died 1924) February 9 – Felix Dahn, German writer (died 1912) March – Thomas Purnell, Welsh-born English drama critic and essayist (died 1889) March 6 – George du Maurier, English cartoonist and novelist (died 1896) March 24 – Mary Lynde Craig, American writer and attorney (died 1921) March 24 – William Morris, English poet and designer (died 1896) April 5 – Frank R. Stockton, American short story writer (died 1902) April 7 – Emma Southwick Brinton, American army nurse and foreign correspondent (died 1922) April 21 – Henry Spencer Ashbee, English bibliophile (died 1900) April 26 – Charles Farrar Browne (Artemus Ward), American humorist (died 1867) May 28 – Lavilla Esther Allen, American author, poet and reader (died 1903) July 9 – Jan Neruda, Czech writer (died 1891) August 31 – Esther Pugh, American reformer, editor and publisher (died 1908) September 9 – Joseph Henry Shorthouse, English novelist (died 1903) September 15 – Heinrich von Treitschke, German historian (died 1896) October 1 – Mary Mackellar, née Cameron, Scottish Gaelic poet and translator (died 1890) November 10 – José Hernández, Argentine poet (died 1886) November 23 – James Thomson ("Bysshe Vanolis"), Scottish poet (died 1882) unknown date – Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald, Irish-born literary biographer, drama critic and sculptor (died 1925) Deaths February 12 – Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian and philosopher (born 1768) February 17 – John Thelwall, British orator, writer, political reformer, journalist, poet, elocutionist and speech therapist (born 1764) May 13 – John Jones, Welsh Anglican priest and writer (born 1775) July 25 – Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English Romantic poet and critic (born 1772) September 16 – William Blackwood, Scottish publisher (born 1776) December 5 – Thomas Pringle, Scottish writer, poet and abolitionist (born 1789) December 23 – Thomas Malthus, English political economist (born 1766) December 27 – Charles Lamb, English essayist (erysipelas; born 1775) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.21976085007190704, 0.48687297105789185, -0.8311207294464111, -0.31413182616233826, -0.6126396656036377, 0.07137076556682587, 0.8107469081878662, 0.5160996913909912, -0.892296552658081, -0.6746357679367065, 0.04404953494668007, -0.14942164719104767, -0.18125022947788239, 0.324349969625473, 0.12467663735151291, 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207118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1833%20in%20literature	1833 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1833. Events January The Knickerbocker is established by Charles Fenno Hoffman as The Knickerbacker: or, New-York monthly magazine. Alphonse de Lamartine is elected a député of France. c. January – Richard Bentley (publisher) issues the first collected edition of Jane Austen's novels. February 16 – Victor Hugo and Juliette Drouet begin a fifty-year affair. This is recorded in his novel Les Misérables (1862) as the date of Marius and Cosette's wedding night (Part V, Book 6, Chapter 1). March 16 – Parley's Magazine, an American periodical for young readers, publishes its first issue in Boston. March 25 – Edmund Kean, playing Othello to the Iago of his son, Charles Kean, collapses on the stage of the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, and dies two months later. June 10 – The Dramatic Authors Act passed in the United Kingdom grants playwrights copyright in their work. Summer – George Sand and Alfred de Musset begin a two-year affair, recorded in their respective novels Elle et lui (1859) and La Confession d'un Enfant du Siècle (1836). September 15 – The English poet Arthur Henry Hallam, a close friend of Tennyson and engaged to be married to his sister Emily), dies suddenly of a brain haemorrhage in Vienna aged 22. This year Tennyson writes "Ulysses" in his memory (completed October 20; published in Poems of 1842), "Tithon" (an early version of "Tithonus") and "The Two Voices" (originally entitled "Thoughts of a Suicide"). He begins "Morte d'Arthur" (published 1842) and "Tiresias" (published 1885). In 1850 he will publish In Memoriam A.H.H. October 3 – The Anglo-Irish actress Harriet Smithson marries the French composer Hector Berlioz in a civil ceremony at the British Embassy in Paris. December 1 – Charles Dickens' first published work of fiction, "A Dinner at Poplar Walk", is the first item in what will become Sketches by Boz. It appears unsigned in the Monthly Magazine (London). unknown dates Publication begins in England of The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, edited by George Long. The first of the Bridgewater Treatises, examining science in relation to God, is published in England. The first complete German translation of Shakespeare's plays appears: Shakespeares Dramatische Werke, by Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, Ludwig Tieck and his daughter Dorothea, and Wolf Heinrich Graf von Baudissin. Mrs Favell Lee Mortimer's instructional text The Peep of Day, or, A series of the earliest religious instruction the infant mind is capable of receiving appears in England. It will sell a million copies in 38 languages. The first printing press in Jerusalem is set up in the Armenian Quarter. New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac Eugenie Grandet Ferragus Le Médecin de campagne (The Country Doctor) Edward Bulwer – Godolphin Thomas Carlyle – Sartor Resartus (first book publication) Massimo D'Azeglio – Ettore Fieramosca Benjamin Disraeli – Alroy Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Outre-Mer Alfred de Musset (attributed) – Gamiani, ou deux nuits d'excès (Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess) John Neal — The Down-Easters, &c. &c. &c. Aleksandr Pushkin – Eugene Onegin («Евге́ний Оне́гин», verse novel, first complete book publication) George Sand Andréa Jacques Kouroglou / Épopée Persane Lelia Leone Leoni Mattéa Michael Scott – Tom Cringle's Log Children and young people Agnes Strickland – Historical Tales of Illustrious British Children Drama Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff – The Wooers Aleksander Fredro – Maidens' Vows, or the Magnetism of the Heart (Śluby panieńskie, czyli magnetyzm serca) Aleksander Griboyedov – Woe from Wit («Горе от ума», published posthumously with cuts) Victor Hugo Lucrezia Borgia Marie Tudor Johann Nestroy – Lumpaziva gabundus Eugène Scribe – Bertrand et Raton, ou l'art de conspirer Poetry Robert Browning – Pauline Hartley Coleridge – Poems, songs and sonnets Wilhelm Hey (anonymously) – Fünfzig Fabeln für Kinder (Fifty Fables for Children) Alfred Tennyson – Poems (including "The Lady of Shalott", 1st version) See also 1833 in poetry Non-fiction Franz Bopp – Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litthauischen, Altslawischen, Gotischen und Deutschen (Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend (Avestan), Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavonic, Gothic and German, first part) Godfrey Higgins – Anacalypsis Charles Lamb – Last Essays of Elia Webster's Revision of the Bible Births January 15 – Alexandru Papadopol-Calimah, Moldavian and Romanian historian, memoirist, and journalist (died 1898) January 23 – Lewis Morris, Anglo-Welsh poet (died 1907) May 27 – Hester Martha Poole, American writer, poet, and art critic (died 1932) June 19 – Mary Tenney Gray, American editorial writer, club-woman, philanthropist, and suffragette (died 1904) July 9 – Florence Marryat, English novelist and entertainer (died 1899) August 9 – Emily Pepys, English child diarist (died 1877) August 12 – Lillie Devereux Blake, American writer and reformer (died 1913) August 20 – Vasile Pogor, Romanian poet, scholar and politician (died 1906) October 19 – Adam Lindsay Gordon, Australian poet, jockey and politician (died 1870) October 8 – Edmund Clarence Stedman, American poet and critic (died 1908) October 21 – Alfred Nobel, Swedish inventor and entrepreneur, creator of the Nobel Prize (died 1896) November 2 – Horace Howard Furness, American Shakespearean scholar (died 1912) November 6 – Jonas Lie, Norwegian writer (died 1908) November 9 – Émile Gaboriau, French writer (died 1873) December 27 – Larin Paraske, Izhorian oral poet (died 1904) Deaths January 14 – Gottlob Ernst Schulze, German philosopher (born 1761) February 3 – Nikolay Gnedich, Russian poet and translator (born 1784) February 4 – John O'Keeffe, Irish dramatist (born 1747) March 7 – Rahel Varnhagen, German literary hostess (born 1771) March 11 – Franz Passow, German classicist and lexicographer (born 1786) April 13 – Elisa von der Recke, German poet (born 1754) May 10 – François Andrieux, French man of letters and dramatist (born 1759) May 15 – Edmund Kean, English Shakespearean actor (born 1787) August 25 – Jean-Louis Laya, French dramatist (born 1761) September 7 – Hannah More, English religious writer and philanthropist (born 1745) September 15 – Arthur Hallam, English poet (born 1811) October 4 – Maria Jane Jewsbury (Fletcher), English writer, poet and reviewer, dies in India (born 1800) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.4345094859600067, 0.4902382493019104, -0.8885254859924316, -0.22773230075836182, -0.5162062048912048, 0.04175781086087227, 0.8887460231781006, 0.5549988150596619, -0.7983773350715637, -0.8002901077270508, -0.0001176231016870588, -0.09725003689527512, -0.1831492781639099, 0.2344593107700348, 0.11718421429395676, 0.1513390988111496, 0.17129535973072052, -0.1809137910604477, 0.12961937487125397, -0.24160043895244598, -0.4354977607727051, 0.12525327503681183, 0.5060237050056458, -0.3044285774230957, 0.22287334501743317, -0.8667694330215454, 0.23978573083877563, -0.4630889594554901, 0.3182661533355713, -0.24294200539588928, 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207120	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laertes%20%28Hamlet%29	Laertes (Hamlet)	Laertes is a character in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet. Laertes is the son of Polonius and the brother of Ophelia. In the final scene, he mortally stabs Hamlet with a poison-tipped sword to avenge the deaths of his father and sister, for which he blamed Hamlet. While dying of the same poison, he implicates King Claudius. The Laertes character is thought to be originated by Shakespeare, as there is no equivalent character in any of the known sources for the play. His name is taken from Laërtes, father of Odysseus in Homer's Odyssey. Role in the play In the first act, Laertes is seen warning Ophelia against Hamlet's romantic pursuit of her, saying Hamlet will soon lose his desire for her, and that it is not Hamlet's own choice but the king's as to whom he will marry. Before Laertes returns to France from Denmark, returning to Denmark only to attend the coronation of King Claudius, his father, Polonius, gives him advice to behave himself in France. During Laertes's absence, Hamlet kills Polonius in Gertrude's parlour. Laertes, informed of his father's death, returns to Denmark, and leads a mob to storm and take the castle. Laertes confronts the King, thinking he was responsible for Polonius's death. The King explains to him who the real killer was, and incites Laertes to kill Hamlet and avenge Polonius's death. When Ophelia appears in her mad condition, Laertes laments, saying that if she had her wits she could not persuade him more to revenge. Later, Laertes is informed of her death. She had climbed into a willow tree that hung over a brook, and then fell into the water when a branch broke. Too insane to save herself, she drowned. His sister's death strengthens Laertes's resolve to kill Hamlet. At her funeral, Laertes asks why the normal Christian burial ceremony is not being carried out for his sister, and rebukes the priest for questioning her innocence. He leaps into her grave and begs the attendants to bury him with her. Hamlet, who was previously watching from afar, advances and himself leaps into Ophelia's grave. When Laertes attacks Hamlet, the two have to be held back to avoid a fight. In the next scene, King Claudius arranges a fencing match between Hamlet and Laertes. Laertes uses his sharp, poisoned sword instead of a bated (dull) sword. The King provides a poisoned drink as a backup measure. Before the match begins, Hamlet apologises publicly to Laertes for the wrongs he has dealt him. Laertes accepts the apology, so he says, but he proceeds with the scheme to kill Hamlet (though after Gertrude drinks the poisoned drink, he expresses having an attack of conscience). Hamlet is eventually wounded with the poisoned sword. Then, in a scuffle, the swords are switched. Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned blade, and Laertes then falls as well. Only then does he truly seem to feel guilty, for he tells Osric he has been "justly killed" with his own treachery. As he lies dying, Laertes confesses the truth and reveals that it was Claudius's plot, resulting in the death of Claudius by Hamlet's hands. Laertes asks Hamlet for forgiveness, absolving him of his and his father's deaths if Hamlet absolves him of his own. Hamlet does, dying shortly after Laertes does. Other characters' views of Laertes vary widely. Polonius feels a need to send a servant to France to spy on his son's behaviour. Ophelia tells him not to be a hypocrite (in telling her to behave herself with Hamlet, but then being immoral himself in France). Hamlet is at first puzzled by Laertes's hatred for him, but later admits that he sees his own cause displayed in Laertes's actions. Portrayal Laertes is often portrayed by seemingly humble actors of the screen, to give a loyal, wholesome appeal to the character. He has been played by Terence Morgan (1948), John Cullum (1964), Nicholas Jones (1970), Nathaniel Parker (1990), Hugh Bonneville (1992 RSC Production), Michael Maloney (1996), Liev Schreiber (2000), Edward Bennett (2009 RSC) and Tom Felton (2018). References Further reading External links All lines spoken by Laertes, Folger Shakespeare Library Characters in Hamlet Fictional Danish people Fictional murderers Fictional nobility Male Shakespearean characters	[ -0.5313234329223633, 0.10965011268854141, 0.1808534860610962, -0.9211195111274719, 0.312155544757843, 0.8407630324363708, 0.6000339984893799, 0.2747376561164856, -0.45848995447158813, -0.2012723982334137, -0.1824467033147812, 0.006746734492480755, -0.18200404942035675, -0.023261278867721558, -0.35133618116378784, 0.3357042670249939, 0.1684025079011917, 0.2447960525751114, 0.6974880695343018, -0.40909701585769653, 0.1978602409362793, -0.16504456102848053, 0.76319819688797, 0.05457761883735657, 0.3331074118614197, 0.18820977210998535, 0.46519675850868225, 0.34081730246543884, 0.025075865909457207, -0.015302666462957859, -0.45942020416259766, 0.7493133544921875, 0.5191108584403992, -0.4916250705718994, -0.11990505456924438, -0.3087851405143738, -0.13973206281661987, 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207121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1832%20in%20literature	1832 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1832. Events February 4 – Chambers's Edinburgh Journal is established by William Chambers. March 31 – Tait's Edinburgh Magazine is established by William Tait. May 21 – Washington Irving returns to the United States after living in Europe for seventeen years. September 21 – Scottish historical novelist and poet Sir Walter Scott dies aged 61 at his home, Abbotsford House, leaving his novel The Siege of Malta unfinished; he is buried in the grounds of Dryburgh Abbey with Presbyterian and Episcopalian ministers in attendance. His novels Count Robert of Paris and Castle Dangerous are published this year. On the same day, English poet and novelist Anna Maria Porter dies of typhus in Bristol aged 53. December (or January 1833) – Richard Bentley (publisher), having purchased the remaining copyrights to all of Jane Austen's novels from her sister Cassandra, begins to return them to print (for the first time since 1820) in five illustrated volumes as part of his Standard Novels series. Uncertain dates William Ticknor co-founds the publishing house that will become Ticknor and Fields, a predecessor of Houghton Mifflin, in Boston, Massachusetts. James Atkinson makes the first translation from Persian into English of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, The Sha Nameh of the Persian Poet Firdausi, translated and abridged in prose and verse with notes and illustrations; printed for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland; sold by John Murray. The first Baedeker guidebook, Voyage du Rhin de Mayence à Cologne, by Karl Baedeker in Koblenz (his adaptation of J. A. Klein's Rheinreise von Mainz bis Cöln of 1828) is published without a date. Ramón de Mesonero Romanos (as 'El Curioso Parlante') begins writing his series of Escenas matritenses (Madrid scenes), originally in Cartas españolas. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust: The Second Part of the Tragedy is published. Théâtre des Folies-Dramatiques opened on the site of the Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique on the Boulevard du Temple in Paris under Frédérick Lemaître. The early 13th century Færeyinga saga, written in Iceland, is first published. Publishers begin the use of a paper jacket to wrap book covers. Polish scholar Konstanty Swidzinski discovers a 15th-century Bible page called the Karta medycka in the Polish village of Medyka New books Fiction Carl Jonas Love Almqvist (anonymous) – Jaktslottet (first in the Törnrosens bok (Book of the Briar Rose) series) Honoré de Balzac La Bourse Le Curé de Tours Le Colonel Chabert Louis Lambert Edward Bulwer-Lytton – Eugene Aram Selina Davenport – The Unchanged Alfred de Vigny – Stello Benjamin Disraeli – Contarini Fleming Catherine Gore The Fair of Mayfair The Opera Robert Huish – Fitzallan Washington Irving – Tales of the Alhambra Letitia Elizabeth Landon - Heath's Book of Beauty, 1833 Frederick Marryat – Newton Forster Alexander Pushkin – Dubrovsky Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve – Volupte Rosalia St. Clair – The Doomed One George Sand Indiana Valentine Sir Walter Scott Castle Dangerous Count Robert of Paris Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna – Combination Children Frederick Marryat – Newton Forster Catherine Sinclair – Charlie Seymour, or, The Good Aunt and the Bad Aunt Drama John Baldwin Buckstone – Henriette the Forsaken Casimir Delavigne – Louis XI Alfred de Vigny – Stello Aleksander Fredro – Pan Jowialski (Mr. Jovial) Victor Hugo – Le Roi s'amuse Douglas William Jerrold The Bride of Ludgate The Factory Girl The Rent Day James Sheridan Knowles – The Hunchback Li Qianfu (李潛夫), translated by Stanislas Julien – Le Cercle de craie (Circle of Chalk; ; 14th century) Poetry Leigh Hunt – Poetical Works Adam Mickiewicz – Dziady (Forefathers' Eve, poetic drama, part III) Aleksandr Pushkin – Eugene Onegin («Евге́ний Оне́гин», serial publication completed) Non-fiction John Austin -The Province of Jurisprudence Determined Carl von Clausewitz (posthumously) – Vom Krieg (On War) William Sawrey Gilpin – Practical Hints upon Landscape Gardening: with some remarks on Domestic Architecture, as connected with scenery Anna Brownell Jameson – Characteristics of Women Lord Mahon – History of the War of Succession in Spain Frances Trollope – Domestic Manners of the Americans Births January 13 – Horatio Alger, Jr., American writer (died 1899) January 27 – Lewis Carroll (Charles L. Dodgson), English children's writer and scholar (died 1898) March 10 – Mary Bigelow Ingham, American author and educator (died 1923) May 17 – Grace Webster Haddock Hinsdale, American author (died 1902) June 10 – Edwin Arnold, English poet (died 1905) June 11 – Jules Vallès, French writer (died 1885) June 23 – Gustav Jaeger, German naturalist (died 1917) June 30 – Emily Lucas Blackall, American author and philanthropist (died 1892) July 27 – Hesba Stretton, English children's author (died 1911) August 3 – Edward Wilmot Blyden, Liberian pan-Africanist (died 1912) September 30 – Charlotte Riddell, née Cowan, Anglo-Irish novelist and editor (died 1906) October 9 – Elizabeth Akers Allen, American poet and journalist (died 1911) October 12 – Theodore Watts-Dunton, English critic and poet (died 1914) November 28 – Leslie Stephen, English writer (died 1904) November 29 – Louisa May Alcott, American novelist (died 1888) December 8 – Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian novelist and Nobel laureate (died 1910) Deaths February 3 – George Crabbe, English poet (born 1754) March 22 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German novelist, dramatist and poet (born 1749) April 26 – Maria Elizabeth Budden, English novelist and writer of didactic children's books (born c. 1780) June 6 – Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher and social reformer (born 1748) July 17 – John Carr, English travel writer and lawyer (born 1772) September 12 – Priscilla Wakefield, English Quaker writer and philanthropist (born 1751) September 21 Anna Maria Porter, English poet and novelist (sister of Jane Porter) (born 1780) Sir Walter Scott, Scottish historical novelist and poet (born 1771) November 14 – Rasmus Christian Rask, Danish philologist (born 1787) December 18 – Philip Freneau, American poet and polemicist (born 1752) References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.2436351329088211, 0.3777909576892853, -0.900407612323761, -0.26936134696006775, -0.40735891461372375, 0.011183541268110275, 0.8452751040458679, 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207122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville%20Sounds	Nashville Sounds	The Nashville Sounds are a Minor League Baseball team of the Triple-A East and the Triple-A affiliate of the Milwaukee Brewers. They are located in Nashville, Tennessee, and are named for the city's association with the music industry. The team plays their home games at First Horizon Park, which opened in 2015 and is located on the site of the historic Sulphur Dell ballpark. The Sounds previously played at Herschel Greer Stadium from its opening in 1978 until the end of the 2014 season. They are the oldest active professional sports franchise in Nashville. Established as an expansion team of the Double-A Southern League in 1978, the Sounds led all of Minor League Baseball in attendance in their inaugural season and continued to draw the Southern League's largest crowds in each of their seven years as members of the league. On the field, the team won six consecutive second half division titles from 1979 to 1984 and won the Southern League championship twice: in 1979 as the Double-A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds and again in 1982 as the Double-A affiliate of the New York Yankees. The Sounds were replaced by a Triple-A American Association team in 1985. The Triple-A Sounds carried on the history of the Double-A team that preceded them. Nashville rarely contended for the American Association championship, making only three appearances in the postseason during their 13 years in the league. They joined the Triple-A Pacific Coast League in 1998 following the dissolution of the American Association after the 1997 season. Over 23 years in the Pacific Coast League, the team qualified for the postseason on five occasions. They won their lone Pacific Coast League championship in 2005 as the Triple-A affiliate of the Milwaukee Brewers. In conjunction with Major League Baseball's reorganization of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Sounds were placed in the Triple-A East. Nashville has served as a farm club for eight Major League Baseball franchises. A total of 29 managers have led the club and its over 1,300 players. As of the completion of the 2021 season, their 44th year in Nashville, the Sounds have played 6,123 regular season games and compiled a win–loss record of 3,146–2,977. They have a postseason record of 49–43. Combining all 6,215 regular season and postseason games, the Sounds have an all-time record of 3,195–3,020. History Prior professional baseball in Nashville Nashville has hosted Minor League Baseball teams since the late 19th century. The city's professional baseball history dates back to 1884 with the formation of the Nashville Americans, who were charter members of the original Southern League from 1885 to 1886 and played their home games at Sulphur Spring Park, later renamed Athletic Park and Sulphur Dell. This ballpark was the home of Nashville's minor league teams through 1963. In 1887, Nashville's Southern League team was called the Nashville Blues. The Nashville Tigers competed in the same league from 1893 to 1894. In 1895, the Nashville Seraphs won the city's first professional championship in the Southern League. The Nashville Centennials played in the Central League in 1897 but relocated to Henderson, Kentucky, during the season before the league's collapse. The city's longest-operating baseball team, first known only as the Nashville Baseball Club and later renamed the Nashville Vols (short for Volunteers), was formed in 1901 as a charter member of the Southern Association. They remained in the league through 1961, winning eight pennants, nine playoff championships, and four Dixie Series titles. The Southern Association disbanded after the 1961 season, and no team was fielded in 1962, but the Vols played one final season in the South Atlantic League in 1963. Sulphur Dell was demolished in 1969, and the city went without a professional baseball team for 14 years until 1978. Getting a team and building a ballpark Larry Schmittou, head coach of the Vanderbilt Commodores baseball team from 1968 to 1978, was instrumental in bringing professional baseball back to Nashville. Along with help from country musician Conway Twitty, Schmittou put together a group of investors including other country artists Cal Smith and Jerry Reed, as well as other Nashvillians, to finance a stadium and a minor league team. The Metro Parks Board agreed to lease to Schmittou the site of Nashville's former softball fields on the grounds of Fort Negley, an American Civil War fortification approximately south of downtown, on which to build. The US$1.5 million ballpark was to be named Herschel Greer Stadium in posthumous honor of Herschel Lynn Greer, a prominent Nashville businessman and president of the Nashville Vols. Schmittou and general manager Farrell Owens landed the Cincinnati Reds as a Major League Baseball affiliate after meeting with Sheldon "Chief" Bender, Cincinnati's farm director, at the 1976 Winter Meetings. The new team was then granted membership in the Southern League, which operated at the Double-A classification. The team was called the Sounds in reference to the "Nashville sound", a subgenre of American country music that traces its roots to the area in the late-1950s. The team's wordmark and color scheme were lifted from the defunct Memphis Sounds of the American Basketball Association, who used them from 1974 to 1975. The color blue was added to Memphis' red and white palette. Nashville's original logo, which was used from 1978 into 1998, reflected the city's association with country music. It depicted a mustachioed baseball player, nicknamed "Slugger", swinging at a baseball with an acoustic guitar, a staple of country music, in place of a bat. Further illustrating the city's musical ties was the typeface, with letters that resembled G-clefs, used to display the team name and the cap logo which resembled an eighth note. Southern League Cincinnati Reds (1978–1979) With a team in place and a stadium under construction, the Nashville Sounds were set to begin play in 1978 as an expansion team of the Southern League. As the Double-A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds, the Sounds played their first game on April 15, 1978, against the Memphis Chicks at Memphis' Tim McCarver Stadium, which they lost, 4–2. They recorded their first win the next evening, defeating Memphis, 3–0. Their home opener was scheduled to take place on April 25, but was rained out and rescheduled for the next night. On April 26, the Sounds played their first home game, a 12–4 victory, against the Savannah Braves before a sellout crowd of 8,156 fans at Greer Stadium. Nashville placed fourth of five teams in both halves of its inaugural season, which kept the team out of the championship playoffs. The Sounds had more success at the turnstiles than on the field as they led all of Minor League Baseball in attendance by drawing 380,000 fans to Greer Stadium in their debut season. Nashville went on to lead the Southern League in attendance in each of their seven seasons of membership. Schmittou's business philosophy revolved around earning profits not from ticket sales, but from the sale of souvenirs and concessions. This approach also involved promoting family-friendly entertainment rather than baseball games. Through the mid 1980s, the Sounds offered nightly promotions and treated fans to a carnival-like atmosphere between innings. The franchise was recognized with the Larry MacPhail Award for outstanding minor league promotions in 1978, 1980, and 1981. Manager George Scherger led the 1979 Sounds to win the second half Western Division title, qualifying them for the postseason. After defeating first half winners Memphis, three games to one, for the Western Division title, they advanced to the league championship series against the Columbus Astros. Nashville won their first Southern League championship by defeating Columbus, three games to one. Originally, the Reds allowed Nashville to use a designated hitter (DH) in their lineup. This allowance was later revoked since the Reds were a part of the National League in which pitchers bat instead of using a DH. Schmittou felt this put the Sounds at a disadvantage against other teams that utilized the designated hitter, so he looked for a new major league affiliate for 1980. After two seasons at Double-A for the Reds, Nashville had a 152–140 win–loss record encompassing all regular season and postseason games. New York Yankees (1980–1984) Schmittou had been encouraged by the New York Yankees organization to establish the Sounds as a Triple-A team, but he refused to go back on his previous agreement to partner with the Reds at Double-A. After the split with Cincinnati, the Sounds made their first affiliation switch in 1980, becoming the Double-A affiliate of the Yankees. This partnership was the most successful period in team history. They experienced five winning seasons in a row and won five consecutive second half Western Division titles, propelling them to the postseason each year. Under manager Stump Merrill, the 1980 Sounds posted a franchise-best 97–46 record. They won the second half but lost the Western Division series to Memphis. The 1980 club was ranked as the sixty-ninth greatest minor league baseball team of all-time by baseball historians in 2001. Nashville set the league season attendance record that year when 575,676 fans attended games at Greer Stadium. The Sounds reached the 1981 championship series via another second half title and winning the division over Memphis, but they fell to the Orlando Twins in the finals. The 1982 Sounds, managed by Johnny Oates, finished with a 77–67 record and won the second half. After defeating the Knoxville Blue Jays, 3–1, in the Western Division finals, the Sounds advanced to the league championship series against the Jacksonville Suns, where they won the franchise's second Southern League championship with a 3–1 series victory. The Sounds qualified for the Western Division series in each of the next two seasons, but fell to the Birmingham Barons in 1983, and to Knoxville in 1984. One highlight of the 1984 season was Jim Deshaies pitching the club's first no-hitter against Columbus in the second game of a seven-inning doubleheader on May 4. Otis Nixon set the franchise career record for stolen bases (133) over the 1981 and 1982 seasons. Nashville had a 431–320 record during their five-year affiliation with the Yankees, their best record among all affiliations. Their seven-year record in the Southern League was 583–460. American Association Detroit Tigers (1985–1986) In response to a decline in attendance and a decrease in local media coverage, Sounds president Larry Schmittou sought to boost interest in the team through an elevation to the Triple-A classification. He attempted to purchase and relocate one of two available Triple-A franchises late in the 1983 season, but each chose to continue in their markets for 1984. His desire to land a Triple-A team was part of a larger plan to put Nashville in a position to contend for a Major League Baseball franchise in the future. Schmittou arrived at terms in July 1984 to purchase the Triple-A Evansville Triplets of the American Association for a reported sum of $780,000, with plans to move the franchise from Evansville, Indiana, to Nashville for the 1985 season. The Southern League wanted Schmittou to surrender his franchise to the league, but he had plans to relocate the team to Evansville to continue as the Triplets at Double-A. However, a combination of the league's disapproval of the move and the City of Evansville being unwilling to upgrade Bosse Field resulted in a move to Huntsville, Alabama, where the team became the Huntsville Stars. The Triple-A Sounds carried on the history of the Double-A team that preceded them. The Triplets' legacy was retired, and the Stars were established as an entirely new franchise. The Sounds began Triple-A competition in 1985 as a member the American Association affiliated with the Detroit Tigers, continuing the major league affiliation that was in place with the Evansville franchise. Their first Triple-A game was a 3–1 win against the Buffalo Bisons at Greer Stadium on April 11. Though narrowly missing the playoffs in their first season with the Tigers, the Sounds ended their affiliation with Detroit after two years of poor attendance and a lackluster 1986 season. Over two years with the Tigers, they had a 139–144 record. Their all-time record stood at 722–604 after nine years of play. Cincinnati Reds (1987–1992) The Sounds rejoined the Cincinnati Reds farm system as their Triple-A affiliate in 1987 in a bid to increase attendance. Schmittou indicated that market surveys consistently showed the Reds to be the most popular MLB team in the area. In 1990, Nashville set its all-time attendance record when 605,122 fans attended games at Greer Stadium. The Sounds experienced their most successful season with the Reds at Triple-A and as members of the American Association that year when they compiled an 86–61 record under manager Pete Mackanin. Ending the regular season in a tie with the Buffalo Bisons, the Sounds won the Eastern Division title in a one-game playoff. They advanced to their first American Association championship series, but they ultimately lost to the Omaha Royals. Apart from the 1990 season, the Sounds finished too far back to qualify for the postseason in the other five years of affiliation with the Reds. However, several franchise records were set during this period. Skeeter Barnes, who had previously played with Nashville in 1979, set the career records for games played (514), at bats (1,848), and hits (517) during his second stint from 1988 to 1990. Pitcher Hugh Kemp started a record 73 games from 1987 to 1989. Greer Stadium, once one of the best stadiums in Triple-A baseball in terms of player and fan amenities, began to be outshined by newer ballparks being built in the late 1980s. The Reds let their player development contract with the Sounds expire so they could place their Triple-A affiliate in Indianapolis, which was closer and planning to build a new stadium. Nashville's record after six years with Cincinnati at Triple-A was 431–436. Through 15 total years of competition, their all-time record stood at 1,207–1,040. Chicago White Sox (1993–1997) At the recommendation of the Office of the Commissioner of Baseball and with few options available, the Sounds signed a new player development contract with the Chicago White Sox, who wanted to move their Triple-A farm club closer than its previous location in Vancouver. The White Sox then presented a list of complaints about the relatively poor condition of Greer Stadium. Unable to convince the city to pay for a new ballpark, and deciding against moving the team elsewhere in the Nashville area, Schmittou made significant improvements to Greer. One of those was the addition of its signature guitar-shaped scoreboard, which was installed before the 1993 season. At one point, Schmittou considered dropping the Sounds back to Double-A due to the difficulty of bringing Greer up to the specifications of a Triple-A ballpark. Instead, renovations continued over the next several years in an attempt to meet Triple-A standards. Greer Stadium was shared between the Sounds and the Southern League's Nashville Xpress, previously known as the Charlotte Knights, during the 1993 and 1994 seasons. This came about when Charlotte acquired a Triple-A expansion franchise in 1993, leaving the existing Double-A team without a home. Schmittou offered Greer as a temporary home ballpark for the team. To accommodate an additional club, the Xpress' home games were scheduled for during the Sounds' road trips. The Sounds reached the American Association playoffs in each of their first two years with the White Sox. The 1993 team, led by manager Rick Renick, clinched the Eastern Division title but lost the championship series to the Iowa Cubs. The 1994 Sounds qualified for their second consecutive postseason under Renick. In the first round, Nashville swept the New Orleans Zephyrs in three games to advance to the league finals, but they were defeated by the Indianapolis Indians. The team failed to reach the postseason again during their remaining three years with Chicago. The five-year White Sox affiliation ended after the 1997 season with the Sounds having a 390–342 record with four winning seasons over that period. After 13 years, their American Association record stood at 960–922, and their all-time 20-year record was 1,543–1,382. The 1996 season marked the last that Schmittou was the team's president and part majority owner. With the city poised to welcome a National Football League franchise, the Tennessee Titans, Schmittou felt that revenue would be drawn away from the team. So, he and another investor sold their controlling financial interests in the Sounds to Chicago-based businessmen Al Gordon, Mike Murtaugh, and Mike Woleben. Pacific Coast League Pittsburgh Pirates (1998–2004) The American Association, of which the Sounds had been members since 1985, disbanded after the 1997 season, and its teams were absorbed by the two remaining Triple-A leagues—the International League and Pacific Coast League (PCL). Nashville joined the PCL, becoming the easternmost team in the circuit. Along with a new league, they began to adopt new colors and logos over the course of the 1998 and 1999 seasons, phasing out the original colors and marks in use since their foundation in 1978. The new primary logo, replacing the original "Slugger", consisted of a black, red, and white eighth note with a baseball at the top set against a circle of the same colors, plus silver, bearing the team name in white around the sides. The Sounds entered the Pacific Coast League as the top farm club of the Pittsburgh Pirates, who sought to escape the chilly climate and lengthy travel associated with their previous affiliate in Calgary. The team regularly finished third or fourth in their four-team division, leaving them out of the playoffs. One of their three winning seasons occurred in 2003 when Trent Jewett managed the Sounds to clinch the American Conference Eastern Division title, giving them their first postseason berth in the PCL and first playoff appearance since 1994. Nashville defeated the Albuquerque Isotopes in the conference series but then lost the league finals to the Sacramento River Cats. Earlier in 2003, right-hander John Wasdin pitched the first perfect game in Sounds history on April 7 against Albuquerque at Greer Stadium. The 4–0 Sounds win was the second nine-inning perfect game in the PCL's 101-year history. Several franchise records were set during the affiliation with Pittsburgh. Chad Hermansen, a Sound from 1998 to 2002, holds the career records for runs (303), home runs (92), and runs batted in (286). Tike Redman hit a record 32 triples from 2000 to 2003. Closing pitcher Mark Corey set the record for saves (46) during the 2003 and 2004 seasons. Seeking to place their Triple-A club at a newer, more desirable stadium and to escape the high travel costs associated with playing in the PCL, Pittsburgh ended their affiliation with the Sounds after the 2004 campaign. Over seven years as a Pirates affiliate, Nashville had a 493–508 record. Through 27 years of competition, the Sounds' all-time record stood at 2,036–1,890. Milwaukee Brewers (2005–2014) The Sounds became the Triple-A affiliate of the Milwaukee Brewers in 2005. One factor in the Brewers' choice to partner with Nashville was the hope that the Sounds would soon get a new stadium to replace the then-27-year-old Greer. The team also debuted a new oval-shaped logo with a baseball player silhouetted against a yellow background hitting a ball toward the Nashville skyline with the city's name written above within a red border and the team nickname written in red and black script below. The affiliation started well as manager Frank Kremblas led the club to win the American Conference Northern Division title with a 75–69 record. The team went on to win the conference title against the Oklahoma RedHawks, three games to two, before sweeping the Tacoma Rainiers in three games to win the Pacific Coast League championship. This was Nashville's first championship at the Triple-A level since moving to the classification in 1985 and their first since the 1982 Southern League crown. From May 5–6, 2006, the Sounds participated in a 24-inning game against the New Orleans Zephyrs, which was played over the course of two days and lasted eight hours and seven minutes. This matched the PCL record for the longest game, in terms of innings played. The Sounds finished the season tied with the Iowa Cubs for first place, but won the division title and advanced to the postseason via tiebreaker by means of having won the regular season series versus Iowa. Nashville lost to the Round Rock Express in the conference series. On June 25, 2007, Manny Parra pitched the club's second perfect game, the third nine-inning perfect game in the PCL's history, against Round Rock. Kremblas led the team to capture the division title for the third year in a row and finish the season with a league-best 89–55 record. Ultimately, they were defeated by New Orleans in the conference series. The Sounds failed to win the division and qualify for the postseason during the next seven years of their Brewers affiliation despite narrow second-place finishes in 2009 and 2014. The 2013 team set the franchise record low win–loss record with a 57–87 campaign. The Sounds had planned to leave Greer Stadium in the mid 2000s for a new ballpark to be called First Tennessee Field, but the project was abandoned when a financing agreement could not be reached. After the 2008 season and failing to secure a new facility, Al Gordon's Amerisports Companies sold the team to MFP Baseball, a New York-based group of investors consisting of Masahiro Honzawa, Steve Posner, and Frank Ward. Keeping the team in Nashville was one of the PCL's top criteria for approval of the sale. MFP made significant renovations to Greer while it continued to explore building a new stadium. Prior to the 2014 season, the team, Metro Nashville, and the State of Tennessee finalized a plan to build a new downtown ballpark in time for the 2015 season. On August 27, 2014, the Sounds played their final game at Greer Stadium, an 8–5 loss to the Sacramento River Cats. The attendance at the game was a standing-room-only crowd of 11,067, the first sellout since 2010, and the largest crowd since 2007. The Sounds severed ties with Milwaukee after the 2014 season citing poor on-field performance from recent Brewers Triple-A teams. Over the 10-year affiliation, the longest in Nashville's history, the Sounds had a 732–721 record. Overall, the Sounds' 37-year record stood at 2,768–2,611. Oakland Athletics (2015–2018) Nashville affiliated with the Oakland Athletics in 2015 due in part to the organization's commitment to fielding competitive teams at the Triple-A level, an area in which co-owner Frank Ward felt Milwaukee lacked. The Sounds also introduced a new set of logos that incorporated elements reflecting Nashville's "Music City" moniker, such as guitars, picks, and sound holes, as well as neon signs like those in the city's Broadway entertainment district. They retained the previous red and black palette but added platinum silver as an accent color. The new primary logo was a red "N" set against a silver guitar pick, both with black borders. The start of the 2015 season marked the first time that the Sounds played at the new $91 million First Horizon Park, then known as First Tennessee Park, which is located at the site of the historic Sulphur Dell ballpark just north of the Tennessee State Capitol in downtown Nashville. In the facility's inaugural game on April 17, the Sounds defeated the Colorado Springs Sky Sox, 3–2 in 10 innings, with a walk-off RBI double in front of an announced paid attendance of 10,459 people. In Nashville's second season as an A's affiliate, they reached the postseason for the first time since 2007 with a league-best 83–59 record and the American Conference Southern Division title, but they were unable to advance past the conference series versus the Oklahoma City Dodgers. Joey Wendle hit a franchise career-record 102 doubles from 2015 to 2017. Nashville declined to renew their contract with the Athletics after the 2018 season, choosing instead to seek a new major league affiliate. Over four years with Oakland, they had a 291–279 record. Through 41 seasons, their all-time record stood at 3,059–2,890. Texas Rangers (2019–2020) Nashville became the Triple-A affiliate of the Texas Rangers in 2019. The Sounds sought out the Rangers after identifying them as one of the most popular MLB teams among local baseball fans—behind the Atlanta Braves and St. Louis Cardinals—and for their geographical proximity. Also in 2019, just four years after their previous rebranding, the team debuted new colors and logos which pull together elements from their original visual identity and the musical imagery present throughout their franchise history. The new colors, navy blue, red, and white, are modernized versions of their original 1978 colors. The primary logo is a pair of concentric red rings with the team name in navy between the two divided horizontally at its center by twin red and blue stripes; a navy "N" resembling the F-hole of a guitar or violin is in the inner ring, which is styled like a baseball. Veteran sidearm pitcher Tim Dillard, previously with the Sounds from 2007 to 2014, returned to the team in 2019. In his second stretch, he set the franchise career records for games pitched (242) and strikeouts (437) while adding to his existing marks for wins (48) and innings pitched (710). The 2019 season became the Sounds' only year of play as a Rangers affiliate. The start of the 2020 season was initially postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic before being cancelled altogether. Following the 2020 season, Major League Baseball assumed control of Minor League Baseball in a move to increase player salaries, modernize facility standards, and reduce travel. Affiliations were rearranged to situate Triple-A teams closer to their major league parent clubs. The Texas Rangers chose to move their Triple-A affiliation back to Round Rock, Texas, where it had been prior to partnering with Nashville. As a Rangers farm club, the Sounds had a 66–72 record, their lowest record among all affiliations. Nashville held a over 23 years in the Pacific Coast League, while their all-time record stood at 3,125–2,962 after 42 seasons played over the course of 43 years. Triple-A East Milwaukee Brewers (2021–present) The Sounds became the Triple-A affiliate of the Milwaukee Brewers for a second time in 2021 upon signing a 10-year Professional Development License that runs through 2030. The Brewers desired reuniting with Nashville because of the quality of the player facilities at First Horizon Park and convenient travel options to and from the city. Along with Major League Baseball's restructuring of the minors, the Pacific Coast League disbanded, and the Sounds were placed in the Triple-A East. Opening Day for the 2021 season was postponed for nearly a month to temporarily eliminate commercial air travel and give players the opportunity to be vaccinated against COVID-19 before the season started. Nashville eventually began competition in the new league on May 4 with an 8–6 loss to the Toledo Mud Hens at Fifth Third Field in Toledo, Ohio. Following another loss and a rainout, they won both games of a seven-inning doubleheader on May 7 against Toledo, 5–0 and 5–4, for their first league wins. Under manager Rick Sweet, who previously led the team in the last season of their former affiliation with Milwaukee, Nashville ended the season in fourth place in the Southeastern Division with a 63–56 record. No playoffs were held to determine a league champion; instead, the team with the best regular-season record was the declared the winner. However, 10 games that had been postponed from the start of the season were reinserted into the schedule as a postseason tournament called the Triple-A Final Stretch in which all 30 Triple-A clubs competed for the highest winning percentage over that stretch. Nashville finished the tournament tied for fourth place with a 7–2 record. Through 43 seasons of play, the Sounds have an all-time record of 3,195–3,020 encompassing all regular and postseason games over 44 years in Nashville. Season-by-season records Rivals Nashville's chief rivals have been those based in Memphis, Tennessee. Located approximately to the southwest and connected to Nashville by Interstate 40, Memphis has fielded several teams which have competed in the same leagues as Nashville's teams since the late 19th century. The Sounds entered the rivalry when they and the Memphis Chicks joined the Southern League in 1978 as members of its Western Division. For three consecutive seasons, from 1979 to 1981, the teams met in the Western Division finals to vie for a spot in the league championship series. The intrastate rivalry was interrupted when Nashville moved to the American Association in 1985, but it was renewed when they and the Memphis Redbirds joined the Pacific Coast League in 1998. The teams have been division rivals ever since. Memphis beat out second-place Nashville by two games to clinch the 2009 division title and did likewise in 2014 by two-and-a-half games. In 2016, Nashville won the division with a win in Memphis. Roles were reversed in 2017 and 2018 as Memphis captured division titles in Nashville. Both teams were placed in the Triple-A East's Southeastern Division in 2021. As of the completion of the 2021 head-to-head series, the Sounds lead the 24-year rivalry against the Redbirds with a record of 195–172 in 367 meetings. Ballparks Herschel Greer Stadium (1978–2014) The Sounds originally played at Herschel Greer Stadium from 1978 through 2014. The ballpark, which was demolished in 2019, was located on the grounds of Fort Negley, an American Civil War fortification approximately south of downtown Nashville. The venue experienced numerous expansions and contractions after its completion in 1978, reaching a capacity of 18,000 spectators at its peak, but seated 10,300 during its final 2014 season. The largest attendance, which also set the Southern League record, occurred on August 18, 1982, when 22,315 people saw the Sounds take on the Columbus Astros, many of them standing in roped-off areas in the outfield. Greer's best-known feature, installed prior to the 1993 season, was a giant guitar-shaped scoreboard behind the left field wall. Following the construction of newer, relatively luxurious minor league ballparks in the late 1980s, Greer Stadium had fallen below the standards set for Triple-A stadiums by professional baseball. At the time, team president Larry Schmittou tried unsuccessfully to convince the city to fund a new ballpark. Throughout the 2000s, the team continued in its attempts to gather approval and financing for a new facility. At one point, First Tennessee Field was planned for construction on the west bank of the Cumberland River in downtown. Disagreements over who would pay for the ballpark repeatedly delayed its opening and eventually resulted in the cancellation of the project altogether. In the meantime, numerous upgrades and repairs were made in order to preserve its functionality until a new stadium could be built. A deal for such a new ballpark was achieved in late 2013. The Sounds played their final game at Greer on August 27, 2014. First Horizon Park (2015–present) The Sounds' current home ballpark is First Horizon Park, which opened in 2015 and was known as First Tennessee Park through 2019. The facility is located in downtown Nashville at the location of the former Sulphur Dell ballpark. It has a fixed seating capacity of 8,500 people, but can accommodate up to 10,000 with additional group areas and grass berm seating. The ballpark's attendance record was set on March 24, 2019, when 11,824 people watched the Sounds play against the Texas Rangers in a spring training exhibition game. The stadium features wide concourses with direct views of the playing field. Its design, which incorporates the use of musical and baseball imagery, is meant to connect the park with the city's baseball and musical heritage. Examples include the use of directional signage displaying information on Nashville's former teams and players and the grandstand's light stanchions reminiscent of those found at Sulphur Dell. One of First Horizon Park's most recognizable features, like Greer Stadium before it, is a guitar-shaped scoreboard beyond the right-center field wall. Unlike Greer's guitar, which was only able to display basic in-game information such as the line score, count, and brief player statistics, the larger, modern version is also capable of displaying colorful graphics, animations, player photographs, videos, the batting order, fielding positions, and expanded statistics. Other distinguishing features at the ballpark include The Band Box, an outdoor restaurant and bar which serves variations on traditional ballpark foods, and The Country Club at The Band Box, a 9-hole miniature golf course which exhibits art from different local and regional artists. Since 2016, the Country Legends Race, similar to major league mascot races, such as the Sausage Race and Presidents Race, has been a part of the between-innings entertainment at the park. In the middle of the fifth inning, people in oversized foam caricature costumes depicting country musicians Johnny Cash, George Jones, Reba McEntire, and Dolly Parton race around the warning track from center field, through the visiting bullpen, and to the home plate side of the first base dugout. Uniforms The Sounds have utilized three distinct color schemes, five primary logos, and numerous uniforms since beginning play in 1978. Their original red, white, and blue identity reflected Nashville's country music culture, while the switch to red, black, and white in the late 1990s sought to modernize the team. A 2015 rebrand reincorporated elements of the city's musical heritage, which had been largely absent in previous years. The team reworked its identity in 2019, further integrating the city's baseball and musical heritage with the Sounds of the present. 1978–2018 From 1978 to 1986, the team wore pullover v-neck jerseys made of white fabric, for home games, gray, for road games, and red, blue, and powder blue, for use as alternates. These had red, white, and blue tri-color bands around the neck, with larger bands at the sleeve openings (blue jerseys had one white band and two red bands). "Sounds" was written across the chest in red-on-blue music note-like script (powder blue jerseys had red-on-white script). Numbers were sewn on the back. Some jerseys during this period bore a Slugger patch on the right sleeve. The team had three sets of pants: white, gray, and powder blue, all with small tri-color stripes down the legs and larger stripes around the waistband. Beginning in 1984, numbers were also located on the front of jerseys below the team name on the player's left in blue block characters with a red outline. The team cap was blue with a red brim bearing a white "N" styled like a music note bordered by red; this was the official team cap from 1978 through the mid-1990s. These first uniforms were modeled after those worn at the time by the Texas Rangers. From 1987 to 1998, the team wore white button-up jerseys, for home games, and gray, for road games. The home jersey design remained largely similar to its predecessor. "Sounds" was still written across the chest in blue and red music note script; though, the font was changed briefly from 1987 to 1988. Numbers remained on the front in blue-on-red block characters. The player's number was present on the back in red and blue. Names were added in blue some years. Road grays had "Nashville" on the chest but lacked tri-color bands at both the neck and sleeves. During this time, the team also added a blue mesh v-neck jersey with the red and white guitar swinger logo on the left chest. Blue belts replaced the pants' wide tri-color stripes. The Sounds continued to wear the original red-billed blue cap with all uniforms until approximately 1993 when a new cap was introduced. This all-blue cap interposed the "N" with the "Slugger" logo. The two caps were worn interchangeably through 1998. Over the course of the 1998 and 1999 seasons, the team switched to a red and black color scheme. In the latter, uniforms consisted of black-pinstriped jerseys with black sleeves bearing a new music note logo on the left sleeve. White home jerseys had "Sounds" across the chest in red with a white-on-black border using the same font used by the Anaheim Angels at the time. Road grays read "Nashville" on the chest in the same style. Both had the player's number sewn on the back in block characters of the same colors. An alternate solid red jersey with black and gray trim around the sleeve openings and a music note logo on the left chest was also worn. Another alternate, made of black material, had red and white trim at the sleeve openings and a similar music note logo on the left chest. All four were paired with pinstriped pants. Caps were black with the circular music note logo. From 2003 to 2005, the Sounds switched to solid-colored jerseys and pants. The fronts had "Sounds" written across the chest in red script surrounded by black with the player's number on the front below the team name in red-on-black block characters. Red and black piping ran around sleeve openings and along the row of buttons going up and down the front and around the neck. The left sleeve bore the music note logo. Pants had the same piping going down the legs on the outside and were paired with black belts. The road uniform set, though made of gray material and with "Nashville" across the front, was otherwise identical. A sleeveless red alternate jersey with black piping and similar white-on-black markings was worn in this period. They also continued use of the previous generation's black alternate. The official home and road caps worn from 2003 to 2014 were black with a red and white music note logo. From 2006 to 2012, the team's jerseys were similar to those of the previous era, but lacked sleeves and the player's number on the front. These vest-like jerseys were worn over black T-shirts of varying sleeve lengths. The player's name was written on the back in black block characters; numbers were also displayed in large red-on-black characters. The matching road jerseys initially bared "Sounds" across the chest, but were later changed to "Nashville"; these usually lacked the player's name on the back. A Milwaukee Brewers logo was added to the front left shoulder in 2007. A red mesh jersey with yellow, white, and black markings was worn from 2006 to 2007. A new red alternate was introduced in 2010. These were similar to the primary home and road mesh jerseys the team would adopt in 2013, but were red with black underarm sections and piping. "Sounds" was displayed across the chest in white-on-black script. A Brewers logo was located on the left, front chest, and the back numbers were white-on-black. All uniforms continued to be topped off with black caps with a red and white music note logo. From 2013 to 2014, jerseys were made of mesh material with black sections at the armpits and a single line of black piping going down the sleeves and across the shoulders to the neck. A Brewers logo was sewn on the left sleeve. "Sounds" was written across the chest of home jerseys in the same red/black script used since 2003. The player's name was displayed on the back in black block characters; numbers were also shown in large red-on-black digits. Road jerseys were the same, but with "Nashville" across the chest, red underarm sections and piping, and no name on the back. The team continued to wear the previous red alternate of the same style. All were paired with the black cap bearing the red and white music note logo. From 2015 to 2018, home whites had single lines of red piping around the sleeve openings and up the front going around the neck. "Sounds" was displayed on the chest in red letters which resembled the sound holes on a guitar with a silver-on-black border. A swinging guitar logo was located on the left sleeve, while a green Athletics elephant logo was on the right. The player's name was sewn on the back in black block characters with his number displayed below in red sound-hole lettering with a silver border and black drop shadow. White pants with a line of red piping going up the sides were worn with black belts. The home cap was black with the primary "N" guitar pick logo. Gray road uniforms were identical with only a few exceptions: they had "Nashville" on the chest, pants lacked any piping, and the cap bore an "S" guitar pick logo. An alternate black jersey with "Music City" on the front, red piping, no name on the reverse, and "Nashville" embroidered in red letters under the Athletics sleeve logo was also worn. A second set of alternates, introduced in 2016, were sublimation-printed red jerseys with black and white bands at the neck and bands of silver, black, and white around the sleeve openings. A guitar's fret and headstock extended upward from these bands on each sleeve. "Nashville" appeared on the chest in white sound-hole lettering bordered by silver and black. The player's number was located below the city's name and on the back in silver characters with a white border and black drop shadow. 2019–present Since the 2019 season, home jerseys have been white with "NASH" boldly arched across the chest in navy blue with the player's number in red under the name on the left side. The sleeves have thin navy and red bands at the openings with six thin red stripes, reminiscent of guitar strings, running from the openings up the shoulders before terminating near the collar. The left side bears a navy "NASH" pick logo set against the strings. The player's name is displayed on the back in navy with the number below in red. The home pants, worn with navy belts, are white with a pair of navy and red stripes running down the outsides. The home cap is all navy with a red "N" icon, styled like a guitar or violin's F-hole, outlined in white. Road grays have lines of red piping around the neck and along the row of buttons going up the chest with a red and white "N" icon on the left side and the player's number on the right in the same colors. Each sleeve has a thin red band at the opening with a secondary logo displaying the Sounds' script wordmark in navy set against a red baseball on the left sleeve. The player's number is displayed on the back in red with a white border. Gray pants, worn with navy belts, have the same navy/red stripes as the home pants. The road cap has a red bill but is otherwise identical to the home cap. The navy blue alternate has "Nashville" written across the chest in an F-hole-styled red font with a white outline. Similar to the home whites, these have red and white bands at the openings and the guitar strings on the sleeves and behind the "NASH" pick are white. The player's number is displayed on the back in red with a white border. The alternate cap is navy with a white front panel, red bill, and a red "N" icon outlined in navy. The red alternate is a v-neck pullover with "Sounds" on the chest in navy bordered by white in the F-hole script. The player's number is below the team name in navy outlined in white. The sleeves bear navy and white bands at the sleeve openings and white strings on the sleeves behind the "NASH" pick logo. A larger navy stripe and smaller white stripe go around the neck opening. The player's number is displayed on the back in navy with a white border. The cap is navy with a white front panel bearing three navy stars arranged like those on the flag of Tennessee set in a red-outlined home plate. A third set of alternate uniforms honoring the 1978 Sounds are worn for Thursday home games in conjunction with Throwback Thursday promotions. The jerseys, similar to those worn by early Sounds teams, are white pullover v-necks with bands of red, white, and blue around the neck, with larger bands at the sleeve openings. "Sounds" is written across the chest in red-on-blue music note-like script, with the player's number below on the left in blue block characters with red borders. The right sleeve bears the round "Slugger" patch. High white pants are worn with blue belts and either blue socks or stirrups. The cap is blue with a red brim, displaying an "N" styled like an eighth note in white bordered by red. Radio and television During the inaugural season of 1978, Sounds games were broadcast on radio by Monte Hale. Bob Jamison, the team's longest-tenured announcer, called games from 1979 through 1990. He was followed by Steve Carroll (1991–1995), Steve Selby (1996–1999), Chuck Valenches (2000–2009), and Stu Paul (2010–2011). Jeff Hem has been the team's lead broadcaster since 2012. All Sounds home and road games are broadcast on ESPN 94.9 FM. Live audio broadcasts are also available online through the team's website and the MiLB First Pitch app. Games can be viewed through the MiLB.TV subscription feature of the official website of Minor League Baseball, with audio provided by a radio simulcast. Mascots The Nashville Sounds' mascot is an anthropomorphic rooster named Booster. He is bright red with yellow legs, beak, comb, and palms and red, orange, and yellow tail feathers resembling flames. He wears the same style jerseys as the team with the number zero. He made his debut on April 17, 2015, at the Sounds' first game at First Tennessee Park. His name refers to "boosting" or building enthusiasm for the team, while his appearance is a play on Nashville hot chicken. The first Sounds mascot was introduced during the team's inaugural 1978 season. Homer Horsehide resembled their major league affiliate's mascot—Mr. Red of the Cincinnati Reds. The character was human in appearance, with the exception of an oversized anthropomorphized baseball in place of a human head. The mustachioed mascot donned a uniform identical to that of Sounds players. Homer continued as the team mascot through at least 1982. From 1995 to mid 1996, the mascot was a lime-green dinosaur named Champ, who was borrowed from the New York–Penn League's Vermont Expos. An anthropomorphic cougar named Ozzie was the team's mascot from 1997 to 2014. The original Ozzie came from the Midwest League's Kane County Cougars, which were owned by the same group that owned the Sounds and had an extra mascot costume. The surplus cougar outfit was sent to Nashville, and, after building a fan following during his first season, team management decided to make Ozzie the permanent mascot. The original costume was brown, but a new muscular yellow costume was introduced in 1998. Ozzie wore the same style of uniform as the team, but with no hat. He was retired when the Sounds left Greer Stadium in 2014, although he continued to make appearances during the 2014 to 2015 offseason. Roster Achievements Awards Fourteen players have won league awards in recognition for their performance with the Sounds. Three players have won league Most Valuable Player (MVP) awards. Steve Balboni (1980) and Brian Dayett (1982) won the Southern League MVP Award, and Magglio Ordóñez (1997) won the American Association MVP Award. Ten players have won Pitcher of the Year honors. Bruce Berenyi (1978), Geoff Combe (1979), Andy McGaffigan (1980), Jamie Werly (1981), and Stefan Wever (1982) were selected for the Southern League Most Outstanding Pitcher Award. Chris Hammond (1990) and Scott Ruffcorn (1994) won the American Association Most Valuable Pitcher Award. R. A. Dickey (2007), Johnny Hellweg (2013), and Jimmy Nelson (2014) were selected for the PCL Pitcher of the Year Award. The American Association Rookie of the Year Award was won by Jeff Abbott (1996) and Magglio Ordóñez (1997). Ordóñez is the only Sounds player to win multiple league awards. Four managers have been selected as their league's Manager of the Year. Stump Merrill (1980) won the Southern League Manager of the Year Award, Rick Renick (1993 and 1996) won the American Association Manager of the Year Award, and Frank Kremblas (2007) and Steve Scarsone (2016) won the PCL Manager of the Year Award. Seventy-six players have been selected for midseason All-Star teams. Of those players, Jamie Werly (1980 and 1981), Joey Vierra (1992 and 1995), Drew Denson (1993 and 1994), Scott Ruffcorn (1994 and 1996), and Vinny Rottino (2007 and 2008) are the only players to have been selected twice as Sounds. Four players have been chosen as the MVP of midseason All-Star games: Duane Walker (1979), Ray Durham (1994), Magglio Ordóñez (1997), and Renato Núñez (2017). Of the 52 players who have been named to postseason All-Star teams, only Duane Walker (1979 in two positions) and Jeff Abbott (1996 and 1997) have been selected twice. Retired numbers Nashville has honored two of its players by retiring their uniform numbers. This ensures that the number will be associated with one player of particular importance to the team. Hall of Famers Four former Sounds have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. Closer Trevor Hoffman, who was inducted in 2018, played the majority of the 1992 season with Nashville while working his way up through the Cincinnati Reds organization. Hoffman appeared in 42 games, working out of the bullpen on 37 occasions, and achieved a record with a 4.27 earned run average (ERA) and 63 strikeouts over innings pitched. He later made two major league rehabilitation appearances while with the Milwaukee Brewers in 2009. Two other Hall of Fame players appeared in games for Nashville solely on rehab assignments. Shortstop Barry Larkin, who was inducted in 2012, appeared in two games in 1989. Outfielder Tim Raines, who played three games with Nashville in 1993, was inducted in 2017. Hoyt Wilhelm, the Sounds' pitching coach from 1982 to 1984, was inducted in 1985. Under his three years' guidance, the team's pitchers amassed a 239–198 record with a 3.73 ERA and 2,357 strikeouts. The Sounds are also represented in the Southern League Hall of Fame. Larry Schmittou, who helped bring baseball to Nashville in 1978 and was a team executive and owner through 1996, was inducted in 2016. Managers Over the course of 44 seasons, the Nashville Sounds have been led by 29 managers. Three managers have guided the team to win their league's championship. George Scherger (1979) and Johnny Oates (1982) led the team to win the Southern League championship. Frank Kremblas (2005) led them to win the Pacific Coast League championship. Trent Jewett is the longest-tenured manager in team history, having managed the team for 625 games from 1998 to 2000 and 2003 to 2004. The manager with the highest winning percentage over a full season or more is Stump Merrill, who led the Sounds to a .622 winning percentage from 1980 to 1981. See also Nashville Sounds Opening Day starting pitchers Nashville Sounds owners and executives History of professional baseball in Nashville, Tennessee References Specific General External links Statistics from Baseball-Reference 1978 establishments in Tennessee Baseball teams established in 1978 Chicago White Sox minor league affiliates Cincinnati Reds minor league affiliates Detroit Tigers minor league affiliates Former American Association (1902–1997) teams Milwaukee Brewers minor league affiliates New York Yankees minor league affiliates Oakland Athletics minor league affiliates Pacific Coast League teams Pittsburgh Pirates minor league affiliates Professional baseball teams in Tennessee Southern League (1964–2020) teams Sports in Nashville, Tennessee Texas Rangers minor league affiliates Triple-A East teams	[ -0.17383438348770142, 0.03302928805351257, -0.1593179702758789, -0.275813490152359, 0.604839026927948, 0.12383978068828583, 0.2303071916103363, 0.14989392459392548, 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207124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1831%20in%20literature	1831 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1831. Events January 1 – William Lloyd Garrison begins publication of the Liberator, an abolitionist periodical in the United States. February 18 (old style) – Alexander Pushkin marries Natalya Goncharova at the Great Ascension Church on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow. March 16 – Victor Hugo's historical romantic Gothic novel Notre-Dame de Paris, known in English as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (completed on January 15), is published by Gosselin in Paris. March 19 – The play La Cocarde Tricolore by the Cogniard brothers introduces the term "chauvinism". April 18 – The Sydney Morning Herald is first published. unknown dates Convict Henry Savery's autobiographical fiction Quintus Servinton: a tale founded upon incidents of real occurrence is published anonymously in Tasmania, the first Australian novel. Playwright Manuel Bretón de los Herreros publishes a translation of Tibullus, which secures him an appointment as sub-librarian at the Spanish national library (Biblioteca Pública de Palacio). Daniel Appleton publishes three religious books in New York City, so originating of the firm of D. Appleton & Company. New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac La Peau de chagrin Sarrasine Le Chef-d'œuvre inconnu John Brownlow – Hans Sloane: a tale Selina Davenport – The Queen's Page Benjamin Disraeli – The Young Duke Susan Edmonstone Ferrier – Destiny Nikolai Gogol – Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka Catherine Gore Mothers and Daughters Pin Money The School for Coquettes The Tuileries Ann Hatton – Gerald Fitzgerald Victor Hugo – The Hunchback of Notre Dame (Notre Dame de Paris) Thomas Love Peacock – Crotchet Castle George Sand (as Amantine Aurore Dupin) and Jules Sandeau (as J. Sand) – Rose et Blanche Mary Shelley – Frankenstein (revised 1-volume edition) Children Anne Knight – Mary Gray. A tale for little girls Drama Robert Montgomery Bird – Gladiator Manuel Bretón de los Herreros – Marcela o ¿Cuál de las tres? Dulduityn Danzanravjaa – Saran khökhöö (Moon Cuckoo; approximate year) Alfred de Vigny – La Maréchale d'Ancre Franz Grillparzer – Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen (Waves of the Sea and of Love) Victor Hugo – Marion Delorme James Sheridan Knowles – Alfred the Great Alexander Pushkin – Boris Godunov (Борис Годунов, published) John Augustus Stone – Tancred, King of Sicily Robert Taylor – Swing, or, Who Are the Incendiaries? Poetry Thomas Hood – The Dream of Eugene Aram, the Murderer Giacomo Leopardi – Canti Edgar Allan Poe – Poems Non-fiction Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet – The Eventful History of the Mutiny and Piratical Seizure of HMS Bounty: Its Cause and ConsequencesWashington Irving – Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of ColumbusJohn Stuart Mill – The Spirit of the AgeJames Cowles Prichard – Eastern Origin of the Celtic NationsMary Prince – The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian SlaveBirths January 2 – Justin Winsor, American historian and librarian (died 1897) January 3 – George Manville Fenn, English novelist and educationalist (died 1909) January 14 – John Cordy Jeaffreson, English novelist and non-fiction writer (died 1901) February 25 – Jane G. Austin, American writer (died 1894) January 26 – Mary Mapes Dodge, American children's writer (died 1907) February 16 – Nikolai Leskov, Russian novelist and playwright (died 1895) March 29 – Amelia Edith Huddleston Barr, English novelist and teacher (died 1919) April 9 – Clara Harrison Stranahan, American author and college founder (died 1905) April 19 – Mary Louise Booth, American writer, editor, and translator (died 1889) May 6 – Mary C. Ames, American writer (died 1884) June 7 – Amelia Edwards, English fiction writer and Egyptologist (died 1892) June 25 – Harriet Mann Miller, American author, naturalist, and ornithologist (died 1918) July 3 – Edmund Yates, Scottish writer (died 1894) July 7 – Jane Elizabeth Conklin, American religious writer and poet (died 1914) August 1 – William Aldis Wright, English writer and literary editor (died 1914) September 5 – Victorien Sardou, French dramatist (died 1908) September 12 – Álvares de Azevedo, Brazilian Ultra-Romantic writer (died 1852) October 7 – Eleanor Kirk, American writer (died 1908) October 15 – Helen Hunt Jackson, American poet, writer and activist (died 1885)unknown date – Nora Perry, American writer (died 1896) Deaths January 2 – Barthold Georg Niebuhr, Danish-born German historian (born 1776) January 14 – Henry Mackenzie, Scottish novelist (born 1745) January 21 – Ludwig Achim von Arnim, German poet and novelist (heart attack, born 1781) February 25 – Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, German dramatist and novelist, originator of Sturm und Drang'' (born 1752) April 4 – Isaiah Thomas, American publisher (born 1749) June 30 – William Roscoe, English poet (born 1753) September 12 – Jippensha Ikku (十返舎一九), Japanese novelist and humorist (born 1765) October 2 – José Agostinho de Macedo, Portuguese poet (born 1761) December 18 – Willem Bilderdijk, Dutch author (born 1756) December 26 – Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, Indian poet and teacher (born 1809) Awards Chancellor's Gold Medal – George Stovin Venables References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.3072257936000824, 0.0603264681994915, -1.0159567594528198, -0.3032955527305603, -0.4825986921787262, 0.09728679805994034, 0.7331297397613525, 0.6218822598457336, -0.7758030891418457, -0.7312578558921814, -0.1846512109041214, -0.023554643616080284, -0.2355125993490219, 0.28161847591400146, 0.08351437747478485, 0.1232093945145607, 0.15957944095134735, -0.01396824698895216, 0.17423373460769653, 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207125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%20The%20Next%20Generation%20%E2%80%93%20A%20Final%20Unity	Star Trek: The Next Generation – A Final Unity	Star Trek: The Next Generation – A Final Unity is an adventure game by Spectrum HoloByte, based on the Star Trek universe. It was released in 1995 for the DOS and later ported to Macintosh. It puts the player in control of Captain Picard and his crew of the Enterprise D and features traditional point-and-click adventure gameplay as well as free-form space exploration, diplomatic encounters and tactical ship-to-ship combat. The cast of Star Trek: The Next Generation reprise their roles, providing the voices of their respective characters. Plot While on routine patrol of the Romulan neutral zone, the Enterprise intercepts a distress signal from the crew of a Garidian scout ship, seeking asylum in Federation space. After a brief confrontation with the commander of a Garidian Warbird (similar in design to a Romulan D'deridex Warbird except with a red starburst design on the nose), the crew of the scout ship is beamed aboard the Enterprise. One of the refugees mentions to Captain Picard that they are in search of the Lawgiver's legendary "Fifth Scroll", which could aid in preventing war on Garid. Picard agrees to assist them, and the crew of the Enterprise sets out in search of clues to the location of the scroll. After searching various star systems and completing several away missions, the crew of the Enterprise realizes that the scroll points to the existence of an enormous and powerful ancient structure, known as the Unity Device, that was created by the Chodak, an unknown alien race, during the peak of their civilization. Further investigations that both current-living descendants of the Chodak, as well as the Romulans, are both going after the Unity Device. (The Klingons and Ferengi also make appearances in the game, although the Borg do not.) The storyline takes place around stardate 47111.1, according to the opening sequence of the game. This would place the events of the game between the first two episodes of the seventh season of the series, "Descent" and "Liaisons". The non-canonical Chodak race reappear in the Star Trek video games Star Trek Generations and Birth of the Federation. Gameplay Gameplay is mostly linear in nature, sometimes branching partially depending on choices made during various conversations. Enterprise On board the Enterprise, gameplay basically amounts to waiting until the ship arrives at its next destination, and occasionally conversing with various crewmembers for advice. There are various areas of the main bridge that can be interacted with to control the ship and consult with various people. The conference lounge allows the player to ask advice from the Garidian refugees. The Conn can be used to change the ship's destination and speed. When a mission begins destination and speed are set automatically, but the player has the liberty to visit bases, sectors and systems at will, though this will not affect anything in the main scenario. Various information on planets, alien species, and previous missions can be accessed from the Ops console, operated by Lt. Cmdr. Data. The tactical console is operated by Lt. Worf. Accessing it automatically brings the ship to red alert status. During the occasional battle with an enemy ship, control of the tactical console can be delegated to Lt. Worf, or controlled by the player. The turbolift allows for access to other areas of the ship. From engineering, power levels can be adjusted and resources applied toward damaged systems can be designated. Control of engineering can be delegated to Lt. Cmdr. Geordi La Forge. Players can manipulate engineering to such a degree it is possible to cause a warp core breach or eject the warp core. In the transporter room, an away team can be assembled and an inventory chosen, though each mission has an automatically assigned away team (except on "Captain" difficulty, where the player can choose the team and equipment). On the holodeck, any previous cutscenes can be viewed, as well as a brief tutorial going over the various controls of the ship. Away missions The majority of the gameplay takes place by controlling an away team on various space stations and alien worlds, which is the pure adventure game part of the game. The away team is selected by the player and is then controlled in a point-and-click manner by selecting the desired command from the interface in the lower area of the screen. Items in the inventory can be used to interact with the environment in much the same way. As in most adventure games, inventory items are used to solve various puzzles. The comments and responses of the characters vary depending on the combination the player chooses. Upon completion of the away mission, the team is beamed up, and the Enterprise awaits further orders or acts with the new information provided by the away mission. Endings There are two different possible endings, a good and a bad, depending on choices made by the player. Hidden Features When you do a full install of the game, In the STTNG install folder you will find pictures of the people who made the game and some family members it looks like. There are also Klingons and Ferengi ships that you can battle in non-aligned space. These sectors are not yet known. But the ship textures and models are in the full install. Development A Final Unity was originally penned for a release shortly after Interplay's Star Trek: 25th Anniversary. Since 25th Anniversary was released at the end of 1992, A Final Unity was scheduled to be released in 1993, but did not make the projected release date. Seven principal actors of the TV show (Wil Wheaton is missing) plus Majel Barrett, the voice of the computer, were hired to reprise their roles in voice-overs for the game. A Final Unity was Spectrum HoloByte's second Star Trek video game, following the 1994 game Star Trek: The Next Generation – Future's Past. Spectrum Holobyte acquired MicroProse shortly thereafter, and continued developing Star Trek games under the MicroProse name. A version for the Atari Jaguar CD was reportedly in development by MicroProse but it never released. A Final Unity officially required a floating-point coprocessor (FPU), which was unusual for MS-DOS games at the time. It could still be played on a computer not equipped with one, but at reduced performance. Reception A Final Unity was a commercial success, selling 500,000 copies by 1996. Upon release, A Final Unity was met with generally positive reviews. Andy Butcher from PC Gamer UK noted that the game "translates the atmosphere and 'feel' of The Next Generation almost perfectly" and praised the way it is structured as well as its visual presentation and sound design. Computer Gaming World's Allen L. Greenberg criticized the game's tactical battles as "often tedious and inconclusive", but found the away missions "extremely enjoyable" and the game's overall presentation "impressive". Next Generation reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "If you're a fan of 'ST:TNG,' you definitely don't want to miss A Final Unity. It's just the fix you need to hold you until the next movie or novel. But if you're simply looking for a good graphic adventure, you can find better." A Final Unity was a runner-up for Computer Gaming Worlds 1995 "Adventure Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream. The editors wrote of A Final Unity, "Despite inconsistent graphics and disappointing tactical combat, near-impeccable voiceovers from the stellar television cast made the game very compelling. Moreover, the game's script was at least as well written as many of the series' final episodes." In 2017, PC Gamer ranked Star Trek: The Next Generation - A Final Unity among the best Star Trek games. In 2020, ScreenRant ranked it the 2nd best Star Trek game of the franchise. References External links Star Trek: The Next Generation – A Final Unity at Memory Alpha 1995 video games Adventure games Adventure games set in space Cancelled Atari Jaguar games DOS games Star Trek video games using TV cast members Classic Mac OS games MicroProse games Spectrum HoloByte games Final Unity Video games developed in the United States	[ -0.8576297163963318, -0.17562875151634216, 0.2932550013065338, 0.29843664169311523, -0.09590175747871399, 0.06451297551393509, -0.3040653169155121, -0.4340497851371765, -0.025550706312060356, -0.4410834312438965, -0.29619914293289185, 0.2618728578090668, -0.19291530549526215, 0.3691752552986145, -0.007054959423840046, 0.03172040730714798, 0.03372883424162865, 0.4472288489341736, -0.8312262296676636, -0.0663621723651886, 0.19353137910366058, -0.014521444216370583, 0.1739014834165573, -0.0623478889465332, -0.19059380888938904, 0.15021945536136627, 0.85080885887146, 0.6272305250167847, -0.15346074104309082, -0.05262252688407898, 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207126	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1830%20in%20literature	1830 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1830. Events February – Barthold Georg Niebuhr's house burns down, but most of his books are saved. February 25 – The première of Victor Hugo's play Hernani in Paris elicits protests from an audience seeing it as an attack on Classicism. March 26 – The Book of Mormon is published by Joseph Smith in Palmyra, New York. May 22 – Amos Bronson Alcott marries Abby May at King's Chapel, Boston (Massachusetts). May 24 – Sarah Josepha Hale's Poems for Our Children, including "Mary's Lamb", with the verse "Mary Had a Little Lamb", is published by Marsh, Capen & Lyon in Boston, Massachusetts. July or later – Victor Cousin is elected to the Académie française to replace Joseph Fourier. July 1 – Edgar Allan Poe matriculates as a cadet at the United States Military Academy, West Point. August – François-René de Chateaubriand sacrifices his political career by refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to Louis-Philippe, and retires to write his memoirs. August 25 – Belgian Revolution breaks out; Flemish novelist Hendrik Conscience takes the side of the revolutionaries. December – Elizabeth Vestris becomes the first female actor-manager in the history of London theatre by leasing the Olympic Theatre in Drury Lane where she presents extravaganzas and burlesques. unknown dates James Mill becomes head of the London office of the British East India Company. The English publishers Bradbury and Evans are established as printers by William Bradbury and Frederick Mullet Evans. Edward Moxon begins his own publishing business in London. The famous opening line of Edward Bulwer's (anonymous) novel, Paul Clifford, published this year, begins: "It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents — except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness." New books Fiction Honoré de Balzac La Maison du chat-qui-pelote La Vendetta Le Bal de Sceaux Gobseck Edward Bulwer – Paul Clifford James Fenimore Cooper – The Water-Witch Oliver Wendell Holmes – Old Ironsides John Neal — Authorship, a Tale Thomas Love Peacock – Crotchet Castle Anna Maria Porter – The Barony Catharine Maria Sedgwick – A Tale of Our Times Mary Shelley – The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck Louisa Stanhope – The Corsair's Bride Stendhal – The Red and the Black (Le Rouge et le Noir) Princess Victoria – The Adventures of Alice Laselles (first published 2015) Children Frederick Marryat – The King's Own Anna Maria Hall – Chronicles of a School-Room Drama Henrik Hertz – Amor's Strokes of Genius (Amors Genistreger) Douglas William Jerrold – The Mutiny at the Nore Jovan Sterija Popović – Laža i Paralaža Aleksandr Pushkin – Little Tragedies (Маленькие трагедии, Malenkie tragedii) The Stone Guest (Каменный гость, Kamenny gost) Mozart and Salieri (Моцарт и Сальери, Mozart i Salieri) The Miserly Knight (Скупой рыцарь, Skupoy rytsar) A Feast in Time of Plague (Пир во время чумы, Pir vo vremya chumy) Sir Walter Scott (published, never performed) Auchindrane The Doom of Devorgoil Poetry Alphonse de Lamartine – Harmonies poétiques et religieuses Richard Lower – Tom Cladpole's Jurney to Lunnon, told by himself, and written in pure Sussex doggerel by his Uncle Tim Alfred de Musset – Comtes d'Espagne et d'Italie Caroline Norton – The Undying One and Other Poems (includes "The Arab's Farewell to His Horse") Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve – Les Consolations Alfred Tennyson – Poems, Chiefly Lyrical Non-fiction Jeremy Bentham – Constitutional Code for All Nations William Cobbett – Rural Rides Humphry Davy (posthumous) – Consolations in Travel; or, The Last Days of a Philosopher Denis Diderot (posthumous) – La Promenade du sceptique Jacob Grimm – Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI. inter pretatio theodisca John Hughes, editor – The Boscobel Tracts Samuel Lee – Six Sermons on the Study of the Holy Scriptures, to Which are Annexed Two Dissertations Charles Lyell – Principles of Geology, vol. 1 Thomas Moore – Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices of his Life Hermann, Fürst von Pückler-Muskau – Briefe eines Verstorbenen (4 volumes to 1831, Tour of a German Prince, 4 vols, 1831–32) Joseph Smith – The Book of Mormon Births January 2 – Henry Kingsley, English novelist (died 1876) January 28 – Martha Foster Crawford, American writer and missionary (died 1909) February 28 – James Payn, English novelist (died 1898) March 15 – Paul Heyse, German writer and Nobel laureate (died 1914) March 18 – Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, French historian (died 1889) March 25 – Frederick Greenwood, English novelist and man of letters (died 1909) April 6 – Eugène Rambert, Swiss poet and writer (died 1886) April 21 – Mary A. Brayton Woodbridge, American editor and reformer (died 1894) May 17 – Sarah Gibson Humphreys, American author and suffragist (died 1907) May 20 – Hector Malot, French writer (died 1907) July 22 – Richard Copley Christie, English scholar (died 1902) September 8 – Frédéric Mistral, French poet (died 1914) September 2 – Josefina Wettergrund, Swedish writer (died 1903) September 11 – Frances Freeling Broderip (née Hood), English children's writer (died 1878) October 15 – Helen Hunt Jackson, American writer and activist (died 1885) October 30 – Eliza Brightwen (née Elder), Scottish naturalist (died 1906) December 5 – Christina Rossetti, English poet (died 1894) December 10 – Emily Dickinson, American poet (died 1886) December 17 – Jules de Goncourt, French founder of Prix Goncourt (died 1870) unknown date – Mary Anna Needell (Mrs. J. H. Needell), English novelist (died 1922) Deaths January 17 or 30 – Wilhelm Waiblinger, German Romantic poet (born 1804) January 26 – Maria Petronella Woesthoven, Dutch poet (died 1760) February 15 – Prince Ioane of Georgia, Georgian encyclopedist (born 1768) February 20 – Robert Anderson, Scottish literary editor, biographer and critic (born 1750) February 25 – Henrietta Maria Bowdler, English author and expurgator (born 1750) March 29 – James Rennell, English historian and oceanographer (born 1742) April 16 – József Katona, Hungarian dramatist and poet (born 1791) August 6 – David Walker, African American abolitionist (born 1785) August 20 – Vasily Pushkin, Russian poet (born 1766) September 18 – William Hazlitt, English essayist (born 1778) October 8 – Johann Gottfried Ebel, Prussian-born Swiss travel writer (born 1764) By November – Mary Diana Dods, Scottish writer known as "David Lyndsay", later "Walter Sholto Douglas" (born 1790) November 20 – Gustav von Ewers, German legal historian (born 1781) December 8 – Benjamin Constant, Swiss-born French liberal author (born 1767) December 31 – Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis, French dramatist and writer on education (born 1746) Awards Newdigate Prize – George Kettilby Rickards References Years of the 19th century in literature	[ -0.09890342503786087, 0.4388672113418579, -0.8570367097854614, -0.08839599788188934, -0.5094149708747864, 0.08547978103160858, 0.5850871801376343, 0.5949565768241882, -0.6093583106994629, -0.8872731924057007, -0.15162433683872223, 0.06103825569152832, -0.11093883961439133, 0.38872089982032776, 0.05500871688127518, 0.2099599391222, -0.07227262109518051, 0.09789366275072098, 0.022163674235343933, -0.30571627616882324, -0.422552227973938, 0.14322584867477417, 0.5063146352767944, -0.5357555150985718, 0.08715282380580902, -1.0905168056488037, 0.36277297139167786, -0.3703581988811493, 0.3852118253707886, -0.019441422075033188, -0.20370113849639893, 0.33686092495918274, 0.2579842507839203, 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207128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque%20Isotopes	Albuquerque Isotopes	The Albuquerque Isotopes are a Minor League Baseball team of the Triple-A West and the Triple-A affiliate of the Colorado Rockies. They play home games at Rio Grande Credit Union Field at Isotopes Park in Albuquerque, New Mexico, at an elevation of above sea level. In 2003, the Calgary Cannons moved from Alberta to Albuquerque and became the Isotopes playing in the Pacific Coast League. The team was affiliated with the Florida Marlins until 2008 and the Dodgers from 2009 to 2014. In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Isotopes were organized into the ten-team Triple-A West. The team won division titles in 2003, 2009, and 2012; it has never won a league championship. The Isotopes' mascot is Orbit, a yellow, orange, and red alien. In 2016, Forbes listed the team as the 14th-most valuable Minor League Baseball team with a value of $34 million. Name origins The team's name recalls the fictional 'Springfield Isotopes' from the long-running TV series The Simpsons, first appearing in the Season 2 episode "Dancin' Homer" (aired in 1990) in which the main character Homer Simpson temporarily becomes his local baseball team's mascot. In the episode "Hungry, Hungry Homer", which first aired on March 4, 2001, Homer attempts to thwart the team's plan to move to Albuquerque by going on a hunger strike. Subsequently, when the Albuquerque Tribune asked its online readers to help choose a new name for the Cannons, "Isotopes" received 67 percent of the 120,000 votes cast. Though team president Ken Young admitted that the name came from the series, he said at the name's unveiling, "We picked it because over the past year it has become a popular name, and it does have something to do with Albuquerque." The "Isotopes" name was deemed appropriate, since New Mexico has a number of well-known scientific and military facilities dealing with nuclear technology, such as Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, and the Waste Isolation Pilot Project (WIPP), as well as the site of the Trinity test. In addition, uranium mining was a significant industry in the state during the Cold War. In the three months after the team's name was announced in September 2002, before the team ever took the field, the team sold more merchandise than the previous Albuquerque Dukes had sold in any single season, and led minor league baseball in merchandising revenue in 2003. The team said they were able to tell when episodes featuring the Springfield Isotopes would air in different markets based on clusters of orders from different viewing areas. The team has no working agreements with the rightsholders of The Simpsons. However, statues of Homer, Bart, Lisa, and Marge Simpson (originally created as a promotional item for the 2007 film) are located at RGCU Field at Isotopes Park. History Albuquerque's previous minor-league team was the Los Angeles Dodgers-affiliated Albuquerque Dukes, which won several PCL championships in the 1970s and 1980s. The team was sold to Marshall Glickman and Mike Higgins, who moved it to Oregon in March 2000 and renamed it the Portland Beavers. In January 2001, a group of businessmen led by Ken Young and Mike Koldyke agreed to buy the Calgary Cannons with the intention of bringing the team to Albuquerque for the 2003 season. But Young and Koldyke told the city of Albuquerque that they would only buy the team if the city would fund a new stadium or renovate the existing Albuquerque Sports Stadium. In May 2001, the city approved a vote to spend $25 million on a renovation. Ken Young and Mike Koldyke then bought the Cannons, moved to the team to Albuquerque, and renamed it the Isotopes. The planned renovation eventually turned into the construction of a new baseball facility, Isotopes Park, around the old playing field. The Isotopes played their first official game in Albuquerque on April 11, 2003, three years after the Dukes left for Portland. At Isotopes Park, the baseball team was greeted by over 12,000 fans in their opening day game. In the Isotopes' opening season, the baseball team saw over 575,000 fans enter their stadium to watch their newly acquired team perform. During the 2003 season, Albuquerque saw immediate success as their new team won the 2003 Central Division Title and in addition to that, entered the 2003 Pacific Coast League Playoffs. In 2008, the Albuquerque Isotopes achieved a new feat when they reached a new franchise record in attendance with over 590,000 fans. In July 2009, Albuquerque received an unusual amount of nationwide attention following the arrival of Manny Ramirez. The outfielder at the time was under intense scrutiny for a suspension he received after testing positive for performance-enhancing drugs, more commonly known as PEDs, and was slated to play a total of three games with the Albuquerque Isotopes before returning to the major league. The Albuquerque Isotopes ran multiple promotions for the arrival of Manny Ramirez including advertisements, wigs bearing an extreme similarity to the hair of Manny Ramirez, etc. which ultimately led to a then-attendance record with over 15,000 fans attending the outfielder's opening game with the Isotopes. In addition to this, there was a large amount of harsh criticism towards the team from numerous sports media outlets including ESPN and sports commentators such as Bob Costas. In conjunction with Major League Baseball's restructuring of Minor League Baseball in 2021, the Isotopes were organized into the Triple-A West. Albuquerque ended the season in fourth place in the Eastern Division with a 52–68 record. No playoffs were held to determine a league champion; instead, the team with the best regular-season record was the declared the winner. However, 10 games that had been postponed from the start of the season were reinserted into the schedule as a postseason tournament called the Triple-A Final Stretch in which all 30 Triple-A clubs competed for the highest winning percentage over that stretch. Albuquerque finished the tournament tied for seventh place with a 6–4 record. Season-by-season records Roster Awards In September 2009, Mitch Jones was named the winner of the Joe Bauman Home Run Award, for the most home runs, 35, in minor league baseball. In 2014, Joc Pederson, after leading the league in OBP (.435), runs (106), home runs (33), walks (100), and OPS (1.017), and setting Isotopes single-season records for walks and runs scored, was voted the 2014 PCL Most Valuable Player, named to the post-season All-PCL team, and named the PCL Rookie of the Year, which is awarded to a player in his first year at the Triple-A level. He was also selected to Baseball America'''s 2014 Minor League All-Star team. Notable broadcasters Mike Roberts, longtime (1966–2013) Albuquerque sports announcer on TV and radio for local news, professional baseball, college football and basketball, and high school sports broadcasts Bob Socci, 2003–2006 Russ Langer 1996–2000, former Montreal Expos and Baltimore Orioles fill-in broadcaster Cultural references In the USA Network series In Plain Sight, the character Raphael Ramirez (Cristián de la Fuente) plays for the Isotopes. In the AMC series Breaking Bad, which is set in Albuquerque, Walter White can be seen wearing an Isotopes hat. In the NBC series The Voice, music producer Adam Blackstone wore an Albuquerque Isotopes hat during Season One Battle Rounds preparations. In the AMC series Better Call Saul, prequel to Breaking Bad'', an Isotopes air freshener hangs in a cab and Mike Ehrmantraut watches an Isotopes game on TV in the opening episode of Season 4. References External links Sports in Albuquerque, New Mexico Pacific Coast League teams Baseball teams established in 2003 Professional baseball teams in New Mexico Colorado Rockies minor league affiliates Los Angeles Dodgers minor league affiliates Miami Marlins minor league affiliates 2003 establishments in New Mexico Triple-A West teams	[ 0.2900030016899109, 0.3490960896015167, -0.5194886922836304, 0.193721204996109, -0.050308190286159515, -0.7785276770591736, 0.36444932222366333, 0.25475430488586426, 0.10342095047235489, 0.02883163094520569, 0.37079623341560364, 0.18515050411224365, -0.2350904792547226, 0.4619913697242737, -0.3313554525375366, 0.17194624245166779, 0.6552953720092773, 0.7792568802833557, 0.3748682737350464, -0.12612400949001312, -0.03463507071137428, -0.5243425369262695, 0.09484051167964935, -0.21167390048503876, -0.6718565821647644, 0.3259231746196747, -0.17393888533115387, 0.5433823466300964, -0.2836562395095825, 0.03425931930541992, -0.14689111709594727, 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207132	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%20Armada	Star Trek: Armada	Star Trek: Armada is a real-time strategy video game for Microsoft Windows developed and published in 2000 by Activision. The game's look and feel is based primarily on Star Trek: The Next Generation, and features a few of its main characters and ships. Playable factions include the United Federation of Planets, the Klingon Empire, the Romulan Star Empire and the Borg. The game received mixed to positive reviews and was noted for being one of the better Star Trek games to be made. A sequel, Star Trek: Armada II, was released on November 16, 2001. In a cross-promotion with the Star Trek Customizable Card Game, an initial run of Armada boxes contained an exclusive playable card, the USS Jupiter. On December 13, 2021, Armada and its sequel were re-released on GoG.com, which had previously released several other older Star Trek titles earlier that year. Gameplay Armada is a real-time strategy game in which players select a faction from the Star Trek universe and build fleets of starships and space station bases to conduct battle. Four playable factions are featured in the game: the Federation, the Klingons, the Romulans, and the Borg. A handful of ships from other Star Trek races appear in campaign missions, including Ferengi, Cardassians, Dominion, and Breen. Each faction fields six different classes of starship ranging from scout to capital ship, which also possesses a unique tactical ability. In addition to weapons and shields, players can capture one another's ships and stations. Two primary resources are used in the game: crew and dilithium. Crew is automatically generated over time via starbases. Dilithium is mined from moons by resource gatherers. The game features a continuous campaign of 20 missions divided into five parts: one for each of the playable races and a fifth part in which the player fights against the Borg while controlling an alliance of the other three races. The game's multiplayer mode allows for skirmish battles with the computer or other players. Individual games are played out on a representative scale that is roughly equivalent to a planetary system. The player may encounter a variety of celestial bodies such as planetoids, asteroids, and nebulae, each having an effect on gameplay. Plot The storyline references several media in the Star Trek universe, incorporating plot elements from television shows Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: The Next Generation as well as the then-recently released film Star Trek: Insurrection. Following the Dominion War, the Federation turns to rebuilding. However, a Federation timeship, the USS Premonition, suddenly appears from the future, under attack by the Borg. Captain Jean-Luc Picard, commanding the USS Enterprise-E, comes to its aid. The Premonitions captain, Thaddeus Demming, warns Picard of an upcoming Borg invasion. Picard then repels an initial Borg attack on a Federation outpost. Elsewhere, Commander Worf assists in the defense of the Ba'ku homeworld from the Son'a, after which he is informed of the Enterprise'''s discovery. While traveling through a hazardous sector of space on his way back to Qo'nos, he is ambushed by his old enemy, Toral, who plans to use a fake Sword of Kahless to take over the Klingon Empire. Toral ambushes Chancellor Martok following another Borg incursion, and another Klingon civil war ensues. After a climactic battle over the Klingon homeworld, Toral is defeated. He retreats to the Neutral Zone, revealing that he was getting assistance from the Romulan Star Empire. Hostilities ensue between the Klingons and the Romulans. The Romulans, in the meantime, come across a stable Omega Particle, a source of nearly limitless power. The particle, discovered first by a Ferengi mining guild, is about to be sold to the Cardassians; the Tal Shiar sends Admiral Sela to secure it before that happens. Sela captures the Omega Particle and, despite some Borg interference, delivers it to a fortified Romulan base. She then allies with the Borg promising the particle after they destroy Toral's remaining forces, but she then betrays and attacks them after Toral is defeated. The Borg, wanting to secure the particle at all costs, assimilate a Dominion cloning facility and use it to clone Locutus, the former title of Jean-Luc Picard when he was assimilated. With Locutus leading their armada, the Borg take the Omega Particle from the Romulans and assimilate Ambassador Spock, who is trying to mediate between the Klingons and Romulans. Without him, the two empires go to war, and the Borg are able to enter the Solar System. Locutus and his armada defeat the Federation fleet, kill Worf and Demming, and assimilate Earth. However, Picard and the Enterprise manage to escape through a temporal vortex created by the Premonition. Going back in time, the Enterprise prevents Spock's assimilation. Picard and Spock are able to forge an alliance among the Romulans and the Klingons, and together the three governments repel the invasion of Earth. The unified Klingon, Romulan and Federation forces push the Borg out of the Alpha Quadrant and capture a Transwarp Gate which they take to Unimatrix One, at the heart of the Borg Collective. There, they discover the Omega Particle is fueling the Borg war machine. The combined force destroys the Omega Particle, but Locutus travels back in time before he can be defeated. Back in time, Locutus, in a Borg Sphere, tries to kill Picard aboard the USS Enterprise-D shortly after the Farpoint mission. However, Locutus is thwarted by the USS Premonition which, unaffected by the changes to the timeline, pursues Locutus back in time and destroys his ship. When a battle-weary Premonition returns to the "present" and witnesses that all has returned to normal, Demming sends the ship and crew home to a brighter future. The game ends with a final log entry from Picard, noting the departure of the Premonition, as well as the potential disintegration of the Klingon-Romulan alliance, though Picard notes that 'whether the peace will last or not, only time will tell'. Development Cast Several voice actors from the series contributed to their characters in the game. Patrick Stewart reprised the roles of Jean-Luc Picard and Locutus, Michael Dorn voiced Worf, Denise Crosby reprised Sela and J. G. Hertzler voiced Chancellor Martok. Several other voice actors who had been previously unaffiliated with Star Trek also voiced characters in the game, among them was Richard Penn. Reception The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the game for its graphics, which accurately replicated the ships from The Next Generation. He also noted the slight twists in resource and unit mechanics, but concluded that the game was more or less a standard RTS. Mark Asher of IGN criticized a formulaic approach that failed to distinguish the game from other RTS titles. He also considered the single-player game to be boring. Both GameSpot and IGN noted several bugs causing video and sound problems, as well as alt-tabbing causing the game to crash. Greg Orlando of NextGen said, "The prime directive compels you to buy this game, even if you think that bald-headed freak Jean-Luc Picard was the best Enterprise captain ever." Nick Woods of AllGame gave it four stars out of five, saying, "In summary, Star Trek: Armada is a game that keeps your pulse moving and your mind working as well." John Brandon of GameZone gave it eight out of ten, calling it "an excellent RTS game that's to play. 3D graphics help immerse you into the Star Trek universe, and scripted missions give everything an arcade feel. Never too innovative, the game still ranks as one of the better offerings in the RTS genre." In 2016, Tom's Guide ranked the game as one of the top ten Star Trek games. Four years later, Screen Rant ranked it as the 9th best Star Trek'' game and praised Patrick Stewart voicing Captain Picard in the game. References External links 2000 video games Activision games Real-time strategy video games Windows games Windows-only games Armada Video games developed in the United States Strategy games based on Star Trek Star Trek video games using TV cast members	[ -0.8361279368400574, -0.21488338708877563, 0.3994775414466858, 0.10924573987722397, 0.19844378530979156, 0.22124889492988586, -0.5154162049293518, 0.10275973379611969, -0.32351040840148926, -0.1538187861442566, -0.18536648154258728, 0.7573423385620117, -0.236978679895401, -0.03253468871116638, 0.3015393018722534, 0.2813352048397064, 0.345824271440506, 0.20753668248653412, -0.501062273979187, 0.06178935617208481, -0.11935994774103165, 0.07661935687065125, 0.3929787278175354, 0.3666539192199707, 0.015063591301441193, 0.05811988562345505, 0.36754414439201355, 0.6133264303207397, 0.11340916156768799, 0.3802582621574402, 0.32903072237968445, -0.009910470806062222, 0.18249373137950897, -0.5569062829017639, -0.3470150828361511, 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207142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Brooke%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Alanbrooke	Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke	Field Marshal Alan Francis Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke, (23 July 1883 – 17 June 1963), was a senior officer of the British Army. He was Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), the professional head of the British Army, during the Second World War, and was promoted to field marshal on 1 January 1944. As chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, Brooke was the foremost military advisor to Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and had the role of co-ordinator of the British military efforts in the Allies' victory in 1945. After retiring from the British Army, he served as Lord High Constable of England during the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. His war diaries attracted attention for their criticism of Churchill and for Brooke's forthright views on other leading figures of the war. Background and early life Alan Brooke was born on 23 July 1883 at Bagnères-de-Bigorre, Hautes-Pyrénées, to a prominent Anglo-Irish family from West Ulster in Ireland with a long military tradition as the "Fighting Brookes of Colebrooke". He was the seventh and youngest child of Sir Victor Brooke, 3rd Baronet, of Colebrooke Park, Brookeborough, County Fermanagh, Ulster, Ireland, and the former Alice Bellingham, second daughter of Sir Alan Bellingham, 3rd Baronet, of Castle Bellingham in County Louth. Brooke was educated at a day school in Pau, France, where he lived until the age of 16; he was bi-lingual in French (which he spoke with a heavy Gascon accent) and English. He spoke both French and English very fast, leading some Americans to distrust a "fast-talking Limey". He was also fluent in German, and had learnt Urdu and Persian. Brooke "only just" qualified for the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, coming sixty-fifth out of seventy-two in the entrance exam, but passed out at seventeenth. Had he done any better he would have qualified for a commission in the Royal Engineers and probably would not have ended up on the General Staff after the Great War, showing that initial lack of success could be invaluable later on. Brooke was commissioned into the Royal Regiment of Artillery as a second lieutenant on 24 December 1902. During the First World War, he served with the Royal Artillery in France where he gained a reputation as an outstanding planner of operations. At the Battle of the Somme in 1916, he introduced the French "creeping barrage" system, thereby helping the protection of the advancing infantry from enemy machine gun fire. Brooke was with the Canadian Corps from early 1917 and planned the barrages for the Battle of Vimy Ridge. In 1918 he was appointed GSO1 as the senior artillery staff officer in the First Army. Brooke ended the conflict as a lieutenant-colonel with the Distinguished Service Order and Bar and was mentioned in despatches six times. Between the wars, Brooke attended the first post-war course at the Staff College, Camberley in 1919 and then served as a staff officer with the 50th Division from 1920 to 1923. Brooke then returned to Camberley, this time as an instructor, before attending the Imperial Defence College. He was later appointed as an instructor at the college, and while there he became acquainted with most of the officers who became leading British commanders of the Second World War. From the mid-1930s Brooke held a number of important appointments: Inspector of Artillery, Director of Military Training and then General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the Mobile Division (later the 1st Armoured Division). In 1938, on promotion to lieutenant-general, he took command of the Anti-Aircraft Corps (renamed Anti-Aircraft Command in April 1939) and built a strong relationship with Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, the AOC-in-C of Fighter Command, which laid a vital basis of co-operation between the two commands during the Battle of Britain. In July 1939 Brooke moved to command Southern Command. By the outbreak of the Second World War, Brooke was already seen as one of the British Army's foremost generals. Second World War Commander in Flanders, France and Britain Following the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, Brooke commanded II Corps in the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)—which included in its subordinate formations the 3rd Infantry Division, commanded by the then Major-General Bernard Montgomery, as well as Major-General Dudley Johnson's 4th Infantry Division. As corps commander, Brooke had a pessimistic view of the Allies' chances of countering a German offensive. He was sceptical of the quality and determination of the French Army, and of the Belgian Army. This scepticism appeared to be justified when he was on a visit to some French front-line units; and was shocked to see unshaven men, ungroomed horses and dirty vehicles. He had also little trust in Lord Gort, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the BEF, whom Brooke thought took too much interest in details while being incapable of taking a broad strategic view. Gort, on the other hand, regarded Brooke as a pessimist who failed to spread confidence, and was thinking of replacing him. When the German offensive began Brooke, aided by Neil Ritchie, his Brigadier General Staff (BGS), distinguished himself in the handling of the British forces in the retreat to Dunkirk. In late May 1940 II Corps held off the major German attack on the Ypres-Comines Canal but then found its left flank exposed by the capitulation of the Belgian army. Brooke swiftly ordered Montgomery's 3rd Division to switch from the Corps' right flank to cover the gap. This was accomplished in a complicated night-time manoeuvre. Pushing more troops north to counter the threat to the embarking troops at Dunkirk from German units advancing along the coast, II Corps retreated to their appointed places on the east or south-east of the shrinking perimeter of Dunkirk. Then on 29 May Brooke was ordered by Gort to return to England, leaving the Corps in Montgomery's hands. According to Montgomery, Brooke was so overcome with emotion at having to leave his men in such a crisis that "he broke down and wept" as he handed over to Montgomery on the beaches of La Panne. He was told by Gort to "proceed home ... for (the) task of reforming new armies" and so returned on a destroyer (30 May). Then "on June 2nd set out for the War Office to find out what I was wanted for" with a "light heart" and with no responsibility, and was then told by Dill (CIGS) that he was to "Return to France to form a new BEF"; he later said that hearing the command from Dill was "one of his blackest (moments) in the war". He had already realised that there was no hope of success for the "Brittany plan" (Breton redoubt) to keep an allied redoubt in France. He told the Secretary for War (Eden) that the mission had "no military value and no hope of success" although he could not comment on its political value. In his first conversation with Prime Minister Winston Churchill (Brooke had been rung by Dill who was at 10 Downing Street) he insisted that all British forces should be withdrawn from France. Churchill initially objected but was eventually convinced by Brooke and around 200,000 British and Allied troops were successfully evacuated from ports in northwestern France. After returning for a short spell at Southern Command he was appointed in July 1940 to command United Kingdom Home Forces to take charge of anti-invasion preparations. Thus it would have been Brooke's task to direct the land battle in the event of German landings. Contrary to his predecessor General Sir Edmund Ironside, who favoured a static coastal defence, Brooke developed a mobile reserve which was to swiftly counterattack the enemy forces before they were established. A light line of defence on the coast was to assure that the landings were delayed as much as possible. Writing after the war, Brooke acknowledged that he also "had every intention of using sprayed mustard gas on the beaches". Brooke believed that the lack of a unified command of the three services was "a grave danger" to the defence of the country. Despite this, and the fact that the available forces never reached the numbers he thought were required, Brooke considered the situation far from "helpless" if the Germans were to invade. "We should certainly have a desperate struggle and the future might well have hung in the balance, but I certainly felt that given a fair share of the fortunes of war we should certainly succeed in finally defending these shores", he wrote after the war. But in the end, the German invasion plan was never taken beyond the preliminary assembly of forces. Chief of the Imperial General Staff In December 1941 Brooke succeeded Field Marshal Sir John Dill as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), the professional head of the British Army, in which appointment he also represented the British Army on the Chiefs of Staff Committee. In March 1942 he succeeded Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound as chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee. For the remainder of the Second World War, Brooke was the foremost military adviser to the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill (who was also Minister of Defence), the War Cabinet, and to Britain's allies. As CIGS, Brooke was the functional head of the British Army, and as chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, which he dominated by force of intellect and personality, he took the leading military part in the overall strategic direction of the British war effort. In 1942, Brooke joined the Western Allies' ultimate command, the U.S.-British Combined Chiefs of Staff. Brooke was responsible for commanding the entire British Army; he focused on grand strategy, and his relationships, through the Combined Chiefs of Staff, with his American counterparts. He was also responsible for the appointment and evaluation of senior commanders, allocation of manpower and equipment and the organization of tactical air forces in support of land operations of field commanders. In addition he had primary responsibility for supervising the military operations of the Free French, Polish, Dutch, Belgian, and Czech units reporting to their governments in exile in London. Brooke vigorously allocated responsibilities to his deputies. Despite the traditional historical distrust that had existed between the military and the political side of the War Office, he got along quite well with his counterpart, the Secretary of State for War, first the Conservative politicians David Margesson and later Sir James Grigg, a former civil servant in the department. Brooke's focus was primarily on the Mediterranean theatre. Here, his principal aims were to rid North Africa of Axis forces and knock Italy out of the war, thereby opening up the Mediterranean for Allied shipping, and then mount the cross-Channel invasion when the Allies were ready and the Germans sufficiently weakened. Brooke's and the British view of the Mediterranean operations contrasted with the American commitment to an early invasion of western Europe, which led to several heated arguments at the many conferences of the Combined Chiefs of Staff. During the first years of the Anglo-American alliance, it was often the British who got their way. At the London Conference in April 1942, Brooke and Churchill seem to have misled General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, about the British intentions on an early landing in France. At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, it was decided that the Allies should invade Sicily, under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, a decision that effectively postponed the planned invasion of Western Europe until 1944. The Casablanca agreement was in fact a compromise, brokered largely by Brooke's old friend Field Marshal Sir John Dill, Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington DC. "I owe him [Dill] an unbounded debt of gratitude for his help on that occasion and in many other similar ones", Brooke wrote after the war. The post of CIGS was less rewarding than command in an important theatre of war but the CIGS chose the generals who commanded those theatres and decided what men and munitions they should have. When it came to finding the right commanders he often complained that many officers who would have been good commanders had been killed in the First World War and that this was one reason behind the difficulties the British had in the beginning of the war. When General Sir Claude Auchinleck was to be replaced as the commander of the British Eighth Army in 1942, Brooke preferred Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery (Montgomery was both Brooke's ex-pupil and his protégé ) instead of Lieutenant-General William Gott, who was Churchill's candidate. Soon thereafter Gott was killed when his aircraft was shot down and Montgomery received the command. Brooke would later reflect upon the tragic event which led to the appointment of Montgomery as an intervention by God. Earlier in 1942 Brooke had been offered the command of British forces in the Middle East. Brooke declined, believing he now knew better than any other general how to deal with Churchill. A year later, the war had taken a different turn and Brooke no longer believed it necessary to stay at Churchill's side. He therefore looked forward to taking command of the Allied invasion of Western Europe, a post Brooke believed he had been promised by Churchill on three occasions. During the first Quebec Conference in August 1943, it was decided that the command would go to General George Marshall. (Although in the event Marshall's work as U.S. Army Chief of Staff was too important for him to leave Washington DC and Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed instead.) Brooke was bitterly disappointed, both at being passed over and of the way the decision was conveyed to him by Churchill, who according to Brooke "dealt with the matter as if it were one of minor importance". Brooke or "Brookie" as he was often known, is reckoned to be one of the foremost of all the heads of the British Army. He was quick in mind and speech and deeply respected by his military colleagues, both British and Allied, although his uncompromising style could make the Americans wary. As CIGS, Brooke had a strong influence on the grand strategy of the Western Allies. The war in the west unfolded more or less according to his plans, at least until 1943 when the American forces were still relatively small in comparison to the British. Among the most crucial of his contributions was his opposition to an early landing in France, which was important for delaying Operation Overlord until June 1944. He was a cautious general with a great respect for the German war machine. Some American planners thought that Brooke's participation in the campaigns of the First World War and in the two evacuations from France in the Second World War made him lack the aggression they believed necessary for victory. According to Max Hastings, Brooke's reputation as a strategist was "significantly damaged" by his remarks at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943, where he claimed that no major operations on the continent would be possible until 1945 or 1946. His diary says that he wanted "operations in the Mediterranean to force a dispersal of German forces, help Russia, and thus eventually produce a situation where cross Channel operations are possible" but that Churchill "entirely repudiated" (or half repudiated) the paper we (the CCOS) had agreed on; Harry Hopkins got him to withdraw his proposed amendments but that Churchill had aroused suspicions with his talk of "ventures in the Balkans." Relationship with Churchill During the years as CIGS, Brooke had a stormy relationship with Winston Churchill. Brooke was often frustrated with the Prime Minister's habits and working methods, his abuse of generals and constant meddling in strategic matters. At the same time Brooke greatly admired Churchill for the way he inspired the Allied cause and for the way he bore the heavy burden of war leadership. In one typical passage in Brooke's war diaries Churchill is described as a "genius mixed with an astonishing lack of vision – he is quite the most difficult man to work with that I have ever struck but I should not have missed the chance of working with him for anything on earth!" Shortly after Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Churchill and his senior military staff used the Arcadia Conference in Washington to decide the general strategy for the war. The American Army Chief of Staff George Marshall came up with the idea of a Combined Chiefs of Staff that would make final military decisions (subject to approval by Roosevelt and Churchill). Marshall sold it to Roosevelt and together the two sold the idea to Churchill. Churchill's military aides were much less favorable, and Brooke was strongly opposed. However, Brooke was left behind in London to handle the daily details of running the British war effort, and was not consulted. The combined board was permanently stationed in Washington, where Field Marshall John Dill represented the British half. The Combined Board did have thirteen in-person full meetings, which Brooke attended. When Churchill's many fanciful strategic ideas collided with sound military strategy it was only Brooke on the Chiefs of Staff Committee who was able to stand up to the Prime Minister. Churchill said about Brooke: "When I thump the table and push my face towards him what does he do? Thumps the table harder and glares back at me. I know these Brookes – stiff-necked Ulstermen and there's no one worse to deal with than that!" It has been claimed that part of Churchill's greatness was that he appointed Brooke as CIGS and kept him for the whole war. Brooke was particularly annoyed by Churchill's idea of capturing the northern tip of Sumatra. But in some cases Brooke did not see the political dimension of strategy as the Prime Minister did. The CIGS was sceptical about the British intervention in the Greek Civil War in late 1944 (during the Dekemvriana), believing this was an operation which would drain troops from the central front in Germany. But at this stage the war was practically won and Churchill saw the possibility of preventing Greece from becoming a communist state. The balance of the Chiefs of Staff Committee was tilted in October 1943 when Admiral Sir Dudley Pound, Brooke's predecessor as chairman, retired as a result of poor health and Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham succeeded Pound as First Sea Lord and naval representative on the Chiefs of Staff Committee. Brooke as a consequence got a firm ally in his arguments with Churchill. This was reflected in the most serious clash between the Prime Minister and the Chiefs of Staff, regarding the British preparations for final stages of the Pacific War. Brooke and the rest of the Chiefs of Staff wanted to build up the forces in Australia while Churchill preferred to use India as a base for the British effort. It was an issue over which the Chiefs of Staff were prepared to resign, but in the end a compromise was reached. Despite their many disagreements Brooke and Churchill held an affection for each other. After one fierce clash Churchill told his chief of staff and military adviser, General Sir Hastings Ismay, that he did not think he could continue to work any longer with Brooke because "he hates me. I can see hatred looking from his eyes." Brooke responded to Ismay: "Hate him? I don't hate him. I love him. But the first time I tell him that I agree with him when I don't will be the time to get rid of me, for then I can be no more use to him." When Churchill was told this he murmured, "Dear Brookie." The partnership between Brooke and Churchill was a very successful one and led Britain to victory in 1945. According to historian Max Hastings, their partnership "created the most efficient machine for the higher direction of the war possessed by any combatant nation, even if its judgments were sometimes flawed and its ability to enforce its wishes increasingly constrained". Brooke's diary entry for 10 September 1944 is particularly revealing of his ambivalent relationship with Churchill: War diaries Brooke kept a diary during the whole of the Second World War. Originally intended for his wife, Benita, the diaries were later expanded on by Brooke in the 1950s. They contain descriptions on the day-to-day running of the British war effort (including some quite indiscreet references to top secret interceptions of German radio traffic), Brooke's thoughts on strategy, as well as frequent anecdotes from the many meetings he had with the Allied leadership during the war. The diaries have become famous mostly because of the frequent remarks on and criticisms of Churchill. Although the diaries contain passages expressing admiration of Churchill, they also served as a vent for Brooke's frustration with working with the Prime Minister. The diaries also give sharp opinions on several of the top Allied leaders. The American generals Eisenhower and Marshall, for example, are described as poor strategists and Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander as unintelligent. Among the few individuals of whom Brooke seems to have kept consistently positive opinions, from a military standpoint, were General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, Field Marshal Sir John Dill, and Joseph Stalin. Brooke admired Stalin for his quick brain and grasp of military strategy. Otherwise he had no illusions about the man, describing Stalin thus: "He has got an unpleasantly cold, crafty, dead face, and whenever I look at him I can imagine his sending off people to their doom without ever turning a hair." The first (abridged and censored) version published in the 1950s was edited by the distinguished historian Sir Arthur Bryant: 1957 (The Turn of the Tide) and 1959 (Triumph in the West). Originally Brooke intended that the diaries were never to be published but one reason that he changed his mind was the lack of credit to him and the Chiefs of Staff in Churchill's own war memoirs, which essentially presented their ideas and innovations as the Prime Minister's own. Although censorship and libel laws accounted for numerous suppressions of what Brooke had originally written concerning persons who were still alive, the Bryant books became controversial even in their truncated state, mainly as a result of the comments on Churchill, Marshall, Eisenhower, Gort, and others. Churchill himself did not appreciate the books. In 1952 both Churchill and Beaverbrook threatened legal action against a biography of Stanley Baldwin by G. M. Young, and a settlement was reached by lawyer Arnold Goodman to remove the offending sentences. The publisher Rupert Hart-Davis had the "hideously expensive" job of removing and replacing seven leaves from 7,580 copies of the biography. Diary entries also refer to intercepts of German signals decrypted at Bletchley Park (which he visited twice), which were secret until 1974. In 2001, Alex Danchev of Keele University and Daniel Todman of Cambridge University published an unexpurgated version of the Alanbrooke Diaries including original critical remarks that Alanbrooke made at various times that had been suppressed in the Bryant versions. Danchev and Todman also criticised Bryant's editing, but this is balanced by an assessment by Dr Christopher Harmon, advisor to the Churchill Centre and Professor at the US Marine Corps University. Bryant was inhibited by Alanbrooke's desire not to publish in full his critical diary entries about people who were still alive when Bryant's books were published. Post-war career Following the Second World War and his retirement from the regular army, Lord Alanbrooke, as he was now, who could have chosen almost any honorary position he wanted, chose to be the Colonel Commandant of the Honourable Artillery Company. He held this position from 1946 to 1954. In addition, he served on the boards of several companies, both in industry and in banking. He was director of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, the Midland Bank, the National Discount Company and the Belfast Banking Company. Alanbrooke was particularly fond of being a director of the Hudson's Bay Company where he served for eleven years from 1948. According to historian A. Sangster there was a reason for his choice to work in the private sector - i.e. not to stay in the military. Brooke ended the Second World War not well off: he had to move from his house and publishing his memoirs helped because such books sold well at that time. Private life and ornithology Alanbrooke was married twice. After six years of engagement he married Jane Richardson in 1914, a neighbour in County Fermanagh in Ulster. Six days into their honeymoon, the then Alan Brooke was recalled to active duty when the First World War started. The couple had one daughter and one son, Rosemary and Thomas. Jane Brooke died following a car accident in 1925 in which her husband was at the steering wheel. He married Benita Lees (1892–1968), daughter of Sir Harold Pelly, 4th Bt., and the widow of Sir Thomas Lees, 2nd Bt., in 1929. The marriage was very happy for the uxorious Brooke and resulted in one daughter and one son, Kathleen and Victor. During the war the couple lived in Hartley Wintney in Hampshire. After the war, the Brookes' financial situation forced the couple to move into the gardener's cottage of their former home, where they lived for the rest of their lives. Their last years were darkened by the death of their daughter, Kathleen, in a riding accident in 1961. Alanbrooke had a love of nature. Hunting and fishing were among his great interests. His foremost passion, however, was birds. He was a noted ornithologist, especially in bird photography. He was president of the Zoological Society of London between 1950 and 1954 and vice-president of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) between 1949 and 1961. He was an honorary member of the Royal Photographic Society from February 1954 until his death. Death On 17 June 1963 Alanbrooke suffered a heart attack and died quietly in his bed with his wife beside him. The same day, he had been due to attend the Garter Service in St George's Chapel, Windsor. Nine days later he was given a funeral in Windsor and buried in St Mary's churchyard, near his home in Hartley Wintney. Honours United Kingdom Brooke was created Baron Alanbrooke, of Brookeborough in the County of Fermanagh, in 1945, and Viscount Alanbrooke in 1946. Other awards included: Knight of the Garter (KG) in 1946. Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in 1942, Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in 1940, Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in 1937 Member of the Order of Merit (OM) in 1946 Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) in 1953 Distinguished Service Order in 1916 and Bar in 1918 ADC General to the King, 1944 to 1946 Colonel Commandant The Glider Pilot Regiment 19??–1951 Colonel Commandant Honourable Artillery Company 1946–1954 Master Gunner, St. James's Park, the ceremonial head of the Royal Regiment of Artillery 1946–1956 Constable of the Tower of London, 1950–1955 Colonel Commandant Royal Artillery 19??–1957 Deputy Lieutenant County of Southampton and the Town of Southampton 1950 Lord Lieutenant of the County of London 1950–1957 He also served as Chancellor of The Queen's University of Belfast from 1949 until his death. At the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II he was appointed Lord High Constable of England, thus commanding all troops taking part in the event. In 1993, a statue of Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke was erected in front of the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall in London. The statue is flanked by statues of Britain's other two leading generals of the Second World War, Viscount Slim and Viscount Montgomery. Foreign decorations Order of Polonia Restituta 1st Class (Poland) (1943) Order of Suvorov 1st Class (USSR) (1944) Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold with Palm (Belgium) (1946) Croix de Guerre 1940 with Palm (Belgium) (1946) Military Order of the White Lion (Czechoslovakia) (1946) Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece) (1946) Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (1948) Croix de guerre (Belgium) (1918) Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (Portugal) (1955) Coat of arms His coat of arms as issued to him by the College of Arms is: "Or, a cross engrailed per pale Gules and Sable, in dexter chief a crescent for difference." Memorials Welbeck College and the Duke of York's Royal Military School named one of their houses after him. Several military barracks are named after him, such as Alanbrooke Barracks in Paderborn Garrison, Germany, and Alanbrooke Barracks in Topcliffe, North Yorkshire. In popular culture Brooke was portrayed in the television drama Churchill and the Generals by Eric Porter and in the film Churchill by Danny Webb. References Bibliography Alanbrooke's Official Despatch published in Bryant, Arthur. (1957) The turn of the tide; a history of the war years based on the diaries of Field-Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, chief of the Imperial General Staff via archive.org; Triumph in the west; a history of the war years based on the diaries of Field-Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, chief of the Imperial General Staff (1959) online free to borrow A, Danchev and D. Todman. "The Alanbrooke Diaries." Archives-London-British Records Association 27 (2002): 57–74. via archive.org Hart, B. H. Liddell. "Western War Strategy: A Critical Analysis of the Alanbrooke Diaries." Royal United Services Institution. Journal vol 105 #617 (1960): 52–61. (pb 2009) Online via archive.org Smith, Greg. "British Strategic Culture And General Sir Alan Brooke During World War II" Canadian Military Journal (2017) 1: 32–44. Online version External links Alan Brooke, Baron Alanbrooke of Brookeborough : Biography BBC – Archive – Remembering Winston Churchill – The Alanbrooke Diaries British Army Officers 1939–1945 Generals of World War II \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1883 births 1963 deaths Alumni of the Royal College of Defence Studies Anglo-Persian Oil Company Anti-Aircraft Command officers British ornithologists BP people British Army personnel of World War I B British field marshals British field marshals of World War II Chancellors of Queen's University Belfast Chiefs of the Imperial General Staff Collections of the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives Constables of the Tower of London Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States) Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal) Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta Grand Crosses of the Order of the White Lion Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Knights of the Garter Lord High Constables of England Lord-Lieutenants of the County of London Members of the Order of Merit Operation Overlord people People from Hautes-Pyrénées Presidents of the Zoological Society of London Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium) Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 1st class Royal Artillery officers Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom War Office personnel in World War II Brooke, Alan 20th-century British zoologists Peers created by George VI Academics of the Staff College, Camberley	[ -0.456487774848938, 0.5424415469169617, -0.6255391836166382, -0.5382525324821472, -0.19315041601657867, 0.809543251991272, 0.8326096534729004, -0.30364468693733215, -0.15729856491088867, -0.09235663712024689, -0.5562549829483032, 0.19234991073608398, -0.3656596541404724, 0.027699029073119164, 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207147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaumaturgy	Thaumaturgy	Thaumaturgy is the purported capability of a magician to work magic or other paranormal events or a saint to perform miracles. It is sometimes translated into English as wonderworking. A practitioner of thaumaturgy is a "thaumaturge", "thaumaturgist", "thaumaturgus" or "miracle worker". A saint, who is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness or likeness or closeness to God, may be claimed to have performed miracles, which are events not explicable by natural or scientific laws. Etymology The word thaumaturgy () derives from Greek thaûma, meaning "miracle" or "marvel" (final t from genitive thaûmatos) and érgon, meaning "work". Buddhism In the introduction of his translation of the "Spiritual Powers (神通 Jinzū)" chapter of Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō, Carl Bielefel refers to the powers developed by adepts of Buddhist meditation as belonging to the "thaumaturgical tradition". These powers, known as siddhi or abhijñā, were ascribed to the Buddha and subsequent disciples. Legendary monks like Bodhidharma, Upagupta, Padmasambhava, and others were depicted in popular legends and hagiographical accounts as wielding various supernatural powers. Christianity In Greek writings, the term thaumaturge referred to several Christian saints. The word is usually translated into English as "wonderworker": a saint through whom God works miracles, not just occasionally, but as a matter of course. Famous ancient Christian thaumaturges include Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 213–270), Saint Menas of Egypt (285–c. 309), Saint Nicholas (270–343), Anthony of Padua (1195–1231), Philomena ( 300 (?)), Ambrose of Optina (1812–1891), Gerard Majella (1726–1755) and John of Kronstadt (1829–1908). The Bishop of Fiesole, Andrew Corsini of the Carmelites (1302–1373), was also called a thaumaturge during his lifetime. The seventeenth-century Irish Franciscan editor, John Colgan, called the three early Irish saints, Patrick, Brigid and Columba, thaumaturges in his Acta Triadis Thaumaturgae (Louvain, 1647). Hinduism Godman is a colloquial term used in India for a type of charismatic guru. They usually have a high-profile presence, and are capable of attracting attention and support from large sections of the society. Godmen also sometimes claim to possess paranormal powers, such as the ability to heal, the ability to see or influence future events, and the ability to read minds. Islam Miracles in the Qur'an can be defined as supernatural interventions in the life of human beings. According to this definition, miracles are present "in a threefold sense: in sacred history, in connection with the Islamic prophet Muhammad himself and in relation to revelation". The Qur'an does not use the technical Arabic word for miracle (muʿjiza), literally meaning "that by means of which [the Prophet] confounds, overwhelms, his opponents". It rather uses the term āyah "sign". The term Ayah is used in the Qur'an in the above mentioned threefold sense: it refers to the "verses" of the Qur'an (believed to be the divine speech in human language, presented by Muhammad as his chief miracle); as well as to miracles of it and the signs (particularly those of creation). Judaism Magic In the 16th century, the word thaumaturgy entered the English language meaning miraculous or magical powers. The word was first anglicized and used in the magical sense in John Dee's book Mathematicall Praeface to Euclid's Elements (1570). He mentions an "art mathematical" called "thaumaturgy... which giveth certain order to make strange works, of the sense to be perceived and of men greatly to be wondered at". In Dee's time, "the Mathematicks" referred not merely to the abstract computations associated with the term today, but to physical mechanical devices which employed mathematical principles in their design. These devices, operated by means of compressed air, springs, strings, pulleys or levers, were seen by unsophisticated people (who did not understand their working principles) as magical devices which could only have been made with the aid of demons and devils. By building such mechanical devices, Dee earned a reputation as a conjurer "dreaded" by neighborhood children. He complained of this assessment in his "Mathematicall Praeface": Hermetic Qabalah In the Hermetic Qabalah mystical tradition, a person titled a magician has the power to make subtle changes in higher realms, which in turn produce physical results. For instance, if a Magician made slight changes in the world of formation (Olam Yetzirah), such as within the Sefirah of Yesod upon which Malkuth (the material realm) is based and within which all former Sefirot are brought together, then these alterations would appear in the world of action (Olam Assiah). Philosophy In his book, The Gift of Death, deconstructionist philosopher Jacques Derrida refers to philosophy as thaumaturgy. The idea is taken from the fifth essay of Jan Patočka's work, Heretical Essays in the History of Philosophy Derrida's reading is based on a deconstruction of the origin of the concepts of responsibility, faith, and gift. In popular culture The term thaumaturgy is used in various novels and games as a synonym for magic, a particular sub-school (often mechanical) of magic, or as the "science" of magic. Thaumaturgy is defined as the "science" or "physics" of magic by Isaac Bonewits in his 1971 Real Magic which he turned into a RPG reference called Authentic Thaumaturgy (1978, 1998, 2005). This definition has been used in RPGs such as GURPS, novels such as China Miéville's Perdido Street Station, and real world works such as Marcus Cordey's Magical Theory and Tradition. GURPS also uses the term Thaumatology. Thaumaturgy is often used as a name for the magic in Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels. The word also lends itself to the "thaum", the basic unit of magical energy. In Lyndon Hardy's Magics trilogy, thaumaturgy is one of the five disciplines of magic. It figures most prominently in the first book, Master of the Five Magics. In the roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons the thaumaturgist is a prestige class which specifically summons outsiders. Additionally, thaumaturgy is the name of a cantrip (a level 0 spell) in fifth edition. It can do simple things such as create harmless tremors, make a window slam open or a candle flicker. In White Wolf Publishing's role-playing game, Vampire: The Masquerade, thaumaturgy is a magical Discipline encompassing the Hermetic style of blood-magic which the Tremere Clan converted from their old practices when they became vampires. In the Elder Scrolls games Daggerfall and Battlespire, thaumaturgy is a character skill, which is loosely defined as "focus[ing] on manipulating known forces and objects within their natural laws". In Final Fantasy XIV, thaumaturge is the title of a playable character class. In Dominions 3: The Awakening, thaumaturgy is one of the paths of magic that can be researched. In the 1996 Sierra MMO The Realm Online, thaumaturgy is a branch of magic specifically dealing with healing, protection, curing poisons, and summoning good-aligned allies. In Jim Butcher's The Dresden Files, thaumaturgy is the creation of a magical link between an object and a person (as when using voodoo dolls). In The Lunar Chronicles by Marissa Meyer, thaumaturges are the bodyguards and police force of the Lunar Queen Levana. In Magic: The Gathering, many cards in the plane of Theros feature Thaumaturges, most notably the Battle Thaumaturge. In the planeswalker's guide to the setting, they are flavoured more akin to theurgists, having their magic stem from the gods. In Path of Exile, thaumaturgy powers the in-universe magic, and power-hungry court thaumaturgists drive the storyline. In Wizard101, Thaumaturges are wizards who specialize in ice magic. These wizards specialize in tanking hits, having spells that do not deal a lot of damage, but can provide shielding spells and taunt enemies, drawing them away from more important players. In Ultima VIII : Pagan, thaumaturgy is one of the five schools of magic along with Sorcery, Necromancy, Theurgy and Tempestry. Thaumaturgy contains miscellaneous spells of usually non-elemental nature. Its practice is not tied to one of the titans. In Beautiful Creatures, the book by Kami Garcia and Margaret Stohl, Ryan, a cousin of the main character's love interest, Lena, is discovered as being a Thaumaturge when she heals the main character after an accident. When asked "I'm guessing that's a fancy Caster name for healer?" Lena replies, "Something like that." In the Saga of the Noble Dead, thaumaturgy is one of the three disciplines of magic. In the SCP Foundation mythos, thaumaturgy is often invoked as a scientific term for ritual magics and interactions with nonphysical entities. In the universe of Kinoko Nasu's TYPE-MOON visual novel series, the word "thaumaturgy" is an accepted translation for Majutsu (魔術, lit. "demon/magic skill"; or Magecraft), which is the only form of magic available to the modern practitioner. This modern magecraft is considered inferior to actual magic, which can only be used by a very select few people. In Minecraft, there's a mod about thaumaturgy in which the player studies the laws of magic in order to manipulate the world around them, cast magic, turn matter into magical essence and channel it into other objects and tools to create powerful artifacts of defence and destruction as well as unlock the hidden secrets of the ancient Eldritch dimension of which the power originates from, to which the player must defeat many ancient evils that have been trapped there by previous Thaumaturges who were unable to defeat them. The magic is mechanical based with a mathematical like lore in which the player learns to understand through study and 'insight'. The mod is a series called "Thaumcraft". 'Thaumcraft 4' being the most popular and having many dedicated add on mods by other people to expand it in many different ways. See also :Category:Wonderworkers Laying on of hands References External links EtymologyOnLine Magic (supernatural) Types of saints	[ 0.5069597363471985, 0.6589246392250061, -0.12710028886795044, 0.26557666063308716, -0.11200322210788727, 0.040823955088853836, 1.4318647384643555, 0.3985508978366852, -0.21115662157535553, 0.25746601819992065, -0.622952401638031, 0.8102397918701172, -0.1630471795797348, 0.3032397925853729, -0.502748966217041, 0.19555892050266266, 0.8228093981742859, 0.5410541296005249, 0.012730201706290245, -0.6320411562919617, -0.15159167349338531, 0.005939421243965626, -0.29363811016082764, -0.6216920614242554, -0.3435240685939789, -0.007005494087934494, -0.5481138825416565, -0.2728941738605499, -0.37815988063812256, 0.08193597942590714, 0.11331894993782043, 0.3008413016796112, -0.2497549057006836, -0.21376372873783112, 0.36891064047813416, 0.8280552625656128, 0.40511584281921387, -0.899719774723053, -0.3623012602329254, -0.2631551921367645, 0.46645861864089966, 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207149	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addled%20Parliament	Addled Parliament	The Parliament of 1614 was the second Parliament of England of the reign of James VI and I, which sat between 5 April and 7 June 1614. Lasting only two months and two days, it saw no bills pass and was not even regarded as a Parliament by its contemporaries. However, for its failure it has been known to posterity as the Addled Parliament. James had struggled with debt ever since he came to the English throne. The failure of the Blessed Parliament of 1604–1610 to, in its six-year sitting, rescue the king from his mounting debt or allow James to unite his two kingdoms, had left him bitter with the body. The four-year hiatus between Parliaments saw the royal debt and deficit grow further, despite the best efforts of Treasurer Lord Salisbury. The failure of the last and most lucrative financial expedient of this period, a foreign dowry from the marriage of his heir-apparent, finally convinced James to re-call Parliament in early 1614. The Parliament got off to a bad start, with poor choices made for the king's representatives in Parliament. Rumours of conspiracies to manage Parliament (the "undertaking") or pack it with easily controlled members, though not based in fact, spread quickly. The spreading of this rumour, and the ultimate failure of Parliament, has been generally attributed to the scheming of the crypto-Catholic Earl of Northampton, though this allegation has met with some recent skepticism. Parliament opened on 5 April and, despite the king's wishes it would be a "Parliament of Love", flung itself immediately into the controversy over the conspiracies, splitting parliament and leading to the exclusion of one alleged packer. However, by late April, Parliament had moved on to a familiar controversy, that of impositions. The Commons were pitted against the Lords, culminating in a controversy over an unrestrained speech by one prelate. James grew impatient with the Parliamentary proceedings. He issued an ultimatum to Parliament, but they treated it irreverently. Insult was added to injury by belligerent, and supposedly threatening, attacks on him from the Commons. On the advice of Northampton, James dissolved Parliament on 7 June, and had four Members of Parliament (MPs) sent to the Tower of London. James devised new financial expedients to settle his still-growing debt, to little success. Historiographically, historians are divided between the Whiggish view of the Parliament as anticipating the constitutional disputes of future Parliaments, and the revisionist view of it as a conflict primarily concerned with James's finances. Background James VI and I (1566–1625) ascended to the Scottish throne on 24 July 1567, and subsequently to the English and Irish throne on 24 March 1603, becoming the first king to reign over both kingdoms. James inherited, with the latter throne, a national debt to the amount of £300,000, a sum that only increased during his reign. By 1608, it stood at £1 million. During his predecessor Elizabeth I's reign, the inward revenue of the crown had steadily fallen; taxes from customs and land were consistently undervalued and the parliamentary subsidies steadily shrank. It did not help that James reigned as "one of the most extravagant kings" in English history. In peace, Elizabeth's yearly expenditure never rose above £300,000; almost immediately after James took the throne, it was at £400,000. James had instituted various extra-parliamentary plans to recuperate this lost income, but these drew controversy from Parliament, and James still wanted for money. Moreover, James was keen to not be "a husband to two wives" as king, and to unite his crowns as one kingdom of Great Britain; as his slogan went: "one king, one people, and one law". The first parliament of his reign, also known as the Blessed Parliament, was called in 1604; it took seven years, with proceedings held through five sessions, before James dissolved it, ending unsatisfactorily for both king and Parliament. In the first session, it came to light that many members of the Commons feared James's proposed unification would lead to the dissolution of the English Common Law system. Though many prominent politicians publicly praised the idea of unification and MPs promptly accepted a commission to investigate the union, James's proposed adoption of the title "king of Great Britain" was rejected outright. Between the first and second sessions, in October 1604, James assumed this title by proclamation, controversially circumventing parliament. Unification was not brought up at the second session, in hopes of assuaging outrage, but discussions of the plans in the third session were exclusively negative; as Scottish historian Jenny Wormald put it, "James's union was killed by this parliament". Unification was quietly dropped from discussion in the fourth and fifth sessions. During the Blessed Parliament, Parliament's own aims saw similar disappointment; James rebuffed the proposed institution of Puritan ecclesiastical reforms, and failed to address two unpopular royal rights, purveyance and wardship. In the second session, Parliament granted the king a subsidy of £400,000, keen to exhibit royal support in the wake of the Gunpowder Plot, but thanks to the reduction of these subsidies under Elizabeth, this was rather less than the king desired. After a 3-year delay between sessions due to plague, the fourth session was called in February 1610, and was dominated by financial discussion. Lord High Treasurer, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury proposed the Great Contract: a financial plan wherein Parliament would grant the Crown £600,000 immediately (to pay off its debts) and an annual stipend of £200,000 thereafter; in return, the king was to abolish ten feudal dues, among them, purveyance. After much haggling, in which wardship was added to the abolished dues, the session adjourned on a supportive note. However, when the next session began, support had cooled. Parliament refused to give an annual stipend unless James abolished impositions as well. Parliament did give the king an immediate subsidy, but the proposed £600,000 was reduced to a mere £100,000. By 6 November 1610, James demanded the other £500,000 and conditioned that, if impositions were to be abolished, Parliament would have to supply him with another equally lucrative income source. Parliament was outraged, and the Contract was abandoned three days later. Though both Salisbury and James made conciliatory gestures in hopes of securing any more financial support from Parliament, James grew impatient. On 31 December 1610, James publicly proclaimed the dissolution of the Parliament. James's first parliament had ended on a bitter note; "your greatest error", he chastised Salisbury, "hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall." After this, James was not keen to call another Parliament. However, without Parliament to raise taxes, the treasury was forced to find new ways to raise money. In 1611, the City of London loaned the Crown £100,000; £60,000 was extracted from the King of France over debts accumulated in the reign of Henry IV; honours were sold to wealthy gentlemen, raising £90,000; a forced loan was levied on nearly 10,000 people. Yet, after the death of Treasurer Salisbury in 1612, England's finances still remained destitute, with a debt of £500,000 and annual deficit of £160,000. However, James's principal fiscal expedient was to be the marriage of his heir-apparent, Henry, Prince of Wales, for which he expected a sizeable dowry, not to mention a foreign ally. James went into talks with several Catholic countries but, in late 1612, aged 18, Henry contracted typhoid and abruptly died; Prince Charles, newly heir-apparent at age 12, took his place in the negotiations. Negotiations were going most promisingly in France, where a marriage of Prince Charles to the 6-year-old Princess Christine of France promised a healthy sum of £240,000, almost halving James's debt. However, by early 1614, France's internal religious strife had intensified to such a point that civil war seemed imminent, so negotiations stalled on the French side; James grew impatient. James's financial insecurity had only worsened in this time, the debt now at £680,000 and the deficit, £200,000. Conspicuous consumption had raised yearly expenditure to an unsustainable £522,000. A group of advisors, led by the Earls of Suffolk and Pembroke, encouraged the king to call a Parliament to raise funds, convincing James "that"—as he later put it—"my subjects did not hate me, which I know I had not deserved." Suffolk and Pembroke, though not optimistic about the Parliament, encouraged James as they held what was then the general view in the Privy Council: that a Spanish or French alliance must be avoided, as to avoid strengthening the power of their allies in Court, the Scots. Northampton stringently opposed this summoning, but, in 1614, James reluctantly summoned another parliament. Writs of election were issued on 19 February that year. Parliament Preparations The Privy Council as a whole was not optimistic about the upcoming parliament. Two of the king's closest advisors were unavailable: Salisbury was dead and the 74-year-old Northampton was ill. Even Suffolk and Pembroke were clueless of any way to prevent Parliament from bringing up thorny issues such as impositions again. However, two Councillors were to provide advice to the king over his new parliament, which would prove significant. Attorney General Sir Francis Bacon, who had been among the most vocal in favour of calling Parliament, publicly blamed Salisbury entirely for the failure of the previous Parliament; he held a private grudge against the treasurer, suspecting he had undermined his early career. He asserted that Salisbury's deal-making with Parliament had been the root of the king's failure, and that James should instead approach Parliament as their king, rather than some merchant, and therefore request subsidies on the basis of the Commons' good will to their ruler. Bacon added to this that the king should employ patronage to win over the men of Parliament to his side. Sir Henry Neville offered advice to the king on how to warm relations with Parliament, which he accepted amiably, but Neville's more portentous offer was that of an "undertaking", whereby Neville and a group of "patriots" would arrange to manage the Parliament in James's favour, in return for the office of Secretary of State. James rejected the undertaking derisively, and no such conspiracy was ever arranged, but rumours of its actual occurrence spread quickly in the lead up to Parliament. MPs later accused James of trying to pack the Parliament. Indeed, Bacon had plainly advised the king on the "placing of persons well-affected and discreet" in Parliament, and James had unapologetically packed the Irish Parliament the previous year. An atypically large number of Crown officials found themselves in this Parliament; four Privy Councillors had seats in the Commons, alongside plenty of Crown lawyers. Though there is no evidence that the Crown sought to pack Parliament with easily controlled and pacified MPs, James certainly promoted the election of those sympathetic to the Crown's ambitions. The Privy Council, in actuality, seemed more apathetic with regards to appointing useful Parliamentary officials. Few of the expected preparations were made. After some Byzantine wrangling in which another better-qualified candidate was dropped, Ranulph Crewe, judge and MP for the government-controlled borough of Saltash, was chosen at the last minute to be the Speaker of the House of Commons. This was a surprising choice: Crewe's previous experience in Parliament was limited to a short stint as an MP in 1597–98 and an appearance on two minor legal counsels; his legal career was no more impressive. Crewe's inexperience at dealing with rowdy MPs was no doubt among the factors that allowed Parliament to descend into disorder, as it rapidly did. James's most senior representative in the House of Commons, Ralph Winwood, Secretary of State, was announced similarly late. Though a spirited official and zealous Puritan, Winwood had no parliamentary experience at all and was a terse, unlikable figure. Though sometimes caricatured as juvenile, and thus prone to passionate outbursts, the new House of Commons as a whole was not especially young or inexperienced; it was the inexperience of his most important officials and advisors that was to damage the king. Opening and conspiracies Parliament opened on 5 April 1614. James opened the Parliament with the wish that it would come to be known as the "Parliament of Love", and that king and Parliament would go on in harmony and understanding. His opening speech was divided into three sections: the first (), decrying the growth of Catholicism and imploring the harsher enforcement of existing laws; the second (), assuring parliament of the security of the Stuart dynasty; and the third (), emphasising his financial necessity, and his aim not to bargain with Parliament any longer, but rather to ask of their good will in supplying funds. All but the religious aspect of this speech bore the unmistakable stamp of Bacon's influence. Notably missing from the speech was any promise of compromise or reformation from the king. In the same speech, he stringently denied any sanction of Neville's undertaking, but speculation on the conspiracy was already widespread. Neville's plan had, by now, been twisted into a far-reaching conspiracy of the king's court. English diplomat Sir Thomas Roe was the first to allege that the rumours were promulgated by the Earl of Northampton's crypto-Catholic faction, who wanted the king to instead look for funds in a marital alliance with Catholic Spain, thus favouring parliament's failure. The idea that Northampton masterminded many of the factors in the failure of this Parliament has been accepted by most later historians, but has met with the notable rejection of one Northampton biographer, Linda Levy Peck. Suspicions only compounded as Parliament proceeded, with the revelation that the king had corresponded with influential subjects in the hopes of securing the election of the sympathetic. The House of Commons was divided between those who accepted the conspiracy and those who rejected it. The Commons thus immediately set about investigating the preceding elections for signs of misconduct. Though little beyond this was established, it was found that the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Sir Thomas Parry, had swayed the election in Stockbridge. For a brief period, this investigation dominated the Commons: Parry was suspended from the House and, passingly, from his Chancellorship. For many in parliament, this seemed evidence enough that the king's officials had attempted to pack Parliament. Simultaneously, a committee to inquire into the alleged undertaking was launched, though this proved less fruitful. The committee's chairman returned on 2 May; he spoke confusingly, but concluded against the existence of any undertaking. However, Parliamentary provocateur John Hoskins demanded further investigation, which the House accepted. On 14 May, the inquiry ended; after six weeks of Parliament, rumours of an undertaking had conclusively been dismissed. However, by the end of this controversy, resentment against the undertakers had evaporated. Neville was never suspended for his part, but rather ultimately met with commendation of Parliament. His advice was seen as part of an effort to allow the king to remedy their grievances. The packers, on the other hand, never gained the sympathy of Parliament, with their efforts invariably seen as attempts to undermine the Parliamentary process. Controversy over impositions The dispute over the alleged packing and undertaking split the House, but it was not this that would cause the Parliament's ultimate failure. As early as 19 April, letter writer John Chamberlain communicated that "the great clamor against undertakers [was] well quieted", and the Commons were occupied with a familiar controversy: impositions. Parliament adjourned on 20 April for Easter, reconvening on 2 May. Two days later on 4 May, the king delivered a speech to the Commons, ardent in its defense of the legality of impositions, a fact the king's judges had apparently assured him of beyond any doubt. At the end he added portentously that, if he did not receive supply soon, the Commons "must not look for more Parliaments in haste". However, at the same time, the Commons were united and unflinching in their belief that impositions threatened property law, and that, over impositions, "the liberty of the kingdom is in question." James was so irritated by one such speech, given by MP Thomas Wentworth, that he had Wentworth imprisoned shortly after Parliament ended. As Parliamentary historian Conrad Russell judged it, "both sides were so firmly convinced that they were legally in the right that they never fully absorbed that the other party thought differently." Any understanding between the two sides was further hampered by the fact that the Commons continued to disregard the king's financial troubles, which discouraged the king from giving up such a valuable source of income as impositions. On 21 May, the Commons asked the Lords for a conference on impositions, anticipating their backing in petitioning the king. After five days of debate, the Lords returned with their formal refusal of such a conference, meeting with the astonishment of many. The Lords had voted 39 to 30 against it, carried by the near unanimity of the Lords Spiritual against this conference. Bishop Richard Neile, who was one of the most vocal opponents of the conference, added insult to injury with a sharp speech condemning the petitioners. The remarks made in this speech, known as the " speech", have been described by one historian as "the most dangerous words used in the reign [of James I] by any politician." The Commons refused to conduct any more business until Neile had been punished for this affront. Crewe's feeble attempts to argue that parliamentary business must go on revealed his impotence in the face of the angered body. Though the Commons received a tearful apology and retraction from the Bishop on 30 May, they were unsatisfied, and doubled down on their demands of disciplinary action. By the end of May, as historian Thomas L. Moir put it, "the temper of the Commons had reached a fever pitch" and leadership had broken down in this intractable atmosphere. No punishment for Neile, however, ever materialised, and the king grew impatient with Parliament. James grows impatient Parliament was adjourned on 1 June for Ascension Day, reconvening again on 3 June. When the Commons met on this day, they received an ultimatum from the king: unless Parliament agreed to grant him a financial supply soon, he would dissolve Parliament on 9 June. James expected this to shock the Commons into pursuing his aims, but instead it only entrenched the opposition further into its obstinacy. Many felt this demand was a bluff; the king was still deeply in debt, and Parliamentary subsidies seemed his only way out. Instead of effecting any subsidies, the Commons attacked the king mercilessly. His Court, especially its Scottish members, were accused of extravagance, suggesting the king would have no need for impositions or subsidies if not for these subjects. As one member memorably pronounced, James's courtiers were "spaniels to the king and wolves to the people". Possibly encouraged by Northampton, Hoskins grimly hinted that the lives of these Scottish courtiers were in danger, alluding to the ethnic massacre of the Angevins in the Sicilian Vespers; this was communicated to the king as a threat to the life of himself and his closest friends, such that he likely feared himself in danger of assassination. Roe was more prescient, if somewhat melodramatic, in his judgement that the impending dissolution would be "the ending, not only of this, but of all Parliaments". The Commons issued their own ultimatum to James: if he abolished impositions, "wherewith the whole kingdom doth groan", they would give him financial support. However, James was in no position to give up such a source of income. While the anti-Northampton faction pleaded with the king to prorogue rather than dissolve Parliament, the king visited Northampton on his deathbed. Northampton persuaded the desperate king to dissolve Parliament. Shortly after James contacted the Spanish Ambassador, the Count of Gondomar, to be assured of Spanish support after his break with Parliament, an assurance which Gondomar happily supplied. James dissolved Parliament on 7 June 1614. The aims of Northampton's factions were finally fulfilled, as Northampton saw the end of the Addled Parliament little more than a week before he died. The Parliament had elapsed without any bill being passed with royal assent, and thus was not constitutionally considered a Parliament. Contemporaries spoke of it as a "convention". For John Chamberlain it seemed "rather a parlee only". However, for its failure the Parliament has universally been known to posterity as the "Addled Parliament". Aftermath Following the calamity of this Parliament, James became even more determined to avoid the legislative body. He had four of the most belligerent MPs, including Hoskins, sent to the Tower of London for seditious speech. The same was done for Hoskins's encouragers a few days later. Royal favour was extended to the king's supporters in Parliament, even the Speaker, who received a knighthood and was made a king's serjeant. Simultaneously, James approached the Spanish Ambassador shortly after Parliament, confiding much in him, especially regarding his lack of confidence with Parliament. He reopened negotiations with Spain for a Spanish wife to his heir-apparent, anticipating a dowry of £600,000, enough to cover almost all his debt. Shortly after the Parliament ended, the Privy Council went into talks of calling another, possibly in Scotland, but James surmised this break in Parliament would be final. Indeed, he would not call another Parliament for seven years. He only raised a Parliament in 1621 as a last resort to raise money for his son-in-law Elector Palatine Frederick V during the Thirty Years' War. This interlude was England's longest in nearly a century, since that between 1515 and 1523. As one historian has commented, "had it not been for the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1618, he might have succeeded in avoiding Parliament for the rest of his reign." In the meantime, still heavily in debt, James set about finding other ways to raise money. "We shall see strange projects for money set on foot, and yet all will not help", one observer noted. His financial needs were temporarily sated with a benevolence asked of his wealthiest subjects in 1614, raising £65,000; the sale of the Cautionary Towns of Brielle and Vlissingen to the Dutch in 1616, raising £250,000; and in 1617, the request of a loan of £100,000 from the City of London for a Scottish Progress, though the City did not give this in full. The deficit was slowly reduced from 1614 to 1618. Yet, by 1620, his debt had risen to £900,000 and no marriage deal had materialised. Historiography Victorian Whig historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner, in his monumental history of the lead up to the Civil War, took the view that the Parliament of 1614 was primarily concerned with "higher questions" (i.e. those of a constitutional nature) "which, once mooted, can never drop out of sight". To this Parliament, Gardiner wrote, one can "trace the first dawning of the idea that, in order to preserve the rights of the subject intact, it would be necessary to make some change in the relations between the authority of the Crown and the representatives of the people." Gardiner's judgement of the constitutional import of this assembly has met with the sympathy of some later historians. Moir, in his 1958 monograph on the Parliament, held that "the development had begun which led ultimately to parliamentary control of the executive" as early as the exclusion of Parry. Maija Jansson, editor of the 1614 Parliamentary proceedings, wrote in 1988: "[f]ar from being the confused do-nothing assembly of tradition, the English parliament of 1614 addressed thorny constitutional issues and anticipated the concern with procedure and privilege that is evident throughout the sessions of the 1620s." This hypothesis regarding the Addled Parliament was criticised by the eminent Parliamentary historian Conrad Russell in his 1991 Stenton lecture—entitled The Addled Parliament of 1614: The Limits of Revision. From Russell's revisionist perspective, the members of Parliament were engaged in a constitutionally conservative battle, aimed at preserving their own rights rather than extending them. The disagreement between Parliament and Crown was not a "battle between rival constitutional ideas" but, as Russell concluded: See also List of MPs elected to the English parliament in 1614 James VI and I and the English Parliament List of Parliaments of England Notes References Sources Further reading 1614 in England 1614 establishments in England 1614 disestablishments 1614 in politics Parliaments of James I of England	[ -0.24073117971420288, -0.6787974238395691, 0.1794467568397522, -0.06982860714197159, -0.5364381074905396, 0.932356059551239, 0.29425427317619324, 0.0964139848947525, -0.6479445099830627, -0.028038525953888893, 0.42015495896339417, 0.31386250257492065, -0.7263143658638, -0.15280210971832275, -0.15552875399589539, 0.356180340051651, 0.5518147945404053, -0.5184421539306641, 0.02151075191795826, -0.5985103845596313, 0.3915012776851654, -0.04084266722202301, 0.12560094892978668, 0.20095261931419373, 0.2805835008621216, -0.29818129539489746, 0.733985185623169, 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207150	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Expeditionary%20Force%20%28World%20War%20I%29	British Expeditionary Force (World War I)	The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was the six-divisions the British Army sent to the Western Front during the First World War. Planning for a British Expeditionary Force began with the 1906–1912 Haldane reforms of the British Army carried out by the Secretary of State for War Richard Haldane following the Second Boer War (1899–1902). The term British Expeditionary Force is often used to refer only to the forces present in France prior to the end of the First Battle of Ypres on 22 November 1914. By the end of 1914—after the battles of Mons, Le Cateau, the Aisne and Ypres—the existent BEF had been almost exhausted, although it helped stop the German advance. An alternative endpoint of the BEF was 26 December 1914, when it was divided into the First and Second Armies (a Third, Fourth and Fifth being created later in the war). "British Expeditionary Force" remained the official name of the British armies in France and Flanders throughout the First World War. Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, who was famously dismissive of the BEF, allegedly issued an order on 19 August 1914 to "exterminate ... the treacherous English and walk over General French's contemptible little army". Hence, in later years, the survivors of the regular army dubbed themselves "The Old Contemptibles". No evidence of any such order being issued by the Kaiser has ever been found. Formation Under the terms of the Entente Cordiale the United Kingdom had a diplomatic "understanding" with France to counter military aggression from the German Empire in the European continent. Detailed plans had been drawn up in advance for the British Army in the event of war breaking out between those two countries to dispatch a "British Expeditionary Force" to France which consisted of six infantry divisions and five cavalry brigades under the command of General Sir John French to repel any German attack in the West. The BEF was arranged into I Corps, under the command of General Sir Douglas Haig, and II Corps, under the command of General Sir James Grierson, which embarked for France on 15 August 1914. In October 1914, 7th Division arrived in France, forming the basis of III Corps and the cavalry had grown to form the Cavalry Corps of three divisions. By December 1914, the BEF had expanded to such an extent that the First Army and the Second Army were formed. By the end of 1914, after the battles of Mons, Le Cateau, the Aisne and Ypres, the old regular British Army had suffered massive casualties and lost most of its fighting strength but had managed to help stop the German advance. Command structure The force was commanded by Field Marshal Sir John French until December 1915, when he was replaced by General Sir Douglas Haig. The BEF's Chief of Staff on mobilisation was General Archibald Murray. He was replaced in January 1915 by General William Robertson. Lieutenant-General Launcelot Kiggell then served as Chief of Staff from December 1915 to January 1917 when he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Herbert Lawrence. The first two Corps were commanded byDouglas Haig (I Corps) and Horace Smith-Dorrien (II Corps). Kitchener's New Army As the Regular Army's strength declined, the numbers were made up, first by the Territorial Force, then by volunteers from Field Marshal Kitchener's New Army. By the end of August 1914, he had raised six new divisions and by March 1915, the number of divisions had increased to 29. The Territorial Force was also expanded, raising second and third line battalions and forming eight new divisions, which supplemented its peacetime strength of 14 divisions. The Third Army was formed in July 1915 and with the influx of troops from Kitchener's volunteers and further reorganisation, the Fourth Army and the Reserve Army, became the Fifth Army in 1916. Expansion First Army The BEF grew from six divisions of British regular army and reserves in 1914, to encompass the British Empire's war effort on the Western front in 1918 and some of its allies. Over the course of the war 5,399,563 men served with the BEF, the peak strength being 2,046,901 men. The First Army was formed on 26 December 1914. Its first commander was Douglas Haig promoted from command of the I Corps. When Haig took over command of the BEF in 1915, the new commander was General Henry Horne. First Army remained in France until the end of the war. Second Army The Second Army was formed at the same time as the First Army on 26 December 1914. The first commander was Smith–Dorrien promoted from command of the II Corps. In May 1915, Smith–Dorrien was sacked and replaced by General Herbert Plumer. Second Army served in France notably in the Ypres Salient, and later served in Italy between November 1917 and March 1918, then returned to France. Third Army The Third Army was formed in July 1915, the first commander being General Edmund Allenby promoted after commanding the Cavalry Corps and the V Corps. He was replaced after the battle of Arras in May 1917, by General Julian Byng. Fourth Army The Fourth Army was formed in February 1916, under the command of General Henry Rawlinson. Confusingly, when the Second Army was sent to Italy late in 1917, the Fourth Army was renumbered the Second Army whilst Rawlinson commanded the Ypres Salient. After Plumer's return from Italy Rawlinson spent a period as British Permanent Military Representative at the Supreme War Council at Versailles, but at the start of April he took over the remnants of Gough's Fifth Army after its recent defeat. It was renamed the Fourth Army. Reserve/Fifth Army The Reserve Army was formed in May 1916, under command of General Hubert Gough. Beginning as the Reserve Corps, it was expanded and renamed the Reserve Army and became the Fifth Army in October 1916. Fifth Army suffered heavy losses during the German spring offensive in March 1918. It was reformed again in May 1918 under the command of General William Birdwood. Area of operations 1914 The British Army first engaged the German Army in the Battle of Mons on 23 August 1914, which was part of the greater Battle of the Frontiers. The massed rifle fire of the professional British soldiers inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans who attacked en masse over terrain devoid of cover. The British held up the German advance until the evening when they began retiring to a second defensive line in the retreat from Mons during which they were engaged in the Battle of Le Cateau. Following the British defeat at Le Cateau, the BEF retreated unmolested by the Germans for a further five days, eventually retreating a full 400 km in thirteen days. The Allied retreat finally ended at the River Marne, where Entente forces prepared to make a stand to defend Paris. This led to the First Battle of the Marne, which was fought from 5 to 10 September 1914. This battle would prove to be a major turning point of the war: it denied the Germans an early victory. From 13 September the First Battle of the Aisne took place, with both sides starting to dig trenches. Then for a three-week period following the development of trench warfare each side gave up frontal assaults and began trying to encircle each other's flank. This period became known as the Race to the Sea: the Germans aimed to turn the Allied left flank, and the Allies sought to turn the German right flank. By the end of First Battle of Ypres both sides started to dig in and trench warfare replaced the manoeuvre warfare that had featured during the Race to the Sea. The continuous trench lines of the Western Front now stretched from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier. The British Army held a small portion of this 400 mile front: from just north of the pre-war Belgium border to the River Somme in France, varying in length from in 1914, to over in 1918, in the area commonly known as Flanders. 1915 From the end of 1914, and in 1915, BEF attacks centred around the Ypres Salient. Then in September 1915, six divisions took part in the Battle of Loos – notable for the first use of poison gas by the British. 1916 In 1916 the BEF had moved into the Picardy region of France. The Battle of the Somme dominated British military activity for the year. Allied forces attempted to break through the German lines along a front north and south of the River Somme in northern France. On the first day on the Somme the BEF suffered 59,000 casualties. After the war a final tally counted 419,654 British and 204,253 French killed, wounded, or taken prisoner; of the 623,907 total casualties, 146,431 were either killed or missing. 1917 In 1917 the BEF's attacks moved along the front, they operated in the Pas-de-Calais during the Battle of Arras. They then concentrated in Belgium for the Battle of Messines and the Battle of Passchendale, and ended the year back in the Pas-de-Calais for the Battle of Cambrai. 1918 In the spring of 1918 the BEF came under attack both in Flanders and on the Somme during the German Spring Offensive. The Second Battle of the Somme represented the BEF response to the German attack. This in turn began the Hundred Days Offensive, which led to the eventual defeat of the German Army on the western front, after the First and Third armies broke through the Hindenburg Line at the Battle of the Canal du Nord. This led to the final battle of the war in November 1918, the Battle of the Sambre by the First, Third and Fourth Armies and to the capture of Mons, 11 November 1918, by the First Army. Empire and Portuguese contribution The British Empire responded to the British call for troops for the Western Front and major formations of the British Indian Army, Canadian Army, Australian Army, New Zealand Army and the South African Army all served in France. The BEF also integrated most of the Portuguese Army troops who fought on the Western Front. Indian Expeditionary Force A In September 1914, the BEF was reinforced by the Indian Expeditionary Force A which eventually formed two corps each of two divisions, the Indian Cavalry Corps and the Indian Infantry Corps. Upon arrival in Marseilles on 30 September 1914, only six weeks after the declaration of war, they were moved to the Ypres Salient and took part in the Battle of La Bassée in October 1914. In March 1915, the 7th (Meerut) Division was chosen to lead the assault in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle. The Expeditionary Force was hampered by a lack of familiarity with new equipment, only being issued Lee–Enfield rifles on their arrival in France and they had almost no artillery, relying on support from their neighbouring corps when in the front line. They were not accustomed to the continental weather and were poorly equipped to resist the cold, leading to low morale which was further compounded by the reserve system, whereby reinforcements were drafted in from any regiment and had no affiliation to their new units. Officer casualties were even more of a handicap, as replacements were unfamiliar with the Indian Army and could not speak the language. The infantry divisions were finally withdrawn to Egypt in October 1915, when they were replaced by the new British divisions of Kitchener's Army. South African Overseas Expeditionary Force The South African Overseas Expeditionary Force consisted of the 1st South African Infantry Brigade of four infantry battalions supported by five Heavy Artillery batteries, a Field Ambulance, a Royal Engineers Signal Company and a General Hospital under the command of Brigadier General Henry Lukin. The brigade arrived in France in April 1916, and was assigned to the 9th (Scottish) Division and took part in the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, and on 14 July the Battle of Delville Wood. Of the 3,153 men in the brigade only 750 were left when the brigade was relieved on 20 July. Later in 1917, the brigade took part in the Battle of Arras and in the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele). The brigade was destroyed in the 1918 German spring offensive and by the end of the war had suffered 15,000 casualties, with 5,000 killed. Canadian Expeditionary Force The Canadian Expeditionary Force was the designation of the field force created by Canada for service overseas in the First World War. Its major combat formation was the Canadian Corps, which eventually commanded four Canadian infantry divisions. The Canadian Corps' first commander was General Edwin Alderson, who was succeeded by General Julian Byng in 1916, who was in turn succeeded in 1917, by the Canadian General Arthur Currie until the end of the war. They distinguished themselves in battle from the Second Battle of Ypres, through the Somme and particularly in the Battle of Arras at Vimy Ridge in April 1917. Since they were mostly untouched by the German offensive in the spring of 1918, the Canadians were ordered to help spearhead the last campaigns of the War from the Battle of Amiens in August 1918. New Zealand Expeditionary Force The New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) under the command of General Alexander Godley was the title of the military forces sent from New Zealand to fight for Britain during the First World War. Upon the outbreak of war, New Zealand immediately offered to provide two brigades — one of infantry and one of mounted troops — a total of 8,500 men. The NZEF was closely tied to the AIF for much of the war. When the Gallipoli campaign began, the New Zealand contingent was insufficient to complete a division on their own so was combined with the 4th Australian Infantry Brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division. This division, along with the Australian 1st Division, formed the famous Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) under the command of General William Birdwood. After the end of the Gallipoli campaign, the NZEF formed its own infantry division; the New Zealand Division which served on the Western Front from April 1916. It took part in the Battle of Flers-Courcelette, the Battle of Morval, the Battle of Le Transloy, and the celebrated Battle of Le Quesnoy. The New Zealanders were considered exceptional troops by the Germans, a captured intelligence report named them "...An exceptionally good assault division ...". Australian Imperial Force The Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was originally supposed to supply 20,000 men organised into one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. By the end of the war, the AIF on the Western Front comprised five infantry divisions. The first Australian troops arrived in France in June 1915, the 1st Siege Artillery Brigade was formed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Walter Adams Coxen, the Australian Army's Director of Artillery, for service on the Western Front. About half the men in the unit were permanent gunners of the Garrison Artillery. The brigade departed Melbourne for England on 17 July 1915 and landed in France on 27 February 1916. Its 54th Siege Battery was equipped with 8 inch howitzers and its 55th Siege Battery with 9.2 inch howitzers. Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action on the Western Front in France and Belgium, leaving Egypt in March 1916. Initially they were organised into I Anzac Corps and II Anzac Corps alongside the New Zealand Division, however, on 1 November 1917 the Australian divisions were re-grouped together to form the Australian Corps. The 2nd Division was the first to arrive in France, followed by the 1st Division, while the 4th and 5th left Egypt later in June 1916. The 3rd Division was the last to arrive, having been formed in Australia in March 1916, and moving to England for training in July 1916, before being sent to France in December 1916. When originally formed in 1914 the AIF was commanded by Major General William Throsby Bridges, who also commanded the 1st Division. After Bridges' death at Gallipoli in May 1915, command transferred by default to Lieutenant General William Birdwood, a British officer who was commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. Birdwood was officially confirmed as commander of the AIF on 14 September 1916, while also commanding I Anzac Corps on the Western Front. Birdwood was later given command of the Australian Corps on formation in November 1917. Lieutenant General John Monash, an Australian officer, took over command of the corps in May 1918. Despite being promoted to command the Fifth Army, Birdwood retained command of the AIF. Portuguese Expeditionary Corps Following a British Government call for Portuguese troops, on 7 August 1916 the Parliament of Portugal agreed the participation of the Portuguese Army on the Western Front. In addition to a heavy artillery corps of 1,000 men under the command of the French Army, most of the Portuguese forces to be sent to the Western Front were to be incorporated in the CEP – Corpo Expedicionário Português (Portuguese Expeditionary Corps) under British command. The CEP was organised as an army corps of two divisions and corps troops, totalling 55,000 men, under the command of General Tamagnini de Abreu. The first CEP troops arrived in France on 2 February 1917. The first troops reached the front on 4 April. On 4 June, the 1st Infantry Brigade of the 1st Division repelled the first major attack made by the German Army against the lines defended by the CEP troops. On 5 November 1917 the CEP assumed the responsibility for an autonomous sector in the front, under the direct command of First Army. Most of the CEP was destroyed in the Battle of La Lys on 9 April 1918, losing more than 7,000 men. From July 1918, the remaining men of the CEP participated in the final allied offensives under the command of Fifth Army. Newfoundland Regiment Newfoundland in 1914 was not yet part of Canada. The tiny Dominion with a population of only 240,000 raised a force that eventually reached a strength of three battalions to serve in the war. The Newfoundland Regiment deployed to France in March 1916, as part of the 29th Division, after already having served in the Gallipoli Campaign. The Newfoundland Regiment was practically wiped out on the first day of the Battle of the Somme, suffering over 90% casualties. After receiving reinforcements, the Newfoundland Regiment continued to serve on the Western Front until the war's end. In honour of the regiment's service the privilege of adding the prefix Royal to the regiment's name was granted in December 1917, and the regiment was known as the Royal Newfoundland Regiment from that point on. Weapons Until 1914, British infantry officers still carried swords and the cavalry retained the cavalry sword throughout the war. The other officers' weapon was the revolver, the three most common being the Webley MK V or VI, the Colt New Service and the Smith & Wesson hand ejector. All other ranks in the BEF carried a .303 Lee–Enfield rifle fitted with an easily loaded ten-round magazine and issued with a seventeen-inch (430 mm) bayonet. These rifles enabled a high rate of fire with good accuracy, such that pre-war British soldiers were trained to hit a target fifteen times a minute at a range of 300 yards. The devastating efficiency and accuracy of the BEF infantry led the Germans to incorrectly believe that there were approximately 28 machine guns in each battalion. When the BEF landed in France each infantry battalion and cavalry regiment was equipped with two Vickers or Maxim machine guns. Part of the reason for only allocating two guns per unit was the cost of manufacture and the need of a ten-week intensive training course for a Vickers gunner. During the course of 1916, the quicker to manufacture and more versatile Lewis guns began to be issued on the intended scale of the sixteen per battalion, one for each platoon. At the same time, the Vickers guns and their trained operators were redeployed to specialist companies of the Machine Gun Corps; one company was attached to each infantry brigade. Campaign medals As well as individual gallantry awards, all members of the BEF qualified for up to three campaign medals. The 1914 Star, the 1914–15 Star, the British War Medal and the Victory Medal. The 1914 Star was issued to officers and men of British forces who served in France or Belgium between 5 August and midnight 22/23 November 1914. The former date is the day after Britain's declaration of war against the Central Powers, and the closing date marks the end of the First Battle of Ypres. The 1914–1915 Star was issued to officers and men of British and Imperial forces who served in any theatre of the War between 5 August 1914 and 31 December 1915 (other than those who had already qualified for the 1914 Star). The British War Medal was issued to officers and men of British and Imperial forces who had rendered service between 5 August 1914 and 11 November 1918. Officers and men of the Royal Navy, Royal Marines, and Dominion and Colonial naval forces (including reserves) were required to have completed 28 days mobilised service — the medal was automatically awarded in the event of death on active service before the completion of this period. The Victory Medal was issued to all those who received the 1914 Star or the 1914–1915 Star, and to those who were awarded the British War Medal. It was never awarded singly. Women qualified for this and the earlier two medals, for service in nursing homes and other auxiliary forces. The Territorial Force War Medal was only awarded soldiers in the Territorial Force. To qualify, the recipient had to have been a member of the Territorial Force on or prior to 30 September 1914, and to have served in an operational theatre outside of the United Kingdom between 5 August 1914 and 11 November 1918. The Silver War Badge was issued in the United Kingdom to service personnel who had been honourably discharged due to wounds or sickness during the War. The badge, sometimes known as the Discharge Badge, Wound Badge or Services Rendered Badge, was first issued in September 1916, along with an official certificate of entitlement. Aftermath The British Army during the Great War was the largest military force that Britain had ever put into the field up to that point. On the Western Front, the British Expeditionary Force ended the war as a strong fighting force, more experienced and slightly bigger than the United States Army and with better morale than the French Army. The cost of victory, however, was high. The official "final and corrected" casualty figures for the British Army, including the Territorial Force, were issued on 10 March 1921. The losses for the period between 4 August 1914, and 30 September 1919, included 573,507 "killed in action, died from wounds and died of other causes" and 254,176 missing (minus 154,308 released prisoners), for a net total of 673,375 dead and missing. Casualty figures also indicated that there were 1,643,469 wounded. Notes References Pearce, Malcolm; Stewart, Geoffrey (2002). British political history, 1867–2001: democracy and decline. Routledge. External links Peter Simkins: British Expeditionary Force, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. 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207152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Football%20Conference	National Football Conference	The National Football Conference (NFC) is one of the two conferences of the National Football League (NFL). The NFC and its counterpart, the American Football Conference (AFC), each contain 16 teams organized into 4 divisions. Both conferences were created as part of the 1970 NFL merger with the rival American Football League (AFL), with all ten of the former AFL teams and three NFL teams forming the AFC while the remaining thirteen NFL clubs formed the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the total of 16 clubs in each conference. The defending NFC champions are the Los Angeles Rams, who defeated the San Francisco 49ers in the 2021 NFC Championship Game for their fifth conference championship. Teams Since 2002, like the AFC, the NFC has 16 teams that organized into four divisions each with four teams: East, North, South, and West. Season structure This chart of the 2020 season standings displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The Buccaneers in 2020 (highlighted in green) finished in second place in the NFC South. Thus, in 2021, the Buccaneers will play two games against each of its division rivals (highlighted in light blue), one game against each team in the NFC East and AFC East (highlighted in yellow), and one game each against the second-place finishers in the NFC North, NFC West (highlighted in orange), and AFC South (highlighted in pink). The fourteen opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: Each NFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to eleven other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL: three games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season, and the remaining eight games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2021 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the NFC East plays against every team in the NFC South and AFC West. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the three games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the four division winners and three wild cards (non-division winners with best regular season record) in the NFC qualify for the playoffs. The NFC playoffs culminate in the NFC Championship Game with the winner receiving the George S. Halas Trophy. The NFC champion then plays the AFC champion in the Super Bowl. History Both the AFC and NFC were created after the NFL merged with the American Football League (AFL) in 1970. When the AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, the NFL consisted of 13 clubs. By 1969, the AFL had expanded to ten teams and the NFL to 16 clubs. In order to balance the merged league, all ten of the former AFL teams along with the NFL's Cleveland Browns, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Baltimore Colts formed the AFC, while the remaining 13 NFL teams formed the NFC. While the newly formed AFC had already agreed upon and set up their divisional alignment plan along almost purely geographic lines, team owners could not agree to a plan on how to align the clubs in the NFC. The alignment proposals were narrowed down to five finalists (each one sealed in an envelope), and then the plan that was eventually selected was picked out of a glass bowl by then-NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle's secretary, Thelma Elkjer, on January 16, 1970. The five alignment plans for the NFC in 1970 were as follows, with Plan 3 eventually selected: Plan 1 Eastern – Atlanta Falcons, Minnesota Vikings, New York Giants, Philadelphia Eagles, Washington Redskins Central – Chicago Bears, Detroit Lions, Green Bay Packers, New Orleans Saints Western – Dallas Cowboys, Los Angeles Rams, St. Louis Cardinals, San Francisco 49ers Plan 2 Eastern – Minnesota, New York Giants, Philadelphia, Washington Central – Atlanta, Dallas, New Orleans, St. Louis Western – Chicago, Detroit, Green Bay, Los Angeles, San Francisco Plan 3 Eastern – Dallas, New York Giants, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Washington Central – Chicago, Detroit, Green Bay, Minnesota Western – Atlanta, Los Angeles, New Orleans, San Francisco Plan 4 Eastern – Minnesota, New York Giants, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Washington Central – Atlanta, Chicago, Detroit, Green Bay Western – Dallas, New Orleans, Los Angeles, San Francisco Plan 5 Eastern – Detroit, Minnesota, New York Giants, Philadelphia, Washington Central – Chicago, Dallas, Green Bay, St. Louis Western – Atlanta, Los Angeles, New Orleans, San Francisco Three expansion teams have joined the NFC since the merger, thus making the total 16. When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC, respectively, for one season before they switched conferences. The Seahawks returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment. The Carolina Panthers joined the NFC in 1995. Parity is generally greater among NFC teams than AFC teams. The only NFC team that has never made a Super Bowl appearance is the Detroit Lions. Since the 2002 division realignment, the NFC has sent 12 different teams to the Super Bowl, whereas the AFC has only sent 7: the Baltimore Ravens (1 time), the Las Vegas Raiders (1 time), the Kansas City Chiefs (2 times), the Denver Broncos (2 times), the Indianapolis Colts (2 times), the Pittsburgh Steelers (3 times) and the New England Patriots (9 times). The only NFC team to make back to back Super Bowls since 2002 are the Seattle Seahawks. As of 2021, the only pre-merger team that does not play in its 1969 market is the St. Louis Cardinals, who moved in 1988 to Phoenix suburb of Tempe (they moved to Glendale in 2006). The Los Angeles Rams moved to St. Louis in 1995, but moved back to Los Angeles in 2016. None of the expansion teams added after 1970 have relocated. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup established in 2002 has remained static ever since. Logo The original NFC logo, in use from 1970 to 2009, depicted a blue 'N' with three stars across it. The three stars represented the three divisions that were used from 1970 to 2001 (Eastern, Central and Western). The 2010 NFL season brought an updated NFC logo. Largely similar to the old logo, the new logo has a fourth star, representing the four divisions that have composed the NFC since 2002. Television CBS aired the NFC's Sunday afternoon and playoffs games from 1970 through the 1993 season. From 1994 to 2013, Fox was the primary rightsholder to the NFC's games. In those years, all interconference games in which the NFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either CBS or Fox. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select NFC games (that involve them playing an AFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from Fox to CBS. Since 1990, select NFC playoff games have been seen on ABC or ESPN. References National Football League Sports organizations established in 1970 1970 establishments in the United States	[ -0.5338175892829895, 0.11375322192907333, -0.18431872129440308, 0.04457484558224678, 0.005453620105981827, -0.10579685121774673, 0.23884914815425873, 0.9771397709846497, -0.3266848623752594, -0.2589516341686249, -0.31877249479293823, 0.6334174275398254, -0.7825766205787659, 0.15391065180301666, -0.17528215050697327, 0.36039629578590393, 0.2850542664527893, 0.42137572169303894, 0.08674820512533188, -0.15729829668998718, -0.7242851257324219, -0.030378157272934914, 0.22225525975227356, -0.3820491433143616, 0.3111670911312103, -0.30081894993782043, 0.1885146051645279, -0.08408201485872269, 0.34859225153923035, 0.4802805781364441, -0.09270928055047989, 0.1940980851650238, -0.2899922728538513, -0.1299208700656891, -0.1346743106842041, -0.04972317814826965, 0.5179890394210815, -0.05793090537190437, -0.18595115840435028, -0.05618748068809509, 0.3075367510318756, 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207153	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte%20Johnson	Arte Johnson	Arthur Stanton Eric Johnson (January 20, 1929 – July 3, 2019) was an American comic actor who was best known for his work as a regular on television's Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In. Biography Early life Johnson was born January 20, 1929, in Benton Harbor, Michigan, the son of Abraham Lincoln and Edythe Mackenzie (Goldberg/Golden) Johnson. His father was an attorney. Johnson attended the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he worked at the campus radio station and the UI Theater Guild with his brother Coslough "Cos" Johnson, and graduated in 1949 with a degree in radio journalism. Following brief military service in Korea (he was discharged due to a duodenal ulcer he had suffered since childhood), he sought employment in Chicago advertising agencies but was unsuccessful and left for New York City to work for Viking Press. In early 1954, Johnson performed in several New York nightclubs, including Le Ruban Bleu and the Village Vanguard. His first job in show business came when he impulsively stepped into an audition line and was cast in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Johnson appeared in Ben Bagley's The Shoestring Revue, which opened off-Broadway on February 28, 1955, at the President Theater in New York. Early television and film roles Johnson appeared three times in the 1955-1956 CBS sitcom It's Always Jan, starring Janis Paige and Merry Anders. In 1958 he joined the cast of the short-lived NBC sitcom Sally. On that program he played Bascomb Bleacher, Jr., the son of a co-owner of a department store, portrayed by Gale Gordon. He played Ariel Lavalerra in the 1960 film The Subterraneans, an adaptation of Jack Kerouac's 1958 novel of the same name. In 1960 and 1961, he appeared in three episodes of Jackie Cooper's military sitcom/drama series Hennesey, also on CBS. In Alfred Hitchcock Presents he played Mr. Bates in the episode "A Secret Life" (1962). He was cast in an episode of Frank Aletter's sitcom Bringing Up Buddy. He also appeared in an episode of The Twilight Zone titled "The Whole Truth" (1961). Before his big breakthrough in Laugh-In, Johnson was cast for a guest role as Corporal Coogan in the anthology series GE True ("The Handmade Private," 1962). He played a bumbling navy cameraman on an episode of McHale's Navy in the first season and The Andy Griffith Show as a hotel clerk in the episode "Andy and Barney in the Big City" (also 1962). He was a member of the regular cast of the 1962–1963 situation comedy Don't Call Me Charlie!, portraying Corporal Lefkowitz. Johnson appeared in a comedic role as Charlie, a boom-microphone operator who demonstrates to Jack Benny how to tell a joke properly, on The Jack Benny Program that aired on October 2, 1964. The joke performed in the sketch was the "ugly baby" story, later associated with Flip Wilson. He made a guest appearance on ABC's sitcom, Bewitched as Samantha's (Elizabeth Montgomery) Cousin Edgar in the final episode of the first season, airing on June 2, 1965. Also in 1965, Johnson played a rare dramatic supporting role in the film The Third Day as Lester Aldrich, who turns out to be the downtrodden husband of the sleazy nymphomaniac Holly. Johnson appeared in one of the final episodes of ABC's The Donna Reed Show in 1966. He was cast in the satirical James Coburn film The President's Analyst (1967), in which he gave a comically chilling performance as a federal agent with a blindly obedient "orders are orders" mentality. He appeared in the Season 3 episode of Lost in Space titled "Princess of Space" (1968). Johnson also starred in an episode of Rod Serling's Night Gallery titled "The Flip-Side of Satan" (1971). Laugh-In Johnson is best known for his work on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In from 1968 to 1973, on which he played many characters, including "Wolfgang," a cigarette-smoking German soldier oblivious to the fact that World War II was long over, as he skulked while hidden behind a potted plant. He would then invariably comment on a preceding gag with the catchphrase "Very interesting ...," which Johnson claimed was inspired by a Nazi character who spoke the line during an interrogation scene in the film Desperate Journey (1942). Often toward the show's close, he (as the German) would offer words of affection to "Lucy and Gary" (Lucille Ball and her second husband Gary Morton). The Lucy Show on CBS was in direct competition with NBC's Laugh-In on Monday night. Johnson reprised the role briefly on Sesame Street in the early 1970s, and while voicing the Nazi-inspired character Virman Vundabar on an episode of Justice League Unlimited. His other prominent Laugh-In character was "Tyrone F. Horneigh" (pronounced "horn-eye," a "clean" variant of the vulgar term "horny"), the white-haired, trench coat-wearing "dirty old man" who repeatedly sought to seduce "Gladys Ormphby," (Ruth Buzzi's brown-clad "spinster" character) on a park bench. Tyrone would enter the scene, muttering a song (usually "In the Merry, Merry Month of May"), and, spying Gladys on the bench, would sit next to her. He would ask her a question, and regardless of the answer, turn it into a double entendre. She would then start hitting him with her purse and he would fall off the bench, sometimes with a plea for help. To boost ratings in the third season, Tyrone successfully courted Gladys which led to an on-air wedding on the March 16, 1970, episode during the spring ratings sweep. Tiny Tim played best man, with Carol Channing as the bridesmaid, and Henry Gibson officiating. Alas, both bride-to-be and groom-to-be walk out of the church just before the wedding vows are spoken. Years after Laugh-In ended, the two characters were the subject of an animated Saturday-morning children's show, Baggy Pants and the Nitwits, with Tyrone as a helpful, muttering "superhero." Johnson and his brother Coslough earned Emmy Awards while working on Laugh-In. Later work Johnson guest-starred in two episodes of The Partridge Family ("My Heart Belongs to a Two Car Garage" and "For Whom the Bell Tolls... and Tolls... and Tolls") and the situation comedy A Touch of Grace (1973). He appeared in the first season of the Detroit-produced children's show Hot Fudge (1974) and, for one week, as a celebrity guest panelist on the game show Match Game. From 1976 to 1980, Johnson was a regular celebrity guest judge on The Gong Show. In 1976, Johnson voiced the animated cartoon character Misterjaw, a blue, German-accented shark (with a bow tie and top hat), who liked to leap out of the water and shout "YEEEEotcha!" ("Gotcha!") at unsuspecting folks on The Pink Panther Laugh-and-a-Half Hour-and-a-Half Show. He also voiced the character "Rhubarb" on The Houndcats and appeared as a guest on Canadian TV show Celebrity Cooks (1976) with host Bruno Gerussi. Johnson appeared on an episode of the NBC daytime version of Wheel of Fortune in September 1977 as a substitute letter-turner, both to fill in for an injured Susan Stafford, and to promote his short-lived NBC game show Knockout, which aired through early 1978. Instead of being introduced by the show's announcer, he would start the show with a small monologue, then the announcer would introduce the day's contestants. He was cast as Renfield, the comic sidekick of George Hamilton's Dracula in the film Love at First Bite (1979) and appeared in the all-star television disaster movie Condominium (1980). He voiced "Weerd" in The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo (1985), and played a disgruntled employee denied severance pay in an episode of Airwolf. He also voiced several other characters: Dr. Ludwig Von Strangebuck and Count Ray on two episodes of Ducktales; Devil Smurf on The Smurfs; Top Cat and Lou on Yo Yogi!; and Newt on Animaniacs. Johnson guest-starred in the Murder, She Wrote episode "No Laughing Murder" (1987). He also appeared in an episode of Night Court (1990). From 1991 to 1992 Johnson appeared in multiple episodes of General Hospital as Finian O'Toole. He played the old laboratory head of a team of scientists working on a serum of youth in Second Chance (1996). He performed more than 80 audiobook readings, including Gary Shteyngart's Absurdistan (2006) and Carl Hiaasen's Bad Monkey. He appeared in the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Ties That Bind" (2005) as the voice of Virman Vundabar. Johnson retired from acting in 2006. Personal life Johnson lived in Southern California with his wife, Gisela. He was a non-Hodgkin's lymphoma survivor, having been diagnosed and successfully treated in 1997. Johnson died on July 3, 2019, after being ill for three years with bladder and prostate cancer; he was 90. His ashes were scattered off Hawaii. Gisela Johnson survives him. Filmography Film Television References External links 1929 births 2019 deaths American game show hosts American male comedians American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors American military personnel of the Korean War Comedians from California Comedians from New York City Deaths from bladder cancer Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from prostate cancer Male actors from Los Angeles Male actors from Michigan Male actors from New York City Military personnel from Michigan People from Benton Harbor, Michigan Primetime Emmy Award winners United States Army personnel United States Army personnel of the Korean War United States Army soldiers University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign College of Media alumni	[ -0.39554986357688904, -0.08640444278717041, -0.021046100184321404, 0.3972683250904083, 0.29783812165260315, 0.8553733229637146, 0.6567630171775818, 0.29732176661491394, -0.13469894230365753, -0.34469133615493774, -0.14004617929458618, 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207154	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akron%20Pros	Akron Pros	The Akron Pros were a professional football team that played in Akron, Ohio from 1908 to 1926. The team originated in 1908 as a semi-pro team named the Akron Indians, but later became Akron Pros in 1920 as the team set out to become a charter member of the American Professional Football Association (later renamed the National Football League (NFL) in 1922). Fritz Pollard, the first black head coach in the NFL, co-coached the Akron Pros in 1921. Paul Robeson played for the team in 1921 as well. He was among the earliest stars of professional football before football became segregated from 1934 to 1946. In 1926, the name was changed back to the Akron Indians, after the earlier semi-pro team. Due to financial problems, the team suspended operations in 1927 and surrendered its franchise the following year. History Origins Before 1908, several semi-pro and amateur teams dominated the Akron football scene. The most dominant of these was a team known as the Akron East Ends. The East Ends' dominance of Ohio football went unmatched until the Massillon Tigers paid several ringers from the recently disbanded Pittsburgh Stars to defeat the East Ends in 1903. The Akron Indians date as far back as 1908. The early Indians teams went on to win Ohio League championships in 1908, 1909, 1913 and 1914. The team was always referred to as the Indians by the fans. From 1908 to 1913, the Indians had a reputation of playing more of a style of football seen at the college level than that of the early athletic clubs. For example, the Indians preferred passing the ball as opposed to running. Parratt's Indians Before the 1912 season, Peggy Parratt, an early football star with the Massillon Tigers, Franklin Athletic Club and the Shelby Blues, joined the Indians. He made the move after realizing that he could make more money in the large football market that Akron provided. When he arrived in Akron, his first move was to change the team name from the "Akron" Indians to "Parratt's Indians". With Peggy as a player, coach, and owner-manager, the Indians split their series with Shelby and twice defeated Canton, 14–7 and 19–7. However, they were defeated by the unheard-of Elyria Athletics, who then took the Ohio championship. The Athletics were mostly former Blues players who formed a team in Elyria after Parratt left for Akron. The following season, Parratt brought most of Elyria's 1912 championship team to Akron and added them to his roster. The Indians then beat Shelby and Elyria. They also managed to tie the rapidly improving Canton Pros. During the Indians' championship game against Shelby, the Blues loaded their team with a collection of famous players from big eastern schools and supported each member with a payroll of $700 for just that one game. However, the game was canceled due to a snowstorm. A week later when the Blues returned to Akron, the Indians were prepared with newly recruited talent that was viewed as even superior to that of Shelby's. The Indians won the game 20–0 and brought the Ohio title back to Akron. For his 1914 recruiting efforts, Parratt signed the usual big-name players, which consisted of a lineup that changed from week to week, with just enough stars on hand to guarantee a win. However, in 1914, he also employed several former Notre Dame stars, including the legendary Knute Rockne, Howard "Horse" Edwards, "Deke" Jones, and Joe Collins, as well as several Ohio collegiate stars like Ed Kagy, Dwight Wertz, Homer Davidson, Dutch Powell, Frank Nesser, and Ralph "Fat" Waldsmith. By late season, the entire left side of his Akron Indian line was from Notre Dame. The team dominated the Ohio League for the season. However, it managed to lose to Canton 6–0 on November 15, 1914. Despite the win, Canton's captain Harry Turner died when his spine broke during a tackle on Akron fullback Joe Collins. Turner's death marked the first fatal accident involving a major professional football team in Ohio. To avoid an Akron title in 1915 the owners of the Massillon Tigers raided Parratt's Akron roster and took away many of his star players. Canton manager Jack Cusack also picked up some former Akron players and signed Jim Thorpe to his renamed Canton Bulldogs team. By the end of the season, Parratt's team was made up mostly of Akron sandlotters. After the disastrous 1915 season, Parratt returned to Cleveland, where he took some of his former Akron players and a few ex-collegians and formed a respectable team, which he named the Cleveland Tigers. Burkhardts In 1916 a local brewer, Burkhardt Brewing Company, took over the remains of the Indians and renamed the club the Akron Burkhardts. The team was reorganized by Howe Welch and his brothers Chang and Suey. After three seasons, Welch was a player, coach, and manager for Akron, playing against many of professional football's early stars. The 1916 Burkhardts had a winning record despite falling to the Bulldogs and splitting a two-game series with the Columbus Panhandles. In 1918 the team was once again renamed the Indians, however, this is disputed due to many records of the time still referring to the club as the Burkhardts until 1920. The 1919 team, finished their season 5–5–0. However, the Indians lost money despite the presence of one of the country's best breakaway runners, Fritz Pollard, the league's first black player. From 1917 through at least 1921, the Indians name was sold off to Suey Welch, who fielded it as an independent club. Pros After experiencing financial losses from 1912 to 1919, the team was sold to Art Ranney, an Akron businessman and former football player at the University of Akron, and Frank Nied, a cigar store proprietor in 1920. The new owners soon dropped the Indian moniker and went with "Pros," hoping to inspire better results, or at least better attendance. Nied and Ranney befriended and signed Fritz Pollard to their team. The two co-owners later made Pollard the first African-American coach in the NFL. Founding of the National Football League (NFL) The minutes for the September 17, 1920, meeting that formed the AFPA, were kept on the stationery of the Akron Pros football team by one of the owners, Art Ranney. Ranney was then elected secretary-treasurer of the league (later renamed the National Football League in 1922). 1920 NFL champions Pollard and most of the top 1919 players planned to return to the Pros in 1920. The team opened the season at League Park in early October by defeating the Wheeling Stogies, 43–0. Al Nesser, one of the infamous football-playing Nesser Brothers, scored three touchdowns on fumble recoveries. The following week the Pros defeated the Columbus Panhandles 37–0 using former guard, Frank McCormick as a wingback. After a 13–0 win over the Cincinnati Celts, the Pros played the Cleveland Tigers, a team composed mainly of ex-stars from the Massillon Tigers. Bob Nash, who played for Massillon in 1919, broke up a Stan Cofall punt resulting in an Akron touchdown and a final score of 7–0. The Pros then shocked the league by beating the Canton Bulldogs, who were considered the top team in the nation in 1920 with stars Jim Thorpe, Joe Guyon, Pete Calac, and Pete Henry, 10–0. However, after a rained-out game against the Detroit Heralds, the Pros played a reorganized Tigers team that held the Pros to a 7–7 tie. The team, under the rushing of Pollard and McCormick, rebounded by defeating the Dayton Triangles 13–0. After a 7–0 victory in a rematch to Canton, as well as a second win over Dayton, the Pros were recognized as the top team in Ohio. The Pros then held the Buffalo All-Americans to a scoreless tie in front of only 3,000. At the game, Nied and Ranney agreed to sell Bob Nash to Buffalo for $300 and five percent of the gate in the first known player deal between NFL clubs. However, since the Pros held the best record in the league, they only had to avoid losing a game, while Buffalo and the Decatur Staleys had to win to capture the AFPA Championship. The Pros held the Staleys to a scoreless tie in front of 12,000 fans at Cub Park. Both the All-Americans and the Staleys complained about the championship, arguing that Akron had not defeated them. The Pros were not named the AFPA Champs until April 30, 1921, after the team managers got together at Canton and voted the title to Akron, granting the team the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup. (Not coincidentally, Ranney, then the league's secretary, presided over the meeting as de facto President of the league, since neither President Jim Thorpe nor Vice President Stan Cofall appeared at the meeting.) According to modern NFL tie-breaking rules, the 1920 Buffalo All-Americans would be co-champions. They would be tied with the Pros in win percentage, wins to losses (.864), both teams beating out the Decatur Staleys, who would have a season that counted 11 wins to 2 losses (.846). Decline The Pros finished in 3rd place in 1921 and 10th place in 1922. The team only finished higher than 13th place in 1925, when it completed the season at fifth. Following the 1925 season, the Pros returned to being the Akron Indians. This new team played for the next four seasons before disbanding due to declining financial support and the team's poor record after the 1926 season. The team suspended operations in 1927 and formally surrendered its franchise the following year. 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