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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham%20Cathedral
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Durham Cathedral
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The Cathedral Church of Christ, Blessed Mary the Virgin and St Cuthbert of Durham, commonly known as Durham Cathedral and home of the Shrine of St Cuthbert, is a cathedral in the city of Durham, England. It is the seat of the Bishop of Durham, the fourth-ranked bishop in the Church of England hierarchy.
The present Norman era cathedral had started to be built in 1093, replacing the city's previous 'White Church'. In 1986 the cathedral and Durham Castle were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Durham Cathedral's relics include: Saint Cuthbert's, transported to Durham by Lindisfarne monks in the 800s; Saint Oswald's head and the Venerable Bede's remains.
The Durham Dean and Chapter Library contains: sets of early printed books, some of the most complete in England; the pre-Dissolution monastic accounts and three copies of Magna Carta.
From 1080 until 1836, the Bishop of Durham held the powers of an Earl Palatine. In order to protect the Anglo-Scottish border, powers of an earl included exercising military, civil, and religious leadership. The cathedral walls formed part of Durham Castle, the chief seat of the Bishop of Durham.
There are daily Church of England services at the cathedral, Durham Cathedral Choir sing daily except Mondays and holidays, receiving 727,367 visitors in 2019.
History
Anglo-Saxon
The See of Durham takes its origins from the Diocese of Lindisfarne, founded by Saint Aidan at the behest of Oswald of Northumbria in about 635, which was translated to York in 664. The see was reinstated at Lindisfarne in 678 by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among the many saints who originated at Lindisfarne Priory, the greatest was Saint Cuthbert, Bishop of Lindisfarne from 685 until his death in 687, who is central to the development of Durham Cathedral.
After repeated Viking raids, the monks fled from Lindisfarne in 875, carrying Saint Cuthbert's relics with them. The diocese of Lindisfarne remained itinerant until 882, when the monks resettled at Chester-le-Street, 60 miles south of Lindisfarne and 6 miles north of Durham. The see remained at Chester-le-Street until 995, when further Viking incursions once again caused the monks to move with their relics. According to the local legend of the Dun Cow and the Saint's hagiography, the monks followed two milk maids who were searching for a dun-coloured cow and found themselves on a peninsula formed by a loop in the River Wear. Thereupon Cuthbert's coffin became immovable, which was taken as a sign that the new shrine should be built on that spot, which became the City of Durham. A more prosaic set of reasons for the selection of the peninsula is its highly defensible position, and that a community established there would enjoy the protection of the Earl of Northumbria, with whom the bishop at this time, Aldhun, had strong family connections. Today the street leading from The Bailey past the cathedral's eastern towers up to Palace Green is named Dun Cow Lane due to the miniature dun cows which used to graze in the pastures nearby.
Initially, a very simple temporary structure was built from local timber to house the relics of Saint Cuthbert. The shrine was then transferred to a sturdier, probably still wooden, building known as the White Church. This church was itself replaced three years later in 998 by a stone building also known as the White Church, which in 1018 was complete except for its tower. Durham soon became a site of pilgrimage, encouraged by the growing cult of Saint Cuthbert. King Canute was one of the early pilgrims, and granted many privileges and estates to the Durham monks. The defensible position, flow of money from pilgrims and power embodied in the church at Durham all encouraged the formation of a town around the cathedral, which established the core of the city.
Norman
The present cathedral was designed and built under William de St-Calais (also known as William of St. Carilef) who in 1080 was appointed as the first Prince-Bishop by King William the Conqueror. In 1083 he founded the Benedictine Priory of St. Cuthbert at Durham and having ejected the secular canons (and their wives and children) who had been in charge of the church and shrine of St Cuthbert there, replaced them with monks from the monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. The extensive lands of the church he divided between his own bishopric and the new Priory. He appointed Aldwin as the first prior.
Bishop William of St. Calais demolished the old Saxon church, and on 11 August 1093, together with Prior Turgot of Durham (Aldwin's successor), he laid the foundation stone of the great new cathedral. The monks continued at their own expense to build the monastic buildings while the bishop took the responsibility for completing the building of the cathedral. Stone for the new buildings was cut from the cliffs below the walls and moved up using winches. The primary reason for the cathedral was to house the bodies of St. Cuthbert and the Venerable Bede.
Since that time many major additions and reconstructions of parts of the building have been made, but the greater part of the structure remains the original Norman structure. Construction of the cathedral began in 1093, at the eastern end. The choir was completed by 1096. At the death of Bishop William of St. Calais on 2 January 1096, the Chapter House was ready enough to be used as his burial place. In 1104 the remains of St. Cuthbert were translated with great ceremony to the new shrine in the new cathedral. The monks continued to look after the Shrine of St Cuthbert until the Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Work proceeded on the nave, the walls of which were finished by 1128, and the high vault by 1135. The chapter house was built between 1133 and 1140 (partially demolished in the 18th century). William of St. Carilef died in 1096 before the building was complete and passed responsibility to his successor, Ranulf Flambard, who also built Framwellgate Bridge, the earliest crossing of the River Wear from the town. Three bishops, William of St. Carilef, Ranulf Flambard and Hugh de Puiset, are all buried in the now rebuilt chapter house.
In the 1170s Hugh de Puiset, after a false start at the eastern end where subsidence and cracking prevented work from continuing, added the Galilee Chapel at the west end of the cathedral. The five-aisled building occupies the position of a porch and functioned as a Lady chapel with the great west door being blocked during the Medieval period by an altar to the Virgin Mary. The door is now blocked by the tomb of Bishop Thomas Langley. The Galilee Chapel also holds the remains of the Venerable Bede. The main entrance to the cathedral is on the northern side, facing the castle.
In 1228 Richard le Poore, Bishop of Salisbury, was translated to Durham, having just rebuilt Salisbury Cathedral in the Gothic style. At that moment the eastern end of Durham Cathedral was in urgent need of repair and the proposed eastern extension had failed. Le Poore employed the architect Richard Farnham to design an eastern terminal for the building in which many monks could say the Daily Office simultaneously. The resulting building was the Chapel of the Nine Altars. In 1250, the original roof of the cathedral was replaced by a vault which is still in place.
The towers also date from the early 13th century, but the central tower was damaged by lightning and replaced in two stages in the 15th century, the master masons being Thomas Barton and John Bell.
The Bishop of Durham was the temporal lord of the palatinate, often referred to as a Prince-bishop. The bishop competed for power with the Prior of Durham Monastery, a great landowner who held his own courts for his free tenants. An agreement dated about 1229, known as Le Convenit was entered into to regulate the relationship between the two magnates.
The Shrine of Saint Cuthbert was located in the eastern apsidal end of the cathedral. The location of the inner wall of the apse is marked on the pavement and Saint Cuthbert's tomb is covered by a simple slab. However, an unknown monk wrote in 1593:
Dissolution
During the Dissolution of the Monasteries Saint Cuthbert's tomb was destroyed in 1538 by order of King Henry VIII, and the monastery's wealth was handed over to the king. The body of the Saint was exhumed, and according to the Rites of Durham, was discovered to be uncorrupted. It was reburied under a plain stone slab now worn smooth by the knees of pilgrims, but the ancient paving around it remains intact. Two years later, on 31 December 1540, the Benedictine monastery at Durham was dissolved, and the last Prior of Durham, Hugh Whitehead, became the first dean of the cathedral's secular chapter.
17th century
After the Battle of Dunbar in September 1650, Durham Cathedral was used by Oliver Cromwell as a makeshift prison to hold Scottish prisoners of war. It is estimated that as many as 3,000 were imprisoned of whom 1,700 died in the cathedral itself, where they were kept in inhumane conditions, largely without food, water or heat. The prisoners destroyed much of the cathedral woodwork for firewood but Prior Castell's Clock, which featured the Scottish thistle, was spared. It is reputed that the prisoners' bodies were buried in unmarked graves (see further, '21st century' below) and the survivors were shipped as slave labour to the American Colonies.
Bishop John Cosin (in office 1660–1672), previously a canon of the cathedral, set about restoring the damage and refurnishing the building with new stalls, the litany desk and the towering canopy over the font. An oak screen to carry the organ was added at this time to replace a stone screen pulled down in the 16th century. On the remains of the old refectory, Dean John Sudbury founded a library of early printed books.
18th and 19th centuries
During the 18th century the Deans of Durham often held another position in the south of England and after spending the statutory time in residence, would depart southward to manage their affairs. Consequently, after Cosin's refurbishment, there was little by way of restoration or rebuilding. When work commenced again on the building, it was not always of a sympathetic nature. In 1777 the architect George Nicholson, having completed Prebends' Bridge across the Wear, persuaded the dean and chapter to let him smooth off much of the outer stonework of the cathedral, thereby considerably altering its character. His successor William Morpeth demolished most of the Chapter House.
In 1794 the architect James Wyatt drew up extensive plans which would have drastically transformed the building, including the demolition of the Galilee Chapel, but the Chapter changed its mind just in time to prevent this happening. Wyatt renewed the 15th-century tracery of the Rose Window, inserting plain glass to replace what had been blown out in a storm.
In 1847 the architect Anthony Salvin removed Cosin's wooden organ screen, opening up the view of the east end from the nave, and in 1858 he restored the cloisters.The Victorian restoration of the cathedral's tower in 1859–60 was by the architect George Gilbert Scott, working with Edward Robert Robson (who went on to serve as Clerk of Works at the cathedral for six years). In 1874 Scott was responsible for the marble choir screen and pulpit in the Crossing. In 1892 Scott's pupil Charles Hodgson Fowler rebuilt the Chapter House as a memorial to Bishop Joseph Barber Lightfoot.
The great west window, depicting the Tree of Jesse, was the gift of Dean George Waddington in 1867. It is the work of Clayton and Bell, who were also responsible for the Te Deum window in the South Transept (1869), the Four Doctors window in the North Transept (1875), and the Rose Window of Christ in Majesty ().
There is also a statue of William Van Mildert, the last prince-bishop (1826–1836) and driving force behind the foundation of Durham University.
20th century
In the 1930s, under the inspiration of Dean Cyril Alington, work began on restoring the Shrine of Saint Cuthbert behind the High Altar as an appropriate focus of worship and pilgrimage, and was resumed after the Second World War. The four candlesticks and overhanging tester () were designed by Ninian Comper. Two large batik banners representing Saints Cuthbert and Oswald, added in 2001, are the work of Thetis Blacker. Elsewhere in the building the 1930s and 1940s saw the addition of several new stained glass windows by Hugh Ray Easton. Mark Angus' Daily Bread window dates from 1984. In the Galilee Chapel a wooden statue of the Annunciation by the Polish artist Josef Pyrz was added in 1992, the same year as Leonard Evetts' Stella Maris window.
In 1986, the cathedral, together with the nearby Castle, became a World Heritage Site. The UNESCO committee classified the cathedral under criteria C (ii) (iv) (vi), reporting, "Durham Cathedral is the largest and most perfect monument of 'Norman' style architecture in England".
In its discussion of the significance of the cathedral, Historic England provided this summary in their 1986 report: The relics and material culture of the three saints buried at the site. The continuity of use and ownership of the site over the past 1000 years as a place of religious worship, learning and residence; The site's role as a political statement of Norman power imposed upon a subjugate nation, as one of the country's most powerful symbols of the Norman Conquest of Britain; The importance of the site's archaeological remains, which are directly related to the site's history and continuity of use over the past 1000 years; The cultural and religious traditions and historical memories associated with the relics of St Cuthbert and the Venerable Bede, and with the continuity of use and ownership of the site over the past millennium.
In 1996, the Great Western Doorway was the setting for Bill Viola's large-scale video installation The Messenger, that was commissioned by Durham Cathedral.
21st century
At the beginning of this century two of the altars in the Nine Altars Chapel at the east end of the cathedral were re-dedicated to Saint Hild of Whitby and Saint Margaret of Scotland: a striking painting of Margaret (with her son, the future king David) by Paula Rego was dedicated in 2004. Nearby a plaque, first installed in 2011 and rededicated in 2017, commemorates the Scottish soldiers who died as prisoners in the cathedral after the Battle of Dunbar in 1650. The remains of some of these prisoners have now been identified in a mass grave uncoverered during building works in 2013 just outside the cathedral precinct near Palace Green.
In 2004 two wooden sculptures by Fenwick Lawson, Pietà and Tomb of Christ, were placed in the Nine Altars Chapel, and in 2010 a new stained glass window of the Transfiguration by Tom Denny was dedicated in memory of Michael Ramsey, former Bishop of Durham and Archbishop of Canterbury.
In 2016 former monastic buildings around the cloister, including the Monks' Dormitory and Prior's Kitchen, were re-opened to the public as Open Treasure, an extensive exhibition displaying the cathedral's history and possessions.
In November 2009 the cathedral featured in the Lumiere festival whose highlight was the "Crown of Light" illumination of the North Front of the cathedral with a 15-minute presentation that told the story of Lindisfarne and the foundation of cathedral, using illustrations and text from the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Lumiere festival was repeated in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017.
Durham Priory held many manuscripts; in the 21st century, steps were under way to digitise the books, originating from the 6th to the 16th century. The project was being undertaken in a partnership by Durham University and Durham Cathedral.
The cathedral church and the cloister is open to visitors during certain hours each day, unless it is closed for a special event. In 2017 a new "Open Treasure" exhibition area opened featuring the 8th-century wooden coffin of Saint Cuthbert, his gold and garnet pectoral cross, a portable altar and an ivory comb. This exhibition was continuing as of October 2019. In that month, a new exhibit was added, Mapping the World, featuring books, maps and drawings and from the archives, scheduled to run until 18 January 2020.
Architecture
There is some evidence that the aisle of the choir had the earliest rib vaults in England, as was argued by John Bilson, English architect, at the end of the nineteenth century. Since then it has been argued that other buildings like Lessay Abbey in northwest France provided the early experimental ribs that created the high technical level shown in Durham. There is evidence in the clerestory walls of the choir that the high vault had ribs. There is controversy between John James and Malcolm Thurlby on whether these rib vaults were four-part or six-part, which remains unresolved.
The building is notable for the ribbed vault of the nave, with some of the earliest transverse pointed arches supported on relatively slender composite piers alternated with massive drum columns, and lateral abutments concealed within the triforium over the aisles. These features appear to be precursors of the Gothic architecture of Northern France, possibly due to the Norman stonemasons responsible, although the building is considered Romanesque overall. The skilled use of the pointed arch and ribbed vault made it possible to cover far more elaborate and complicated ground plans than before. Buttressing made it possible to build taller buildings and open up the intervening wall spaces to create larger windows.
The UNESCO World Heritage Site description makes this comment about the architectural style:Though some wrongly considered Durham Cathedral to be the first ‘Gothic’ monument (the relationship between it and the churches built in the Île-de-France region in the 12th century is not obvious), this building, owing to the innovative audacity of its vaulting, constitutes, as do Spire [Speyer] and Cluny, a type of experimental model which was far ahead of its time. Another United Nations web site states that"the use of stone ‘ribs’ forming pointed arches to support the ceiling of the nave was an important achievement, and Durham Cathedral is the earliest known example" [and] The nave vault of Durham Cathedral is the most significant architectural element ... because it marks a turning point in the history of architecture. The pointed arch was successfully used as a structural element for the first time here in this building. Semi-circular arches were the type used prior to the adoption of the structural pointed arch — the limitations of which is that their height must be proportionate to their width".
Saint Cuthbert's tomb lies at the east in the Feretory and was once an elaborate monument of cream marble and gold. It remains a place of pilgrimage. The fragments of St Cuthbert's coffin are exhibited at the cathedral.
Other burials
Stephen Kemble, actor of the Kemble family
William de St-Calais, in the chapter house
Ranulf Flambard, also in the chapter house (where his tomb was opened in 1874)
Geoffrey Rufus, also in the chapter house (where his grave was also excavated in the 19th century)
William of St. Barbara, also in the chapter house (where his grave was also excavated in the 19th century)
Nicholas Farnham
Robert Neville – Bishop of Durham, in the South Aisle
Walter of Kirkham, in the chapter house
Robert Stitchill (his heart only)
Robert of Holy Island, in the chapter house
Antony Bek (Bishop of Durham)
Thomas Sharp, in the chapel called the Galilee
Thomas Mangey, in the east transept
Richard Kellaw, in the chapter house
Thomas Langley, his tomb blocking the Great West Door (necessitating the construction of the two later doors to north and south)
James Pilkington, at the head of Beaumont's tomb in front of the high altar
Alfred Robert Tucker, outside the cathedral
Cyril Alington, Dean of Durham and author
John Robson, canon of Durham
J. B. Lightfoot, Bishop
Other memorials
Bishop Joseph Butler
Bishop Edward Maltby
John Robert Davison QC MP
Brigadier General Herbert Conyers Surtees
Dean and chapter
The cathedral is governed by the chapter which is chaired by the dean. Durham is a "New Foundation" cathedral in which there are not specific roles to which members of the chapter are appointed, with the exception of the Dean and the Van Mildert Professor of Divinity. The other roles, sub-dean, precentor, sacrist, librarian and treasurer, are elected by the members of the chapter annually.
As of 5 December 2020:
Dean — Andrew Tremlett (since 17 July 2016 installation)
Vice-Dean & Canon Precentor — Michael Hampel (since 17 November 2018 installation)
Canon Chancellor — Charlie Allen (since 22 September 2018 installation)
Canon Pastor — Michael Everitt (since 22 September 2019 installation)
Van Mildert Professor of Divinity (Durham University) and Residentiary Canon — Simon Oliver (since 20 September 2015 installation)
Music
Organ
In the 17th century Durham had an organ by Smith that was replaced in 1876 by 'Father' Willis (Henry Willis & Sons), with some pipes being reused in Durham Castle chapel. Harrison & Harrison worked on the organ from 1880, restored between 1905 and 1935, rebuilt again in 1970 with a new console, and adding a Classically-voiced Positive division, and further refurbishments and minor changes in 1981 and 1996. The cases, designed by C. Hodgson Fowler and decorated by Clayton and Bell date from 1876 and are in the galleries of the choir.
Organists
The first organist recorded at Durham was John Brimley in 1557. Notable organists have included the composer Richard Hey Lloyd and choral conductor David Hill.
The current Master of the Choristers and Organist is Daniel Cook, having succeeded James Lancelot in 2017. The Sub-Organist is Joseph Beech.
Choir
There is a regular choir of adult lay clerks, choral scholars and child choristers. The latter are educated at the Chorister School. Traditionally child choristers were all boys, but in November 2009 the cathedral admitted female choristers for the first time. The girls and the boys serve alternately, not as a mixed choir, except at major festivals such as Easter, Advent and Christmas when the two "top lines" come together.
Meridian line
In 1829 the Dean and Chapter authorised the engraving of a meridian line upon the floor and wall of the north cloister. A circular aperture about in the tracery of the adjoining window about above the level of the floor directs a beam of sunlight to fall upon the line at the precise time when the sun passes the meridian. It was constructed by William Lloyd Wharton, of Dryburn in the city, and Mr Carr, then Head Master of Durham School.
Film and television
Durham Cathedral has been used as a filming location in a number of cinema and television productions. Because of its distinct Romanesque architecture, the cathedral has doubled as a number of fantasy locations in larger budget film productions, but has been seen as itself in a number of television programmes.
Film
The first major appearance of the cathedral in a film was in the 1996 adaptation of a Thomas Hardy novel, Jude. The film featured scenes of leading actor Christopher Eccleston working as a mason on the exterior of the cathedral, and further scenes were shot inside the cathedral, and on the adjoining Prebends Bridge.
Elizabeth, starring Cate Blanchett, features the cathedral doubling as The Palace of Westminster and Whitehall.
Durham Cathedral featured in the first two Harry Potter films (Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets) as Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The Cloisters appeared in a number of scenes as one of the school's courtyards, the Chapter House as Professor McGonagall's classroom, and the Triforium upper-levels as the Forbidden Corridor. The exterior architecture of the cathedral also heavily inspired the design of the Hogwarts model used in the films, and a section of the model is noticeably styled off the cathedral, with the addition of fantastical spires.
The palace set design in Snow White and the Huntsman, was largely based Durham Cathedral's architecture. The production team spent four days at the cathedral conducting 3D photography of the interior, and used the data collected to build the sets both physical and digital. Most noticeably, the movie's throne room features columns patterned identically to those within the cathedral.
Interior views of the cathedral were featured in the 2019 Marvel superhero film Avengers: Endgame, as the indoor location of Asgard.
Television
Durham Cathedral features in a number of TV programmes. Some of its many appearances include the gameshow Treasurehunt, and BBC staples like Songs of Praise and The Antiques Roadshow.
Architectural historian Dan Cruickshank selected the cathedral as one of his four choices for the 2002 BBC television documentary Britain's Best Buildings.
In September 2009, Sting performed a special Christmas concert at the Cathedral. The concert aired in the United Kingdom on a BBC2 Imagine special and in the United States on a PBS Great Performances special. In November 2009, the concert was released on a DVD called A Winter's Night...Live From Durham Cathedral.
In 2010 the cathedral featured in Climbing Great Buildings, which saw presenter Jonathan Foyle exploring the cathedral via climbing ropes.
For an episode first broadcast in 2011, the BBC railway travelogue Great British Railway Journeys with Michael Portillo visited Durham and the cathedral. Following a Bradshaw's guide, he discusses local Victorian politics highlighted in the guide, and meets with the Cathedral Choristers.
Richard Wilson: On the Road, saw actor Richard Wilson visit the cathedral on this travelogue show following the Shell Guides from the 1930s. The Grayson Perry documentary, All Man, culminated in the unveiling of his artwork in the cathedral.
The fourth episode of Britain’s Great Cathedrals with Tony Robinson, broadcast on Channel Five, featured Durham Cathedral as its subject. In it, Robinson explored the architecture, the history of the Prince Bishops, and the history of pilgrimage at the cathedral.
Following the completion of restoration on the cathedral's tower in May 2019, BBC Breakfast broadcast from the tower in as part of its reopening to the public.
The cathedral features noticeably in two Catherine Cookson TV dramas, The Tide of Life and The Wingless Bird. In the latter of these, the cathedral and the surrounding riverbanks also feature prominently in its promotional material.
It also featured on TV in a number of episodes of Inspector George Gently with both interior and exterior scenes.
In literature
Letitia Landon's atmospheric poem, Durham Cathedral, appeared in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1835.
Quotations
"Durham is one of the great experiences of Europe to the eyes of those who appreciate architecture, and to the minds of those who understand architecture. The group of Cathedral, Castle, and Monastery on the rock can only be compared to Avignon and Prague." — Nikolaus Pevsner, The Buildings of England
"A dream, I'm bowled over...Imagine a river valley cut into the landscape with wooded sides. The river bends, and in the bend, on the hillside, lies the old town – first the residential town, then separate from it, and higher up, the castle – and then, out on its own, in the midst of tall trees, the enormous cathedral with its twin end towers. From the bridge it is a Romantic dream, a fantasy by Schinkel. This morning in the mist it was wonderful...the first thing that has made my heart pound...the cathedral in itself, just like the Matterhorn in itself – gigantic, grey, on its own." — Pevsner in a letter to his wife, Lola, on his first English tour in 1930.
"I paused upon the bridge, and admired and wondered at the beauty and glory of this scene...it was grand, venerable, and sweet, all at once; I never saw so lovely and magnificent a scene, nor, being content with this, do I care to see a better." — Nathaniel Hawthorne on Durham Cathedral, The English Notebooks
'With the cathedral at Durham we reach the incomparable masterpiece of Romanesque architecture not only in England but anywhere. The moment of entering provides for an architectural experience never to be forgotten, one of the greatest England has to offer.' — Alec Clifton-Taylor, 'English Towns' series on BBC television.
"I unhesitatingly gave Durham my vote for best cathedral on planet Earth." — Bill Bryson, Notes from a Small Island.
"Grey towers of Durham
Yet well I love thy mixed and massive piles
Half church of God, half castle 'gainst the Scot
And long to roam those venerable aisles
With records stored of deeds long since forgot."
— Walter Scott, Harold the Dauntless, a poem of Saxons and Vikings set in County Durham.
Durham Cathedral in Lego
Durham Cathedral contains a scale replica of itself made entirely out of Lego. It was created as part of an award-winning fundraising campaign to support the creation of Open Treasure, and started in July 2013. It was completed just over three years later in July 2016, and is currently on display in the cathedral's Undercroft foyer between the Undercroft Restaurant and the Cathedral Shop.
The replica Cathedral is made up of 300,000 Lego bricks, standing tall and long. It also features a modelled interior, with the nave, quire, the organ, and stained glass windows all recreated in Lego.
Its creation was funded by donation, with a donation of £1 per Lego brick. It raised £300,000 as part of the public fundraising campaign in support of the creation of Open Treasure, the cathedral's new museum in its Claustral buildings. Visitors who donated came from 182 countries across the world. The cathedral worked with a company called Bright Bricks on the design and recruited a team of Lego volunteers who co-ordinated the build of the model and visitor donations.
The surrounding media coverage and marketing campaign garnered further support to the Lego project, especially from local businesses and organisations, and featured celebrity support such as that of Janina Ramirez, George Clarke, and Jeremy Vine. Historian and television presenter Johnathon Foyle had the honour of laying the first brick.
As part of the project, a series of five Lego animated shorts were produced showcasing the history of the cathedral. North East based film maker Matt James Smith worked with the cathedral to create the shorts.
See also
Gothic cathedrals and churches
English Gothic architecture
Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England
List of church restorations and alterations by Anthony Salvin
References
Bibliography
Brown, David (ed.) (2015) Durham Cathedral: History, Fabric and Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Clifton-Taylor, Alec (1967) The Cathedrals of England. London: Thames and Hudson
Dodds, Glen Lyndon (1996) Historic Sites of County Durham Albion Press
Harvey, John (1963) English Cathedrals. London: Batsford
Moorhouse, Geoffrey (2008) The Last Office: 1539 and the dissolution of a monastery. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
Stranks, C. J. The Pictorial History of Durham Cathedral. London: Pitkin Pictorials
Tatton-Brown, Tim (2002) The English Cathedral; text by Timothy Tatton-Brown; photography by John Crook. London: New Holland
External links
Durham Cathedral website
The Friends of Durham Cathedral
Gallery of photos
A Tour of Durham Cathedral & Castle
Webcam views: zoomed, wide angle
Voted "Britain's Favourite Building" in BBC Radio 4 poll, 2001
A history of Durham Cathedral
A history of Durham Cathedral choristers and choir school
Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace — Durham Cathedral Pages — Photos
Place Evocation: The Galilee Chapel
Local History Publications from County Durham Books
Bell's Cathedrals: The Cathedral Church of Durham — from Project Gutenberg
Durham Cathedral — Tourist Guide to Durham Cathedral
World Heritage Sites in England
Churches in Durham, England
English churches with Norman architecture
English Gothic architecture in County Durham
Tourist attractions in County Durham
Anglican cathedrals in England
Grade I listed cathedrals
Grade I listed churches in County Durham
1093 establishments in England
Former Roman Catholic churches in England
Pre-Reformation Roman Catholic cathedrals
Anthony Salvin buildings
Buildings containing meridian lines
Basilicas (Church of England)
Churches completed in 1133
12th-century church buildings in England
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206644
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Feller
|
William Feller
|
William "Vilim" Feller (July 7, 1906 – January 14, 1970), born Vilibald Srećko Feller, was a Croatian-American mathematician specializing in probability theory.
Early life and education
Feller was born in Zagreb to Ida Oemichen-Perc, a Croatian-Austrian Catholic, and Eugen Viktor Feller, son of a Polish-Jewish father (David Feller) and an Austrian mother (Elsa Holzer).
Eugen Feller was a famous chemist and created Elsa fluid named after his mother. According to Gian-Carlo Rota, Eugen Feller's surname was a "Slavic tongue twister", which William changed at the age of twenty. This claim appears to be false. His forename, Vilibald, was chosen by his Catholic mother for the saint day of his birthday.
Work
Feller held a docent position at the University of Kiel beginning in 1928. Because he refused to sign a Nazi oath, he fled the Nazis and went to Copenhagen, Denmark in 1933. He also lectured in Sweden (Stockholm and Lund). As a refugee in Sweden, Feller reported being troubled by increasing fascism at the universities. He reported that the mathematician Torsten Carleman would offer his opinion that Jews and foreigners should be executed.
Finally, in 1939 he arrived in the U.S. where he became a citizen in 1944 and was on the faculty at Brown and Cornell. In 1950 he became a professor at Princeton University.
The works of Feller are contained in 104 papers and two books on a variety of topics such as mathematical analysis, theory of measurement, functional analysis, geometry, and differential equations in addition to his work in mathematical statistics and probability.
Feller was one of the greatest probabilists of the twentieth century, who is remembered for his championing of probability theory as a branch of mathematical analysis in Sweden and the United States. In the middle of the 20th century, probability theory was popular in France and Russia, while mathematical statistics was more popular in the United Kingdom and the United States, according to the Swedish statistician, Harald Cramér. His two-volume textbook on probability theory and its applications was called "the most successful treatise on probability ever written" by Gian-Carlo Rota. By stimulating his colleagues and students in Sweden and then in the United States, Feller helped establish research groups studying the analytic theory of probability. In his research, Feller contributed to the study of the relationship between Markov chains and differential equations, where his theory of generators of one-parameter semigroups of stochastic processes gave rise to the theory of "Feller operators".
Results
Numerous topics relating to probability are named after him, including Feller processes, Feller's explosion test, Feller–Brown movement, and the Lindeberg–Feller theorem. Feller made fundamental contributions to renewal theory, Tauberian theorems, random walks, diffusion processes, and the law of the iterated logarithm. Feller was among those early editors who launched the journal Mathematical Reviews.
Notable books
An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, Volume I, 3rd edition (1968); 1st edn. (1950); 2nd edn. (1957)
An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, Volume II, 2nd edition (1971)
Recognition
Feller won the National Medal of Science in 1969.
He was president of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics.
In 1949, he was named a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1980.
See also
Feller condition
Beta distribution
Compound Poisson distribution
Gillespie algorithm
Kolmogorov equations
Poisson point process
Stability (probability)
St. Petersburg paradox
Stochastic process
References
External links
A biographical memoir by Murray Rosenblatt
Croatian Giants of Science - in Croatian
"Fine Hall in its golden age: Remembrances of Princeton in the early fifties" by Gian-Carlo Rota. Contains a section on Feller at Princeton.
Feller Matriculation Form giving personal details
1906 births
1970 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
20th-century Croatian people
Croatian mathematicians
Presidents of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
Probability theorists
Brown University faculty
Cornell University faculty
Princeton University faculty
University of Göttingen alumni
Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb alumni
National Medal of Science laureates
Croatian refugees
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Croatian Austro-Hungarians
Croatian people of Austrian descent
Croatian people of Polish-Jewish descent
Scientists from Zagreb
Yugoslav emigrants to the United States
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakk%20Wylde
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Zakk Wylde
|
Zachary Phillip Wylde (born Jeffrey Phillip Wielandt; January 14, 1967) is an American guitarist and singer. He is best known for his tenure as the lead guitarist for Ozzy Osbourne and as the founder, lead guitarist, and lead singer of the heavy metal band Black Label Society. His signature bulls-eye design appears on many of his guitars and is widely recognized. He was also the lead guitarist and vocalist of Pride & Glory, who released one self-titled album in 1994 before disbanding. As a solo artist, he released the albums Book of Shadows and Book of Shadows II.
Early life
Zachary Phillip Wylde was born Jeffrey Phillip Wielandt in Bayonne, New Jersey, on January 14, 1967. He is of Irish descent. He started playing guitar at the age of eight, but did not become serious about it until his early teenage years. At the age of 14, he worked at Silverton Music in Silverton, New Jersey. He grew up in Jackson, New Jersey, where he attended Jackson Memorial High School, graduating in 1985. He has stated that he often played the guitar almost non-stop between coming home from school and leaving for school the next morning, then would be completely exhausted during school the next day.
Career
Wylde played locally with his first band Stone Henge, then later with local New Jersey band Zyris. Later, he auditioned for lead guitarist and co-writer for Ozzy Osbourne. Wylde was hired to replace Jake E. Lee, who replaced Brad Gillis, who had himself replaced the deceased Randy Rhoads. Rhoads remains Wylde's foremost guitar-playing and stagecraft influence.
Wylde gravitated toward a particular Les Paul guitar, which has become known as "The Grail"; his bullseye-painted 1981 Gibson Les Paul Custom. Wylde lost the guitar in 2000 after it fell from the back of a truck transporting equipment as he was travelling between gigs in Texas. Rewards were offered to anyone that had information about the guitar. Wylde and The Grail were reunited three years later when a fan bought it at a Dallas pawn shop and saw the initials "Z.W." carved into the humbucker pickups backs. He contacted Wylde's former webmaster Randy Canis to arrange its return to Wylde. Grateful, Wylde gave the fan his signature model in exchange.
In 1995, Wylde auditioned for Guns N' Roses. Wylde was replaced in Osbourne's band by Joe Holmes from 1995 until his return in 2001. In January 2006, Wylde was recognized at the Hollywood Rock Walk of Fame, featuring his handprints and signature, in recognition of his successful career as a musician and his contribution to the music industry. The event was open to the public and many rock celebrities were present, including Ozzy Osbourne.
For a time in the mid-2000s he contributed a monthly column entitled "Brew-tality" for Guitar World magazine, discussing his techniques and equipment, as well as transcribing riffs and solo sections. After auditions in 2004/05, Ozzy Osbourne announced Wylde as the official guitarist for his album Black Rain, which was released in 2007. On stage with Osbourne, Wylde has been credited for lending a high level of energy and passion to performances.
Black Label Society headlined the second stage at the 2006 Ozzfest, with Wylde playing double duty with Ozzy Osbourne on certain dates. He also joined Osbourne for the Ozzy and Friends Tour in replacement of the Black Sabbath tour scheduled for the summer of 2012, playing a range of European dates including Graspop Metal Meeting in Belgium.
Wylde played a guitar solo on Black Veil Brides' cover of Kiss' "Unholy", on the 2011 EP Rebels.
Since 2014, Wylde has led a Black Sabbath cover band called Zakk Sabbath, handling guitar and vocal duties, joined by Rob "Blasko" Nicholson on bass and Joey Castillo (Danzig, Queens of the Stone Age) on drums, who replaced original drummer John Tempesta. JP Gaster (Clutch) occupied the drummer's seat in between, in September 2017. The band tours intermittently, and released a single, three-track vinyl-only live 12", in 2016.
Wylde, Steve Vai, Nuno Bettencourt, Yngwie Malmsteen, and Tosin Abasi were featured on the Generation Axe tour in 2016, 2017, and 2018.
Wylde joined Ozzy Osbourne's band for a select number of dates during Osbourne's 2017 summer tour, and then performed as part of the No More Tours II tour.
Personal life
Wylde and his wife, Barbaranne, have four children: Hayley Rae, Hendrix, Sabbath Page, and Jesse. Ozzy Osbourne is Jesse's godfather. Wylde is a Roman Catholic who has described himself as a "Soldier of Christ".
Wylde was a close friend of fellow guitarist "Dimebag" Darrell Abbott and dedicated the song "In This River" to Abbott after he was murdered on stage in 2004.
In August 2009, Wylde was hospitalized due to blood clots and was subsequently forced to cancel his tour with Mudvayne and Static-X. After his hospitalization, he stopped drinking alcohol.
As of 2011, Wylde has partnered with Blair's Sauces and Snacks to produce "Berserker" hot sauce and several variations. He also promotes Death Wish Coffee via his Instagram page, as they have used his name in marketing their line, "Odinforce Blend".
Equipment
Wylde is known for his use of Gibson Les Paul Custom model guitars, equipped with EMG -81 and -85 active pickups, with his signature black-and-white "bulls-eye" graphic on them, a design he used to differentiate himself visually from Randy Rhoads – who was also frequently identified by his cream-colored Les Paul Custom, the guitar Wylde has used since he was 12 years old. The "bulls-eye" paint job was originally supposed to look like the spiral from the Alfred Hitchcock movie Vertigo, but when it came back incorrect from the paint shop, he liked the result and decided to keep it. One of Wylde's favorite stage guitars is a GMW RR-V, a model that is famously known as the "Polka-dot V" Created originally by luthier Karl Sandoval of California, used by Randy Rhoads, often mistaken as a custom Flying V.
Wylde's signature Les Pauls include a red flame-maple bulls-eye model, a black and antique-white bulls-eye model, an orange "buzz-saw" model, the pattern on which was inspired by a design on a Zippo lighter, and a "camo" bulls-eye model with mother of pearl neck inlays and a green camouflage paint scheme. His original bulls-eye Les Paul was purchased from one of the owners of Metaltronix Amplification. Metaltronix was building a one-off live rig for Wylde that was designed around one of the owner's guitars, a creamy white Les Paul Custom with EMG pickups, which would later become known as "The Grail". Wylde has a custom Dean Splittail with a mud splatter bulls-eye graphic, as well as a signature Splittail shaped Gibson model called the "ZV". Another Dean in his collection is a Dime series Razorback with custom Bulls-eye graphics ordered for him specially by Dimebag Darrell shortly before his murder in 2004; since receiving the guitar, he has only ever used it on stage to play the song "In This River", Zakk's personal tribute to Dimebag.
In practice, Wylde uses Marshall MG Series practice combos ranging in wattage levels from 10-30W during tour/private use especially in hotels and buses. He has also been known to use Marshall Valvestate combo amplifiers. Wylde has an extensive relationship with Marshall Amplification due to his love for their amplifiers, both solid state and tube-driven. Live, Wylde exclusively uses Marshall JCM 800's with twin 4 X 12 Cabinets loaded with EVM12L 300W Black Label Speakers. His usual signal path consists of his guitar > (on stage pedal board) Dunlop Wylde Wah > Dunlop Wylde Rotovibe > MXR ZW Phase 90 > MXR Wylde Overdrive > MXR Carbon Copy Delay > (to a back stage pedal board) > MXR EVH Flanger > MXR Black Label Chorus > split signals, one to each distorted amp into the High Gain input.
A detailed gear diagram of Wylde's 1988 Ozzy Osbourne guitar rig is well-documented.
At the 2015 NAMM Show, Wylde announced his new company called Wylde Audio and provided a preview of his new line of custom guitars and amplifiers. Currently he now is seen playing Wylde Audio equipment almost exclusively.
Media appearances
Guest album appearances
Wylde has made guest appearances on various albums by other artists:
He contributed a guitar solo on Britny Fox's track "Six Guns Loaded" from their 1991 release, Bite Down Hard.
He guested on Blackfoot's 1994 album After the Reign playing the second solo on the title track.
He played "White Christmas" on the Merry Axemas 2 Christmas guitar album.
He appears as guest vocalist and guitarist on the tracks "Soul Bleed" and "Reborn" on Damageplan's debut album, New Found Power.
He played guitar solos on Dope's single "Addiction" from their newest album, No Regrets.
He plays a solo on the song "Wanderlust" on Fozzy's 2005 release All That Remains.
He has worked alongside Yngwie Malmsteen and others on five of Derek Sherinian's solo albums: Inertia, Black Utopia, Mythology, Blood of the Snake and Molecular Heinosity.
Wylde was a judge for the eighth annual Independent Music Awards. His contributions helped assist independent artists' careers.
In 2010, he played lead guitar on My Darkest Days' first single "Porn Star Dancing", along with guest singers Chad Kroeger and Ludacris.
In 2011, he featured in Jamey Jasta of Hatebreed's new project, Jasta, in the song "The Fearless Must Endure".
He plays the guitar solo on Black Veil Brides' cover of the Kiss song "Unholy" on their EP, Rebels.
Wylde contributed a solo to "Monument / Monolith", a song by The Rippingtons on their album Built to Last, which was released in 2012.
He contributes a guitar solo on the track Steep Climb on Eric Gales' 2014 album Good For Sumthin.
Guest live performances
On August 1, 1993, at Great Woods Amphitheatre in Mansfield, Massachusetts, Wylde appeared on stage with the Allman Brothers on lead guitar since Dickey Betts was unable to make the show, and they needed a guitarist at the last minute. This show is documented on the bootleg Zakk Goes Wylde.
Wylde performed the U.S. national anthem on the electric guitar during a New York Rangers game in October 2005. He has also played the anthem at Los Angeles Kings and Dodgers games. A video of a Kings performance is included as an extra feature on the DVD Boozed, Broozed, and Broken-Boned.
On February 1, 2007, Wylde and Nick Catanese began a tour of acoustic shows at the Hard Rock Cafe in various cities across North America. Although Catanese had to leave mid-tour due to unspecified personal reasons, Wylde continued to play shows alone. He performed several songs on both the acoustic guitar and keyboard. The tour was eventually canceled due to unspecified reasons.
On April 13, 2011, he was the guitarist for James Durbin on American Idol, during Durbin's performance of "Heavy Metal" by Sammy Hagar.
On April 20, 2011, he joined Michael Bearden and the Ese Vatos (house band for Lopez Tonight) to perform the Lenny Kravitz song "Are You Gonna Go My Way".
On May 14, 2011, Wylde performed the U.S. national anthem at Rockfest in Kansas City, Missouri.
Wylde appeared onstage December 8, 2011 in Indianapolis, Indiana, to play a cover of AC/DC's "Whole Lotta Rosie" with Guns N' Roses while Black Label Society opened for Guns N' Roses during a leg of the US tour. Wylde also did this on subsequent shows before Black Label Society finished their run on the tour.
In late 2014, Wylde appeared as one of the performers on the "Experience Hendrix 2014" tour along with Billy Cox, Eric Johnson, Jonny Lang, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Buddy Guy and others. Wylde performed "Manic Depression", "Little Wing", and "Purple Haze", as well as playing with many of the other performers.
Acting appearances
In 2001, Wylde appeared as the lead guitarist for a band called Steel Dragon in the movie Rock Star, starring Mark Wahlberg and Jennifer Aniston.
Wylde appeared as himself in the Adult Swim animated program Aqua Teen Hunger Force, in the episode "Spirit Journey Formation Anniversary" (season 2, episode 16, first broadcast on October 19, 2003).
Wylde appeared in the Californication episode "Suicide Solution" in 2011, credited as "Guitar Guy".
Wylde also appeared playing guitar alongside Lorne and other audience members in Angels season 4 episode "The Magic Bullet" in 2003.
Wylde appeared in the 2010 film Bones as Jed, Bones' uncle.
Other media
Wylde appeared in the 2008 music video game Guitar Hero World Tour as a playable character. He becomes unlocked upon defeating him in a specially recorded guitar battle and completing the Black Label Society song "Stillborn".
Discographywith Ozzy Osbourne 1988: No Rest for the Wicked
1990: Just Say Ozzy (live album)
1991: No More Tears
1993: Live & Loud (live album)
1995: Ozzmosis
2001: Down to Earth
2002: Live at Budokan (live album)
2007: Black Rainwith Pride & Glory 1994: Pride & GlorySolo 1996: Book of Shadows
2016: Book of Shadows IIwith Zakk Sabbath 2016: Live in Detroit (live EP)
2020: Vertigowith Black Label Society'''
1999: Sonic Brew 2000: Stronger than Death 2001: Alcohol Fueled Brewtality Live!! +5 2002: 1919 Eternal 2003: The Blessed Hellride 2004: Hangover Music Vol. VI 2005: Mafia 2006: Shot to Hell 2009: Skullage 2010: Order of the Black 2011: The Song Remains Not the Same 2013: Unblackened 2014: Catacombs of the Black Vatican 2018: Grimmest Hits 2019: Nuns and Roaches: Tasty Little Bastards'' (EP)
2021: "Doom Crew Inc."
References
External links
Black Label Society official website
Zakk Wylde Video Workshop on bonedo.de (in German; videos in English)
1967 births
Living people
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century Roman Catholics
American heavy metal guitarists
American male guitarists
Black Label Society members
Catholics from New Jersey
Guitarists from New Jersey
Jackson Memorial High School alumni
Lead guitarists
Musicians from Bayonne, New Jersey
The Ozzy Osbourne Band members
People from Jackson Township, New Jersey
Pride and Glory (band) members
Generation Axe members
|
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206650
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald%20von%20Nell-Breuning
|
Oswald von Nell-Breuning
|
Oswald von Nell-Breuning SJ (8 March 1890 – 21 August 1991) was a Roman Catholic theologian and sociologist.
Born in Trier, Germany into an aristocratic family, Nell-Breuning was ordained in 1921 and appointed Professor of Ethics at the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology in 1928. He was instrumental in the drafting of Pope Pius XI's social encyclical Quadragesimo anno (1931), which – like the earlier Rerum novarum (1891), after which it was named – dealt with the "Social Question" and developed the principle of subsidiarity. Nell-Breuning was not allowed to publish from 1936 to the end of Nazi Germany in 1945. After the war he lectured as an honorary professor at Goethe University at later established his own "Akademie der Arbeit" (Academy of Work). He exerted a strong influence on the social policy program of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany and had a close relationship with the German trade unions. He died in Frankfurt am Main.
References
Oswald von Nell-Breuning (1890-1991)—Katholischer Sozialethiker, Sozialphilosoph und Sozialwissenschaftler
1890 births
1991 deaths
German centenarians
20th-century German Jesuits
People from Trier
20th-century German Catholic theologians
People from the Rhine Province
German male non-fiction writers
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Men centenarians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judah%20%28son%20of%20Jacob%29
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Judah (son of Jacob)
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Judah () was, according to the Book of Genesis, the fourth of the six sons of Jacob and Leah (Jacob’s fourth son), the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Judah. By extension, he is indirectly eponymous of the Kingdom of Judah, the land of Judea and the word Jew.
According to the narrative in Genesis, Judah with Tamar is the patrilinear ancestor of the Davidic line.
The Tribe of Judah figures prominently in the Deuteronomistic history, which most scholars agree was reduced to written form, although subject to exilic and post-exilic alterations and emendations, during the reign of the Judahist reformer Josiah from 641 to 609 BC. According to Christian narrative, he was the ancestor of Jesus.
Etymology
The Hebrew name for Judah, Yehuda (יהודה), literally "thanksgiving" or "praise," is the noun form of the root Y-D-H (ידה), "to thank" or "to praise." His birth is recorded at Gen. 29:35; upon his birth, Leah exclaims, "This time I will praise the LORD/YHWH," with the Hebrew word for "I will praise," odeh (אודה) sharing the same root as Yehuda. Alternatively, Edward Lipiński connected Hebrew yĕhūdā with Arabic whd / wahda "cleft, ravine".
Biblical references
Judah is the fourth son of the patriarch Jacob and his first wife, Leah: his full brothers are Reuben, Simeon and Levi (all older), and Issachar and Zebulun (younger), Gad and Asher (younger) by Leah's handmaid, and one full sister Dinah. He has six half-brothers total.
Following his birth, Judah's next appearance is in Gen 37, when he and his brothers cast Joseph into a pit out of jealousy after Joseph approaches them, flaunting a coat of many colors, while they are working in the field. It is Judah who spots a caravan of Ishmaelites coming towards them, on its way to Egypt and suggests that Joseph be sold to the Ishmaelites rather than killed. (Gen. 37:26-28, "What profit is it if we slay our brother and conceal his blood? ... Let not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother, our flesh.")
Judah marries the daughter of Shua, a Canaanite. Judah and his wife have three children, Er, Onan, and Shelah. Er marries Tamar, but God kills him because he was wicked in His sight (Gen. 38:7). Tamar becomes Onan's wife in accordance with custom, but he too is killed after he refuses to father children for his older brother's childless widow, and spills his seed instead. Although Tamar should have married Shelah, the remaining brother, Judah did not consent, and in response Tamar deceives Judah into having intercourse with her by pretending to be a prostitute. When Judah discovers that Tamar is pregnant he prepares to have her killed, but recants and confesses when he finds out that he is the father (Gen. 38:24-26). Tamar is the mother of twins, Perez (Peretz) and Zerah (Gen. 38:27-30). The former is the patrilinear ancestor of the messiah, according to the Book of Ruth (4:18-22).
Meanwhile, Joseph rises to a position of power in Egypt. Twenty years after being betrayed, he meets his brothers again without them recognizing him. The youngest brother, Benjamin, had remained in Canaan with Jacob, so Joseph takes Simeon hostage and insists that the brothers return with Benjamin. Judah offers himself to Jacob as surety for Benjamin's safety, and manages to persuade Jacob to let them take Benjamin to Egypt. When the brothers return, Joseph tests them by demanding the enslavement of Benjamin. Judah pleads for Benjamin's life, and Joseph reveals his true identity.
Family tree
Textual criticism
Relationship between the Joseph and Judah narratives
Literary critics have focused on the relationship between the Judah story in chapter 38, and the Joseph story in chapters 37 and 39. Victor Hamilton notes some "intentional literary parallels" between the chapters, such as the exhortation to "identify" (38:25-26 and 37:32-33). J. A. Emerton, Regius Professor of Hebrew at the University of Cambridge, regards the connections as evidence for including chapter 38 in the J corpus, and suggests that the J writer dovetailed the Joseph and Judah traditions. Derek Kidner points out that the insertion of chapter 38 "creates suspense for the reader ," but Robert Alter goes further and suggests it is a result of the "brilliant splicing of sources by a literary artist." He notes that the same verb "identify" will play "a crucial thematic role in the dénouement of the Joseph story when he confronts his brothers in Egypt, he recognizing them, they failing to recognize him." Similarly, J. P. Fokkelman notes that the "extra attention" for Judah in chapter 38, "sets him up for his major role as the brothers' spokesman in Genesis 44."
Foreshadowing the hegemony of Judah
Other than Joseph (and perhaps Benjamin), Judah receives the most favorable treatment in Genesis among Jacob's sons, which according to biblical historians is a reflection on the historical primacy that the tribe of Judah possessed throughout much of Israel's history, including as the source of the Davidic line. Although Judah is only the fourth son of Leah, he is expressly depicted in Genesis as assuming a leadership role among the 10 eldest brothers, including speaking up against killing Joseph, negotiating with his father regarding Joseph's demand that Benjamin be brought down to Egypt, and pleading with Joseph after the latter secrets the silver cup into Benjamin's bag.
Judah's position is further enhanced through the downfall of his older brothers: Reuben, the eldest, cedes his birthright through sexual misconduct with Jacob's concubine Bilhah (Gen. 35:22), and the bloody revenge taken by Simeon and Levi following the rape of Dinah (Gen. chap. 34). disqualifies them as leaders. The eternal legacy of these events are foreshadowed in the deathbed blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49:1-33), which has been attributed according to the documentary hypothesis to the pro-Judah Yahwist source. In Jacob's blessing, Reuben has "not the excellency" to lead "because thou went up to thy father's bed, then defiled [it]"; meanwhile, Simeon and Levi are condemned as "cruel" and "weapons of violence [are] their kinship." (Gen. 49.:3-7.) On the other hand, Judah is praised as "a lion's whelp" whose brothers "shall bow down before thee," and "the sceptre shall not depart from Judah" (Genesis 49:10), the latter a clear reference to the aspirations of the united monarchy.
Archaeologist and scholar Israel Finkelstein argues that these and other pro-Judah narrative strands likely originated after the demise of the Kingdom of Israel in the 8th Century BCE: "[I]t was only after the fall of Israel that Judah grew into a fully developed state with the necessary complement of professional priests and trained scribes able to undertake such a task. When Judah suddenly faced the non-Israelite world on its own, it needed a defining and motivating text. That text was the historical core of the Bible, composed in Jerusalem in the course of the seventh century BCE. And because Judah was the birthplace of ancient Israel's central scripture, it is hardly surprising that the biblical text repeatedly stresses Judah's special status from the very beginnings of Israel's history.... [In Genesis], it was Judah, among all of Jacob's sons, whose destiny was to rule over all the other tribes in Israel."
The story of Judah and Tamar in the historical context
Emerton notes that it is "widely agreed" that the story of Judah and Tamar "reflects a period after the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan." He also suggests the possibility that it contains "aetiological motifs concerned with the eponymous ancestors of the clans of Judah." Emerton notes that Dillman and Noth considered the account of the deaths of Er and Onan to "reflect the dying out of two clans of Judah bearing their names, or at least of their failure to maintain a separate existence." However, this view was "trenchantly criticized" by Thomas L. Thompson.
Jewish tradition
Rabbinic commentaries
The text of the Torah argues that the name of Judah, meaning to thank or admit, refers to Leah's intent to thank Hashem, on account of having achieved four children, and derived from odeh, meaning I will give thanks. In classical rabbinical literature, the name is interpreted as a combination of Yahweh and a dalet (the letter d); in Gematria, the dalet has the numerical value 4, which these rabbinical sources argue refers to Judah being Jacob's fourth son. Since Leah was matriarch, Jewish scholars think the text's authors believed the tribe was part of the original Israelite confederation; however, it is worthy of note that the tribe of Judah was not purely Israelite, but contained a large admixture of non-Israelites, with a number of Kenizzite groups, the Jerahmeelites, and the Kenites, merging into the tribe at various points.
Classical rabbinical sources refer to the passage "... a ruler came from Judah", from , to imply that Judah was the leader of his brothers, terming him the king. This passage also describes Judah as the strongest of his brothers in which rabbinical literature portray him as having had extraordinary physical strength, able to shout for over 400 parasangs, able to crush iron into dust by his mouth, and with hair that stiffened so much, when he became angry, that it pierced his clothes.
Classical rabbinical sources also allude to a war between the Canaanites and Judah's family (not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible), as a result of their destruction of Shechem in revenge for the rape of Dinah; Judah features heavily as a protagonist in accounts of this war. In these accounts Judah kills Jashub, king of Tappuah, in hand-to-hand combat, after first having deposed Jashub from his horse by throwing an extremely heavy stone (60 shekels in weight) at him from a large distance away (the Midrash Wayissau states 177⅓ cubits, while other sources have only 30 cubits); the accounts say that Judah was able to achieve this even though he was himself under attack, from arrows which Jashub was shooting at him with both hands. The accounts go on to state that while Judah was trying to remove Jashub's armour from his corpse, nine assistants of Jashub fell upon him in combat, but after Judah killed one, he scared away the others; nevertheless, Judah killed several members of Jashub's army (42 men according to the midrashic Book of Jasher, but 1000 men according to the Testament of Judah).
According to some classical sources, Jacob suspected that Judah had killed Joseph, especially, according to the Midrash Tanhuma, when Judah was the one who had brought the blood stained coat to Jacob.
Since rabbinical sources held Judah to have been the leader of his brothers, these sources also hold that the other nine brothers blamed him to be responsible for this deception, even if it was not Judah himself who brought the coat to Jacob. Even if Judah had been trying to save Joseph, the classical rabbinical sources still regard him negatively for it; these sources argue that, as the leader of the brothers, Judah should have made more effort, and carried Joseph home to Jacob on his (Judah's) own shoulders. These sources argue that Judah's brothers, after witnessing Jacob's grief at the loss of Joseph, deposed and excommunicated Judah, as the brothers held Judah entirely responsible, since they would have brought Joseph home if Judah had asked them to do so. Divine punishment, according to such classical sources, was also inflicted on Judah in punishment; the death of Er and Onan, and of his wife, are portrayed in by such classical rabbis as being acts of divine retribution.
When Benjamin was held in bondage following the accusation of stealing Joseph's cup, Judah offered himself among his brethren as a bondman in replace of him, but Joseph was strict that the punishment is only applied to the one who was guilty, not to the innocent ones.
According to classical rabbinical literature, because Judah had proposed that he should take any blame forever, this ultimately led to his bones being rolled around his coffin without cease, while it was being carried during the Exodus, until Moses interceded with God, by arguing that Judah's confession (in regard to cohabiting with Tamar) had led to Reuben confessing his own incest. Apparently, Judah learned a lesson from his experience with Tamar that he must be responsible for those around him and this eventually prepares him for his future reconciliatory encounter with Joseph.
Genesis Rabbah, and particularly the midrashic book of Jasher, expand on this by describing Judah's plea as much more extensive than given in the Torah, and more vehement.
The classical rabbinical literature argues that Judah reacted violently to the threat against Benjamin, shouting so loudly that Hushim, who was then in Canaan, was able to hear Judah ask him to travel to Egypt, to help Judah destroy it; some sources have Judah angrily picking up an extremely heavy stone (400 shekels in weight), throwing it into the air, then grinding it to dust with his feet once it had landed. These rabbinical sources argue that Judah had Naphtali enumerate the districts of Egypt, and after finding out that there were 12 (historically, there were actually 20 in Lower Egypt and 22 in Upper Egypt), he decided to destroy three himself, and have his brothers destroy one of the remaining districts each; the threat of destroying Egypt was, according to these sources, what really motivated Joseph to reveal himself to his brothers.
Testament of Judah
Before his death, Judah told his children about his bravery and heroism in the wars against the kings of Canaan and the family of Esau, also confessed his shortcomings caused by wine that led him astray in his relationship with Bathshua and Tamar. Judah admonished his sons not to love gold, and not to look upon the beauty of women, for through these things, the sons of Judah will fall into misery. In his last words, he reminded them to observe the whole law of the Lord.
Dating the lifetime of Judah
According to Classical rabbinical literature, Judah was born on 15 Sivan (early June); classical sources differ on the date of death, with the Book of Jubilees advocating a death at age 119, 18 years before Levi, but the midrashic Book of Jasher advocating a death at the age of 129.
The marriage of Judah and births of his children are described in a passage widely regarded as an abrupt change to the surrounding narrative. The passage is often regarded as presenting a significant chronological issue, as the surrounding context appears to constrain the events of the passage to happening within 22 years, and the context together with the passage itself requires the birth of the grandson of Judah and of his son's wife, and the birth of that son, to have happened within this time (to be consistent, this requires an average of less than 8 years gap per generation). According to textual scholars, the reason for the abrupt interruption this passage causes to the surrounding narrative, and the chronological anomaly it seems to present, is that it derives from the Jahwist source, while the immediately surrounding narrative is from the Elohist.
See also
Lion of Judah
References
Bibliography
Winckler, Hugo; Geschichte Israels (Berlin, 1895)
Meyer, Eduard; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme (Halle, 1906)
Haupt, Paul; Studien ... Welthausen gewidmet (Giessen, 1914)
External links
Founders of biblical tribes
Children of Jacob
Book of Genesis people
Tribe of Judah
Book of Jubilees
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Persian
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Judeo-Persian
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Judeo-Persian refers to both a group of Jewish dialects spoken by the Jews living in Iran and Judeo-Persian texts (written in Hebrew alphabet). As a collective term, Judeo-Persian refers to a number of Judeo-Iranian languages spoken by Jewish communities throughout the formerly extensive Persian Empire, including the Mountain and Bukharan Jewish communities.
The speakers refer to their language as Fārsi. Some non-Jews refer to it as "dzhidi" (also written as "zidi", "judi" or "jidi"), which means "Jewish" in a derogatory sense.
Judeo-Persian is basically the Persian language written in Hebrew Alphabet. However, it is often confused with other Judeo-Iranian languages and dialects spoken by the Iranian Jewish communities, such as Judeo-Shirazi, Judeo-Hamadani and Judeo-Kashani.
Persian words in Hebrew and Aramaic
The earliest evidence of the entrance of Persian words into the language of the Israelites is found in the Bible. The post-exilic portions, Hebrew as well as Aramaic, contain besides many Persian proper names and titles, a number of nouns, such as dat (or daad in current Persian) = "law", genez (or ganj in current Persian) = "treasure", pardes (or pardis or ferdos in current Persian) = "garden" (which is the main root of the English word "paradise"), which came into permanent use at the time of the Achaemenid Empire.
More than five hundred years after the end of that dynasty, the Jews of the Babylonian diaspora again came under the dominion of the Persians; and among such Jews the Persian language held a position similar to that held by the Greek language among the Jews of the West. Persian became to a great extent the language of everyday life among the Jews of Babylonia; and a hundred years after the conquest of that country by the Sassanids, an amora of Pumbedita, Rab Joseph (d. 323 CE), declared that the Babylonian Jews had no right to speak Aramaic, and should instead use either Hebrew or Persian. Aramaic, however, remained the language of the Jews in Israel as well as of those in Babylonia, although in the latter country a large number of Persian words found their way into the language of daily intercourse and into that of the schools, a fact which is attested by the numerous Persian derivatives in the Babylonian Talmud. But in the Aramaic Targum there are very few Persian words, because after the middle of the third century the Targumim on the Pentateuch and the Prophets were accepted as authoritative and received a fixed textual form in the Babylonian schools. In this way they were protected from the introduction of Persian elements.
Literature
There is an extensive Judeo-Persian poetic religious literature, closely modeled on classical Persian poetry. The most famous poet was Mowlānā Shāhin-i Shirāzi (14th century CE), who composed epic versifications of parts of the Bible, such as the Musā-nāmah (an epic poem recounting the story of Moses); later poets composed lyric poetry of a Sufi cast. Much of this literature was collected around the beginning of the twentieth century by the ּּBukharian rabbi Shimon Hakham, who founded a printing press in Israel.
Biblical epics
Mowlānā Shāhin-i Shirāzi
Bereshit-nāmah (The Book of Genesis)
Musā-nāmah (The Book of Moses)
Ardashir-nāmah (The Book of Ardashir): Describing the story of Esther
Ezra-nāmah (The Book of Ezra)
Emrāni
Fath-nāmah (The Book of Conquest): Details Joshua's conquest of Jericho
The Book of Ruth
Aharon b. Mashiach
Shoftim-nāmah (The Book of Judges)
Khwājah Bukhārā'i
Dāniyāal-nāamah (The Book of Daniel)
Mishnah and midrash
Emrāni: Ganj-nāmah (The Book of Treasure): Poetic elaboration on the mishnaic tractate of Abot
Biblical commentaries
Shimon Hakham: Commentary on Exodus 3-4
Historical texts
Bābāi b. Lutf: Kitab-i Anusi (The Book of a Forced Convert)
Bābāi b. Farhād: Kitāb-i Sar guzasht-i Kāshān (The Book of Events in Kashan)
Religious poems
Haft Baradam: A poem read on the fast of Tish'a BeAb based on the story of Hannah and her seven sons
Sheshom Dar (ששום דר): A poem read on the festival of Shavuot detailing the commandments, based on the Azharot literature
Shira-ye Hatani, or Shira, often beginning with the words "Shodi hātān mobarak bād" (שדִי חתן מבארך באד): Verses sung at weddings and festive occasions. Originally composed for the groom during the Shabbat Hatan (the shabbat following the wedding)
Aminā:
In Praise of Moses
A Ghazal on the Twelve Tribes
See also
Judæo-Persian languages
Judeo-Tat language
Persian Jews
Notes
References
Judæo-Persian (from the 1906 Public Domain Jewish Encyclopedia)
Vera Basch Moreen (tr. and ed.), In Queen Esther's Garden: An Anthology of Judeo-Persian Literature (Yale Judaica): Yale 2000,
Moreen, Vera B. "The Legend of Adam in the Judeo-Persian Epic" Bereshit [Nāmah]"(14th Century)." Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. American Academy of Jewish Research, 1990.
External links
Judeo-Persian Literature, Encyclopædia Iranica
Judeo-Persian Language, Encyclopædia Iranica
Jewish dialect of Isfahan, Encyclopædia Iranica
Judæo-Persian literature (from Jewish Encyclopedia)
Article from Jewish Languages site
A tantalising find from the Jews of medieval Afghanistan
On Judeo-Persian Language and Literature | Part One: State of the Field
Video Archive of Authentic Dialects 7dorim.com (Persian)
Judeo-Persian languages
Persian dialects and varieties
Endangered Iranian languages
Endangered languages of Iran
Languages of Israel
Jews and Judaism in Persia and Iran
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206657
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Shangri-La
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USS Shangri-La
|
USS Shangri-La (CV/CVA/CVS-38) was one of 24 s completed during or shortly after World War II for the United States Navy.
Commissioned in 1944 and named after the mythical paradise of the same name, Shangri-La participated in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations in World War II, earning two battle stars. Like many of her sister ships, she was decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, but was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s, and redesignated as an attack carrier (CVA). She operated in both the Pacific and Atlantic / Mediterranean for several years, and late in her career was redesignated as an anti-submarine carrier (CVS). She earned three battle stars for service in the Vietnam War.
Shangri-La was decommissioned in 1971 and sold for scrap in 1988.
Nomenclature
The naming of the ship was a radical departure from the general practice of the time, which was to name aircraft carriers after battles or previous US Navy ships. After the Doolittle Raid, launched from the aircraft carrier , President Roosevelt answered a reporter's question by saying that the raid had been launched from "Shangri-La", the fictional faraway land of the James Hilton novel Lost Horizon.
Construction and commissioning
Shangri-La was one of the "long-hull" Essex-class ships. She was laid down by the Norfolk Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, Virginia, on 15 January 1943, and was launched on 24 February 1944, sponsored by Josephine Doolittle (wife of Jimmy Doolittle). Shangri-La was commissioned on 15 September 1944, with Captain James D. Barner in command.
Service history
World War II
Shangri-La completed fitting out at Norfolk and took her shakedown cruise to Trinidad, between 15 September and 21 December 1944, at which time she returned to Norfolk. On 17 January 1945, she stood out of Hampton Roads, formed up with large cruiser and destroyer , and sailed for Panama. The three ships arrived at Cristobal, Panama Canal Zone on 23 January and transited the canal the next day. Shangri-La departed from Balboa on 25 January and arrived at San Diego, California, on 4 February. There she loaded passengers, stores, and extra planes for transit to Hawaii and got underway on 7 February. Upon her arrival at Pearl Harbor on 15 February, she commenced two months of duty, qualifying land-based Navy pilots in carrier landings.
On 10 April, she weighed anchor for Ulithi Atoll where she arrived 10 days later. After an overnight stay in the lagoon, Shangri-La departed Ulithi in company with destroyers and to report for duty with Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher's Task Force 58 (TF 58). On 24 April, she joined Task Group 58.4 (TG 58.4) while it was conducting a fueling rendezvous with TG 50.8. The next day, Shangri-La and her air group, CVG-85, launched their first strike against the Japanese. The target was Okino Daito Jima, a group of islands several hundred miles to the southeast of Okinawa. Her planes successfully destroyed radar and radio installations there and, upon their recovery, the task group sailed for Okinawa. Shangri-La supplied combat air patrols for the task group and close air support for the 10th Army on Okinawa before returning to Ulithi on 14 May.
While at Ulithi, Shangri-La became the flagship of Carrier Task Force 2. Vice Admiral John S. McCain, Sr. hoisted his flag on Shangri-La on 18 May. Six days later, TG 58.4, with Shangri-La in company, sortied from the lagoon. On 28 May, TG 58.4 became TG 38.4 and McCain relieved Mitscher as Commander, TF 38, retaining Shangri-La as his flagship. On 2–3 June, the task force launched air strikes on the Japanese home islands – aimed particularly at Kyūshū, the southernmost of the major islands. Facing the stiffest airborne resistance to date, Shangri-Las airmen suffered their heaviest casualties.
On 4–5 June, she moved off to the northwest to avoid a typhoon; then, on 6 June, her planes returned to close air support duty over Okinawa. On 8 June, her air group hit Kyūshū again, and, on the following day, they came back to Okinawa. On 10 June, the task force cleared Okinawa for Leyte, conducting drills en route. Shangri-La entered Leyte Gulf and anchored in San Pedro Bay on 13 June. She remained at anchor there for the rest of June, engaged in upkeep and recreation.
On 1 July, Shangri-La got underway from Leyte to return to the combat zone. On the 2nd, the oath of office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air was administered to John L. Sullivan on board Shangri-La, the first ceremony of its type ever undertaken in a combat zone. Eight days later, her air group commenced a series of air strikes against Japan which lasted until the capitulation on 15 August.
Shangri-Las planes ranged the length of the island chain during these raids. On the 10th, they attacked Tokyo, the first raid there since the strikes of the previous February. On 14–15 July, they pounded Honshū and Hokkaidō and, on 18 July, returned to Tokyo, also bombing battleship , moored close to shore at Yokosuka. From 20–22 July, Shangri-La joined the logistics group for fuel, replacement aircraft, and mail. By 24 July, her pilots were attacking shipping in the vicinity of Kure. They returned the next day for a repeat performance, before departing for a two-day replenishment period on 26–27 July. On the following day, Shangri-Las aircraft damaged light cruiser and battleship , the latter so badly that she beached and flooded. She later had to be abandoned. They pummeled Tokyo again on 30 July, then cleared the area to replenish on 31 July and 1 August.
Shangri-La spent the next four days in the retirement area waiting for a typhoon to pass. On 9 August, after heavy fog had caused the cancellation of the previous day's missions, the carrier sent her planes aloft to bomb Honshū and Hokkaido once again. The next day, they raided Tokyo and central Honshū, then retired from the area for logistics. She evaded another typhoon on 11–12 August, then hit Tokyo again on 13 August. After replenishing on 14 August, she sent planes to strike the airfields around Tokyo on the morning of 15 August 1945. Soon thereafter, Japan's capitulation was announced; and the fleet was ordered to cease hostilities. Shangri-La steamed around in the strike area from 15–23 August, patrolling the Honshū area on the latter date. From 23 August – 16 September, her planes sortied on missions of mercy, air-dropping supplies to Allied prisoners of war in Japan.
Shangri-La entered Tokyo Bay on 16 September, almost two weeks after the surrender ceremony onboard battleship , and remained there until 1 October. Departing Japan, she arrived at Okinawa on 4 October staying until 6 October, and then headed for the United States in company with Task Unit 38.1.1. She sailed into San Pedro Bay, on 21 October and stayed at Long Beach for three weeks. On 5 November, she shifted to San Diego, departing that port a month later for Bremerton, Washington. She entered Puget Sound on 9 December, underwent availability until 30 December, and then returned to San Diego.
Post-war
Upon her return, Shangri-La began normal operations out of San Diego, primarily engaged in pilot carrier landing qualifications. In May 1946, she sailed for the Central Pacific to participate in Operation Crossroads, the atomic bomb tests conducted at Bikini Atoll. Following this, she made a brief training cruise to Pearl Harbor, then wintered at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. In March 1947, she deployed again, calling at Pearl Harbor and Sydney, Australia. When she returned to the United States, Shangri-La was decommissioned and placed in the Reserve Fleet at San Francisco on 7 November 1947.
Shangri-La recommissioned on 10 May 1951, Captain Francis L. Busey in command. For the next year, she conducted training and readiness operations out of Boston, Massachusetts. Reclassified as an attack carrier (CVA-38) in 1952, she returned to Puget Sound that fall and decommissioned again on 14 November, this time for modernization at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. During the next two years, she received an angled flight deck and twin steam catapults, and her aircraft elevators and arresting gear were overhauled. At a cost of approximately $7 million, she was virtually a new ship when she commissioned for the third time on 10 January 1955, Captain Roscoe L. Newman commanding; she was the second (after ) operational U.S. carrier with an angled flight deck. She conducted intensive fleet training for the remainder of 1955, then deployed to the Far East on 5 January 1956. Until 1960, she alternated western Pacific cruises with operations out of San Diego. On 16 March 1960, she put to sea from San Diego en route to her new home port, Mayport, Florida. She entered Mayport after visits to Callao, Peru; Valparaíso, Chile; Port of Spain, Trinidad; Bayonne, New Jersey; and Norfolk, Virginia.
After six weeks of underway training in the local operating area around Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, she embarked upon her first Atlantic deployment, a NATO exercise followed by liberty in Southampton, England. Almost immediately after her return to Mayport, Shangri-La was ordered back to sea—this time to the Caribbean in response to trouble in Guatemala and Nicaragua. She returned to Mayport on 25 November and remained in port for more than two months.
Between 1961 and 1970, Shangri-La alternated between deployments to the Mediterranean and operations in the western Atlantic, out of Mayport. She sailed east for her first tour of duty with the 6th Fleet on 2 February 1961. She returned to the United States that fall and entered the New York Naval Shipyard. Back in Mayport by the beginning of 1962, Shangri-La stood out again for the Mediterranean on 7 February. After about six months of cruising with the 6th Fleet, she departed the Mediterranean in mid-August and arrived in Mayport on 28 August.
Following a month's stay at her home port, the aircraft carrier headed for New York and a major overhaul. Shangri-La was modified extensively during her stay in the yard. Four of her 5 in (127 mm) mounts were removed, but she received a new air search and height finding radar and a new arrester system. In addition, much of her electrical and engineering equipment was renovated. After sea trials and visits to Bayonne and Norfolk, Shangri-La returned to Mayport for a week in late March 1963; then put to sea for operations in the Caribbean. Eight months of similar duty followed before Shangri-La weighed anchor for another deployment. On 1 October 1963, she headed back to the 6th Fleet for a seven-month tour.
Vietnam
Shangri-La continued her United States Second Fleet and Sixth Fleet assignments for the next six years. From 15 February 1965 to 20 September 1965, she made a Mediterranean deployment with Carrier Air Wing 10 embarked.
In the fall of 1965, Shangri-La was accidentally rammed by the destroyer during war games. Shangri-La was struck below the waterline, breaching the hull. On the destroyer, one man was killed and another injured. The ship itself suffered a bent hull. There were no casualties on the carrier and the hole was quickly patched. As a result of this incident, she underwent an extensive overhaul during the winter of 1965 and the spring of 1966, this time at Philadelphia, then resumed operations as before. On 30 June 1969, she was redesignated an antisubmarine warfare carrier (CVS-38).
In 1970, Shangri-La returned to the western Pacific after an absence of 10 years. She got underway from Mayport on 5 March, stopped at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 13–16 March, and headed east through the Atlantic and Indian oceans. She arrived in Subic Bay, Philippines on 4 April, and during the next seven months launched combat sorties from Yankee Station. Her tours of duty on Yankee Station were punctuated by frequent logistics trips to Subic Bay, by visits to Manila and Hong Kong, in October, and by 12 days in drydock at Yokosuka, Japan, in July.
On 9 November, Shangri-La stood out of Subic Bay to return home. En route to Mayport, she visited Sydney, Australia; Wellington, New Zealand; and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She arrived in Mayport on 16 December and began preparations for inactivation. After inactivation overhaul at the Boston Naval Shipyard, South Annex, Shangri-La decommissioned on 30 July 1971. She was placed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and berthed at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard.
Fate
Shangri-La remained in the reserve fleet for the next 11 years, and was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 July 1982. She was retained by MARAD for several years to provide spare parts for the training carrier . On 9 August 1988, she was sold for scrap and later towed to Taiwan for demolition.
One of Shangri-Las four propellers is on display outside Meding's Seafood in Milford, Delaware.
On 6 September 2017, USS Shangri-Las bell was placed on display at Jacksonville University NROTC Building as a permanent loan. The bell was found by a farmer in his field at Hudson, Florida, on June 2017. He notified the USS Shangri La Reunion Group, who repaired and restored the bell before loaning it to the NROTC unit.
Awards
Shangri-La earned two battle stars for World War II service and three battle stars for service in the Vietnam War.
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation
Navy Expeditionary Medal
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (2 battle stars )
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal (with Asia clasp)
China Service Medal (extended)
National Defense Service Medal (2)
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
Vietnam Service Medal (3 battle stars)
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Gallery
See also
List of aircraft carriers
List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
References
External links
USS Shangri-La Reunion Association homepage
Naval History and Heritage Command
1944 ships
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Portsmouth, Virginia
Ticonderoga-class aircraft carriers
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC%201103
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UNIVAC 1103
|
The UNIVAC 1103 or ERA 1103, a successor to the UNIVAC 1101, was a computer system designed by Engineering Research Associates and built by the Remington Rand corporation in October 1953. It was the first computer for which Seymour Cray was credited with design work.
History
Even before the completion of the Atlas (UNIVAC 1101), the Navy asked Engineering Research Associates to design a more powerful machine. This project became Task 29, and the computer was designated Atlas II.
In 1952, Engineering Research Associates asked the Armed Forces Security Agency (the predecessor of the NSA) for approval to sell the Atlas II commercially. Permission was given, on the condition that several specialized instructions would be removed. The commercial version then became the UNIVAC 1103. Because of security classification, Remington Rand management was unaware of this machine before this. The first commercially sold UNIVAC 1103 was sold to the aircraft manufacturer Convair, where Marvin Stein worked with it.
Remington Rand announced the UNIVAC 1103 in February 1953. The machine competed with the IBM 701 in the scientific computation market. In early 1954, a committee of the Joint Chiefs of Staff requested that the two machines be compared for the purpose of using them for a Joint Numerical Weather Prediction project. Based on the trials, the two machines had comparable computational speed, with a slight advantage for IBM's machine, but the latter was favored unanimously for its significantly faster input-output equipment.
The successor machine was the UNIVAC 1103A or Univac Scientific, which improved upon the design by replacing the unreliable Williams tube memory with magnetic-core memory, adding hardware floating-point instructions, and perhaps the earliest occurrence of a hardware interrupt feature.
Technical details
The system used electrostatic storage, consisting of 36 Williams tubes with a capacity of 1024 bits each, giving a total random-access memory of 1024 words of 36 bits each. Each of the 36 Williams tubes was five inches in diameter. A magnetic drum memory provided 16,384 words. Both the electrostatic and drum memories were directly addressable: addresses 0 through 01777 (Octal) were in electrostatic memory and 040000 through 077777 (Octal) were on the drum.
Fixed-point numbers had a 1-bit sign and a 35-bit value, with negative values represented in ones' complement format.
Instructions had a 6-bit operation code and two 15-bit operand addresses.
Programming systems for the machine included the RECO regional coding assembler by Remington-Rand, the RAWOOP one-pass assembler and SNAP floating point interpretive system authored by the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation of Los Angeles, the FLIP floating point arithmetic interpretive system by Consolidated Vultee Aircraft of San Diego, and the CHIP floating point interpretive system by Wright Field in Ohio.
UNIVAC 1103/A weighed about .
1103A
The UNIVAC 1103A or Univac Scientific was an upgraded version introduced in March 1956.
Significant new features on the 1103A were its magnetic-core memory and the addition of interrupts to the processor. The UNIVAC 1103A had up to 12,288 words of 36-bit magnetic core memory, in one to three banks of 4,096 words each.
Fixed-point numbers had a one-bit sign and a 35-bit value, with negative values represented in ones' complement format. Floating-point numbers had a one-bit sign, an eight-bit characteristic, and a 27-bit mantissa. Instructions had a six-bit operation code and two 15-bit operand addresses.
The 1103A was contemporary with, and a competitor to, the IBM 704, which also employed vacuum-tube logic, magnetic-core memory, and floating-point hardware.
A version of this machine was sold to the Lewis Research Center, NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) in Cleveland, Ohio. It had the first magnetic core of 1096 words of 36 bits. The magnetic drum storage had a capacity of 16,384 words, and the clock speed was 500KHz. Input/output was teletype paper tape. When NACA became NASA in 1958, a series of improvements was begun to improve functionality and reliability. Over the next ten years, the machine was significantly upgraded by replacing the magnetic core with a commercial solid state 16,384 word magnetic core system. An 8 unit magnetic tape system, a floating point arithmetic unit, and an indirect addressing unit were designed and built in-house. All solid-state commercial electronics modules were interfaced to the vacuum tube electronics in the original machine.
1104
The 1104 system was a 30-bit version of the 1103 built for Westinghouse Electric in 1957, for use on the BOMARC Missile Program. However, by the time the BOMARC was deployed in the 1960s, a more modern computer (a version of the AN/USQ-20, designated the G-40) had replaced the UNIVAC 1104.
See also
List of UNIVAC products
History of computing hardware
List of vacuum tube computers
References
Further reading
Oral history interviews on ERA 1103, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Interviewees include William W. Butler; Arnold A. Cohen; William C. Norris; Frank C. Mullaney; Marvin L. Stein; and James E. Thornton.
1103
Military computers
Vacuum tube computers
36-bit computers
|
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] |
206662
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65%20Cybele
|
65 Cybele
|
Cybele, minor planet designation 65 Cybele, is one of the largest asteroids in the Solar System and is located in the outer asteroid belt. It gives its name to the Cybele group of asteroids that orbit outward from the Sun from the 2:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter. The X-type asteroid has a relatively short rotation period of 6.0814 hours. It was discovered by Wilhelm Tempel in 1861, and named after Cybele, the earth goddess.
Discovery and naming
Cybele was discovered on 8 March 1861, by German astronomer Wilhelm Tempel from the Marseilles Observatory in southeastern France. A minor controversy arose from its naming process. Tempel had awarded the honour of naming the asteroid to Carl August von Steinheil in recognition of his achievements in telescope production. Von Steinheil elected to name it "Maximiliana" after the reigning monarch Maximilian II of Bavaria. At the time, asteroids were conventionally given classical names, and a number of astronomers protested this contemporary appellation. The name Cybele was chosen instead, referring to the Phrygian goddess of the earth. (The previously discovered 45 Eugenia, 54 Alexandra, and 64 Angelina had nevertheless also been given non-classical names; 64 Angelina had also been discovered by Tempel, but its name stood despite similar protests.)
Physical characteristics
The first Cybelian stellar occultation was observed on 17 October 1979, in the Soviet Union. The asteroid appeared to have an irregular shape, with the longest chord being measured as 245 km, closely matching results determined by the IRAS satellite in 1983 (see below). During the same 1979 occultation, a hint of a possible 11 km wide minor-planet moon at 917 km distance was detected, but has since never been corroborated. As of 2017, neither the Asteroid Lightcurve Data Base nor Johnstons archive consider Cybele to be a binary asteroid.
Diameter estimates
Mean-diameter estimates for Cybele range between 218.56 and 300.54 kilometers. According to observations by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS in 1983, the asteroid has a diameter of 237.26 km. The NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer gave a diameter of 218.56 and 276.58 km. The largest estimates of 300.54 km is from the Japanese Akari satellite. In 2004, Müller estimated Cybele using thermophysical modelling (TPM) to have dimensions of 302 × 290 × 232 km, which corresponds to a mean-diameter of 273.0 km.
Spectrum
Examination of the asteroid's infrared spectrum shows an absorption feature that is similar to the one present in the spectrum of 24 Themis. This can be explained by the presence of water ice. The asteroid may be covered in a layer of fine silicate dust mixed with small amounts of water-ice and organic solids.
Recent occultations
On August 24, 2008, Cybele occulted 2UCAC 24389317, a 12.7-magnitude star in the constellation Ophiuchus which showed a long axis of at least 294 km. On 11 October 2009, Cybele occulted a 13.4-magnitude star in the constellation Aquarius.
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves – (17) Thetis at Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
000065
Discoveries by Wilhelm Tempel
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
000065
000065
000065
000065
18610308
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minstrel%20show
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Minstrel show
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The minstrel show, also called minstrelsy, was an American form of racist entertainment developed in the early 19th century. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that depicted people specifically of African descent. The shows were performed by mostly white people in make-up or blackface for the purpose of playing the role of black people. There were also some African-American performers and black-only minstrel groups that formed and toured. Minstrel shows lampooned black people as dim-witted, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious, and happy-go-lucky.
Minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic entr'actes in the early 1830s in the Northeastern states. They were developed into full-fledged form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience.
By the turn of the 20th century, the minstrel show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity, having been replaced for the most part by vaudeville. The form survived as professional entertainment until about 1910; amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools and local theaters.
The genre has had a lasting legacy and influence and was featured in a television series as recently as the mid-1970s. Generally, as the civil rights movement progressed and gained acceptance, minstrelsy lost popularity.
The typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs. The second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical plantation skit or a send-up of a popular play.
Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated. Spirituals (known as jubilees) entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy.
Blackface minstrelsy was the first theatrical form that was distinctly American. During the 1830s and 1840s at the height of its popularity, it was at the epicenter of the American music industry. For several decades, it provided the means through which American whites viewed black people. On the one hand, it had strong racist aspects; on the other, it afforded white Americans more awareness, albeit distorted, of some aspects of black culture in America.
Although the minstrel shows were extremely popular, being "consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group", they were also controversial. Integrationists decried them as falsely showing happy slaves while at the same time making fun of them; segregationists thought such shows were "disrespectful" of social norms as they portrayed runaway slaves with sympathy and would undermine slavery.
History
Early development
Minstrel shows were popular before slavery was abolished, sufficiently so that Frederick Douglass described blackface performers as "...the filthy scum of white society, who have stolen from us a complexion denied them by nature, in which to make money, and pander to the corrupt taste of their white fellow citizens." Although white theatrical portrayals of black characters date back to as early as 1604, the minstrel show as such has later origins. By the late 18th century, blackface characters began appearing on the American stage, usually as "servant" types whose roles did little more than provide some element of comic relief. Eventually, similar performers appeared in entr'actes in New York theaters and other venues such as taverns and circuses. As a result, the blackface "Sambo" character came to supplant the "tall-tale-telling Yankee" and "frontiersman" character-types in popularity, and white actors such as Charles Mathews, George Washington Dixon, and Edwin Forrest began to build reputations as blackface performers. Author Constance Rourke even claimed that Forrest's impression was so good he could fool blacks when he mingled with them in the streets.
Thomas Dartmouth Rice's successful song-and-dance number, "Jump Jim Crow", brought blackface performance to a new level of prominence in the early 1830s. At the height of Rice's success, The Boston Post wrote, "The two most popular characters in the world at the present are [Queen] Victoria and Jim Crow." As early as the 1820s, blackface performers called themselves "Ethiopian delineators"; from then into the early 1840s, unlike the later heyday of minstrelsy, they performed either solo or in small teams.
Blackface soon found a home in the taverns of New York's less respectable precincts of Lower Broadway, the Bowery, and Chatham Street. It also appeared on more respectable stages, most often as an entr'acte. Upper-class houses at first limited the number of such acts they would show, but beginning in 1841, blackface performers frequently took to the stage at even the classy Park Theatre, much to the dismay of some patrons. Theater was a participatory activity, and the lower classes came to dominate the playhouse. They threw things at actors or orchestras who performed unpopular material, and rowdy audiences eventually prevented the Bowery Theatre from staging high drama at all. Typical blackface acts of the period were short burlesques, often with mock Shakespearean titles like "Hamlet the Dainty", "Bad Breath, the Crane of Chowder", "Julius Sneezer" or "Dars-de-Money".
Meanwhile, at least some whites were interested in black song and dance by actual black performers. Nineteenth-century New York slaves shingle danced for spare change on their days off, and musicians played what they claimed to be "Negro music" on so-called black instruments like the banjo. The New Orleans Picayune wrote that a singing New Orleans street vendor called Old Corn Meal would bring "a fortune to any man who would start on a professional tour with him". Rice responded by adding a "Corn Meal" skit to his act. Meanwhile, there had been several attempts at legitimate black stage performance, the most ambitious probably being New York's African Grove theater, founded and operated by free blacks in 1821, with a repertoire drawing heavily on Shakespeare. A rival theater company paid people to "riot" and cause disturbances at the theater, and it was shut down by the police when neighbors complained of the commotion.
White, working-class Northerners could identify with the characters portrayed in early blackface performances. This coincided with the rise of groups struggling for workingman's nativism and pro-Southern causes, and faux black performances came to confirm pre-existing racist concepts and to establish new ones. Following a pattern that had been pioneered by Rice, minstrelsy united workers and "class superiors" against a common black enemy, symbolized especially by the character of the black dandy. In this same period, the class-conscious but racially inclusive rhetoric of "wage slavery" was largely supplanted by a racist one of "white slavery". This suggested that the abuses against northern factory workers were a graver ill than the treatment of black slaves—or by a less class-conscious rhetoric of "productive" versus "unproductive" elements of society. On the other hand, views on slavery were fairly evenly presented in minstrelsy, and some songs even suggested the creation of a coalition of working blacks and whites to end the institution.
Among the appeals and racial stereotypes of early blackface performance were the pleasure of the grotesque and its infantilization of blacks. These allowed—by proxy, and without full identification—childish fun and other low pleasures in an industrializing world where workers were increasingly expected to abandon such things. Meanwhile, the more respectable could view the vulgar audience itself as a spectacle.
Height
With the Panic of 1837, theater attendance suffered, and concerts were one of the few attractions that could still make money. In 1843, four blackface performers led by Dan Emmett combined to stage just such a concert at the New York Bowery Amphitheatre, calling themselves the Virginia Minstrels. The minstrel show as a complete evening's entertainment was born. The show had little structure. The four sat in a semicircle, played songs, and traded wisecracks. One gave a stump speech in dialect, and they ended with a lively plantation song. The term minstrel had previously been reserved for traveling white singing groups, but Emmett and company made it synonymous with blackface performance, and by using it, signalled that they were reaching out to a new, middle-class audience.
The Herald wrote that the production was "entirely exempt from the vulgarities and other objectionable features, which have hitherto characterized negro extravaganzas." In 1845, the Ethiopian Serenaders purged their show of low humor and surpassed the Virginia Minstrels in popularity. Shortly thereafter, Edwin Pearce Christy founded Christy's Minstrels, combining the refined singing of the Ethiopian Serenaders (epitomized by the work of Christy's composer Stephen Foster) with the Virginia Minstrels' bawdy schtick. Christy's company established the three-act template into which minstrel shows would fall for the next few decades. This change to respectability prompted theater owners to enforce new rules to make playhouses calmer and quieter.
Minstrels toured the same circuits as opera companies, circuses, and European itinerant entertainers, with venues ranging from lavish opera houses to makeshift tavern stages. Life on the road entailed an "endless series of one-nighters, travel on accident-prone railroads, in poor housing subject to fires, in empty rooms that they had to convert into theaters, arrest on trumped up charges, exposed to deadly diseases, and managers and agents who skipped out with all the troupe's money." The more popular groups stuck to the main circuit that ran through the Northeast; some even went to Europe, which allowed their competitors to establish themselves in their absence. By the late 1840s, a Southern tour had opened from Baltimore to New Orleans. Circuits through the Midwest and as far as California followed by the 1860s. As its popularity increased, theaters sprang up specifically for minstrel performance, often with names such as the Ethiopian Opera House and the like. Many amateur troupes performed only a few local shows before disbanding. Meanwhile, celebrities like Emmett continued to perform solo.
The rise of the minstrel show coincided with the growth of the abolitionist movement. Many Northerners were concerned for the oppressed blacks of the South, but most had no idea how these slaves lived day-to-day. Blackface performance had been inconsistent on this subject; some slaves were happy, others victims of a cruel and inhuman institution. However, in the 1850s, minstrelsy became decidedly mean-spirited and pro-slavery as race replaced class as its main focus. Most minstrels projected a greatly romanticized and exaggerated image of black life with cheerful, simple slaves always ready to sing and dance and to please their masters. (Less frequently, the masters cruelly split up black lovers or sexually assaulted black women.) The lyrics and dialogue were generally racist, satiric, and largely white in origin. Songs about slaves yearning to return to their masters were plentiful. The message was clear: do not worry about the slaves; they are happy with their lot in life. Figures like the Northern dandy and the homesick ex-slave reinforced the idea that blacks did not belong, nor did they want to belong, in Northern society.
Minstrelsy's reaction to Uncle Tom's Cabin is indicative of plantation content at the time. Tom acts largely came to replace other plantation narratives, particularly in the third act. These sketches sometimes supported Stowe's novel, but just as often they turned it on its head or attacked the author. Whatever the intended message, it was usually lost in the joyous, slapstick atmosphere of the piece. Characters such as Simon Legree sometimes disappeared, and the title was frequently changed to something more cheerful like "Happy Uncle Tom" or "Uncle Dad's Cabin". Uncle Tom himself was frequently portrayed as a harmless bootlicker to be ridiculed. Troupes known as Tommer companies specialized in such burlesques, and theatrical Tom shows integrated elements of the minstrel show and competed with it for a time.
Minstrelsy's racism (and sexism) could be rather vicious. There were comic songs in which blacks were "roasted, fished for, smoked like tobacco, peeled like potatoes, planted in the soil, or dried up and hung as advertisements", and there were multiple songs in which a black man accidentally put out a black woman's eyes. On the other hand, the fact that the minstrel show broached the subjects of slavery and race at all is perhaps more significant than the racist manner in which it did so. Despite these pro-plantation attitudes, minstrelsy was banned in many Southern cities. Its association with the North was such that as secessionist attitudes grew stronger, minstrels on Southern tours became convenient targets of anti-Yankee sentiment.
Non-race-related humor came from lampoons of other subjects, including aristocratic whites such as politicians, doctors, and lawyers. Women's rights was another serious subject that appeared with some regularity in antebellum minstrelsy, almost always to ridicule the notion. The women's rights lecture became common in stump speeches. When one character joked, "Jim, I tink de ladies oughter vote", another replied, "No, Mr. Johnson, ladies am supposed to care berry little about polytick, and yet de majority ob em am strongly tached to parties." Minstrel humor was simple and relied heavily on slapstick and wordplay. Performers told nonsense riddles: "The difference between a schoolmaster and an engineer is that one trains the mind and the other minds the train."
With the advent of the American Civil War, minstrels remained mostly neutral and satirized both sides. However, as the war reached Northern soil, troupes turned their loyalties to the Union. Sad songs and sketches came to dominate in reflection of the mood of a bereaved nation. Troupes performed skits about dying soldiers and their weeping widows, and about mourning white mothers. "When This Cruel War Is Over" became the hit of the period, selling over a million copies of sheet music. To balance the somber mood, minstrels put on patriotic numbers like "The Star-Spangled Banner", accompanied by depictions of scenes from American history that lionized figures like George Washington and Andrew Jackson. Social commentary grew increasingly important to the show. Performers criticized Northern society and those they felt responsible for the breakup of the country, who opposed reunification, or who profited from a nation at war. Emancipation was either opposed through "happy plantation" material, or mildly supported with pieces that depicted slavery in a negative light. Eventually, direct criticism of the South became more biting.
Decline
Minstrelsy lost popularity during the Civil War. New entertainments such as variety shows, musical comedies and vaudeville appeared in the North, backed by master promoters like P. T. Barnum who wooed audiences away. Blackface troupes responded by traveling farther and farther afield, with their primary base now in the South and Midwest.
Those minstrels who stayed in New York and similar cities followed Barnum's lead by advertising relentlessly and emphasizing the spectacle of minstrelsy. Troupes ballooned; as many as 19 performers could be on stage at once, and J. H. Haverly's United Mastodon Minstrels had over 100 members. Scenery grew lavish and expensive, and specialty acts like Japanese acrobats or circus freaks sometimes appeared. These changes made minstrelsy unprofitable for smaller troupes.
Other minstrel troupes tried to satisfy outlying tastes. Female acts had made a stir in variety shows, and Madame Rentz's Female Minstrels ran with the idea, first performing in 1870 in skimpy costumes and tights. Their success gave rise to at least 11 all-female troupes by 1871, one of which did away with blackface altogether. Ultimately, the girlie show emerged as a form in its own right. Mainstream minstrelsy continued to emphasize its propriety, but traditional troupes adopted some of these elements in the guise of the female impersonator. A well-played wench character became critical to success in the postwar period.
This new minstrelsy maintained an emphasis on refined music. Most troupes added jubilees, or spirituals, to their repertoire in the 1870s. These were fairly authentic religious slave songs borrowed from traveling black singing groups. Other troupes drifted further from minstrelsy's roots. When George Primrose and Billy West broke with Haverly's Mastodons in 1877, they did away with blackface for all but the endmen and dressed themselves in lavish finery and powdered wigs. They decorated the stage with elaborate backdrops and performed no slapstick whatsoever. Their brand of minstrelsy differed from other entertainments only in name.
Social commentary continued to dominate most performances, with plantation material constituting only a small part of the repertoire. This effect was amplified as minstrelsy featuring black performers took off in its own right and stressed its connection to the old plantations. The main target of criticism was the moral decay of the urbanized North. Cities were painted as corrupt, as homes to unjust poverty, and as dens of "city slickers" who lay in wait to prey upon new arrivals. Minstrels stressed traditional family life; stories told of reunification between mothers and sons thought dead in the war. Women's rights, disrespectful children, low church attendance, and sexual promiscuity became symptoms of decline in family values and of moral decay. Of course, Northern black characters carried these vices even further. African-American members of Congress were one example, pictured as pawns of the Radical Republicans.
By the 1890s, minstrelsy formed only a small part of American entertainment, and, by 1919, a mere three troupes dominated the scene. Small companies and amateurs carried the traditional minstrel show into the 20th century, now with an audience mostly in the rural South, while black-owned troupes continued traveling to more outlying areas like the West. These black troupes were one of minstrelsy's last bastions, as more white actors moved into vaudeville. (Community amateur blackface minstrel shows persisted in northern New York State into the 1960s. The University of Vermont banned the minstrel-like Kake Walk as part of the winter Carnival in 1969.)
Black minstrels
In the 1840s and '50s, William Henry Lane and Thomas Dilward became the first African Americans to perform on the minstrel stage. All-black troupes followed as early as 1855. These companies emphasized that their ethnicity made them the only true delineators of black song and dance, with one advertisement describing a troupe as "SEVEN SLAVES just from Alabama, who are EARNING THEIR FREEDOM by giving concerts under the guidance of their Northern friends." White curiosity proved a powerful motivator, and the shows were patronized by people who wanted to see blacks acting "spontaneously" and "naturally." Promoters seized on this, one billing his troupe as "THE DARKY AS HE IS AT HOME, DARKY LIFE IN THE CORNFIELD, CANEBRAKE, BARNYARD, AND ON THE LEVEE AND FLATBOAT." Keeping with convention, black minstrels still corked the faces of at least the endmen. One commentator described a mostly uncorked black troupe as "mulattoes of a medium shade except two, who were light. ... The end men were each rendered thoroughly black by burnt cork." The minstrels themselves promoted their performing abilities, quoting reviews that favorably compared them to popular white troupes. These black companies often featured female minstrels.
One or two African-American troupes dominated the scene for much of the late 1860s and 1870s. The first of these was Brooker and Clayton's Georgia Minstrels, who played the Northeast around 1865. Sam Hague's Slave Troupe of Georgia Minstrels formed shortly thereafter and toured England to great success beginning in 1866. In the 1870s, white entrepreneurs bought most of the successful black companies. Charles Callender obtained Sam Hague's troupe in 1872 and renamed it Callender's Georgia Minstrels. They became the most popular black troupe in America, and the words Callender and Georgia came to be synonymous with the institution of black minstrelsy. J. H. Haverly, in turn, purchased Callender's troupe in 1878 and applied his strategy of enlarging troupe size and embellishing sets. When this company went to Europe, Gustave and Charles Frohman took the opportunity to promote their Callender's Consolidated Colored Minstrels. Their success was such that the Frohmans bought Haverly's group and merged it with theirs, creating a virtual monopoly on the market. The company split in three to better canvas the nation and dominated black minstrelsy throughout the 1880s. Individual black performers like Billy Kersands, James A. Bland, Sam Lucas, Martin Francis and Wallace King grew as famous as any featured white performer.
Racism made black minstrelsy a difficult profession. When playing Southern towns, performers had to stay in character off stage, dressed in ragged "slave clothes" and perpetually smiling. Troupes left town quickly after each performance, and some had so much trouble securing lodging that they hired whole trains or had custom sleeping cars built, complete with hidden compartments to hide in should things turn ugly. Even these were no haven, as whites sometimes used the cars for target practice. Their salaries, though higher than those of most blacks of the period, failed to reach levels earned by white performers; even superstars like Kersands earned slightly less than featured white minstrels. Most black troupes did not last long.
In content, early black minstrelsy differed little from its white counterpart. As the white troupes drifted from plantation subjects in the mid-1870s however, black troupes placed a new emphasis on it. The addition of jubilee singing gave black minstrelsy a popularity boost as the black troupes were rightly believed to be the most authentic performers of such material. Other significant differences were that the black minstrels added religious themes to their shows while whites shied from them, and that the black companies commonly ended the first act of the show with a military high-stepping, brass band burlesque, a practice adopted after Callender's Minstrels used it in 1875 or 1876. Although black minstrelsy lent credence to racist ideals of blackness, many African-American minstrels worked to subtly alter these stereotypes and to poke fun at white society. One jubilee described heaven as a place "where de white folks must let the darkeys be" and they could not be "bought and sold". In plantation material, aged black characters were rarely reunited with long-lost masters like they were in white minstrelsy.
African Americans formed a large part of the black minstrels' audience, especially for smaller troupes. In fact, their numbers were so great that many theater owners had to relax rules relegating black patrons to certain areas. The reasons for the popularity of this openly racist form of entertainment with black audiences have long been debated by historians. Perhaps they felt in on the joke, laughing at the over-the-top characters from a sense of "in-group recognition". Maybe they even implicitly endorsed the racist antics, or they felt some connection to elements of an African culture that had been suppressed but was visible, albeit in racist, exaggerated form, in minstrel personages. They certainly got many jokes that flew over whites' heads or registered as only quaint distractions. An undeniable draw for black audiences was simply seeing fellow African Americans on stage; black minstrels were largely viewed as celebrities. Formally educated African Americans, on the other hand, either disregarded black minstrelsy or openly disdained it. Still, black minstrelsy was the first large-scale opportunity for African Americans to enter American show business. Black minstrels were therefore viewed as a success. Pat H. Chappelle capitalized on this and created the first totally black-owned black vaudeville show, The Rabbit's Foot Company, which performed with an all-black cast that elevated the level of shows with sophisticated and fun comedy. It successfully toured mainly the Southwest and Southeast, as well as in New Jersey and New York City.
Structure
The Christy Minstrels established the basic structure of the minstrel show in the 1840s. A crowd-gathering parade to the theater often preceded the performance. The show itself was divided into three major sections. During the first, the entire troupe danced onto stage singing a popular song. Upon the instruction of the interlocutor, a sort of host, they sat in a semicircle. Various stock characters always took the same positions: the genteel interlocutor in the middle, flanked by Mr Tambo and Mr Bones, who served as the endmen or cornermen. The interlocutor acted as a master of ceremonies and as a dignified, if pompous, straight man. He had a somewhat aristocratic demeanor, a "codfish aristocrat", while the endmen exchanged jokes and performed a variety of humorous songs. Over time, the first act came to include maudlin numbers not always in dialect. One minstrel, usually a tenor, came to specialize in this part; such singers often became celebrities, especially with women. Initially, an upbeat plantation song and dance ended the act; later it was more common for the first act to end with a walkaround, including dances in the style of a cakewalk.
The second portion of the show, called the olio, was historically the last to evolve, as its real purpose was to allow for the setting of the stage for act three behind the curtain. It had more of a variety show structure. Performers danced, played instruments, did acrobatics, and demonstrated other amusing talents. Troupes offered parodies of European-style entertainments, and European troupes themselves sometimes performed. The highlight was when one actor, typically one of the endmen, delivered a faux-black-dialect stump speech, a long oration about anything from nonsense to science, society, or politics, during which the dim-witted character tried to speak eloquently, only to deliver countless malapropisms, jokes, and unintentional puns. All the while, the speaker moved about like a clown, standing on his head and almost always falling off his stump at some point. With blackface makeup serving as fool's mask, these stump speakers could deliver biting social criticism without offending the audience, although the focus was usually on sending up unpopular issues and making fun of blacks' inability to make sense of them. Many troupes employed a stump specialist with a trademark style and material.
The afterpiece rounded out the production. In the early days of the minstrel show, this was often a skit set on a Southern plantation that usually included song-and-dance numbers and featured Sambo- and Mammy-type characters in slapstick situations. The emphasis lay on an idealized plantation life and the happy slaves who lived there. Nevertheless, antislavery viewpoints sometimes surfaced in the guise of family members separated by slavery, runaways, or even slave uprisings. A few stories highlighted black trickster figures who managed to get the better of their masters. Beginning in the mid-1850s, performers did burlesque renditions of other plays; both Shakespeare and contemporary playwrights were common targets. The humor of these came from the inept black characters trying to perform some element of high white culture. Slapstick humor pervaded the afterpiece, including cream pies to the face, inflated bladders, and on-stage fireworks. Material from Uncle Tom's Cabin dominated beginning in 1853. The afterpiece allowed the minstrels to introduce new characters, some of whom became quite popular and spread from troupe to troupe.
Characters
The earliest minstrel characters took as their base popular white stage archetypes—frontiersmen, fishermen, hunters, and riverboatsmen whose depictions drew heavily from the tall tale—and added exaggerated blackface speech and makeup. These Jim Crows and Gumbo Chaffs fought and boasted that they could "wip [their] weight in wildcats" or "eat an alligator". As public opinion toward blacks changed, however, so did the minstrel stereotypes. Eventually, several stock characters emerged. Chief among these were the slave, who often maintained the earlier name Jim Crow, and the dandy, known frequently as Zip Coon, from the song Zip Coon. "First performed by George Dixon in 1834, Zip Coon made a mockery of free blacks. An arrogant, ostentatious figure, he dressed in high style and spoke in a series of malaprops and puns that undermined his attempts to appear dignified."
The white actors who portrayed these characters spoke an exaggerated form of Black Vernacular English. The blackface makeup and illustrations on programs and sheet music depicted them with huge eyeballs, very wide noses, and thick-lipped mouths that hung open or grinned foolishly; one character expressed his love for a woman with "lips so large a lover could not kiss them all at once". They had huge feet and preferred "possum" and "coon" to more civilized fare. Minstrel characters were often described in animalistic terms, with "wool" instead of hair, "bleating" like sheep, and having "darky cubs" instead of children. Other claims were that blacks had to drink ink when they got sick "to restore their color" and that they had to file their hair rather than cut it. They were inherently musical, dancing and frolicking through the night with no need for sleep.
Thomas "Daddy" Rice introduced the earliest slave archetype with his song "Jump Jim Crow" and its accompanying dance. He claimed to have learned the number by watching an old, limping black stable hand dancing and singing, "Wheel about and turn about and do jus' so/Eb'ry time I wheel about I jump Jim Crow." Other early minstrel performers quickly adopted Rice's character.
Slave characters in general came to be low-comedy types with names that matched the instruments they played: Brudder Tambo (or simply Tambo) for the tambourine and Brudder Bones (or Bones) for the bone castanets or bones. These endmen (for their position in the minstrel semicircle) were ignorant and poorly spoken, being conned, electrocuted, or run over in various sketches. They happily shared their stupidity; one slave character said that to get to China, one had only to go up in a balloon and wait for the world to rotate below. Highly musical and unable to sit still, they constantly contorted their bodies wildly while singing.
Tambo and Bones's simple-mindedness and lack of sophistication were highlighted by pairing them with a straight man master of ceremonies called the interlocutor. This character, although usually in blackface, spoke in aristocratic English and used a much larger vocabulary. The humor of these exchanges came from the misunderstandings on the part of the endmen when talking to the interlocutor:
Interlocutor: I'm astonished at you, Why, the idea of a man of your mental caliber talking about such sordid matters, right after listening to such a beautiful song! Have you no sentiment left?
Tambo: No, I haven't got a cent left.
Tambo and Bones were favorites of the audience, and their repartee with the interlocutor was for many the best part of the show. There was an element of laughing with them for the audience, as they frequently made light of the interlocutor's grandiose ways.
The interlocutor was responsible for beginning and ending each segment of the show. To this end, he had to be able to gauge the mood of the audience and know when it was time to move on. Accordingly, the actor who played the role was paid very well in comparison to other non-featured performers.
There were many variants on the slave archetype. The old darky or old uncle formed the head of the idyllic black family. Like other slave characters, he was highly musical and none-too-bright, but he had favorable aspects like his loving nature and the sentiments he raised regarding love for the aged, ideas of old friendships, and the cohesiveness of the family. His death and the pain it caused his master was a common theme in sentimental songs. Alternatively, the master could die, leaving the old darky to mourn. Stephen Foster's "Old Uncle Ned" was the most popular song on this subject. Less frequently, the old darky might be cast out by a cruel master when he grew too old to work. After the Civil War, this character became the most common figure in plantation sketches. He frequently cried about the loss of his home during the war, only to meet up with someone from the past such as the child of his former master. In contrast, the trickster, often called Jasper Jack, appeared less frequently.
Female characters ranged from the sexually provocative to the laughable. These roles were almost always played by men in drag (most famously George Christy, Francis Leon and Barney Williams), even though American theater outside minstrelsy was filled with actresses at this time. Mammy or the old auntie was the old darky's counterpart. She often went by the name of Aunt Dinah Roh after the song of that title. Mammy was lovable to both blacks and whites, matronly, but hearkening to European peasant woman sensibilities. Her main role was to be the devoted mother figure in scenarios about the perfect plantation family.
The wench, yaller gal or prima donna was a mulatto who combined the light skin and facial features of a white woman with the perceived sexual promiscuity and exoticism of a black woman. Her beauty and flirtatiousness made her a common target for male characters, although she usually proved capricious and elusive. After the Civil War, the wench emerged as the most important specialist role in the minstrel troupe; men could alternately be titillated and disgusted, while women could admire the illusion and high fashion. The role was most strongly associated with the song "Miss Lucy Long", so the character many times bore that name. Actress Olive Logan commented that some actors were "marvelously well fitted by nature for it, having well-defined soprano voices, plump shoulders, beardless faces, and tiny hands and feet." Many of these actors were teen-aged boys. In contrast was the funny old gal, a slapstick role played by a large man in motley clothing and large, flapping shoes. The humor she invoked often turned on the male characters' desire for a woman whom the audience would perceive as unattractive.
The counterpart to the slave was the dandy, a common character in the afterpiece. He was a Northern, urban black man trying to live above his station by mimicking white, upper-class speech and dress—usually to no good effect. Dandy characters often went by Zip Coon, after the song popularized by George Washington Dixon, although others had pretentious names like Count Julius Caesar Mars Napoleon Sinclair Brown. Their clothing was a ludicrous parody of upper-class dress: coats with tails and padded shoulders, white gloves, monocles, fake mustaches, and gaudy watch chains. They spent their time primping and preening, going to parties, dancing and strutting, and wooing women.
The black soldier became another stock type during the Civil War and merged qualities of the slave and the dandy. He was acknowledged for playing some role in the war, but he was more frequently lampooned for bumbling through his drills or for thinking his uniform made him the equal of his white counterparts. He was usually better at retreating than fighting, and, like the dandy, he preferred partying to serious pursuits. Still, his introduction allowed for some return to themes of the breakup of the plantation family.
Non-black stereotypes played a significant role in minstrelsy, and, although still performed in blackface, were distinguished by their lack of black dialect. American Indians before the Civil War were usually depicted as innocent symbols of the pre-industrial world or as pitiable victims whose peaceful existence had been shattered by the encroachment of the white man. However, as the United States turned its attentions West, American Indians became savage, pagan obstacles to progress. These characters were formidable scalpers to be feared, not ridiculed; any humor in such scenarios usually derived from a black character trying to act like one of the frightful savages. One sketch began with white men and American Indians enjoying a communal meal in a frontier setting. As the American Indians became intoxicated, they grew more and more antagonistic, and the army ultimately had to intervene to prevent the massacre of the whites. Even favorably presented American Indian characters usually died tragically.
Depictions of East Asians began during the California Gold Rush when minstrels encountered Chinese out West. Minstrels caricatured them by their strange language ("ching chang chung"), odd eating habits (dogs and cats), and propensity for wearing pigtails. Parodies of Japanese became popular when a Japanese acrobat troupe toured the United States beginning in 1865. A run of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Mikado in the mid-1880s inspired another wave of Asian characterizations.
The few white characters in minstrelsy were stereotypes of immigrant groups like the Irish and Germans. Irish characters first appeared in the 1840s, portrayed as hotheaded, odious drunkards who spoke in a thick brogue. However, beginning in the 1850s, many Irishmen joined minstrelsy, and Irish theatergoers probably came to represent a significant part of the audience, so this negative image was muted. Germans, on the other hand, were portrayed favorably from their introduction to minstrelsy in the 1860s. They were responsible and sensible, though still portrayed as humorous for their large size, hearty appetites, and heavy "Dutch" accents. Part of this positive portrayal no doubt came about because some of the actors portraying German characters were German themselves.
Music and dance
"Minstrelsy evolved from several different American entertainment traditions; the traveling circus, medicine shows, shivaree, Irish dance and music with African syncopated rhythms, musical halls and traveling theatre." Music and dance were the heart of the minstrel show and a large reason for its popularity. Around the time of the 1830s, there was a lot of national conflict as to how people viewed African Americans. Because of that interest in the Negro people, these songs granted the listener new knowledge about African Americans, who were different from themselves, even if the information was prejudiced. Troupes took advantage of this interest and marketed sheet music of the songs they featured so that viewers could enjoy them at home and other minstrels could adopt them for their act.
How much influence black music had on minstrel performance remains a debated topic. Minstrel music certainly contained some element of black culture, added onto a base of European tradition with distinct Irish and Scottish folk music influences. According to the historian of music Larry Birnbaum, minstrel music primarily originated from English, Scottish, and Irish folk music. Musicologist Dale Cockrell argues that early minstrel music mixed both African and European traditions and that distinguishing black and white urban music during the 1830s is impossible. Insofar as the minstrels had authentic contact with black culture, it was via neighborhoods, taverns, theaters and waterfronts where blacks and whites could mingle freely. The inauthenticity of the music and the Irish and Scottish elements in it are explained by the fact that slaves were rarely allowed to play native African music and therefore had to adopt and adapt elements of European folk music. Compounding the problem is the difficulty in ascertaining how much minstrel music was written by black composers, as the custom at the time was to sell all rights to a song to publishers or other performers. Nevertheless, many troupes claimed to have carried out more serious "fieldwork". Just as the American people came from all over the world, some of the first forms of truly American music and drama were composed of elements from many different places.
Early blackface songs often consisted of unrelated verses strung together by a common chorus. In this pre-Emmett minstrelsy, the music "jangled the nerves of those who believed in music that was proper, respectable, polished, and harmonic, with recognizable melodies." It was thus a juxtaposition of "vigorous earth-slapping footwork of black dances … with the Irish lineaments of blackface jigs and reels." Similar to the look of a blackface performer, the lyrics in the songs that were sung have a tone of mockery and a spirit of laughing at black Americans rather than with them. The minstrel show texts sometimes mixed black lore, such as stories about talking animals or slave tricksters, with humor from the region southwest of the Appalachians, itself a mixture of traditions from different races and cultures. Minstrel instruments were also a mélange: African banjo and tambourine with European fiddle and bones In short, early minstrel music and dance was not true black culture; it was a white reaction to it. This was the first large-scale appropriation and commercial exploitation of black culture by American whites.
In the late 1830s, a decidedly European structure and high-brow style became popular in minstrel music. The banjo, played with "scientific touches of perfection" and popularized by Joel Sweeney, became the heart of the minstrel band. Songs like the Virginia Minstrels' hit "Old Dan Tucker" have a catchy tune and energetic rhythm, melody and harmony; minstrel music was now for singing as well as dancing. The Spirit of the Times even described the music as vulgar because it was "entirely too elegant" and that the "excellence" of the singing "[was] an objection to it." Others complained that the minstrels had foregone their black roots. In short, the Virginia Minstrels and their imitators wanted to please a new audience of predominantly white, middle-class Northerners, by playing music the spectators would find familiar and pleasant.
Despite the elements of ridicule contained in blackface performance, mid-nineteenth century white audiences, by and large, believed the songs and dances to be authentically black. For their part, the minstrels always billed themselves and their music as such. The songs were called "plantation melodies" or "Ethiopian choruses", among other names. By using the black caricatures and so-called black music, the minstrels added a touch of the unknown to the evening's entertainment, which was enough to fool audiences into accepting the whole performance as authentic.
The minstrels' dance styles, on the other hand, were much truer to their alleged source. The success of "Jump Jim Crow" is indicative: It was an old English tune with fairly standard lyrics, which leaves only Rice's dance—wild upper-body movements with little movement below the waist—to explain its popularity. Dances like the Turkey Trot, the Buzzard Lope, and the Juba dance all had their origins in the plantations of the South, and some were popularized by black performers such as William Henry Lane, Signor Cornmeali ("Old Corn Meal"), and John "Picayune" Butler. One performance by Lane in 1842 was described as consisting of "sliding steps, like a shuffle, and not the high steps of an Irish jig." Lane and the white men who mimicked him moved about the stage with no obvious foot movement. The walk around, a common feature of the minstrel show's first act, was ultimately of West African origin and featured a competition between individuals hemmed in by the other minstrels. Elements of white tradition remained, of course, such as the fast-paced breakdown that formed part of the repertoire beginning with Rice. Minstrel dance was generally not held to the same mockery as other parts, although contemporaries such as Fanny Kemble argued that minstrel dances were merely a "faint, feeble, impotent—in a word, pale Northern reproductions of that ineffable black conception."
The introduction of the jubilee, or spiritual, marked the minstrels' first undeniable adoption of black music. These songs remained relatively authentic in nature, antiphonal with a repetitive structure that relied heavily on call and response. The black troupes sang the most authentic jubilees, while white companies inserted humorous verses and replaced religious themes with plantation imagery, often starring the old darky. Jubilee eventually became synonymous with plantation.
Legacy
The minstrel show played a powerful role in shaping assumptions about black people. However, unlike vehemently anti-black propaganda from the time, minstrelsy made this attitude palatable to a wide audience by couching it in the guise of well-intentioned paternalism.
Popular entertainment perpetuated the racist stereotype of the uneducated, ever-cheerful, and highly musical black person well into the 1950s. Even as the minstrel show was dying out in all but amateur theater, blackface performers became common acts on vaudeville stages and in legitimate drama. These entertainers kept the familiar songs, dances, and pseudo-black dialect, often in nostalgic looks back at the old minstrel show. The most famous of these performers is probably Al Jolson, who took blackface to the big screen in the 1920s in films such as The Jazz Singer (1927). His 1930 film Mammy uses the setting of a traveling minstrel show, giving an on-screen presentation of a performance. Likewise, when the sound era of cartoons began in the late 1920s, early animators such as Walt Disney gave characters such as Mickey Mouse (who already resembled blackface performers) a minstrel-show personality; the early Mickey is constantly singing and dancing and smiling. The face of Raggedy Ann is a color-reversed minstrel mask, and Raggedy Ann's creator, Johnny Gruelle, designed the doll in part with the antics of blackface star Fred Stone in mind. As late as 1942, as demonstrated in the Warner Bros. cartoon Fresh Hare, minstrel shows could be used as a gag (in this case, Elmer Fudd and Bugs Bunny leading a chorus of "Camptown Races") with the expectation, presumably, that audiences would get the reference. Radio shows got into the act, a fact perhaps best exemplified by the popular radio shows Two Black Crows, Sam 'n' Henry, and Amos 'n' Andy, A transcription survives from 1931 of The Blue Coal Minstrels, which uses many of the standard forms of the minstrel show, including Tambo, Bones and the interlocutor. The National Broadcasting Company, in a 1930 pamphlet, used the minstrel show as a point of reference in selling its services. As recently as the mid-1970s the BBC broadcast The Black and White Minstrel Show starring the George Mitchell Minstrels. The racist archetypes that blackface minstrelsy helped to create persist to this day; some argue that this is even true in hip hop culture and movies. The 2000 Spike Lee movie Bamboozled alleges that modern black entertainment exploits African-American culture much as the minstrel shows did a century ago, for example.
Meanwhile, African-American actors were limited to the same old minstrel-defined roles for years to come and by playing them, made them more believable to white audiences. On the other hand, these parts opened the entertainment industry to African-American performers and gave them their first opportunity to alter those stereotypes. Many famous singers and actors gained their start in black minstrelsy, including W. C. Handy, Ida Cox, Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Ethel Waters, and Butterbeans and Susie. The Rabbit's Foot Company was a variety troupe, founded in 1900 by an African American, Pat Chappelle, which drew on and developed the minstrel tradition while updating it and helping to develop and spread black musical styles. Besides Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, later musicians working for "the Foots" included Louis Jordan, Brownie McGhee and Rufus Thomas, and the company was still touring as late as 1950. Its success was rivalled by other touring variety troupes, such as Silas Green from New Orleans.
The very structure of American entertainment bears minstrelsy's imprint. The endless barrage of gags and puns appears in the work of the Marx Brothers and David and Jerry Zucker. The varied structure of songs, gags, "hokum" and dramatic pieces continued into vaudeville, variety shows, and to modern sketch comedy shows such as Hee Haw or, more distantly, Saturday Night Live and In Living Color. Jokes once delivered by endmen are still told today: "Why did the chicken cross the road?" "Why does a fireman wear red suspenders?" Other jokes form part of the repertoire of modern comedians: "Who was that lady I saw you with last night? That was no lady—that was my wife!" The stump speech is an important precursor to modern stand-up comedy.
Another important legacy of minstrelsy is its music. The hokum blues genre carried over the dandy, the wench, the simple-minded slave characters (sometimes rendered as the rustic white "rube") and even the interlocutor into early blues and country music incarnations through the medium of "race music" and "hillbilly" recordings. Many minstrel tunes are now popular folk songs. Most have been expunged of the exaggerated black dialect and the overt references to blacks. "Dixie", for example, was adopted by the Confederacy as its unofficial national anthem and is still popular, and "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny" was sanitized and made the state song of Virginia until 1997. "My Old Kentucky Home" remains the state song of Kentucky. The instruments of the minstrel show were largely kept on, especially in the South. Minstrel performers from the last days of the shows, such as Uncle Dave Macon, helped popularize the banjo and fiddle in modern country music. And by introducing America to black dance and musical style, minstrels opened the nation to black cultural forms for the first time on a large scale.
Motion pictures with minstrel show routines
A small number of films available today contain authentic recreations of Minstrel show numbers and routines. Due to their content they are rarely (if ever) broadcast on television today, but are available on home video.
Uncle Tom's Cabin (1903), an early "full-length" movie (between 10 and 14 minutes), was directed by Edwin S. Porter and used white actors in blackface in the major roles. Similar to the earlier "Tom Shows" it featured black stereotypes such as having the slaves dance in almost any context, including at a slave auction.
A Plantation Act (1926), a Vitaphone sound-on-disc short film starring Al Jolson. Long thought to have been lost, a copy of the film and sound disc were located and the restored version has been issued as a bonus feature on the DVD release of The Jazz Singer.
The Jazz Singer (1927), the first feature-length motion picture with synchronized dialogue sequences. Based on a play by Samson Raphaelson, the story tells of Jakie Rabinowitz (Al Jolson), the son of a devout Jewish family, who runs away from home to become a jazz singer.
Mammy (1930), another Al Jolson film, this relives Jolson's early years as a minstrel man. With songs by Irving Berlin, who is also credited with the original story titled Mr. Bones.
King for a Day (1934), is a 21 minute short in which Bill Green, played by Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, after being denied a chance to audition wins a black minstrel show in a crap game. The endmen in the show in the film emulate traditional white blackface by a line of white greasepaint around their mouths.
Show Boat (1936), film starring Irene Dunne, Allan Jones, Hattie McDaniel, Paul Robeson. One of the shows on board is a blackface minstrel act.
Swing Time (1936), a musical starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers features a dance number entitled "Bojangles of Harlem" performed by Astaire in blackface.
Honolulu (1939), in which Eleanor Powell performs a blackface dance homage to Bill "Bojangles" Robinson.
Swanee River (1940), another fictionalized biographical film on Stephen Foster. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Musical Scoring and was the last on-screen appearance of Al Jolson.
Babes on Broadway (1941), a musical starring Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland. The next-to-last musical number is a medley of songs performed in blackface.
Fresh Hare (1942), an animated short featuring Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd. The final scene, edited out of recent television broadcasts, shows Bunny and Fudd in blackface, along with five tall men in the same condition, singing "Camptown Races".
Holiday Inn (1942), contains a musical number entitled "Abraham" with Bing Crosby performing in blackface in the style of a minstrel show. Beginning in the 1980s, this number has been cut from many TV broadcasts.
Dixie (1943), a film based on the life of songwriter Daniel Decatur Emmett. It includes Bing Crosby singing the film's title song in blackface.
The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944), blackface musicians perform a jolly number on the river vessel, in the scene where Captain Clemens rescues Charles Langdon from a thief.
Here Come The Waves (1944), contains a show-within-a-show. It includes a minstrel routine performed by Bing Crosby and Sonny Tufts; their two characters then sing a musical number entitled "Ac-Cen-Tchu-Ate the Positive".
Minstrel Man (1944), a fictional film about the rise, fall, and revival of a minstrel performer's career. It was nominated for two Academy Awards (Best Original Song and Best Original Score).
My Wild Irish Rose (1947), starring Dennis Morgan, Andrea King, and Arlene Dahl, is set in 1890s New York and features several scenes depicting blackface musical numbers.
Hollywood Varieties (1950), a collection of stage acts with Glen Vernon and Edward Ryan in a blackface skit.
Yes Sir, Mr. Bones (1951), is based around a young child who finds a rest home for retired minstrel performers. In "flashback" sequences, a number of actual minstrel veterans, including Scatman Crothers, Freeman Davis (aka "Brother Bones"), Ned Haverly, Phil Arnold, "endmen" Cotton Watts and Slim Williams, the dancing team of Boyce and Evans, and the comic duo Ches Davis and Emmett Miller, perform in the roles they popularized in Minstrel shows.
I Dream of Jeanie (1952) aka I Dream of Jeanie (with the Light Brown Hair), a completely fictional film biography of Stephen Foster. Veteran performer Glen Turnbull makes a guest appearance as a blackface Minstrel performer in Christy's Minstrels.
Torch Song (1953), starring Joan Crawford, Michael Wilding, and Marjorie Rambeau, contains a musical number, done in blackface, entitled "Two-faced Woman."
White Christmas (1954), features a full-scale minstrel show number, but without blackface. The lyrics to the songs do not insinuate that minstrel shows involved blackface, but invoked much of the same linguistic mechanisms as minstrel shows, such as double entendre. The lyrics to the song also include the line "I'd pawn my overcoat and vest / To see a minstrel show".
Bamboozled (2000), a satirical film using minstrelsy to lampoon American popular culture written and directed by Spike Lee.
Masked and Anonymous (2003), set in a dystopian future. Ed Harris plays a blackfaced character in one scene.
See also
Blackface
Eldred Kurtz Means
List of blackface minstrel songs
List of blackface minstrel troupes
List of entertainers who performed in blackface
Coon song
The Black and White Minstrel Show, a British television and theatre show of the American traditional genre in the 1960s and 1970s
Stage Irish, the stereotyped portrayal of Irish people once common in plays during the 17th 18th and 20th centuries.
Notes
References
. Reprinted 2003.
. Reprinted 2003.
. M. A. Thesis, University of Michigan.
External links
"Minstrel Potpourri" performed by the Edison Minstrels (possibly The Haydn Quartet)
"Waiting for the Robert E. Lee" performed by the Heidelberg Quintet (from the Internet Archive)
Ruckus! American Entertainments at the Turn of the Twentieth Century From the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
The Frank Dumont Minstrelsy Scrapbook 1850-1902, compiled by minstrel performer and manager Frank Dumont, containing more than 50 years of documentation about minstrelsy and its origins is available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
The JUBA Project: Early Blackface Minstrelsy in Britain, 1842-1852
Guide to American Minstrel Show Collection at Houghton Library, Harvard University
American Minstrel Show Collection, Princeton University
Historical Notes for Collection 1: African-American and Jamaican Melodies, includes biographical sketches of many black minstrel composers and access to their music.
Popular culture once embraced racist blackface minstrel shows - Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)
African-American cultural history
Blackface minstrelsy
19th century in the United States
African-American music
Stand-up comedy
19th-century introductions
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206666
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Manley
|
John Manley
|
John Paul Manley (born January 5, 1950) is a Canadian lawyer, businessman, and politician who served as the eighth deputy prime minister of Canada from 2002 to 2003. He served as Liberal Member of Parliament for Ottawa South from 1988 to 2004. From January 2010 to October 2018 he was president and CEO of the Business Council of Canada. He is currently the Chairman of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC) and serves on the advisory board of the Leaders' Debates Commission.
Background
Manley was born in Ottawa, Ontario, and attended Bell High School. He received a BA from Carleton University in 1971 and an LL.B. from the University of Ottawa in 1976. He also studied at the University of Lausanne.
After law school Manley clerked under Bora Laskin, the Chief Justice of Canada. He was called to the Ontario bar in 1978.
Manley's early career was in tax law at the firm Perley-Robertson Hill & McDougall LLP.
He is married to Judith Manley with whom he has three children: Rebecca, David and Sarah.
Manley is also an accomplished marathoner.
Cabinet career
He was first elected as an MP in the 1988 election. When the Liberals came to power under Jean Chrétien following the 1993 election he became Minister of Industry. During his time in Industry, Manley was a staunch supporter of Canada-based research and development, and also of increased technology use in public schools. In particular, he felt that the so-called "wired classroom" would help to equalize the gap between urban and smaller, rural schools. These initiatives were partially aimed at combating the "brain drain", and Manley himself stated that "Canada needs to pursue policies that will make it a magnet for brains, attracting them from elsewhere and retaining the ones we have."
Manley also unveiled a multimillion-dollar rescue package for the cash-strapped Ottawa Senators, being a friend of owner Rod Bryden, but later withdrew the aid after critics argued that there were better uses for public funds.
Manley supported Dalton McGuinty's successful bid to lead the Ontario Liberal Party in 1996.
He was shuffled to Minister of Foreign Affairs on the eve of the 2000 election. He was widely applauded for his work in foreign affairs, particularly for helping to ease strained Canada-U.S. relations. He was seen as able to communicate with the U.S. administration, and had a good working relationship with both Colin Powell and Tom Ridge. David Rudd, then director of Toronto's Canadian Institute of Strategic Studies said: "Under Manley, the government of Canada talks to Washington, not at it." In January 2002 he was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister and given special responsibility for security in response to 9/11. For his performance in these roles, he was named Time Magazine's "Canadian newsmaker of the year" in 2001.
In May 2002, Chrétien appointed Manley as Minister of Finance, following the departure of Paul Martin. His 2003 federal budget laid out billions of dollars in new spending, primarily in health-care, child-care, and for First Nations. It also introduced new accountability features to help limit federal waste.
2003 Liberal leadership election
When Jean Chrétien announced his decision to retire, Manley announced his intention to run for the Liberal leadership. His primary competition was Martin, although Industry Minister Allan Rock and Heritage Minister and former Deputy Prime Minister Sheila Copps also ran, while Brian Tobin briefly contemplated running. Manley's polling numbers and fundraising were slightly behind that of Rock's, while well ahead of Copps but far behind Martin.
From the beginning, it was apparent that Martin had a significant head start on his rivals. Martin's record as Minister of Finance was impressive and he also controlled much of the party machinery by 2002. Manley attacked Martin's refusal to disclose his campaign contributors, but failed to make a significant dent in Martin's support. Manley generally polled around 25% during his time in the contest, and he had the support of ministers Jane Stewart and Susan Whelan and backbench MP John H. Bryden. The rest of cabinet and most of caucus said that they would back Martin (with Martin's large lead, even most Chrétien supporters grudgingly voted for Martin), including Rock who dropped out of the race early on. Seeing his inevitable defeat, Manley withdrew from the race on July 22, 2003, and endorsed Martin.
Upon Martin's landslide victory at the leadership convention on November 14, 2003, political commentators wondered whether someone so closely linked to Chrétien would avoid a potentially embarrassing demotion in Martin's new cabinet. That year, Manley had several times expressed his interest in returning to the Foreign Affairs ministry, as it was likely that Martin would appoint his own lieutenant to the Finance portfolio. Though both were ideologically on the right wing of the Liberal party, Manley's attacks on Martin's campaign donations had likely poisoned the relationship between the two men, hurting Manley's chances of remaining a Minister. Indeed, Manley, Stewart, and Whelan were dropped from cabinet, while Bryden's constituency was abolished after Martin was sworn in as Prime Minister.
Martin, who would release the list of his new cabinet in a few days, decided to offer Manley a role as Ambassador to the United States, a patronage posting Manley said he would seriously consider. In the end, Manley declined the ambassadorial appointment, apparently because it would take him out of the country and "out of the loop" for fundraising and other political activities with a long-term view towards his own eventual bid for the Liberal leadership someday. Frank McKenna, who had also been considered a federal leadership contender, was appointed instead. On November 28, Manley announced his retirement from politics, remaining as a backbencher until the 2004 federal election.
Post-political career
Shortly after Manley announced his retirement from federal politics, Dalton McGuinty, Premier of Ontario and close friend of Manley, appointed him to chair a Royal Commission on the energy system of Ontario in the wake of the eastern North American blackout of 2003.
On May 18, 2004, he joined the law firm McCarthy Tétrault as counsel, working in their Toronto and Ottawa offices. On May 26, 2004, Manley was named to the board of directors of telecommunications firm Nortel Networks. On January 27, 2005, he was elected to the board of directors of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce. He was also co-chair of the Independent Task Force on North America, a project of the U.S. Council on Foreign Relations. In March 2005, the Task Force released a report that advocated a North American union, an economic union between Canada, Mexico and the United States which would resemble the European Union.
In an interview with La Presse published on January 24, 2005, he openly declared his ongoing interest in the Liberal leadership. In what was seen by political followers as an unusually frank admission, Manley said he would be a candidate to replace Paul Martin if he were to step down in the next three to four years and was maintaining a cross-country organizational network for this purpose. Although he denied the existence of a formal pact with former cabinet-mate Martin Cauchon, he indicated that in a later leadership race he would probably throw his support to the younger man. On January 25, 2006, Manley sent a letter to supporters indicating that he was not going to contest the Liberal leadership after the resignation of Paul Martin.
On October 12, 2007, Manley was appointed by Conservative Prime Minister Stephen Harper to head an independent, non-partisan panel reviewing Canada's mission and future role in Afghanistan, a position he had discussed with Liberal leader Stéphane Dion beforehand. Both Dion and Liberal Foreign Affairs critic Bob Rae had encouraging words for the panel.
Manley's panel reported on Canada's Afghanistan mission to Prime Minister Harper on January 28, 2008 in what was known as the Manley report. Harper accepted the findings, which argued for an indefinite extension of the mission beyond February 2009, but also pointed to logistical and equipment shortfalls, communications challenges with telling the mission's story to Canadians, and a coming manpower strength shortage. The report's recommendations were accepted by the house when the Liberals backed them along with the Conservatives.
Manley had been mentioned as a possible contender for the leadership of the Liberal Party after Stéphane Dion's resignation following the 2008 election, but on November 4, 2008, he announced that he would not be a candidate.
In the December 6, 2008 edition of The Globe and Mail, Manley demanded Liberal leader Stéphane Dion step down so the party can find another leader before Christmas and to "rebuild the Liberal Party, rather than leading a coalition with the NDP. He added, "the notion that the public would accept Stéphane Dion as prime minister, after having resoundingly rejected that possibility a few weeks earlier, was delusional at best ... Mr. Dion had seemed to accept responsibility for the defeat (although somewhat reluctantly), and should have left his post immediately." Dion did, in fact, step down as party leader shortly after Manley's letter was published, however this was a result of internal party pressure and the significance of Manley's letter to this end is debatable.
In June 2009, Manley was named the new President and CEO of the Business Council of Canada (BCC), then known as the Canadian Council of Chief Executives, effective January 2010. He stepped down from that position effective October 15, 2018, and was succeeded by Goldy Hyder.
On July 1, 2009, Manley was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada for his contributions to Canadian politics, notably as a cabinet minister, and as a business and community leader who had played an important role in the promotion of international aid and co-operation.
He is a member of the Trilateral Commission and sits on the Advisory Council of the Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute. In 2014, he was appointed as chairman of the board of CIBC.
In September 2019, Manley joined law firm, Bennett Jones, as a Senior Business Advisor. As part of the Bennett Jones Governmental Affairs & Public Policy group, he will work with his team to provide integrated policy and legal expertise, and advisory services on both domestic and international issues.
Political ideology
Manley is regarded by some as being from the centre-right of the Liberal party, favouring fiscal conservatism, free trade, and friendly relations with the United States, although his budget included substantial program spending.
In an interview with Christopher Lim, a contributor for the British think-tank The Bruges Group, Manley was critical of then-Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's economic spending priorities, saying ""I see commitments on spending programmes that will not necessarily add to Canada's productivity or support economic growth – so I'm one that's a bit worried about the trajectory that we are on", and was also wary of the calling of the 2021 federal election, saying that "There was a sense that this election was about Mr. Trudeau and it wasn't about the Canadian people".
Manley seems committed to many of the policies implemented under Chrétien, particularly to expanding foreign aid and improving Canada's "knowledge economy".
Manley is known as a republican and an advocate of the abolition of the Canadian monarchy. This point of view created quite a controversy when, in response to a reporter's question, he publicly stated that the monarchy was unnecessary during a 12-day tour of Canada by the Queen. Manley served as the Queen's escort for the trip.
Electoral record
|- style="background:white;"
| style="text-align:right;" colspan="3"|Difference
|align="right"|23,203
|align="right"|43.2
|align="right"|−8.7
|- style="background:white;"
| style="text-align:right;" colspan="3"|Difference
|align="right"|13,908
|align="right"|26.9
|align="right"|−16.3
|- style="background:white;"
| style="text-align:right;" colspan="3"|Rejected Ballots
|align="right"|231
|align="right"|0.4
|align="right"|−0.3
|- style="background:white;"
| style="text-align:right;" colspan="3"|Turnout
|align="right"|52,021
|align="right"|62.0
|align="right"|−10.3
|- style="background:white;"
References
1950 births
Businesspeople from Ottawa
Businesspeople in telecommunications
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian corporate directors
Canadian Ministers of Finance
Canadian republicans
Canadian Ministers of Foreign Affairs
Carleton University alumni
Clerks of the Supreme Court of Canada
Deputy Prime Ministers of Canada
Directors of Nortel
Directors of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce
Lawyers in Ontario
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Living people
Members of the 26th Canadian Ministry
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Politicians from Ottawa
University of Ottawa alumni
University of Ottawa Faculty of Law alumni
|
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] |
206667
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederacy
|
Confederacy
|
Confederacy or confederate may refer to:
States or communities
Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities
Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1861 and 1865
Military forces of the Confederate States, the Army, Marine Corps, and Navy of the Confederacy
Confederate Ireland, a period of Irish self-government during the Eleven Years' War
Canadian Confederation, the 1867 unification of the three parts of Canada into the Dominion of Canada
Confederation of the Rhine, a group of French client states that existed during the Napoleonic Wars
Catalan-Aragonese Confederation, a group of Spanish states that were governed by one king
Gaya confederacy, an ancient grouping of territorial polities in southern Korea
German Confederation, an association of German-speaking states prior to German Unification
Iroquois Confederacy, group of united Native American nations in present-day Canada and the United States
Maratha Confederacy, a group of Indian states in the 1700s
North German Confederation, a federation in northern Germany from 1867 to 1870
Peru–Bolivian Confederation, a federation of several states in present day Peru and Bolivia that existed between 1836 and 1839
Powhatan Confederacy, a group of Native American tribes on the Atlantic coast governed by a single chief
Sikh Confederacy, a group of states confederated during the 18th century in the Punjab region
Swiss Confederation or Switzerland, a federal republic in Europe
Old Swiss Confederacy, a confederation that was the predecessor of the current Swiss state
Three Confederate States of Gojoseon, states thought to have existed in present day Korea during the Bronze Age
Northwestern Confederacy, a group of Native American tribes in the Great Lakes region that united after the American revolution
Fictional confederacies
Breen Confederacy, a political entity in the Star Trek universe
Capellan Confederation, a political entity in the Battletech universe
Galactic Confederacy, part of the Scientology mythos
Terran Confederacy, a political entity in the StarCraft universe
Terran Confederation (Wing Commander), a political entity in the Wing Commander universe
Confederacy of Independent Systems, a secessionist political entity in the Star Wars universe
Other uses
Confederacy (British political group), a society within the British Conservative Party during the early twentieth century
Confederates (novel), a novel by Thomas Keneally
Confederate (TV series), a cancelled HBO television program
See also
Confederation (disambiguation)
A Confederacy of Dunces, a novel written by John Kennedy Toole, published in 1980
Condica confederata or the confederate, a moth in the family Noctuidae
Confederate Motors, an American manufacturer of motorcycles
Battle of the Confederates, a battle in early Muslim history
Chevrolet Series BA Confederate, an automobile manufactured in 1932
Federacy, where one or several states or regions enjoy considerably more independence than the majority
Federation, a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central government
Baro Bhuyans, confederacies of soldier-landowners in Assam and Bengal in late middle age and early modern period
|
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206668
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polemarch
|
Polemarch
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A polemarch (, from , polemarchos) was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states (poleis). The title is derived from the words polemos (war) and archon (ruler, leader) and translates as "warleader" or "warlord". The name indicates that the polemarch's original function was to command the army; presumably the office was created to take over this function from the king. The title held a high position in Athenian society, alongside the archon eponymos and the archon basileus.
In Modern Greek, polemarchos means warlord.
Ancient Greece
Athens
In Athens, the polemarchos was one of nine annually appointed archontes (ἄρχοντες) and functioned as the commander of the military, though to what extent is debated among historians.
At the Battle of Marathon Herodotus described the vote of the polemarchos, Callimachus, as the deciding factor during debate over engagement in battle; it is disputed whether this vote implies that the position of polemarchos was an equal to a strategos or that of a commander-in-chief. The polemarchos' military responsibilities continued until 487 BC, when a new procedure was adopted and magistrates were then appointed by lot. Following this reform, the military duties were handled by the strategos. By the mid-5th Century BC, the polemarchos''' role was reduced to ceremonial and judicial functions, and primarily presided over preliminary trials involving metics' family, inheritance, and status cases. After the preliminary stage the cases would either continue under the judgement of the polemarchos, or be remitted to tribal or municipal judges. The polemarchos also conducted certain religious sacrificial offerings and arranged the funeral ceremonies for men killed in war.D. M. MacDowell, The Law in Classical Athens, (1978), 221-4
Sparta
In the new structure of the Spartan Army, introduced sometime during the Peloponnesian War, a polemarchos was the commander of a mora of 576 men, one of six in the Spartan army on campaign. On occasion however they were appointed to head armies. The six Spartan polemarchoi seem to have been on equal power to kings at expeditions outside Laconia and were usually descendants of the royal houses. They were part of the royal army council and the royal escort (δαμοσία) and were supported or represented by officers (συμφορεῖς). The polemarchoi were also responsible for public meals, since, by the laws of Lycurgus, the Lacedaemonians would eat and fight in the same group. Next to their military and connected responsibilities, the polemarchoi were responsible for some civil and juridical tasks (not unlike the archōn polemarchos in Athens).
Boeotia
In the early 4th century BC several Boeotian poleis instituted the position of polemarchos, though there was no unified policy. Of the surviving accounts, Plutarch and Xenophon describe three polemarchoi as executive officials of Thebes during this period.
Other uses
In modern use, the Greek Letter fraternity Kappa Alpha Psi titles their fraternity leaders as Polemarchs.
Fictional use
This position was featured in Orson Scott Card's novel Ender's Game. In the novel, the position of polemarch was charged with the supreme command of humanity's space fleets, the International Fleet. The Polemarch, along with the positions of Strategos and Hegemon, was one of the three most powerful people alive.
This title was also given to the DC Comics character Artemis of Bana-Mighdall, an Amazon in the Wonder Woman comic books. For a period Artemis served as Paradise Island's co-ruler alongside fellow Amazon Philippus. Whereas Philippus oversaw the day-to-day rule of the island, Artemis oversaw its military aspects.
The title was used to signify soldiers who commanded fortifications and other camps in the 2018 Ubisoft video game Assassin’s Creed Odyssey''. They were the strongest regular enemies in the game and killing them would lower the ‘nation power’ of a particular state in Greece substantially.
See also
References
Ancient Greek military terminology
Ancient Greek titles
Military ranks of ancient Greece
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] |
206673
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minstrelsy
|
Minstrelsy
|
Minstrelsy may refer to:
The art of the medieval minstrel
The art of the 19th-century American minstrel show
|
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206675
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosa%20Albach-Retty
|
Rosa Albach-Retty
|
Rosa Albach-Retty (born Rosa Clara Franziska Helene Retty; 26 December 1874 – 26 August 1980) was an Austrian film and stage actress.
Life
Born into a well-known family of Austrian actors, she was the daughter of actor and director Rudolf Retty. Trained by her father, she began her stage career in 1890 at the Deutsches Theater and the Lessing Theater in Berlin, where she successfully performed in the title role of Minna von Barnhelm. She was also known for breeches roles in Little Lord Fauntleroy and The Merchant of Venice. In 1895, she went to the Volkstheater in Vienna and in 1903 joined the Burgtheater ensemble, where she received the title of Hofschauspielerin (Actress of the Court) in 1905. She became an honorary member of the Burgtheater in 1928 and in 1958 she gave her final performance.
She was married to the Austro-Hungarian Army officer Karl Albach; she was the mother of Wolf Albach-Retty (1906–1967), an Austrian movie actor who married German movie actress Magda Schneider in 1937. She thereby was the grandmother of actress Romy Schneider and great-grandmother of actress Sarah Biasini.
Albach-Retty made her first film appearance in 1930, in Georg Jacoby's Money on the Street, and made her last appearance in the 1955 remake The Congress Dances directed by Franz Antel. She died in 1980 at the age of 105, not long after she had published her autobiography So kurz sind 100 Jahre for her hundredth birthday. Her grave of honour and that of her son is located in the Vienna Central Cemetery (Group 32 C, Number 50).
Ties to the Nazis
The proximity of Rosa Albach-Retty to the NS Regime is well documented. The annexation of Austria to Nazi Germany in 1938 was celebrated by her in the Kleine Volks-Zeitung. Rosa Albach-Retty's membership in the NSDAP is not proven, but she and her husband were supporting members of the SS. As a celebrity of the public and a self-confessed admirer of Hitler, Rosa Albach-Retty was courted by the Nazi cultural policy and included in the so-called "God-privileged List" of the National Socialists.
None of this did anything to diminish the esteem in which Albach-Retty was held after the end of the Nazi regime, as the awards she received after 1945 prove. Even a Viennese municipal building was named after her: the Rosa-Albach-Retty-Hof in the 19th district, built in the 1970s.
Selected filmography
Money on the Street (1930)
Episode (1935)
Maria Ilona (1939)
Hotel Sacher (1939)
Whom the Gods Love (1942)
Vienna 1910 (1943)
Maria Theresa (1951)
Adventure in Vienna (1952)
The Spendthrift (1953)
The Congress Dances (1955)
Klaus Peter Dencker in conversation with Rosa Albach-Retty. A production of Saarländischer Rundfunk / Television (45 minutes) (1979)
Decorations and awards
1955: Grand Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
1958: Kainz Medal
1963: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
1977: Grand Decoration of Honour in Silver for Services to the Republic of Austria
Literatur
Rosa Albach-Retty: So kurz sind hundert Jahre. Erinnerungen. Aufgezeichnet von Gertrud Svoboda-Srncik. Herbig, Munich Berlin 1978,
Robert Kittler: Rosa Albach-Retty. Ein Leben für das Theater. Diss. Univ. Wien, Vienna 1958
Oliver Rathkolb: Führertreu und gottbegnadet. Künstlereliten im Dritten Reich. Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Vienna1991,
Robert Teichl: Österreicher der Gegenwart. Lexikon schöpferischer und schaffender Zeitgenossen. Verlag der Österreichischen Staatsdruckerei, Vienna 1951
Jürgen Trimborn: Romy und ihre Familie. Droemer, Munich 2008,
References
External links
Rosa Albach-Retty on filmportal.de
Rosa Albach-Retty in the Vienna History Wiki
Archivaufnahmen mit Rosa Albach-Retty im Onlinearchiv der Österreichischen Mediathek (Rezitation, Interview …)
Recordings with Rosa Albach-Retty in the Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek (in German). Retrieved 29 July 2019
1874 births
1980 deaths
Austrian film actresses
Austrian stage actresses
Austrian centenarians
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
Recipients of the Grand Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
20th-century Austrian actresses
Women centenarians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caricature
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Caricature
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A caricature is a rendered image showing the features of its subject in a simplified or exaggerated way through sketching, pencil strokes, or through other artistic drawings (compare to: cartoon). Caricatures can be insulting or complimentary and can serve a political purpose or be drawn solely for entertainment. Caricatures of politicians are commonly used in editorial cartoons, while caricatures of movie stars are often found in entertainment magazines.
In literature, a caricature is a distorted representation of a person in a way that exaggerates some characteristics and oversimplifies others.
Etymology
The term is derived for the Italian caricare—to charge or load. An early definition occurs in the English doctor Thomas Browne's Christian Morals, published posthumously in 1716.
with the footnote:
Thus, the word "caricature" essentially means a "loaded portrait". Until the mid 19th century, it was commonly and mistakenly believed that the term shared the same root as the French 'charcuterie', likely owing to Parisian street artists using cured meats in their satirical portrayal of public figures.
History
Some of the earliest caricatures are found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, who actively sought people with deformities to use as models. The point was to offer an impression of the original which was more striking than a portrait.
Caricature took a road to its first successes in the closed aristocratic circles of France and Italy, where such portraits could be passed about for mutual enjoyment.
While the first book on caricature drawing to be published in England was Mary Darly's A Book of Caricaturas (c. 1762), the first known North American caricatures were drawn in 1759 during the battle for Quebec. These caricatures were the work of Brig.-Gen. George Townshend whose caricatures of British General James Wolfe, depicted as "Deformed and crass and hideous" (Snell), were drawn to amuse fellow officers. Elsewhere, two great practitioners of the art of caricature in 18th-century Britain were Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827) and James Gillray (1757–1815). Rowlandson was more of an artist, and his work took its inspiration mostly from the public at large. Gillray was more concerned with the vicious visual satirisation of political life. They were, however, great friends and caroused together in the pubs of London.
In a lecture titled The History and Art of Caricature, the British caricaturist Ted Harrison said that the caricaturist can choose to either mock or wound the subject with an effective caricature. Drawing caricatures can simply be a form of entertainment and amusement – in which case gentle mockery is in order – or the art can be employed to make a serious social or political point. A caricaturist draws on (1) the natural characteristics of the subject (the big ears, long nose, etc.); (2) the acquired characteristics (stoop, scars, facial lines etc.); and (3) the vanities (choice of hair style, spectacles, clothes, expressions, and mannerisms).
Notable caricaturists
Sir Max Beerbohm (1872–1956, British), created and published caricatures of the famous men of his own time and earlier. His style of single-figure caricatures in formalized groupings was established by 1896 and flourished until about 1930. His published works include Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen (1896), The Poets' Corner (1904), and Rossetti and His Circle (1922). He published widely in fashionable magazines of the time, and his works were exhibited regularly in London at the Carfax Gallery (1901–18) and Leicester Galleries (1911–57).
George Cruikshank (1792–1878, British) created political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. He went on to create social caricatures of British life for popular publications such as The Comic Almanack (1835–1853) and Omnibus (1842). Cruikshanks' New Union Club of 1819 is notable in the context of slavery. He also earned fame as a book illustrator for Charles Dickens and many other authors.
Honoré Daumier (1808–1879, French) created over 4,000 lithographs, most of them caricatures on political, social, and everyday themes. They were published in the daily French newspapers (Le Charivari, La Caricature etc.)
Mort Drucker (1929-2020, American) joined Mad in 1957 and became well known for his parodies of movie satires. He combined a comic strip style with caricature likenesses of film actors for Mad, and he also contributed covers to Time. He has been recognized for his work with the National Cartoonists Society Special Features Award for 1985, 1986, 1987, and 1988, and their Reuben Award for 1987.
Alex Gard (1900–1948, Russian) created more than 700 caricatures of show business celebrities and other notables for the walls of Sardi's Restaurant in the theater district of New York City: the first artist to do so. Today the images are part of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.
Al Hirschfeld (1903–2003, American) was best known for his simple black and white renditions of celebrities and Broadway stars which used flowing contour lines over heavy rendering. He was also known for depicting a variety of other famous people, from politicians, musicians, singers and even television stars like the cast of Star Trek: The Next Generation. He was even commissioned by the United States Postal Service to provide art for U.S. stamps. Permanent collections of Hirschfeld's work appear at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and he boasts a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
Sebastian Krüger (1963, German) is known for his grotesque, yet hyper-realistic distortions of the facial features of celebrities, which he renders primarily in acrylic paint, and for which he has won praise from The Times. He is well known for his lifelike depictions of The Rolling Stones, in particular, Keith Richards. Krüger has published three collections of his works, and has a yearly art calendar from Morpheus International. Krüger's art can be seen frequently in Playboy magazine and has also been featured in the likes of Stern, L’Espresso, Penthouse, and Der Spiegel and USA Today. He has recently been working on select motion picture projects.
David Levine (1926–2009, American) is noted for his caricatures in The New York Review of Books and Playboy magazine. His first cartoons appeared in 1963. Since then he has drawn hundreds of pen-and-ink caricatures of famous writers and politicians for the newspaper.
Sam Viviano (1953, American) has done much work for corporations and in advertising, having contributed to Rolling Stone, Family Weekly, Reader's Digest, Consumer Reports, and Mad, of which he is currently the art director. Viviano's caricatures are known for their wide jaws, which Viviano has explained is a result of his incorporation of side views as well as front views into his distortions of the human face. He has also developed a reputation for his ability to do crowd scenes. Explaining his twice-yearly covers for Institutional Investor magazine, Viviano has said that his upper limit is sixty caricatures in nine days.
Computerization
There have been some efforts to produce caricatures automatically or semi-automatically using computer graphics techniques. For example, a system proposed by Akleman et al. provides warping tools specifically designed toward rapidly producing caricatures. There are very few software programs designed specifically for automatically creating caricatures.
Computer graphic system requires quite different skill sets to design a caricature as compared to the caricatures created on paper. Thus, using a computer in the digital production of caricatures requires advanced knowledge of the program's functionality. Rather than being a simpler method of caricature creation, it can be a more complex method of creating images that feature finer coloring textures than can be created using more traditional methods.
A milestone in formally defining caricature was Susan Brennan's master's thesis in 1982. In her system, caricature was formalized as the process of exaggerating differences from an average face. For example, if Prince Charles has more prominent ears than the average person, in his caricature the ears will be much larger than normal. Brennan's system implemented this idea in a partially automated fashion as follows: the operator was required to input a frontal drawing of the desired person having a standardized topology (the number and ordering of lines for every face). She obtained a corresponding drawing of an average male face. Then, the particular face was caricatured simply by subtracting from the particular face the corresponding point on the mean face (the origin being placed in the middle of the face), scaling this difference by a factor larger than one, and adding the scaled difference back onto the mean face.
Though Brennan's formalization was introduced in the 1980s, it remains relevant in recent work. Mo et al. refined the idea by noting that the population variance of the feature should be taken into account. For example, the distance between the eyes varies less than other features, such as the size of the nose. Thus even a small variation in the eye spacing is unusual and should be exaggerated, whereas a correspondingly small change in the nose size relative to the mean would not be unusual enough to be worthy of exaggeration.
On the other hand, Liang et al. argue that caricature varies depending on the artist and cannot be captured in a single definition. Their system uses machine learning techniques to automatically learn and mimic the style of a particular caricature artist, given training data in the form of a number of face photographs and the corresponding caricatures by that artist. The results produced by computer graphic systems are arguably not yet of the same quality as those produced by human artists. For example, most systems are restricted to exactly frontal poses, whereas many or even most manually produced caricatures (and face portraits in general) choose an off-center "three-quarters" view. Brennan's caricature drawings were frontal-pose line drawings. More recent systems can produce caricatures in a variety of styles, including direct geometric distortion of photographs.
Caricature advantage
Brennan's caricature generator was used to test recognition of caricatures. Rhodes, Brennan and Carey demonstrated that caricatures were recognised more accurately than the original images. They used line drawn images but Benson and Perrett showed similar effects with photographic quality images. Explanations for this advantage have been based on both norm-based theories of face recognition and exemplar-based theories of face recognition.
Modern use
Beside the political and public-figure satire, most contemporary caricatures are used as gifts or souvenirs, often drawn by street vendors. For a small fee, a caricature can be drawn specifically (and quickly) for a patron. These are popular at street fairs, carnivals, and even weddings, often with humorous results.
Caricature artists are also popular attractions at many places frequented by tourists, especially oceanfront boardwalks, where vacationers can have a humorous caricature sketched in a few minutes for a small fee. Caricature artists can sometimes be hired for parties, where they will draw caricatures of the guests for their entertainment.
Museums
There are numerous museums dedicated to caricature throughout the world, including the Museo de la Caricatura of Mexico City, the Muzeum Karykatury in Warsaw, the Caricatura Museum Frankfurt, the Wilhelm Busch Museum in Hanover and the Cartoonmuseum in Basel. The first museum of caricature in the Arab world was opened in March, 2009, at Fayoum, Egypt.
See also
List of caricaturists
Cartoon
Controversial newspaper caricatures
Darktown Comics
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
Persona
Physiognomy
Satire
Zoomorphism
Arab Cartoon Award
Meme
References
External links
International Society of Caricature Artists (ISCA) Official site of the International Society of Caricature Artists – a non-profit association devoted to the art of caricature (Formerly the National Caricaturist Network (NCN))
Daumier Drawings, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which focuses on this great caricaturist
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206683
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephano
|
Stephano
|
Stephano may refer to:
Fictional characters
Stephano (The Tempest), a drunkard in Shakespeare's The Tempest
An alias of Count Olaf in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events
Other
Stephano (moon), a natural satellite of the planet Uranus
See also
Stefano, a name
|
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] |
206686
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20caricaturists
|
List of caricaturists
|
A caricaturist is an artist who specializes in drawing caricatures.
List of caricaturists
Abed Abdi (born 1942)
Al Hirschfeld (1903–2003)
Alex Gard (1900–1948)
Alexander Saroukhan (1898–1977)
Alfred Grévin (1827–1892)
Alfred Schmidt (1858–1938)
Amédée de Noé, also known as Cham (1818–1879)
Amnon David Ar (born 1973)
Andre Gill (1840–1885)
Arifur Rahman (born 1984)
Arthur Good (1853–1928)
Aurelius Battaglia (1910–1984)
Lluís Bagaria (1882–1940)
Bill Plympton (born 1946)
Bob Staake (born 1957)
Boris Yefimov (1899–2008)
Bruce Stark (1933–2012)
Cabu (1938–2015)
Carlo Pellegrini (1839–1889)
Cem Kiziltug (born 1974)
Charles Williams (1798–1830)
Dan Dunn (born 1957)
Daniel Stieglitz (born 1980)
David Levine (1926–2009)
Sir David Low (1891–1963)
Don Barclay (1892–1975)
Donald Bevan (1920–2013)
Drew Friedman
Dušan Petričić (born 1946)
Edmund S. Valtman (1914–2005)
Emad Hajjaj (born 1967)
Émile Cohl (1857–1938)
Emilio Coia (1911–1997)
GAL (born 1940)
Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, also known as Nadar (1820–1910)
Gavin Bell (born 1971)
George Bahgoury (born 1932)
George Bickham the Younger (c. 1706–1771)
George Cruikshank (1792–1880)
George Moutard Woodward (c. 1760–1809)
George Wachsteter (1911–2004)
Georges Goursat (1863–1934)
Gerald Scarfe (born 1936)
Gerhard Haderer (born 1951)
Glen Hanson
Glynis Sweeny (born 1962)
György Rózsahegyi (1940–2010)
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901)
Henry Bateman (1887–1970)
Henry Bunbury (1750–1811)
Henry Wigstead (died 1800)
Hermann Mejia (born 1973)
Honoré Daumier (1808–1879)
Isa Macnie (1869–1958)
Isaac Cruikshank (1786–1856)
Jack Davis (1924–2016)
Jacques Callot (1592–1635)
James Gillray (1756–1815)
James Sayers (1748–1825)
Jaume Capdevila, "Kap" (born 1974)
Javad Alizadeh (born 1953)
J.J. Grandville (1803–1847)
Jean-Pierre Dantan (1800–1869)
Jeff Hook (1928–2018)
Jim McDermott (born 1960)
Joe Grant (1908–2005)
John Doyle (1797–1868)
John Kay (1742–1826)
John Leech (1817–1864)
John Tenniel (1820–1914)
Jovan Prokopljević (born 1940)
Karl Meersman (born 1961)
Kate Carew (1869–1961)
Ken Fallin (born 1948)
Kenny Meadows (1790–1874)
Kerry G. Johnson (born 1966)
Kerry Waghorn (born 1947)
Louis Hirshman (1905–1986)
Luigi Borgomainerio (1836–1876)
Malky McCormick (1943–2019)
Marc Sleen (1922–2016)
Marjorie Organ (1886–1930)
Marshall Jay Kaplan (born 1965)
Massoud Mehrabi (1954–2020)
Max Beerbohm (1872–1956)
Melchiorre Delfico (1825–1895)
Mort Drucker (1929–2020)
Murray Webb (born 1947)
Nikolai Stepanov (1807–1877)
Oğuz Aral (1936–2004)
Osama Hajjaj (born 1973)
Oscar Berger (1901–1997)
Omaya Joha (born 1972)
Patrick Oliphant (born 1935)
Paul Gavarni (1804–1866)
Pedro X. Molina
Peggy Bacon (1895–1987)
Philip Burke (born 1956)
Pier Leone Ghezzi (1674–1755)
Prakash Shetty (born 1960)
Predrag Koraksić Corax (born 1933)
Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro (1846–1905)
Ralph Steadman (born 1936)
Ranan Lurie (born 1932)
Raoul Hunter (1926–2018)
Richard Newton (1777–1798)
Robert Grossman (1940–2018)
Robert Risko (born 1956)
Ronald Searle (1920–2011)
S. Jithesh (born 1974)
Sam Berman (1906–1995)
Sam Norkin (1917–2011)
Sam Viviano (born 1953)
Sebastian Krüger (born 1963)
Seyran Caferli (born 1966)
Shawn McManus (born 1958)
Shekhar Gurera, India (born 1965)
Stephen Rotluanga (born 1952)
Steve Bell (born 1951)
Steve Brodner (born 1954)
Thomas Nast (1840–1902)
Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827)
Tom Bachtell (born 1957)
Tom Richmond (born 1966)
Vitaliy Peskov (1944–2002) (Russian: Виталий Песков)
Vyvyan Donner (1895–1965)
William Auerbach-Levy (1889–1964)
William Austin (1721–1820)
William Heath (1794–1840)
William Hogarth (1697–1764)
Wyncie King (1884–1961)
See also
List of science fiction visual artists
List of cartoonists
List of graphic designers
References
Visual arts occupations
Lists of people by occupation
|
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206687
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett%20J.%20Gladman
|
Brett J. Gladman
|
Brett James Gladman (born April 19, 1966) is a Canadian astronomer and a full professor at the University of British Columbia's Department of Physics and Astronomy in Vancouver, British Columbia. He holds the Canada Research Chair in planetary astronomy. He does both theoretical work (large-scale numerical simulations of planetary dynamics) and observational optical astronomy (being a discoverer of many planetary moons and minor planets).
Career
Gladman is best known for his work in dynamical astronomy in the Solar System. He has studied the transport of meteorites between planets, the delivery of meteoroids from the main asteroid belt, and the possibility of the transport of life via this mechanism, known as panspermia. He also studies planet formation, especially the puzzle of how the giant planets came to be.
He is discoverer or co-discoverer of many astronomical bodies in the Solar System, asteroids, Kuiper Belt comets, and many moons of the giant planets:
Uranus: Caliban, Sycorax, Prospero, Setebos, Stephano, and Ferdinand
Saturn: A dozen satellites in several groups, each named after a theme of Canadian Inuit gods, French deities, and Norse gods
Neptune: The satellite Neso
Jupiter: Discovery and co-discovery of 6 moons
Gladman is a member of the Canada–France Ecliptic Plane Survey (CFEPS), and the Outer Solar System Origins Survey (OSSOS) which has detected and tracked the world's largest sample of well-understood Kuiper belt comets, including unusual objects like ("Buffy") and ("Drac"), the first trans-Neptunian object on a retrograde orbit around the Sun.
Honors and awards
Gladman was awarded the H. C. Urey Prize by the Division of Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society in 2002. The main-belt asteroid 7638 Gladman is named in his honor. During 2008–2011 he served as member and chair of the Science Advisory Council of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. He was awarded a Killam Research Fellowship in 2015.
List of discovered minor planets
Partial listing only below; discoveries number in the many hundreds of asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects.
See also
References
External links
Brett Gladman at the Astronomy group of the Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, UBC and Institute of Planetary Science
1966 births
21st-century Canadian astronomers
Canada Research Chairs
Discoverers of minor planets
Discoverers of moons
Discoverers of trans-Neptunian objects
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Planetary scientists
University of British Columbia faculty
|
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206691
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zend%20Engine
|
Zend Engine
|
The Zend Engine is a compiler and runtime environment for the PHP scripting language and consists of the Zend Virtual Machine, which is composed of the Zend Compiler and the Zend Executor, that compiles and executes the PHP code. It was originally developed by Andi Gutmans and Zeev Suraski while they were students at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. They later founded a company called Zend Technologies in Ramat Gan, Israel. The name Zend is a combination of their forenames, Zeev and Andi.
The first version of the Zend Engine appeared in 1999 in PHP version 4. It was written in C as a highly optimized modular back-end, which for the first time could be used in applications outside of PHP. The Zend Engine provides memory and resource management, and other standard services for the PHP language. Its performance, reliability and extensibility played a significant role in PHP's increasing popularity.
This was followed by Zend Engine 2 at the heart of PHP 5.
The newest version is Zend Engine 3, originally codenamed phpng, which was developed for PHP 7 and significantly improves performance.
The source code for the Zend Engine has been freely available under the Zend Engine License (although some parts are under the PHP License) since 1999, as part of the official releases from php.net, as well as the official git repository or the GitHub mirror. Various volunteers contribute to the PHP/Zend Engine codebase.
Architecture
Zend Engine is used internally by PHP as a compiler and runtime engine.
PHP Scripts are loaded into memory and compiled into Zend opcodes.
These opcodes are executed and the HTML generated is sent to the client.
To implement a Web script interpreter, you need three parts:
The interpreter part analyzes the input code, translates it, and executes it.
The functionality part implements the functionality of the language (its functions, etc.).
The interface part talks to the Web server, etc.
Zend takes part 1 completely and a bit of part 2; PHP takes parts 2 and 3.
Zend itself really forms only the language core, implementing PHP at its very basics with some predefined functions.
See also
References
External links
Official git repository
1999 software
C (programming language) software
PHP
PHP software
|
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206693
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Caulfield
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Patrick Caulfield
|
Patrick Joseph Caulfield, (29 January 1936 – 29 September 2005), was an English painter and printmaker known for his bold canvases, which often incorporated elements of photorealism within a pared-down scene. Examples of his work are Pottery and Still Life Ingredients.
Early life
Patrick Joseph Caulfield was born on 29 January 1936 at 17 All Saints Road, Acton, west London. During the second world war Caulfield's family returned to Bolton in 1945, where his parents were born, to work at the De Havilland factory. Leaving Acton Secondary Modern at the age of 15, Caulfield secured a position as a filing clerk at Crosse & Blackwell and later transferred to the design studio, working on food display and carrying out menial tasks. At 17, he joined the Royal Air Force at RAF Northwood, pre-empting requirement for national service. Inspired by the 1952 film Moulin Rouge about the artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, he spent his free time attending evening classes at Harrow School of Art (now part of the University of Westminster).
Studies and work
Patrick Caulfield studied at Chelsea School of Art from 1956 to 1960, and during this time he won two prizes which funded a trip he made to Greece and Crete upon graduation. The visit to the island proved important, with Caulfield finding inspiration in the Minoan frescoes and the bright, hard colours on Crete. One of his greatest friends was the abstract painter John Hoyland, whom he first met at the Young Contemporaries exhibition in 1959. Progressing to the Royal College of Art from 1960 to 1963, his contemporaries included David Hockney and Allen Jones. He taught at Chelsea School of Art from 1963–71. In 1964, he exhibited at the New Generation show at London's Whitechapel Gallery, which resulted in him being associated with the pop art movement. This was a label Caulfield was opposed to throughout his career, seeing himself rather as "a 'formal' artist".
From the mid-1970s he incorporated more detailed, realistic elements into his work; After Lunch (1975) is an early example. Still-life: Autumn Fashion (1978) contains a variety of styles – some objects have heavy black outlines and flat colour, but a bowl of oysters is depicted more realistically and other areas are executed with looser brushwork. Caulfield later returned to his earlier, more stripped-down style of painting.
Caulfield's paintings are figurative, often portraying a few simple objects in an interior. Typically, he used flat areas of simple colour surrounded by black outlines. Some of his works are dominated by a single hue.
In 1987, Caulfield was nominated for the Turner Prize for his show The Artist's Eye at the National Gallery in London. In 1996 he was made a CBE.
On 24 May 2004, a fire in a storage warehouse destroyed many works from the Saatchi collection, including three by Caulfield. In September 2010 Caulfield and five other British artists, Howard Hodgkin, John Walker, Ian Stephenson, John Hoyland, and R.B. Kitaj were included in an exhibition entitled The Independent Eye: Contemporary British Art From the Collection of Samuel and Gabrielle Lurie, at the Yale Center for British Art.
He died in London in 2005 and is buried in Highgate Cemetery. His work is held in the private collections of Charles Saatchi and David Bowie and the road on which he was born was renamed Caulfield Road after his death when the area was redeveloped.
Commissions
Later in his career, Caulfield worked on several commissions in addition to his painting and printmaking. In 1990 he designed a stained glass window for The Ivy restaurant, it is visible from within the restaurant and on its exterior. In 1992 he designed a 12-metre carpet for the British Council's Manchester headquarters and in 1984 and 1995 set designs for Party Game and Rhapsody (respectively) at the Royal Opera House. Caulfield painted the doors of the Great West Organ at Portsmouth Cathedral in 2001.
Selected solo exhibitions
2020 Alex Vardaxoglou, London, UK
2013 Tate Britain, London, UK
2009 Patrick Caulfield: Between the Lines, Pallant House Gallery, Chichester, UK
2009 Prints 1964–1999, Alan Cristea Gallery, London, UK
2006 Royal Academy, London, UK (Special Summer Exhibition Show)
2006 Tate Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
1999 Hayward Gallery, London, UK
1996 Claudine Papillon, Paris, France
1992–93 Retrospective, Serpentine Gallery, London, UK
1989 Waddington Galleries, London
1985 Waddington Galleries, London, UK
1982 Retrospective, Nishimura Gallery, Tokyo, Japan
1981 Patrick Caulfield: Paintings 1963–81, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, UK (touring to Tate Britain, London and Waddington Galleries, London, UK)
1978 Tate Gallery, London, UK
1968 Robert Elkon Gallery, New York, UK
1965 Robert Fraser Gallery, Britain, London
Selected public collections
UK
Arts Council of Great Britain, London
British Council, London & Manchester
Manchester City Art Gallery, Manchester
National Museum of Wales, Cardiff
Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh
Tate Gallery, London
Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool
Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
USA
Dallas Museum of Art, Texas
Harry N Abrams Collection, New York
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond
Australia
National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
Art Gallery of Western Australia, Perth
Notes
References
Marco Livingstone, Patrick Caulfield: Paintings, published by Lund Humphries and Waddington Galleries, 2005 ISBN 0 85331 917 0
Caulfield, P. (1992). Patrick Caulfield, Paintings 1963–1992. London: Art & Design.
Caulfield and Hoyland joint interview. The Australian. 19 Feb 1980
External links
Caulfield at the Tate Gallery (includes images of many of his pieces)
Caulfield works at Cristea Roberts Gallery (ditto)
Caulfield at Waddington Custot Galleries (ditto)
Caulfield Exhibit in Seattle (ditto)
Caulfield biography
BBC News: Pop artist Patrick Caulfield dies
Photograph of his gravestone
1936 births
2005 deaths
20th-century English painters
English male painters
English people of Irish descent
21st-century English painters
English printmakers
Royal Academicians
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Alumni of Chelsea College of Arts
British pop artists
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Opera designers
English contemporary artists
20th-century British printmakers
|
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206695
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Frazier%20vs.%20Muhammad%20Ali
|
Joe Frazier vs. Muhammad Ali
|
Joe Frazier vs. Muhammad Ali, billed as The Fight, was a heavyweight championship boxing match between WBA, WBC, and The Ring heavyweight champion Joe Frazier (26–0, 23 KOs) and former undisputed heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali (31–0, 25 KOs), on Monday, March 8, 1971, at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
The fight is widely regarded as the biggest boxing match in history and arguably the single most anticipated and publicized sporting event ever. It was the first time ever that two undefeated boxers who held or had held the world Heavyweight title fought each other for that title.
The bout held broad appeal for many Americans, including non-boxing and non-sport fans. Ali, who had been stripped of his titles by boxing authorities for refusing to submit to the draft for the Vietnam war, had become a symbol of the anti-establishment public during his government-imposed exile from the ring, while Frazier had been adopted by the pro-war public.
Frazier won in 15 rounds by unanimous decision. It was the first of a trio of fights, followed by the rematch fights Super Fight II (1974) and Thrilla in Manila (1975), both won by Ali.
Background and cultural significance
In 1971, both Ali and Frazier were undefeated champions (in Ali's case, actually, former champion) who held legitimate claims to the title of "World Heavyweight Champion". Ali had won the title from Sonny Liston in Miami Beach in 1964, and successfully defended his belt up until he had it stripped by boxing authorities for refusing induction into the armed forces in 1967. In Ali's absence, Frazier won two championship belts through elimination tournaments, knocking out Buster Mathis and Jimmy Ellis, to replace Ali as the acknowledged world champion. Frazier was plausibly Ali's equal, which created a tremendous amount of hype and anticipation for a match pitting the two undefeated fighters against one another to decide who was the true heavyweight champ.
Ringside seats were $150 () and each man was guaranteed $2.5 million. In addition to the millions who watched on closed-circuit broadcast screens around the world, the Garden was packed with a sell-out crowd of 20,455 that provided a gate of $1.5 million ().
Prior to his enforced layoff, Ali had displayed uncommon speed and agility for a man of his size. He had dominated most of his opponents to the point that he had often predicted the round in which he would knock his opponent out. In October of 1970, he knocked out Jerry Quarry in three rounds in his first match after a three-and-a-half-year layoff. However, in his next fight, the last preceding the Frazier fight, Ali struggled at times during his 15th-round TKO of Oscar Bonavena, an unorthodox Argentinian fighter who was prepared by Hall of Fame trainer Gil Clancy. On the March 4, 1971 episode of The Dick Cavett Show, Howard Cosell, Joe Louis and Jimmy Breslin all correctly predicted that because of Ali's lengthy layoff, Frazier would prevail.
Frazier had an outstanding left hook and was a tenacious competitor who attacked the body of his opponent ferociously. Despite suffering from a serious bout of hypertension in the lead-up to the fight, he appeared to be in top form as the face-off between the two undefeated champions approached.
Prior to the fight, Mark Kram wrote in Sports Illustrated:
The thrust of this fight on the public consciousness is incalculable. It has been a ceaseless whir that seems to have grown in decibel with each new soliloquy by Ali, with each dead calm promise by Frazier. It has magnetized the imagination of ring theorists, and flushed out polemicists of every persuasion. It has cut deep into the thicket of our national attitudes, and it is a conversational imperative everywhere—from the gabble of big-city salons and factory lunch breaks rife with unreasoning labels, to ghetto saloons with their own false labels.
As Gil Clancy, who was in Frazier's corner that night, would later comment:
The electricity in the air then was just unbelievable. If they would have dropped the bomb on Madison Square Garden that night, the country wouldn't have been able to run.
Fight
On the evening of the match, Madison Square Garden had a circus-like atmosphere, with scores of policemen to control the crowd of outrageously dressed fans and countless celebrities, from Norman Mailer to Woody Allen. Unable to procure a ringside seat, Frank Sinatra took photographs for Life magazine instead. Nelson Mandela, who was in prison in South Africa during this fight, spoke about how excited everybody was about this fight. Artist LeRoy Neiman painted Ali and Frazier as they fought. Burt Lancaster served as a color commentator for the closed-circuit broadcast. Though Lancaster had never performed as a sports commentator before, he was hired by the fight's promoter, Jerry Perenchio, who was also a friend. The other commentators were famed boxing play-by-play announcer Don Dunphy and former light-heavyweight boxing champion and heavyweight competitor Archie Moore. The fight was sold, and broadcast by closed circuit, to 50 countries in 12 languages via ringside reporters to an audience estimated at 300 million, a record viewership for a television event at that time. Riots broke out at several venues as unresolvable technical issues interrupted the broadcast in several cities in the third round. And, although no live radio coverage of the fight itself was allowed under the terms of the promotion, the Mutual Radio Network did broadcast the fight the night of March 8, with announcers Van Patrick and Charles King, together with many other sports commentators, providing round-by-round summaries live as they came out over the UPI and AP wire services.
The referee for the fight was Arthur Mercante, Sr., who spent the night breaking up Ali's clinching and holding Frazier behind the head. After the fight, Mercante, a veteran referee of hundreds of fights, said: "They both threw some of the best punches I've ever seen."
The fight itself exceeded many fans’ expectations and went the full 15-round championship distance. Ali dominated the first two rounds, peppering the shorter Frazier with rapier-like jabs that raised welts on the champion's face. In the closing seconds of round three, Frazier connected with a tremendous hook to Ali's jaw. Frazier began to dominate in the fourth round, catching Ali with several of his famed left hooks and pinning him against the ropes to deliver tremendous body blows.
Ali was visibly tired after the sixth round, and though he put together some flurries of punches after that round, he was unable to keep the pace he had set in the first third of the fight. At 1 minute and 59 seconds into round eight, following his clean left hook to Ali's right jaw, Frazier grabbed Ali's wrists and swung Ali into the center of the ring; however, Ali immediately grabbed Frazier again until they were once again separated by Mercante.
Frazier caught Ali with a left hook at nine seconds into round 11. A fraction of a second later, slipping on water in Frazier's corner, Ali fell with both gloves and his right knee to the canvas. Mercante stepped between Ali and Frazier, separating them as Ali rose. Mercante wiped Ali's gloves and waved "no knockdown." At 18 seconds into round 11, Mercante signaled the fighters to engage once again. As round 11 wound down, Frazier staggered Ali with a left hook. Ali stumbled and grabbed at Frazier to keep his balance and finally stumbled back to the ropes before bouncing forward again to Frazier and grabbing on to Frazier until the fighters were separated by Mercante at 2:55 into the round.
Heading into round 15, all three judges had Frazier In the lead (7–6–1, 10–4–0, and 8–6–0), and Frazier closed convincingly. Early in the round, Frazier landed a left hook that put Ali on the canvas. Ali, his jaw swollen noticeably, got up at the count of four and managed to stay on his feet for the rest of the round despite several terrific blows from Frazier. A few minutes later, the judges made it official: Frazier had retained the title with a unanimous decision, dealing Ali his first professional loss.
Scorecard
Viewership and revenue
The fight was broadcast live pay-per-view on theatre television in the United States, where it set a record with 2.5million tickets sold at closed-circuit venues, grossing . It was also shown closed-circuit during the middle of the night in London theatres, where it set a record with 90,000 tickets, grossing $750,000. Combined, the fight sold million tickets in the United States and London, grossing (inflation-adjusted ).
On both closed-circuit and free television, the fight was watched by a record 300million viewers worldwide. It was watched by a record 27.5million viewers on BBC1 in the United Kingdom, about half of the British population. It was also watched by an estimated 5.4million viewers in Italy, and 2million viewers in South Korea.
Aftermath
Ali refused to publicly admit defeat and sought to define the outcome in the public's mind as a "White Man's Decision". Frazier lost the title 22 months later, when he was knocked down six times in the first two rounds by George Foreman in their brief but devastating January 22, 1973, title bout in Kingston, Jamaica.
Ali split two bouts with Ken Norton in 1973 and was viewed by many as on a downward slide before a win in a rematch—Ali–Frazier II—in January 1974. That October, Ali shocked the world with a victory in Kinshasa, Zaire, over the heavily favored Foreman to regain the heavyweight title in The Rumble in the Jungle.
Ali later went on to defeat Frazier in their third and final bout, The Thrilla in Manila. By the time of the rematches the social climate in America had settled down, with the Vietnam War having ended in early 1973. Many dismissed the notion that Ali was a traitor, and he was once again accepted as the heavyweight champion. People who had supported Frazier on political and racial grounds in the first bout so that they could see Ali get beat were less effusive and abandoned him after he lost his championship. Without the same social divide, with the unknown of whether Ali could ever regain enough of his former greatness to dominate post-layoff partially answered, and without the impetus of two unbeaten champions meeting one another for the first time, neither their second nor their third matchup would attain the unprecedented hype of the first.
Ali biographer Wilfrid Sheed wrote rather hyperbolically of the fight:
Both men left the ring changed men that night. For Frazier, his greatness was gone, that unquantifiable combination of youth, ability and desire. For Ali, the public hatred he had so carefully nursed to his advantage came to a head and burst that night and has never been the same. To his supporters he became a cultural hero. His detractors finally gave him grudging respect. At least they had seen him beaten and seen that smug look wiped off his face.
Boxing historian Bert Sugar said:
"As Ali's image and myth and name and reputation grew, Joe's was sure to suffer. The winner that night was the loser and the loser that night was the winner."
COINTELPRO
The fight provided cover for an activist group, the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI, to successfully pull off a burglary at an FBI office in Pennsylvania, which exposed the COINTELPRO operations that included illegal spying on activists involved with the civil rights and anti-war movements, on the basis that guards listening to radio coverage of the fight would be distracted from their duties. One of the COINTELPRO targets was Muhammad Ali, and the FBI's goals included their gaining access to his records as far back as elementary school.
See also
Ali–Frazier II – second bout, January 1974
Thrilla in Manila – third bout, October 1975
References
Frazier
1971 in boxing
1971 in sports in New York City
20th century in Manhattan
Boxing matches at Madison Square Garden
History of boxing
World Boxing Association heavyweight championship matches
World Boxing Council heavyweight championship matches
March 1971 sports events in the United States
Nicknamed sporting events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20Chadwick
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Helen Chadwick
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Helen Chadwick (18 May 1953 – 15 March 1996) was a British sculptor, photographer and installation artist. In 1987, she became one of the first women artists to be nominated for the Turner Prize. Chadwick was known for "challenging stereotypical perceptions of the body in elegant yet unconventional forms. Her work draws from a range of sources, from myths to science, grappling with a plethora of unconventional, visceral materials that included chocolate, lambs tongues and rotting vegetable matter. Her skilled use of traditional fabrication methods and sophisticated technologies transform these unusual materials into complex installations. Maureen Paley noted that "Helen was always talking about craftsmanship—a constant fount of information". Binary oppositions was a strong theme in Chadwick's work; seductive/repulsive, male/female, organic/man-made. Her combinations "emphasise yet simultaneously dissolve the contrasts between them". Her gender representations forge a sense of ambiguity and a disquieting sexuality blurring the boundaries of ourselves as singular and stable beings."
Early life and education
Helen Chadwick was born on 18 May 1953 in Croydon, England. Her mother was a Greek refugee and her father from east London. Her parents met during the Second World War in Athens, Greece, and moved to live in Croydon in 1946. After Chadwick left Croydon High School, she embarked on a Fine Art Foundation course at Croydon College, then went on to study at Brighton Polytechnic (1973–76). She recalled, "Traditional media were never dynamic enough… right from early on in art school, I wanted to use the body to create a set of inter-relationships with the audience". Her degree show Domestic Sanitation (1976) consisted of her and three other women, 'wearing' latex costumes painted directly on to the skin, engaging in a satirical feminist round of cleaning and grooming. In 1976, Chadwick moved to Hackney and enrolled in a Masters course at Chelsea College of Art (1976–77). In 1977, she and two dozen other artists moved into Beck Road, Hackney, a double strip of Victorian terraces that was earmarked for demolition. After squatting for two years they persuaded the Inner London Education Authority to rent out, rather than demolish, the houses. Beck Road became a hive of home studios whose residents included Maureen Paley, Ray Walker and Genesis P-Orridge.
Career
Chadwick began exhibiting regularly from 1977, gradually building her reputation as an artist. Her rise into the public sphere was marked by the inclusion of her work Ego Geometria Sum (1983) in a group exhibition entitled Summer Show I (1983) at the Serpentine. In 1985 she began an active teaching career as a visiting lecturer across a number of London art schools. Her posts at Goldsmiths (1985–90), Chelsea College of Arts, London (1985–95), Central Saint Martins, London (1987–95) and the Royal College of Art (1990–94) ensured an important influence on contemporary British Art in the late 1980s and ‘90s, specifically on the Young British Artists.
Chadwick’s work really came to prominence with Of Mutability (1986-87), a large installation involving sculpture and photography at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London. This exhibition that toured a number of venues in England, Scotland and Switzerland resulted in her nomination for the Turner Prize in 1987. This was the first year that women were nominated for Britain’s most prestigious contemporary art award.
In 1990 Chadwick was invited to exhibit in a photography festival in Houston, Texas, where she met a local artist, David Notarius. The following year he moved to Beck Road and they married.
In the summer of 1994, Chadwick's exhibition Effluvia opened at the Serpentine, London. This exhibition marked the high point of Chadwick's exposure, receiving widespread critical attention and national press coverage. The exhibition was seen by 54,000 visitors, breaking the record for the gallery. In 1995, Chadwick received her first solo exhibition in the United States at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, entitled Helen Chadwick: Bad Blooms. In 1995, Chadwick took up an artist residency in the assisted conception unit at King's College Hospital, London, photographing IVF embryos rejected for implantation.[11] She used the photos in Unnatural Selection, a series on which she was working when she died. Chadwick's work is included in the collections at the Victoria and Albert Museum, The Tate and the Museum of Modern Art.
Gender representation
Chadwick’s earlier work utilised her naked form, questioning the representation of the female body and addressing what Chadwick called "the issue of the female body as a site of desire". She attempted to complicate the conventional passive objectification of women. "I was looking at a vocabulary for desire where I was the subject and the object and the author" she said; "I felt by directly taking all theses roles, the normal situation in which the viewer operated as a kind of voyeur broke down". Her BA graduate performance Domestic Sanitation (1976) attempted to highlight the distinction between nudity and nakedness. Her performers wore another latex skin to cover their skin suggesting the imposition of idealised femininity while they carried out stereotypical female activities.
Many critics, including former feminist colleagues, concluded that she reinforced the stereotypes she sought to subvert. As was the case for other women artists that were reclaiming their bodies through their art practice, she was accused of regressive female narcissism. Chadwick declared that "I'm disappointed that a false rationalism is used as a stick with which to measure what I'm doing when I am looking to cross the taboos that have been instigated. I hate being hauled up as an example of negative women's work." In 1988 Chadwick made a conscious decision "...not to represent my body.... It immediately declares female gender and I wanted to be more deft." Her practice then moved inside the body to flesh in her Meat Abstracts (1989) and Meat Lamps (1989-91) and to bodily excrement’s in Piss Flowers (1991–92). Chadwick commented, "I felt compelled to use materials that were still bodily, that were still a kind of self-portrait, but did not rely on representation of my own body"
Through her career Chadwick’s concerns with gender representation moved from the objectification of women to more closely examine what gender is. Working in a time surrounded by debates around the cultural construction of gender, her work was fuelled by writings of Julia Kristeva and Michel Foucault. She would often cite Herculine Barbin, a nineteenth century hermaphrodite, whose memoirs were discovered and printed by Foucault in 1980. Chadwick commented, "Why do we feel compelled to read gender, and automatically wish to sex the body before us so we can orientate our desire and thus gain pleasure or reject what we see?" Chadwick’s Piss Flowers (1991–92) questions the singularity and specificity of gender through an inversion of gender roles. Chadwick elaborated her interest in deconstructing gender binaries in a lecture she gave in 1991: "in language dual structures are defined as oppositional: where we have self, there must be other; gender is male or female, and most problematic and absurd of all is the split between mind and body"
Works
Ego Geometria Sum (1983)
Ego Geometria Sum is an attempt to trace one's body back "through a succession of geometric solids". The work comprises twelve plywood sculptures that reflect the mass of the artist's body at a succession of ages from premature birth to maturity at 30. Each sculpture takes the form of an object that symbolises that age, for example an incubator or a pram. The artist in her notebooks described the forms as "objects that a) contained me b) (re)oriented me c) moulded / shaped me". The work is printed with pictures of the object, places that relate to it and Chadwick's naked form, that conforms to the sculptures shape. While this is certainly an autobiographical work, Chadwick makes a purpose of not showing her face to emphasise a universal quality. The overlapping and juxtaposition of images speaks to the connectedness of the self and the world. The artists notes at this time suggest that the work was an attempt to "go back in memory to the origin of symptoms" of a sense of alienation that she felt. She attempts to free the ego from the traumas of the past.
The accompanying photographs in this installation entitled The Labours I-X, show the naked artist bracing as she lifts each of the sculptures. The title refers to the mythical labours of Hercules that he is sentenced to after he kills his own children in a fit of rage. Chadwick's use of it suggests that attempting to encapsulate personal history is a Herculean task, requiring great strength and courage.
Loop My Loop (1991)
Loop My Loop is a back-lit cibachrome photograph of blond hair intertwined with a pig's intestines. The golden locks signify purity and love knotted with the intestines, which signifies the raw animalistic side to human nature. This work has links with the ideas of Georges Bataille, a French intellectual and literary figure who worked in fields such as anthropology, sociology, and history of art. Chadwick's Loop My Loop is similar to her work from 1990, titled Nostalgie de la Boue. In this work, two rounded cibachrome transparencies were hung one above the other. The top one contained a ring of earthworms, while the bottom pictured someone's scalp with the center imploding. Both images appear similar, but by placing the worms above the human scalp the distinction upholding the human above the animal is no longer held.
Piss Flowers (1991–1992)
Piss Flowers is a work made up of twelve sculptures that Chadwick made while on a residency at the Banff Centre for the Arts in Alberta, Canada, in February 1991. During their stay, she and her partner, David Notarius travelled to different locations, made mounds of snow and laid out a flower shaped metal cutter. They would take turns to urinate in the snow then pour plaster into the cavities. These casts were attached to pedestals that were based on a hyacinth bulb. The whole thing was then cast in bronze and enamelled white. The works are a result of her physical contact with the location, preserving a direct impact of reality. Chadwick describes the flowers as a "metaphysical conceit for the union of two people expressing themselves bodily". The work utilises the pleasure of taboo; elevating the medium of urine that is generally regarded as polluting and marginal in a dynamic and playful way. "It may have been mischievous to piss in the snow, but it was damn hard work to end up with the 12 bronzes", Chadwick recalled. "Piss Flowers took two years, largely because I had to find £12,000 to make them". The artist "sold herself" to make a programme about Frida Kahlo for the BBC in order to fund the work.
The use of a flower as the form was significant for Chadwick because they are the bisexual reproductive organs of plants containing both male and female sex organs. The woman's urine flow is strong and hot, resulting in a central penile form; the man's is diffuse and cooler, and creates the labial circumference. In a poem entitled Piss Posy (1991) Chadwick describes the works as "Vaginal towers with male skirt/ Gender bending water sport?". Chadwick plays on sexual difference, reversing gender roles and provoking uncertainty of the singularity and specificity of gender. Piss Flowers "synthesise sexual difference through the erotic play both of their making and their forms".
Exhibitions
Of Mutability (1986)
Of Mutability was Chadwick's first major solo exhibition, held at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in 1986. Chadwick utilised the ceremonial character of the elegant neo-classical rooms of the upper galleries to house an installation made up of a number of autonomous artworks. One room was at the centre of the exhibition and took the name of The Oval Court (1984–86), an ovoid platform that lay in the middle of the space. The platform presents a twelve-part collage of layered blue toned A4 photocopies made directly of the artist’s naked form, dead animals, plants and drapery suspended in an ovoid pool. The work speaks to the still life, evoking vanitas tradition in its subtle depictions of the transience of the things we surround ourselves with. Twelve figures, according to the artist’s notes, represent the "12 gates to paradise", where she achieves "oneness with all living things". Five golden spheres rest atop the platform corresponding to the finger placing’s of a huge hand, alluding to the touch of divine. On the walls of this room were photographs of the artist weeping, a Venetian glass mirror and printouts of computer-rendered drawings of the Baroque columns from the baldacchino of St Peter's in Rome. Chadwick’s use of her own body invokes a human attachment to the world, suggesting that the concept of self is infinitely subject to change.
The second room housed Carcass (1986), a two-metre-high glass tower of rotting vegetable matter that moves and lives. It begins to compost, generating new organisms over time, Chadwick had to top it up daily to maintain its levels. During the exhibition a small leak appeared in the tower and in a state of panic the ICA staff laid the column, splitting a seam. When they attempted to lay it on its side, ten gallons on fermented liquid sloshed and blew off the end of the tower. Newspapers broadcast this accident, bringing attention to Chadwick as an exciting nonconforming artist.
Effluvia (1994)
Effluvia responded to the parkland setting of the Serpentine; the installation was created in the form of a garden, surrounding themes of tamed and untamed nature with such works as Piss Flowers (1991–92) and a fountain of molten chocolate entitled Cacao (1994). The exhibition also contained a number of Chadwick's other important works including Viral Landscapes, a series of works where the artist combined images of cell groups with visually appropriate parts of the Pembrokeshire coastline in Wales. These works explore the relation between host and virus as a metaphor for that between the individual and the world. In the next room Chadwick exhibited a selection of her Meat Lamps (1989–91), large-format Polaroid images of meat slabs, bulbs, drapery and other visceral materials that were displayed on light boxes, often with an aura of light spilling around them. Chadwick set out to deconstruct binary opposition by reducing the work to present flesh as flesh. The exhibition also included new works Glossolalia (1993) and I Thee Wed (1993) that consisted of lamb tongues cast in bronze, fox pelts, and vegetables encircled in rings of fur.
Along with Piss Flowers (see Piss Flowers section), Cacao attracted the most attention. The work is a fountain of liquid chocolate whose smell permeates the gallery, the form evokes both phallus and flower. Associations with earth, shit and 'base matter' are disturbing and simultaneously liberating, speaking to the pleasures of excess and the subject as a desiring self. When asked the reason for making this work Chadwick explained "my libido demanded it", describing it as "a pool or primal matter, sexually indeterminate, in a perpetual state of flux". On the walls that surrounded Cacao were Chadwick's Wreaths of Pleasure (1992–93), a series of circular luminous photographs framed in enamelled metal that are over a metre in circumference. Combining delicate suspensions of flowers and fruit in household liquids such as hair gel and milk, the work alludes to a fluidity of boundaries. The artist challenges the notions of a centred stable subjectivity, suggesting a constant permeation of self.
Legacy
Chadwick died suddenly at age 42 of a heart attack in 1996. Although they declared no proof, pathologists suggested a link between her heart attack and a viral infection causing a myocarditis — an inflammation of the heart muscle that could have been triggered anywhere between the last few years of her life and the last weeks.
In 2004–2005 a retrospective of Chadwick’s work organised by the Barbican Art Gallery toured a four major galleries. These included Barbican Art Gallery (London, UK), Liljevalch Konsthall (Stockholm, Sweden), Kunstmuseet Trapholt (Kolding, Denmark) and Manchester Art Gallery (Manchester, UK). In the preface for the catalogue, Marina Warner states that after the shock of Chadwick’s death it took some time for "interest to return and for understanding develop of her critical opus and her place in contemporary art".
Chadwick's impact on the British art scene as an artist and teacher helped pave the way for the Young British Artist (YBA) generation. Her expanded use of materials can be seen carried through the work of many these artists. Without Chadwick's Cacao, for example, it is impossible to imagine Anya Gallacio's chocolate and flower installations. Since Chadwick's Barbican organised retrospective, the full measure of her contribution to the trajectory of contemporary British art is starting to be realised. The Richard Saltoun Gallery in London represents the estate of Helen Chadwick, and has continued to show the artist's work. Works From The Estate (2013) marked what would have been the artists 60th birthday, showing some of Chadwick's most famous works. The following year Bad Blooms (2014) exhibited Chadwick's Wreaths of Pleasure (1992–93).
Eight of Chadwick's notebooks, which reveal her ideas and critical practice through the making of a number of her works, are available online from The Leeds Museums & Galleries and the Henry Moore Institute Archive.
References
1953 births
1996 deaths
20th-century British women artists
Alumni of Chelsea College of Arts
Alumni of the University of Brighton
Artists from London
English contemporary artists
English installation artists
English people of Greek descent
English women artists
Feminist artists
People from Croydon
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
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206697
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declan%20McGonagle
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Declan McGonagle
|
Declan McGonagle is a well-known figure in Irish contemporary art, holding positions as director at the Orchard Gallery in Derry, the first director at the Irish Museum of Modern Art, and as director of the National College of Art and Design, Dublin. He writes, lectures and publishes regularly on art and museum/gallery policy issues, and curates exhibitions.
Early life
McGonagle was born in Derry in 1953. He studied Fine Art at the College of Art and Design in Belfast. In the 70's and 80's he worked as a painter and a lecturer of Art and Design at the Regional Technical College, Letterkenny, County Donegal.
Career
Orchard Gallery
Derry City Council was responsible for setting up the Orchard Gallery on Orchard Street in the city of Derry, McGonagle was appointed to the post of curator in 1978 and remained there until 1984 during the height of The Troubles. He gave up painting a year after he joined the Orchard. Orchard Gallery established itself on a minimal budget, and McGonagle found that international artists were attracted by the concept of addressing the issues of communities in conflict.
In 1983, he worked briefly for the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London, while keeping close contact and transferring exhibitions to the Orchard. He returned to Orchard in 1986 to continue running the gallery for another four years. In 1987 he became the first ever arts administrator to be shortlisted for the Turner prize for his work at the Derry gallery.
Irish Museum of Modern Art
In 1990, McGonagle was appointed director of the newly established Irish Museum of Modern Art (Imma) in Dublin.
He supported the contentious decision to use the 17th century Kilmainham Hospital location, as opposed to a new purpose-built premises in the then redeveloping Dublin Docklands area. Aidan Dunne of the Irish Times notes that at Imma "over the years... the lack of a large exhibition space has on occasion been a drawback." Hugh Linehan, Arts and Culture Editor at The Irish Times, commented in 2021 that McGonagle "...fatefully insisted it should be located in the Royal Hospital", and that "Imma has struggled to define itself against the backdrop of a beautiful but not very well-suited exhibition space."
McGonagle developed a strategy for working with contemporary artists to collect "for the future", he proposed to give educational and community-related programmes equal importance to the curatorial work. The inaugural exhibition included works of Picasso, Mondrian, Gris, Braque, Giacometti and Miró.
In relation to Imma's collection, McGonagle is quoted as saying "most of what we buy is Irish," in 1993, "but I'm not operating a quota system. Part of that has to do with the practical dimension of how often you see international work. £100,000 is actually quite a modest sum, although it's a lot in Irish terms, so it's only right that we redistribute that wealth back into the system [...] " In 1994 the gallery acquired a semi-permanent Lawrence Weiner work for £20,000.
During his ten-year appointment as director at the Irish Museum of Modern Art, McGonagle saw the conversion of the property's stables into accommodation and studio spaces, the (then) part-derelict Deputy Master's House restored as a specialist exhibition space, and the 48 acres of the grounds dotted with contemporary sculptures.
In 1996, Irish abstract artist Gerald Davis wrote an article in The Irish Times, criticising McGonagle's vision for Imma and calling for more historical and contemporary Irish artists to be represented at the gallery. He noted that "the Irish Museum of Modern [sic] largely ignores the contribution made by our own artists of the last 50 years and does not regularly make a cross-section of their work accessible to the public. The current policy of promoting that which is internationally fashionable is, in essence, provincial."
The gallery's highest footfall to date was recorded in 1997 at 350,000, as a result of the popular Andy Warhol exhibition. In 1999, Imma administered the first Nissan Millenium Art Project award of £40,000 for a temporary artwork. The award was granted to Dorothy Cross for her 'Ghost Ship' project.
CityArts
City Arts Centre, a community arts organisation founded in 1973, did not receiving Arts Council funding in 2001. McGonagle was then hired as director and under his leadership the Centre began a process of cessation, starting with the closure of the Centre for 2 years with all staff made redundant and all activities stopped. City Councilor Mannix Flynn, on the closure of the City Arts Centre, said that “Dublin lost an arts community down there, the community lost an arts centre, lost employment”. McGonagle launched a 'Civil Arts Inquiry' (a two year series of "conferences and recorded public debates") meanwhile earning €50,000 per year .The 'Inquiry' had skeptics, dismissing it for not engaging with the art community and as a profit-driven waste of time, without producing any results. Under McGonagle the Centre's building and property on Moss St in central Dublin was sold in 2003 for more than €4.2 million, making it the richest arts organisation in Ireland at the time.
After the sale, the City Arts Centre spent the next few years in a basement office and in 2007 bought a smaller building on Bachelor's Walk. However, it needed repairs and only reopened in 2010 (as CityArts). At this time the organisation had spent nearly all of its savings between operational costs, archiving, the 'Civil Arts Inquiry', redundancy packages, and the new building with its renovations. In 2012 CityArts voluntarily liquidated, with the new building becoming the property of the Dublin City Council. As of 2019 the old Moss St. building has remained unused and undeveloped.
NCAD
In 2008 McGonagle took up the post as Director of the National College of Art and Design, Dublin (NCAD). Under his governance, NCAD began an academic alliance in 2010 with UCD, and in 2012, McGonagle announced that the college was in talks regarding a possible merger with University College Dublin. McGonagle assured staff and students that a campus move to Belfield was not on the agenda. McGonagle resigned from NCAD in 2015 amidst controversy.
Other projects
Aside from his 1983 stint at Institute of Contemporary Arts, in 1993 McGonagle sat on a subcommittee of the Cultural Relations Committee (CRC) to reinstate the Irish Pavilion at the Venice Biennale. The exhibition in 1993 saw Dorothy Cross and Willie Doherty represent Ireland. It was the first time Ireland had participated in the event since 1962. Also that year, McGonagle was a member of the Turner Prize jury. From 2004 to 2008, McGonagle was the first director of a new research centre in the School of Art and Design at the Ulster University, Belfast.
Controversy
Imma
In February 2000 the Minister for Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, Síle de Valera, appointed Marie Donnelly, a leading socialite and charity fundraiser, to Chair a new board at Imma. Shortly thereafter "she advised the then director, Declan McGonagle, that she was advertising his post." But because "after his first five years in the position, his contract had been renewed without the post being publicly advertised" McGonagle took legal action. In November 2000 Board members were informed that lawyers for McGonagle were applying to the High Court for an injunction restraining Imma from publicly advertising the director's position.
The issue took on larger proportions as "...public perception was that [Donnelly] was somehow against community arts and in favour of international blockbuster exhibitions, that she was a wealthy socialite out to bring down a man of the people." During this time there was public support for McGonagle and a high profile threats were made to withdraw collections and funding from the gallery should the director lose his position. The businessman and art collector Gordon Lambert claimed he intended to reassess his relationship with Imma .
However, "after four months he won a renewal of his contract, but he then resigned" abruptly, but with considerable compensation. He was able to negotiate a severance package with government mediator Paddy Teehan and was allegedly awarded €250,000 in the settlement. Other reports say he was "awarded five years’ salary (€370,000) five years’ pension contributions (€31,000), five years’ housing subsidy (€90,000) and a car."
NCAD
McGonagle resigned from NCAD in 2015, a year in which "questions about accounting practices, a drastic increase in student numbers, the introduction of student charges, and questionable revenue management" emerged.
In 2015, after numerous delays in producing its accounts over the course of 8 years, NCAD's state funding was put in question during a Committee of Public Accounts (a standing committee of the Irish parliament). Early in 2015 "The Comptroller & Auditor General Seamus McCarthy told the Public Accounts Committee that accounting practices in NCAD were "not fit for purpose"", and Labour TD Robert Dowds said it was "one of the most scandalous situations with which the committee has been presented".
There were related student protests and a sit-in in March 2015, followed by a near unanimous SIPTU vote at an Emergency General Meeting on April 15, 2015 of 'no confidence' in the senior management:"At an Emergency General Meeting of SIPTU members in NCAD, held on April 15, a motion was passed that stated: “Following the recent appearance of NCAD before the Public Accounts Committee and in support of the action of students, SIPTU members have expressed no confidence in the Senior Management Team of NCAD to plan for the long term fiscal and academic future of the college. We will as requested by our members bring this to the attention of the Department of Education and the HEA.”"On 11 September 2015 McGonagle announced his intention to retire as director of the National College of Art and Design at the end of the year citing "personal reasons".
Bibliography
• McGonagle, Declan. A shout in the street : collective histories of Northern Irish art. Belfast: Golden Thread Gallery, 2008.
• Wyndham, Andrew H. Re-imagining Ireland. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006.
• Seawright, Paul. Paul Seawright. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2000.
• McGonagle, Declan, Fintan Toole, and Kim Levin. Irish art now : from the poetic to the political. London New York: Merrell Holberton Independent Curators International, in association with the Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin, 1999.
• Warhol, Andy. After the party : Andy Warhol works, 1956-1986. Dublin London: Irish Museum of Modern Art Lund Humphries distributor, 1997.
• From beyond the Pale : art and artists at the edge of consensus. Dublin: Irish Museum of Modern Art, 1994.
• Inheritance and transformation. Dublin, Ireland: Irish Museum of Modern Art, 1991.
• Levine, Les. Blame God : billboard projects. London: ICA in association with the Artangel Trust and the Orchard Gallery Derry, 1985.
References
1953 births
Living people
Irish curators
People from Derry (city)
|
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] |
206703
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haji%20Gilani
|
Haji Gilani
|
Haji Gilani was the first person to give Hamid Karzai shelter in the province of Uruzgan, Afghanistan as Karzai launched his anti-Taliban revolt weeks before the religious militia collapsed under heavy U.S. bombing in late 2001. Gilani and his nephew were shot dead on April 3, 2003 by six gunmen. While initial reports speculated that former Taliban operatives were responsible, a spokesperson for Karzai suggested that a tribal feud may have been the motive.
References
People murdered in Afghanistan
People of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
2003 deaths
Year of birth missing
|
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] |
206705
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin%20Farrell
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Colin Farrell
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Colin James Farrell (; born 31 May 1976) is an Irish actor. He first appeared in the BBC drama series Ballykissangel (1998), then made his film debut in the drama film The War Zone (1999), and was discovered by Hollywood upon taking the lead role in the war drama film Tigerland (2000). He then portrayed the outlaw Jesse James in the Western film American Outlaws (2001) before starring in the thriller films Phone Booth (2002), S.W.A.T. (2003), and The Recruit (2003), establishing his international box office appeal. During that time, he also appeared in Steven Spielberg's sci-fi thriller Minority Report (2002) and as the villain Bullseye in the superhero film Daredevil (2003).
After starring in the independent films Intermission (2003) and A Home at the End of the World (2004), Farrell portrayed Alexander the Great in the biopic Alexander (2004) and starred in the historical romantic drama film The New World (2005). He followed these with roles in Miami Vice (2006), Ask the Dust (2006), and Cassandra's Dream (2007), underscoring his popularity; his role in the comedy film In Bruges (2008) earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. He starred in the black comedy film Horrible Bosses (2011), for which he received critical praise, along with the comedy-horror film Fright Night (2011), the sci-fi action film Total Recall (2012), and the black comedy crime film Seven Psychopaths (2012).
Farrell starred in the action film Dead Man Down (2013) and the quasi-biopic Saving Mr. Banks (2013), in which he portrayed the father of P.L. Travers. He starred as Peter Lake in the supernatural fable Winter's Tale (2014), an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Mark Helprin, and portrayed Detective Ray Velcoro in the second season of HBO's True Detective (2015). He also starred in the film The Lobster (2015), for which he was nominated for his second Golden Globe. He portrayed Percival Graves in the Harry Potter spin-off film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2016). In 2020, he was listed at No. 5 on The Irish Times list of Ireland's greatest film actors. He has been cast as Oswald Cobblepot / The Penguin in The Batman, which is set for a March 2022 release.
Early life
Colin James Farrell was born in the Castleknock suburb of Dublin on 31 May 1976, the son of Rita (née Monaghan) and Eamon Farrell. His father played football for Shamrock Rovers FC and ran a health food shop. His uncle, Tommy Farrell, also played for Shamrock Rovers. He has an older brother named Eamon Jr. and two sisters named Claudine (who now works as his personal assistant) and Catherine. He was educated at St. Brigid's National School, followed by the exclusive all-boys private school Castleknock College, and then Gormanston College in County Meath. He unsuccessfully auditioned for the boy band Boyzone around this time. He was inspired to try acting when Henry Thomas' performance in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) moved him to tears. With his brother's encouragement, he attended the Gaiety School of Acting, but dropped out when he was cast as Danny Byrne in the BBC drama Ballykissangel. While travelling in Sydney at the age of 18, Farrell became a suspect in an attempted murder case. The police sketch looked remarkably like him and he had even described blacking out during the night in question; his only alibi was a journal kept by his friend, which explained that the two had been taking MDMA on the other side of town that night.
Career
Early career
Farrell had roles in television shows and films, including Ballykissangel and Falling for a Dancer in 1998 and 1999. He made his feature film debut in English actor Tim Roth's directorial debut The War Zone, a drama about an incident of child abuse, starring Ray Winstone and Tilda Swinton as parents of a girl Farrell's character (Nick) dates. Farrell also appeared in Ordinary Decent Criminal with Kevin Spacey and Linda Fiorentino, a film loosely based on the life of Martin Cahill. In 2000, Farrell was cast in the lead role of Private Roland Bozz in Tigerland, an under-released film directed by American Joel Schumacher. He reportedly got the part on the basis of his charm. Emanuel Levy of Variety said that Farrell "shines as the subversive yet basically decent lad whose cynicism may be the only sane reaction to a situation". Michael Holden of The Guardian wrote that Farrell was "too much the hero" to fit the classic rebel archetype properly, but he did not mind. Tigerland earned $139,500.
2001–2003: First box office successes
Farrell's next American films, American Outlaws (2001) and Hart's War (2002), were not commercially successful. His 2002–2003 films, including Phone Booth, The Recruit and S.W.A.T. (all thrillers, with the former two his first starring roles), were well received by critics and successful at the box office. Of Phone Booth, Ebert wrote that it is "Farrell's to win or lose, since he's onscreen most of the time, and he shows energy and intensity". Philip French of The Observer praised Farrell's performance. In S.W.A.T., Farrell starred in an ensemble cast including Samuel L. Jackson, Michelle Rodriguez, Olivier Martinez and Jeremy Renner; Renner became a friend. Alan Morrison of Empire wrote, "Farrell can usually be relied upon to bring a spark to the bonfire. That's also true of [this movie]." Elvis Mitchell of the New York Times criticised Farrell's accent, writing that he "employ[ed] a wobbly American accent that makes him sound like an international criminal a step ahead of the authorities". Ebert and The New York Times A.O. Scott disagreed on Farrell's effectiveness in The Recruit; Ebert noted Farrell's likability, but Scott felt that Farrell "spends his time in a caffeinated frenzy, trying to maintain his leading-man sang-froid while registering panic, stress and confusion". Phone Booth earned $46.6 million, S.W.A.T. $116.9 million and The Recruit $52.8 million at the box office.
Farrell's supporting roles include an ambitious Justice Department agent opposite Tom Cruise, a potential criminal in Minority Report (2002), and the villain Bullseye in Daredevil (2003). Matt Damon was originally offered the Minority Report role, turning it down to appear in Ocean's Eleven. Farrell said "he had no problem" being the producer's fallback after Damon declined. Bullseye is an assassin, proud of his accuracy. Farrell was signed to the role in December 2001, although he was considered for the lead role of Matt Murdock (Daredevil) until Ben Affleck signed. Farrell was encouraged to keep his Irish accent, since this version of Bullseye is from Ireland. He read Frank Miller's Daredevil comics to understand Bullseye "because the expression on the character's faces in the comic books, and just the way they move sometimes, and the exaggerations of the character I'm playing... he's so over-the-top that you do draw from that. But it's not exactly a character you can do method acting for...you know, running around New York killing people with paper clips". That year, he was voted sixth World's "Sexiest Man" by Company magazine.
2003–2008: From independents to epics
In late 2003 Farrell starred as a criminal who plots a bank robbery with Cillian Murphy in the dark comedy Intermission, which held the record for highest-grossing Irish independent film in Irish box-office history for three years and remains a cult classic there. In 2004, he appeared in several other independent films receiving limited theatrical release in most countries, including A Home at the End of the World (adapted from Michael Cunningham's A Home at the End of the World). Roger Ebert praised Farrell, saying that he was "astonishing in the movie, not least because the character is such a departure from everything he has done before". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle differed, saying that Farrell "is keen on making good....The effort is there, but it's a performance you end up rooting for rather than enjoying, because there's no way to just relax and watch".
Farrell played the title role of Alexander the Great in Oliver Stone's 2004 biographical film Alexander, which, while receiving some favourable reviews internationally, was poorly received in the United States. Its portrayal of the conqueror as bisexual was controversial; the film was criticised by some historians for its treatment of the ancient Persians, although others praised it for its accuracy. An ancient-history scholar at the University of Nebraska wrote:
The film grossed $167 million worldwide, just exceeding its budget of $155 million.
Farrell's next film was 2005's Academy Award-nominated The New World, his second historical epic. He played the lead role of Captain John Smith, the founder of 17th-century colonial Jamestown, Virginia who falls in love with the Native American princess Pocahontas (Q'Orianka Kilcher). Director Terrence Malick went out of his way to keep Farrell and Kilcher apart until they were filmed together. Although it was released in only 811 theatres worldwide and had a relatively low box-office gross, the film received a large number of positive reviews. In one of four reviews in The Guardian, John Patterson described it as a "bottomless movie, almost unspeakably beautiful and formally harmonious". The New World was followed by Ask the Dust, a period romance set in Los Angeles based on a John Fante novel and co-starring Salma Hayek. Reviews were mixed; Manohla Dargis of The New York Times favourably described Farrell's work, but Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian found "something a little forced in both lead performances". With a limited theatrical release, it was not a financial success.
Farrell was more successful in 2006 with his role opposite Jamie Foxx in Michael Mann's action crime drama, Miami Vice. The film grossed $164 million worldwide on a budget of $135 million, and TimeOut New York ranked it among the top 50 movies of the decade. (The DVD, released the same year, also managed to sell over a million copies (equivalent to $7.91 million in pirated versions) in its first week alone., and, as of 11 February 2007, had grossed over $36.45 million in rentals. A. O. Scott criticised Farrell's work: "When he's not on screen, you don't miss him, and when he is, you find yourself, before long, looking at someone or something else." Conversely, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone was enthusiastic. Farrell also reportedly took a slight pay cut to make friend and recent Oscar winner Jamie Foxx happy: His salary was initially larger than Foxx's.
Farrell next appeared in Woody Allen's Cassandra's Dream, which premiered in 2007 and was distributed in the US in early 2008. Reviews were mixed, with Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide writing that Allen's work was "shallow and unconvincing from beginning to end" and Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle saying that although "it's not as good as Match Point or Crimes and Misdemeanors...taken on its own, it's a fairly impressive piece, a directorially vigorous, well-acted, tightly constructed movie". LaSalle praised Farrell: "Allen is notorious for not giving his actors explicit instructions, and yet somehow this worked wonders for Farrell, who has never seemed so naked, so clear and so unencumbered as he does here." Manohla Dargis concurred in the New York Times, adding that she thought Farrell was well-matched with co-star Ewan McGregor.
Farrell's next film, Martin McDonagh's first full-length feature In Bruges, opened the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. While The New Yorker and TimeOut Londons film critics found co-star Brendan Gleeson's performance the stronger of the two, Bradshaw of The Guardian found Farrell (as hitman Ray) "absolutely superb: moody and funny, lethally sexy, sometimes heartbreakingly sad and vulnerable like a little boy". Time magazine described the film as "the prettiest bloodbath of 2008", and Farrell won his first Golden Globe Award.
Shortly thereafter he appeared in Kicking It, a documentary following six homeless men from Kenya, Russia, Afghanistan, Ireland, Spain and the US as they attempt to qualify for the Homeless World Cup. Farrell appeared on screen and provided the narration, donating his earnings to a homeless shelter in Ireland. The film was released simultaneously in theatres and on television, airing on ESPN2 in a very short window before its DVD release. Farrell received positive reviews for his involvement in the true story.
Later in 2008 Farrell was brother-in-law to Edward Norton's character in Pride and Glory, a police drama directed by American Gavin O'Connor. Roger Ebert disliked the film and A. O. Scott said that Farrell "once again indulges his blustery mixture of menace and charm, overdoing both," but Gregory Kirschling of Entertainment Weekly liked Farrell's work.
2009–2010: More independent productions
On 11 January 2009, Farrell won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for In Bruges, in which he co-starred with Brendan Gleeson. That year he also appeared in Terry Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, starring Christopher Plummer and Andrew Garfield. Farrell was one of three actors (with Johnny Depp and Jude Law), who helped to complete Heath Ledger's role when Ledger died before filming ended. They played "Imaginarium" versions of Ledger's character Tony, donating their earnings to Ledger's daughter Matilda.
Farrell also starred that year in Triage, directed by Oscar-winning Bosnian screenwriter and director Danis Tanović, about the life of a war correspondent. He lost 30 pounds for the role. Farrell's work was described as "dedicated" by Varietys Todd McCarthy, and Julian Sancton of Vanity Fair wrote that the film was "a hell of a lot more insightful than other movies that deal with a similar topic". However, Triage was not widely distributed due to the marketing challenges posed by its difficult topics (including PTSD). That year, Farrell played a supporting role (as Tommy Sweet) in Crazy Heart with Jeff Bridges.
Another 2009 release was Ondine, a fantasy-drama directed by Neil Jordan starring Farrell as a fisherman with a handicapped daughter. Shot in the village of Castletownbere on Ireland's southwest coast, it featured cinematography by longtime Wong Kar-wai collaborator Christopher Doyle. Mary Pols of Time magazine called the role "tailor-made for Farrell", saying that Farrell gave a "beautifully confident performance". Todd McCarthy of Variety singled Farrell out, noting that he worked well as an ensemble actor "graciously allowing [child star Alison Barry] to steal every scene she's in".
The next year, Farrell starred with Keira Knightley in the crime romance London Boulevard. The film, American William Monahan's debut as director after writing screenplays for The Departed and Body of Lies, was panned by critics. Peter Bradshaw of the Guardian wrote that the film "uses up all its energy, wit and ideas in the first 20 or so minutes, before collapsing into a flurry of boring violence". Leslie Felperin of Variety described it as "like a fancy, retro-styled pocket watch that someone accidentally broke and tried to reassemble with only a vague idea of clockwork". Felperin thought the stars' work was frail, with Farrell "mostly taciturn and vacuous."
2011–present: Blockbuster and independent films
Farrell starred in the 2011 comedy Horrible Bosses, directed by Seth Gordon, with Jennifer Aniston, Jason Bateman, Charlie Day, Jason Sudeikis and his ''Miami Vice'' co-star Jamie Foxx. The film focuses on a trio of employees who plot to murder their tyrannical superiors. The London Observers Mark Kermode wrote that although the film would have benefited from a tighter script, Farrell and Foxx had juicy roles which they "riff with panache". Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Farrell brought "massive, slobby relish" to his role as Sudeikis' cocaine-fiend boss.
Later that year, Farrell played the main antagonist in the Fright Night remake, joining Anton Yelchin, David Tennant and Toni Collette in the story of a charismatic vampire who moves next door to a high-school student and his single mother. The film was released by DreamWorks, with Craig Gillespie (of Lars and the Real Girl) directing a script by Buffy the Vampire Slayer writer Marti Noxon. Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph wrote that Farrell "proves his comedy credentials once more....utterly seductive as the plushly eyebrowed carpenter-cum-bloodsucker", while The New York Times A.O. Scott thought that Farrell played his role with "a wink and a snarl and a feline purr". Logan Hill of New York magazine, on the other hand, was confused by Farrell's performance: "Sure, [it] may not make much sense, but neither do centuries-old vampires living in Nevadan subdivisions. So he goes for it."
Farrell starred with Kate Beckinsale in Columbia Pictures' Total Recall, a 2012 remake of the 1990 film with Arnold Schwarzenegger. Filmed from May to September 2011 in Toronto and directed by Len Wiseman, the film was a new sci-fi take about a sleeper agent. Co-star Jessica Biel appreciated Farrell's skills, calling him "surprising and exciting. He just has the ability to be trying different things all the time." Roger Ebert and The New York Times said that although they believed Farrell the better actor, Schwarzenegger in the original was "more of a movie presence and better suited for the role".
Farrell's second film with McDonagh, Seven Psychopaths, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released in October 2012. He starred as creatively blocked writer Marty in a black comedy with Sam Rockwell, Woody Harrelson and Christopher Walken. The film broke even at the box office, with generally good reviews, including David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter writing that Farrell "serves as an excellent foil for Rockwell" and he "is in subdued mode... his performance largely defined by the endless expressivity of his eyebrows." That month, Farrell appeared on the cover of the magazine Details.
March 2013 saw the release of Dead Man Down, a thriller directed by Niels Arden Oplev reuniting Farrell with Terrence Howard for the first time since Hart's War ten years earlier. Noomi Rapace, star of Oplev's The Girl with a Dragon Tattoo, starred as a facially scarred woman who blackmails Farrell's character into killing the man who disfigured her in a car crash. Reviews were mixed, with Empire magazine calling the film "a pleasingly intricate double (or is it triple?) revenge plot anchored by excellent acting" and The Hollywood Reporter saying that "[J.H.] Wyman's script and the measured pace don't lend themselves to the necessary escalating tension that would have resulted in a more rewarding climax." The New York Times Manohla Dargis called the film a failure, but said of Farrell that "his sensitive, hardworking eyebrows help keep it from becoming a full-bore lampoon." Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News also disliked the film; it contained "a lot to roll your eyes over" and, while Farrell was commendable, he was "as stoic as a statue".
In 2014, Farrell starred in a film adaptation of Mark Helprin's Winter's Tale. The film was written and directed by Akiva Goldsman and based on Helprin's 1983 novel, and co-starred Jessica Brown Findlay, Russell Crowe, and Will Smith. Farrell won the lead role over younger actors Garrett Hedlund, Tom Hiddleston and Aaron Taylor-Johnson. Although the film generally received negative reviews due to the overly romantic nature of the film, writers such as The Village Voices Stephanie Zacharek had nothing but praise for Farrell. She described him as "an extraordinary appealing actor" who "has always made a terrific bad boy, but ... seems to be settling into some very serious, responsible-adult roles." Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed, writing that Farrell "holds the movie together" and is part of "the most beautiful [love scene] so far of 2014."
His role as P. L. Travers' alcoholic father in Saving Mr. Banks received contrasting reviews, with Scott Foundras of Variety calling it "excellent" and Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter deeming it "his best work in some time"; conversely, Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian described it as "bland" and "uninspired", while Robbie Collin of The Telegraph found Farrell miscast in the role.
Farrell starred in Liv Ullmann's adaptation of August Strindberg's Miss Julie opposite Jessica Chastain and Samantha Morton. His turn as John, the serving man to Chastain's character's father, was described by Stephen Holden of The New York Times as the "strongest" of the three performances, though Ullmann's direction was deemed too flat by most reviewers. He starred in the second season of the TV series True Detective as Ray Velcoro, alongside Vince Vaughn, Taylor Kitsch, and Rachel McAdams. The first two episodes were directed by Justin Lin. He worked with a dialect coach to adopt the nonstandard Californian accent for his character, which he found challenging.
Farrell starred in The Lobster, a romantic science fiction thriller which was released in 2015 and directed by Greek director Yorgos Lanthimos in his English-language debut. Its script was awarded the ARTE International Prize for Best CineMart 2013 Project at the 42nd Rotterdam International Film Festival. Set in a dystopian near-future in which finding a partner is a matter of life and death, the film tells an unconventional love story. The film also stars Rachel Weisz, Ben Whishaw, Olivia Colman, Léa Seydoux and John C. Reilly.
In 2016, Farrell starred in the Harry Potter spin-off film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them; a traced version of a promotional photo of Farrell from the film was subsequently used for the character Nefarian Serpine on the tenth anniversary cover of Skulduggery Pleasant, the first book in the series of the same name. In 2017, he had leading roles in the films The Beguiled, The Killing of a Sacred Deer, and Roman J. Israel, Esq. In 2018, he co-starred in Steve McQueen's thriller Widows, and then starred in Tim Burton's 2019 live-action fantasy Dumbo. He will also portray Oswald "Oz" Cobblepot / Penguin in Matt Reeves' 2022 film The Batman and will continue to essay the character in a spinoff series on HBO Max.
Charity work
In 2007, Farrell joined other celebrities as a spokesperson for the Special Olympics World Games in Shanghai. He also lent his support to the anti-bullying campaign Stand Up! organised by the Irish LGBT youth organisation BeLonG To in March 2012. He had appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show two years earlier to increase awareness of the subject. In 2015, he became an official Ambassador of the Homeless World Cup, which uses street football to inspire homeless people to change their lives.
Personal life
Farrell owns homes in Dublin and Los Angeles. In 2013, he revealed that he suffers from insomnia.
Relationships and children
Farrell met English actress and singer Amelia Warner at the premiere of Quills in 2000. They dated from July to November 2001. There was unproven speculation that they married. Farrell said of the relationship that they were "too fast, too young". By 2003, he was linked to American singer Britney Spears, American model Nicole Narain, American model Josie Maran, and actresses Angelina Jolie, Maeve Quinlan, Elizabeth Taylor and Demi Moore. He has a son named James Padraig (born in Los Angeles in 2003) with American model Kim Bordenave. In October 2007, he said that James has Angelman syndrome, a rare genetic disorder characterised by intellectual and developmental delay, lack of speech and an excitable demeanor.
From 2007 to 2008, Farrell dated Irish medical student Muireann McDonnell. Farrell and British-American writer Emma Forrest dated for over a year, an experience she discussed in depth in her memoir Your Voice in My Head (which mostly focused on her relationship with her therapist, who died unexpectedly). According to Forrest, she and Farrell planned to have a child together before he ended the relationship. In October 2009, Farrell fathered his second son, Henry Tadeusz, with Polish actress Alicja Bachleda-Curuś (his Ondine co-star). Their relationship ended in mid-2010.
Drug addiction
In December 2005, Farrell checked into a rehabilitation centre for addictions to recreational drugs and painkillers. He commented on the topic in an interview on Late Show with David Letterman after leaving rehab, and continued to do so in the years following. He said, "There was an energy that was created, a character that was created, that no doubt benefited me. And then there was a stage where it all began to crumble around me."
Sex tape
In January 2006, Farrell filed a lawsuit against his ex-girlfriend, American model Nicole Narain, and the Internet Commerce Group (ICG) for the unauthorised public distribution of a 13-minute sex tape they had made in 2003. He was offered $5 million for its rights. While ICG tried to release it, Narain said that she would work with Farrell to ensure that the tape remained private; Farrell said she tried to release it to damage his acting career and "make money out of it", which Narain denied. On 16 April 2006, they reached a confidential settlement; Farrell's lawsuit against ICG continued with a trial date of 21 July 2006, and was eventually settled amicably.
Stalker
On 20 July 2006, as Farrell was being interviewed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, a telephone sex worker named Dessarae Bradford evaded security, walked on stage, confronted Farrell, and threw a self-published book-length exposé of him on Leno's desk. As Farrell escorted her off the stage and handed her over to NBC security, she shouted: "I'll see you in court!" After being held by police in Burbank, California, Bradford was released. The following day, Farrell obtained a restraining order against her and the incident was edited out of the broadcast. Bradford had twice attempted to sue Farrell for abusive messages, but the lawsuits were dismissed due to a lack of evidence. She failed a lie detector test on an Ion Television programme when attempting to prove her claims.
Filmography
Film
Television
Selected awards and nominations
References
External links
Homeless World Cup Ambassador Profile
Colin reads his thoughts on gay bullying on Ellen
New Yorker caricatures of Farrell and Brendan Gleeson in In Bruges
1976 births
Living people
20th-century Irish male actors
21st-century Irish male actors
Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Irish expatriates in the United States
Irish male film actors
Irish male television actors
Male actors from County Dublin
People educated at Castleknock College
People from Castleknock
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206706
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juma%20Khan
|
Juma Khan
|
Haji Juma Khan, an ethnic Baluch from Afghanistan's Nimroz Province, is a drug lord with links to the Taliban. The title Haji (alternative spelling Hajji) indicates that he has completed the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.
Juma Khan, was an illiterate provincial drug smuggler from southwestern Afghanistan in the 1990s. He suddenly rose to national prominence after the American-led invasion of Afghanistan. He was briefly detained by American forces after the 2001 fall of the Taliban and released, even though American officials knew that he was involved in narcotics trafficking. After being released, he inexplicably seized control of the town of Bahramcha in the Chagai Hills on the Pakistan-Iran-Afghanistan border in late 2001 and turned it into a hub of drug smuggling and gun running into Pakistan and Iran. Later Juma Khan allegedly went on to run The Taliban's Opium and Heroin distribution network, selling worldwide and using the profits to equip Taliban forces militarily.
In 2008, he was detained for unknown reasons in Indonesia and transported to New York. He was quietly released on April 20, 2018 without any pending charges or a trial.
No official explanation was provided. The details surrounding his release have been very secretive and was not announced in the mainstream media.
See also
Haji Bashar
References
External links
"Fierce factional fighting reported in northwestern Afghanistan" Deutsche Presse-Agentur March 26, 2003. Lexis-Nexis September 10, 2003
"Afghan government probes killings in northwest" Agence France Presse May 1, 2003. Lexis Nexis September 10, 2003
"Ex-Taliban governor held in Afghanistan" April 6, 2003. The News September 10, 2003
Baloch people
Taliban members
Living people
Afghan drug traffickers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Deobandis
|
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206712
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Schwerner
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Michael Schwerner
|
Michael Henry "Mickey" Schwerner (November 6, 1939 – June 21, 1964), was one of three Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) field workers killed in rural Neshoba County, Mississippi, by members of the Ku Klux Klan. Schwerner and two co-workers, James Chaney and Andrew Goodman, were killed in response to their civil rights work, which included promoting voting registration among African Americans, most of whom had been disenfranchised in the state since 1890.
Early life and education
Born and raised in a family of Jewish heritage, Schwerner attended Pelham Memorial High School in Pelham, New York. He was called Mickey by his friends. His mother, Anne Siegel (May 1, 1912 – November 29, 1996), was a science teacher at nearby New Rochelle High School, and his father, Nathan Schwerner (June 19, 1909 – March 06, 1991), was a businessman. Schwerner attended Michigan State University, originally intending to become a veterinarian. He transferred to Cornell University and switched his major to rural sociology. While an undergraduate at Cornell, he was initiated into the school's chapter of Alpha Epsilon Pi fraternity. He entered graduate school at the School of Social Work at Columbia University.
As a boy, Schwerner befriended Robert Reich, who later became U.S. Secretary of Labor. Schwerner helped protect Reich, who was smaller, from bullies.
Civil rights activism
In the early 1960s Schwerner became active in working for civil rights for African Americans; he led a local Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) group on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, called "Downtown CORE." He participated in a 1963 effort to desegregate Gwynn Oak Amusement Park in Maryland. As activism increased in the South, Schwerner, recruited by John Lewis, and his wife, Rita Schwerner Bender, volunteered to work for National CORE in Mississippi, under the tutelage of Dave Dennis, the CORE state director. Bob Moses assigned the Schwerners to organize the community center and activities in Meridian. James Chaney was a local youth who started working with them there. The Schwerners were the first whites to be assigned by CORE permanently outside the state capital of Jackson. In the summer of 1964 CORE intended to hold classes and drives to register African Americans to vote in the state, what they called "Freedom Summer". Many volunteers, mostly college students and young adults, had been recruited from local communities and northern/western states to work on this project.
Civil rights activists were resented and held under suspicion by white Mississippians. Spies paid by the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, a taxpayer-funded agency, kept track of all northerners and suspected activists. The Commission conducted economic boycotts and intimidation against activists. In 1998 its records were opened by court order, revealing the state's deep complicity in the 1964 murders of three civil right workers because its investigator, A. L. Hopkins, passed on information about the workers, including their car license number, to the Commission. Records showed the Commission passed the information on to the Sheriff of Neshoba County, who was implicated in the murders.
The Ku Klux Klan targeted Schwerner after he and his wife, Rita, had taken over the Meridian CORE field office, where they established a community center for blacks as part of grassroots organizing. Schwerner tried to establish contact with white working-class citizens of Meridian and went door-to-door to speak with them. He also organized a black boycott of a popular variety store until it hired its first African American, under the principle of "don't shop where you can't work".
Murder
James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner were murdered near the town of Philadelphia, Mississippi. They were investigating the burning of Mt. Zion Methodist Church, which had been a site of a CORE Freedom School, in a nearby community. Parishioners had been beaten in the wake of Schwerner and Chaney's voter registration rallies for CORE. The Sheriff's Deputy, Cecil Price, had been accused by parishioners of stopping their caravan and forcing the deacons to kneel in the headlights of their own cars, while they were beaten with rifle butts. That same group of white men was identified as having burned the church.
Deputy Sheriff Cecil Price arrested Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner for an alleged traffic violation and took them to the jail in Neshoba County. They were released that evening, without being allowed to telephone anyone. On the way back to Meridian, they were stopped by patrol lights and two carloads of KKK members on Highway 19, then taken in Price's car to another remote rural road. The KKK men shot and killed Schwerner, then Goodman, and finally Chaney, after chain-whipping and castrating him.
The men's bodies remained undiscovered for 44 days. In the meantime, the case of the missing civil-rights workers became a major national story, especially coming on top of other events during Freedom Summer. The federal government quickly assigned the FBI to a full investigation and called in Navy sailors and other forces to aid in the search.
Schwerner's widow Rita, who also worked for CORE in Meridian, expressed indignation publicly at the way the story was handled. She said she believed that if only Chaney (who was black) was missing and the two white men from New York had not been killed along with him, the case would not have received nearly as much national attention, as other black civil rights workers had earlier been killed in the South.<ref>Neshoba (2008)</ref>
First trial
The US government prosecuted the case under the Enforcement Act of 1870. Seven men, including Deputy Sheriff Price, were convicted. Three strongly implicated defendants were acquitted because of a jury deadlock.
Reinvestigation
Journalist Jerry Mitchell, an award-winning investigative reporter for the Jackson Clarion-Ledger'' had written extensively about the case for many years in the late 20th century. Mitchell had earned renown for helping secure convictions by his investigation of several other high-profile Civil Rights Era murder cases, including the assassination of Medgar Evers, the 1963 Birmingham church bombing, and the murder of Vernon Dahmer. Mitchell developed new evidence, found new witnesses, and pressured the State to take action. Barry Bradford, an Illinois high school teacher, and three students: Allison Nichols, Sarah Siegel, and Brittany Saltiel, joined Mitchell's efforts. Their documentary, produced for the National History Day contest, presented important new evidence and compelling reasons for reopening the case. Bradford also obtained an interview with Edgar Ray Killen, which helped convince the State to reinvestigate. Mitchell was able to determine the identity of "Mr. X", the mystery informer who had helped the FBI discover the bodies and smash the conspiracy of the Klan in 1964. He relied in part on evidence developed by Bradford.
On January 7, 2005, Edgar Ray Killen, an outspoken white supremacist nicknamed "Preacher," pleaded "Not Guilty" to state charges of the murders of the three men. The jury found him guilty of three counts of manslaughter on June 21, 2005. He was sentenced to sixty years in prison—twenty years for each count, served consecutively.
Personality
Schwerner "was described by family and friends as friendly, good-natured, gentle, mischievous, and 'full of life and ideas'. He believed all people were essentially good. He loved sports, animals, poker, W.C. Fields, and rock music."
Robert Reich, the American political commentator, professor, and author who served in the administrations of Presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Bill Clinton, says that as a child, he was bullied, and sought out the protection of older boys; one of them was Michael Schwerner. Reich cites this event as an inspiration to "fight the bullies, to protect the powerless, to make sure that the people without a voice have a voice."
Legacy and honors
Schwerner
In 2008, his hometown of Pelham, New York, renamed a section of Harmon Avenue as "Michael Schwerner Way" in his honor.
Schwerner, along with Goodman and Chaney, received a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama in 2014.
In popular culture
See also
Civil Rights Movement
References
External links
“Long, Hot Summer '64; Episode 9,” 1964-08-06, WGBH, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (GBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA and Washington, DC, accessed June 7, 2021.
The True Story Of How The Mississippi Burning Case Was Reopened
Biography of Michael Schwerner from University of Missouri–Kansas City Law School
1939 births
1964 deaths
1964 murders in the United States
Activists for African-American civil rights
Cornell University alumni
Columbia University School of Social Work alumni
Place of birth missing
Ku Klux Klan crimes in Mississippi
Murdered American Jews
Assassinated American civil rights activists
People murdered in Mississippi
Deaths by firearm in Mississippi
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
American murder victims
20th-century American people
|
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] |
206713
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper%20Laurie
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Piper Laurie
|
Piper Laurie (born Rosetta Jacobs; January 22, 1932) is an American stage and screen actress known for her roles in the films The Hustler (1961), Carrie (1976), and Children of a Lesser God (1986), all of which brought her Academy Award nominations. She is also known for her performances as Kirsten Arnesen in the original TV production of Days of Wine and Roses, and as Catherine Martell in the cult television series Twin Peaks, for which she won a Golden Globe Award in 1991. As of 2022, her acting career has spanned over 70 years. She is one of the last surviving stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood.
Early life
Piper Laurie was born Rosetta Jacobs on January 22, 1932, in Detroit, Michigan. She was the younger daughter of Charlotte Sadie (née Alperin) and Alfred Jacobs, a furniture dealer. Her grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Poland on her father's side and Russia on her mother's.
She was delivered, according to her 2011 autobiography Learning to Live Out Loud, in a one-bedroom walk-up on Tyler Street in Detroit, where the family lived. Alfred Jacobs moved the family to Los Angeles, California, in 1938, where she attended Hebrew school. To combat her shyness, her parents provided her with weekly elocution lessons; this eventually led to minor roles at nearby Universal Studios. For much of her early childhood, her parents placed Laurie and her older sister in a children's home, which they both despised.
Career
In 1949, Rosetta Jacobs signed a contract with Universal Studios, and changed her screen name to Piper Laurie, which she has used since then. Among the actors she met at Universal were James Best, Julie Adams, Tony Curtis, and Rock Hudson. Her breakout role was in Louisa, with Ronald Reagan, whom she dated a few times before his marriage to Nancy Davis. In her autobiography, she claimed that she lost her virginity to him ("Learning to Live Out Loud," page 77). Several other roles followed: Francis Goes to the Races (1951, co-starring Donald O'Connor); Son of Ali Baba (1951, co-starring Tony Curtis); and Ain't Misbehavin' (1955, co-starring Rory Calhoun).
To enhance her image, Universal Studios told gossip columnists that Laurie bathed in milk and ate flower petals to protect her luminous skin. Discouraged by the lack of substantial film roles, she moved to New York City to study acting and to seek work on the stage and in television. She appeared in Twelfth Night, produced by Hallmark Hall of Fame; in Days of Wine and Roses with Cliff Robertson, presented by Playhouse 90 on October 2, 1958 (in the film version, their roles were taken over by Jack Lemmon and Lee Remick); and in Winterset, presented by Playhouse 90 in 1959.
She was lured to Hollywood by the offer to co-star with Paul Newman in The Hustler, released in 1961. She played Newman's girlfriend, Sarah Packard, and for her performance, she received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress. Substantial movie roles did not come her way after The Hustler, so her husband and she moved to New York. In 1964, she appeared in two medical dramas — as Alicia Carter in The Eleventh Hour episode "My Door Is Locked and Bolted", and as Alice Marin in the Breaking Point episode "The Summer House". In 1965, she starred in a Broadway revival of Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie, opposite Maureen Stapleton, Pat Hingle, and George Grizzard.
Laurie did not appear in another feature film until she accepted the role of Margaret White in the horror film Carrie (1976). She received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her performance, and it, along with the commercial success of the film, relaunched her career. Her co-star Sissy Spacek praised her acting skill: "She is a remarkable actress. She never does what you expect her to doshe always surprises you with her approach to a scene."
In 1979, she appeared as Mary Horton in the Australian movie Tim opposite Mel Gibson. After her 1981 divorce, Laurie moved to California. She received a third Oscar nomination for her portrayal of Mrs. Norman in Children of a Lesser God (1986). The same year, she was awarded an Emmy for her performance in Promise, a television movie, co-starring James Garner and James Woods. She had a featured role in the Off-Broadway production of The Destiny of Me in 1992, and returned to Broadway for Lincoln Center's acclaimed 2002 revival of Paul Osborn's Morning's at Seven, with Julie Hagerty, Buck Henry, Frances Sternhagen, and Estelle Parsons.
In 1990–1991, she starred as the devious Catherine Martell in David Lynch's television series Twin Peaks. She also appeared in Other People's Money with Gregory Peck (1991), and in horror maestro Dario Argento's first American film Trauma (1993). She played George Clooney's character's mother on ER. In 1997, she appeared in the film A Christmas Memory with Patty Duke, and in 1998, she appeared in the sci-fi thriller The Faculty. She made guest appearances on television shows such as Frasier, Matlock, State of Grace, and Will & Grace. Laurie also appeared in Cold Case and in a 2001 episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit titled "Care", in which she played an adoptive mother and foster grandmother who killed one of the foster granddaughters in her daughter's charge and who abused her adoptive son and foster grandchildren.
She returned to the big screen for independent films, such as Eulogy (2004) and The Dead Girl (2006), opposite actress Toni Collette. In 2018, she had a supporting role in White Boy Rick as the grandmother of the title character.
Personal life
Laurie was married to New York Herald Tribune entertainment writer Joe Morgenstern. They met shortly after the release of The Hustler in 1961 when Morgenstern interviewed her during the film's promotion. They soon began dating, and nine months after the interview, they were married on January 21, 1962. When no substantial roles came her way after The Hustler, Morgenstern and she moved to Woodstock, New York. In 1971, they adopted a daughter, Anne Grace Morgenstern. In 1982, the couple divorced, after which she moved to the Hollywood area and continued working in films and television. In 1962, she was Harvard's Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year, and in 2000, she received the Spirit of Hope Award in Korea for her service during the Korean War. Laurie is a sculptor working in marble and clay and exhibits her work.
She appeared at the September 2014 Mid-Atlantic Nostalgia Convention in Hunt Valley, Maryland.
Awards
Laurie has been nominated for an Academy Award for her performances in three films. She won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her role in the 1986 TV movie Promise, opposite James Garner and James Woods. She also won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 1991 for her role in Twin Peaks. In addition, she received several Emmy nominations, including one for playing Magda Goebbels, wife of Joseph Goebbels, in The Bunker, opposite Anthony Hopkins as Hitler; and for her role in the miniseries The Thorn Birds, two nominations for her work in Twin Peaks, as Catherine Martell, and a nomination for her guest appearance on Frasier.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Piper Laurie at Virtual History
Interview with Piper Laurie, August 25, 2014, Classic Film & TV Cafe
– Interview with Piper Laurie. The Spectrum, January, 2016.
1932 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
American film actresses
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American television actresses
Art Students League of New York alumni
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Jewish American actresses
Living people
Actresses from Detroit
People from Woodstock, New York
21st-century American Jews
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldine%20Page
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Geraldine Page
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Geraldine Sue Page (November 22, 1924June 13, 1987) was an American actress. With a career which spanned four decades across film, stage, and television, Page was the recipient of numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, and four nominations for the Tony Award.
A native of Kirksville, Missouri, Page studied at the Art Institute of Chicago and with Uta Hagen and Lee Strasberg in New York City before being cast in her first credited part in the Western film Hondo (1953), which earned her her first Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. During the McCarthyism era, she was blacklisted in Hollywood based on her association with Hagen and did not work in film for eight years. Page continued to appear in television and on stage and earned her first Tony Award nomination for her performance in Sweet Bird of Youth (1959–60), a role she reprised in the 1962 film adaptation, the latter of which earned her a Golden Globe Award.
She earned additional Academy Award nominations for her roles in You're a Big Boy Now (1966) and Pete 'n' Tillie (1972), followed by a Tony nomination for her performance in the stage production of Absurd Person Singular (1974–75). Other film appearances during this time included in the thrillers What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice? (1969) opposite Ruth Gordon, and The Beguiled (1971) opposite Clint Eastwood. In 1977, she provided the voice of Madam Medusa in Walt Disney's The Rescuers, followed by a role in Woody Allen's Interiors (1978), which earned her a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.
After being inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 1979 for her stage work, Page returned to Broadway with a lead role in Agnes of God (1982), earning her her third Tony Award nomination. Page was nominated for Academy Awards for her performances in The Pope of Greenwich Village (1984) and The Trip to Bountiful (1985), the latter of which earned her the Academy Award for Best Actress. Page died in New York City in 1987 in the midst of a Broadway run of Blithe Spirit, for which she earned her fourth Tony Award nomination.
Early life
Page was born November 22, 1924, in Kirksville, Missouri, the second child of Edna Pearl (née Maize) and Leon Elwin Page who worked at Andrew Taylor Still College of Osteopathy and Surgery (combined with the American School of Osteopathy, eventually to form A.T. Still University). He was an author whose works included Practical Anatomy (1925), Osteopathic Fundamentals (1926), and The Old Doctor (1932). She had one older brother, Donald.
At age five, Page relocated with her family to Chicago, Illinois. Raised a Methodist, Page and her family were active parishioners of the Englewood Methodist Church in Chicago, where she had her first foray into acting within the church's theatre group, playing Jo March in a 1941 production of Louisa May Alcott's Little Women. After graduating from Chicago's Englewood Technical Prep Academy, she attended the Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University), with the intention of becoming a visual artist or pianist.
After graduating from the Art Institute of Chicago in 1945, Page studied acting at the Herbert Berghof School and the American Theatre Wing in New York City, studying with Uta Hagen for seven years, and then at the Actors Studio with Lee Strasberg. During this time, Page would return to Chicago in the summers to perform in repertory theatre in Lake Zurich, Illinois, where she and several fellow actors had established their own independent theater company. While attempting to establish her career, she worked various odd jobs, including as a hat-check girl, theater usher, lingerie model, and a factory laborer.
Career
Early stage and film
Page, a trained method actor, spent five years appearing in various repertory theater productions in the Midwest and New York after graduating from college. On October 25, 1945, she made her New York stage debut in Seven Mirrors, a play devised by Immaculate Heart High School students from Los Angeles. The play ran for a total of 23 performances at Blackfriars Repertory Theatre on Manhattan's Upper East Side. In February 1952, director José Quintero cast Page in a minor role in Yerma, a theatrical interpretation of a poem by Federico García Lorca, staged at Circle in the Square Theatre in New York City's Greenwich Village. Page was subsequently cast in the role of Alma in the Quintero-directed production of Summer and Smoke, written by Tennessee Williams (also staged at the Circle Theatre in 1952). Page's role in Summer and Smoke garnered her significant exposure, including a Drama Desk Award, and a profile in Time magazine.
Her official film debut and role in Hondo, opposite John Wayne, garnering her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Prior, she appeared in an uncredited role in Taxi. Speaking to a Kirksville newspaper, she said: "Actually Hondo wasn't my first movie. I had one small, but satisfactory scene in a Dan Dailey picture called Taxi, which was filmed in New York." Page was blacklisted in Hollywood after her debut in Hondo based on her association with Uta Hagen and did not work in film for nearly ten years. Her work continued on Broadway playing a spinster in the 19541955 production of The Rainmaker, written by N. Richard Nash; and as the frustrated wife whose husband becomes romantically obsessed with a young Arab, played by James Dean, in the 1954 production of The Immoralist, written by Augustus Goetz and Ruth Goetz and based on the novel of the same name (1902) by André Gide. Page remained friends with Dean until his death the following year and kept a number of personal mementos from the play—including several drawings by him. After Page's death, these items were acquired by Heritage Auctions in 2006. In 2015 Angelica Page revealed that her mother had an affair with Dean during the production of The Immoralist. She stated, "According to my mother, their affair went on for three-and-a-half months. In many ways my mother never really got over Jimmy. It was not unusual for me to go to her dressing room through the years, obviously many years after Dean was gone, and find pictures of him taped up on her mirror. My mother never forgot about Jimmy -- never. I believe they were artistic soul mates."
In 1959, Page earned an Emmy nomination, of Best Single Performance by an Actress, for her role in the Playhouse 90 episode "The Old Man," written by William Faulkner. She subsequently earned critical accolades for her performance in the 1959–1960 Broadway production of Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth opposite Paul Newman, in which she originated the role of a larger-than-life, addicted, sexually voracious Hollywood legend trying to extinguish her fears about her career with a young hustler named Chance Wayne (played by Newman). For her performance, Page received her first nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, as well as the Sarah Siddons Award for her performance in Chicago. She and Newman subsequently starred in the 1962 film adaptation of the same name and Page earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress for the film.
In 1963, Page starred in Toys in the Attic, based on Lillian Hellman's play of the same name, and garnered a Golden Globe nomination. She received another nomination the following year starring in Delbert Mann's Dear Heart as a self-sufficient but lonely postmistress visiting New York City for a convention, finding love with a greeting card salesman. In 1964, she starred in a Lee Strasberg-directed Broadway revival of Anton Chekhov's Three Sisters playing eldest sister Olga to Kim Stanley's Masha with Barbara Baxley as the interloper Natasha. Both Shirley Knight and Sandy Dennis played the youngest sister Irina at different stages in this production.
Between 1966 and 1969, Page appeared in two holiday-themed television productions based on stories by Truman Capote: "The Christmas Memory" (for ABC Stage 67) and the television film The Thanksgiving Visitor, both of which earned her two consecutive Emmy Awards for Best Actress. In 1967, Page appeared again onstage in Peter Shaffer's Black Comedy/White Lies, a production which also included Michael Crawford and Lynn Redgrave, who were making their Broadway debuts. The same year, she appeared opposite Fred MacMurray in the Walt Disney-produced musical The Happiest Millionaire. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times was critical of the film, noting: "Geraldine Page and Gladys Cooper...square off in one musical scene of socially up-staging each other that is drenched in perfumed vulgarity. But, then, the whole picture is vulgar. It is an over-decorated, over-fluffed, over-sentimentalized endeavor to pretend the lace-curtain millionaires are—or were—every bit as folksy as the old prize-fighters and the Irish brawlers in the saloon."
Mid-career work
Page starred opposite Ruth Gordon in the thriller What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice? (1969), the third and final film in the Robert Aldrich-produced trilogy which followed What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) and Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964). The film is based on the novel The Forbidden Garden by Ursula Curtiss and features Page as Claire Marrable, a recently widowed socialite, who, discovers that her husband has left her virtually nothing. The widow hires a number of unsuspecting housekeepers whom she murders one by one and robs them of their life savings in order to keep up her extravagant lifestyle. Writing for The New York Times, Vincent Canby deemed the film "an amusingly baroque horror story told by a master misogynist," and praised Page's "affecting" performance.
Page subsequently appeared in the Don Siegel-directed thriller The Beguiled (1971) opposite Clint Eastwood, playing the headmistress of a Southern girls' boarding school who takes in a wounded Union soldier. Director Siegel called Page "certainly as fine an actor as I've ever worked with. I never have gotten along better with anyone than I did with her." This was followed by a supporting role in the comedy Pete 'n' Tillie (1972), for which she earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. She also appeared in three episodes of Rod Serling's Night Gallery between 1972 and 1973. In January 1973, she returned to Broadway playing Mary Todd Lincoln opposite Maya Angelou in the two-character play Look Away, written by Jerome Kilty. Page received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play (her second Tony Award nomination) for the 1975 production of Alan Ayckbourn's Absurd Person Singular with Sandy Dennis and Richard Kiley.
She also had a supporting role as a charismatic Hollywood evangelist (modeled after Aimee Semple McPherson) in The Day of the Locust (1975), an adaptation of the Nathanael West novel of the same name. In 1977, she appeared as a nun in the British comedy Nasty Habits, and provided the voice role of Madame Medusa in the Walt Disney animated film The Rescuers. During this time, she also appeared on television, guest-starring in the popular series Kojak (1976) and Hawaii Five-O (1977).
Page appeared as the mother of three siblings and wife of a prominent attorney in Woody Allen's Interiors (1978). For her performance, Page was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress, and won a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. The New York Timess Vincent Canby lauded her performance in the film, writing: "Miss Page, looking a bit like a youthful Louise Nevelson with mink-lashed eyes, is marvelous — erratically kind, impossibly demanding, pathetic in her loneliness and desperate in her anger." The following year, in November 1979, Page was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.
Later work and final performances
Page starred as Zelda Fitzgerald in the last major Broadway production of a Williams play, Clothes for a Summer Hotel in 1980, followed by a supporting role in Harry's War (1981). Page starred as the secretive nun Mother Miriam Ruth in the Broadway production of Agnes of God, which opened in 1982 and ran for 599 performances with Page performing in nearly all of them; for her role, she received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play.
Also in 1983, Page invited the young actress Sabra Jones Strasberg to her dressing room to talk to Strasberg about how much she had liked her performance in St. Joan by Maxwell Anderson, in which Page had just seen her play the part originated by Ingrid Bergman. During this conversation, Strasberg asked her advice in forming a classic theatre based on alternating repertory. Strasberg later founded the Mirror Theater Ltd with its repertory program the Mirror Repertory, and Page accepted the role of Founding Artist in Residence. Page remained continually active in theater, appearing in numerous repertory, Broadway, and Off-Broadway productions throughout the 1980s; this included roles in a revivals of Inheritors by Susan Glaspell and Paradise Lost by Clifford Odets in 1983, Rain by John Colton (based on the short story "Miss Thompson" by W. Somerset Maugham) the following year. Further revivals followed in 1985: Vivat! Vivat Regina! by Robert Bolt (in which she played Elizabeth I), Clarence by Booth Tarkington, and The Madwoman of Chaillot (by Jean Giraudoux) in which she played the Madwoman to great acclaim).
Page earned her seventh Academy Award nomination for her performance in the dark comedy The Pope of Greenwich Village (1984). This marked a record at the time for most Academy Award nominations without a win, for which Page was tied with Peter O'Toole and Richard Burton (who themselves had also garnered seven nominations without winning). On television, Page had a supporting role in the miniseries The Dollmaker (1984), opposite Jane Fonda and Amanda Plummer. She appeared in the British horror film The Bride opposite Sting and Jennifer Beals; the drama White Nights, directed by Taylor Hackford; and opposite Rebecca de Mornay in the drama The Trip to Bountiful (all 1985), in which she played an aging Southern Texas woman seeking to return to her hometown. The role earned Page wide critical acclaim, with the Los Angeles Times referring to it as "the performance of a lifetime."
In 1986, she appeared on Broadway in The Circle by W. Somerset Maugham; during this production, Page won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in The Trip to Bountiful. During her acceptance speech, she thanked The Mirror Theater Ltd. Page wore her costume from The Circle, which had been designed and made by Gail Cooper-Hecht, the Mirror Theater's costume designer. She received the award from F. Murray Abraham, who, after winning his Oscar for Amadeus, also joined the Mirror Repertory Company to play the rag-picker in the Madwoman of Chaillot. Prior to winning the Academy Award, Page said to People magazine: "If I lose the Oscar this year, I’ll have the record for the most nominations without ever winning... I’d love to be champion, [but the loser] doesn’t have to get up there and make a fool of herself."
After winning the Academy Award, Page returned to finish her run performing in The Circle for Mirror Theater and appeared opposite Carroll Baker, Oprah Winfrey, and Elizabeth McGovern in Native Son (1986). Page followed up Native Son with a lead role opposite Mary Stuart Masterson in My Little Girl (1987). In the fall of 1986, Page asked permission to return to Broadway in a revival of Noël Coward's Blithe Spirit in the role of Madame Arcati. She was cast in the role, though the production would be Page's last. She was again nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, though she did not win. A week after the Tony Awards ceremony, Page failed to appear for two performances of the play and was found dead in her Manhattan home. The show lasted several weeks more, with Page's understudy Patricia Conolly taking over her role.
Reception and acting style
Page was trained as a method actor, and at times worked with psychoanalysts when developing her interpretations of roles. She once told the Los Angeles Times: "If I read a part and think I can connect to it, that I can touch people with it, I will do it, no matter what its size. And if I think I can't do something with a part, I won't take it." In a 1964 interview upon completing the Broadway run of The Three Sisters, Page discussed her method acting at length. When asked if she used emotional recall as a technique, she responded: "I would never shut it out. But I don't try to get one. My whole effort is to relax and keep the doors open so that there's room if one should pop up."
During her life, Page was regarded as a respected character actress. Speaking of her stage career in 1986, she said: "I used to think that by opening [night] all the work was done. Now I'm finding how much you can learn from the audience." She described acting as a "bottomless cup," adding: "If I studied for the next ninety years I'd just be scratching the surface."
Personal life
Page was married to violinist Alexander Schneider from 1954 to 1957. On September 8, 1963, she married actor Rip Torn, who was six years her junior, in Pinal, Arizona. They had played opposite one another in Sweet Bird of Youth on Broadway and in the 1962 film. They had three children: a daughter, actress Angelica Page, and twin sons, Anthony "Tony" and Jonathan "Jon" Torn.
Beginning in the early 1980s, Page and Torn lived separately after he started dating actress Amy Wright; Torn had first met Wright in 1976 and began an affair shortly after. Page was aware of Torn and Wright's relationship, and appeared onstage opposite Wright in the 1977 Off-Broadway production of The Stronger, under Torn's direction. In 1983, Torn fathered a child with Wright. Upon the birth of the child, Page was questioned about her marriage by columnist Cindy Adams, to which she responded: "Of course Rip and I are still married. We've been married for years. We're staying married. What's the big fuss?" In spite of their separation, Page and Torn remained married until her death; her daughter described their relationship as still "close" up until Page died in 1987.
Page considered herself a gourmand, once joking: "Greedy gut is my middle name...Rip is wonderful. He does the cooking and I do the eating. I love everything but eggplant."
Death
On June 13, 1987, Page failed to arrive at the Neil Simon Theatre for both the afternoon and evening performances of Sir Noël Coward's Blithe Spirit, which had begun its run in March. At the end of the show's evening performance, the play's producer announced that Page had been found dead in her lower Manhattan townhouse. It was determined that she died of a heart attack.
On June 18, "an overflow crowd of colleagues, friends and fans," including Sissy Spacek, James Earl Jones, Amanda Plummer, Jerry Stiller, Anne Meara, and husband Torn attended a memorial service held at the Neil Simon Theatre. In highlighting Page's achievements, actress Anne Jackson said "[Page] used a stage like no one else I'd ever seen. It was like playing tennis with someone who had 26 arms." Rip Torn called her "Mi corazon, mi alma, mi esposa" ("My heart, my soul, my wife") and said they had "never stopped being lovers, and ... never will." Page was cremated.
Filmography
Accolades
Page earned a total of seven Oscar nominations before winning her first Academy Award for Best Actress in 1986 for The Trip to Bountiful. She was also a winner of two Golden Globe Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, and one BAFTA award.
For her stage work on Broadway, Page earned a total of four Tony Award nominations, and was referred to by the New York Daily News as "one of the finest stage actors of her generation." She was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1979.
In popular culture
Sarah Paulson portrayed Page in the 2017 anthology television series Feud, which chronicles the rivalry between actresses Bette Davis and Joan Crawford on the set of What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962).
She was also portrayed by her daughter, Angelica Page, in the stage production Turning Page. A monologue play chronicling Page's life, it was also written by her daughter: "I grew up in the center of her sparkling career," Angelica recalled. "As her only daughter I feel compelled to share her lessons and gifts with others who did and did not have the opportunity to know her magic intimately. She was a true rebel and trail blazer. A masterful woman who was ahead of her time and should not be forgotten anytime soon." The play premiered in Los Angeles in 2016, followed by performances in New York City in 2017.
References
Works cited
External links
Academic resources
Geraldine Page Papers at Yale University Digital Collections (family photographs and other papers)
Geraldine Page at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection
Videography
Page's award acceptance speech at the 58th Academy Awards
1924 births
1987 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actors Studio alumni
Actresses from Chicago
Actresses from Missouri
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American Methodists
American stage actresses
American voice actresses
Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
DePaul University alumni
Donaldson Award winners
David di Donatello winners
Englewood Technical Prep Academy alumni
Hollywood blacklist
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Kirksville, Missouri
People from Chelsea, Manhattan
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] |
206718
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer%20and%20Smoke
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Summer and Smoke
|
Summer and Smoke is a two-part, thirteen-scene play by Tennessee Williams, completed in 1948. He began working on the play in 1945 as Chart of Anatomy, derived from his short stories "Oriflamme" and the then-work-in-progress "Yellow Bird." The phrase "summer and smoke" probably comes from the Hart Crane poem "Emblems of Conduct" in the 1926 collection White Buildings. After a disappointing Broadway run in 1948, the play was a hit Off-Broadway in 1952. Williams continued to revise Summer and Smoke in the 1950s, and in 1964 he rewrote the play as The Eccentricities of a Nightingale.
Synopsis
Summer and Smoke is set in Glorious Hill, Mississippi, from the "turn of the century through 1916", and centers on Alma Winemiller, a highly strung, unmarried minister's daughter, and the spiritual/sexual romance that nearly blossoms between her and John Buchanan Jr., a wild, undisciplined young doctor who grew up next door. She, ineffably refined, identifies with the Gothic cathedral, "reaching up to something beyond attainment"; her name, as Williams makes clear during the play, means "soul" in Spanish; whereas Buchanan, doctor and sensualist, defies her with the soulless anatomy chart.
By the play's end, however, Buchanan and Alma have traded places philosophically. She has been transformed beyond modesty. She throws herself at him, saying "now I have changed my mind, or the girl who said 'no', — she doesn't exist any more, she died last summer — suffocated in smoke from something on fire inside her." But he has changed, he is engaged to settle down with a respectable, younger girl, and as he tries to convince Alma that what they had between them was indeed a "spiritual bond", she realizes, in any event, that it is too late. In the final scene, Alma accosts a young traveling salesman at dusk in the town park, and as the curtain falls, she follows him to enjoy the "after-dark entertainment" at Moon Lake Casino, where she had resisted Buchanan's attempt to seduce her the previous summer.
Production history
On 6 October 1948, after an opening run in Dallas, Texas, Summer and Smoke received its first Broadway performance at the Music Box Theatre in New York City in a production staged by Margo Jones and designed by Jo Mielziner with Tod Andrews, Margaret Phillips, Monica Boyar and Anne Jackson. The play ran for 102 performances, and at the time, represented a downturn in popularity for Williams following his successful A Streetcar Named Desire.
In 1952, Geraldine Page played the lead role in a revival directed by José Quintero at the newly founded Circle in the Square Theatre in downtown New York (the theater was in its earlier Sheridan Square Playhouse location). Her performance has been credited with helping to launch the Off-Broadway movement, putting both herself and Quintero on the map, and vindicating the play. Page starred in an hour-long adaptation of the play on the radio series Best Plays in 1953 opposite Richard Kiley (recordings of which still exist). She also portrayed Alma Winemiller in the 1961 film opposite Laurence Harvey, earning an Academy Award nomination (as did Una Merkel playing her mother). Additional Oscar nominations went to the Art Direction and Elmer Bernstein's evocative musical score.
The Broadway premiere of the revised version titled The Eccentricities of a Nightingale was staged in 1976. The production was directed by Edwin Sherin, with scenery by William Ritman, costumes by Theoni V. Aldredge, lighting by Marc B. Weiss and original music by Charles Gross. It was produced in conjunction with Marc W. Jacobs. The production stage manager was Henry Banister and press was by Seymour Krawitz, Patricia McLean Krawitz and Louise Ment. The show starred Betsy Palmer (Alma), Shepperd Strudwick (Rev. Winemiller), Grace Carney (Mrs. Winemiller), Nan Martin (Mrs. Buchanan), Peter Blaxill (Roger Doremus), Jen Jones (Mrs. Bassett), Patricia Guinan (Rosemary), W.P. Dremak (Vernon), Thomas Stechschulte (Traveling Salesman) and David Selby as Dr. Buchanan. The production ran for 24 performances at the Morosco Theatre.
In 1991, Gilles Gleizes translated in French, with Roberta Bailey, Summer and Smoke, and directed the play in France, Théâtre de Rungis et CDN de Limoges.
In 1996, the play was revived at the Criterion Center Stage Right in New York, in a production directed by David Warren, with Harry Hamlin and Mary McDonnell. Laila Robins and Amanda Plummer have been notable Almas in regional productions.
It was nearly 60 years before the London premiere of Summer and Smoke. It opened at the Apollo Theatre on 17 October 2006. The production, directed by Adrian Noble and starring Rosamund Pike and Chris Carmack, first opened at the Nottingham Playhouse in September and then transferred to London. It closed 10 weeks short of its planned 16-week run due to disappointing ticket sales.
In January 2007, the Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey, presented a revival starring Amanda Plummer and Kevin Anderson, directed by Michael Wilson. In May 2008, the Off-Broadway group The Actors Company Theatre (TACT) presented a revival of the 1964 revision of the play, titled The Eccentricities of a Nightingale, which received a favorable notice from The New York Times.
In 2017, the Almeida Theatre announced a new production starring Patsy Ferran, directed by Rebecca Frecknall and designed by Tom Scutt. After a successful run and several five-star reviews, the production was transferred to the Duke of York's Theatre.
The play returned to Off-Broadway in Spring 2018. It was performed by the Classic Stage Company and directed by Jack Cummings III.
Adaptations
In 1961, a film adaptation by Paramount Pictures was directed by Peter Glenville, and starred Laurence Harvey, Rita Moreno, and Geraldine Page reprising her role as Alma. A television version was produced in 1972, starring Lee Remick, David Hedison, and Barry Morse. Another production, titled Eccentricities of a Nightingale, starring Blythe Danner and Frank Langella, aired as an episode of the PBS program Great Performances in 1976.
An operatic treatment of the play exists as well, composed by Lee Hoiby. It was first produced by the Minnesota Opera in 1971 and came to New York City Opera the following year. It was seen at Manhattan School of Music Opera Theater in December, 2010, and most recently by Converse College Opera Theatre in January, 2018.
References
External links
1953 Best Plays radio adaptation of play at Internet Archive
1948 plays
Broadway plays
Plays by Tennessee Williams
Plays set in Mississippi
Plays set in the 1900s
Plays set in the 1910s
American plays adapted into films
1972 television films
1972 films
Plays adapted into operas
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raasay
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Raasay
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Raasay (; ) or the Isle of Raasay is an island between the Isle of Skye and the mainland of Scotland. It is separated from Skye by the Sound of Raasay and from Applecross by the Inner Sound. It is most famous for being the birthplace of Gaelic poet Sorley MacLean, an important figure in the Scottish Renaissance.
Traditionally the home of Clan MacSween, the island was ruled by the MacLeods from the 15th to the 19th century. Subsequently, a series of private landlords held title to the island, which is now largely in public ownership. Raasay House, which was visited by James Boswell and Samuel Johnson in 1773, is now a hotel, restaurant, bar and outdoor activity centre. Raasay means "Isle of the Roe Deer" and is home to an endemic subspecies of bank vole. The current Chief of the Island is Roderick John Macleod of Raasay.
Geology and geography
About north to south and east to west (at its widest), Raasay's terrain is varied. The highest point, at , is Dùn Caan – an unusual, flat-topped peak. The island of Rona lies just off the north coast and the tidal islets of Eilean Fladday and Eilean Tigh are to the northwest. Other smaller surrounding islands are Eilean Aird nan Gobhar, Eilean an Inbhire, Holoman Island, Manish Island, Fraoch Eilean, Glas Eilean, Griana-sgeir and Eilean an Fhraoich. The main village of Inverarish is near the southwest coast.
Geologically interesting, the island is visited by many students engaged in mapping projects. The south is mainly Torridonian sandstone and shale; the north is grey-banded Archaean Lewisian gneiss and granulite. There are also smaller outcrops of Jurassic shales and sandstones occasionally interspersed with limestone. The related ironstone beds contain low grade oolitic siderite and chamosite ores which were worked commercially in the early 20th century. Remaining reserves are estimated at 10 million tonnes. The seas to the east and west are very deep, large troughs having been created by the Skye icecap in the Pleistocene.
Settlements
OS settlements
Places classified as settlements by the Ordnance Survey include:
Arnish
Brochel
Clachan
East Suisnish
Eyre
Inverarish
Oskaig
Suisnish
Torran
Not OS settlements
These places aren't classified as settlements by the Ordnance Survey but are shown on the A-Z Great Britain Road atlas 2022
Balachuirn
Glame
North Fearns
Economy and culture
The primary employment is in tourism, working for the ferry company, crofting and fishing, or commuting to work on Skye. A twenty-five-minute ride by the car and passenger ferry connects the island with Sconser on Skye. There is a primary school, but older students go to Portree High School by the ferry and bus.
Sites of interest include the remains of a broch, the ruins of Brochel Castle, inscribed stones, abandoned crofting communities, and many walking paths.
There is a shop/post office located in Inverarish. Accommodation is available in the old manor of Raasay House, and at various B&Bs. There are significant numbers of incomers and holiday homes especially in the south of the island. This has helped to arrest the population decline from over 900 in 1803 to 194 in 2001. Some inhabitants belong to the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which strictly observes the Sabbath. On Sundays there are no public services, the playground is closed and, until 2004, the ferry did not run.
In early 2007 the Raasay Community Association signed a contract with a number of building contractors to construct a community centre, which hosted its first céilidh on 29 May 2010. In 2008 construction began on a new £12 million ferry terminal at Churchton Bay, which was officially opened on 17 August 2010. Following the community buyout of Raasay House a £3.5 million refurbishment was undertaken, leading to the temporary closure of the outdoor centre. However, in the early hours of 18 January 2009 the building was severely damaged by fire. Restoration work commenced in August 2010 but was suspended in November when the main contractor, ROK, went into administration. Work restarted with a new contractor, Mansell, in late 2011. Raasay House was officially handed over to the community in March 2013 and in addition to the 4 star accommodation it provides it is also now an outdoor activity centre with a restaurant, bar and cafe.
In September 2017 the Isle of Raasay distillery opened after the conversion of Borodale House. One source described this as transforming the "derelict Gothic hotel ... into a modern whisky distillery, visitor centre and accommodation. The company's Single malt Scotch was described by one source as the island's "first legal single malt" whisky. It released 7,500 bottles of the spirit in 2020, the first year that Raasay Single Malt became available.
Flora and fauna
Raasay is home to the Raasay vole (Clethrionomys glareolus erica), a subspecies of bank vole, which is darker and heavier than the mainland variety and found nowhere else in the world. It is possibly a survivor of a Scandinavian race. Murray (1973) states that a single specimen of a pine marten, otherwise missing from the Hebrides, was found on the island in 1971. No other records for this species exist. Raasay is one of only four of the Inner Hebrides where mountain hares breed. Raasay is regularly visited by white-tailed sea eagles and golden eagles and there are populations of otter, red deer and European rabbit (which were introduced by the island's proprietor in the 19th century). Stoat and weasel are found in small numbers as are water shrew. It also supports a rich variety of plants, including red broomrape, dark red helleborine, mountain avens and numerous other saxifrages, orchids, alpines and ferns. The carline thistle (Carlina vulgaris) was apparently extant in the 1970s, but a recent survey found no evidence of its continued existence. There are several stands of mixed woodland.
Prehistory and Archaeology
Between 1999 and 2004 a large scale archaeological project, Scotland's First Settlers, was undertaken in the Inner Sound to locate and examine sites relating to the Mesolithic period in the strait. The entire coastline of the Inner Sound together with its islands was walked by volunteers and archaeologists. On Raasay they found 14 caves and rock shelters with evidence of prehistoric habitation, in the form of both middens and walls. Though only the site at Loch a Sguirr was confirmed as Mesolithic, on the basis of both the stone tools and radiocarbon dating.
History
The spread of Scots culture from Dalriada north of Ardnamurchan is poorly understood and little is recorded of Raasay's early Christian period. The placename Kilmaluag suggests the presence of St Moluag in the late sixth century.
Following Viking expeditions to the islands they called the Suðreyjar in the eighth century, Raasay became part of the Norse Kingdom of the Isles and for much of the period religious observance came under the jurisdiction of the Bishopric of the Isles. The Hebrides were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth, after which time control of the islands north of Ardnamurchan was in the hands of the Earls of Ross. In addition to the name "Raasay" itself, placenames such as Arnish (eagle headland), Suidhisnis (seething headland) and Eyre (beach or sand spit) are a legacy of the Norse presence.
15th to 17th century
Tradition has it that Clan MacSween originally held title to Raasay but there is no written record of this. It is known that the island was ruled by the MacLeods from 1518 when Gillecallum, younger son of the MacLeod Chief of Lewis was granted title. Martin Martin visited towards the end of the 17th century and noted:
it has some wood on all the quarters of it, the whole is fitter for pasturage than cultivation, the ground being generally very unequal, but very well watered with rivulets and springs. There is a spring running down the face of a high rock on the east side of the isle; it petrifies into a white substance, of which very fine lime is made, and there is a great quantity of it. There is a quarry of good stone on the same side of the isle; there is abundance of caves on the west side, which serve to lodge several families, who for their convenience in grazing, fishing, &c., resort thither in the summer. On the west side, particularly near to the village Clachan, the shore abounds with smooth stones of different sizes, variegated all over. The same cattle, fowl, and fish are produced here that are found in the isle of Skye. There is a law observed by the natives that all their fishing lines must be of equal length, for the longest is always supposed to have best access to the fish, which would prove a disadvantage to such as might have shorter ones.
There are some forts in this isle, the highest is in the south end; it is a natural strength, and in form like the crown of a hat; it is called Dun-Cann, which the natives will needs have to be from one Canne, cousin to the king of Denmark. The other lies on the side, is an artificial fort, three stories high, and is called Castle Vreokle.
Brochel Castle, as it is more commonly known, was built by the MacSweens in the 15th century on the north-east coast of Raasay. Latterly, it became a base for the MacLeod of Lewis's pirating activities prior to Calum Garbh's investiture there. The castle was inhabited until the death by drowning of the Chief Iain Garbh in 1671 and is now a ruin sitting atop a pinnacle. In the meantime the Macleods moved their seat to Raasay House at the south end of the island.
18th century
Although Protestant, the MacLeods of Raasay supported Bonnie Prince Charlie in 1745. After the defeat at the Battle of Culloden, the Prince spent 2 days hiding from the British troops on Raasay and as a consequence of the island's support for the Jacobite cause the original Raasay House and many dwellings were burnt down by government troops. In conversation with Malcolm MacLeod of Raasay during his short stay on the island the Prince confided that although his life on the run was hard, he would rather live that way for ten years than be captured as he feared assassination. He seemed less aware of the risks his supporters ran. The atrocities perpetrated in the aftermath of Culloden were a shock to him. Of Cumberland he said: "Surely that man who calls himself a duke and pretends to be so great a general cannot be guilty of such cruelties. I cannot believe it."
In 1773 James Boswell and Samuel Johnson arrived on the island during their Hebridean tour. They visited Raasay House and Johnson wrote:
Our reception exceeded our expectations. We found nothing but civility, elegance, and plenty. After the usual refreshments, and the usual conversation, the evening came upon us. The carpet was then rolled off the floor; the musician was called, and the whole company was invited to dance, nor did ever fairies trip with greater alacrity. The general air of festivity, which predominated in this place, so far remote from all those regions which the mind has been used to contemplate as the mansions of pleasure, struck the imagination with a delightful surprise, analogous to that which is felt at an unexpected emersion from darkness into light.
When it was time to sup, the dance ceased, and six and thirty persons sat down to two tables in the same room. After supper the ladies sung Erse songs, to which I listened as an English audience to an Italian opera, delighted with the sound of words which I did not understand.
Boswell went exploring and described the island as follows:
Having resolved to explore the island of Rasay, which could be done only on foot, I last night obtained my fellow-traveller’s permission to leave him for a day, he being unable to take so hardy a walk. Old Mr Malcolm M’Cleod, who had obligingly promised to accompany me, was at my bedside between five and six. I sprang up immediately, and he and I, attended by two other gentlemen, traversed the country during the whole of this day. Though we had passed over not less than four-and-twenty miles of very rugged ground, and had a Highland dance on the top of Dùn Can, the highest mountain in the island, we returned in the evening not at all fatigued, and piqued ourselves at not being outdone at the nightly ball by our less active friends, who had remained at home.
My survey of Rasay did not furnish much which can interest my readers; I shall therefore put into as short a compass as I can, the observations upon it, which I find registered in my journal. It is about fifteen English miles long, and four broad. On the south side is the laird’s family seat, situated on a pleasing low spot. The old tower of three stories, mentioned by Martin, was taken down soon after 1746, and a modern house supplies its place. There are very good grass-fields and corn-lands about it, well dressed. I observed, however, hardly any inclosures, except a good garden plentifully stocked with vegetables, and strawberries, raspberries, currants, &c.
19th and 20th centuries
In 1843 the last laird, John Macleod, was deep in debt and chose to emigrate to Tasmania having sold Raasay for 35,000 guineas to George Rainy. After the failure of the potato harvests in the 1840s, the new owner decided to convert as much arable land as possible to sheep farming. This required the removal of the islanders, and his solution was to ban marriage. Several townships were cleared including Hallaig and Screapadal. Two boatloads of emigrants left for Portland in Australia in 1854 as a result, and another 165 left for the same destination in 1865. The estate was then sold to Edward Wood, and conflicts between the laird and the islanders grew as he decided to turn the island over to sporting purposes. On 20 September 1862 the steamship Irishman ran aground on "Skernataid Rock" between Raasay and Scalpay. A vessel Spindrift is also recorded as having become jammed under the ferry pier at the sound end of the island and broken in two by the rising tide at an unspecified date.
Near Oskaig, there is a row of six houses which are known as Manitoba. Locals believe that this was a gathering place for people about to embark on emigrating to Canada in the late 19th century.
William Baird and Company signed a deed to purchase the estate of the Island of Raasay on 28 December 1910. The sale completed on 15 May 1911.
In May 1921, a group of crofters from Rona landed on Raasay and attempted to re-occupy their ancestral land. These so-called "Raasay Raiders" were arrested, tried and given prison sentences, but public support for them was strong and they were eventually freed and allowed to remain on Raasay.
The island was purchased by the government in 1922 after the mine closed. In 1949 The Forestry Commission was granted land bringing much-needed employment, and in 1956 The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board delivered mains electricity to the island. In the 1960s Raasay House and various other properties were purchased by John Green, a doctor residing Sussex who visited the island only once and whose lack of interest in it earned him the sobriquet "Dr No". Having purchased the property for £8,000 he sold it to the Highlands and Islands Development Board in 1979 for £135,000.
Around this time, Manchester-born Alan Evans (who lived in Loanhead and worked for Ferranti, but owned several small properties around Raasay) set up Isle of Raasay Enterprises, a private initiative intended to encourage local enterprise such as the production of tourist postcards. Little progress was made before his death in 1967 but he is remembered by the Allan Evans Memorial Hostel (closed 2014) at Creachan, a remote cottage he had bequeathed to the SYHA.
The Iron Mine
Nicholson reported an early bloomery on the island. The next record of ironstone on Raasay was by HB Woodward in 1893. Stead investigated the outcrop in 1909 and the subsequent analysis by Tatlock convinced Baird's to buy the island the following year (with completion in 1912).
Baird's original plan was for a railway from the outcrop site down to just south of Suisnish point with the erection of five kilns. Objections led to the plan being revised for two kilns further south, where the current pier is. This pier was a public pier with landing charges regulated by government order. By the outbreak of war Baird's had completed the pier (constructed by Robert McAlpine & Sons), kilns, railway and "other works".
To house the workforce Baird's planned the village of Inverarish Houses, today known as Inverarish Terrace. The village consists of two facing rows of houses, each row being two terraces of 16 houses each. Between the terraces is a broad open area. Numbers 1–32 are the western row, 33–64 the eastern. The lower, southern terraces were built first (1–16 and 33–48) between 1912 and 1913. The first terraces were stone built and by 1914–15 were about half occupied. By the time of the 1915–16 valuation some of numbers 1–16 were unoccupied, just over half of numbers 33–48 were occupied and the newly built brick terrace of numbers 17–32 were also vacant. The unoccupied houses were caused by many of the labour force being called to the colours.
With the introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1916 the Ministry of Munitions became concerned about the availability of foreign iron ore. Baird's were one company amongst others which opened up domestic mines in order to supply the war effort. In May 1916 Baird's signed an agreement to run the mine on behalf of the Ministry, although there was a minor skirmish over the amount of processing to be done on the island. The first prisoners were on the island by June and were housed in the upper part of the village, numbers 17–32 and the now completed 49–64. This northern part of the village was converted into a prisoner-of-war camp by the simple expedient of building a barbed wire fence around it and erecting sentry boxes and arc lamps at the corners.
Population
In 2001 Raasay had the lowest percentage of children of any populated Scottish island, and the island's population fell by over 16% since that time to the date of the 2011 census. During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702. With 36% in the 2001 census there was still a relatively high density of Gaelic speakers (down from over 75% in 1901 and 1921).
Culture and the arts
Piping tradition
John MacKay, born on Raasay in 1767, was supported by the MacLeod Chief as the foremost island piper of his day and an inheritor of the MacCrimmon tradition. His son Angus published a collection of pibroch music in staff notation and was the first Piper to the Sovereign.
Sorley MacLean
The poet Sorley MacLean was born in Osgaig, a small crofting community on the west coast of the island; perhaps his most famous poem is about Hallaig, an abandoned community on the east coast. MacLean's writings often combine an ancient traditional awareness, with a modernist political outlook, in which Raasay, and the areas adjacent to it are frequently referenced. But while MacLean's work dwells on the brutality of war, of the Highland Clearances and modern exploitation, he also writes about nature. Thus, although the Clearances leave an empty landscape populated only by the ghosts of those evicted or forced to emigrate, "Time, the deer, is in the Wood of Hallaig".
Calum's Road
The two miles (3 km) of road between Brochel Castle and Arnish were built using hand-tools by Calum MacLeod BEM over ten years. Only when complete was the road surfaced by the local council; by then Calum and his wife were the last inhabitants of Arnish. Calum's Road has been commemorated in music both by Capercaillie on their 1988 album The Blood is Strong and by Runrig in Wall of China from the album The Stamping Ground, as well as in a book by Roger Hutchinson. The BBC Radio 4 drama Calum's Road, based on Hutchinson's book and dramatised by Colin MacDonald, was first broadcast on 5 October 2013 starring Ian McDiarmid as Calum MacLeod.
Harrison Birtwistle
The composer Sir Harrison Birtwistle lived on Raasay from 1975 to 1983. His Duets for Storab, takes its name from Storab, a Viking prince who was shipwrecked and sought refuge on Raasay. Birtwistle's string quartet, The Tree of Strings, written in 2007, takes its title from a poem by Sorley MacLean.
See also
Land raid
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Also see The Guardian
Further reading
External links
Raasay Community Association
Raasay House
Skye and Lochalsh
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Skye and Lochalsh
Mines in Scotland
Islands of Highland (council area)
Islands of the Inner Hebrides
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] |
206721
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass
|
Splendor in the Grass
|
Splendor in the Grass is a 1961 American period drama film produced and directed by Elia Kazan, from a screenplay written by William Inge. It stars Natalie Wood and Warren Beatty (in his film debut) as two high school sweethearts, navigating feelings of sexual repression, love, and heartbreak. Pat Hingle, Audrey Christie, Barbara Loden, Zohra Lampert, and Joanna Roos are featured in supporting roles.
Splendor in the Grass was released theatrically on October 10, 1961, by Warner Bros. Pictures to critical and commercial success, grossing $4 million, and received two nominations at the 34th Academy Awards for Best Actress (for Wood) and Best Original Screenplay, winning the latter.
Plot
In 1928 Kansas, Wilma Dean "Deanie" Loomis is a teenage girl who follows her mother's advice to resist her desire for sex with her boyfriend Bud Stamper, the son of one of the town's more prosperous families due to oil drilling. In turn, Bud reluctantly follows the advice of his father Ace to wait to marry Deanie until after college and to find another kind of girl with whom to satisfy his desires.
Bud's parents are ashamed of his older sister Ginny, a flapper and promiscuous party girl who smokes, drinks, and has recently been brought back from Chicago, where her parents had a marriage annulled to someone who married her solely for her money; the rumor around town is that she actually had an abortion. Disappointed in their daughter, Bud's parents pin all their hopes on him and pressure him to attend Yale University. The emotional pressure is too much for Bud, who suffers a physical breakdown and nearly dies of pneumonia.
At a New Year's Eve party, Ginny becomes drunk, to the humiliation and disappointment of her parents. Bud attempts to take her home, but she refuses. Instead, she looks for someone to dance with her, asserting that men "only want to talk to her in the dark." She leaves the party with a man, and Bud finds her outside in a car being raped by the man, a crowd of men surrounding them. He starts a fight with the man, but loses when the crowd joins in. Bud takes Deanie home after the party. Disturbed by what he's seen happen to his sister, he tells Deanie that they have to stop kissing and fooling around and breaks up with her.
Aware that his classmate Juanita is willing to become sexually involved with him, Bud has a liaison with her. Shortly afterward, depressed that Bud ended their relationship, Deanie attends a party with classmate Toots Tuttle; trying out Ginny Stamper's behavior, she goes outside with Bud and comes on to him. When he rebuffs her, shocked because he always thought of her as a "nice" girl, she returns to Toots, who drives her to a private spot by a pond that streams into a waterfall. While there, Deanie realizes that she can't go through with sex, at which point she is almost raped. Escaping from Toots and driven close to madness, she attempts to commit suicide by jumping in the pond, but is rescued just before reaching the falls. Her parents sell their oil stock to pay for her institutionalization, which actually turns out to be a blessing in disguise, because they make a profit prior to the Crash of 1929 that leads to the Great Depression.
While Deanie is in the institution, she meets another patient, Johnny Masterson, who has anger issues targeted at his parents, who want him to be a surgeon. The two patients form a bond. Meanwhile, Bud is sent to Yale, where he fails practically all his courses but meets Angelina, the daughter of Italian immigrants who run a local restaurant in New Haven. In October 1929, Bud's father travels to New Haven in an attempt to persuade the dean not to expel Bud from school; Bud tells the dean he only aspires to own a ranch. The stock market crashes while Ace is in New Haven and he loses everything. He takes Bud to New York for a weekend, including to a cabaret nightclub, then commits suicide by jumping from a building – something he had been joking about just a short time earlier – and Bud must identify the body.
Deanie returns home from the asylum after two years and six months, "almost to the day." Ace's widow has gone to live with relatives, and Bud's sister has died in a car crash. Deanie's mother wants to shield her from any potential anguish from meeting Bud, so she pretends to not know where he is. When Deanie's friends from high school come over, her mother gets them to agree to feign ignorance on Bud's whereabouts. However, Deanie's father refuses to coddle his daughter and tells her that Bud has taken up ranching and lives on the old family farm. Her friends drive Deanie to meet Bud, at an old farmhouse. He is now dressed in plain clothes and married to Angelina; they have an infant son named Bud Jr. and another child on the way. Deanie lets Bud know that she is going to marry John (who is now a doctor in Cincinnati). During their brief reunion, Deanie and Bud realize that both must accept what life has thrown at them. Bud says, "What's the point? You gotta take what comes." They each relate that they "don't think about happiness very much anymore."
As Deanie leaves with her friends, Bud only seems partially satisfied by the direction his life has taken. After the others are gone, he reassures Angelina, who has realized that Deanie was once the love of his life. Driving away, Deanie's friends ask her if she is still in love with Bud. She does not answer them, but her voice is heard reciting four lines from Wordsworth's "Intimations of Immortality":
"Though nothing can bring back the hour
Of splendor in the grass, glory in the flower
We will grieve not; rather find
Strength in what remains behind."
Cast
Uncredited (in order of appearance)
Production
Filmed in New York City at Filmways Studios, Splendor in the Grass is based on people whom screenwriter William Inge knew while growing up in Kansas in the 1920s. He told the story to director Elia Kazan when they were working on a production of Inge's play The Dark at the Top of the Stairs in 1957. They agreed that it would make a good film and that they wanted to work together on it. Inge wrote it first as a novel, then as a screenplay.
The film's title is taken from a line of William Wordsworth's poem "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood":
What though the radiance which was once so bright
Be now for ever taken from my sight,
Though nothing can bring back the hour
Of splendour in the grass, of glory in the flower;
We will grieve not, rather find
Strength in what remains behind...
Two years before writing the screenplay for the film, Inge wrote Glory in the Flower (1953), a stage play whose title comes from the same line of the Wordsworth poem. The play relates the story of two middle-aged, former lovers who meet again briefly at a diner after a long estrangement; they are essentially the same characters as Bud and Deanie, though the names are Bus and Jackie.
Scenes of Kansas and the Loomis home were shot in the Travis section of Staten Island, New York City. Exterior scenes of the high school campus were shot at Horace Mann School in the Bronx. The gothic buildings of the North Campus of The City College of New York stand in for Yale University in New Haven. The scenes at the waterfall were shot in High Falls, New York, summer home of director Kazan.
Warren Beatty, while having appeared on television (most notably in a recurring role on The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis), made his screen debut in this film. He had met Inge the prior year while appearing in Inge's play A Loss of Roses on Broadway.
Inge also made his screen debut in the film, as did Sandy Dennis who appeared in a small role as a classmate of Deanie. Marla Adams and Phyllis Diller were others who made their first appearances in this film. Diller's role was based on Texas Guinan, a famous actress and restaurateur, who owned the famous 300 Club in New York City in the 20s.
Reception
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called the film a "frank and ferocious social drama that makes the eyes pop and the modest cheek burn"; he had comments on several of the performances:
Pat Hingle "gives a bruising performance as the oil-wealthy father of the boy, pushing and pounding and preaching, knocking the heart out of the lad"
Audrey Christie is "relentlessly engulfing as the sticky-sweet mother of the girl"
Warren Beatty is a "surprising newcomer" and an "amiable, decent, sturdy lad whose emotional exhaustion and defeat are the deep pathos in the film"
Natalie Wood has a "beauty and radiance that carry her through a role of violent passions and depressions with unsullied purity and strength. There is poetry in her performance, and her eyes in the final scene bespeak the moral significance and emotional fulfillment of this film."
Writing in Esquire magazine, however, Dwight Macdonald confirmed the notion that Elia Kazan was "as vulgar a director as has come along since Cecil B. De Mille." He further commented:
As for the performances, Variety stated that Wood and Beatty "deliver convincing, appealing performances" and Christie and Hingle were "truly exceptional," but also found "something awkward about the picture's mechanical rhythm. There are missing links and blind alleys within the story. Several times it segues abruptly from a climax to a point much later in time at which is encountered revelations and eventualities the auditor cannot take for granted. Too much time is spent focusing attention on characters of minor significance in themselves." Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "The picture does have its theatrical excesses and falls short idealistically in that its morality remains unresolved; nevertheless, it is film-making of the first order and one of the few significant American dramas we have had this year." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post found "beauty and truth" in the story but thought "the parents' incessant nagging and unlistening ears are not convincing" and that Christie and Hingle's characters "could do all that they do in far less footage." Harrison's Reports awarded a grade of "Very Good" and wrote that the adult themes "do not blow up the story into a soap-opera bubble. The emotional cheapness and the sordid crudeness that are evidencing themselves in so many of the yarns being spun, these days, out of the sexual pattern of young, immoral behavior is not to be found here. Instead, you find a poignantly appealing and warmly touching performance of lovely Natalie Wood that gives the story meaning." Brendan Gill of The New Yorker disagreed and slammed the film for being "as phony a picture as I can remember seeing," explaining that Inge and Kazan "must know perfectly well that the young people whom they cause to go thrashing about in 'Splendor in the Grass' bear practically no relation to young people in real life ... one has no choice but to suppose that this unwholesome sally into adolescent sexology was devised neither to instruct our minds nor to move our hearts but to arouse a prurient interest and produce a box-office smasheroo. I can't help hoping they have overplayed their hand."
Time magazine said "the script, on the whole, is the weakest element of the picture, but scriptwriter Inge can hardly be blamed for it" because it had been "heavily edited" by Kazan; he called the film a "relatively simple story of adolescent love and frustration" that has been "jargoned-up and chaptered-out till it sounds like an angry psychosociological monograph describing the sexual mores of the heartless heartland."
The film holds a score of 78% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 23 reviews.
Awards and nominations
The film ranked No. 50 on Entertainment Weeklys list of the 50 Best High School Movies. In 2002, the American Film Institute ranked Splendor in the Grass number 47 on its list of the top 100 Greatest Love Stories of All Time.
Remake
Splendor in the Grass was re-made as the 1981 television film Splendor in the Grass with Melissa Gilbert, Cyril O'Reilly, and Michelle Pfeiffer.
In popular culture
The movie's story line and main character inspired a hit song by Shaun Cassidy entitled, "Hey Deanie." It was written by Eric Carmen, who also later recorded the song. Cassidy's rendition reached No. 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100 during the winter of 1978. "Hey Deanie" was the second of two songs directly inspired by the movie, the first being Jackie DeShannon's 1966 song, "Splendor in the Grass."
In 1973 Judy Blume published a young adult novel entitled Deenie. The first few lines of the book have the central character introduce herself and explain that shortly before she was born her mother saw a movie about a beautiful girl named Wilmadeene whom everybody called Deenie for short, and that the first time that she held her baby daughter she knew the baby would turn out beautiful and so named her Deenie too. Blume's Deenie goes on to explain that it took her almost 13 years to find out that the girl in the movie went crazy and "ended up on the funny farm," and that her mother advised her to forget that part of the story.
See also
List of American films of 1961
References
External links
1961 films
1961 drama films
1960s coming-of-age drama films
1960s romantic drama films
1960s teen drama films
1960s teen romance films
American coming-of-age drama films
American films
American romantic drama films
American teen drama films
American teen romance films
Coming-of-age romance films
1960s English-language films
Films about bipolar disorder
Films about dysfunctional families
Films about sexual repression
Films directed by Elia Kazan
Films scored by David Amram
Films set in Kansas
Films set in psychiatric hospitals
Films set in 1928
Films set in 1929
Films set in 1930
Films set in the 1920s
Films set in the 1930s
Films shot in New York (state)
Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award
Juvenile sexuality in films
Photoplay Awards film of the year winners
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206723
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounkhong
|
Bounkhong
|
Prince Bounkhong was the last uparaja of Luang Phrabang. He was granted the title of Chao Ratsaphakhinay by King Chulalongkorn of Siam in 1884. From 1911 to 1920, he was a member of the Government Council of French Indochina.
Chao Maha Oupahat Bounkhong was the father of Phetsarath, Souvanna Phouma, Souphanouvong and Souvannarath. He died at Luang Phrabang on 26 July 1920, having had 11 sons and 13 daughters by 11 wives.
References
Bibliography
Laotian princes
Laotian royalty
1920 deaths
1857 births
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Bancroft
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Anne Bancroft
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Anne Bancroft (born Anna Maria Louisa Italiano; September 17, 1931 – June 6, 2005) was an American actress. Respected for her acting prowess and versatility, Bancroft received an Academy Award, three BAFTA Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, two Tony Awards, and two Primetime Emmy Awards. She is one of only 24 thespians to achieve the Triple Crown of Acting.
Associated with the method acting technique, having studied under Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio, Bancroft made her film debut in the noir thriller Don't Bother to Knock (1952). Following a string of repetitive and glamorous supporting roles, her film career took a toll with executives reluctant to cast her in prestige roles. In 1958 Bancroft made her Broadway debut with the play Two for the Seesaw, winning the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play. The following year she portrayed Anne Sullivan in the original Broadway production of The Miracle Worker, winning the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. Following her continued success on stage, Bancroft's film career was revived when she was cast in the acclaimed film adaptation of The Miracle Worker (1962) for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress. Her film career further progressed with Oscar nominated performances in The Pumpkin Eater (1964), The Graduate (1967), The Turning Point (1977), and Agnes of God (1985).
Bancroft continued to act in the later half of her life, with prominent roles in The Elephant Man (1980), To Be or Not to Be (1983), Garbo Talks (1984), 84 Charing Cross Road (1987), Torch Song Trilogy (1988), Home for the Holidays (1995), G.I. Jane (1997), Great Expectations (1998) and Up at the Villa (2000). She received multiple Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including for the television films Broadway Bound (1992), Deep in My Heart (1999), for which she won, and The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (2003). Bancroft died on June 6, 2005, at the age of 73, as a result of uterine cancer. She was married to director, actor and writer Mel Brooks, with whom she had a son named Max.
Early life
Bancroft was born Anna Maria Louisa (or Luisa) Italiano on September 17, 1931, in the Bronx, New York, the middle of three daughters of Mildred (née DiNapoli), a telephone operator, and Michael G. Italiano, a dress pattern maker. Her parents were Italian immigrants. In an interview, she stated that her family was originally from Muro Lucano, in the province of Potenza. She was of Roman Catholic faith.
Bancroft was raised in Little Italy, Bronx, in the Belmont neighborhood of the Bronx, attended P.S. 12, later moving to 1580 Zerega Ave. and graduating from Christopher Columbus High School in 1948. She later attended HB Studio, the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, the Actors Studio and the American Film Institute's Directing Workshop for Women at the University of California, Los Angeles. After appearing in a number of live television dramas, including Studio One and The Goldbergs under the name Anne Marno, later, at Darryl Zanuck's insistence, she chose the less Mediterranean surname of Bancroft "because it sounded dignified".
Career
Bancroft made her screen debut with a major role in the 1952 Marilyn Monroe vehicle Don't Bother to Knock. She appeared in 14 films over the next five years, including Treasure of the Golden Condor (1953), Gorilla at Large (1954), Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954), New York Confidential (1955) and Walk the Proud Land (1956). In 1957, Bancroft was directed by Jacques Tourneur in a David Goodis adaptation, Nightfall. In 1958, she made her Broadway debut as lovelorn, Bronx-accented Gittel Mosca opposite Henry Fonda (as the married man Gittel loves) in William Gibson's two-character play Two for the Seesaw, directed by Arthur Penn. For this role, she won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Play.
Bancroft won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play in 1960, again with playwright Gibson and director Penn, when she played Annie Sullivan, the young woman who teaches the child Helen Keller to communicate in The Miracle Worker. She appeared in the 1962 film version of the play and won the 1962 Academy Award for Best Actress, with Patty Duke repeating her own success as Keller alongside Bancroft. Because Bancroft had returned to Broadway to star in Mother Courage and Her Children, Joan Crawford accepted the Oscar on her behalf, and later presented the award to her in New York.
Bancroft co-starred as a medieval nun obsessed with a priest (Jason Robards) in the 1965 Broadway production of John Whiting's play The Devils. Produced by Alexander H. Cohen and directed by Michael Cacoyannis, it ran for 63 performances.
Bancroft received a second Academy Award nomination for her performance in The Pumpkin Eater (1964).
Bancroft was widely known during this period for her role as Mrs. Robinson in The Graduate (1967), for which she received a third Academy Award nomination. In the film, she played an unhappily married woman who seduces the son of her husband's business partner, the much younger recent college graduate played by Dustin Hoffman. In the movie, Hoffman's character later dates and falls in love with her daughter. Bancroft was ambivalent about her appearance in The Graduate; she said in several interviews that the role overshadowed her other work. Despite her character becoming an archetype of the "older woman" role, Bancroft was only eight years older than onscreen daughter Katharine Ross, and just six years older than Hoffman.
A CBS television special, Annie: the Women in the Life of a Man (1970), won Bancroft an Emmy Award for her singing and acting.
Bancroft is one of ten actors to have won both an Academy Award and a Tony Award for the same role (as Annie Sullivan in The Miracle Worker), and one of very few entertainers to win an Oscar, an Emmy and a Tony award. This rare achievement is also known as the Triple Crown of Acting.
She followed that success with a second television special, Annie and the Hoods (1974), which was telecast on ABC and featured her husband Mel Brooks as a guest star. She made an uncredited cameo in the film Blazing Saddles (1974), directed by Brooks. She received a fourth Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for her performance in The Turning Point (1977), and a fifth nomination for Best Actress for her performance in Agnes of God (1985).
Bancroft made her debut as a screenwriter and director in Fatso (1980), in which she starred with Dom DeLuise.
Bancroft was the original choice to play Joan Crawford in the film Mommie Dearest (1981), but backed out and was replaced by Faye Dunaway. She was also a front-runner for the role of Aurora Greenway in Terms of Endearment (1983), but declined so that she could act in the remake of To Be or Not to Be (1983) with Brooks. In 1988, she played Harvey Fierstein's mother in the film version of his play Torch Song Trilogy.
During the 1990s and early 2000s, Bancroft took supporting roles in a number of films in which she co-starred with major film stars—including Honeymoon in Vegas (1992), Love Potion No. 9 (1992), Point of No Return (1993), Home for the Holidays (1995), How to Make an American Quilt (1995), G.I. Jane (1997), Great Expectations (1998), Keeping the Faith (2000), Up at the Villa (2000) and Heartbreakers (2001). She also lent her voice to the animated film Antz (1998).
Bancroft also starred in several television movies and miniseries, receiving six Emmy Award nominations (winning once for herself and shared for Annie, The Women in the Life of a Man), eight Golden Globe nominations (winning twice) and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.
Bancroft's last appearance was as herself in a 2004 episode of HBO's Curb Your Enthusiasm. She was cast in Spanglish (2004) later that year, but had to bow out due to a medical emergency. Her last project was the animated feature film Delgo, released posthumously in 2008. The film was dedicated to her.
Bancroft received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6368 Hollywood Boulevard for her work in television. At the time of her star's installation in 1960, she had recently appeared in several TV series. Bancroft was also a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame, having been inducted in 1992.
Personal life
Bancroft's first husband was lawyer Martin May; they married on July 1, 1953, separated in November 1955 and divorced on February 13, 1957. She had previously been engaged to actor John Ericson in 1951.
In 1961, Bancroft met Mel Brooks at a rehearsal for Perry Como's variety show Kraft Music Hall. Bancroft and Brooks married on August 5, 1964, at the Manhattan Marriage Bureau near New York City Hall, and remained married until her death. Their son, Max Brooks, was born in 1972.
Bancroft worked with her husband three times on the screen: dancing a tango in Brooks's Silent Movie (1976), in his remake of To Be or Not to Be (1983) and in the episode entitled "Opening Night" (2004) of the HBO show Curb Your Enthusiasm. The couple also appeared in Dracula: Dead and Loving It (1995), but never appeared together. Brooks produced the film The Elephant Man (1980), in which Bancroft acted. He was executive producer for the film 84 Charing Cross Road (1987) in which she starred. Both Brooks and Bancroft appeared in Season 6 of The Simpsons. According to the DVD commentary, when Bancroft came to record her lines for the episode "Fear of Flying", the Simpsons writers asked if Brooks had come with her (which he had); she joked, "I can't get rid of him!"
In a 2010 interview, Brooks credited Bancroft as being the guiding force behind his involvement in developing The Producers and Young Frankenstein for the musical theater. In the same interview, he said of their first meeting in 1961, "From that day, until her death on June 6, 2005, we were glued together."
Bancroft's son, Max Brooks, said in a 2020 interview that she was "a secret, closet scientist". He said that, as a child, she read to him Paul de Kruif's "Microbe Hunters" (1926) as a bedtime story.
In 2005, shortly before her death, Bancroft became a grandmother when her daughter-in-law Michelle gave birth to a boy, Henry Michael Brooks.
Death
Bancroft died of uterine cancer at age 73 on June 6, 2005, at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan. Her death surprised many, including some of her friends, as the intensely private Bancroft had not disclosed any details of her illness. Her body was interred at Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York, near her parents, Mildred (who died in April 2010, five years after Anne) and Michael Italiano. Her final film, Delgo, was dedicated to her memory.
Filmography
Film
Sources:
Television
Theater
Source:
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Anne Bancroft at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection
Image of Sidney Poitier holding his Oscar alongside Gregory Peck, Annabella and Anne Bancroft backstage at the Academy Awards, Los Angeles, 1964. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
1931 births
2005 deaths
20th Century Fox contract players
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
American film actresses
American people of Italian descent
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Foreign Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Burials at Kensico Cemetery
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners
Catholics from New York (state)
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Deaths from uterine cancer
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from the Bronx
Tony Award winners
UCLA Film School alumni
Western (genre) film actresses
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206725
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl-Birger%20Blomdahl
|
Karl-Birger Blomdahl
|
Karl-Birger Blomdahl (19 October 1916 – 14 June 1968) was a Swedish composer and conductor born in Växjö. He was educated in biochemistry, but was primarily active in music and by his experimental compositions he became one of the big names in Swedish modernism. His teachers included Hilding Rosenberg. He died in Kungsängen, Stockholm.
His third symphony, Facettes – a work in one subdivided movement as a twelve-tone variation-form piece – from 1950 is a major contribution to the repertoire. In 1959 he composed the opera Aniara based on the poem by Harry Martinson. His output of compositions also includes concertos for violin and viola, a chamber concerto for piano, winds and percussion, at least one other opera (Herr von Hancken), and much chamber music, including a trio for clarinet, cello and piano.
Works
Stage
(1958) Aniara, (libretto by Erik Lindegren based on a poem by Harry Martinson) Recorded and released by Columbia Masterworks as a double-album in the mid-60s. An edited version of Aniara was also side 2 of Columbia Masterworks 1968 Eugene Ormandy – Leonard Bernstein cover-version-album of music from 2001: A Space Odyssey.) It was conducted by Werner Janssen, a noted conductor of the 20th Century. Columbia dropped Janssen's credit from its later releases of the album, leading to a wide but mistaken impression that the performance was conducted by Bernstein.
(1962) Herr von Hancken (libretto by Erik Lindegren based on a book novel by Hjalmar Bergman)
(1949) Agamemnon
Ballet
(1954) Sisyfos
(1957) Minotaurus
(1962) Spel för åtta
Orchestra
(1939) Symphonic Dances
(1943) Symphony No. 1
(1947) Symphony No. 2
(1948) Pastoralsvit
(1950) Symphony No. 3, Facetter
(1961) Forma Ferritonans
Concerto
(1941) Concerto for Viola and Orchestra
(1946) Concerto for Violin and String Orchestra(1953) Chamber Concerto for Piano, Winds and Percussion
Choir
(1951–52) I speglarnas sal (after a poem by Erik Lindegren)
Film music
(1953) Gycklarnas afton(1965) Så börjar livetChamber music
(1938) Trio for Brass
(1939) String Quartet No. 1
(1945) Little Suite, for bassoon & piano
(1948) Dance Suite No. 1, for flute, percussion & string trio
(1951) Dance Suite No. 2, for clarinet, cello & percussion
(1955) Trio for clarinet, cello and piano
Songs
(1966) ... The Journey in This Night for soprano & string orchestra (on a poem by Erik Lindegren)
Electronic
(1966) Altisonans''
References
1916 births
1968 deaths
Swedish opera composers
Male opera composers
Ballet composers
People from Växjö
KTH Royal Institute of Technology alumni
Swedish classical composers
Swedish male classical composers
20th-century classical composers
Twelve-tone and serial composers
20th-century Swedish male musicians
20th-century Swedish musicians
|
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] |
206726
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Miracle%20Worker
|
The Miracle Worker
|
The Miracle Worker refers to a broadcast, a play and various other adaptations of Helen Keller's 1903 autobiography The Story of My Life. The first of these works was a 1957 Playhouse 90 broadcast written by William Gibson and starring Teresa Wright as Sullivan and Patricia McCormack as Keller. Gibson adapted his teleplay for a 1959 Broadway production with Patty Duke as Keller and Anne Bancroft as Sullivan. The 1962 film also starred Bancroft and Duke. Subsequent television films were released in 1979 and in 2000.
Source of the name
The title originates in Mark Twain's description of Sullivan as a "miracle worker". He admired both women, and although his personal finances were problematic, he helped arrange the funding of Keller's Radcliffe College education by his friend, financier and industrialist Henry Huttleston Rogers.
American
Play
Film
The Miracle Worker (1962 film) with Anne Bancroft as Annie Sullivan and Patty Duke as Helen Keller
The Miracle Worker (1979 film) with Patty Duke as Annie Sullivan and Melissa Gilbert as Helen Keller
The Miracle Worker (2000 film) with Alison Elliott as Annie Sullivan and Hallie Kate Eisenberg as Helen Keller
External links
1959 plays
1962 films
1979 television films
1979 films
2000 television films
2000 films
Helen Keller
American television films
American films
Films set in Alabama
American biographical films
|
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] |
206731
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Day%27s%20Journey%20into%20Night
|
Long Day's Journey into Night
|
Long Day's Journey into Night is a play in four acts written by American playwright Eugene O'Neill in 1939–41, first published posthumously in 1956. The play is widely considered to be his magnum opus and one of the finest American plays of the 20th century. It premiered in Sweden in February 1956 and then opened on Broadway in November 1956, winning the Tony Award for Best Play.
O'Neill posthumously received the 1957 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for Long Day's Journey into Night. The work concerns the Tyrone family, consisting of parents James and Mary and their sons Edmund and Jamie. The "Long Day" refers to the setting of the play, which takes place during one day. The play is autobiographical.
O’Neill wrote A Moon for the Misbegotten (1952) as a sequel, charting the subsequent life of Jamie Tyrone.
Summary
The play takes place on a single day in August 1912, from around 8:30 a.m. to midnight. The setting is the seaside Connecticut home of the Tyrones, Monte Cristo Cottage. The four main characters are the semi-autobiographical representations of O'Neill himself, his older brother, and their parents.
The play portrays a family struggling to grapple with the realities and consequences of the failings of other family members in relation to their own. The parents and two sons express accusations of blame, resentment, bitterness and jealousy as proxy for what ends up being self-defeating attempts at affection, encouragement, tenderness, and compassion, in spite of disillusionment with their lives. The family's enduring emotional and psychic stress is fueled by their depth of self-understanding and self-analysis, combined with a frank honesty, and an ability to boldly express themselves articulately. The story deals with the mother's psychosis due to an addiction to morphine, the father's miserliness and sense of deep regret, the older brother's licentiousness, and younger brother's bleak optimism through illness.
Synopsis
Act I
Living-room of the Tyrones' summer home, 8:30 am on a day in August, 1912
James Tyrone is a 65-year-old actor who had long ago bought a "vehicle" play for himself and had established his reputation based on this one role in which he had toured for years. Although that "vehicle" had served him well financially, he is now resentful that his having become so identified with this character has limited his scope and opportunities as a classical actor. He is a wealthy though somewhat miserly man. His money is all tied up in property which he hangs onto in spite of impending financial hardship. His dress and appearance are showing signs of his strained financial circumstances, but he retains many of the mixed affectations of a classical actor in spite of his shabby attire.
His wife Mary has recently returned from treatment for morphine addiction and has put on some much-needed weight as a result. She is looking much healthier than the family has been accustomed to, and they remark frequently on her improved appearance. However, she still retains the haggard facial features of a long-time addict. As a recovering addict, she is restless and anxious. She also suffers from insomnia, which is not made any easier by her husband and children's loud snoring. When Edmund, her younger son, hears her moving around at night and entering the spare bedroom, he becomes alarmed, because this is the room where, in the past, she would satisfy her addiction. He questions her about it indirectly. She reassures him that she just went there to get away from her husband's snoring.
In addition to Mary's problems, the family is worried about Edmund's coughing; they fear that he might have tuberculosis, and are anxiously awaiting a doctor's diagnosis. Edmund is more concerned about the effect a positive diagnosis might have on his mother than on himself. The constant possibility that she might relapse worries him still further. Once again, he indirectly speaks to his mother about her addiction. He asks her to "promise not to worry yourself sick and to take care of yourself." "Of course I promise you," she protests, but then adds ('with a sad bitterness'), "But I suppose you're remembering I've promised before on my word of honor."
Act II
The same, around 12:45 pm; and about a half-hour later
Jamie and Edmund taunt each other about stealing their father's alcohol and watering it down so he won't notice. They speak about Mary's conduct. Jamie berates Edmund for leaving their mother unsupervised. Edmund berates Jamie for being suspicious. Both, however, are deeply worried that their mother's addiction may have resurfaced. Jamie points out to Edmund that they had concealed their mother's addiction from him for ten years, explaining that his naiveté about the nature of the disease was understandable but deluded. They discuss the upcoming results of Edmund's tests for tuberculosis, and Jamie tells him to prepare for the worst.
Mary appears. She is distraught about Edmund's coughing, which he tries to suppress so as not to alarm her, fearing anything that might trigger her addiction again. When Edmund accepts his mother's excuse that she had been upstairs so long because she had been "lying down", Jamie looks at them both contemptuously. Mary notices and starts becoming defensive and belligerent, berating Jamie for his cynicism and disrespect for his parents. Jamie is quick to point out that the only reason he has survived as an actor is through his father's influence in the business.
Mary speaks of her frustration with their summer home, its impermanence and shabbiness, and her husband's indifference to his surroundings. With irony, she alludes to her belief that this air of detachment might be the very reason he has tolerated her addiction for so long. This frightens Edmund, who is trying desperately to hang on to his belief in normality while faced with two emotionally horrific problems at once. Finally, unable to tolerate the way Jamie is looking at her, she asks him angrily why he is doing it. "You know!", he shoots back, and tells her to take a look at her glazed eyes in the mirror.
Act III
The same, around 6:30 that evening
Mary and Cathleen return home from their drive to the drugstore, where Mary has sent Cathleen in to purchase her morphine prescription. Not wanting to be alone, Mary does not allow Cathleen to go to the kitchen to finish dinner and offers her a drink instead. Mary does most of the talking and discusses her love for fog but her hatred of the foghorn, and her husband's obvious obsession with money. Mary has already taken some of her "prescription". She talks about her past in a Catholic convent and the promise she once had as a pianist and the fact that it was once thought that she might become a nun. She also makes it clear that, while she fell in love with her husband from the time she met him, she had never taken to the theatre crowd. She shows her arthritic hands to Cathleen and explains that the pain is why she needs her prescription – an explanation which is untrue and transparent to Cathleen.
When Mary dozes off under the influence of the morphine, Cathleen exits to prepare dinner. Mary awakes and begins to have bitter memories about how much she loved her life before she met her husband. She also decides that her prayers as an addict are not being heard by the Virgin and decides to go upstairs to get more drugs, but before she can Edmund and James Sr. return home.
Although both men are drunk, they both realize that Mary is back on morphine, although she attempts to act as if she is not. Jamie has not returned home, but has elected instead to continue drinking and to visit the local whorehouse. After calling Jamie a "hopeless failure" Mary warns that his bad influence will drag his brother down as well. After seeing the condition that his wife is in, James expresses the regret that he bothered to come home, and he attempts to ignore her as she continues her remarks, which include blaming him for Jamie's drinking. Then, as often happens in the play, Mary and James try to get over their animosity and attempt to express their love for one another by remembering happier days. When James goes to the basement to get another bottle of whiskey, Mary continues to talk with Edmund.
When Edmund reveals that he has consumption, Mary refuses to believe it, and attempts to discredit Dr. Hardy, due to her inability to face the reality and severity of the situation. She accuses Edmund of attempting to get more attention by blowing everything out of proportion. In retaliation, Edmund reminds his mother that her own father died of consumption, and then, before exiting, he adds how difficult it is to have a "dope fiend for a mother." Alone, Mary admits that she needs more morphine and hopes that someday she will "accidentally" overdose, because she knows that if she did so on purpose, the Virgin would never forgive her. When James comes back with more alcohol he notes that there was evidence that Jamie had attempted to pick the locks to the whiskey cabinet in the cellar, as he has done before. Mary ignores this and bursts out that she is afraid that Edmund is going to die. She also confides to James that Edmund does not love her because of her drug problem. When James attempts to console her, Mary again rues having given birth to Edmund, who appears to have been conceived to replace a baby they had lost before Edmund's birth. When Cathleen announces dinner, Mary indicates that she is not hungry and is going to bed. James goes in to dinner all alone, knowing that Mary is really going upstairs to get more drugs.
Act IV
The same, around midnight
Edmund returns home to find his father playing solitaire. While the two argue and drink, they also have an intimate, tender conversation. James explains his stinginess, and also reveals that he ruined his career by staying in an acting job for money. After so many years playing the same part, he lost his talent for versatility. Edmund talks to his father about sailing and of his failure to become a poet. They hear Jamie coming home drunk, and James leaves to avoid fighting. Jamie and Edmund converse, and Jamie confesses that although he loves Edmund more than anyone else, he wants him to fail. Jamie passes out. When James returns, Jamie wakes up, and they quarrel anew. Mary, lost in her drug-laden dreams of the past, comes downstairs. Holding her wedding gown, she talks about her convent days and how she lost her vocation by falling in love with James, while her husband and sons silently watch her.
Characters
James Tyrone Sr. – 65 years old. He looks ten years younger and is about five feet eight inches tall but appears taller due to his military-like posture and bearing. He is broad-shouldered and deep-chested and remarkably good-looking for his age with light brown eyes. His speech and movement are those of a classical actor with a studied technique, but he is unpretentious and not temperamental at all with "inclinations still close to his humble beginnings and Irish farmer forebears". His attire is somewhat threadbare and shabby. He wears his clothing to the limit of usefulness. He has been a healthy man his entire life and is free of hang ups and anxieties except for fear of "dying in the poorhouse" and obsession with having money. He has "streaks of sentimental melancholy and rare flashes of intuitive sensibility". He smokes cigars and dislikes being referred to as the "Old Man" by his sons.
Mary Cavan Tyrone – 54 years old, the wife and mother of the family who lapses between self-delusion and the haze of her morphine addiction. She is medium height with a young graceful figure, a trifle plump with distinctly Irish facial features. She was once extremely pretty and is still striking. She wears no make-up and her hair is thick, white and perfectly coiffed. She has large, dark, almost black, eyes. She has a soft and attractive voice with a "touch of Irish lilt when she is merry". Mary has been addicted to morphine since the difficult birth of her youngest son Edmund. The doctor who treated her simply gave her painkillers, which led to a longtime morphine addiction that continues to plague her.
James "Jamie" Jr. – 33 years old, the older son. He has thinning hair, an aquiline nose and shows signs of premature disintegration. He has a habitual expression of cynicism. He resembles his father. "On the rare occasions when he smiles without sneering, his personality possesses the remnant of a humorous, romantic, irresponsible Irish charm – the beguiling ne'er-do-well, with a strain of the sentimentally poetic". He is attractive to women and popular with men. He is an actor like his father but has difficulty finding work due to a reputation for being an irresponsible, womanizing alcoholic. He and his father argue a great deal about this. Jamie often refers to his father as "Old Gaspard", a character from the opera Les cloches de Corneville, who is also a miser.
Edmund – 23 years old, the younger and more intellectually and poetically inclined son. He is thin and wiry. He looks like both his parents but more like his mother. He has her big dark eyes and hypersensitive mouth in a long narrow Irish face with dark brown hair and red highlights from the sun. Like his mother, he is extremely nervous. He is in bad health and his cheeks are sunken. Later he is diagnosed with tuberculosis. He is politically inclined to have socialist leanings. He traveled the world by working in the merchant navy and caught tuberculosis while abroad.
Cathleen – "The second girl", she is the summer maid. She is a "buxom Irish peasant", in her early twenties with red cheeks, black hair and blue eyes. She is "amiable, ignorant, clumsy with a well-meaning stupidity".
Several characters are referenced in the play but do not appear on stage:
Eugene Tyrone – A son born before Edmund who died of measles at the age of two. He was infected by Jamie who was seven at the time and had been told not to enter his room but disobeyed. Mary believes that Jamie had the intent of hurting Eugene.
Bridget – A cook.
McGuire – A real estate agent who has swindled James Tyrone in the past.
Shaughnessy – A tenant on a farm owned by the Tyrones.
Harker – A friend of James Tyrone, "the Standard Oil millionaire", owns a neighboring farm to Shaughnessy with whom he gets into conflicts, often postulated to be based on Edward Harkness, Standard Oil heir, who had a summer home nearby in Waterford, Connecticut.
Doctor Hardy – The Tyrones' physician at the insistence of James, though the other family members don't think much of him and suspect he is only their doctor because he is cheap.
Captain Turner – The Tyrones' neighbor.
Smythe – A garage assistant whom James hired as a chauffeur for Mary. Mary suspects he is intentionally damaging the car to provide work for the garage.
The mistress – A woman with whom James had had an affair before his marriage, who had later sued him causing Mary to be shunned by her friends as someone with undesirable social connections.
Mary's father – Died of tuberculosis.
James's parents and siblings – The family immigrated to the United States when James was 8 years old. His father abandoned the family two years later and returned to Ireland, where he died after ingesting rat poison. It was suspected suicide but James refuses to believe that. He had two older brothers and three sisters.
History of the play
O'Neill finished revising the manuscript into its final version in March 1941. He did not want it ever produced as a play, and did not even want it published during his lifetime, writing to his friend, the critic George Jean Nathan: "There are good reasons in the play itself... why I'm keeping this one very much to myself, as you will appreciate when you read it."
O'Neill did not copyright the play. In 1945 he had a sealed copy of the manuscript placed in the document vault of publisher Random House, instructing that it not be published until 25 years after his death. He sent a second sealed copy to the O'Neill collection at Yale University.
Soon after O'Neill's death, his widow Carlotta Monterey demanded that Random House contravene O'Neill's explicit wishes and publish the play at once. "We refused, of course," wrote publisher Bennett Cerf in his memoirs, "but then were horrified to learn that legally all the cards were in her hand. … I do not regret that we took the stand we did, because I still think we were right." Monterey had the play published by the Yale University Press in 1956, with the bulk of the proceeds deeded to Yale's Eugene O'Neill Collection and for scholarships at its drama school.
Autobiographical content
In key aspects, the play closely parallels Eugene O'Neill's own life. The location, a summer home in Connecticut, corresponds to the family home, Monte Cristo Cottage, in New London, Connecticut (the small town of the play). The actual cottage, today owned and operated by the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center, is made up as it may appear in the play. The family in the script corresponds to the O'Neill family, which was Irish-American, with three name changes. The family name "O'Neill" is changed to "Tyrone", which is the name of the earldom granted to Conn O'Neill by Henry VIII. The names of the second and third sons are reversed, "Eugene" with "Edmund". In fact, Eugene, the playwright, was the third and the youngest child, and he corresponds to the character of "Edmund" in the play. O'Neill's mother, Mary Ellen "Ella" Quinlan, corresponds to the character Mary Cavan. The ages are all the actual ages of the O'Neill family in August 1912.
Eugene O'Neill's father, James O'Neill, was a promising young actor in his youth, as was the father in the play. He also shared the stage with Edwin Booth, who is mentioned in the play. James O'Neill achieved commercial success in the title role of Dumas' The Count of Monte Cristo, playing the title role about 6,000 times, but he was criticized for "selling out" for commercial success at the expense of artistic merit.
Eugene's mother Mary did attend a Catholic school in the Midwest, Saint Mary's College, of Notre Dame, Indiana. Subsequent to the date when the play is set (1912), but prior to the play's writing (1941–42), Eugene's older brother Jamie did drink himself to death (c. 1923).
Regarding O'Neill himself, by 1912 he had attended a renowned university (Princeton), spent several years at sea, and suffered from depression and alcoholism. He did contribute poetry to the local newspaper, the New London Telegraph, as well as reporting, and he was admitted to a sanatorium in 1912–13, suffering from tuberculosis (consumption), whereupon he devoted himself to playwriting. Thus, the events in the play are set immediately prior to O'Neill beginning his career in earnest.
Productions
Premiere productions
Long Day's Journey into Night was first performed by the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm, Sweden. During O'Neill's lifetime, the Swedish people had embraced his work to a far greater extent than had any other nation, including his own. Thus, the play had its world premiere in Stockholm on February 2, 1956, in Swedish (as Lång dags färd mot natt), in a production directed by Bengt Ekerot, with the cast of Lars Hanson (James Tyrone), Inga Tidblad (Mary Tyrone), Ulf Palme (James Tyrone Jr.), Jarl Kulle (Edmund Tyrone) and Catrin Westerlund (Cathleen, the serving-maid or "second girl" as O'Neill's script dubs her). The premiere and production were very successful, and the directing and acting critically acclaimed.
The Broadway debut of Long Day's Journey into Night took place at the Helen Hayes Theatre on 7 November 1956, shortly after its American premiere at Boston's Wilbur Theatre. The production was directed by José Quintero, and its cast included Fredric March (James Tyrone), Florence Eldridge who was March's wife in real life (Mary Tyrone), Jason Robards Jr. ("Jamie" Tyrone), Bradford Dillman (Edmund), and Katherine Ross (Cathleen). The production won the Tony Award for Best Play and Best Actor in a Play (Fredric March), and the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best Play of the season.
The play's first production in the United Kingdom came in 1958, opening first in Edinburgh, Scotland, and then moving to the Globe Theatre in London's West End. It was directed again by Quintero, and the cast included Anthony Quayle (James), Gwen Ffrangcon-Davies (Mary), Ian Bannen (Jamie), Alan Bates (Edmund), and Etain O'Dell (Cathleen).
Other notable productions
1970: Memorial Art Center (Atlanta); with Robert Foxworth (James), Gerald Richards (Jamie), Jo Van Fleet (Mary), directed by Michael Howard.
1971: Promenade Theatre (Off-Broadway), New York; with Robert Ryan (James), Geraldine Fitzgerald (Mary), Stacy Keach (Jamie), James Naughton (Edmund), and Paddy Croft (Cathleen), directed by Arvin Brown; 1971 Theatre World Award for Naughton and Drama Desk Vernon Rice Award for production. Recorded by Caedmon Records.
1971: National Theatre, London; with Laurence Olivier (James), Constance Cummings (Mary), Denis Quilley (Jamie), Ronald Pickup (Edmund), and Jo Maxwell-Muller (Cathleen), directed by Michael Blakemore. This production would be adapted into a videotaped television version, which aired 10 March 1973; the cast was as above, excepting the substitution of Maureen Lipman (Cathleen). The TV version was directed by Michael Blakemore and Peter Wood. Olivier won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role.
1973: The South Australian Theatre Company's Melbourne production is considered one of the landmark productions in Australian theatre, largely due to Patricia Kennedy's Mary, which was described as "the best female performance on the Melbourne stage in 1973".
1976: Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York; with Jason Robards Jr. (James), Zoe Caldwell (Mary), Kevin Conway (Jamie), Michael Moriarty (Edmund), and Lindsay Crouse (Cathleen), directed by Jason Robards Jr.
1986: Broadhurst Theatre (Broadway), New York; with Jack Lemmon (James), Bethel Leslie (Mary), Kevin Spacey (Jamie), Peter Gallagher (Edmund), and Jodie Lynne McClintock (Cathleen), directed by Jonathan Miller. A television version of this production was aired in 1987.
1988: Neil Simon Theatre (Broadway), New York; with Jason Robards Jr. (James), Colleen Dewhurst (Mary), Jamey Sheridan (Jamie), Campbell Scott (Edmund), and Jane Macfie (Cathleen), directed by José Quintero. This production ran in repertory with O'Neill's play, Ah, Wilderness!, (in which the author's youth and family are depicted as he wished they had been), featuring the same actors. Dewhurst was also the real-life mother of Campbell Scott (by her marriage to actor George C. Scott).
1988: Royal Dramatic Theatre, Stockholm; with Jarl Kulle (James), Bibi Andersson (Mary), Thommy Berggren (Jamie), Peter Stormare (Edmund), and (Cathleen), directed by Ingmar Bergman.
1991: National Theatre, London and Bristol Old Vic co-production; with Timothy West (James), Prunella Scales (Mary), Seán McGinley (Jamie), Stephen Dillane (Edmund), and Geraldine Fitzgerald (Cathleen), directed by Howard Davies.
1994: Stratford Festival, Stratford, Ontario; with William Hutt (James), Martha Henry (Mary), Peter Donaldson (Jamie), Tom McCamus (Edmund), and Martha Burns (Cathleen), directed by Diana Leblanc. This production was made into a film in 1996, directed by David Wellington.
2000: Lyric Theatre, London; with Jessica Lange (Mary), Charles Dance (James), Paul Rudd (Jamie), Paul Nicholls (Edmund), and Olivia Colman (Cathleen).
2003: Plymouth Theatre (Broadway), New York; with Brian Dennehy (James), Vanessa Redgrave (Mary), Philip Seymour Hoffman (Jamie), Robert Sean Leonard (Edmund), and Fiana Toibin (Cathleen), directed by Robert Falls.
2005: Centaur Theatre, Montreal; with Albert Millaire (James), Rosemary Dunsmore (Mary), Alain Goulem (James Jr), Brendan Murray (Edmund), Laura Teasdale (Cathleen), directed by David Latham
2007: Druid Theatre, Galway; with James Cromwell (James), Marie Mullen (Mary), Aidan Kelly (Jamie), Michael Esper (Edmund), and Maude Fahy (Cathleen), directed by Garry Hynes.
2010: Co-production with Sydney Theatre and Artists Repertory Theatre, Sydney Theatre Company; with William Hurt (James), Luke Mullins (Edmund), Robyn Nevin (Mary), Emily Russell (Cathleen) and Todd Van Voris (Jamie), directed by Andrew Upton.
2010: Riksteatret (Norway); with Bjørn Sundquist (James), Liv Ullmann (Mary), Anders Baasmo Christiansen (Jamie), Pål Sverre Valheim Hagen (Edmund) and Viktoria Winge (Cathleen), directed by Stein Winge.
2011–2012 Apollo Theatre, London (UK); with David Suchet (James Tyrone) and Laurie Metcalf (Mary Tyrone), Trevor White (Jamie Tyrone), Kyle Soller (Edmund Tyrone) and Rosie Sansom as Cathleen, directed by Anthony Page. In Glasgow the production played at the Theatre Royal (26–31 March 2012).
2016: American Airlines Theatre (Roundabout Theatre Company), Broadway, New York; with Jessica Lange (Mary), Gabriel Byrne (James), Michael Shannon (James Jr.), John Gallagher Jr. (Edmund) and Colby Minifie (Cathleen) directed by Jonathan Kent.
2017: Geffen Playhouse, Los Angeles; with Jane Kaczmarek (Mary), Alfred Molina (James), Angela Goethals (Cathleen), directed by Jeanie Hackett.
2017, 2018: Monte Cristo Cottage (Flock Theatre), New London, CT; with Anne Flammang (Mary), Christie Max Williams (James), Eric Michaelian (James Jr.), Victor Chiburis (Edmund), Amy Bentley/Madeleine Dauer/C.S.E Cooney (Kathleen), directed by Derron Wood. This production was performed in the actual room where O'Neill set the play with an extremely limited and intimate audience. Certain performances took place over the course of entire days at the approximate times that the scenes take place to utilize natural lighting. The production received a special award from the CT Critics Circle.
2018: Stratford Festival, Stratford, Ontario (Canada); with Seana McKenna (Mary), Scott Wentworth (James), Gordon S. Miller (James Jr.), Charlie Gallant (Edmund), Amy Keating (Kathleen).
2018: Wyndham's Theatre, London (UK); with Lesley Manville (Mary), Jeremy Irons (James), Rory Keenan (James Jr.), Matthew Beard (Edmund), Jessica Regan (Kathleen), Richard Eyre’s production.
2022: Minetta Lane Theatre, Off-Broadway (NYC); with Bill Camp (James), Elizabeth Marvel (Mary), Ato Blankson-Wood (Edmund), Jason Bowen (Jamie). Off-Broadway production directed by Robert O'Hara (Slave Play)
Film adaptations
The play was made into a 1962 film starring Katharine Hepburn as Mary, Ralph Richardson as James, Jason Robards as Jamie, Dean Stockwell as Edmund, and Jeanne Barr as Cathleen. The movie was directed by Sidney Lumet. At that year's Cannes Film Festival Richardson, Robards and Stockwell all received Best Actor awards, and Hepburn was named Best Actress. Hepburn's performance later drew a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress.
In 1973, the ITV Sunday Night Theatre program on British television presented a videotaped television version of the 1971 production at the National Theatre directed by Peter Wood and starring Laurence Olivier, Constance Cummings, Denis Quilley, and Ronald Pickup. Olivier won a Best Actor Emmy Award for this performance.
A 1982 made-for-TV film directed by William Woodman was produced by ABC featuring an all-African American cast of Earle Hyman (James), Ruby Dee (Mary), Thommie Blackwell (Jamie), and Peter Francis James (Edmund).
A 1987 made-for-TV film directed by Jonathan Miller starred Kevin Spacey as Jamie, Peter Gallagher as Edmund, Jack Lemmon as James Tyrone, Bethel Leslie as Mary, and Jodie Lynne McClintock as Cathleen. Lemmon was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in Mini-Series or Made-for-TV Movie the following year.
A 1996 film adaptation was directed by Canadian director David Wellington and starred William Hutt as James, Martha Henry as Mary, Peter Donaldson as Jamie, Tom McCamus as Edmund and Martha Burns as Cathleen. The same cast had previously performed the play at Canada's Stratford Festival; Wellington essentially filmed the stage production without significant changes. The film swept the acting awards at the 17th Genie Awards, winning awards for Hutt, Henry, Donaldson and Burns. This version was later aired by PBS on its Great Performances series in 1999.
Awards and nominations
Original Broadway production
1986 Broadway revival
1988 Broadway revival
2003 Broadway revival
2015 Broadway revival
References
Further reading
External links
1956 plays
Broadway plays
Plays by Eugene O'Neill
Drama Desk Award-winning plays
Off-Broadway plays
Autobiographical plays
American plays adapted into films
Plays based on actual events
Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winning works
Tony Award-winning plays
West End plays
Fiction set in 1912
Plays set in Connecticut
Tragedy plays
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] |
206733
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet%20Bird%20of%20Youth
|
Sweet Bird of Youth
|
Sweet Bird of Youth is a 1959 play by Tennessee Williams which tells the story of a gigolo and drifter, Chance Wayne, who returns to his home town as the companion of a faded movie star, Alexandra del Lago (travelling incognito as Princess Kosmonopolis), whom he hopes to use to help him break into the movies. The main reason for his homecoming is to get back what he had in his youth: primarily, his old girlfriend, whose father had run him out of town years before. The play was written for Tallulah Bankhead, a good friend of Williams.
Sweet Bird of Youth originated around 1956 as two plays: a two-character version of the final play featuring only Chance and the Princess, and a one-act play titled The Pink Bedroom that was later developed into Act Two of the play, featuring Boss Finley and his family.
Plot
In St. Cloud, native son Chance Wayne has fled his home town, seeking to profit from his beauty and youth in New York or Hollywood (whichever of the two). When he fails as an actor and then a personality in both cities, he turns to the freelance career of gigolo. As the traveling escort of his current employer, Chance returns to St. Cloud in an attempt to win back his childhood lover, escorting an aging, depressed, semi-alcoholic film star: Alexandra del Lago, who is running away from the negative criticism she believes is the public and critical response to her attempt at a cinematic comeback in a recently released film.
Del Lago also had been running away and burying herself in sex, alcohol, and drugs until Chance recognized her while hustling in a Florida resort. He saw in her a last chance to build a relationship (taking care of her while on their drive back to Hollywood, with him as her escort). He is using his perceived gallantry to entice del Lago to give him the imprimatur of stardom which he failed to achieve on his own. As he and del Lago are driving along the Sunset Route back to California, Chance hopes that he will reunite with Heavenly Finley, his childhood sweetheart, and bring her back to Hollywood, where – with del Lago's aid – they will both achieve stardom.
Unfortunately once returned to St. Cloud, Chance discovers Heavenly is only a shadow of the girl he knew. During his last visit to St. Cloud, she got pregnant. When she discovered the problem, she had to have an abortion and because of an unskilled doctor's knife, she was hospitalized and the abortion resulted in a hysterectomy and her sterility. Her powerful and corrupt father and brother are determined to make Chance pay for the injury done to Heavenly. Chance worries that he will receive the same fate as a black man in town who recently was attacked and castrated.
Using Alexandra's car and funds, Chance tries to prove to the town that he is a success, but his old friends call his bluff and see him for what he has become. Meanwhile, Alexandra receives news that the criticism she's been running from is actually praise and that her comeback could not have been better. Chance believes he will ride with her to the top, but Alexandra has no wish for a gigolo to besmirch her good name. With his youth gone, Chance does not know how to move on with his life. Although she will not recommend him for a job in Hollywood, Alexandra urges him to continue as her escort, but he decides to stay and accept his inevitable punishment in St. Cloud.
Production history
Pre-Broadway
Williams began work on the play in the fall of 1959, calling it at first The Enemy of Time.
As Sweet Bird of Youth, the work-in-progress had a tryout production starring Tallulah Bankhead and Robert Drivas in Coral Gables, Florida, directed by George Keathley at his Studio M Playhouse in 1956 which began before Williams' agent Audrey Wood knew he had a new play. Elia Kazan saw it. Kazan and Cheryl Crawford were "party to the secret and petitioned Audrey to let them produce and direct the new play."
Broadway
The original production by Cheryl Crawford opened on March 10, 1959 at the Martin Beck Theatre in New York City. Directed by Elia Kazan, it starred Paul Newman, Geraldine Page, Sidney Blackmer, Madeleine Sherwood, Diana Hyland, Logan Ramsey, and Rip Torn. Bruce Dern also played a small role. The production was nominated for three Tony Awards, including Best Actress for Page. The play ran for more than a year and 375 performances.
A revival opened on December 29, 1975 at the Harkness Theatre, in a production directed by Edwin Sherin, starring Christopher Walken as Chance Wayne and Irene Worth as Princess Kosmonopolis. Worth won the 1976 Tony Award for Best Actress.
A production was planned to open in 2011 with David Cromer directing and Scott Rudin serving as producer. In 2012, the production showed at the Goodman Theatre to much acclaim, with Diane Lane in the lead role.
London
After 26 years, Sweet Bird of Youth appeared in London's West End. It opened on July 8, 1985 at the Haymarket Theatre in a production directed by Harold Pinter and presented by impresario Douglas Urbanski it starred Lauren Bacall and Michael Beck with James Grout and David Cunningham. This production later transferred to Los Angeles under the direction of Michael Blakemore.
The play returned to the London stage on 1 June 2013 with a production at The Old Vic directed by Marianne Elliott and starring Kim Cattrall as Del Lago and Seth Numrich as Chance.
Chichester
The play was revived in 2017 at Chichester Festival Theatre, running from June 2 to 24. Directed by Jonathan Kent, it starred Marcia Gay Harden as Alexandra del Lago/The Princess Kosmonopolis and Brian J. Smith as Chance Wayne. Co-stars included Emma Amos and Richard Cordery.
Film and television adaptations
1962 feature film
In 1962, the play was made into a feature film starring Paul Newman, Geraldine Page, Shirley Knight, Madeleine Sherwood, Ed Begley, Rip Torn and Mildred Dunnock. The movie was adapted and directed by Richard Brooks. The film version earned three Academy Award nominations, all for acting: Geraldine Page for Best Actress, Shirley Knight for Best Supporting Actress, and Ed Begley for Best Supporting Actor, which he won.
1989 television version
Sweet Bird of Youth was made for television in 1989, directed by Nicolas Roeg and starring Elizabeth Taylor, Mark Harmon, Valerie Perrine, Ronnie Claire Edwards, Cheryl Paris, Kevin Geer and Rip Torn. It was adapted by Gavin Lambert.
In popular culture
In the Robert Zemeckis film Death Becomes Her (1992), lead character Madeline Ashton (played by Meryl Streep) is depicted as the star of a failing Broadway musical adaptation of Sweet Bird of Youth titled Songbird!.
The song "Sweet Bird of Truth" by the rock group The The is a reference to the Tennessee Williams play.
A reference to the Tennessee Williams play (as well as Williams) was written by Bernie Taupin in his lyric for Elton John's song "Lies", from John's 1995 album Made in England.
References
External links
1959 plays
American plays adapted into films
Plays by Tennessee Williams
Plays set in Florida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Georgia%20%28U.S.%20state%29
|
Flag of Georgia (U.S. state)
|
The current flag of Georgia was adopted on May 8, 2003. The flag bears three stripes consisting of red-white-red, featuring a blue canton containing a ring of 13 white stars encompassing the state's coat of arms in gold. In the coat of arms, the arch symbolizes the state's constitution while the pillars represent the three branches of government. The words of the state motto, "Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation", are wrapped around the pillars, guarded by a male figure dressed in colonial attire from the American Revolutionary War. Within the arms, a sword is drawn to represent the defense of the state's constitution with an additional motto, In God We Trust, featured below these elements. The ring of stars that encompass the state's coat of arms represents Georgia as one of the original Thirteen Colonies.
The design principle is based on the First National Flag of the Confederacy, which was nicknamed the Stars and Bars. After Mississippi's vote to change their flag design in 2020, the Georgia flag remains one of the few state flags with references to the Confederacy. It is one of three U.S. state flags to feature the words "In God We Trust", with the other two being those of Florida and Mississippi.
Origins
The Georgia Code of 1861 required that militia regiments and battalions detailed for service outside of Georgia be provided with regimental colors "bearing the arms of the State." Regimental colors were to be inscribed with name of the unit. The color of the flag itself was not specified. A surviving state flag in the collection of the American Civil War Museum in Richmond, however, places the arms on a red field.
History
First flag (1879–1956)
The 1879 flag was introduced by Georgia state senator Herman H. Perry and was adopted to memorialize Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War. Perry was a former colonel in the Confederate army during the war, and he presumably based the design on the First National Flag of the Confederacy, commonly known as the Stars and Bars. Over the years the flag was changed by adding and altering a charge on the vertical blue band at the hoist. The original 1879 design featured a solid blue band with no additional emblems.
A 1902 amendment to the state militia laws added the state's coat of arms to the blue band, though a 2000 research report by the Georgia Senate states that researchers were not aware of any surviving flags depicting the coat of arms directly on the blue band, suggesting that no such flag was ever actually produced. Instead, no later than 1904, the coat of arms began to be depicted on a white shield, possibly with a gold outline. This version also added a red ribbon with the word "GEORGIA" below the shield. Examples of this modified version were discovered by the Senate researchers.
Some flag manufacturers included the year 1799 in the coat of arms, as in the state seal; the seal had been adopted in that year. In 1914, the General Assembly changed the year to 1776, the year the United States Declaration of Independence was signed.
At some point, the coat of arms began to be replaced with the state seal. The Senate report indicates this happened sometime in the 1910s or 1920s, and may have been connected to the 1914 change in the state seal's date and the need to conform newly produced flags to that change. The report notes that the first official state publication to use the seal instead of the coat of arms was the 1927 Georgia Official Register, which used a color version of the seal, adding that various versions of the seal were used on flags during this era, until a new drawing was prescribed in the 1950s.
Second flag (1956–2001)
In early 1955, chairman of the State Democratic Party and attorney for the Association County Commissioners of Georgia John Sammons Bell (who later served as a judge on the Georgia Court of Appeals) suggested a new state flag for Georgia that would incorporate the Confederate Battle Flag. At the 1956 session of the General Assembly, state senators Jefferson Lee Davis and Willis Harden introduced Senate Bill 98 to change the state flag. Signed into law on February 13, 1956, the bill became effective the following July 1.
A copy of the new flag displayed at the 1956 signing ceremony shows slight differences from the state flag commonly produced (and shown here). In the 1956 version, the stars are larger, and only the center point of the central star points straight up. Also, the first copies of the 1956 flag used a different version of the state seal. (The 1920 Georgia State Seal was the state seal seen on these early examples. This is the seal seen on all later 1920 Design Georgia State Flags.) In the summer of 1954, a new redrawn state seal began to appear on state government documents. By the end of the decade, flag makers were using the new seal on Georgia's official state flags.
The 1956 flag was adopted in an era when the Georgia General Assembly "was entirely devoted to passing legislation that would preserve segregation and white supremacy", according to a 2000 research report by the Georgia Senate. There are few, if any, written records of what was said on the Georgia House and Senate floors when the 1956 flag bill was being introduced and passed by the Georgia legislature, nor does Georgia law provide for a statement of legislative intent when a bill is introduced, although former U.S. congressman James Mackay, one of the 32 House members who opposed the change, later stated, "There was only one reason for putting the flag on there: like the gun rack in the back of a pickup truck, it telegraphs a message." Additionally, the 2000 report concluded that the "1956 General Assembly changed the state flag" during "an atmosphere of preserving segregation and resentment" to the U.S. government's rulings on integration. The changed flag was seen as a "gesture of defiance in the face of the federal government's initial enforcement of Brown vs. Board of Education (1954)."
The 2000 report states that the people who had supported the flag's change in the 1950s said, in recalling the event years later, that "the change was made in preparation for the Civil War centennial, which was five years away; or that the change was made to commemorate and pay tribute to the Confederate veterans of the Civil War." Bell, who designed the 1956 flag and supported its adoption during the 1950s as a defense of the state's "institutions", which at the time included segregation, claimed years later that he did so to honor Confederate soldiers. The 2000 report states that the claims that the flag was ostensibly changed in 1956 to honor Confederate soldiers came much later after the flag's adoption, in an attempt by the change's supporters to backtrack from prior support of segregation in an era where it was no longer fashionable, saying that the "argument that the flag was changed in 1956 in preparation for the approaching Civil War centennial appears to be a retrospective or after-the-fact argument" and that "no one in 1956, including the flag’s sponsors, claimed that the change was in anticipation of the coming anniversary".
At the time, opposition to changing the flag came from various sides, including from Confederate historical groups like the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC). Opponents to a change of the flag stated that incorporating the Confederate battle flag into the design would be too sectionalist, counterproductive, and divisive, saying that people should show patriotism towards the United States rather than the defunct Confederacy, referring to the U.S. Pledge of Allegiance, which states that the U.S. is "one nation ... indivisible". Opponents of the flag's change also said that there was nothing wrong with the 1920 flag and that people were content with it. Others opposed changing the flag out of the burden it would place on those who would have to purchase a new flag to replace the outdated one.
The 2000 Georgia senate report and other critics have interpreted the adoption of the 1956 flag as a symbol of racist protest, citing legislation passed in 1956 which included bills rejecting Brown v. Board of Education and pro-segregationist comments by then-Governor Marvin Griffin, such as "The rest of the nation is looking to Georgia for the lead in segregation." Although legislators openly supported segregation, no written record exists of what was said in Senate and House sessions concerning the reason for the flag change.
Political pressure for a change in the official state flag increased during the 1990s, in particular during the run-up to the 1996 Olympic Games that were held in Atlanta. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) focused on the Georgia flag as a major issue and some business leaders in Georgia felt that the perceptions of the flag were causing economic harm to the state. In 1992, Governor Zell Miller announced his intention to get the Confederate element removed, but the state legislature refused to pass any flag-modifying legislation. The matter was dropped after the 1993 legislative session. Many Atlanta residents and some Georgia politicians refused to fly the 1956 flag and flew the pre-1956 flag instead.
Third flag (2001–2003)
Miller's successor as governor, Roy Barnes, responded to the increasing calls for a new state flag, and in 2001 hurried a replacement through the Georgia General Assembly. His new flag, designed by architect Cecil Alexander, sought a compromise, by featuring small versions of some (but not all) of Georgia's former flags, including the controversial 1956 flag, under the words "Georgia's History." Those flags are a thirteen-star U.S. flag of the "Betsy Ross" design; the first Georgia flag (before 1879); the 1920–1956 Georgia flag; the previous state flag (1956–2001); and the current fifty-star U.S. flag.
In a 2001 survey on state and provincial flags in North America conducted by the North American Vexillological Association, the redesigned Georgia flag was ranked the worst by a wide margin. The group stated that the flag "violates all the principles of good flag design." After the 1956 state flag was replaced in 2001, the Georgia city of Trenton adopted a modified version as its official city flag, to protest its discontinuation.
There was widespread opposition to the new flag, deemed the "Barnes rag". It led, according to Barnes himself, to his defeat for reelection two years later; the flag was a major issue in the election.
Fourth flag (2003–present)
In 2002, Sonny Perdue was elected Governor of Georgia, partially on a platform of allowing Georgians to choose their own flag in a state referendum. He authorized the Georgia legislature to draft a new flag in 2003.
The Georgia General Assembly's proposed flag combined elements of Georgia's previous flags, creating a composition that was inspired by the First National Flag of the Confederacy, the Stars and Bars, rather than the Confederate Battle Flag. Perdue signed the legislation into law on May 8, 2003.
The 2003 flag legislation also authorized a referendum on which of the two most recent flags (the 2001 and 2003 versions) would be adopted as the flag of the state; the 1956 flag was not an option. The referendum took place during the state's March 2, 2004 presidential primary election. If the 2003 flag was rejected, the pre-2001 design would have been put to a vote. The 2003 design won 73.1% of the vote in the referendum.
Pledge of Allegiance
See also
List of Georgia state symbols
List of flags by design
List of U.S. state, district, and territorial insignia
References
Further reading
Georgia Flags, Ben W. Fortson, Secretary of State, 1963.
External links
State Flags of Georgia at New Georgia Encyclopedia
2003 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia
Georgia
Religion in the United States
Symbols of Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia
|
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206737
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliverance%20%281919%20film%29
|
Deliverance (1919 film)
|
Deliverance is a 1919 silent film which tells the story of the life of Helen Keller and her teacher, Annie Sullivan. It stars Etna Ross, Tula Belle, Edith Lyle, Betty Schade, Sarah Lind, Ann Mason and Jenny Lind. The film also features appearances by Helen Keller, Anne Sullivan, Kate Adams Keller and Phillips Brooks Keller as themselves. The movie was directed by George Foster Platt and written by Francis Trevelyan Miller.
Cast (in credits order)
Etna Ross ... Young Helen Keller
Tula Belle ... Young Nadja
Edith Lyle ... Younger Anne Sullivan (as Edythe Lyle)
Betty Schade ... Mrs. Kate Adams Keller as a young woman
Jenny Lind ... Martha Washington
Sarah Lind ... Mammy
Ann Mason ... Helen Keller as a young woman
Helen Keller ... Herself
Anne Sullivan ... Herself
Kate Adams Keller ... Herself
Phillips Brooks Keller ... Himself
Polly Thompson ... Helen's secretary
Ardita Mellinina ... Nadja
J. Parks Jones ... Nadja's son
True Boardman ... Helen's boy friend (uncredited)
Herbert Heyes ... Ulysses (uncredited)
Preservation status
A copy of the film is in the Library of Congress film archive.
References
External links
1919 films
American black-and-white films
American silent feature films
American films
1910s biographical drama films
American biographical drama films
Helen Keller
Cultural depictions of Helen Keller
1919 drama films
Films directed by George Foster Platt
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorarachniophyte
|
Chlorarachniophyte
|
The chlorarachniophytes are a small group of exclusively marine algae widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters. They are typically mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and smaller protists as well as conducting photosynthesis. Normally they have the form of small amoebae, with branching cytoplasmic extensions that capture prey and connect the cells together, forming a net. They may also form flagellate zoospores, which characteristically have a single subapical flagellum that spirals backwards around the cell body, and walled coccoid cells.
The chloroplasts were presumably acquired by ingesting some green alga. They are surrounded by four membranes, the outermost of which is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, and contain a small nucleomorph between the middle two, which is a remnant of the alga's nucleus. This contains a small amount of DNA and divides without forming a mitotic spindle. The origin of the chloroplasts from green algae is supported by their pigmentation, which includes chlorophylls a and b, and by genetic similarities. The only other group of algae that contain nucleomorphs are the cryptomonads, but their chloroplasts seem to be derived from a red alga.
The chlorarachniophytes only include five genera, which show some variation in their life-cycles and may lack one or two of the stages described above. Genetic studies place them among the Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid and amoeboid-like protozoa.
The chlorarachniophytes were placed before in the order Rhizochloridales, class Xanthophyceae (e.g., Smith, 1938), as algae, or in order Rhizochloridea, class Xanthomonadina (e.g., Deflandre, 1956), as protozoa.
So far sexual reproduction has only been reported in two species; Chlorarachnion reptans and Cryptochlora perforans.
Phylogeny
Based on the work of Hirakawa et al. 2011.
Taxonomy
Class Chlorarachniophyceae Hibberd & Norris 1984 [Chlorarachnea Cavalier-Smith 1998; Chlorarachniophyta Hibberd & Norris 1984; Chlorarachnia Cavalier-Smith 1993]
Order Minorisida Cavalier-Smith 2017
Family Minorisidae Cavalier-Smith 2017
Genus Minorisa Del Campo 2013
Species Minorisa minuta Del Campo 2013
Order Chlorarachniales Ishida & Hara 1996 [Chlorarachniida Hibberd & Norris 1984]
Family Chlorarachniaceae (Pascher 1939) Ishida & Hara 1996
Genus Amorphochlora Ishida, Yabuki & Ota 2011
Species Amorphochlora amoebiformis (Ishida & Hara 1996) Ishida, Yabuki & Ota 2011 [Lotharella amoeboformis Ishida & Hara 1996]
Genus Bigelowiella Moestrup 2001
Species B. longifila Shuhei, Kunihiko & Kenichiro 2007
Species B. natans Moestrup 2001
Genus Chlorarachnion Geitler 1930
Species Chlorarachnion reptans Geitler 1930
Genus Cryptochlora Calderon-Saenz & Schnetter 1987
Species Cryptochlora perforans Calderon-Saenz & Schnetter 1987
Genus Gymnochlora Ishida, Nakayama & Hara 1996
Species G. dimorpha Ota 2011
Species G. stellata Ishida, Nakayama & Hara 1996
Genus Lotharella Ishida & Hara 1996
Species L. scrobicolata Ishida & Hara
Species L. polymorpha Dietz et al. 2003
Species L. vacuolata Ota & Ishida 2005
Species L. oceanica Ota 2009
Species L. reticulosa Ohta 2012
Species L. globosa (Ishida & Hara 1994) Ishida & Hara 1996 [Chlorarachnion globosum Ishida & Hara 1994]
Genus Norrisiella Ota, Ueda & Ishida 2007
Species Norrisiella sphaerica Ota, Ueda & Ishida 2007
Genus Partenskyella Ota et al. 2009
Species Partenskyella glossopodia Ota et al. 2009
References
External links
AlgaeBase: Chlorarachniophyta
Systematic Biology: Chlorarachniophyta
Systematic Biology: Cercozoa
Tree of Life: Chlorarachniophyta
Filosa
Algal taxonomy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Adelaide
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University of Adelaide
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The University of Adelaide (informally Adelaide University) is a public research university located in Adelaide, South Australia. Established in 1874, it is the third-oldest university in Australia. The university's main campus is located on North Terrace in the Adelaide city centre, adjacent to the Art Gallery of South Australia, the South Australian Museum and the State Library of South Australia.
The university has four campuses, three in South Australia: North Terrace campus in the city, Roseworthy campus at Roseworthy and Waite campus at Urrbrae, and one in Melbourne, Victoria. The university also operates out of other areas such as Thebarton, the National Wine Centre in the Adelaide Park Lands, and in Singapore through the Ngee Ann-Adelaide Education Centre.
The University of Adelaide is composed of five faculties, with each containing constituent schools. These include the Faculty of Engineering, Computer, and Mathematical Sciences (ECMS), the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, the Faculty of Arts, the Faculty of the Professions, and the Faculty of Sciences. It is a member of the Group of Eight and the Association of Commonwealth Universities. The university is also a member of the Sandstone universities, which mostly consist of colonial-era universities within Australia.
The university is associated with five Nobel laureates, constituting one-third of Australia's total Nobel Laureates, and 110 Rhodes scholars. The university has had a considerable impact on the public life of South Australia, having educated many of the state's leading businesspeople, lawyers, medical professionals and politicians. The university has been associated with many notable achievements and discoveries, such as the discovery and development of penicillin, the development of space exploration, sunscreen, the military tank, Wi-Fi, polymer banknotes and X-ray crystallography, and the study of viticulture and oenology.
History
The University of Adelaide was established on 6 November 1874 after a £20,000 donation by grazier and copper miner Walter Watson Hughes, along with support and donations from Thomas Elder.
The first Chancellor was Sir Richard Hanson and the first vice-chancellor was Augustus Short. The first degree offered was the Bachelor of Arts and the university started teaching in March 1876. John Davidson was the first Hughes professor of English literature and mental and moral philosophy.
The university has a long history of championing the rights of women in higher education. It was the second university in the English-speaking world (after the University of London, 1878) to admit women on equal terms with men (1881), though women studied alongside men from the commencement of classes in 1876, and were equally eligible for all academic prizes and honours. Its first female graduate was Edith Emily Dornwell, who was also the first person in Australia to receive the degree of Bachelor of Science (BSc., 1885). The university also graduated Australia's first female surgeon Laura Fowler (MB, 1891). Ruby Davy (B. Mus., 1907; D. Mus., 1918) was the first Australian woman to receive a doctorate in music. The university was also the first to elect a woman to a university council in Australia, Helen Mayo (MBBS, 1902), in 1914.
The great hall of the university, Bonython Hall, was built in 1936 following a donation from the owner of The Advertiser newspaper, Sir John Langdon Bonython, who left £40,000 for a Great Hall for the University.
Modern era
On 2 July 2010, the university officially implemented its "Smoke-Free Policy". This move was the culmination of an anti-smoking agenda headed by Professor Konrad Jamrozik and subsequently, following Jamrozik's death, the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Health Sciences, Professor Justin Beilby. Security have the right to eject people smoking within the university buildings and also fine people smoking in the gardens or walkways. It is the first higher education institution in South Australia to institute a smoke-free policy. The North Terrace campus has been smoke-free since July 2010, it was planned that the Waite and Roseworthy campuses would be smoke-free by 2011, and the university's residential facilities have also been made smoke-free.
In June 2018, University of Adelaide and University of South Australia began discussions regarding the possibility of a merger. The proposition was described as the formation of a "super uni" by Steven Marshall and Simon Birmingham, but the merger was called off in October 2018.
Campuses
North Terrace
The main campus of the university is on North Terrace. It is bordered by the Art Gallery of South Australia, the State Library of South Australia, the South Australian Museum and the "City East" campus of the University of South Australia. The Adelaide University Medical and Dental Schools were located across Frome Road, behind the old Royal Adelaide Hospital (now Lot Fourteen). The hospital moved to the western end of North Terrace and so have the schools; the Medical School North and South buildings were renamed Helen Mayo North and South from 1 January 2018, in honour of Helen Mayo, a doctor at the Royal Adelaide Hospital and a graduate of the University of Adelaide.
The vast majority of students and staff of the university are based at the North Terrace campus, where the majority of courses are taught and schools are based. The central administration of the university and the main library, the Barr Smith Library, are both located on this campus. While many other universities have law and business schools or satellite campuses within the central business district, the University of Adelaide is unique among Australian sandstone universities for having its main presence adjacent to the main business and shopping precinct.
Buildings
Bonython Hall, (the great hall of the university), the Mitchell Building, the Elder Hall, the Napier building and the Ligertwood building, form the North Terrace street frontage of the campus. Bonython Hall is one of the many historic and heritage listed buildings located at the North Terrace campus. Others include the Mitchell Building, Elder Hall, and the Reading Room of the Barr Smith Library.
The heritage-listed group of buildings known as the Union Buildings or Union Building Group include the Lady Symon Building, the George Murray Building, the Cloisters, Union House and the Western Annexe. The earlier Georgian-style buildings, including the Cloisters, the Lady Symon Building (named after the wife of Sir Josiah Symon) and the George Murray building (named after George John Robert Murray, vice-chancellor and later chancellor of the university), were designed by the architects Woods, Bagot, Jory and Laybourne-Smith (who also designed Bonython Hall, the Mitchell Gates and Johnson Laboratory, the Barr Smith Library and the Bentham Building) in 1929 and 1937. Later additions. The award-winning redevelopments in 1971 and 1975 known as Union House, including the Union Bookshop, were designed by Dickson & Platten and Robert Dickson & Associates respectively.
Masterplan (2016–)
In 2016, the university commenced work on a , 20-year "masterplan" for its three campuses. The masterplan envisages new facilities for all schools, and greatly enhanced campus amenities for students, with a focus on pedestrians and cyclists, providing better, safer pathways through the campus, and eliminating vehicle traffic where possible. At North Terrace, the Schulz building will be repurposed as an on-campus residential college, with accommodation, and recreational facilities including a gym. This major transformation of the university's physical presence across all campuses comes in conjunction with the multimillion-dollar renewal and redevelopment of the old Royal Adelaide Hospital (RAH) site on North Terrace. In September 2017, the RAH moved to the western end of North Terrace, in the $4 billion South Australian Health and Biomedical Precinct (SAHBP), at which the University of Adelaide also has a physical presence in the form of the Adelaide Health and Medical Sciences Building.
Waite
The Waite campus has a strong focus on agricultural science, plant breeding and biotechnology. The School of Agriculture, Food and Wine is based on the Waite campus and the campus contains components of the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences. It is adjacent to the Urrbrae Agricultural High School.
A number of other organisations are co-located in the Waite Research Precinct, including the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) (which is part of Primary Industries and Regions SA (PIRSA), whose headquarters are also at the campus); Australian Grain Technologies; the Australian Wine Research Institute. the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO); and the Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics (ACPFG).
It is situated in Adelaide's south-eastern foothills, in the suburb of Urrbrae on . A large amount of the land was donated in 1924 by the pastoralist Peter Waite. A large amount of money was donated by Rosina and John, the widow and son of William Tennant Mortlock. These donations were initially used to establish the Peter Waite Institute of Agricultural Research (first Director A. E. V. Richardson), which later became the Waite campus.
A Soil Research Centre was founded in 1929 with a donation of £10,000 from Harold Darling of J. Darling and Son, grain merchants.
In 2004, Premier Mike Rann opened the multimillion-dollar Plant Genomics Centre at the Waite Campus. Then in 2010 Premier Rann opened The Plant Accelerator, a $30 million research facility – the largest and most advanced of its kind in the world.
Malcolm Oades was the director from November 1996 to 2001.
Roseworthy
Located north of the city, the Roseworthy campus comprises 16 km2 of farmland and is a large centre for agricultural research. It was the first agricultural college in Australia, established in 1883 and the first veterinary school in SA in 2008. Other organisations linked to the campus include SARDI and the Murray TAFE.
In 1991, the College merged with the University of Adelaide and became the university's Roseworthy Campus, part of the Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences. The merger would see teaching and research in oenology and viticulture transferred to the university's Waite Campus, along with the bulk of its work in plant breeding. Before the degree in oenology was transferred to Waite Campus, Roseworthy produced a number of highly regarded and awarded winemakers and wine critics.
From the mid-1990s, the major focus of the campus turned to dryland agriculture, natural resource management and animal production. The campus is also now home to South Australia's first veterinary science training program, which commenced in 2008. The new Veterinary Science Centre houses not only teaching facilities, including a surgical skills suite, but also a public veterinary clinic offering general practice as well as emergency and specialist veterinary services for pet animals. There are also specialised pathology laboratories in this centre for teaching, research and diagnostic work. In 2013, the veterinary science facilities were expanded with the opening of the Equine Health and Performance Centre, a state-of-the-art facility for equine surgery, sports medicine, internal medicine and reproduction.
Other locations
National Wine Centre
Located in the Adelaide Park Lands at the eastern end of North Terrace, the Wine Centre offers some of the university's oenology courses. Opened in 2001, the facility also hosts public exhibitions about winemaking and its industry in South Australia. It contains an interactive permanent exhibition of winemaking, introducing visitors to the technology, varieties and styles of wine. It also has a wine tasting area, giving visitors the opportunity to taste and compare wines from different areas of Australia.
The Wine Centre is situated at the eastern end of North Terrace, Adelaide in the eastern parklands and adjacent to the Adelaide Botanic Gardens. The building, designed by Cox Grieve Gillett, uses building materials to reflect items used in making wine.
Thebarton
Thebarton is the base of the university's Office of Industry Liaison. The precinct works in conjunction with the University's commercial partners. Commercial enterprises at Thebarton include businesses involved in materials engineering, biotechnology, environmental services, information technology, industrial design, laser/optics technology, health products, engineering services, radar systems, telecommunications and petroleum services. The flames for the Sydney and Athens Olympic Games were developed at the Thebarton campus by the TEC group.
Ngee Ann (Singapore)
The Ngee Ann – Adelaide Education Centre (NAAEC) was the University of Adelaide's first overseas centre. It was a joint venture with the Ngee Ann Kongsi foundation, started in 1998. In 2016, the University of Adelaide withdrew from the partnership, after about 3000 students had graduated over the 18 years of operation.
In 2018 the Singapore institution was rebranded as the Ngee Ann Academy, and in 2019 partnered with the University of Adelaide as well as three British universities.
Gallery
Organisation
The university is divided into five faculties, with various constituent schools:
Faculty of Engineering, Computer & Mathematical Sciences
Australian School of Petroleum and Energy Resources; School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials; School of Civil, Environmental & Mining Engineering; School of Computer Science; School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering; School of Mathematical Sciences; School of Mechanical Engineering; School of Architecture, and Built Environment.
Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences
Adelaide Medical School; Adelaide Dental School; Adelaide Nursing School; School of Public Health, School of Psychology; School of Allied Health Science and Practice; School of Biomedicine and Adelaide Rural Clinical School.
Faculty of the Professions
Adelaide Business School; School of Economics; and, Adelaide Law School.
Faculty of Sciences
School of Agriculture, Food, and Wine; School of Physical Sciences; School of Biological Sciences; School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences.
Faculty of Arts
Elder Conservatorium of Music
School of Humanities
School of Education
School of Social Sciences
The National Centre for Aboriginal Language and Music Studies (NCALMS) comprises three units: Kaurna Warra Pintyanthi (KWP), the Mobile Language Team (MLT), and the Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music (CASM), which is within the Elder Conservatorium, and the "only devoted university-based centre for studies in Australian Indigenous music".
Wirltu Yarlu
The university has a long history of Indigenous education, establishing its first formal courses in the Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music (CASM) in 1972. Wirltu Yarlu is a separate unit, which is "responsible for engaging with and recruiting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people as well as providing support to students during their time [as students]".
Residential colleges
The University of Adelaide, unlike most universities, did not set any land aside on its North Terrace campus for student accommodation, due mainly to an ideological opposition to the culture of live-in students, but also influenced by the small size of the original campus. However, demand for residential college accommodation led to the establishment of private colleges affiliated to the university. St. Mark's College was founded by the Anglican Church (then called the Church of England) in 1925, Aquinas College in 1950 by the Catholic Church, Lincoln College in 1952 by the Methodist Church, and later St Ann's College, Kathleen Lumley College and Australian Lutheran College. All are located within close walking distance of the university, across the River Torrens in North Adelaide. In addition to providing accommodation and meals for local, interstate and international students, each college organises academic support, social activities and sporting opportunities for its members.
Governance
In 2021, Peter Hoj commenced his tenure as 24th Vice-Chancellor, taking over from Peter Rathjen (2018–20) and Interim VC Mike Brooks (2017–18, 2020–21).
In May 2020, Rathjen commenced an indefinite leave of absence after University of Adelaide Chancellor Kevin Scarce resigned without public explanation the previous day. Later in the week, the Independent Commissioner Against Corruption (ICAC) confirmed he was investigating allegations of improper conduct by the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Adelaide. Rathjen, accused of engaging in "a personal relationship with a staff member", was succeeded by Acting Vice-Chancellor Mike Brooks. Rathjen formally resigned in July 2020, "due to ill health". In August 2020, the ICAC found that Rathjen had committed "serious misconduct" by sexually harassing two University of Adelaide colleagues, had lied to the then Chancellor Kevin Scarce, and also lied to the Commissioner in his evidence with respect to an investigation of sexual misconduct with a postgraduate student when he was employed at the University of Melbourne. The ICAC Commissioner Bruce Lander acknowledged there were "further issues" in the full 170-page report on the investigation which he chose not to release due to privacy concerns surrounding the victims, instead releasing an abridged 12-page version 'Statement about an Investigation: Misconduct by the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Adelaide'. In determining his findings, the Commissioner relied in part on the personal blog of US journalist Michael Balter who documented Rathjens prior history of sexual harassment, and was largely responsible for bringing the matter to the public's attention, and ultimately ICAC's. The ICAC Commissioner's damning findings against Rathjen have put the University of Adelaide's culture under intense scrutiny in both the local and international media.
Claiming ill-health, Rathjen formally resigned in July 2020 and, despite the ICAC Commissioner's findings, received a large payout from the University.
Commercialisation
The University of Adelaide has capitalised on opportunities to commercialise its research. The university has the highest volume of commercial research agreements of all Australian universities. It engages in extensive contract research and collaborative work in conjunction with local and international companies, as well as federal, state and local governments. This activity is managed by the university's commercial development company, Adelaide Research & Innovation Pty Ltd (ARI).
Some examples of recent influences to the university's teaching and research priorities are the Defence Science and Technology Group (DSTG; previously the Defence Science and Technology Organisation, or DSTO) in Adelaide's northern suburbs to which the university provides many psychology, physics, engineering, and IT graduates; and the growth in South Australia's wine industry, which is supported by the Waite and National Wine Centre campuses producing oenology and agriculture/viticulture graduates.
In addition, the university participates in the Auto-ID Labs, a network of seven research universities in the field of networked radio-frequency identification (RFID) and emerging sensing technologies.
In August 2019, Primary Industries and Regions SA (PIRSA) and the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) entered a partnership with the university, in which scientists in diverse disciplines will be able to access PIRSA's research farms share their academic knowledge to the agricultural sector. The collaboration is anticipated to help develop SA's expertise in dryland agriculture, by encouraging multi-disciplinary research and help to bring about new export opportunities.
Lecture series
The university hosts a number of lecture series, including the Joseph Fisher Lecture in Commerce, established in 1903 following a donation by politician and newspaper proprietor Joseph Fisher of £1000 to the University "for the purpose of promoting the study of commerce". The Gavin David Young Lectures in Philosophy began in 1956, owing their existence to a bequest made by Jessie Frances Raven, in memory of her father, for "the promotion, advancement, teaching and diffusion of the study of philosophy…".
The university also presents the James Crawford Biennial Lecture Series on International Law, named for James Richard Crawford SC, a graduate of the university who went on to be Dean of Law at the University of Sydney and subsequently Whewell Professor of International Law at the University of Cambridge. Crawford delivered the first lecture in 2004. The university is one of a number of institutions to have established an Edward Said Memorial Lecture. The first in this series was given in 2005.
Research
The University of Adelaide is one of the most research-intensive universities in Australia, securing over $180 million in research funding annually. Its researchers are active in both basic and commercially oriented research across a broad range of fields including agriculture, psychology, health sciences, and engineering.
Research strengths include engineering, mathematics, science, medical and health sciences, agricultural sciences, artificial intelligence, and the arts.
The university is a member of Academic Consortium 21, an association of 20 research intensive universities, mainly in Oceania, though with members from the US and Europe. The university held the Presidency of AC 21 for the period 2011–2013 as host the biennial AC21 International Forum in June 2012.
The Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR), based at the University of Adelaide, was founded in 1973 as the Road Accident Research Unit and focuses on road safety and injury control.
Rankings
The University of Adelaide consistently features in the top 150 international universities as ranked by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the QS World University Rankings, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and the U.S. News & World Report, situating it securely in the top 1% of ranked universities worldwide. The university's natural sciences, veterinary sciences, nursing, and life sciences and medicine, in particular, are ranked in the top 100 in the 2020 QS World University Rankings by Subject 2020.
Student life
Associations
As of 1 July 2006, membership of the Adelaide University Union (AUU) has been voluntary for all students, following the passing of voluntary student unionism (VSU) legislation by the Federal Government. The AUU funds five affiliates which carry out their functions autonomously. They are the Adelaide Postgraduate Students' Association (APGSA), the Clubs Association (CA), the Roseworthy Agricultural Campus Student Union Council (RACSUC), the Student Representative Council (preceded by the now defunct Students' Association of the University of Adelaide) and the Waite Institute Students' Association (WISA).
The Adelaide University Union was responsible for organising the annual Prosh (University of Adelaide) events.
Media
The University of Adelaide has three print news publications; these are:
On Dit, the student magazine,
Adelaidean, the University's newspaper,
Lumen, the alumni magazine.
The University of Adelaide Press publishes staff scholarship and works of interest about the history and activities of the University. The Press is also responsible for publishing the Adelaide Law Review.
The University of Adelaide founded Australia's first community radio station, Radio Adelaide, in 1972.
Opportunities to participate in theatre productions are available through the University of Adelaide Theatre Guild and the Law School Revue.
Sports
Most university sport is organised by the Adelaide University Sports Association (AUSA). The Sports Association was founded in 1896 by the Adelaide University Boat, Tennis and Lacrosse Clubs. The Association disaffiliated from the Adelaide University Union (AUU) on 1 January 2010 and is currently directly affiliated to the University of Adelaide. The AUSA supports 37 sporting clubs which provide a diverse range of sporting opportunities to students of the University of Adelaide (AU). The AUSA is a major stakeholder in the AU North Terrace Campus based Sports Hub fitness centre and the North Adelaide-based university playing fields.
Tony Abbott student riots
In 2014 many students rioted when the then PM Tony Abbott came to visit Adelaide. The riot was just a few metres away from the building where Tony was giving a speech. Nobody was arrested but a number of people were injured.
Venues
UniBar
The old UniBar was closed in 2018, with a new one opened in a new venue on the ground floor of Union House, in the former Mayo Cafe.
College Green
On 4 November 2020, a new venue known as the College Green, stretching from the Cloisters across the lawns down to Victoria Drive, next to the Torrens River. From opening night until New Year's Eve 2020/21, live bands, DJs, free open-air cinema, the South Australian Music Awards and Christmas markets were on the schedule. The move was partly in response to the impact of social distancing restrictions owing to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia, which hit many live music venues.
Notable people
The history of the University of Adelaide includes a large number of distinguished alumni and staff, including domestic and international heads of state; Nobel laureates; business and political leaders; pioneers in science, mathematics, and medicine; media personalities; accomplished musical, visual, performance, and written artists; and sportspeople, including multiple Olympic medallists.
Distinguished alumni include 16 chancellors, 20 vice-chancellors, 110 Rhodes Scholars, 5 Nobel laureates (one of whom was once the youngest laureate ever, Lawrence Bragg, co-recipient, with his father William Henry Bragg for physics in 1915, at 25 years of age), and one Prime Minister (Julia Gillard, the first female Prime Minister of Australia) have all graduated or attended the University of Adelaide.
Robin Warren, who alongside Barry Marshall, discovered that peptic ulcers were largely caused by the infection Helicobacter pylori, graduated from the university in the 1950s. Warren and Marshall won the Nobel Prize for their discovery in 2005.
Other notable graduates and professors include Leo Blair (the father of British Prime Minister Tony Blair; law lecturer at the University of Adelaide while Tony was a child); Edward Charles Stirling (physiologist, politician and advocate for women's suffrage), Tim Flannery (Australian of the Year), Brendon Coventry (who helped discover the immune cycle), Maciej Henneberg (physical anthropologist, Howard Florey (pharmacologist and pathologist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Sir Ernst Chain and Sir Alexander Fleming for his role in the development of penicillin), J.M. Coetzee (novelist and linguist, recipient of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Literature), Ghil'ad Zuckermann (linguist and revivalist), Margaret Reid (first female president of the Australian Senate), Janine Haines (first female federal parliamentary leader of an Australian political party), Margaret White (first female judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland), Roma Mitchell (first female Queen's Counsel in Australia (1962), Justice of the Supreme Court of South Australia and the first female superior court judge in the British Commonwealth (1965) and first female state Governor), and Joni Madraiwiwi, Vice-President of the Republic of Fiji and Chief Justice of the Republic of Nauru.
Prof Derek Abbott works at the Uni and was instrumental in getting the Somerton Man investigation off the ground.
Prof Rod Crewther was a university professor who died in 2020.
Previous prime minister Julia Gillard also graduated from the university.
Professor Peter Rathjen was a former vice chancellor who was expelled for a number of different reasons. He also had some issues at another university.
Partnerships
Royal Adelaide Hospital
Hanson Institute
See also
List of universities in Australia
The Environment Institute
University of Adelaide College, a pre-University pathways College for international students
References
External links
The University of Adelaide website
Adelaide University Union
Universities in South Australia
Educational institutions established in 1874
Australian vocational education and training providers
1874 establishments in Australia
Group of Eight (Australian universities)
|
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206751
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20River%20Press
|
Free River Press
|
Free River Press is a nonprofit publishing house founded in Nashville, Tennessee, USA in 1990, whose mission is to develop a literary mosaic of America written by people from all walks of life. It pursues this goal by conducting writing workshops in farmhouse dining rooms, homeless shelters, small town libraries, senior centers, urban churches and foundations. Its goal is to amass a collection of writings that will eventually resemble a collective American autobiography.
History
Free River Press was founded in Nashville in 1990 by writer Robert Wolf and Steven Meinbresse, former Coordinator of Tennessee's Department of Homeless Services. The press grew out of a writing workshop Wolf conducted at a Nashville homeless shelter between 1989 and 1991.
For one year during this period Free River Press ran a Great Books seminar funded by the Tennessee Humanities Council. One of the seminar's purposes was to investigate what several traditional cultures said constituted full humanity. Wolf's premise was that our culture has no shared adequate idea of what constitutes full humanity and therefore has created institutions, such as schools and work places, that are deforming us. This is the root of the drug and alcohol problem which in turn is major cause of homelessness. The seminar mixed homeless and non-homeless participants.
By 1991 Free River Press had published six slim volumes by the homeless, including Five Street Poets and Passing Thru. In 1991 Wolf moved to rural Iowa and began a writing workshop with neighboring farmers that ran for two winters. Their writings were issued in three books, Voices From the Land, Simple Times, and More Voices From the Land.
During the time he worked with Iowa farmers, Wolf was also traveling to west Tennessee to conduct writing workshops there. Subsequently, as part of the press's mission to document life in the Mississippi Delta, it published two memoirs by west Tennessee farmers. Wolf later conducted a workshop in Helena, Arkansas. Subsequently Free River Press conducted more workshops in small Midwestern towns and cities, and in New Jersey, New York City, Chicago, west Texas, and Santa Fe.
In 1999, Oxford University Press published a sampling from the first nine years of Free River Press books, An American Mosaic: Prose and Poetry by Everyday Folk.
In 2009, Free River Press published a second edition of Heartland Portrait: Stories From the Rural Midwest, a large anthology incorporating 18 years of writings developed in workshops in Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
Workshop
The Free River Press writing workshop was designed with the amateur in mind. Its secret lies in the fact that it is orally oriented, which in practice means that participants tell their stories before writing them. They are then asked to write their stories as closely as possible to the way they told them. This helps the writing process while giving it authority. The workshop method presupposes that we share an intuitive wisdom about storytelling.
Award
In 2006 Free River Press won the Heritage Publication Award for publication from the State of New Mexico for its anthology Ayer Y Ahora: Stories From Santa Fe and Northern New Mexico. This anthology included stories by Hispanics who grew up in agricultural mountain villages.
See also
Literature of Tennessee
References
External links
www.wcfcourier.com: Heartland portrait: New anthology features personal stories documenting changes in rural American life
gazetteonline.com
www.youtube.com: Heartland portrait
Publishing companies of the United States
Southern United States literature
Organizations based in Nashville, Tennessee
Non-profit organizations based in Tennessee
Organizations established in 1990
|
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206753
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapdoor%20function
|
Trapdoor function
|
A trapdoor function is a function that is easy to compute in one direction, yet difficult to compute in the opposite direction (finding its inverse) without special information, called the "trapdoor". Trapdoor functions are widely used in cryptography.
In mathematical terms, if f is a trapdoor function, then there exists some secret information t, such that given f(x) and t, it is easy to compute x. Consider a padlock and its key. It is trivial to change the padlock from open to closed without using the key, by pushing the shackle into the lock mechanism. Opening the padlock easily, however, requires the key to be used. Here the key is the trapdoor and the padlock is the trapdoor function.
An example of a simple mathematical trapdoor is "6895601 is the product of two prime numbers. What are those numbers?" A typical "brute-force" solution would be to try dividing 6895601 by several prime numbers until finding the answer. However, if one is told that 1931 is one of the numbers, one can find the answer by entering "6895601 ÷ 1931" into any calculator. This example is not a sturdy trapdoor function – modern computers can guess all of the possible answers within a second – but this sample problem could be improved by using the product of two much larger primes.
Trapdoor functions came to prominence in cryptography in the mid-1970s with the publication of asymmetric (or public-key) encryption techniques by Diffie, Hellman, and Merkle. Indeed, coined the term. Several function classes had been proposed, and it soon became obvious that trapdoor functions are harder to find than was initially thought. For example, an early suggestion was to use schemes based on the subset sum problem. This turned out – rather quickly – to be unsuitable.
, the best known trapdoor function (family) candidates are the RSA and Rabin families of functions. Both are written as exponentiation modulo a composite number, and both are related to the problem of prime factorization.
Functions related to the hardness of the discrete logarithm problem (either modulo a prime or in a group defined over an elliptic curve) are not known to be trapdoor functions, because there is no known "trapdoor" information about the group that enables the efficient computation of discrete logarithms.
A trapdoor in cryptography has the very specific aforementioned meaning and is not to be confused with a backdoor (these are frequently used interchangeably, which is incorrect). A backdoor is a deliberate mechanism that is added to a cryptographic algorithm (e.g., a key pair generation algorithm, digital signing algorithm, etc.) or operating system, for example, that permits one or more unauthorized parties to bypass or subvert the security of the system in some fashion.
Definition
A trapdoor function is a collection of one-way functions { fk : Dk → Rk } (k ∈ K), in which all of K, Dk, Rk are subsets of binary strings {0, 1}*, satisfying the following conditions:
There exists a probabilistic polynomial time (PPT) sampling algorithm Gen s.t. Gen(1n) = (k, tk) with k ∈ K ∩ {0, 1}n and tk ∈ {0, 1}* satisfies | tk | < p (n), in which p is some polynomial. Each tk is called the trapdoor corresponding to k. Each trapdoor can be efficiently sampled.
Given input k, there also exists a PPT algorithm that outputs x ∈ Dk. That is, each Dk can be efficiently sampled.
For any k ∈ K, there exists a PPT algorithm that correctly computes fk.
For any k ∈ K, there exists a PPT algorithm A s.t. for any x ∈ Dk, let y = A ( k, fk(x), tk ), and then we have fk(y) = fk(x). That is, given trapdoor, it is easy to invert.
For any k ∈ K, without trapdoor tk, for any PPT algorithm, the probability to correctly invert fk (i.e., given fk(x), find a pre-image x' such that fk(x' ) = fk(x)) is negligible.
If each function in the collection above is a one-way permutation, then the collection is also called a trapdoor permutation.
Examples
In the following two examples, we always assume it is difficult to factorize a large composite number (see Integer factorization).
RSA Assumption
In this example, having the inverse of e modulo φ(n), the Euler's totient function of n, is the trapdoor:
If the factorization is known, φ(n) can be computed, so then the inverse of can be computed = e−1 mod φ(n), and then given y = f(x) we can find x = yd mod n = xed mod n = x mod n. Its hardness follows from RSA assumption.
Rabin's Quadratic Residue Assumption
Let n be a large composite number such that n = pq, where p and q are large primes such that p ≡ 3 mod 4, q ≡ 3 mod 4, and kept confidential to the adversary. The problem is to compute z given a such that a ≡ z2 mod n. The trapdoor is the factorization of n. With the trapdoor, the solutions of z can be given as , , , , where a ≡ x2 mod p, a ≡ y2 mod q, c ≡ 1 mod p, c ≡ 0 mod q, d ≡ 0 mod p, d ≡ 1 mod q. See Chinese remainder theorem for more details. Note that given primes p and q, we can find x ≡ a(p+1)/4 mod p and y ≡ a(q+1)/4 mod q. Here the conditions p ≡ 3 mod 4 and q ≡ 3 mod 4 guarantee that the solutions x and y can be well defined.
See also
One-way function
Notes
References
Theory of cryptography
Cryptography
Cryptographic primitives
|
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] |
206754
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gila%20River%20Indian%20Community
|
Gila River Indian Community
|
The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) (O'odham language: Keli Akimel Oʼotham, meaning "Gila River People", Maricopa language: Pee-Posh) is an Indian reservation in the U.S. state of Arizona, lying adjacent to the south side of the city of Phoenix, within the Phoenix Metropolitan Area in Pinal and Maricopa counties. Gila River Indian Reservation was established in 1859, and the Gila River Indian Community formally established by Congress in 1939. The community is home for members of both the Akimel O’odham (Pima) and the Pee-Posh (Maricopa) tribes.
The reservation has a land area of and a 2020 Census population of 14,260. It is made up of seven districts along the Gila River and its largest communities are Sacaton, Komatke, Santan, and Blackwater. Tribal administrative offices and departments are located in Sacaton. The Community operates its own telecom company, electric utility, industrial park and healthcare clinic, and publishes a monthly newspaper. It has one of the highest rates of Type 2 diabetes in the world, around 50% of the population. The community has voluntarily contributed to Type 2 diabetes research, by participating in many studies of the disease.
Government
Under their constitution, tribal members elect a governor and lieutenant governor at-large. They also elect 16 council members, from single-member districts or sub-districts with roughly equal populations.
Officials listing
Stephen Roe Lewis, Governor
Robert Stone, Lt. Governor
Arzie Hogg, Council Member, Dist 1
Joey Whitman, Council Member, Dist 1
Carol A. Schurz, Council Member, Dist 2
Carolyn Williams, Council Member, Dist 3
Rodney Jackson, Council Member, Dist 3
Barney B. Enos Jr., Council Member, Dist 4
Pamela Johnson, Council Member, Dist 4
Jennifer Allison, Council Member, Dist 4
Monica Antone, Council Member, Dist 4
Janice Stewart, Council Member, Dist 5
Thomas White, Council Member, Dist 5
Lawrence White, Council Member, Dist 5
Marlin Dixon, Council Member, Dist 5
Charles Goldtooth, Council Member, Dist 6
Anthony Villareal Sr., Council Member, Dist 6
Terrance Evans, Council Member, Dist 6
Devin C. Redbird, Council Member, Dist 7
Attractions
The first casino opened in 1994.
Ira H. Hayes Memorial Library
The Ira H. Hayes Memorial Library is located in District 3 in Sacaton, and provides a variety of services to the community.
Current communities
Bapchule (Pihpchul)
Blackwater (Chukma Shuhthagi)
Casa Blanca
Co-op Village (Chichino)
Gila Crossing (Kuiva)
Goodyear (Valin Thak)
Komatke (Komadk)
Maricopa Colony
Sacate Village
Sacaton (Ge'e Kih)
Sacaton Flats (Hahshani Kehk)
St. John's
Santa Cruz (Hia-t-ab)
Santan/Santa Ana (Santan)
Stotonic (S-totonigk)
Sweetwater (S-iʼovi Shuhthagi)
Vahki (Va'akih)
Wet Camp Village
Transportation
The community owns and operates Gila River Memorial Airport, a small, private-use airport, located 4 miles southwest of the central business district of Chandler. It was used for cropdusting and air charter operations, with no scheduled commercial services. The airport is no longer used and is in a state of total abandonment.
The community also operates Gila River Transit, a public transit system serving all seven districts.
I-10 was built through the southeast to north-central portion of Gila River lands, bringing significant highway traffic through the area.
Laws
The Constitution and Bylaws of the Gila River Indian Community of Arizona was ratified by the tribe January 22, 1960, and approved by the US Secretary of the Interior on March 17, 1960. It is available online.
The current Gila River legal code was enacted in 2009. Amendments enacted 15 May, 2013, are available online.
Marriage law
Gila River does not recognize marriages performed elsewhere in the state of Arizona. On 15 July 2015, in response to the Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in the United States, the Community Council passed a motion by a vote of 14 to 2 that the gendered language of the Gila River marriage code meant that same-sex marriage was not recognized:
Notable people
Beulah Archuletta (1909–1969), née Donahue, was Pee-Posh (Maricopa) and an actress.
Ira Hayes (1923-1955), one of the six Marines depicted in the Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima photograph.
Jay Morago (1917-2008), served as the first Governor of the Gila River Indian Community from 1954 until 1960 and helped to draft the reservation's 1960 constitution.
Mary Thomas (1944-2014), was the first woman elected as Governor of the Gila River Indian Community, serving from 1994 until 2000.
Natalie Diaz (1978-), pulitzer-prize winning poet, educator, and activist
See also
Gila River Indian Community Emergency Medical Services
Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community
References
Gila River Reservation, Arizona United States Census Bureau
External links
Gila River Indian Community Website
Gila River Indian Community Tourist Attractions
Apache
Pima (Native American)
Federally recognized tribes in the United States
Gila River
Geography of Maricopa County, Arizona
Geography of Pinal County, Arizona
1859 establishments in the United States
States and territories established in 1859
|
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] |
206757
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20association
|
Free association
|
Free association may refer to:
Free association (psychology), a technique of psychoanalysis devised by Sigmund Freud
Free association (Marxism and anarchism), where there is no state, social class, authority, or private ownership of means of production
Free association, where an associated state has a relationship with a nation
Voluntary association, reflecting …
Freedom of association, a human right
Free Association, a publication of the Japanese Anarchist Federation
The Free Association, a London-based improv comedy theatre and school
See also
David Holmes Presents The Free Association, a 2002 album by David Holmes (musician)
|
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] |
206758
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Newark
|
USS Newark
|
Multiple ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Newark, after the city of Newark, New Jersey.
was a protected cruiser in service from 1891 to 1912.
was a minesweeper and tug in commission from 1917 to 1919.
was a planned light cruiser; construction was cancelled in 1940.
was a Cleveland-class light cruiser that was converted during construction to the light aircraft carrier .
was a planned light cruiser; construction was cancelled in 1945.
United States Navy ship names
United States Navy New Jersey-related ships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%20animators%27%20strike
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Disney animators' strike
|
The Disney animators' strike in 1941 reflected anger at inequities of pay and privileges at the non-unionized Walt Disney Productions. Walt Disney responded to the five-week strike by firing many of his animators, but was eventually pressured into recognizing the Screen Cartoonist's Guild (SCG).
History
In the 1930s, a rise of labor unions took place in Hollywood in response to the Great Depression and subsequent mistreatment of employees by studios. Among these unions was the Screen Cartoonist's Guild (SCG), which formed in 1938 after the first strike at an animation studio occurred, at Fleischer Studios. By 1941, SCG president Herbert Sorrell had secured contracts with every major cartoon studio except Disney and Leon Schlesinger Productions. Schlesinger gave in to the SCG's requests to sign a contract after his own employees went on strike, but upon signing reportedly asked, "What about Disney?"
Disney's animators had the best pay and working conditions in the industry, but were discontented. Originally, 20 percent of the profits from short cartoons went toward employee bonuses, but Disney eventually suspended this practice. Disney's 1937 animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was a financial success, allowing Disney to construct a new, larger studio in Burbank, California, financed by borrowing. At the Burbank studio, a rigid hierarchy system was enforced where employee benefits such as access to the restaurant, gymnasium, and steam room were limited to the studio's head writers and animators, who also received larger and more comfortable offices. Individual departments were segregated into buildings and heavily policed by administrators.
The box-office failures of Pinocchio and Fantasia in 1940 forced Disney to make layoffs, although Disney rarely involved himself in the hiring and firing process with those who were not atop the pay chain. The studio's pay structure was very disorganized, with some high-ranking animators earning as much as $300 a week, while other employees made as little as $12. According to then-Disney animator Willis Pyle, "there was no rhyme or reason as to the way the guys were paid. You might be sitting next to a guy doing the same thing as you and you might be getting $20 a week more or less than him". Staff were also forced to put their name to documents which stated that they worked a forty hour week, whilst their actual hours were much longer. In addition there was resentment at Walt Disney taking credit for their work, and employees wished to receive on-screen credit for their art.
The SCG and Sorrell started meeting on a regular basis at the Hollywood Hotel from the start of 1941 to hear Disney workers' grievances and plan a unionization effort. Many animators, including Art Babbitt, grew dissatisfied and joined the SCG. Babbitt was one of Disney's best-paid animators, though he was sympathetic to low-ranking employees and openly disliked Disney. Babbitt had previously been a senior official in the Disney company union, the Federation of Screen Cartoonists, but had become frustrated due to being unable to effect change in that position. Disney saw no problem with the structure, believing it was his studio to run and that his employees should be grateful to him for providing the new studio space.
Sorrell, along with Babbitt and Bill Littlejohn, approached Disney and demanded he unionize his studio, but Disney refused. In February 1941, Disney gathered all 1,200 employees in his auditorium for a speech:
The assembly was poorly received, and more employees joined the SCG. Tensions between Disney and Babbitt reached a peak when Disney began to see Babbitt as having personally betrayed him by becoming a union leader. Disney fired Babbitt along with 16 other employees who were members of the SCG. The next day on May 29, more than 200 members of the studio staff went on strike, during the production of the 1941 film Dumbo, against the advice of Sorrell, who wanted more time to organise workers before striking. Other studios' animators, such as those from Schlesinger, offered their support during the strike. Disney retaliated by depicting some of the striking employees in caricature in Dumbo as antagonistic circus clowns, and on one occasion even attacked a picketing Babbitt. In turn, the strikers maintained a carnival-esque atmosphere on the picket line, using humor and artistic skills in producing signs, and at one stage carrying a mock guillotine in a march and using it to behead a mannequin of Walt Disney. They also received support from other unions, with unionized staff at Technicolor, Williams and Pathé refusing to process Disney films, and leftist consumer advocacy group the League of Women Shoppers picketed theaters exhibiting them. The Disney strikers also extended solidarity to strikes in other sectors, such as producing signs for a United Auto Workers strike at North American Aviation in Los Angeles.
The strike was resolved when the National Labor Relations Board asked Disney to sign a union contract and he agreed. Disney was returning from a goodwill tour of Latin America to produce animated films as part of the Good Neighbor policy, allowing tensions to cool in his absence - although the SCG kept up pressure in the run-up to Disney's departure: the union's business agent Bill Pomerance obtained details of union leaders in the cities that were on Disney's itinerary via the National Maritime Union. He then contacted the State Department to inform them that pickets of Disney and his films were being organized in South America, arguing that "the Disney company (should) comply with American standards of fair treatment of labor" as a condition of Walt Disney being allowed to represent the United States as a goodwill ambassador. As a result the government's Labor Conciliation Service brought both sides together in talks in Washington DC: an agreement was struck, which included the reinstatement of employees fired before the strike, equalization of pay, a clearer salary structure and a grievance procedure.
Aftermath and notable departures
The strike left the studio with only 694 employees. In addition to Babbitt, the studio lost the following staff:
Bill Tytla (who later moved to Terrytoons and Famous Studios, although his work is also visible on the 1942 MGM short The Hungry Wolf), Walt Kelly, Tyrus Wong, Virgil Partch, Hank Ketcham, Joey Lockwood, Art Palmer, Alfred Abranz, William Hurtz, Clair Weeks, Moe Gollub, Phil Klein, T. Hee, George Baker, Hicks Lokey, Don Tobin, Eddie Strickland, Cy Young, Chris Ishii, Aurelius Battaglia, Lynn Karp, Jules Engel, and Frank Fullmer.
Stephen Bosustow, David Hilberman, and Zack Schwartz left to form United Productions of America.
Kenneth Muse, Preston Blair, Ed Love, Walt Clinton, Claude Smith, Chuck Couch, Don Williams (who later moved to Screen Gems), and Bernard Wolf left for the MGM Cartoon Studio.
Frank Tashlin (who later moved to Warner Bros., which had previously employed him as a director from 1936 to 1938), already head of production for Columbia's Screen Gems, hired Emery Hawkins, Ray Patterson (who later moved to MGM), Louie Schmitt (later an animator and character designer for Tex Avery at MGM), Howard Swift, Bob Wickersham (after a brief stint at Fleischer's), John Hubley, Phil Duncan, Grant Simmons (who later moved to MGM), Basil Davidovich (who later moved to Warner Bros.), Jim Armstrong, William Shull (later an animator at MGM), Chic Otterstrom, Sam Cobean, Adrian Woolery, and Volus Jones.
Babbitt, Hawley Pratt, Bill Melendez, Maurice Noble, Cornett Wood, Art Heinemann, Ray Patin, Phil Eastman, Don Christensen, and Jack Bradbury left for Leon Schlesinger Productions (which would later be known as Warner Bros. Cartoons, Inc. after Schlesinger sold the studio to Warner Bros.).
Milt Schaffer, preceded briefly by Couch and joined a year later by Hawkins, Williams, Pat Matthews and Art Heinemann (following a brief stint at Warner Bros.), moved to Walter Lantz Productions.
Fleischer Studios (later transitioned to Famous Studios) and Terrytoons are the only major animation studios that did not benefit from hiring displaced Disney personnel immediately after the strike mainly due to them being located in the East Coast. However they still were able to gain some talent in the following years, including Bill Tytla, Isadore Klein, Morey Reden, and Paul Busch (who later moved back to the West Coast to work at Lantz's studio).
In the years following World War II, Hee, Jones, Weeks, Duncan, Schaffer, Hawkins, Davidovich, Lokey, Battaglia, and Bradbury returned to the studio for varying lengths of time. Disney was forced to rehire Babbitt after he brought an unfair labor practices suit against the studio, though Babbitt eventually left for good in 1946.
Disney never forgave the participants and subsequently treated union members with contempt, arguing in a letter that the strike "cleaned house at our studio" and got rid of "the chip-on-the-shoulder boys and the world-owes-me-a-living lads". Testifying to the House Un-American Activities Committee, Disney alleged that communism had played a major role in the strike, and many of the participants were blacklisted, including Art Heinemann, an art director on Fantasia, who was considered management. He went out on strike in sympathy with the animators and was subsequently fired and blacklisted, his name removed from Fantasia'''s credits.
References
Further reading
Sito, Tom. Drawing the Line: The Untold Story of the Animation Unions from Bosko to Bart Simpson. Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 2006.
External links
, on
; includes contemporary article from Screen Actor'' magazine
1941 labor disputes and strikes
1941 in California
1941 in animation
1941 in American cinema
May 1941 events
The Walt Disney Company
History of animation
History of The Walt Disney Company
Labor disputes in California
Entertainment industry labor disputes in the United States
Burbank, California
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206763
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Cruz%20Mountains
|
Santa Cruz Mountains
|
The Santa Cruz Mountains, part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, are a mountain range in central and northern California, United States. They form a ridge down the San Francisco Peninsula, south of San Francisco. They separate the Pacific Ocean from the San Francisco Bay and the Santa Clara Valley, and continue south to the Central Coast, bordering Monterey Bay and ending at the Salinas Valley. The range passes through the counties of San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Benito and Monterey, with the Pajaro River forming the southern boundary.
Geography
The northernmost portion of the Santa Cruz Mountains, north of Half Moon Bay Road (SR 92), is known as Montara Mountain; the middle portion is the Sierra Morena, which includes a summit called Sierra Morena, and extends south to a gap at Lexington Reservoir; south of the gap, the mountain range is known as the Sierra Azul.
The highest point in the range is Loma Prieta Peak, 11 miles west of Morgan Hill, with a height of , near which is the epicenter of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Other major peaks include Mount Umunhum at , Mount Thayer at , Mount Bielawski at , El Sombroso at , Eagle Rock at , Black Mountain at , and Sierra Morena at . The San Andreas Fault runs along or near the ridge line throughout the range. The interior east side of the mountains drops abruptly towards this fault line, especially near the towns of Woodside and Saratoga.
For much of the San Francisco Peninsula, State Route 35 (SR 35) runs along the ridge, and is known as "Skyline Boulevard", while Interstate 280 runs east of the ridges. The major routes across the mountains are (from north to south): SR 92 from Half Moon Bay to San Mateo, SR 84 from San Gregorio to Redwood City, SR 9 from Santa Cruz to Saratoga, SR 17 from Santa Cruz to Los Gatos, SR 152 from Watsonville to Gilroy, SR 129 from Watsonville to San Juan Bautista, and US Highway 101 from Salinas to Gilroy. Meanwhile, SR 1 runs parallel to the mountains from Daly City to Castroville while SR 85 runs parallel from Cupertino to San Jose.
There are over 30 wineries located in this region and the Santa Cruz Mountains have been a legally defined American Viticultural Area (AVA) since 1981. Wine has been produced here since at least the 1840s. The Santa Cruz Mountain AVA emerged as a premier producer of top wines as recognized in the historic Judgment of Paris wine competition on May 24, 1976.
Geology
The Santa Cruz Mountains are largely the result of compressive uplift caused by a leftward bend of the San Andreas Fault. The Salinian Block basement rocks are overlain by Miocene rock strata of the Lompico Sandstone, the Vaqueros Sandstone and the Santa Margarita Formation.
Ecology
The Santa Cruz Mountains are a region of great biological diversity, encompassing cool, moist coastal ecosystems as well as warm, dry chaparral. Much of the area in the Santa Cruz mountains is temperate rainforest. In valleys and moist ocean-facing slopes some of the southernmost coast redwoods grow, along with coast Douglas-fir. Coast live oak, Pacific madrone, Pacific wax myrtle, big leaf maple, California bay laurel, and California black oak also occur in the Santa Cruz Mountains. There do exist several small and isolated stands of old-growth forest, most notably at Henry Cowell Redwoods and Portola Redwoods State Parks and one sizeable old-growth redwood forest at Big Basin. At higher elevations and on sunny south slopes a more drought-resistant chaparral vegetation dominates: manzanita, California scrub oak, chamise, and chaparral pea. Spring wildflowers are also widespread throughout the range.
The area welcomes a tremendous number of species of birds. (see: bird list). Black-tailed deer, a subspecies of mule deer are common, as are western gray squirrels, chipmunks and raccoons. Periodic sightings of black bears indicate they frequent the mountains or wander north from Big Sur, where black bears are established . Foxes, coyotes, bobcats, cougars and human-introduced Virginia opossums also inhabit the region but are rarely seen. Rattlesnakes are also inhabitants, mostly in the high, dry chaparral.
There are two potential critical wildlife linkages which could enable species such as puma (Puma concolor) and tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) to move from and to the Santa Cruz Mountains by connecting to their counterparts in the Diablo Range to the east, as well as in the Gabilan Range to the south. The first is Coyote Valley, which at its northern end, is only wide, a remarkably narrow gap between the Diablo Range and the Santa Cruz Mountains' Tulare Hill foothill in south San Jose, California. The second critical wildlife passage lies between the southern Santa Cruz Mountains and the northern Gabilan Range, and runs from lands between Mount Pajaro and Rancho Juristac, in southern Santa Cruz and Santa Clara counties respectively, south across California State Route 129 and U.S. Highway 101 to lands between Pinecate Peak and San Juan Bautista in San Benito County. The Land Trust of Santa Cruz County has protected the first block of land intended to protect the Santa Cruz Mountains-Gabilan Range Wildlife Corridor, the Rocks Ranch in Aromas at the border of San Benito and Monterey counties. However, both critical wildlife linkages will require installation of wildlife crossings to enable passage across U.S. Highway 101.
Climate
The Santa Cruz Mountains have a Mediterranean type climate typical of most of California, with the majority of the annual precipitation falling between November and April. According to the National Weather Service, this totals more than annually. Heavy summer fogs frequently cover the western ocean-facing slopes and valleys, resulting in drizzle and fog drip caused by condensation on the redwoods, pines, and other trees, which sustains the moisture-loving redwood forests. Due to a rain shadow effect, precipitation on the eastern side of the range is significantly less, about a year. Snow falls a few times a year on the highest ridges, and more rarely the higher valleys receive light dustings.
The National Weather Service's cooperative weather stations in the mountains have included Black Mountain 2WSW – average annual rainfall , maximum annual rainfall , average annual snowfall , maximum annual snowfall ; Los Gatos 5SW – average annual rainfall , maximum annual rainfall , average snowfall , maximum annual snowfall ; and Wrights – average annual rainfall , maximum annual rainfall , average annual snowfall , maximum annual snowfall . No temperature records were kept at these stations.
The Santa Cruz Mountains are subject to sharp diurnal temperature fluctuations. The highs and low within a 24-hour period are ~20–30 °F apart on average but can be as much as 50 °F apart during heat waves depending on location. There is also considerable variation in temperature from day to day in both summer and winter with shifting wind directions, and fluctuations in the degree or marine influence.
Average winter highs range from the low 60s °F (~16–18 °C) in the coastal valleys to the upper 50's °F (~14–15 °C) in the valleys further inland. Average Winter overnight lows are a function of topology and can vary significantly, from an average low of 37 °F (~3 °C) in the valleys to ~42–44 °F (~6–7 °C) in the thermal belts above the inversion layer where cold air can readily drain off the slopes.
Thermal inversions occur primarily during the Winter when cool air sinks and gets trapped in the valleys at night, often leading to frost and occasional freezes. Higher elevations above the inversion layer usually stay mild with frost being a rare occurrence. The USDA has recently re-classified the hardiness zones for the higher elevations as USDA 10a to 10b to reflect the lack of frost at those locations. However, while the higher elevations are less prone to frost, they are also more likely to experience occasional snow accumulations. The valleys in contrast are rated USDA 9b with some locations as cold as 9a due to the lack of cold air drainage.
Summer temperatures regularly reach highs in the 80s °F (~28–30 °C) with nighttime usually in the upper 40s to lower 60s °F (~9–18 °C) depending on elevation, distance from the ocean and degree of marine inversion present. Summer weather is dominated by a persistent marine layer that can vary in depth. When the inversion layer drops below 300–500 feet, the higher elevations are deprived of marine influence and will often be subject to intense heat waves with daytime temperatures in the 95–105 °F (~35–40 °C) range and extreme low humidity with elevated overnight lows that offer little relief from the heat. Such conditions can lead to fires that can occur even before the official State of California fire season starts in the Fall. Examples of such fires include the 2016 Loma Fire, the 2009 Lockheed Fire and the Summit Fire in 2008.
Recreation
The Santa Cruz Mountains are home to an abundance of parks and protected open spaces, notable among them is California's oldest state park: Big Basin Redwoods State Park. Other state parks include Castle Rock State Park, Portola Redwoods State Park, Butano State Park, The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park, McNee Ranch State Park and Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park with its famous Redwood Grove walking trail. Additional land is protected by the Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District, the Peninsula Open Space Trust (POST), the Sempervirens Fund and local county parks districts. Hiking, horse-riding, mountain biking, rock climbing, and backpacking are popular activities. There are two long-distance trails in the range: the Skyline-to-the-Sea Trail, which winds from Castle Rock State Park through Big Basin to the Pacific Ocean, and the Bay Area Ridge Trail, which, while still disjointed, here roughly parallels Skyline Boulevard along the spine of the range. There also exist several backcountry campsites in many of the state parks that enable long distance multi-day outings. Castle Rock State Park has open rock faces suitable for rock climbing and bouldering.
Cultural history
The previous historic Old Almaden Winery was located on the eastern slopes of the Santa Cruz Mountains. It was the first commercial winery in California, planting high quality European (French) varietal vines.
Film director Alfred Hitchcock and his wife Alma had their primary residence, the Cornwall Ranch, near Scotts Valley, purchased in September 1940.
In 1965, science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein constructed a home in Bonny Doon, and lived there until shortly before his death in 1988.
From 1970 to 2014, singer-songwriter Neil Young lived at Broken Arrow Ranch near Woodside with his family. Many of his songs from this time were recorded at the ranch.
References
External links
http://www.hiway17.com Community website
peaklist.org Santa Cruz Mountains ranked by prominence
summitpost.org Santa Cruz Mountains entry
Santa Cruz Mountain Bulletin – Newspaper reporting news for San Lorenzo Valley and all of the Santa Cruz Mountains
Santa Cruz Mountains on the Santa Cruz Wiki
California Coast Ranges
Mountain ranges of San Francisco
Mountain ranges of San Mateo County, California
Mountain ranges of Santa Cruz County, California
Mountain ranges of Santa Clara County, California
Mountain ranges of Monterey County, California
Mountain ranges of San Benito County, California
Subregions of the San Francisco Bay Area
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure%20Island%2C%20San%20Francisco
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Treasure Island, San Francisco
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Treasure Island is an artificial island in the San Francisco Bay and a neighborhood in the City and County of San Francisco. Built in 1936–37 for the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition, the island's World's Fair site is a California Historical Landmark. Buildings there have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and the historical Naval Station Treasure Island, an auxiliary air facility (for airships, blimps, dirigibles, planes and seaplanes), are designated in the Geographic Names Information System.
Geography
The San Francisco census tract that includes Treasure Island extends up and down the San Francisco Bay and includes a small uninhabited tip of western Alameda Island. Yerba Buena and Treasure islands together have a land area of with – in 2010 – a total population of 2,500. Treasure Island is connected by a causeway to Yerba Buena Island, which in turn has on- and off-ramps to Interstate 80 on the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge.
The island has a marina and a bikeway connecting to the newly completed Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge. Raised walkways circumscribe nearly the entire island along five streets (Avenue of the Palms, Perimeter Road, Avenue N, Pan American World Airways Esplanade and Clipper Cove Way, formerly known as 1st Street).
History
Prior to the island's construction by the United States government, "Yerba Buena Shoals" of rock north of the transbay island had less than clearance and were a shipping hazard. The island was constructed by emplacing of quarried rock in the shoals for the island/causeway perimeter rock walls (a freshwater reservoir was quarried in the rock of Yerba Buena Island). Approximately of dredged bay sand filled the interior, was mitigated from salt, and then topsoil was used for planting 4,000 trees, 70,000 shrubs, and 700,000 flowering plants. Facility construction had begun by March 4, 1937, when two hangars were being built.
On February 18, 1939, the 'Magic City' opened with a "walled city" of several fair ground courts: a central Court of Honor, a Court of the East, a Port of Trade Winds on the south and on the north: a Court of Pacifica, a 12,000-car parking lot, and the adjacent National Building, the $1.5M Federal Building, the Hall of Western States, the $800K administration building, various exhibit halls for industries (e.g., "Machinery, Science, and Vacationland"), and two hangars planned for post-exposition use by Pan Am flying boats (e.g., the China Clipper through 1944) using the Port of Trade Winds Harbor later referred to as Clipper Cove between the two islands. In addition to Building 2 (Hangar 2) and Building 3 (Hangar 3), remaining exposition buildings include Building 1 (Streamline Moderne architecture) intended after the expo as the Pan American World Airways terminal. The expo's Magic Carpet Great Lawn also remains.)
A couplet from the song "Lydia the Tattooed Lady", in the Marx Brothers' 1939 film, At The Circus, reads "Here is Grover Whalen unveilin' the Trylon/Over on the West Coast we have Treasure Island", citing, in the Trylon and Treasure Island, two prominent features of international civic events happening that year (as the 1939 New York World's Fair vied for tourist patrons with the Golden Gate International Expo).
Military base
Treasure Island was originally intended to become a second airport for San Francisco, augmenting the existing San Francisco Municipal Airport, now SFO. But with war looming, the Navy moved in.
Naval Station (NAVSTA) Treasure Island began under a 1941 war lease as a United States Navy "reception center". On April 17, 1942, the U.S. Navy cut short an ownership dispute with the city by seizing the island. The Navy eventually compensated the city with $10 million in improvements to the existing airport, including reclaiming 93 acres of land, and postwar ownership of all military improvements. (A widely cited Navy report gave rise to the urban legend that the Navy swapped the island for land on which the city then built SFO. In fact, the airport had been operating in its current location since 1927.)
NAVSTA Treasure Island had a Naval Auxiliary Air Facility to support helicopters, fixed wing planes, seaplanes, blimps, dirigibles and airships and a U.S.Navy/USMC electronics school. During World War II over 12,000 men a day were processed here for Pacific area assignments, and thousands more were processed for separation in the aftermath of the war. The psychiatric ward of the naval base at Treasure Island was used to study and experiment on naval sailors who were being discharged for being homosexual.
Since before the '50s, and through the '90s (throughout both Korean & Vietnam wars) the U.S. Navy's Naval Technical Training Center (NTTC) – Treasure Island, was operational. Multiple Maintenance Skills were part of the curriculum there, including training of Electronic Technicians (ET) in Radiation and Detection equipment (RADIAC), Communications & Radar systems, as well as training of Shipfitter and Damage Control Technicians, which also covered Nuclear Biological & Chemical (NBC) Warfare Decontamination (DECON) techniques. In 1972 a new U.S. Navy Rate consisting of the old Shipfitter and Damage Control Technician ratings was created. This New U.S. Navy Rate was Hull Maintenance Technician (HT). The Navy later realized that Damage Control is such a large responsibility, it needed a rating specifically tasked with those duties, hence the reemergence of the Damage Controlman Rating in 1988.
In recognition of his naval base leadership and development efforts since the inception of US Naval Station Treasure Island, Rear Admiral Hugo Wilson Osterhaus Square was established in front of Building 1 Administration Building, Treasure Island. Medal of Honor and Navy Cross recipient USMC Gunnery Sgt John Basilone movie theatre Building 401 @ 680 Avenue I was established in recognition as being one of the earliest World War II heroes.
The station was identified by the 1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission, and NAVSTA Treasure Island closed in 1997. Remaining military structures included Bldg. 600 @ 750 Avenue M (former Naval Firefighting School, now SFFD's Treasure Island Training Facility & Temporary SFFD Fire Station 48), Bldg. 157 (Navy Fire station 2 built circa 1942 wood-frame building which lacks modern earthquake Seismic retrofit) @ 849 Avenue D (SFFD Station 48 closed March 7, 2014 due to health hazards & excessive deferred maintenance), and the Bldg. 180 by US Naval Station Way & California Ave (now a winery).
SAC radar station
The Treasure Island Radar Bomb Scoring Site (call sign San Francisco Bomb Plot) was a Strategic Air Command (SAC) automatic tracking radar facility established on the island. Major Posey was the commander of Detachment B (Capt Carlson on August 1, 1949) which evaluated simulated bombing missions on targets in the San Francisco metropolitan area for maintaining Cold War bomber crews' proficiency. A nearby "Stockton Bomb Plot (Det I)" moved to Charlotte in 1950, and the Treasure Island unit was redesignated Detachment 13 in 1951, the year 3 other SAC detachments used a nearby staging/preparation area for deploying via the bay for Korean War ground-directed bombing (cf. the Sacramento Bomb Plot at a McClellan AFB Annex in 1951.) On October 16, 1951, Treasure Island's Det 13 was assigned under March AFB's 3933rd Radar Bomb Scoring Squadron before moving from the island by August 10, 1954, when the 11th RBS Squadron was activated.
Film stages and settings
From the late 1980s, Treasure Island's old aircraft Hangar 2 (Building 2) and Hangar 3 (Building 3) served as sound stages for film-making and TV, e.g., The Matrix ("bullet time" visual effect), Rent, and The Pursuit of Happyness. Treasure Island was a film setting of the 1939 Charlie Chan at Treasure Island, 1988 Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (Berlin airport scene), 1995 Copycat (private compound), 1997 Flubber, 1998 What Dreams May Come, 1998 Patch Adams, 1998 The Parent Trap and 1999 Bicentennial Man. An establishing shot of the 1954 The Caine Mutiny shows the main gate and Administration Bldg 1 to indicate the location of the fictitious court martial. For three years Treasure Island served as the site of the Battlebots TV show. The offices and penthouse apartment sets in Nash Bridges were located on the island during the show's production (1996–2001). The island was featured as the base of operations for the prototypers in the 2008 Discovery Channel series Prototype This!. Building 180 (warehouse) and Building 111 (former firehouse) on Treasure Island served as film settings for an NBC series titled Trauma. In 2018, Treasure Island Museum building served as a mental hospital setting for the Netflix series titled The OA. MythBusters also regularly shot footage of their various experiments on the island.
Remediation and redevelopment
Cleanup crews spent several weeks cleaning the island's coast from the 2007 Cosco Busan oil spill just a few hundred yards from Treasure Island, and the Navy sold the island to the city for $108 million as part of a redevelopment project. The Federal government still maintains an active presence on occupied by the United States Department of Labor Job Corps (not part of the redevelopment). The Job Corps moved in and took over and 13 building facilities just after the US Navy vacated the island. The Administration Building (Bldg. 1) and Hall of Transportation (Bldg. 2) were listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2008. On June 8, 2011, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors approved new neighborhood development for 19,000 people over the next 20–30 years by Wilson Meany Sullivan, Lennar Urban, and Kenwood Investments. The 2012–2014 US$1.5 billion Treasure Island Development project for up to 8,000 new residences, of new commercial and retail space, of new office space, 3 hotels, new Fire station and of parks. The island's gas station pumps and canopy were also removed (the island has a high risk of soil liquefaction and tsunami damage in an earthquake). All island natural gas, electricity, sewer and water utilities are serviced by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. The island experiences several power outages per year. Ground broke on the island's ferry terminal in 2019.
By December 2010, Navy contractors had removed of contaminated dirt from the site, "some with radiation levels 400 times the Environmental Protection Agency’s human exposure limits for topsoil." The contaminated dirt is to be replaced by dirt removed during construction of the fourth Caldecott Tunnel bore. In April 2013, caesium-137 levels three times higher than previously recorded were found (the island hosted "radioactive ships from Bikini Atoll atomic tests and [was] a major education center training personnel for nuclear war"—the USS Pandemonium (PCDC-1) mockup had begun nuclear training in 1957.
Education
The island is within the San Francisco Unified School District (SFUSD). Zoned elementary schools serving sections of the island include John Yehall Chin (North Beach) and Sherman (Marina).
SFUSD previously operated Treasure Island K-8 School. In Spring 2004 the SFUSD board voted to close the middle school portion but keep the elementary school in operation. In its final semester of operation it had 95 students. In December 2004 the district voted to close altogether effective the beginning of 2005. Initially the Treasure Island Homeless Development Initiative fought to save the school, but after discipline and staffing issues occurred in 2004, the group stopped its efforts. Heather Knight of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that year "Even people who had fought to save the school earlier this year now admit it's no longer worth saving."
Water supply
The main waterlines under the causeway are backed up by yellow above-ground emergency manifolds to which blue diameter hose can be connected from a large hose spool affixed to a San Francisco Public Utilities Commission / SF Water Dept' mobile truck dispatched from the SFWD Newcomb Avenue Yard after an earthquake, provided the Bay Bridge from SF to Treasure Island remains operational.
Gallery
See also
Naval Station Treasure Island
Treasure Island Development
Further reading
References
External links
Treasure Island Music Festival
Islands of San Francisco Bay
Islands of Northern California
Artificial islands of California
Islands of San Francisco
Golden Gate International Exposition
Landmarks in San Francisco
Neighborhoods in San Francisco
Parks in San Francisco
Strategic Air Command radar stations
United States automatic tracking radar stations
California Historical Landmarks
Historic American Buildings Survey in California
Historic American Engineering Record in California
Works Progress Administration in California
1930s establishments in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Freud
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Anna Freud
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Anna Freud (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was a British psychoanalyst of Austrian-Jewish descent. She was born in Vienna, the sixth and youngest child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Hermine Hug-Hellmuth and Melanie Klein, she may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology.
Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its normal "developmental lines" as well as incorporating a distinctive emphasis on collaborative work across a range of analytical and observational contexts.
After the Freud family were forced to leave Vienna in 1938 with the advent of the Nazi regime in Austria, she resumed her psychoanalytic practice and her pioneering work in child psychology in London, establishing the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic in 1952 (now the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families) as a centre for therapy, training and research work.
Life and career
Vienna years
Anna Freud was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 3 December 1895. She was the youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She grew up in "comfortable bourgeois circumstances." Anna Freud appears to have had a comparatively unhappy childhood, in which she "never made a close or pleasurable relationship with her mother, and was instead nurtured by their Catholic nurse Josephine." She found it particularly difficult to get along with her eldest sister, Sophie, "the two young Freuds developed their version of a common sisterly division of territories, 'beauty' and 'brains', and their father once spoke of her "age-old jealousy of Sophie." As well as this rivalry between the two sisters, Anna had become "a somewhat troubled youngster who complained to her father in candid letters how all sorts of unreasonable thoughts and feelings plagued her". She may have suffered from depression which caused eating disorders. and "she ... was repeatedly sent to health farms for thorough rest, salutary walks, and some extra pounds to fill out her all too slender shape".
The close relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her family. She was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899: "Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness." In adolescence she took a precocious interest in her father's work and was allowed to sit in on the meetings of the newly established Vienna Psychoanalytical Society which Freud convened at his home.
Enrolled at the Cottage Lyceum, a secondary school for girls in Vienna, Anna made good progress in most subjects. The steady flow of foreign visitors to the Freud household inspired Anna to emulate her father by becoming proficient in different languages and she soon mastered English and French and acquired some basic Italian. The positive experience she had at the Lyceum led to her initial choice of teaching as a career. After she left the Lyceum in 1912 she took an extended vacation over the winter months in Italy. This proved to be, for a period, a time of self-doubt, anxiety, and uncertainty about her future. She shared these concerns in correspondence with her father whose writings she had begun reading. In response he provided reassurance and in the Spring of 1913 he joined her for a tour of Verona, Venice and Trieste.
A visit to Britain in the autumn of 1914, chaperoned by her father's colleague Ernest Jones, became of concern to Freud when he learned of the latter's romantic interest. His advice to Jones, in a letter of 22 July 1914, was that his daughter "... does not claim to be treated as a woman, being still far away from sexual longings and rather refusing man. There is an outspoken understanding between me and her that she should not consider marriage or the preliminaries before she gets two or three years older".
In 1914 she passed her teaching examination and began work as a teaching apprentice at her old school, the Cottage Lyceum. From 1915 to 1917, she worked as a teaching apprentice for third, fourth, and fifth graders. For the school year 1917–18, she began "her first venture as Klassenlehrerin (head teacher) for the second grade". For her performance during the school years 1915-18 she was highly praised by her superior, Salka Goldman who wrote that she showed "great zeal for all her responsibilities", but she was particularly appreciated for her "conscientious preparations" and for her "gift for teaching", being such a success that she was invited to stay on with a regular four-year contract starting in the fall of 1918.
With the encouragement and assistance of her father she pursued her exploration of psychoanalytic literature and in the summer of 1915 she undertook her first translation work for the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society: papers by James Jackson Putnam (into German) and Hermine Hug-Hellmuth (into English). During 1916 and 1917 she attended the lectures on psychoanalysis her father gave at the University of Vienna. By 1918 she had gained his support to pursue a training in psychoanalysis and she went into analysis with him in October of that year. Having contracted tuberculosis during 1918, and thereafter experiencing multiple episodes of illness, she resigned her teaching post in 1920.
As well as in the periods of analysis she had with her father (from 1918 to 1921 and from 1924 to 1929), their filial bond became further strengthened after Freud was diagnosed with cancer of the jaw in 1923, for which he would need numerous operations and the long-term nursing assistance which Anna provided. She also acted as his secretary and spokesperson, notably at the bi-annual congresses of the International Psychoanalytical Association which Freud was unable to attend.
Early psychoanalytic work: Child Development, Ego, and Defence Mechanisms
In 1922 Anna Freud presented her paper "Beating Fantasies and Daydreams" to the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society and became a member of the society. In 1923, she began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and by 1925 she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis, her approach to which she set out in her first book, An Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis published in 1927.
From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued her child analysis practice and contributed to seminars and conferences on the subject. In 1935, she became director of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Training Institute and the following year she published her influential study of the "ways and means by which the ego wards off depression, displeasure and anxiety", The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. It became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud's reputation as a pioneering theoretician.
Among the first children Anna Freud took into analysis were those of Dorothy Burlingham. In 1925 Burlingham, heiress to the Tiffany luxury jewellery retailer, had arrived in Vienna from New York with her four children and entered analysis firstly with Theodore Reik and then, with a view to training in child analysis, with Freud himself. Anna and Dorothy soon developed "intimate relations that closely resembled those of lesbians", though Anna "categorically denied the existence of a sexual relationship". After the Burlinghams moved into the same apartment block as the Freuds in 1929 she became, in effect, the children's stepparent.
London years
In 1938, following the Anschluss in which Nazi Germany occupied Austria, Anna was taken to Gestapo headquarters in Vienna for questioning on the activities of the International Psychoanalytical Association. Unknown to her father, she and her brother Martin had obtained Veronal from Max Schur, the family doctor, in sufficient quantities to commit suicide if faced with torture or internment. However, she survived her interrogation ordeal and returned to the family home. After her father had reluctantly accepted the urgent need to leave Vienna, she set about organizing the complex immigration process for the family in liaison with Ernest Jones, the then President of the International Psychoanalytical Association, who secured the immigration permits that eventually led to the family establishing their new home in London at 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead.
In 1941 Freud and Burlingham collaborated in establishing the Hampstead War Nursery for children whose lives had been disrupted by the war. Premises were acquired in Hampstead, North London and in Essex to provide education and residential care with mothers encouraged to visit as often as practicable. Many for the staff were recruited from the exiled Austro-German diaspora. Lectures and seminars on psychoanalytic theory and practice were regular features of staff training. Freud and Burlingham went on to publish a series of observational studies on child development based on the work of the Nursery with a focus on the impact of stress on children and their capacity to find substitute affections among peers in the absence of their parents. The Bulldog Banks Home, run on similar lines to the Nursery, was established after the war for a group of children who had survived the concentration camps. Building on and developing their war-time work with children, Freud and Burlingham established the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic (now the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families) in 1952 as a centre for therapy, training and research work.
During the war years the hostility between Anna Freud and Melanie Klein and their respective followers in the British Psychoanalytic Society (BPS) grew more intense. Their disagreements, which dated back to the 1920s, centered around the theory of the genesis of the super-ego and the consequent clinical approach to the pre-Oedipal child; Klein argued for play as an equivalent to free association in adult analyses. Anna Freud opposed any such equivalence, proposing an educative intervention with the child until an appropriate level of ego development was reached at the Oedipal stage. Klein held this to be a collusive inhibition of analytical work with the child. To avoid a terminal split in the BPS Ernest Jones, its president, chaired a number of "extraordinary business meetings" with the aim of defusing the conflict, and these continued during the war years. The meetings, which became known as the Controversial Discussions, were established on a more regular basis from 1942. In 1944 there finally emerged a compromise agreement which established parallel training courses, providing options to satisfy the concerns of the rival groups that had formed which by then, in addition to the followers of Freud and Klein, included a non-aligned group of Middle or Independent Group analysts. It was agreed further that all the key policy-making committees of the BPS should have representatives from the three groups.
From the 1950s until the end of her life Freud travelled regularly to the United States to lecture, teach and visit friends. During the 1970s she was concerned with the problems of emotionally deprived and socially disadvantaged children, and she studied deviations and delays in development. At Yale Law School, she taught seminars on crime and the family: this led to a transatlantic collaboration with Joseph Goldstein and Albert J. Solnit on children's needs and the law, published in three volumes as Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973), Before the Best Interests of the Child (1979), and In the Best Interests of the Child (1986).
The 1970s were also a time of emotional stress for Freud as she endured a number of bereavements involving family members and close colleagues. Her favourite brother, Ernst, died in April 1970 while she was in America. In the following months she lost two of her American cousins, Henry Freud and Rosie Waldinger, and colleagues Heinz Hartmann and Max Schur. She suffered further distress following the death of her partner Dorothy Burlingham's eldest son and daughter, both of whom had had extensive period of analysis with her as children in Vienna and as adults in London. Robert Burlingham died in February 1970 of heart disease after a long period of depression. In 1974 Burlingham's daughter Mabbie arrived in London from her New York home seeking further analysis with Anna, notwithstanding the latter's advice to continue in analysis with her New York analyst. Whilst at the family home in Hampstead she took an overdose of sleeping pills and died in hospital three days later.
Freud naturalised as a British subject on 22 July 1946. She was elected as a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959 and in 1973 she was made an Honorary President of the International Psychoanalytic Association.
Freud died in London on 9 October 1982. She was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and her ashes placed in the "Freud Corner" next to her parents' ancient Greek funeral urn. Her life-partner Dorothy Burlingham and several other members of the Freud family also rest there. In 1986 her London home of forty years was transformed, according to her wishes, into the Freud Museum, dedicated to the memory of her father.
Contributions to psychoanalysis
Anna Freud was a prolific writer, contributing articles on psychoanalysis to many different publications throughout her lifetime. Her first publication was titled, An Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Lectures for Child Analysts and Teachers 1922–1935, and was the result of four different lectures she was delivering at the time, to teachers and caretakers of young children in Vienna. Anna Freud's first article Beating Fantasies and Daydreams (1922), "drew in part on her own inner life, but th[at] ... made her contribution no less scientific". In it she explained how, "Daydreaming, which consciously may be designed to suppress masturbation, is mainly unconsciously an elaboration of the original masturbatory fantasies". Her father, Sigmund Freud, had earlier covered very similar ground in A Child is Being Beaten – "they both used material from her analysis as clinical illustration in their sometimes complementary papers" – in which he highlighted a female case where "an elaborate superstructure of day-dreams, which was of great significance for the life of the person concerned, had grown up over the masochistic beating-phantasy ... [one] which almost rose to the level of a work of art".
Her views on child development, which she expounded in 1927 in her first book, An Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis, clashed with those of Melanie Klein, "[who] was departing from the developmental schedule that Freud, and his analyst daughter, found most plausible". In particular, Anna Freud's belief that "In children's analysis, the transference plays a different role ... and the analyst not only 'represents mother' but is still an original second mother in the life of the child". became something of an orthodoxy over much of the psychoanalytic world.
For her next major work in 1936, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence, a classic monograph on ego psychology and defense mechanisms, Anna Freud drew on her own clinical experience, but relied on her father's writings as the principal and authoritative source of her theoretical insights. Here her "cataloguing of regression, repression, reaction formation, isolation, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against the self, reversal and sublimation" helped establish the importance of the ego functions and the concept of defence mechanisms, continuing the greater emphasis on the ego than that to be found in the work of her father – "We should like to learn more about the ego" – during his final decades.
Special attention was paid in it to later childhood and adolescent developments – "I have always been more attracted to the latency period than the pre-Oedipal phases" – emphasizing how the "increased intellectual, scientific, and philosophical interests of this period represent attempts at mastering the drives". The problem posed in adolescence by physiological maturation has been stated forcefully by Anna Freud: "Aggressive impulses are intensified to the point of complete unruliness, hunger becomes voracity... The reaction-formations, which seemed to be firmly established in the structure of the ego, threaten to fall to pieces".
Selma Fraiberg's tribute of 1959 that "The writings of Anna Freud on ego psychology and her studies in early child development have illuminated the world of childhood for workers in the most varied professions and have been for me my introduction and most valuable guide" spoke at that time for most of psychoanalysis outside the Kleinian heartland.
Arguably, however, it was in Anna Freud's London years "that she wrote her most distinguished psychoanalytic papers – including 'About Losing and Being Lost', which everyone should read regardless of their interest in psychoanalysis". Her description therein of "simultaneous urges to remain loyal to the dead and to turn towards new ties with the living" may perhaps reflect her own mourning process after her father's recent death.
Focusing thereafter on research, observation and treatment of children, Anna Freud established a group of prominent child developmental analysts (which included Erik Erikson, Elisabeth Geleerd, Edith Jacobson and Margaret Mahler) who noticed that children's symptoms were ultimately analogue to personality disorders among adults and thus often related to developmental stages. Her book Normality and Pathology in Childhood (1965) summarised "the use of developmental lines charting theoretical normal growth 'from dependency to emotional self-reliance'". Through these then revolutionary ideas Anna provided us with a comprehensive developmental theory and the concept of developmental lines, which combined her father's important drive model with more recent object relations theories emphasizing the importance of parents in child development processes.
Nevertheless, her basic loyalty to her father's work remained unimpaired, and it might indeed be said that "she devoted her life to protecting her father's legacy". In her theoretical work there would be little criticism of him, and she would make what is still the finest contribution to the psychoanalytic understanding of passivity, or what she termed "altruistic surrender, excessive concern and anxiety for the lives of his love objects".
Sigmund Freud's biographer Louis Breger observed that Anna Freud's publications "contain few original ideas and are, for the most part, a slavish application of her father's theories."
Jacques Lacan called Anna Freud "the plumb line of psychoanalysis". He stated that "the plumb line doesn't make a building, [but] it allows us to gauge the vertical of certain problems."
According to her principal biographer, with psychoanalysis continuing to move away from classical Freudianism to other concerns, it may still be salutary to heed Anna Freud's warning about the potential loss of her father's "emphasis on conflict within the individual person, the aims, ideas and ideals battling with the drives to keep the individual within a civilized community. It has become modern to water this down to every individual's longing for perfect unity with his mother ... There is an enormous amount that gets lost this way".
Opinions on psychoanalysis: From a letter written by Anna Freud
In a perhaps not dissimilar vein, she wrote in 1954 that "With due respect for the necessary strictest handling and interpretation of the transference, I feel still that we should leave room somewhere for the realization that analyst and patient are also two real people, of equal adult status, in a real personal relationship to each other'''.
Selected works
Freud, Anna (1966–1980). The Writings of Anna Freud: 8 Volumes. New York: Indiana University of Pennsylvania (These volumes include most of Freud's papers.)
Vol. 1. Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Lectures for Child Analysts and Teachers (1922–1935)
Vol. 2. Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (1936); (Revised edition: 1966 (US), 1968 (UK))
Vol. 3. Infants Without Families Reports on the Hampstead Nurseries Vol. 4. Indications for Child Analysis and Other Papers (1945–1956)
Vol. 5. Research at the Hampstead Child-Therapy Clinic and Other Papers (1956–1965)
Vol. 6. Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assessments of Development (1965)
Vol. 7. Problems of Psychoanalytic Training, Diagnosis, and the Technique of Therapy (1966–1970)
Vol. 8. Psychoanalytic Psychology of Normal Development Freud in collaboration with Sophie Dann: "An Experiment in Group Upbringing", in: The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, VI, 1951.
In popular culture
In 2002, Freud was honoured with a blue plaque, by English Heritage, at 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead in London, her home between 1938 and 1982.
On 3 December 2014, Freud was the subject of a Google Doodle.Anna Freud's 119th Birthday. 3 December 2014. google.com
The final track on the 2001 eponymous debut album of indie-rock band The National is titled "Anna Freud".
The novel Hysterical: Anna Freud's Story, by Rebecca Coffey was published by She Writes Press in 2014.
Her work and influence are mentioned in the 2002 documentary The Century of the Self.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Anna Freud Centre
Life and Work of Anna Freud
International Psychoanalytical Association
Biography of Anna Freud
Lost Girl by Doug Davis
Commentary on Freud's The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense from 50 Psychology Classics'' (2003)
Anna Freud correspondence/ from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society
Anna Freud Profile on Psychology's Feminist Voices
1895 births
1982 deaths
Psychoanalysts from Vienna
British psychoanalysts
Jewish psychoanalysts
Anna
Freudians
British Ashkenazi Jews
Jewish emigrants from Austria to the United Kingdom after the Anschluss
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
History of mental health in the United Kingdom
Analysands of Sigmund Freud
Analysands of Lou Andreas-Salomé
Object relations theorists
20th-century Austrian women writers
Golders Green Crematorium
19th-century Austrian women writers
Austrian women psychiatrists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabasis%20%28Xenophon%29
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Anabasis (Xenophon)
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Anabasis (; ; an "expedition up from") is the most famous work of the Ancient Greek professional soldier and writer Xenophon. It narrates the expedition of a large army of Greek mercenaries hired by Cyrus the Younger to help him seize the throne of Persia from his brother, Artaxerxes II, in 401 BC.
The seven books making up the Anabasis were composed circa 370 BC. Though as an Ancient Greek vocabulary word, ᾰ̓νᾰ́βᾰσῐς means "embarkation", "ascent" or "mounting up", the title Anabasis is rendered in translation as The March Up Country or as The March of the Ten Thousand. The narration of the army's journey across Asia Minor and Mesopotamia is Xenophon's best known work, and "one of the great adventures in human history".
Authorship
Xenophon, in his Hellenica, did not cover the retreat of Cyrus but instead referred the reader to the Anabasis by "Themistogenes of Syracuse"—the tenth-century Suda also describes Anabasis as being the work of Themistogenes, "preserved among the works of Xenophon", in the entry Θεμιστογένεης. (Θεμιστογένης, Συρακούσιος, ἱστορικός. Κύρου ἀνάβασιν, ἥτις ἐν τοῖς Ξενοφῶντος φέρεται: καὶ ἄλλα τινὰ περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ πατρίδος. J.S. Watson in his Remarks on the Authorship of Anabasis refers to the various interpretations of the word "φέρεται", which give rise to different interpretations and different problems.) Aside from these two references, there is no authority for there being a contemporary Anabasis written by "Themistogenes of Syracuse", and indeed no mention of such a person in any other context.
By the end of the first century, Plutarch had said, in his Glory of the Athenians, that Xenophon had attributed Anabasis to a third party in order to distance himself as a subject from himself as a writer. While the attribution to Themistogenes has been raised many times, the view of most scholars aligns substantially with that of Plutarch, and certainly that all the volumes are written by Xenophon.
Content
Xenophon accompanied the Ten Thousand (words that Xenophon does not use himself), a large army of Greek mercenaries hired by Cyrus the Younger, who intended to seize the throne of Persia from his brother, Artaxerxes II. Though Cyrus' mixed army fought to a tactical victory at Cunaxa in Babylon (401 BC), Cyrus was killed, rendering the actions of the Greeks irrelevant and the expedition a failure.
Stranded deep in Persia, the Spartan general Clearchus and the other Greek senior officers were then killed or captured by treachery on the part of the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Xenophon, one of three remaining leaders elected by the soldiers, played an instrumental role in encouraging the 10,000 to march north across foodless deserts and snow-filled mountain passes, towards the Black Sea and the comparative security of its Greek shoreline cities. Now abandoned in northern Mesopotamia, without supplies other than what they could obtain by force or diplomacy, the 10,000 had to fight their way northwards through Corduene and Armenia, making ad hoc decisions about their leaders, tactics, provender and destiny, while the King's army and hostile natives barred their way and attacked their flanks.
Ultimately this "marching republic" managed to reach the shores of the Black Sea at Trabzon (Trebizond), a destination they greeted with their famous cry of exultation on the mountain of Theches (now Madur) in Hyssos (now Sürmene): "Thalatta! Thalatta!, "The sea, the sea!". "The sea" meant that they were at last among Greek cities but it was not the end of their journey, which included a period fighting for Seuthes II of Thrace and ended with their recruitment into the army of the Spartan general Thibron. Xenophon related this story in Anabasis in a simple and direct manner.
The Greek term anabasis referred to an expedition from a coastline into the interior of a country. While the journey of Cyrus is an anabasis from Ionia on the eastern coast of the Aegean Sea, to the interior of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, most of Xenophon's narrative is taken up with the return march of Xenophon and the Ten Thousand, from the interior of Babylon to the coast of the Black Sea. Socrates makes a cameo appearance, when Xenophon asks whether he ought to accompany the expedition. The short episode demonstrates the reverence of Socrates for the Oracle of Delphi.
Xenophon's account of the exploit resounded through Greece, where, two generations later, some surmise, it may have inspired Philip of Macedon to believe that a lean and disciplined Hellene army might be relied upon to defeat a Persian army many times its size.
Besides military history, the Anabasis has found use as a tool for the teaching of classical philosophy; the principles of statesmanship and politics exhibited by the army can be seen as exemplifying Socratic philosophy.
Chapter summaries
Book I
Cyrus makes preparations in order to take the throne from his brother.
Cyrus marches to take out the Pisidians and gains troops as he progresses through the provinces.
Word spreads that Cyrus might be moving against the king and the soldiers begin to question continuing onward.
Cyrus and his generals continue marching onward, now towards Babylon. Xenias and Pasion are seen as cowards for deserting Cyrus.
The soldiers face hardship with few provisions other than meat. Dissension arises after Clearchus has one of Menos's men flogged, which leads to escalating retaliation.
Orontas is put on trial for a treasonous plot against Cyrus.
Cyrus sizes up the situation for the coming battle against the king. Cyrus and his army pass safely through a trench constructed by the king.
The battle between Artaxerxes's royal army and Cyrus's army commences.
Xenophon describes a sort of eulogy after the death of Cyrus.
The king rallies his forces and attacks Cyrus's army again. Then Artaxerxes retreats to a mound where upon being confronted again by the Hellenes, he and his men retreat for the day.
Book II
The army finds out about Cyrus's death and heralds are sent to meet the army and ask for them to relinquish their weapons to the king.
The generals of Cyrus's army and the officers of the Hellenes join forces to better their chances for returning home. The Hellenes are frightened by something in the night, which turns out to be nothing at all.
The king asks for a truce and Clearchus asks for breakfast after establishing one. Clearchus says to Tissaphernes that the Hellenes only followed Cyrus's orders when they were attacking the king's authority.
The Hellenes wait for Tissaphernes to return so they can leave. Tissaphernes comes with his troops and the Hellenes suspect they will be betrayed as they progress homeward.
Clearchus trusts Tissaphernes enough to send generals, captains and some soldiers to his camp. This turns out to be a trap and Clearchus is killed and the generals do not return to the Hellenes's camp.
All of the captured generals are decapitated and Xenophon describes their pasts and personalities.
Book III
None of the Hellenes can sleep for fear of not returning home alive. Apollonides tries to persuade the Hellenes to go to the king to ask for a pardon.
Xenophon tells the Hellenes to get rid of all but the necessities in order to travel homeward more efficiently.
After crossing the river Zapatas, the Hellenes are attacked by Mithridates and find that they need better long-range weaponry.
Tissaphernes comes after the Hellenes with a large contingent of troops. The Hellenes succeed in securing the summit first.
The generals question their prisoners about the surrounding area and decide which direction to go after having reached the Tigris.
Book IV
The Hellenes travel through the land of the Carduchians and lose two warriors when Cheirisophus does not slow for Xenophon on rearguard.
The Hellenes progress slowly through the mountains with the Carduchians making it difficult to pass through the area. There is a struggle to gain control of the knolls and hilltops.
Despairing, the Hellenes do not know what to do with the Carduchians closing in from behind and a deep river with a new enemy lying ahead of them until Xenophon has a dream.
There is a heavy snowfall in Armenia and Tiribazus is following the Hellenes through his territory with a formidable army.
The Hellenes face hardships in the snow. They are later overjoyed by the hospitality received in a village.
The Hellenes confront an enemy in a mountain pass and Xenophon suggests taking control of the mountain before traveling up the pass.
The Hellenes have a hard time overtaking the Taochian fortress. The soldiers finally catch a glimpse of the sea.
Reaching a populous Hellenic city, Trapezus, the soldiers take a long rest and compete against each other in games.
Book V
The soldiers decide to send Cheirisophus back to Hellas to return with ships to take them back home.
The Hellenes are guided by the Trapezuntines to gain provisions from the Drilae.
Those sick and over the age of forty are sent back on ships to Hellas. Xenophon speaks of the temple he constructed to Artemis in Scillus.
The Hellenes become allies with the Mossynoecians and agree to fight their foes together in order to pass through the territory.
Xenophon persuades the ambassadors of Sinope into having good relations with the Hellenes.
Taking the advice of Hecatonymus, the Hellenes take the sea route to reach Hellas.
Slander is spread about Xenophon and his speech in defense of his honesty to the soldiers results in prosecutions of certain soldiers.
Xenophon talks his way out of receiving punishment for beating a soldier.
Book VI
The Hellenes make a deal with the Paphlagonians to cease fighting. Xenophon feels he should not be the leader on the last part of the trip.
The army breaks up into three factions and Xenophon leads his troops back to Hellas.
Xenophon hears of the situation the Arcadians and Achaeans are in and rushes with his troops to their aid.
The Hellenes do not find the sacrificial victims in their favor and cannot proceed nor find provisions until the signs change in their favor.
Xenophon advises the troops to attack their enemies now instead of waiting for the enemy to pursue them when they retreat to camp.
Agasias is to be put on trial before Cleander for ordering Dexippus to be stoned after Agasias rescues one of his own from false accusation.
Book VII
The Hellenes fight their way back into the city after learning of their planned expedition to Chersonese. Coeratadas’ leadership falls through when he fails to give out enough rations for one day.
Xenophon returns at the request of Anaxibius to the army after taking leave from the Hellenes for home.
Xenophon works together with Seuthes to gain provisions for the Hellenes while Seuthes promises to pay them for gaining land for his control via the pillaged goods.
Seuthes travels through the countryside burning villages and taking more territory with the Hellenes.
Heracleides fails to come up with the full month's pay for the work done by the Hellenes. The blame is put on Xenophon.
Xenophon speaks on the charges brought against him about not giving sufficient pay to the soldiers.
Medosades gains control of the land the Hellenes helped to conquer and he threatens violence if the Hellenes don’t cease pillaging his lands.
Xenophon responds that the lack of promised payment and Seuthes attitude will mean a new threat from him and his men if something isn't done.
Seuthes pays a talent of silver and plentiful provisions to Xenophon, who distributes it to his troops.
Xenophon finally returns home only to find he is wanted to help capture Asidates, which according to the soothsayer, Basias, should be easy.
Asidates is captured with some difficulty.
Cultural influences
Educational use
Traditionally, Anabasis is one of the first unabridged texts studied by students of classical Greek, because of its clear and unadorned prose style in relatively pure Attic dialect—not unlike Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico for Latin students. Perhaps not coincidentally, they are both autobiographical tales of military adventure, told in the third person.
Since the narrative mainly concerns a marching army, a common term used in Anabasis is ἐξελαύνω (exelauno), meaning "march out, march forth". Throughout the work, this term is used 23 times in the 3rd person singular present indicative active (ἐξελαύνει) and five additional times in other forms. In the late 19th century, a tongue-in-cheek tradition arose among American students of Greek who were all too familiar with Xenophon's usage of this vocabulary item: March 4 (a date phonetically similar to the phrase "march forth") became known as "Exelauno Day". The origin of this niche holiday is connected with the Roxbury Latin School in Massachusetts.
Literary influence
Xenophon's book has inspired multiple literary and audio-visual works, both non-fiction and fiction.
Non-fiction
Non-fiction books inspired by Anabasis include:
The Anabasis of Alexander, by the Greek historian Arrian (86 – after 146 AD), is a history of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, specifically his conquest of the Persian Empire between 334 and 323 BC.
The Akhbār majmūʿa fī fatḥ al-Andalus ("Collection of Anecdotes on the Conquest of al-Andalus"), compiled in 11th century Al-Andalus, makes use of the Anabasis as a literary embellishment, recording how, during the Abbasid Revolution, an army of ten thousand under a certain Balj marched to al-Andalus to support the Umayyad emir Abd ar-Rahman I.
Shane Brennan's memoir In the Tracks of the Ten Thousand: A Journey on Foot through Turkey, Syria and Iraq (2005) recounts his 2000 journey to re-trace the steps of the Ten Thousand.
Fiction
The cry of Xenophon's soldiers when they reach the sea ("Thalatta! Thalatta!") is mentioned in the second English translation of Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864) when the expedition discovers an underground ocean (though the reference is absent from the original French text). The famous cry also provides the title of Iris Murdoch's Booker Prize-winning novel, The Sea, the Sea (1978).
Other fictional works inspired by Anabasis include:
Harold Coyle's novel The Ten Thousand (1993) shows the bulk of the US Forces in modern Europe fighting their way across and out of Germany, instead of laying down their weapons, after the Germans steal nuclear weapons that are being removed from Ukraine. The operational concept for the novel was based on Xenophon's account of the Ten Thousand.
Paul Davies' novella Grace: A Story (1996) is a fantasy that details the progress of Xenophon's army through Armenia to Trabzon.
Michael Curtis Ford's novel The Ten Thousand (2001) is a fictional account of this group's exploits.
Jaroslav Hašek's dark comedy novel, The Good Soldier Švejk (1921–1923), uses the term in describing Švejk's efforts to find his way back to his regiment.
John G. Hemry's The Lost Fleet series is partially inspired by Xenophon's Anabasis.
Paul Kearney's novel The Ten Thousand (2008) is loosely based on the historical events, taking place in a fantasy world named Kuf, where 10,000 Macht mercenaries are hired to fight on the behalf of a prince trying to usurp the throne of the Assurian Empire. When he dies in battle, the Macht have to march home overland through hostile territory.
Valerio Massimo Manfredi's novel The Lost Army (2008) is a fictional account of Xenophon's march with the Ten Thousand.
Sol Yurick's novel The Warriors (1965) borrows characters and events from Anabasis. It was adapted as a 1979 cult film, directed by Walter Hill.
The first three novels of David Weber and John Ringo's science fiction series Empire of Man—March Upcountry (2001), March to the Sea (2001), and March to the Stars (2003)—are modeled after Anabasis. In Ringo's stand-alone novel The Last Centurion a Stryker company repeats the March of the Ten Thousand from Iran to the sea.
Conn Iggulden's historical novel The Falcon of Sparta is based extensively on the work.
The historical manga Historie, a fictional biography of Alexander the Great's secretary Eumenes, recounts an incident where the main character searches in vain for an intact copy of Anabasis.
Editions and translations
Anabasis, trans. by Edward Spelman, Esq., Harper & Brothers, New York, 1839.
Anabasis, trans. by Rev. John Selby Watson, Henry G. Bohn, York Street, Covent Garden, 1854.
Xenophon's Anabasis, Seven Books, by William Harper and James Wallace, American Book Co. 1893, English with the books in Greek
Anabasis: The March Up Country, trans. by H[enry] G[raham] Dakyns (1897), reprinted in ELPN Press, 2007, . Also available in Project Gutenberg.
Expeditio Cyri, ed. by E. C. Marchant, Oxford Classical Texts, Oxford 1904,
Anabasis, transl. by C. L. Brownson, Loeb Classical Library, 1922, rev. 1989,
The March Up Country: A Translation of Xenophon's Anabasis into Plain English, transl. by W.H.D. Rouse, Nelson, London 1947.
The Persian Expedition, trans. by Rex Warner (1950), introduction by George Cawkwell (1972), Penguin Classics 2004 ().
The Expedition of Cyrus, trans. by Robin Waterfield, Oxford World's Classics, Oxford, 2005,
Xenophon's Retreat by Robin Waterfield is an accessible companion for anyone needing to be filled in on the historical, military and political background. Faber & Faber, 2006,
The Anabasis of Cyrus, transl. by Wayne Ambler, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2008,
ANABASI, transl. by Enzo Ravenna, MONDADORI Oscar Classici Greci e Latini, 1984, Italy, with the original text to face, pp. 415,
The Landmark Xenophon's Anabasis, transl. by David Thomas, Pantheon Books, New York, 2021,
Notes
Further reading
Bassett, S. R. "Innocent Victims or Perjurers Betrayed? The Arrest of the Generals in Xenophon's 'Anabasis'." The Classical Quarterly, vol. 52, no. 2, 2002, pp. 447–461.
Bradley, P. "Xenophon’s Anabasis: Reading the End with Zeus the Merciful". Arethusa 44(3), 279-310. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011.
Brennan, S. "Chronological Pointers in Xenophon's 'Anabasis'." Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, vol. 51, 2008, pp. 51–61.
Burckhardt, L. Militärgeschichte der Antike. Beck'schen Reihe; 2447. München: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2008.
Buzzetti, E. Xenophon: The Socratic Prince: The Argument of the Anabasis of Cyrus. Recovering Political Philosophy . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
Flower, M. A. Xenophon's Anabasis, or the Expedition of Cyrus. Oxford Approaches to Classical Literature. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Lane Fox, R., ed. The Long March: Xenophon and the Ten Thousand. New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2004.
Lee, J. W. I. A Greek Army on the March: Soldiers and Survival in Xenophon's Anabasis. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Nussbaum, G. B. The Ten Thousand: A Study in Social Organization and Action in Xenophon's Anabasis. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1967.
Rood, T. "Space and Landscape in Xenophon's Anabasis". In Kate Gilhuly & Nancy Worman (eds.), (pp. 63–93). Space, Place, and Landscape in Ancient Greek Literature and Culture. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
External links
Anabasis at Perseus Digital Library
Intelligence During the Campaign of the Ten Thousand
A downloadable textbook using an adaptation of Anabasis Book 1 as the main reading
4th-century BC history books
Historians of Iran
Ancient Greek military books
History books about the Greco-Persian Wars
Marching
Works by Xenophon
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] |
206775
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boston%20%281777%29
|
USS Boston (1777)
|
The second USS Boston was a 24-gun frigate, launched 3 June 1776 by Stephen and Ralph Cross, Newburyport, Massachusetts, and completed the following year. In American service she captured a number of British vessels. The British captured Boston at the fall of Charleston, South Carolina, renamed her HMS Charlestown (HMS Charleston or Charles Town), and took her into service. She was engaged in one major fight with two French frigates, which she survived and which saved the convoy she was protecting. The British sold Charlestown in 1783, immediately after the end of the war.
American service
Boston was commissioned under the command of Captain Hector McNeill. On 21 May 1777, Boston sailed in company with and the Massachusetts privateer American Tartar for a cruise in the North Atlantic. American Tartar parted from the two frigates shortly thereafter.
The two frigates captured three prizes including the 28-gun frigate (7 June). On 7–8 July, Boston, Hancock, and Fox engaged the British vessels HMS Flora, , and . The British captured Hancock and Fox, but Boston escaped to the Sheepscot River on the Maine coast. McNeill was court-martialed in June 1779 for his failure to support Hancock and was dismissed from the Navy.
During the period 15 February-31 March 1778, Boston, now under the command of Samuel Tucker, carried John Adams to France, capturing on 11 March the British letter of marque Martha (), which the British later recaptured. She then cruised in European waters taking four prizes before returning to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 15 October. On 5 May 1778 a Midshipman, Peter Cavee, fell overboard and drowned in port at Bordeaux, France. In 1779 she made two cruises (29 July – 6 September and 23 November – 23 December) in the North Atlantic capturing at least nine prizes. Boston then joined the squadron sent to assist in the defense of Charleston, South Carolina. There the British captured her when the town surrendered on 12 May 1780.
British service
The British took Boston into service as HMS Charlestown. In June 1781 Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot sent Charlestown and several other vessels to attempt to block some French reinforcements from entering Boston. On 7 July, the squadron that Arbuthnot sent to Boston recaptured the British sloop-of-war , which the American frigate had captured on 27 May. Charlestown, under Captain Henry Francis Evans, and , brought Atalanta into Halifax. Then Charlestown sent in two American privateers that she had taken, Flying Fish and Yankee Hero.
Next, Charlestown took part in the action of 21 July 1781. She was one of five Royal Navy ships escorting a convoy of 13 colliers and merchant vessels. The escorts also included the two sloops-of-war Allegiance and Vulture, the armed transport , and Jack, another small armed merchant ship. The convoy was off the harbor of Spanish River, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia (present-day Sydney, Nova Scotia), or Île Royale, when it came under attack from two French frigates Astrée, commanded by La Pérouse, and , commanded by Latouche Tréville, resulting in the naval battle of Louisbourg. The French captured Jack. Charlestown struck to the French frigates but they were unable to take possession of her; French accounts state that she escaped in the dark. The French lost six men killed and 34 wounded; the British lost some 17 or so men killed and 48 wounded. Charlestown alone lost 8 men killed, including Evans, and 29 men wounded. The merchant vessels and their cargoes of coal entered Spanish River safely. Charlestown and the sloops sailed back to Halifax.
Lieutenant Rupert George of Vulture replaced Evans as captain of Charlestown. He was posted on 29 November 1781 and remained her captain.
Fate
The Royal Navy sold Charlestown in 1783.
See also
List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy
List of ships captured in the 18th century
Bibliography of early American naval history
Citations and references
Citations
References
Brown, Richard (F.G.S.) (1899) The coal fields and coal trade of the island of Cape Breton. (Maritime Mining Record Office).
Clowes, W. Laird, et al. (1897–1903) The royal navy: a history from the earliest times to the present. (Boston: Little, Brown and Co.; London: S. Low, Marston and Co.).
Demerliac, Alain (1996) La Marine De Louis XVI: Nomenclature Des Navires Français De 1774 À 1792. (Nice: Éditions OMEGA).
Ships of the Continental Navy
Ships built in Newburyport, Massachusetts
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
United States Navy Massachusetts-related ships
1776 ships
Captured ships
Frigates of the Royal Navy
|
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206776
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boston%20%281799%29
|
USS Boston (1799)
|
The third USS Boston was a 32-gun wooden-hulled, three-masted frigate of the United States Navy. Boston was built by public subscription in Boston under the Act of 30 June 1798. Boston was active during the Quasi-War with France and the First Barbary War. On 12 October 1800, Boston engaged and captured the French corvette Berceau. Boston was laid up in 1802, and considered not worth repairing at the outbreak of the War of 1812. She was burned at the Washington Naval Yard on 24 August 1814 to prevent her capture by British forces.
Design and Construction
Boston was designed and constructed by Edmund Hartt at Boston, Massachusetts. Boston was authorized by the funded by the donations from the people of Boston, Massachusetts as part of the group of ships built by the states to supplement the Original six frigates of the United States Navy provided by the Naval Act of 1794.
The frigate has a displacement of 400 tons and had a length between perpendiculars of . She was originally armed with twenty-four 9-pounder and eight 6-pounder guns, and carried a complement of 220 officers and men. She was launched on 20 May 1799 and commissioned soon afterwards, Captain George Little in command.
Service history
Boston cruised in the West Indies (July 1799 – June 1800) protecting American commerce against French privateers. Returning to Boston 25 June 1800, she cruised along the American coast until September when she sailed to the Guadeloupe Station in the West Indies. In , on 12 October 1800, she engaged and captured the French corvette . Boston lost seven killed and eight wounded in the encounter. She towed her prize to Boston, arriving in November. During her West Indian cruises Boston captured seven additional prizes (two in conjunction with ).
During the winter of 1801 Boston carried Minister Livingston to France and then joined the Mediterranean Squadron off Tripoli while under the command of Captain Daniel McNeil. She fought an action with six or seven Tripolitanian gunboats on 16 May 1802, forcing one ashore. Boston returned to Boston in October 1802 and then proceeded to Washington where she was laid up. Considered not worth repairing on the outbreak of the War of 1812, she remained at Washington until 24 August 1814 when she was burned to prevent her falling into British hands.
See also
List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy
References
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Boston
Quasi-War ships of the United States
War of 1812 ships of the United States
United States Navy Massachusetts-related ships
1799 ships
|
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] |
206777
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boston%20%281825%29
|
USS Boston (1825)
|
The fourth USS Boston was an 18-gun sloop of war, launched on 15 October 1825 by the Boston Navy Yard and commissioned the following year, Master Commandant Beekman V. Hoffman in command.
Boston served on the Brazil Station 1826-1829 and the Mediterranean Station 1830–1832. She was then laid up at Boston Navy Yard until joining the West Indies Squadron in 1836. Except for two short periods in ordinary at New York Navy Yard she served continuously for the next 10 years. Boston cruised on the West Indies (1836–39), East Indies (1841-43), and Brazil (1843–46) Stations, returning to the United States in 1846. She was then ordered to join Commodore Conner's Home Squadron blockading the Mexican east coast. While en route to her new station, Boston was wrecked on Eleuthera Island, Bahamas, during a squall on 15 November 1846. Although the sloop was a total loss, all hands were saved.
See also
List of sloops of war of the United States Navy
Bibliography of early American naval history
References
Sloops of the United States Navy
United States Navy Massachusetts-related ships
Mexican–American War ships of the United States
Ships built in Boston
Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
1825 ships
Maritime incidents in November 1846
|
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] |
206778
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20709
|
IBM 709
|
The IBM 709 was a computer system, initially announced by IBM in January 1957 and first installed during August 1958. The 709 was an improved version of its predecessor, the IBM 704, and was the third of the IBM 700/7000 series of scientific computers. The improvements included overlapped input/output, indirect addressing, and three "convert" instructions which provided support for decimal arithmetic, leading zero suppression, and several other operations. The 709 had 32,768 words of 36-bit magnetic core memory and could execute 42,000 add or subtract instructions per second. It could multiply two 36-bit integers at a rate of 5000 per second.
An optional hardware emulator executed old IBM 704 programs on the IBM 709. This was the first commercially available emulator. Registers and most 704 instructions were emulated in 709 hardware. Complex 704 instructions such as floating point trap and input-output routines were emulated in 709 software.
The FORTRAN Assembly Program was first introduced for the 709.
It was a large system; customer installations used 100 to 250 kW to run them and almost as much again on the cooling. It weighed about (without peripheral equipment).
The 709 was built using vacuum tubes.
IBM announced a transistorized version of the 709, called the IBM 7090, in 1958, only a year after the announcement of the 709, thus cutting short the 709's product life.
Registers
The IBM 709 has a 38-bit accumulator, a 36-bit multiplier quotient register, and three 15-bit index registers whose contents are subtracted from the base address instead of being added to it. All three index registers can participate in an instruction: the 3-bit tag field in the instruction is a bit map specifying which of the registers participate in the operation, however if more than one index register is specified, their contents are combined by a logical or operation, not addition.p. 12
Instruction and data formats
There are five instruction formats, referred to as Types A, B,C, D and E. Most instructions are of type B.
Type A instructions have, in sequence, a 3-bit prefix (instruction code), a 15-bit decrement field, a 3-bit tag field, and a 15-bit address field. They are conditional jump operations based on the values in the decrement registers specified in the tag field. Some also subtract the decrement field from the contents of the index registers. The implementation requires that the second two bits of the instruction code be non-zero, giving a total of six possible type A instructions. One (STR, instruction code binary 101) was not implemented until the IBM 709.
Type B instructions have, in sequence, a 12-bit instruction code (with the second and third bits set to 0 to distinguish them from type A instructions), a 2-bit flag field, four unused bits, a 3-bit tag field, and a 15-bit address field.
Types C, D and E are used for specialized instructions.
Fixed point numbers are stored in binary sign/magnitude format.
Single precision floating point numbers have a magnitude sign, an 8-bit excess-128 exponent and a 29-bit significand
Alphanumeric characters are 6-bit BCD, packed six to a word.
The instruction set implicitly subdivides the data format into the same fields as type A instructions: prefix, decrement, tag and address. Instructions exist to modify each of these fields in a data word without changing the remainder of the word.
I/O channel
The primary improvements of the 709 over the previous 704 involved more magnetic core memory and apparently the first use of independent I/O channels. Whereas I/O on 704 is a programmed function of the central processor - data words are transferred to or from the I/O register, one at a time, using a "copy" instruction - the 709 uses the IBM-766 Data Synchronizer, which provides two independently "programmed" I/O channels. Up to three Data Synchronizers can be attached to a 709, each able to control up to 20 IBM 729 tape drives and an IBM 716 alphanumeric line printer, IBM 711 card-reader and 721 card punch. This allows six times as many I/O devices on 709, and allows I/O to proceed on multiple devices while program execution continues in parallel. Up to two IBM 733 Magnetic Drum units, each with 8,192 words of memory, could be attached independently from the Data Synchronizers. The 709 could initially load programs (boot) from card, tape or drum.
The IBM 738 Magnetic Core Storage used on 709 was also a milestone of hybrid technology. Although the core array drivers are all vacuum tube, the read sense amplifiers were a very early use of transistors in computing.
See also
List of vacuum tube computers
IBM 740 CRT recorder
SHARE Operating System (SOS)
SQUOZE
References
Further reading
External links
709 Data Processing System – IBM history
IBM 709 Data Processing System – BRL report, (details of each installation) with photos
IBM 709 page at Columbia University – with photos
709
7 0709
Computer-related introductions in 1958
36-bit computers
|
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] |
206779
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boston%20%281884%29
|
USS Boston (1884)
|
The fifth USS Boston was a protected cruiser and one of the first steel warships of the "New Navy" of the 1880s. In some references she is combined with as the Atlanta class, in others as the Boston class.
Boston was laid down on 15 November 1883 by Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works, Chester, Pennsylvania, launched on 4 December 1884, and commissioned on 2 May 1887 at the New York Navy Yard, Captain Francis M. Ramsay in command.
Design and construction
Boston was ordered as part of the "ABCD" ships, the others being the cruisers and and the dispatch vessel . All were ordered from the same shipyard, John Roach & Sons of Chester, Pennsylvania. However, when Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney initially refused to accept Dolphin, claiming her design was defective, the Roach yard went bankrupt and Boston was completed at the New York Navy Yard, which had little experience with steel-hulled ships.
As-built armament included two /30 caliber Mark 1 guns, six /30 caliber Mark 2 guns, two 6-pounder () guns, two 3-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, two 1-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, and two .45 caliber (11.4 mm) Gatling guns. The 8-inch guns were initially in open barbettes with gun shields added later.
Armor protection was light, with 2-inch (50.8 mm) gun shields and conning tower, and a 1.5-inch (38.1 mm) deck extending over the machinery spaces.
The engineering plant included eight coal-fired cylindrical boilers producing steam and a horizontal compound engine producing driving one shaft. Like the other "ABCD" ships, Boston was built with a sail rig to increase cruising range, later removed. The ship carried up to 490 tons of coal, with a cruising range as built of at .
Refits
In 1900–01 Boston was rebuilt and the 6-inch guns were converted to rapid firing with brass case ammunition replacing powder bags. During her service with the Oregon Naval Militia 1911-16 she retained her original pair of 8"/30 guns and three of the 6"/30 guns, with a single /40 caliber gun added. All armament was removed prior to her conversion to a freighter in 1917.
Service history
Pre-Spanish–American War (Caribbean, Mediterranean, Hawaii)
Boston, being the second cruiser of the New Navy completed, was not ready for active service until 1888. She then made a cruise to Guatemala and Haiti to protect American citizens. She joined the Squadron of Evolution on 30 September 1889 and cruised to the Mediterranean and South America from 7 December 1889 to 29 July 1890, and along the east coast in 1891. Boston departed New York on 24 October 1891 for the Pacific via Cape Horn, arriving at San Francisco on 2 May 1892. Except for a prospective Pacific Squadron commanding officer's cruise to the Hawaiian Islands from 11 August 1892 to 10 October 1893 (in which she provided a shore party in January 1893 that bolstered the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy), she remained on the West Coast until laid up at Mare Island Navy Yard on 4 November 1893.
Spanish–American War
Recommissioned on 15 November 1895, Boston joined the Asiatic Squadron at Yokohama, Japan on 25 February 1896. She remained in East Asia protecting American interests for the next four years and during the Spanish–American War took part in the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May 1898 and the capture of Manila on 13 August 1898. From 4 October to 23 December, Boston and other ships deployed to Taku in China to protect American interests in the wake of a coup d'etat by the Empress Dowager Cixi. Following this, Boston remained in the Philippines assisting in their pacification until 8 June 1899.
Sometime during this overseas deployment, Bostons distinctive sail rig was removed. This is evidence by a photograph taken in 1899 of Boston in the Philippines with pole masts but no cross rigging.
Post-war
Boston returned to San Francisco on 9 August 1899 and went out of commission at Mare Island Navy Yard on 15 September 1899. She remained out of commission until 11 August 1902 and then rejoined the Pacific Squadron. On 7 November 1903, Boston was the first ship of the Pacific Squadron to arrive near Panama to support that country's newly declared independence; a key event in the creation of the Panama Canal. She then cruised in South America, Hawaii, and the US West Coast. From 16 to 25 June 1905, she helped represent the Navy at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition at Portland, Oregon, and from 23 April – 10 May 1906 she helped care for the victims of the San Francisco earthquake and fire. In April 1907 she carried a Honduran peace delegation that ended the Honduran–Nicaraguan War. She went out of commission again at Puget Sound Navy Yard on 10 June 1907.
From 15 June 1911 to September 1916, she served as a training vessel with the Oregon Naval Militia.
World War I
With the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917, Boston was loaned to the United States Shipping Board from 24 May 1917 – June 1918. Boston was converted to a freighter by Seattle Construction & Drydock in 1917–1918. Her guns were most likely removed when she was laid up at Bremerton between September 1916 and March 1917. On 18 June 1918, she was recommissioned at Mare Island Navy Yard as a receiving ship and towed to Yerba Buena Island, California, where she served as a receiving ship until 1940.
World War II
She was renamed Despatch, the sixth U.S. Navy ship to bear that name, on 9 August 1940, thus freeing her original name for use on the new heavy cruiser . From 1940 to October 1945, she was used as a radio school. The old ship was redesignated IX-2 on 17 February 1941.
Despatch was towed to sea and sunk off San Francisco on 7 April 1946.
Legacy
Boston was one of a very few U.S. Navy ships to have served in the Spanish–American War and both world wars. Her 60-year career was one of the longest in the history of the U.S. Navy. At the time of the Second World War, Boston and Olympia were the only surviving ships from the Battle of Manila Bay.
Both of Bostons 8-inch (203-mm) guns were placed at the new Seattle Naval Hospital in 1942. After the hospital closed, the guns went with the site to the new Firlands Sanitarium owned by King County in 1947. At some point after 1952, the guns were moved to Hamlin Park, in Shoreline, Washington. However, county records do not indicate when the guns were placed in the park or why it was done. Of the two guns displayed at Hamlin Park, the easternmost gun bears a plaque which states that the gun fired the first shot of the Battle of Manila Bay. The other bears a plaque crediting the gun with the dismounting of three guns at the Spanish fort of Cavite.
In popular culture
USS Boston was the subject of an episode of The History Guy podcast which was published on 3 July 2019.
Awards
Boston/Despatch earned the following awards in her career spanning six decades:
Battle of Manila Bay Commemorative Medal (a.k.a. Dewey Medal)
Navy Expeditionary Medal (two awards)
Spanish Campaign Medal
Philippine Campaign Medal
World War I Victory Medal
American Defense Service Medal
American Campaign Medal
World War II Victory Medal
Notes
Bibliography
Burr, Lawrence. US Cruisers 1883–1904: The Birth of the Steel Navy. Oxford: Osprey, 2008.
Rentfrow, James C. Home Squadron: The U.S. Navy on the North Atlantic Station. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2014.
Spears, John Randolph. A History of the United States Navy. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1908.
The White Squadron. Toledo, Ohio: Woolson Spice Co., 1891.
The White Squadron: Armed Cruisers, U.S.N. New York: International Art Publ. Co, 1800.
The White Squadron of the U S Navy. New York: James Clarke Publisher, 1894.
External links
Naval History and Heritage Command: USS Boston (1887–1946) photos
USS Boston photo gallery at NavSource.org
USS Boston at SpanAmWar.com
1884 ships
Protected cruisers of the United States Navy
Auxiliary ships of the United States Navy
Ships built by the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works
Spanish–American War cruisers of the United States
Philippine–American War ships of the United States
World War I auxiliary ships of the United States
World War II auxiliary ships of the United States
United States Navy Massachusetts-related ships
Scuttled vessels
Shipwrecks of the California coast
Maritime incidents in 1946
|
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206780
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boston%20%28CA-69%29
|
USS Boston (CA-69)
|
USS Boston (CA-69/CAG-1), a heavy cruiser and later a guided missile cruiser, was the sixth ship of the United States Navy to be named for the U.S. city of Boston, Massachusetts. Boston was launched 26 August 1942 by Bethlehem Steel Company's, Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts sponsored by Mrs Helen Noonan Tobin, wife of the Mayor of Boston, Maurice J. Tobin and commissioned 30 June 1943, with Captain J. H. Carson in command.
Service history
World War II
Boston reported to the Pacific Fleet, arriving at Pearl Harbor 6 December 1943. She joined Task Force 58 (TF 58) in January and took part in the raids on the Marshall Islands in support of the invasions of Kwajalein, Majuro, and of Eniwetok (31 January – 28 February 1944).
Boston also supported the assaults on the Palaus and Western Carolines between 30 March and 1 April, and operations at Hollandia (currently known as Jayapura) and Western New Guinea on 21 – 24 April. The ship participated in the attack on Truk, including bombardment of Satawan Atoll between 29 April – 1 May. Boston supported the invasion of Saipan between 11 and 24 June. She also took part in several raids on the Bonin Islands in June and July and supported the carrier task forces during the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 June. Boston towed the Cleveland-class light cruiser USS Houston after she was torpedoed by a Japanese air attack.
Boston returned to the Marianas, to support the invasion of Guam on 12 July, until the completion of the campaign on 15 August. She also took part in the raids on Palau-Yap-Ulithi between 25 and 27 July, as well as the landings on Morotai on 15 September, and the seizure of the southern Palaus between 6 September – 14 October. She also supported the raids on the Philippine Islands, starting on 9 September until 24 September.
She served with TF 38 during the Okinawa raid on 10 October, and the northern Luzon and Formosa raid on 11–14 October, as well as the Luzon raids on 15 October and 24–26 October, 13–14 November and 19–20 November, and 14–16 December. Boston also participated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf on 24 October, as well as the Formosa raids in January, on 3–4, 9, 15, and 21 January 1945. Further raids on Luzon took place on 6–7 January, with raids on the Chinese mainland on 12 and 16 January. The carrier task force launched a raid on Nansei Shoto on 22 January, and Honshū and Nansei Shoto raids on 15–16 February and 1 March, in which she bombarded Japan.
Boston returned to the United States for overhaul, arriving at Long Beach, California, 25 March 1945. Returning to the Western Pacific, via Pearl Harbor and Eniwetok, she joined TF 38 for further raids on the Japanese home islands (20 July – 15 August), including the bombardment of Kamaishi, Honshū (9 August). Following the surrender of Japan, Boston remained in the Far East on occupation duty until 28 February 1946. She then returned to the United States and was placed out of commission in reserve at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 29 October 1946.
Recommissioned as guided missile cruiser
Boston (along with Canberra and Chicago) was not recommissioned for service during the Korean War as were 10 others of her class, but was earmarked for conversion to carry guided missiles and reclassified CAG-1 on 4 January 1952. In February 1952 she was towed from Bremerton, Washington, to Philadelphia for conversion to a guided missile heavy cruiser by New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey. During conversion her aft 8 inch turret was replaced with, Terrier Surface-to-air missile launchers and she was modernized. Boston was recommissioned 1 November 1955 as the lead ship of her class and operated along the east coast and in the Caribbean conducting missile evaluations and participating in fleet exercises until departing for the Mediterranean 23 November 1956. She returned in May 1957.
After making a Midshipmen's cruise to South America, taking part in NATO exercises in the North Atlantic, and receiving an overhaul, Boston made her second Sixth Fleet tour during June–September 1958. This cruise included participation in the Lebanon crisis. During the next eight years, she frequently operated in the Mediterranean, often in the role of flagship, taking part in exercises off Northern Europe, the Caribbean and off the US East Coast. Boston served as flagship for the recovery effort of the Palomares Incident from February through April 1966.
Vietnam War
In April 1967, Boston returned to the Pacific for the first time in fifteen years, transiting the Panama Canal to begin a tour of combat service with the 7th Fleet. Part of Naval Gunfire Support Task Unit 77.8.9 and Sea Dragon operations off North Vietnam, she fired thousands of rounds of eight and five-inch shells against targets in North and South Vietnam. Though continuing to be based on the East Coast, the cruiser made two more deployments to the Western Pacific, in April–October 1968 and May–November 1969, the only 6th Fleet cruiser to make 3 tours to the combat zone. In May 1968, Boston was reclassified from "Guided-Missile Heavy Cruiser" to "Heavy Cruiser, Attack", reverting to her original hull number, CA-69. Though she retained her Terrier missiles, the swift advance of technology had made these weapons obsolete after little more than a dozen years' service, and her main battery was once again her six, eight-inch guns, of her forward turrets.
Friendly fire incident
On 16–17 June 1968, Boston was conducting naval gunfire support against North Vietnamese targets, in company with the destroyers , and the Australian guided missile destroyer , when he group was attacked by USAF aircraft from the 366th Tactical Fighter Wing. The jets fired two missiles at Boston one exploded off the port beam and the other close aboard to port, showering the ship with fragments. No sailors were injured and the missiles caused only minor structural damage. Hobart was later hit by three missiles, killing two sailors and wounding eight more. The US aircraft came around for a third attack but were scared off when Hobart fired at the aircraft.
Analysis determined that the missiles were AIM-7 Sparrow, designed to be used in an air-to-air role and is not in the inventory of Vietnamese People’s Air Force. Missile fragments found on Boston deck indicated they were manufactured in Waltham, Massachusetts, 11 miles north of Boston.
The ships were in the vicinity of Swift Boats PCF-12 & 19, which had come under attack by North Vietnamese helicopters with PCF-19 sunk and 5 killed. The US Navy officially records the incident as friendly fire.
Decommissioning
While on her last Vietnam cruise thought and funding was given to overhauling Boston (and sister ship ). Her Terrier missile system would have been upgraded to Standard Missile-ER with new radars and equipment for the modern missiles. Her gunnery systems, hull and electronics would have also been overhauled. With the reduction in defence spending, funds were reallocated to more modern ships and Boston sailed for a last visit and family day at her namesake city in late 1969 before decommissioning.
Senator Edward Kennedy had expressed views that she should be retained as a museum ship on the city's waterfront but no plans materialised so she began the inactivation process at Boston Navy Yard's Naval Annex, on the 5 May 1970, was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1973 and sold for scrapping in March 1975. Scrapping was completed in 1976.
Awards
Navy Unit Commendation
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 10 battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal(Asia clasp)
National Defense Service Medal
Vietnam Service Medal with 5 battle stars
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Boston received 10 battle stars for her World War II service, 5 more during the Vietnam War and the Navy Unit Commendation for her naval gunfire support during the Battle of Đông Hà in May 1968.
Boston was honored with the Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation- Gallantry for naval gunfire support and "Sea Dragon" operations during the period 30 July – 30 August 1968 and again for operations, Brave Armada and Durham Peak in June–July 1969.
References
External links
history.navy.mil: USS Boston
hazegray.org: USS Boston
USS Boston Shipmates website
Site devoted to USS "Boston" CA-69 During World War II
Story about the USS Boston during world war 2
Baltimore-class cruisers
Boston-class cruisers
World War II cruisers of the United States
Cold War cruisers of the United States
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
United States Navy Massachusetts-related ships
1942 ships
Vietnam War cruisers of the United States
|
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206785
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laval
|
Laval
|
Laval means The Valley in old French and is the name of:
People
House of Laval, a French noble family originating from the town of Laval, Mayenne
Laval (surname)
Places
Belgium
Laval, a village in the municipality of Sainte-Ode, Luxembourg Province.
Canada
Laval, Quebec, a city and an administrative region coextensive with the city in southern Quebec, Canada, part of the Montreal area
Îles Laval, an archipelago within the limits of the above city
Laval (electoral district), former riding in Canada
Laval (provincial electoral district), former provincial riding in Quebec
Université Laval, a university in Quebec City
Laval Rouge et Or, the university's varsity sports program
France
Arrondissement of Laval, an arrondissement in the Mayenne department in the Pays de la Loire region
Laval, Mayenne, a commune in the Mayenne department
Laval-Atger, a commune in the Lozère department
Laval-d'Aix, a commune in the Drôme department
Laval-d'Aurelle, a commune in the Ardèche department
Laval-de-Cère, a commune in the Lot department
Laval-du-Tarn, a commune in the Lozère department
Laval-en-Belledonne, a commune in the Isère department
Laval-en-Brie, a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department
Laval-en-Laonnois, a commune in the Aisne department
Laval-le-Prieuré, a commune in the Doubs department
Laval-Morency, a commune in the Ardennes department
Laval-Pradel, a commune in the Gard department
Laval-Roquecezière, a commune in the Aveyron department
Laval-Saint-Roman, a commune in the Gard department
Laval-sur-Doulon, a commune in the Haute-Loire department
Laval-sur-Luzège, a commune in the Corrèze department
Laval-sur-Tourbe, a commune in the Marne department
Laval-sur-Vologne, a commune in the Vosges department
Bonchamp-lès-Laval, a commune in the Mayenne department
Le Poët-Laval, a commune in the Drôme department
Magnac-Laval, a commune in the Haute-Vienne department
Mont-de-Laval, a commune in the Doubs department
Saint-Genis-Laval, a commune in the Rhône department
Saint-Germain-Laval, Loire, a commune in the Loire department
Saint-Germain-Laval, Seine-et-Marne, a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department
Saint-Pierre-Laval, a commune in the Allier department
Viols-en-Laval, a commune in the Hérault department
Other
Name of the prince of the Lion Tribe and protagonist of the Legends of Chima series
Stade Lavallois, an association football club in France
See also
La Val, a comune in South Tyrol, Italy
Leval (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laval%2C%20Quebec
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Laval, Quebec
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Laval (; ) is a Canadian city in southwestern Quebec, north of Montreal. It is the largest suburb of Montreal, the third-largest city in the province after Montreal and Quebec City, and the thirteenth largest city in Canada with a population of 422,993 in 2016.
Laval is geographically separated from the mainland to the north by the Rivière des Mille Îles, and from the Island of Montreal to the south by the Rivière des Prairies. Laval occupies all of Île Jésus as well as the Îles Laval.
Laval forms its own administrative region in Quebec which constitutes the 13th region of the 17 administrative regions of Quebec as well as a territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) and census division (CD) with geographical code 65. It also constitutes the judicial district of Laval.
History
The first European Settlers in Laval were Jesuits, who were granted a seigneury there in 1636. Agriculture first appeared in Laval in 1670. In 1675, François de Montmorency-Laval gained control of the seigneury. In 1702 a parish municipality was founded, and dedicated to Saint-François de Sales (not to be confused with the modern-day Saint-François-de-Sales in Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean).
In 1845, after nearly 200 years being of a rural nature, additional municipalities began to be created. The only built-up area on the island, Sainte-Rose, was incorporated as a village in 1850, and it remained the main community for the remainder of the century. With the dawn of the 20th century came urbanization. Laval-des-Rapides became Laval's first city in 1912, followed by , which was granted village status three years later. Laval-sur-le-Lac was founded in the same year and had its tourist-based economy based on Montrealers. Laval began to grow throughout the following years because its proximity to Montreal made it an ideal suburb.
To deal with problems caused by urbanization, amalgamations occurred; L'Abord-à-Plouffe amalgamated with and Saint-Martin, creating the city of Chomedey in 1961. The amalgamation turned out to be so successful for the municipalities involved that the Quebec government decided to amalgamate the whole island into a single city of Laval in 1965, not without controversy. Laval was named after the first owner of Île Jésus, François de Montmorency-Laval, the first Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec. At the time, Laval had a population of 170,000. Laval became a Regional County Municipality in 1980. Until then, it had been the County of Laval.
The 14 municipalities, which existed prior to the incorporation of the amalgamated City of Laval on 6 August 1965, were:
Geography
The island has developed over time, with most of the urban area in the central region and along the south and west river banks.
Laval is bordered on the south by Montreal across the Rivière des Prairies, on the north by Les Moulins Regional County Municipality and by Thérèse-De Blainville Regional County Municipality and on the west by Deux-Montagnes Regional County Municipality across the Rivière des Mille Îles.
Climate
Laval experiences a four season humid continental climate (Koppen: Dfb) with very warm summers and very cold winters with adequate precipitation year round, though more so during summer and early fall.
Demographics
According to the 2016 Census, the population of Laval was an estimated 422,993, a 5.3 percent increase from the earlier census in 2011. Women constituted 51.4% of the total population. Children under 14 years of age totalled 17.4%, while 17.2% of the population was of retirement age (65 years of age and older). The median age was calculated as 41.9 years.
Laval is linguistically diverse. The 2011 census found that French was the sole mother tongue of 60.8% of the population, and was spoken most often at home by 65.2% of residents. The next most common mother tongues were English (7.0%), Arabic (5.6%), Italian (4.2%), Greek (3.5%), Spanish (2.9%), Armenian (1.7%), Creoles (1.6%), Romanian (1.3%) and Portuguese (1.3%).
Migration
Government
Municipal politics
The city's longtime mayor, Gilles Vaillancourt, resigned on 9 November 2012, following allegations of corruption made against him in hearings of the provincial Charbonneau Commission. City councillor Basile Angelopoulos served as acting mayor until Alexandre Duplessis was selected in a council vote on 23 November. Duplessis, in turn, stepped down after just seven months in office after facing allegations of being implicated in a prostitution investigation; he was succeeded by city councillor Martine Beaugrand until the city's new mayor, Marc Demers, was elected in the 2013 municipal election.
Past mayors have been:
Jean-Noël Lavoie (founding mayor), 1965
Jacques Tétreault, 1965–1973
Lucien Paiement, 1973–1981
Claude Lefebvre, 1981–1989
Gilles Vaillancourt, 1989–2012
Alexandre Duplessis, 2012–2013
Martine Beaugrand, 2013
Marc Demers, 2013–2021
Stéphane Boyer, 2021–present
On 3 June 2013, the provincial government of Pauline Marois placed the city under trusteeship due to the ongoing corruption scandal affecting the city. Florent Gagné, a former head of the Sûreté du Québec, will serve as the city's head trustee, with responsibility for reviewing and approving or rejecting all decisions made by city council. Municipal Affairs Minister Sylvain Gaudreault said that Laval's Mayor Alexandre Duplessis and his council will continue to serve, but council decisions must be approved by the trustees. Duplessis, in turn, resigned as mayor on 28 June 2013, after being implicated in a separate prostitution allegation.
Flag, seal and motto
On a white-yellow background, the emblem of Laval illustrates the modernism of a city in full expansion. The sign of the city symbolizes the "L" of Laval.
The colours also have a significant meaning:
Dark red represents the affluence and economic potential of Laval.
Blue symbolizes the quality of life and the installation of a human city.
The "L" of Laval is made of cubes that represent the development of Laval.
The letters of the Laval signature are related one to the other to point out the merger of the 14 municipalities of Jesus island in 1965.
The logo (that is on the flag) has existed since the 1980s and the flag since the 1990s.
Federal and provincial politics
Politically, Laval has been historically a battleground area between the Quebec separatist parties (the Bloc Québécois federally and the Parti Québécois provincially) and the federalist parties (various parties federally and the Quebec Liberal Party provincially). The only exception is Chomedey in the south, which voted overwhelmingly to not separate in the 1995 Quebec referendum.
The other parts of Laval have drifted to the provincial Liberals in recent years. While the PQ held every Laval riding except Chomedey during their second stint in government between 1994 and 2003, the Liberals won every Laval riding in 2003, 2007, and 2008. During the 2012 election, the PQ saw some gains in Laval when they captured 2 seats, but both returned to the Liberal fold during the 2014 election.
Economy
Laval's diverse economy is centred around the technology, pharmaceutical, industrial and retail sectors. It has many pharmaceutical laboratories but also stone quarries and a persistent agricultural sector. Long seen as a bedroom community, Laval has diversified its economy, especially in the retail sector, developing numerous shopping malls, warehouses and various retail stores. Laval has four different industrial parks.
The first is Industrial Park Centre, in the heart of Laval at the corner of St. Martin West and Industriel Blvd. One of the largest municipal industrial parks in Quebec, the Industrial Park Centre boasts the highest concentration of manufacturing companies in Laval: 1,024 at last count, and 22,378 employees. The park still has of space available.
The second, the Autoroute 25 Industrial Park is at the crossroads of the metropolitan road network. Inaugurated in 2001, this new industrial municipal space has been a tremendous success, boasting an 80% occupancy rate. Laval is studying the possibility of expanding this park in the next few years.
The third, known as Industrial Park East, is in the neighbourhood of Saint-Vincent-de-Paul. This park has reached full capacity with a 100% occupancy rate. Industrial Park East is currently part of a municipal program to revitalize municipal services and public utilities. Laval is working with a private developer on an expansion project for the park that should be announced in the near future.
The fourth industrial park, the Laval Science and High Technology Park is located along Rivière des Prairies and Autoroute 15. It is an internationally renowned science campus that houses the Biotech City and the Information Technology Development Centre (ITDC). The Laval Science and High Technology Park is a beacon of the metropolitan economy, in an environment befitting the best technopolises in the world. Nearly of space are available for development. The Biotech City spans the entire territory of the Laval Science and High Technology Park and is a unique concept in Canada in that its residents comprise both universities and companies.
Created in 1995, Laval Technopole is a nonprofit organization that has the objective to promote the economic growth of Laval by attracting and supporting new business and investments located in its 5 territory poles: Biopole, e-Pol, Agropole, industrial pole and Leisure/tourism.
Alimentation Couche-Tard has its headquarters in Laval.
Sport
Laval was the host-city of the "Jeux du Québec" held in summer 1991 and of the Canadian Hockey League's 1994 Memorial Cup. Laval became home to the Montreal Canadiens' American Hockey League affiliate the Laval Rocket, starting in the 2017–18 season.
Transportation
Roads
Highways
A-13 (Chomedey Highway) – Montreal to Boisbriand
A-15 (Laurentian Highway) – New York state to Sainte-Agathe-des-Monts
A-19 (Papineau Highway) – Montreal to Boulevard Dagenais, continues as Route 335 to Bois-des-Filion and beyond
A-25 – Boucherville to Saint-Esprit via Montreal and the A-440 (Laval)
A-440 (Autoroute Jean-Noël-Lavoie) – Laval
Provincial routes
Route 117 – Montreal to Ontario Highway 66 past Rouyn-Noranda
Route 125 – Montreal to Saint-Donat
Route 148 – Laval to Pembroke, Ontario
Route 335 – Montreal to the Lanaudière region past Saint-Calixte
Incidents
2000 Boulevard du Souvenir overpass collapse: On 18 June 2000, during renovations to the Souvenir Boulevard overpass over Highway 15, the southern section collapsed onto the highway, causing the death of one person.
De la Concorde Overpass collapse: On 30 September 2006, the De la Concorde overpass over Autoroute 19 suddenly collapsed killing five people.
Public transit
Montreal Metro
In April 2007, the Montreal Metro was extended to Laval with three stations. The long-awaited stations were begun in 2003 and completed in April 2007, two months ahead of the revised schedule, at a cost of C$803 million, funded entirely by the Quebec government. The stations are Cartier, De La Concorde, and Montmorency. The arrival of the Metro in Laval was long-awaited as it was first promised in the 1960s. Former mayor, Gilles Vaillancourt, announced his wish to loop the Orange line from Montmorency to Côte-Vertu stations with the addition of six new stations (three in Laval and another three in Montreal). He proposed that Transports Quebec, the provincial transport department, set aside C$100 million annually to fund the project, which was expected to cost upwards of $1.5 billion.
Commuter rail
The Exo public transit agency's Saint-Jérôme commuter train line traverses the island, connecting Laval to downtown Montreal. There are currently three train stations in Laval: De la Concorde (an intermodal station offering transfer to the metro), Vimont and Sainte-Rose.
The Deux-Montagnes commuter train line served the western tip of Laval until it was closed on December 31, 2020. Work is underway to replace it with the Réseau express métropolitain (REM) light metro system.
Buses
The Société de transport de Laval (STL) provides local bus service in Laval. The STL's network consists of 35 regular lines, two rush hour lines, two trainbus lines, three express lines, one community circuit and several taxi lines.
There are reserved lanes for buses and taxis on Chomedey Blvd between Le Carrefour Blvd and the Des Prairies River (Lachapelle Bridge) and beyond as well as along boulevard des Laurentides between rue Proulx and boulevard Cartier (the reserved lane, in this case for buses only, continues onto the Pont Viau bridge into Montreal until the Terminus Laval at the Henri-Bourassa Metro station). Most buses that use the reserved lane end their journey at the Cartier Metro station. The AMT and the City of Laval have developed reserved bus and taxi lanes on Notre-Dame Boulevard between Vincent Massey Street and Place Alton-Goldbloom and another on De la Concorde Blvd between De l'Avenir and Laval Blvds, as well as between Ampere Ave and Roanne St. These reserved lanes (Notre-Dame and De la Concorde are the same boulevard but change name where they meet under Autoroute 15) opened shortly after 31 October 2007.
Education
Laval is home to a variety of vocational/technical centres, colleges and universities, including:
The city has two separate school boards serving Laval: the Centre de services scolaire de Laval (formerly the Commission scolaire de Laval) for French-speaking students and the Sir Wilfrid Laurier School Board for English-speaking students. There is one community English-language high school in the city: Laval Senior Academy, created on 1 July 2015 by the merger of Laval Liberty High School and Laurier Senior High School.
North Star Academy Laval is the only private English high school in Laval. They offer secondary 1 to 5 and the possibility to do a grade 12 diploma from Ontario via their online platform.
Attractions
Laval's main attractions are:
Source: Tourisme Laval.
Media
Laval is served by media from Montreal, however it does have some of its own regional media outlets.
Two radio stations are licensed to serve the city: CJLV 1570 AM "Radio Mieux-être" (formerly CFAV) and CFGL 105.7 FM "Rythme FM".
Additionally, there are three major newspapers in Laval: the bi-weekly English-language The Laval News, the bi-weekly French-language Le Courrier Laval and the weekly French-language L'Écho de Laval.
One television community channel operates on Laval's territory, Télévision régionale de Laval, as part of Videotron cable's VOX network.
Twin towns – sister cities
Laval is twinned with:
Botoșani, Romania
Klagenfurt, Austria
Laval, France
Manila, Philippines
Nice, France
Pedro Aguirre Cerda, Chile
Ribeira Grande, Portugal
San Salvador, El Salvador
Friendship and cooperation
Laval also cooperates with:
Grenoble, France
Mudanjiang, China
Padua Province, Italy
Petah Tikva, Israel
Saskatoon, Canada
See also
List of people from Laval, Quebec
List of Quebec regions
List of crossings of the Rivière des Mille Îles
List of crossings of the Rivière des Prairies
Bibliothèque de Laval
References
External links
Cities and towns in Quebec
Territories equivalent to a regional county municipality
1965 establishments in Quebec
Populated places established in 1636
1636 establishments in the French colonial empire
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206790
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirochaete
|
Spirochaete
|
A spirochaete () or spirochete is a member of the phylum Spirochaetota (), which contains distinctive diderm (double-membrane) gram-negative bacteria, most of which have long, helically coiled (corkscrew-shaped or spiraled, hence the name) cells. Spirochaetes are chemoheterotrophic in nature, with lengths between 3 and 500 μm and diameters around 0.09 to at least 3 μm.
Spirochaetes are distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their flagella, called endoflagella which are sometimes called axial filaments. Endoflagella are anchored at each end (pole) of the bacterium within the periplasmic space (between the inner and outer membranes) where they project backwards to extend the length of the cell. These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about. When reproducing, a spirochaete will undergo asexual transverse binary fission. Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are numerous exceptions. Spirochaete bacteria are diverse in their pathogenic capacity and the ecological niches that they inhabit, as well as molecular characteristics including guanine-cytosine content and genome size.
Pathogenicity
Many organisms within the Spirochaetota phylum cause prevalent diseases. Pathogenic members of this phylum include the following:
Leptospira species, which causes leptospirosis
Borrelia burgdorferi, B. mayonii, B. bissettiae, B. garinii, B. afzelii, B. spielmanii, B. lusitaniae, which cause Lyme disease.
Borrelia recurrentis, which causes relapsing fever
Treponema pallidum subspecies which cause treponematoses such as syphilis and yaws.
Brachyspira pilosicoli and Brachyspira aalborgi, which cause intestinal spirochaetosis
Salvarsan, the first partially organic synthetic antimicrobial drug in medical history, was effective against spirochaetes and primarily used to cure syphilis. Additionally, oral spirochaetes are known to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of human periodontal disease.
Taxonomy and molecular signatures
The class currently consists of 14 validly named genera across 4 orders and 5 families. The orders Brachyspirales, Brevinematales and Leptospirales each contain a single family, Brachyspiraceae, Brevinemataceae and Leptospiraceae, respectively. The Spirochaetales order harbours two families, Spirochaetaceae and Borreliaceae. Molecular markers in the form of conserved signature indels (CSIs) and CSPs have been found specific for each of the orders, with the exception of Brevinimetales, that provide a reliable means to demarcate these clades from one another within the diverse phylum. Additional CSIs have been found exclusively shared by each family within the Spirochaetales. These molecular markers are in agreement with the observed phylogenetic tree branching of two monophyletic clades within the Spirochaetales order. CSIs have also been found that further differentiate taxonomic groups within the Borreliaceae family that further delineate evolutionary relationships that are in accordance with physical characteristics such as pathogenicity (viz. Borrelia emend. Borreliella gen. nov.). However, this study has been criticized, and other studies using different approaches do not support the proposed split. The new naming system for the Lyme and relapsing fever Borrelia has not been adopted by the scientific literature.
A CSI has also been found exclusively shared by all Spirochaetota species. This CSI is a 3 amino acid insert in the flagellar basal body rod protein FlgC which is an important part of the unique endoflagellar structure shared by Spirochaetota species. Given that the CSI is exclusively shared by members within this phylum, it has been postulated that it may be related to the characteristic flagellar properties observed among Spirochaetota species.
Historically, all families belonging to the Spirochaetota phylum were assigned to a single order, the Spirochaetales. However, the current taxonomic view is more connotative of accurate evolutionary relationships. The distribution of a CSI is indicative of shared ancestry within the clade for which it is specific. It thus functions as a synapomorphic characteristic, so that the distributions of different CSIs provide the means to identify different orders and families within the phylum and so justify the phylogenetic divisions.
Phylogeny
The phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 132 by The All-Species Living Tree Project.
Taxonomy
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
Phylum Spirochaetota Garrity and Holt 2021
Class Spirochaetia Paster 2020
Order Leptospirales Gupta et al. 2014
Family Leptospiraceae Hovind-Hougen 1979
Genus Leptonema Hovind-Hougen 1983
Genus Leptospira Noguchi 1917
Genus Turneriella Levett et al. 2005
Order Brachyspirales corrig. Gupta et al. 2014
Family Brachyspiraceae Paster 2012
Genus Brachyspira Hovind-Hougen et al. 1982
Order Brevinematales Gupta et al. 2014
Family Brevinemataceae Paster 2012
Genus Brevinema Defosse et al. 1995
Order Spirochaetales Buchanan 1917
Genus Exilispira Imachi et al. 2008
Genus Alkalispirochaeta Sravanthi et al. 2016
Genus Oceanispirochaeta Subhash & Lee 2017b
Genus Pleomorphochaeta Arroua et al. 2016
Genus Sediminispirochaeta Shivani et al. 2016
Genus Sphaerochaeta Ritalahti et al. 2012
Family Borreliaceae Gupta et al. 2014
Genus Borrelia Swellengrebel 1907 (relapsing fever Borrelia, Lyme borreliosis Borrelia, reptile-associated Borrelia and Echidna-associated Borrelia)
Genus Cristispira pectinis Gross 1910
Family Spirochaetaceae Swellengrebel 1907
Genus ?Clevelandina reticulitermitidis ♦ Bermudes et al. 1988
Genus ?Diplocalyx calotermitidis ♦ (ex Gharagozlou 1968) Bermudes et al. 1988
Genus ?Hollandina pterotermitidis ♦ (ex To et al. 1978) Bermudes et al. 1988
Genus ?Pillotina calotermitidis ♦ (ex Hollande and Gharagozlou 1967) Bermudes et al. 1988
Genus Marispirochaeta Shivani et al. 2017
Genus Spirochaeta Ehrenberg 1835 emend. Pikuta et al. 2009
Genus Treponema Schaudinn 1905 emend Abt et al. 2013
Notes:
♦ Type strain lost or not available
♪ Prokaryotes where no pure (axenic) cultures are isolated or available, i.e. not cultivated or can not be sustained in culture for more than a few serial passages
♠ Strains found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) but not listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LSPN)
See also
Bacteriology
Borrelia
Flagellum
Lyme disease microbiology
Pinta (disease)
Prokaryote
Treponema pallidum
Brevinema andersonii
Syphilis
Yaws
References
External links
Introduction to the Spirochetes University of California Museum of Paleontology (UCMP)
Bacteria phyla
|
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206795
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland%20Institute%20for%20Science
|
Rowland Institute for Science
|
The Rowland Institute for Science was founded by Edwin H. Land, founder of Polaroid Corporation, as a nonprofit, privately endowed basic research organization in 1980. The institute merged with Harvard University on July 1, 2002, and is now called The Rowland Institute at Harvard. The Rowland Institute is dedicated to experimental science across a wide range of disciplines. Research subjects at the institute includes chemistry, physics and biology, and focus on interdisciplinary work and the development of new experimental tools. It is located on the Charles River near Kendall Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and is a few miles away from the main campus of Harvard.
Rowland Fellows
The flagship program at the Rowland Institute is the Fellows Program. The program supports early career experimental scientists. Rowland Fellows receive funding for salary and research expenses and are allocated their own laboratory space. The Rowland Institute also provides technical support from permanent expert staff. The Fellowship lasts for five years, with continuation past two years contingent on a favorable internal review.
Notable members and alumni
Howard Berg - biophysicist noted for his work on the motility of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli)
Steven Block - pioneered the use of optical tweezers to study step dynamics of kinesin and RNA polymerase on DNA templates
Colleen Cavanaugh - microbiologist recognized for her studies of hydrothermal vent ecosystems
Donald A. Glaser - physicist, neurobiologist, and winner of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing the bubble chamber
Jene Golovchenko - physicist noted for his work on materials for whole genome sequencing
Lene Hau - physicist noted for her work on Bose–Einstein condensate, and ultracold atomic system optics
Winfield Hill - co-authored the popular text The Art of Electronics with Harvard Physicist Paul Horowitz
Past Directors
Edwin H. Land: 1980 - 1992
Phil Dubois: 1992 - 1997
Michael Burns: 1998 - 2002
Frans Spaepen: 2002 - 2013
Cynthia Friend: 2013 - 2019
Andrew Murray: 2020–present
References
Harvard University
Multidisciplinary research institutes
Research institutes in Massachusetts
Scientific organizations
Science and technology studies associations
Research institutes established in 1980
1980 establishments in Massachusetts
|
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206797
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating%20environment
|
Operating environment
|
In computer software, an operating environment or integrated applications environment is the environment in which users run application software. The environment consists of a user interface provided by an applications manager and usually an application programming interface (API) to the applications manager.
An operating environment is not a full operating system, but is a form of middleware that rests between the OS and the application. For example, the first version of Microsoft Windows, Windows 1.0, was not a full operating system, but a GUI laid over DOS albeit with an API of its own. Similarly, the IBM U2 system operates on both Unix/Linux and Windows NT. Usually the user interface is text-based or graphical, rather than a command-line interface (e.g., DOS or the Unix shell), which is often the interface of the underlying operating system.
In the mid 1980s, text-based and graphical user interface operating environments surrounded DOS operating systems with a shell that turned the user's display into a menu-oriented "desktop" for selecting and running PC applications. These operating environment systems allow users much of the convenience of integrated software without locking them into a single package.
History
DOS operating environments
In the mid 1980s, text-based and graphical user interface operating environments such as IBM TopView, Microsoft Windows, Digital Research's GEM Desktop, GEOS and Quarterdeck Office Systems's DESQview surrounded DOS operating systems with a shell that turned the user's display into a menu-oriented "desktop" for selecting and running PC applications. These programs were more than simple menu systems—as alternate operating environments they were substitutes for integrated programs such as Framework and Symphony, that allowed switching, windowing, and cut-and-paste operations among dedicated applications. These operating environment systems gave users much of the convenience of integrated software without locking them into a single package. Alternative operating environments made TSR pop-up utilities such as Borland Sidekick redundant. Windows provided its own version of these utilities, and placing them under central control could eliminate memory conflicts that RAM-resident utilities create. In later versions, Windows evolved from an operating environment into a complete operating system with DOS as a bootloader (Windows 9x) and a complete operating system, Windows NT, was developed at the same time. All versions after Windows ME have been based on the Windows NT kernel.
See also
Desktop environment, the graphical user interface to the computer
File manager
Integrated environment
Integrated development environment, a type of computer software that assists computer programmers in developing software
Runtime environment, a virtual machine state which provides software services for processes or programs while a computer is running
X Window System
References
Computing terminology
Middleware
Operating system APIs
User interfaces
|
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206798
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ele%20J%C3%A9sus
|
Île Jésus
|
Île Jésus (, Jesus Island) is a river island in southwestern Quebec, separated from the mainland to the north by the Rivière des Mille Îles, and from the Island of Montreal to the south by the Rivière des Prairies.
The second-largest () island in the Hochelaga Archipelago (after the Island of Montreal), Île Jésus is the major component of the City of Laval, along with the Îles Laval and several other islands. The island still has a considerable rural portion, with most of the urban area in the central region and along the south and west river banks.
Former cities
Auteuil
Chomedey
Duvernay
Fabreville
Îles Laval
Laval-Ouest
Laval-des-Rapides
Laval-sur-le-Lac
Pont-Viau
Saint-François
Saint-Vincent-de-Paul
Sainte-Dorothée
Sainte-Rose
Vimont
See also
Olivier Charbonneau
List of islands of Quebec
External links
City of Laval official website
www.INFOLaval.com Online Commercial and Industrial directory of the island of Laval. (French - English)
Jesus
Landforms of Laval, Quebec
Canada geography articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
|
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206805
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20Person%20of%20the%20Year
|
Time Person of the Year
|
Person of the Year (called Man of the Year or Woman of the Year until 1999) is an annual issue of the United States news magazine and website Time featuring a person, a group, an idea, or an object that "for better or for worse... has done the most to influence the events of the year". Time also runs an annual reader's poll that has no effect on the selection, which is made solely by the magazine's editors.
Background
The tradition of selecting a "Man of the Year" began in 1927, with Time editors contemplating the news makers of the year. The idea was also an attempt to remedy the editorial embarrassment earlier that year of not having aviator Charles Lindbergh on its cover following his historic trans-Atlantic flight. By the end of the year, it was decided that a cover story featuring Lindbergh as the Man of the Year would serve both purposes.
Selection
U.S. presidents
Since the list began, every serving president of the United States has been a Man or Person of the Year at least once with the exceptions of Calvin Coolidge (in office at time of the first issue), Herbert Hoover (the subsequent U.S. president), and Gerald Ford. Most were named Man or Person of the Year either the year they were elected or while they were in office; the only one to be given the title before being elected is Dwight D. Eisenhower, in 1944 as Supreme Commander of the Allied Invasion Force, eight years before his election. He subsequently received the title again in 1959, while in office. Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only person to have received the title three times, first as president-elect (1932) and later as the incumbent president (1934 and 1941).
Women
Before 1999, four women were granted the title as individuals: three as "Woman of the Year"—Wallis Simpson (1936), Queen Elizabeth II (1952), and Corazon Aquino (1986)—and one as half of the "Man and Wife of the Year", Soong Mei-ling (1937). "American Women" were recognized as a group in 1975. Other classes of people recognized comprise both men and women, such as "Hungarian Freedom Fighters" (1956), "U.S. Scientists" (1960), "The Inheritors" (1966), "The Middle Americans" (1969), "The American Soldier" (1950 and 2003), "You" (2006), "The Protester" (2011) represented on the cover by a woman, and "Ebola fighters" (2014). However, the title on the magazine remained "Man of The Year" for both the 1956 "Hungarian Freedom Fighter" and the 1966 "Twenty-five and Under" editions which both featured a woman standing behind a man, and "Men of the Year" on the 1960 "U.S. Scientists" edition which exclusively featured men on its cover. It was not until the 1969 edition on "The Middle Americans" that the title embraced "Man and Woman of the Year".
In 1999, the title was changed to Person of the Year. Women who have been selected for recognition after the renaming include "The Whistleblowers" (Cynthia Cooper, Coleen Rowley, and Sherron Watkins) in 2002, Melinda Gates (jointly with Bill Gates and Bono) in 2005, Angela Merkel in 2015, "The Silence Breakers" in 2017, Greta Thunberg in 2019 and Kamala Harris (jointly with Joe Biden) in 2020.
In 2020, to celebrate International Women's Day, Time editors released 89 new Time covers, each showing women, in addition to the 11 already chosen, as counterparts to the Person of the Year choices from the past century.
Groups and non-humans
Despite the name, the title is not just granted to individuals. Pairs of people such as married couples and political opponents, classes of people, and inanimate objects have all been selected for the special year-end issue.
Multiple named people
Chiang Kai-shek and Soong Mei-ling, President and First Lady of China (1937)
William Anders, Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, crew of Apollo 8 (1968)
Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, political allies (1972)
Ronald Reagan and Yuri Andropov, Cold War rivals (1983)
Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk; Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin, political leaders leading peace negotiations (1993)
Bill Clinton and Ken Starr, key figures in the Clinton impeachment (1998)
Cynthia Cooper, Coleen Rowley and Sherron Watkins, whistleblowers (2002)
Bill Gates, Melinda Gates and Bono, philanthropists (2005)
Joe Biden and Kamala Harris, President-Elect and Vice President-Elect (2020)
Classes of unnamed people
The American fighting-man / The American soldier (1950, 2003)
The Hungarian freedom fighter (1956)
U.S. scientists (1960)
The Inheritor (1966)
Middle Americans (1969)
American women (1975)
You (2006)
The Protester (2011)
Ebola fighters (2014)
The Silence Breakers (2017)
The Guardians (2018)
Inanimate objects
The Computer (Machine of the Year, 1982)
The Endangered Earth (Planet of the Year, 1988)
Special editions
In 1949, Winston Churchill was named "Man of the Half-Century", and the last issue of 1989 named Mikhail Gorbachev as "Man of the Decade". The December 31, 1999 issue of Time named Albert Einstein the "Person of the Century". Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mahatma Gandhi were chosen as runners-up.
Controversial choices
Despite the magazine's frequent statements to the contrary, the designation is often regarded as an honor, and spoken of as an award or prize, simply based on many previous selections of admirable people. However, Time magazine points out that controversial figures such as Adolf Hitler (1938), Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942), Nikita Khrushchev (1957) and Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) have also been granted the title for their impact on events.
As a result of the public backlash it received from the United States for naming Khomeini as Man of the Year in 1979, Time has since shied away from using figures who are controversial in the United States for commercial reasons, fearing reductions in sales or advertising revenue.
Times Person of the Year 2001, immediately following the September 11, 2001 attacks, was New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani. The stated rules of selection, the individual or group of individuals who have had the biggest effect on the year's news, made Osama bin Laden the more likely choice that year. The issue that declared Giuliani the Person of the Year included an article that mentioned Time's earlier decision to select Ayatollah Khomeini and the 1999 rejection of Hitler as "Person of the Century". The article seemed to imply that Osama bin Laden was a stronger candidate than Giuliani, as Adolf Hitler was a stronger candidate than Albert Einstein. The selections were ultimately based on what the magazine describes as who they believed had a stronger influence on history and who represented either the year or the century the most. According to Time, Giuliani was selected for symbolizing the American response to the September 11th attacks, and Albert Einstein selected for representing a century of scientific exploration and wonder.
Another controversial choice was the 2006 selection of "You", representing most if not all people for advancing the information age by using the Internet (via e.g. blogs, MySpace, YouTube, and Wikipedia).
Withdrawn selections
In 1941, the fictional elephant Dumbo from the Disney movie of the same name was selected to be "Mammal of the Year", and a cover was created showing Dumbo in a formal portrait style. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 pre-empted the cover. The U.S. president Franklin Delano Roosevelt was named Man of the Year for a record third time, although Dumbo's Mammal of the Year profile still appeared on the inside pages of the magazine.
Film-maker Michael Moore claims that director Mel Gibson cost him the opportunity to be Person of the Year alongside Gibson in 2004. Moore's controversial political documentary Fahrenheit 9/11 became the highest-grossing documentary of all time the same year Gibson's The Passion of the Christ became a box-office success and also caused significant controversy. Moore said in an interview "I got a call right after the '04 election from an editor from Time Magazine. He said,' Time Magazine has picked you and Mel Gibson to be Times Person of the Year to put on the cover, Right and Left, Mel and Mike. The only thing you have to do is pose for a picture with each other. And do an interview together.' I said 'OK.' They call Mel up, he agrees. They set the date and time in LA. I'm to fly there. He's flying from Australia. Something happens when he gets home... Next thing, Mel calls up and says, 'I'm not doing it. I've thought it over and it is not the right thing to do.' So they put Bush on the cover."
On November 24, 2017, U.S. president Donald Trump, who had been Person of the Year in 2016, posted on the social media network Twitter that Time editors had told him he would "probably" be named Person of the Year for a second time, conditional on an interview and photo shoot which he had refused. Time denied that they had made any such promises or conditions to Trump, who was named a runner-up.
Persons of the Year
Other categories
In addition to the main Person of the Year list, Time has acknowledged other impactful people or groups in other categories.
Entertainer of the Year
Athlete of the Year
Businessperson of the Year
Online poll
Time magazine also holds an online poll for the readers to vote for who they believe to be the Person of the Year. While many mistakenly believe the winner of the poll to be the Person of the Year, the title, as mentioned above, is decided by the editors of Time. Time continues to annually run an online poll for the "People's Choice", but stresses the decision on whom the magazine recognizes is not made by the poll, but by the magazine's editors.
See also
Canadian Newsmaker of the Year (Time), printed in the Canadian issue of Time until 2008
Breakthrough of the Year
Forbes list of The World's Most Powerful People
References
External links
Annual magazine issues
Celebrity
Time (magazine)
|
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] |
206806
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer
|
Observer
|
An observer is one who engages in observation or in watching an experiment.
Observer may also refer to:
Computer science and information theory
In information theory, any system which receives information from an object
State observer in control theory, a system that models a real system in order to provide an estimate of its internal state
Observer pattern, a design pattern used in computer programming
Fiction
Observer (video game), a cyberpunk horror video game
Observer (Mystery Science Theater 3000), a fictional television character
Observers, beings in the television show Fringe
Military
Air observer, an aircrew member
Artillery observer, a front line personnel who directs fire discipline for artillery strikes
Royal Observer Corps, a civil defence organisation, originally tasked with reporting enemy aircraft
Observer, a non-participating officer, or umpire, tasked with observing the actions of soldiers during a field training or military exercise
Music
"Observer", a song by Gary Numan on his album The Pleasure Principle
"The Observer", a track from The Flaming Lips' 1999 album The Soft Bulletin
The Observers, an alternative name for reggae session band Soul Syndicate
Niney the Observer (born 1951), Jamaican record producer and singer
Publications
Observer.com, an online-only version of the weekly newspaper The New York Observer
Sunday Observer (Sri Lanka), a weekly newspaper
Observer (APS), a member magazine of Association for Psychological Science
The Observer (disambiguation), any of various periodicals
Science
Observer (general relativity)
Observer (meteorological)
Observer (physics)
Observer (quantum physics)
Observer (special relativity)
Observational astronomy
Other uses
Observer status, granted by an organization to allow a non-member limited participation
An election observer, one who assists in election monitoring
A game official sometimes used in the sport Ultimate
The Observer type in the Enneagram of Personality model
Donald Alaster Macdonald (1859–1932), Australian journalist who wrote under the pseudonym 'Observer'
See also
Observer effect (disambiguation)
National Observer (disambiguation), a variety of publications
United Nations Military Observer
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumen%20Field
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Lumen Field
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Lumen Field is a multi-purpose stadium in Seattle, Washington, United States. Located in the city's SoDo neighborhood, it is the home field for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League (NFL), the Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer (MLS), and OL Reign of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). Originally called Seahawks Stadium, it was renamed Qwest Field in June 2004 when telecommunications carrier Qwest acquired the naming rights. It became known as CenturyLink Field in June 2011 after Qwest's acquisition by CenturyLink, and then received its current name in November 2020 with CenturyLink's rebrand to Lumen Technologies. It is a modern facility with views of the Downtown Seattle skyline and a seating capacity of 68,740 spectators for NFL games and 37,722 for most MLS matches. The complex also includes the Event Center which is home to the Washington Music Theater (WAMU Theater), a parking garage, and a public plaza. The venue hosts concerts, trade shows, and consumer shows along with sporting events. Located within a mile (1.6 km) of Downtown Seattle, the stadium is accessible by multiple freeways and forms of mass transit.
The stadium was built between 2000 and 2002 on the site of the Kingdome after voters approved funding for the construction in a statewide election held in June 1997. This vote created the Washington State Public Stadium Authority to oversee public ownership of the venue. The owner of the Seahawks, Paul Allen, formed First & Goal Inc. to develop and operate the new facilities. Allen was closely involved in the design process and emphasized the importance of an open-air venue with an intimate atmosphere.
Seahawks fans at Lumen Field have twice claimed the Guinness World Record for loudest crowd roar at an outdoor stadium, first at 136.6 decibels in 2013, followed by a measurement of 137.6 decibels in 2014. The crowd's notorious noise has also contributed to the team's home field advantage with an increase in false start (movement by an offensive player prior to the play) and delay of game (failure of the offense to snap the ball prior to the play clock expiring) penalties against visiting teams. The stadium was the first in the NFL to install a FieldTurf artificial surface. Numerous college and high school football games have also been played at the stadium, including a two-year stint for the Washington Huskies during the renovation of Husky Stadium from 2011 to 2012. The XFL's Seattle Dragons also played at Lumen Field in 2020.
Lumen Field is also designed for soccer. The first sporting event held included a United Soccer Leagues (USL) Seattle Sounders match. The USL team began using the stadium regularly for home games in 2003. The MLS expansion team Seattle Sounders FC, began its inaugural season in 2009 at the stadium. Lumen Field was the site of the MLS Cup in 2009 and 2019. The venue also hosted the 2010 and 2011 tournament finals for the U.S. Open Cup. Sounders FC won both times and new attendance records were set each year it was hosted at Lumen Field. In August 2013, the Sounders broke a new home field attendance record when 67,385 fans turned out to watch them play the Portland Timbers. The stadium hosted several CONCACAF Gold Cup matches across multiple editions, and the Copa América Centenario in 2016. It is part of Seattle's bid to host matches during the 2026 FIFA World Cup, which was awarded to the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
Funding
The Seahawks played their home games at the Kingdome from their 1976 inaugural season until 1999, sharing the stadium with Major League Baseball's Seattle Mariners and the National Basketball Association's Seattle SuperSonics. In 1995 a proposal was made to issue county bonds to fund a remodeling project of the facility. The proposal failed, and as a result, Seahawks' owner Ken Behring threatened to sell or move the team (likely to Los Angeles). In 1997 local billionaire Paul Allen pledged to acquire the team if a new stadium could be built and said that the team could not be profitable until they left the Kingdome. He asked the state legislature to hold a special statewide referendum on a proposal to finance a new stadium. Allen also agreed to cover any cost overruns. With Allen agreeing to pay the $4 million cost, the legislature agreed. The vote was scheduled to be held in June 1997 but in May a Seattle resident filed a lawsuit that claimed the legislature did not have authority to call for such a vote, since it would be paid for by a private party who could gain from the result. The case was delayed until after the vote. The proposal was pitched to voters as providing both a new home for the Seahawks and a venue for top-level soccer. It passed on June 17, 1997, with 820,364 (51.1%) in favor and 783,584 against. The vote was close in Seattle, but it received 60% approval in Seattle's northern and eastern suburbs. The public funding was unpopular farther away in the eastern portion of the state. In October, a Thurston County Superior Court judge ruled that the legislature acted properly and in the public's interest, and he dismissed the pending lawsuit. The Washington Supreme Court upheld the decision that December.
Voter approval of the referendum created a public–private partnership. The Washington State Public Stadium Authority was created to oversee public ownership of the stadium, exhibition center, and parking garage complex. Allen purchased the Seahawks and formed First & Goal Inc. to build and operate the facility. The budget for the project was $430 million. Of this cost, $44 million was allotted to build the Event Center, $26 million for the parking garage, and $360 million for the stadium. First & Goal was to cover cost overruns and pay up to $130 million of the project while the contribution from the public was capped at $300 million. The public funding package included new sports-related state lottery games, taxes on the facility's admissions and parking, sales tax credits and deferrals, and an eight-year extension of the 2% tax on hotel rooms in King County. The taxes on admissions and parking are set at 2% to pay off the project's tax-exempt bonds. Those taxes will be kept below the authorized 10% to preserve the tax-exempt status, but the percentage will be increased to the full amount when the bonds are completely paid in 2021. At such time, they will become dedicated funding sources for maintenance and modernization of the facilities.
In September 1998, First & Goal signed a 30-year stadium lease that includes options to extend for another 20. Per the agreement, the Public Stadium Authority receives $850,000 a year from First and Goal (adjusted for inflation), and First & Goal keeps all revenue from the stadium and parking garage. The company receives 80% of the revenue from the exhibition center while the other 20 percent is allotted to a state education fund. First & Goal is responsible for all operating and maintenance costs, expected to be $6 million a year, and must keep the facility in "first-class" condition. Other details of the lease include the availability of affordable seats, a coordinated effort with neighboring T-Mobile Park (the Mariners' current ballpark) to prevent gridlock, a provision for naming rights, the investment in public art at the stadium, and the giveaway of a luxury suite to a fan each Seahawks' game.
Construction and layout
The architectural firm Ellerbe Becket, in association with Loschky Marquardt & Nesholm Architects of Seattle, designed the project. Allen was closely involved during the design process. While growing up he attended games at the University of Washington's outdoor Husky Stadium. His goal was to create a similar experience and atmosphere at the new venue. The exhibition center portion of the project was designed over a period of 14 months by Loschky Marquardt & Nesholm Architects while First & Goal managed the construction. Town meetings were held to discuss the impact on the public, and the company created a $6 million mitigation fund for nearby neighborhoods. In accordance with a program established by the building team, contracts totaling $81 million were awarded to minority- and women-owned businesses. Union apprentices made up 19% of the workforce through another program with local trade unions.
In September 1998, construction began on the new exhibition center and parking garage. By October 1999, the exhibition center was open and hosting events. On March 26, 2000, to make way for the stadium, the Kingdome was demolished in the world's largest implosion of a single concrete structure. Almost all of the Kingdome rubble was recycled with roughly half used for the new stadium. The designers were challenged by the soft soil at the site since it was a tidal marsh until public works projects in the early 20th century adjusted the waterline of nearby Elliott Bay. The top layer is a soft fill taken from the grading projects that had leveled portions of Seattle's hills. To account for the soft soil, the complex sits on over 2,200 pilings driven below the ground to form what is essentially a pier for the foundation. Eight individually connected sections were built to account for the soil concerns, temperature effects, and the potential for earthquakes. The adjoining exhibition center and parking garage are separate structures and are not part of the eight-section stadium.
The site of Lumen Field is the smallest of those developed for new NFL stadiums, at . The upper levels were cantilevered over the lower sections to fit within the limited space. Along with the angle of seats and the placement of the lower sections closer to the field, this provided a better view of the field than typically seen throughout the country and allowed for a 67,000-seat capacity. Space is available to increase the total capacity to 72,000 for special events. Included in the capacity are 111 suites and over 7,000 club seats. The stadium has 1,400 seats for those with disabilities and their companions located in various sections. In 2009, Qwest Field ranked 21st out of the 31 stadiums in the NFL for total seating capacity.
The configuration of Lumen Field is a U-shape with an open north end to provide views of downtown Seattle and the large north plaza. The large retractable roof of T-Mobile Park along with Mount Rainier to the southeast can be seen from the partially open south end. The stadium's concourses were built to be wide, and they provide additional views of the surrounding area. A 13-story tower was erected at the north end of the stadium that visually complements the Seattle skyline. The tower features a vertically oriented scoreboard which is the first of its kind in the NFL. At the base is bleacher seating for 3,000 called the "Hawks' Nest". Another addition not previously seen in the NFL are field-level luxury suites located directly behind the north end zone.
Allen rejected plans for a retractable roof during the early stages of the stadium's design. The lack of a retractable roof made it open to the elements, provided better views, and reduced the total cost of the project. The roof, at 200,000 sq ft (19,000 m2), covers 70% of the seats but leaves the field open. The roof spans between concrete pylon supports at the north and south ends of the stadium. Its two expansive sections are held from below by trusses. From above, two arches with additional supports rise over the field. Post-tensioned cables were used to achieve its final shape and positioning. To minimize damage in the event of an earthquake, the roof has a friction pendulum damper system. This disconnects the roof from the support pylons so that it can move independently of the structure. The technology had never been applied to a large-scale roof before Lumen Field.
The roof was originally painted white to aesthetically distinguish it from both T-Mobile Park and the nearby industrial area. The east side of the stadium has a large glass curtain wall that faces the nearby International District. The exterior of the stadium also consists of salmon-colored concrete, and the west side of the structure is partially clad with red brick. The coloring and facade were designed so the stadium would blend with the older buildings in neighboring Pioneer Square. To reduce costs, the exterior was not completed with brick or ornate steel work.
A 6.8-magnitude earthquake struck the Seattle area during construction. The structure responded as expected by the designers, and there was minimal damage. The project was completed on budget and a month ahead of schedule.
In 2015, the stadium was expanded with the addition of the Toyota Fan Deck including a new 12 Flag raising platform. This expansion was privately funded by the Seahawks and the 1,000 additional seats were made available to purchase by current season ticket holders the Blue Pride waiting list for season tickets. The additional seating pushed the capacity of the stadium to 68,740. The stadium also has additional seats that can be deployed for special events, bringing the maximum capacity to 72,000.
Surface
The 1997 state referendum stated that the stadium would feature a natural grass surface, but FieldTurf was not an option when the stadium was originally presented to voters according to the Public Stadium Authority. Seahawks management reconsidered the playing surface after the Seahawks played on FieldTurf at Husky Stadium during the 2000 and 2001 seasons. Artificial turf was installed because it was easier to maintain than natural grass. The potential damage to a natural grass field caused by Seattle's frequent rain also made the surface an appealing option. In order to keep a grass surface robust under heavy football use during late fall and early winter rains, a $1.8 million irrigation and heating system would have been required. The coach of the Seahawks at the time, Mike Holmgren, said that FieldTurf installation was the right decision and stated that "the players love it, and I think this surface will offer a better product on the field for the fans." Local soccer fans were concerned that the lack of a natural grass field would hinder Seattle's chances of receiving an MLS expansion franchise. They asserted that voters had approved the facility with the understanding that the new stadium was intended for soccer as well as football. In a compromise, First & Goal agreed to pay for grass to be installed for special events when needed.
In 2002, Seahawks Stadium became the first stadium in the NFL to install a FieldTurf artificial field. The surface is made of plastic fibers rooted in a mixture of ground rubber and sand. The field was replaced in early 2008 after tests showed that compression of sand and rubber increased the risk of player injuries. For the second installation, FieldTurf won the bid over Polytan. For the replacement surface, a one-inch (two and one-half centimeters) poured rubber foundation was added to prevent the compression from reoccurring. Under the naming rights agreement, Qwest paid $500,000 for the installation and First & Goal paid the remaining amount, which was undisclosed. By 2010 the FieldTurf's quality had decreased with the blades becoming matted down. It also failed FIFA's quality testing to be ranked 2 Star. A new FieldTurf surface was laid down in 2012 and it met the requirements of a 2 Star field after testing. A new turf field, using the FieldTurf Revolution 360, was installed in February 2016 ahead of the 2016 Sounders season.
There have been various opinions regarding both the artificial surface and temporary grass surfaces used for soccer matches. After the Brazilian national team defeated Canada's side 3–2 in 2008, Brazil's coach commented that one reason for his team's unexpectedly poor performance was the loosely installed grass field. The Grenada national team struggled to cope with the artificial surface during their loss at the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup. In July 2009, the U.S. Soccer Federation chose D.C. United's RFK Stadium over Qwest Field for the U.S. Open Cup. The general manager of D.C. United speculated that RFK's grass field was one of the reasons his team had a stronger bid. The general manager of the Sounders, Adrian Hanauer, told The Seattle Times in 2010 that replacement of the surface was a continuing conversation between the Sounders and Allen's Vulcan Inc. When the Los Angeles Galaxy traveled to Seattle in May 2012, the FieldTurf was noted as one of the reasons David Beckham and Robbie Keane were left out of the line-up. In 2014, the field was criticized during an ESPN broadcast after an Amazon corporate event involving a game of Quidditch damaged the pitch before a Sounders match. Zach Scott expressed concerns over the same installation of the field: "It's the crawling out of bed or trying to lift kids up the day after. I'm putting dishes in the dishwasher, and I can barely bend down because of the turf.” The 10-year lease extension between Sounders FC and First & Goal announced in 2015 mandates new turf every four years.
Between August and November, both the Seahawks and Sounders FC host games at Lumen Field. Each team has emphasized the importance of playing their games without the other team's painted lines on the field. Around 2003, at the Seahawks' request, local company EcoChemical developed for the field a new kind of paint that is "designed to fail". The new paint is relatively easy to remove with a power washer and a special chemical solution, a process that the company describes as environmentally friendly. With the new paint, converting the field between American football and soccer takes 14 hours in dry weather, though painting logos and other colors takes additional time.
Football
Seahawks
Prior to the stadium opening in 2002, Allen and Bob Whitsitt said that they hoped the new stadium would help turn the Seahawks into a Super Bowl contender and that Seattle would be considered to host the championship game. The seating is expandable to 72,000 for the purpose of holding the game, but the NFL typically does not consider cities with outdoor stadiums where the average temperature in February is below . The number of season tickets available at Qwest was capped at 61,000 following the Super Bowl appearance. The ensuing waiting list was the first for the Seahawks since the early 1990s.
The team's first season at their new home was in 2002 (also their first season in the NFC since their inaugural season in 1976, between 1977 and 2001, they were members of the AFC). Their first game at the new facility was a 28–10 preseason loss to the Indianapolis Colts on August 11, 2002. They went on to end their first season at the new field with a 7–9 record. In the 2003 season, the team went undefeated at home and reached the playoffs. It was the first time the franchise had won 10 games in a single season in 17 years. The Seahawks again reached the postseason during the 2004 season and played their first playoff game at Qwest Field on January 8, 2005. In that game, they lost to the St. Louis Rams who had already defeated them twice that season. The following season, the Seahawks went undefeated at home for the second time in three years and won their first-ever NFC Championship, but lost in Super Bowl XL. Between 2002 and 2005, the Seahawks won 24 of their 32 regular season games at the stadium.
In 2006, the Seahawks had a 9–7 record and hosted the Dallas Cowboys in the wild card round of the playoffs. The Seahawks trailed 20–13 with less than 7 minutes remaining but came back to win 21–20. In 2007, the team won seven of their eight home games and clinched their fourth consecutive division title. Qwest Field was again the site for their wild card game, and they defeated the Washington Redskins 35–14. In 2008, the Seahawks went 4–12 and had only two home wins. Holmgren left the organization after the season. When he was interviewed about memorable moments and the fans, he said that Qwest Field was "a remarkable place to compete in and to play professional football". He called a game at the stadium "an experience".
In 2010, the Seahawks were the first NFL team with a losing record ever to win a division title in a season not shortened by a strike. Seattle earned its fifth consecutive home playoff victory with a 41–36 win over the New Orleans Saints. "God bless the voters," defensive tackle Craig Terrill said after the game in reference to the stadium's importance to the franchise.
Under Pete Carroll, the Seahawks were undefeated at home during the 2012 season. Season tickets for 2013 sold-out with a franchise-record 98% renewal rate.
Lumen Field often sells out for Seahawks games. Although the team struggled in 2008 and 2009, the team maintained its base of season ticket holders. Before the 2008 season, the 14,000 single game tickets not already allotted sold out less than 15 minutes after they became available. By the end of the 2009 season, the Seahawks had sold out 60 consecutive games. After going 9–23 over two seasons in 2008 and 2009, the number of available season tickets was increased to 62,000. The largest crowd to attend a Seahawks game at Lumen Field was 69,190, against the Philadelphia Eagles on November 20, 2016.
Home field advantage
Lumen Field has earned a reputation as one of the loudest stadiums in the NFL. It was, at one point in time, in the Guinness World Record books for being the loudest stadium in the world. The seating decks and partial roof, both trap and amplify exceptional amounts of noise and reflect it back onto the field. This noise possibly contributes to increased false start penalties since opposing offenses can miss audibles and the snap count, as well as delay of game penalties due to the reduced efficiency of communicating plays to the offense. From 2002 through 2012, there have been 143 false-start penalties on visiting teams in Seattle, second only to the Minnesota Vikings. During that same time period, the Seahawks have accumulated a home win record of 59–29, with a simultaneous road record of 33–55.
When Tod Leiweke was hired as the Seahawks' new CEO in 2003, he had a large flagpole installed in the south end to fly the 12th Man Flag as a tribute to the team's 12th man. The organization had retired the number in 1984 to honor the 12th man. A local celebrity, sometimes a former Seahawk, raises the flag during the network television pre-game events. The Seahawks currently refer to their fans as the 12s.
In 2005, the stadium gained national attention when the visiting New York Giants committed 11 false start penalties. Seahawks head coach Mike Holmgren attributed the penalties to the enthusiasm and noise from the crowd. He dedicated the ball used to make the game-winning field goal to the fans, and it is now displayed at the stadium. The Giants' general manager, Ernie Accorsi, asked an NFL senior vice president whether the Seahawks had broadcast artificial crowd noise over the public address system during this game. The NFL sent a memorandum early in the 2006 season about such complaints and sent officials to monitor two games. Holmgren denied the allegations, and the crowd responded by being even louder than usual when the Giants returned to Qwest Field. Since 2005 the Seahawks have tracked the number of false starts committed by visiting teams and display the statistic on a scoreboard to motivate the crowd. As of 2013, the stadium has had a league-high number of false starts since. In preparation for 2005–06 NFC Championship Game at Qwest Field, the Carolina Panthers practiced with the recorded sounds of jet engines in the background to prepare for the volume of the crowd.
Kickers experience further disadvantages when attempting field goals at Lumen Field. Both the stadium's proximity to Puget Sound and the open north end create winds that are challenging to gauge. Former Seahawks kicker Josh Brown adjusted to the winds, and he believed the moisture in the air caused trouble for others.
On September 15, 2013, Seattle Seahawks fans successfully broke the Guinness World Records for the loudest stadium in the world. The 131.9-decibel record occurred during the sack of San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick in the first quarter. Fans then broke their new record during the third quarter of the same game when a level of 136.6 decibels was achieved during a goal line stand by the Seahawks defense. The record was broken by the crowd at Arrowhead Stadium on October 13, 2013, with a sound pressure level of 137.57 decibels. The record was later regained by the Seahawks fans on December 2, 2013 with 137.6 decibels against the New Orleans Saints, but lost once again to Arrowhead Stadium in a Monday Night Football game between the Kansas City Chiefs and New England Patriots on September 29, 2014, setting the record that still stands at 142.2 decibels.
XFL
The Seattle Dragons of the XFL played its only two home games at CenturyLink Field during the short-lived league's 2020 season. The team was among seven in the XFL to share its stadium with NFL teams and drew a league-record 29,172 fans at the home opener on February 15, 2020. The second game had 22,060 in attendance and the team was among the highest-drawing in the XFL before the league suspended operations in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.
College
Lumen Field has hosted several college football games. The hometown Washington Huskies played their 2005 season opener against the Air Force Falcons at the stadium in Tyrone Willingham's first game as head coach. In November 2011, the University of Washington began its $250 million renovation of Husky Stadium, so the Huskies and the Washington State Cougars played the Apple Cup at CenturyLink Field; the Huskies played their entire 2012 home schedule there.
From 2002 through 2014, the stadium hosted a Washington State Cougars' non-conference home game each season (except for 2010). This included the 86th "Battle of the Palouse" against the Idaho Vandals in 2003. The attendance for the dozen Cougar games ranged from 30,927 to 63,588. CenturyLink Field is approximately from WSU, but closer to many alumni in the Seattle metro area. The university's athletic director said that an attendance of 50,000 was needed to make it worth moving the game from Martin Stadium in Pullman. The Cougars went 6–6 in their annual Seattle home game, which generated additional revenue that was invested in facilities for the football program while also increasing exposure to the western side of the state.
In April 2009, it was proposed that the annual Apple Cup between the Seattle-based Huskies and the Pullman-based Cougars be hosted at CenturyLink Field for six years beginning in 2010. The two programs could not reach an agreement on how to divide tickets. Pullman's business community had expressed concerns that playing the game away from the Palouse would be detrimental to the local economy.
Qwest Field hosted the second and final Seattle Bowl in late 2002, in which Wake Forest beat Oregon 38–17. The inaugural Seattle Bowl was played a year earlier at Safeco Field, but the game was discontinued when organizers could not secure financing before 2003. Later attempts to revive the Seattle Bowl were unsuccessful. The Seattle Sports Commission is pushing for a proposal of a new bowl game. In 2008 a business plan was begun for a game in 2010 that would be a fundraiser for Seattle Children's Hospital.
Lower division NCAA teams have played at the stadium throughout the years. From 2003 to 2008, the Division II football teams from Western Washington University and Central Washington University met each year in a rivalry game called "The Battle in Seattle." Central won all but the 2004 game, and each meeting attracted more than 11,000. Western (of Bellingham) discontinued its football program after the 2008 season, but Central (of Ellensburg) agreed to continue the series with Western Oregon University (of Monmouth) for games in 2009 and 2010. "Battle in Seattle VII" saw Central make a comeback to win 23–21 in front of 5,374.
On October 31, 2009, the Division I FCS Eastern Washington University Eagles played a home game in Seattle for the first time. Along with the goal of drawing alumni from the metropolitan area, the athletic directors from both Eastern Washington (of Cheney) and Washington State had expressed the importance of connecting with alumni at receptions and other events on the western side of the state. Billed as the "Showdown on the Sound", the game was a 47–10 victory over the Portland State Vikings. According to Eastern's athletic director, Qwest Field's rental was $50,000 for the day.
High school
Lumen Field has been used for high school football. The Washington Interscholastic Activities Association puts on the annual Emerald City Kickoff Classic at the stadium. The event is a season-opening series of games between some of the best teams in the state.
The stadium features a meeting between one of the best teams in Washington and one of the best from another state in the "Best of the West" game. On September 4, 2004, Washington's Bellevue High School and California's De La Salle High School played in front of over 25,000, a state high school event attendance record. Bellevue ended De La Salle's national-record 151-game winning streak in a 39–20 win. On September 16, 2009, Bellevue defeated another highly regarded California school at Qwest Field in a 30–16 victory over Long Beach Polytechnic. USA Today had recently rated both teams highly with Long Beach third and Bellevue at 16th in the nation.
After the organizer of the event announced a match-up between Washington's Skyline High School and Oregon's Jesuit High School in 2009, he said that he proposed the possibility of televising games to Fox Sports, but Fox did not televise the game. Skyline went on to shut out Jesuit 17–0 during that year's Emerald City Classic.
Within Lumen Field, a large art piece called The State of Football pays tribute to high school football in the state of Washington. The piece features a depiction of Washington and holds replica football helmets from every high school football team in the state. The installation is part of the Stadium Art Program commissioned through First & Goal's lease of the facility, costing nearly $1.75 million.
Soccer
Lumen Field is also designed for soccer. The stadium meets FIFA sight line requirements and provides separate locker rooms for soccer teams. Camera locations were chosen for optimal television coverage of the sport. Numerous exhibition games have taken place at Lumen Field, including high-profile clubs such as Manchester United, Barcelona, Celtic, Real Madrid, Chelsea, Club América and Chivas de Guadalajara. These games have proved to be highly popular, and the first sell-out of 66,772 fans at the stadium was a soccer match between Manchester United and Celtic. National teams such as Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, and China have played exhibition games at the stadium. The artificial turf has been temporarily overlaid with grass for international matches.
Seattle was the site of the 2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup Group B opening round between the national teams of the United States, Costa Rica, Canada, and Cuba. Two matches of the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup opening round were also played at the stadium on July 4, 2009. In the second match, the United States comfortably defeated Grenada, who were playing in their first major international competition, 4–0. The Gold Cup returned in 2013 with Panama beating Martinique and Mexico defeating Canada in opening group play matches. CenturyLink Field also hosted three matches during the 2016 Copa América Centenario, a special inter-continental tournament, including two group stage fixtures and a quarterfinal match between the United States and Ecuador attended by 47,322 spectators.
On November 22, 2009, Seattle was the site of the 14th annual MLS Cup between Real Salt Lake and the Los Angeles Galaxy, where Salt Lake won the Cup on penalty kicks (5–4) in front of 46,011. The stadium was the eighth venue to host the event and had the fourth-largest attendance for an MLS Cup. The MLS Cup returned to Seattle in 2019, with the Sounders hosting Toronto FC as the higher seed. The Sounders won in front of 69,274 spectators, setting a new record for a sporting event at Lumen Field and recording the second-highest cup attendance in league history.
Lumen Field was among the 58 facilities in the United States being considered for FIFA World Cup matches had the country's bid for the tournament in 2018 or 2022 been successful. When discussing Seattle as a candidate, Sunil Gulati of the U.S. Soccer Federation called it "a world-class facility". Seattle finally hosted a World Cup qualifier in June 2013—only the city's second with the first being over 3 decades earlier. The United States topped Panama 2–0 in front of a raucous crowd. The United States will co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup with Canada and Mexico, with Lumen Field as one of the 23 finalist venues named by the organizing committee in 2018 after the bid was awarded by FIFA. Under preliminary plans by the city government, it would cost up to $10.5 million to host the World Cup matches, including installation of a temporary grass surface, policing the venue and practice fields, and managing a fan festival at the Seattle Center or on the city's waterfront.
Sounders (USL)
The first sporting event at the stadium was a double-header on July 28, 2002, that included both the Sounders Select Women and the men's Seattle Sounders of the USL team. The women defeated the Vancouver Breakers 4–3, while the men beat the Vancouver Whitecaps 4–1 in front of 25,515 people. The USL team began using the facility regularly as their home field in 2003. Although team management was concerned with the high rent and the underused seating capacity, they were drawn by the sponsorship opportunities and location. The Sounders increased their average attendance from 2,583 at Seattle's Memorial Stadium in 2002 to 3,452 at the new stadium in 2003. In 2005, the Sounders beat the Richmond Kickers 2–1 in a penalty shootout for the USL championship in front of 8,011. Scott Jenkins scored the final goal and announced his retirement after the game.
In 2008, the MLS expansion franchise Sounders FC decided to develop the Starfire Sports Complex in nearby Tukwila, and the USL team played most of the season at that facility. At the time, team management thought that practicing and playing at Starfire could provide a better transition for those hoping to play for the new MLS team. The last match for the USL Sounders at Qwest Field was the 2008 season opener against the rival Portland Timbers. The game ended in a scoreless draw in front of 10,184.
Sounders FC
The potential to draw an MLS expansion team helped drive public support for building the stadium in 1997. In 1996, Seattle was considered for one of the 10 original MLS teams; however, the region lacked an adequate outdoor stadium. In 2007, it was announced that Seattle would be the home of an expansion team. The first Sounders FC regular season match was at the stadium on March 19, 2009. Fredy Montero scored the first goal in a 3–0 Seattle victory.
Before the opening of their first season, the Sounders already had the highest number of season ticket holders in the MLS after they sold all 22,000 of the offered season ticket packages. The team created a web site that was used to identify seating arrangements for season ticket holders based on personal interests including preferred method for watching a game and foreign team preference. For the first half of the inaugural season, the upper and lower sections were tarped off, limiting the seating capacity to 27,700. The club hoped to create an intimate environment as well as a supply-and-demand factor that would reward season ticket holders and encourage early purchase of seats. The stadium has continuously sold out league matches in the limited seating configuration. However, majority owner Joe Roth has said that he "won't be happy" until the entire venue is open.
The stadium was designed to easily open seating sections in stages if needed. After repeated sellout crowds, additional sections were opened, increasing total capacity to 32,400. In the Sounders' first year they set an MLS record with an average home attendance of 30,943 people. Official capacity was increased to 35,700 after the 2009 season. In 2011, The Sounders continued to hold the highest average attendance in the league with 38,496. Official capacity was increased again to 38,500 with the opening of the Hawk's Nest for the 2012 season. The team averaged 44,247 spectators in the 2015 MLS season, its all-time record. , the regular season MLS capacity at Lumen Field is listed as 37,722 seats, with four matches scheduled to use larger sections of the stadium.
The Sounders set the state's single game soccer attendance record when they hosted Manchester United in front of 67,052 in July 2011. On October 15, 2011, additional seats were available for a record crowd of 64,140 during the final regular season home match, a Sounders 2–1 win followed by ceremonies honoring retiring goalkeeper Kasey Keller. And on October 7, 2012, another attendance record was broken when 66,452 fans were present for a 3–0 win over the Portland Timbers, following a ceremony awarding retired Forward Roger Levesque a Golden Scarf. Most recently, the Sounders set a stadium attendance record of 69,274 when Seattle hosted the 2019 MLS Cup Final against Toronto FC, winning 3-1 for their 2nd MLS Cup trophy.
CenturyLink Field has hosted two U.S. Open Cup tournament finals. On October 5, 2010, the tournament's 81-year-old attendance record was broken when Sounders FC defeated the Columbus Crew 2–1 in front of 31,311. That record was broken one year later when CenturyLink Field again hosted the final on October 4, 2011 as 36,615 spectators watched Seattle defeat the Chicago Fire 2–0.
Like the Seahawks, the Sounders have received attention for sellout crowds and boisterous fans. The Seattle Times reported that a "new standard for attendance and game-day atmosphere has been set" due to the loud sellout crowds. The passionate Emerald City Supporters have dubbed the general admission sections behind the south goal the "Brougham End" for the street that runs along the south edge of the complex.
OL Reign
OL Reign played against Portland Thorns FC at the stadium on August 29, 2021, as part of a doubleheader with the Sounders and Timbers. The Reign defeated the Thorns 2–1 in front of 27,248, breaking the NWSL's attendance record. The Reign later announced on December 15 that they would move into the stadium for the 2022 season, leaving their previous home, Cheney Stadium in Tacoma, as plans to build a soccer-specific stadium in the city stalled amid the COVID-19 pandemic.
Other events
The stadium became a yearly site for Supercross races in 2005. Seattle had been left out of the circuit since the Kingdome hosted the race in 1999. It takes more than 650 truckloads of dirt to build the course for the event that around 50,000 spectators attend. The stadium has also been used for public speaking engagements. For example, the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, Tenzin Gyatso, delivered a 28-minute speech to 50,817 people on April 12, 2008.
Event Center
The Lumen Field Event Center connects to the stadium's west field plaza and consists of two exhibition halls, a conference room, and a concourse. The center hosts pre-game events for the Seahawks and Mariners. According to the Public Stadium Authority's website, the event center contributes more than half a billion dollars to the region's economy. The center was renamed the CenturyLink Field Event Center in June 2011, following the acquisition of Qwest Communications by CenturyLink and the renaming of the stadium; it was then renamed the Lumen Field Event Center following the company's rebranding in 2020.
The Event Center had previously been called "the worst venue in town" for concerts, but in 2006, AEG Live and First & Goal formed a partnership to create a new theater within the Event Center space. Washington Mutual obtained the naming rights to the new theater, calling it the "WaMu Theater". The theater space can be assembled on an as-needed basis within the building and equipment, including the wide stage, can be dismantled and stored in the stadium. The theater's acoustics were improved by installing panels on the ceiling and a large curtain. Depending on the seating configuration, the capacity can be 3,300, 4,000, or 7,000. Seal performed the inaugural concert on November 6, 2006. Though the naming rights deal ended following the bankruptcy of Washington Mutual in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, the space retained the WAMU Theater name, amending the abbreviation to now mean the "Washington Music Theater".
During the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Event Center was contracted for use as a field hospital. The temporary hospital was erected in April 2020 with 250 beds under the management of the Federal Emergency Management Agency and Army Corps of Engineers. On April 8, the state government announced that the field hospital would be dismantled and relocated to another state by the federal government, as the pandemic's spread in Washington had slowed. In March 2021, the Event Center was converted into a mass vaccination center with capacity for 4,000 to 5,000 doses per week administered by the city government in partnership with First & Goal and Swedish Health Services.
Seismic experiments
During a Seattle football game on January 8, 2011, the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN) recorded what was dubbed a "Beast Quake", for Marshawn "Beast Mode" Lynch, a player whose performance on one running play excited the Qwest Field stadium crowd enough for the resultant shaking to be recorded on PNSN instruments. In 2014 and 2015 additional sensors were added in and around the stadium. Motivations for the experiment included conducting a quick-reaction exercise for the seismometer network team to install sensors and interpret results, and to test the ability to handle increased web traffic from interested visitors from the general public. Shaking was detected at the stadium after a 90-yard touchdown run during a January 10, 2015 playoff game, dubbed a "Kam Quake" for the player making the run, Kam Chancellor. The PNSN scientists say that the biggest event of all was the "Dance Quake", which was caused by all the jumping and dancing that followed Marshawn Lynch's touchdown and 2-point conversion during 2014–15 NFC Championship Game on January 18, 2015. Another earthquake was recorded on November 10, 2019, during the MLS Cup final between the Sounders and Toronto FC.
Facility contracts and naming rights
The stadium was originally named Seahawks Stadium. The name was changed to Qwest Field in June 2004 after the telecommunications carrier bought the naming rights for $75 million for a period of 15 years. According to the agreement, the proceeds must be used for maintenance and upgrades. A portion of any profit then goes into a $10 million fund Allen guaranteed for youth playfields. As a result of CenturyLink's acquisition of Qwest, the stadium was officially renamed CenturyLink Field on June 23, 2011. CenturyLink renewed its naming rights contract in 2017, paying $162.7 million for the stadium from 2019 to 2033. Although CenturyLink changed its corporate name to Lumen Technologies in September 2020, the stadium was to retain the CenturyLink Field name due to a clause in the contract that permits a one-time name change only if a corporate takeover occurs. Despite that clause, the name was changed to Lumen Field on November 19 following approval from the Washington State Public Stadium Authority.
After the stadium was renamed for CenturyLink in 2011, fans and media outlets speculated on potential nicknames for the venue. An informal reader poll conducted by The Seattle Times showed that "The Clink" was a popular suggestion. During Sounders FC matches, the field was entitled "The Xbox Pitch at CenturyLink Field" as part of a sponsorship deal with Microsoft. However, the field has been left unnamed ever since Zulily took over the Sounders FC sponsorship before the start of the 2019 season; the deal with Zulily did not include naming rights to the field.
In addition to its 48 concession stands, restaurants and lounges are located throughout the stadium. Along with typical fare, local Pacific salmon sandwiches, Dungeness crab cakes, and microbrews are served. In 2006, Levy Restaurants replaced Aramark in a five-year deal to provide the food and beverage service for the stadium and exhibition center. As of 2013, Sportservice manages and operates all general concessions and premium dining in the stadium.
In May 2007, Seattle-based Jones Soda outbid Coca-Cola to sign a five-year contract for the pouring rights of non-alcoholic beverages at the stadium, making it the only venue in the NFL that did not have a contract with either Coca-Cola or Pepsi. Jones Soda, known for unusual and holiday-themed soda flavors such as Blue Bubblegum and Turkey & Gravy, said it was working to develop football-related soda flavors, such as "grass-stain". In June 2010, the Seahawks and Jones Soda announced their mutual decision to end the Jones sponsorship, following which Coca-Cola reclaimed the vending rights with a new five-year agreement.
Transportation
Lumen Field is bordered by the Pioneer Square, International District, and Industrial District neighborhoods of Seattle. The stadium's referendum approval required a transportation management program to coordinate transportation options. First & Goal's facility lease agreement also included a provision to ease gridlock. A "Dual Event Agreement" with T-Mobile Park was established so that two events with a combined attendance of over 58,000 would not occur within four hours of each other. The agreement was also implemented to coordinate mass transit to the stadiums on game days. Local and regional buses service the area with stops within three blocks of the stadium, and the county's Metro Transit bus service formerly offered express routes from several area park and ride lots for games. Trains service the stadium through Seattle's King Street Station and overflow tracks accommodate extra trains during events. Regional commuter trains operate on Sundays if the Seahawks have a home game. Trains also run for mid-day Sounders FC games on Saturdays. In 2008, the commuter trains carried 64,000 event goers to the two nearby stadiums. Amtrak, primarily through the Pacific Northwest corridor's Cascades route, also serves the station. On July 18, 2009, Link light rail service between SeaTac and downtown began in time for an exhibition match between the Sounders and Chelsea. The light rail system's Line 1 connects to the baseball and football stadiums via the Stadium station. The International District/Chinatown station also offers convenient access to the north entrance.
Lumen Field is located near the junction of Interstate 5 and Interstate 90 to the east. It is bordered by State Route 99 and the south portal of the State Route 99 tunnel to its west, while the State Route 519 corridor connects I-90 to the neighborhood. Local governments compromised with both the Seahawks and Mariners on the location of new ramps over the train tracks that run along the east sides of Lumen Field and T-Mobile Park. An overpass for South Royal Brougham Way, the road that borders the south edge of the Lumen Field complex, to improve access and safety was completed in May 2010. The stadium has 2,000 parking spaces in its parking garage and 8,400 in the surrounding lots to accommodate automobile traffic. Beginning in December 2011, construction of the Stadium Place mixed-use development project replaced much of the north lot. The developer must replace the 500 lost parking spots and turn over parking revenue to the Public Stadium Authority per an agreement with King County.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Washington State Public Stadium Authority
Lumen Field page at the Seattle Seahawks site
Lumen Field page at the Seattle Sounders FC site
Project information from Ellerbe Becket
Lumen Field Seating Chart
Lumen Field on StadiumDB
2002 establishments in Washington (state)
American football venues in Washington (state)
Lumen Technologies
College football venues
CONCACAF Gold Cup stadiums
Major League Soccer stadiums
National Football League venues
Seattle Seahawks stadiums
Seattle Dragons
Soccer venues in Washington (state)
Sports venues completed in 2002
Sports venues in Seattle
Washington Huskies football venues
SoDo, Seattle
Music venues in Washington (state)
XFL (2020) venues
National Women's Soccer League stadiums
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] |
206813
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero%20Airlines
|
Aero Airlines
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Aero Airlines was a regional airline based in Tallinn, Estonia. It operated services between three Finnish destinations as well as international flights to Tallinn. All of their flights were operated under Finnair's designation AY. Its main bases were Helsinki-Vantaa and Tallinn-Lennart Meri. Aero ceased its operations in January 2008.
History
The name harkens back to Aero Airlines's and Finnair's first incarnation, Aero AS, founded in 1923, and its first Junkers F 13 seaplane took off from Helsinki harbor in Katajanokka to a lake near to the present Ülemiste Airport in Tallinn for its first flight, March 20, 1924, carrying 162 kg (357 lbs) of mail. Other destinations were quickly added: Stockholm and Königsberg, from where passengers took trains respectively to Göteborg (sometimes boarding other planes to Copenhagen, Oslo and London) and to Berlin, and passengers began to queue up at some periods — up to 48 per day in 1926 waiting for the four-seaters to fly them.
After initial reluctance from the Finnish authorities to build airports, Aero's fleet could eventually dispose of its seaplanes and get on wheel-landing aircraft in 1938. But the airlines disappeared as a consequence of the annexion of Estonia by the Soviet Union in June 1940.
Finnair retained Aero AS's IATA designator AY, while the modern-day Aero Airlines flew as EE. The airline was re-established in 2000 and started operations in March 2002 within the Baltic region. It was owned by Aero Holding (51%) and Finnair (49%), was the ownership was later transferred wholly to Finnair. Aero had 128 employees (at March 2007).
Aero scaled down its operations during 2007 and finally flew its last flight on 6 January 2008. All its former routes are now operated by Flybe and Finnair.
The IATA code (EE) and call-sign (REVAL) have been re-used by Nordica, which began operations at the end of 2015.
Destinations
Aero Airlines operated services to the following scheduled destinations (at December 2007): Helsinki, Tallinn, Turku and Vaasa.
Fleet
The Aero Airlines fleet consisted of ATR-72-201 airplanes, which were formerly operated by its parent company Finnair. The last two were sold to UTair when Aero ceased its operations.
References
Defunct airlines of Estonia
Airlines established in 2000
Airlines disestablished in 2008
Finnair
2000 disestablishments in Estonia
2008 disestablishments in Estonia
Companies based in Tallinn
Estonian companies established in 2000
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven%20%281995%20film%29
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Seven (1995 film)
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Seven (stylized as SE7EN) is a 1995 American neo-noir psychological crime thriller film directed by David Fincher and written by Andrew Kevin Walker. It stars Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, Kevin Spacey, R. Lee Ermey and John C. McGinley. The film tells the story of David Mills (Pitt), a detective who partners with the retiring William Somerset (Freeman) to track down a serial killer who uses the seven deadly sins as a motif in his murders.
The screenplay was influenced by the time Walker spent in New York City trying to make it as a writer. Principal photography took place in Los Angeles, with the last scene filmed near Lancaster, California. The film's budget was $33 million.
Released on September 22, 1995 by New Line Cinema, Seven was the seventh-highest-grossing film of the year, grossing over $327 million worldwide. It was well received by critics and was nominated for Best Film Editing at the 68th Academy Awards, losing to Apollo 13.
Plot
Soon-to-retire Detective Lieutenant William Somerset is partnered with short-tempered but idealistic Detective David Mills, who has recently moved to an unnamed large city with his wife Tracy. After forming a friendship with Somerset, Tracy confides to him that she is pregnant and has yet to tell Mills, as she is unhappy with the city and feels it is no place to raise a child. Somerset sympathizes, having had a similar situation with his ex-girlfriend many years earlier, and advises her to tell Mills only if she plans to keep the child.
Somerset and Mills investigate a set of murders inspired by the seven deadly sins: a morbidly obese man forced to eat until his stomach burst, representing gluttony, and a criminal defense attorney killed after being forced to cut a pound of flesh from himself, representing greed. Clues at the murder scenes lead them to a suspect's apartment, where they find a third victim, a drug dealer and child molester, strapped to a bed, emaciated and barely alive, representing sloth. The third victim is in critical condition and unable to respond to Somerset and Mills' questioning. Daily photographs of the victim, taken over a year, show the crimes were planned far in advance.
The detectives use library records to identify a John Doe and track him to his apartment. Doe flees and Mills gives chase, during which Mills falls from a fire escape and injures his arm. Mills searches a truck before being struck in the head with a tire iron. While Mills is incapacitated, Doe walks up and holds him at gunpoint for a moment before escaping. The apartment contains hundreds of notebooks revealing Doe's psychopathy, as well as a clue to another murder. The detectives arrive too late to stop a man forced by Doe at gunpoint to kill a prostitute by raping her with a custom-made, bladed strap-on, representing lust. The following day, they attend the scene of a fifth victim, a model whose face has been mutilated by Doe; she was given the option to call for help and live disfigured or commit suicide by taking pills, and chose the latter option, representing pride.
As Somerset and Mills return to the police station, Doe unexpectedly turns himself in, covered in the blood of an unidentified victim. Doe offers to confess to his crimes, but only on the condition that he escort Somerset and Mills to a secret location where the victims representing envy and wrath are presumably buried, otherwise he will plead insanity. Somerset is wary, but Mills agrees. During the drive, Doe expresses his lack of remorse for his crimes, declaring that his victims deserved to die, and professes himself to be a martyr chosen by a higher power to shock the world out of its state of apathy. Doe also makes cryptic, threatening remarks towards Mills, who maintains his belief that Doe is simply insane.
Doe's directions lead the detectives to a remote deserted location. Minutes after their arrival, a delivery van approaches. Mills holds Doe at gunpoint while Somerset goes to intercept the driver, who says he was instructed to deliver a box to their coordinates. Somerset opens the box and, in a sudden panic, tells Mills to stay back. Doe reveals that he himself represents the sin of envy, as he envied Mills’ life with Tracy, and implies that the box contains Tracy’s decapitated head. He goads Mills, telling him that Tracy begged for her life and the life of her unborn child, and reacts with surprise and delight when he realizes Mills was unaware that Tracy was pregnant. Despite Somerset’s warnings, an enraged Mills fulfills his own role as wrath and shoots Doe fatally and repeatedly, completing Doe’s plan. Somerset and the police captain watch as the devastated Mills is taken away. When the captain asks where he'll be, Somerset says he will be around, implying that he will not retire. In a voiceover, he says: "Ernest Hemingway once wrote 'The world is a fine place and worth fighting for.' I agree with the second part."
Cast
Production
Pre-production
The primary influence for the film's screenplay came from Andrew Kevin Walker's time spent in New York City while trying to make it as a screenwriter. "I didn't like my time in New York, but it's true that if I hadn't lived there I probably wouldn't have written Seven." He envisioned actor William Hurt as Somerset and named the character after his favorite author, W. Somerset Maugham.
Jeremiah S. Chechik was attached to direct at one point. During pre-production, Al Pacino was considered for the Detective Somerset role, but he decided to do City Hall instead. Denzel Washington and Sylvester Stallone decided to turn down the role of Mills. Washington later regretted turning down the role. Robert Duvall and Gene Hackman also turned down the role of Detective Somerset. Christina Applegate turned down the role of Tracy. Ned Beatty, Val Kilmer and Michael Stipe were considered for the role of John Doe.
The ending of the screenplay, with the head in the box, was originally part of an earlier draft that New Line had rejected, instead opting for an ending that involved more traditional elements of a detective thriller film with more action-oriented elements. But when New Line sent David Fincher the screenplay to review for his interest in the project, they accidentally sent him the original screenplay with the head-in-the-box ending. At the time, Fincher had not read a script for a year and a half since the frustrating experience of making Alien 3; he said, "I thought I'd rather die of colon cancer than do another movie". Fincher eventually agreed to direct Seven because he was drawn to the script, which he found to be a "connect-the-dots movie that delivers about inhumanity. It's psychologically violent. It implies so much, not about why you did but how you did it". He found it more a "meditation on evil" rather than a "police procedural".
When New Line realized that they had sent Fincher the wrong draft, the President of Production, Michael De Luca, met with Fincher and noted that there was internal pressure to retain the revised version; De Luca stated that if Fincher promised to direct the movie, they would be able to stay with the head-in-a-box ending. Despite this, producer Kopelson refused to allow the film to include the head-in-a-box scene. Actor Pitt joined Fincher in arguing for keeping this original scene, noting that his previous film Legends of the Fall had its emotional ending cut after negative feedback from test audiences, and refusing to do Seven unless the head-in-the-box scene remained.
Filming
The film was shot over a long period of 55 days. Fincher approached making Seven like a "tiny genre movie, the kind of movie Friedkin might have made after The Exorcist." He worked with cinematographer Darius Khondji and adopted a simple approach to the camerawork, which was influenced by the television show COPS, "how the camera is in the backseat peering over people's shoulder". Fincher allowed Walker on the set while filming for on-the-set rewrites. According to the director, "Seven is the first time I got to carry through certain things about the camera – and about what movies are or can be".
The crowded urban streets filled with noisy denizens and an oppressive rain that seems to fall without respite were integral parts of the film, as Fincher wanted to show a city that was "dirty, violent, polluted, often depressing. Visually and stylistically, that's how we wanted to portray this world. Everything needed to be as authentic and raw as possible." To this end, Fincher turned to production designer Arthur Max to create a dismal world that often eerily mirrors its inhabitants. "We created a setting that reflects the moral decay of the people in it", says Max. "Everything is falling apart, and nothing is working properly." The film's brooding, dark look was achieved through a chemical process called bleach bypass, wherein the silver in the film stock was not completely removed, which in turn deepened the dark, shadowy images in the film and increased its overall tonal quality.
The 'head in a box' ending continued to worry the studio after filming was completed. After the first cut of the film was shown to the studio, they attempted to mitigate the bleakness of the ending by replacing Mills' wife's head with that of a dog, or by not having Mills fire on John Doe. However, both Fincher and Pitt continued to fight for the original ending. The final scenes of Mills being taken away and Somerset's quote from Ernest Hemingway were filmed by Fincher after initial filming was complete as a way to placate the studio (the original intention was for the film to suddenly end after Mills shot John Doe).
Title sequence
Originally, Fincher planned the title sequence of the film to show Freeman's character buying a house in a remote country area and traveling back into the city. However, days before a test screening, they had yet to film the sequence and had no budget to do it in that time. Fincher approached Kyle Cooper to suggest a replacement. Cooper recognized the amount of money used to make John Doe's notebooks (created by Clive Piercy and John Sabel), and used the sequence to display them in a slideshow set to a remix of Nine Inch Nails' "Closer". The hand-drawn credits font was used to suggest that Doe had written the credits himself.
The studio liked the sequence and suggested he stay with that. Fincher instead asked Cooper to "pretend we've never met and come back and propose something else", according to Cooper. Cooper came up with a more detailed version of this photographic sequence: "The idea was that this is John Doe's job: he gets up, makes his books, plans his murders, drinks his tea." Fincher liked this approach, but cautioned Cooper, "Well, that would be neat, but that's kind of a 2D glimpse. Figure out a way for it to involve John Doe, to show that somewhere across town somebody is working on some really evil shit. I don't want it to be just flipping through pages, as beautiful as they are." Cooper reworked the idea, working with Wayne Coe to create a storyboard for a live-action shot and adding in filming along with photographs of the books, new props include film reels and additional notebooks, visual effects for the title credits, and elements inspired by Doe's behavior in the movie, such as cutting his fingertips. Fincher liked this approach, and considered getting Mark Romanek, the director of the "Closer" music video, to produce the sequence, but Cooper insisted he direct it. Cooper was assisted by film editor Angus Wall and cinematographer Harris Savides in making the final title sequence. The filming took two days and five further weeks to edit. The credits were hand-etched onto black scratchboard and manipulated by the camera, rather than using digital effects, and scroll from top to bottom, instead of the conventional bottom to top. The final sequence used a remix of "Closer" created by the band Coil.
Reception
Box office
Seven was released on September 22, 1995, in 2,441 theaters where it grossed US$13.9 million on its opening weekend. It went on to gross $100.1 million in North America and $227.1 million in the rest of the world for a total of $327.3 million, making Seven the seventh-highest-grossing film in 1995.
The film also spent 4 consecutive weeks in the top spot at the U.S. box office in 1995.
Critical response
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 82% based on 83 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "A brutal, relentlessly grimy shocker with taut performances, slick gore effects, and a haunting finale." At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Gary Arnold, in The Washington Times, praised the cast: "The film's ace in the hole is the personal appeal generated by Mr. Freeman as the mature, cerebral cop and Mr. Pitt as the young, headstrong cop. Not that the contrast is inspired or believable in itself. What gets to you is the prowess of the co-stars as they fill out sketchy character profiles." Sheila Johnston, in her review for The Independent, praised Freeman's performance: "The film belongs to Freeman and his quiet, carefully detailed portrayal of the jaded older man who learns not to give up the fight." James Charisma, in a list of Spacey's greatest film performances for Paste, wrote: "Spacey's portrayal is a perfect balancing act: John Doe is detached from the murders he commits, yet deliberate and meticulous in his execution ... Unemotional yet smug. Analytical, violent, patient, impenetrable." In his review for Sight and Sound, John Wrathall wrote, "Seven has the scariest ending since George Sluizer's original The Vanishing ... and stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since Manhunter." In his "Great Movies" list review, film critic Roger Ebert commented on Fincher's direction: "None of his films is darker than this one."
The scholar Jeremy Tambling examined the film as an example of allegory.
Accolades
New Line Cinema re-released Seven in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, on Christmas Day and in New York City on December 29, 1995, in an attempt to generate Academy Award nominations for Freeman, Pitt, and Fincher, which was ultimately unsuccessful.
American Film Institute recognition
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains
John Doe – Nominated Villain
Home media
For the DVD release, Seven was remastered and presented in the widescreen format, preserving the 2.40:1 aspect ratio of its original theatrical exhibition. Audio options include Dolby Digital EX 5.1, DTS ES Discrete 6.1, and Stereo Surround Sound.
The Seven DVD features four newly-recorded, feature-length audio commentaries featuring the stars, director, and other key contributors to the film, who talk about their experiences making Seven. Disc one features a printable screenplay with links to the film.
A Blu-ray version of the film was released on September 14, 2010 by Warner Home Video and retained nearly all of the special features from the DVD.
Novelization and comic books
In 1995, a novelization with the same title was written by Anthony Bruno based on the original film.
Between September 2006 and October 2007, a series of seven comic books were published by Zenescope Entertainment with each of the seven issues dedicated to one of the seven sins. It told the story from the perspective of John Doe rather than the two homicide detectives as in the film, and gave Doe a backstory. Each issue included contributions by a group of creators independent of each other. All seven issues were collected in trade paperback form, released on January 15, 2008, as SE7EN, edited by David Seidman and Ralph Tedesco.
Soundtrack
The opening credit music is a spliced sample of an uncredited remix of the Nine Inch Nails song "Closer", available as "Closer (Precursor)" (remixed by Coil). The song during the end credits is David Bowie's song "The Hearts Filthy Lesson", found on his album Outside. The film's original score is by Howard Shore. The soundtrack was released in 1995 by TVT Records in conjunction with the movie. Shore's score was finally released by the Warner Archive Collection in 2016.
"In the Beginning" – The Statler Brothers
"Guilty" – Gravity Kills
"Trouble Man" – Marvin Gaye
"Speaking of Happiness" – Gloria Lynne – written by Buddy Scott & Jimmy Radcliffe
"Suite No. 3 in D Major, BWV 1068 Air" – written by Johann Sebastian Bach, performed by Stuttgarter Kammerorchester / Karl Münchinger
"Love Plus One" – Haircut One Hundred
"I Cover the Waterfront" – Billie Holiday
"Now's the Time" – Charlie Parker
"Straight, No Chaser" – Thelonious Monk (taken from Monk in Tokyo)
"Portrait of John Doe" – Howard Shore
"Suite from Seven" – Howard Shore
See also
Samay: When Time Strikes - 2003 Indian film inspired by Seven
References
Further reading
External links
1995 films
1995 drama films
1995 crime drama films
1995 crime thriller films
1995 independent films
1990s chase films
1990s English-language films
1990s police films
1990s serial killer films
1990s thriller drama films
American films
American chase films
American crime drama films
American crime thriller films
American independent films
American neo-noir films
American police detective films
American serial killer films
American thriller drama films
Films about murder
Films about religion
Films about psychopaths
Films directed by David Fincher
Films produced by Arnold Kopelson
Films scored by Howard Shore
Films shot in California
Films with screenplays by Andrew Kevin Walker
New Line Cinema films
Seven deadly sins in popular culture
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contortion
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Contortion
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Contortion (sometimes contortionism) is a performance art in which performers called contortionists showcase their skills of extreme physical flexibility. Contortion acts often accompany acrobatics, circus acts, street performers and other live performing arts. Contortion acts are typically performed in front of a live audience. An act will showcase one or more artists performing a choreographed set of moves or poses, often to music, which require extreme flexibility. The physical flexibility required to perform such acts greatly exceeds that of the general population. It is the dramatic feats of seemingly inhuman flexibility that captivate audiences.
Skills
Many factors affect the flexibility of performers including age, genetics, stature, and adherence to rigorous physical training routines. Most contortionists are generally categorized as "frontbenders" or "backbenders", depending on the direction in which their spine is most flexible. Relatively few performers are equally adept at both.
Skills performed by contortionists include:
Frontbending skills such as folding forward at the waist with the legs straight, or placing one or both legs behind the neck or shoulders with the knees bent (called a human knot).
Backbending skills such as touching one's head to one's feet, or all the way to the buttocks (called a head-seat), while standing, lying on the floor, or in a handstand. A Marinelli bend is a backbend while supported only by a grip at the top of a short post that is held in the mouth.
Splits and oversplits (a split of more than 180 degrees) may be included in frontbending or backbending acts. An oversplit may be performed while the feet are supported by two chairs or by two assistants.
Enterology is the practice of squeezing one's body into a small, knee-high box or other contained space which initially appears to audiences as being too small to contain the performer. Also known as ‘body packing’.
Dislocations of the shoulders or hip joints are sometimes performed as a short novelty act by itself. One example is lifting the arm to the side until it passes behind the head and lies across the top of the shoulders; also referred to as bonebreaking.
Risks
A medical publication from 2008 suggests that long-term damage to the spine, called scoliosis, is common in long-term contortion practitioners. A study of five practitioners using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by Peoples et al. documented limbus vertebrae, intervertebral disc bulges, and disc degeneration. Three of the five practitioners also reported back pain.
Performances
Contortion acts are highly variable; many incorporate elements of humor, drama, shock, sensuality, or a blend of styles. Contortion may be incorporated into other types of performance, such as dance and theater.
An adagio act is an acrobatic dance in which one partner lifts and carries the other partner as she/he performs splits and other flexible poses.
In a rag doll or golliwogg act, one or two assistants bend, shake and carry the contortionist in such a way as to create the illusion that the disguised performer is actually a limp, life-sized doll. The act often ends by stuffing the doll into a small box.
Contortion positions can be performed on a Spanish web, an aerial act consisting of a rope with a hand/foot loop that is spun by someone underneath.
Contortionists might manipulate props during their performance, for instance spinning hula hoops or juggling rings, balancing towers of wine glasses, or playing a musical instrument - such as Max Smith, AKA "The Musical Contortionist," a sideshow performer who played the banjo whilst in a series of contorted positions.
A contortionist may perform alone or may have one or two assistants, or up to four contortionists may perform together as a group.
In the past, contortionists were associated almost exclusively with circuses and fairs, but recently they have also found work performing in nightclubs, amusement parks, in magazine advertisements, at trade shows, on television variety shows, in music videos, and as warmup acts or in the background at music concerts.
The Ross Sisters were American contortionists most famous for their musical rendition of 'Solid Potato Salad' in the 1944 movie Broadway Rhythm. In addition, contortion photos and digital movie clips are traded by fans on the Internet, and several web sites provide original photos of contortion acts for a monthly fee, or sell videotapes of performances through the mail.
Some loose-jointed people are able to pop a joint out of its socket without pain, thereby making it difficult to determine if a joint is dislocated without medical examination such as an X-ray. However, as long as the joint socket is the right shape, most extreme bends can be achieved without dislocating the joint. Actual dislocations are rarely used during athletic contortion acts since they make the joint more unstable and prone to injury, and a dislocated limb cannot lift itself or support any weight.
History
The primary origins of contortion, take place in Asian traditions. In China and Mongolia, traditional Buddhist Cham dances would incorporate contortion into their movement. The success of these dances then encouraged the act to expand into other forms of performance. Contortion also found similarities and expressions in the Hindu doctrine of yoga. Throughout daily meditation, yoga practitioners work to assume many similar poses to those in the performance-based contortion. The recognition of these similarities in various practices and thoughts brought contortion into more clear and explicit light.For those in the Chinese tradition, contortion is typically performed as a feat of acrobatics, used to dazzle the audience with the unusual shapes built before them. According to Chinese historical records, early contortionism originated in China during Western Zhou Dynasty (1045-771 BC), which matured in Sui Dynasty (581–618).
Modern contortionism is mainly developed in Russia, where the circus industry was influenced by nearby countries.
List of notable contortionists
Anna McNulty is a famous Canadian contortionist, she appeared in America's Got Talent showing her contortion tricks, she has over 2M subscribers in her YouTube channel where she gives flexibility tutorials and over 7.5M followers in TikTok.
Sofie Dossi - A contortionist and YouTube star who appeared in season 11 of America's Got Talent receiving the Golden Buzzer.
Brooke Hyland - A contortionist and dancer who appeared on the Lifetime hit reality Dance Moms.
Arne Arnardo (October 12, 1912 - May 4, 1995) - A Norwegian circus performer.
Joseph Clark (died before 1697) - A famous British contortionist.
Christine Danton - An Australian contortionist who appeared once on Australia's Got Talent.
Leilani Franco - A British contortionist who appeared on Britain's Got Talent.
Takako Fuji - A Japanese actress.
Alexey Goloborodko - A Russian contortionist.
Troy James - A contortionist who appeared in season 13 of America's Got Talent. Troy has also portrayed Rag Doll in The Flash and Baba Yaga in Hellboy.
Doug Jones - An actor and creature performer.
Irina Kazakova - A Russian contortionist and gymnast.
Elena Lev - A Russian contortionist who performed in several Cirque du Soleil shows.
Bonnie Morgan - An actress and contortionist. She used her contortion when performing Colette in Netflix' adaption of A Series of Unfortunate Events.
Olga Pikhienko - A Russian contortionist and circus performer.
Yash Shah - A contortionist having title of "Rubber Man Of India" and also appeared in India's Got Talent.
The Ross Sisters - A trio of sisters who were also singers, dancers, and acrobats.
Daniel Browning Smith - A contortionist who has been nicknamed "Rubberboy". He owes his flexibility to his Ehlers–Danlos syndromes.
Emerald Gordon Wulff - A contortionist who appeared in Australia's Little Big Shots and season 15 of America's Got Talent.
Major Zamora (1890s) - A dwarfish dime museum contortionist and escape artist.
Stefanie Millinger - An extreme contortionist and handbalancer who performs high risk free solos.
Glossary
Backbend/backfold - Any pose with an unusual degree of backward bending at the waist and/or any portion of spine while standing, kneeling, resting on the floor, or while suspended.
Box act (also called: body packing; enterology; packanatomicalization) - Circus act in which a contortionist squeezes his/her body into a small box or transparent container.
Chest stand - Any backbending pose in which the performer's chest is resting on the floor for support.
Dislocate - 1. [verb] To injure a joint by temporarily forcing the bone out of its normal socket. 2. [noun] In men's gymnastics, a rotating of the shoulders when performing a backwards turn on the still rings. Many skills in acrobatics appear to involve dislocating a joint, when they actually do not.
Durvasa's pose or crane pose - Named for the mythological Indian sage, Durvasa, who supposedly assumed this pose during his years of penance: to stand on one foot with the other leg lifted in front and placed behind the neck or shoulders.
Elbow stand - Any inverted pose in which the performer uses only the forearms on the floor for support.
Frontbend - Any pose that features an unusual degree of frontward bending of the waist and/or spine, either with the legs together or parted.
Front split (also called: stride split) - A split in which one leg is extended frontward and the other leg is extended backward, both at right angles to the trunk. Ideally, the hips are square facing to the front, while both legs are turned out from the hips.
Hairpin - A pose in which one kneels down, sits on top of the feet, and bends backwards until the top of the head comes into contact with the tailbone; it may also done with a starting position on hands and knees.
Headseat - An extreme backbend in which the top of the performer's head touches the buttocks; usually in a handstand or chest stand.
Leg shouldering - A standing split in which the leg touches the shoulder. Can be done to the front, side, or rear.
Marinelli bend - [from contortionist and international theatrical agent H. B. Marinelli (1864-1924)] A head-seat with the legs extended, performed while supported only by a leather mouth grip at the top of a short post.
Needle scale - A front split while standing on the forward foot, with the torso bent downward with the hands touching the floor, while the rear leg is extended vertically toward the ceiling.
Oversplit (also called: hypersplit) - Any split in which the angle formed by the legs measures greater than 180 degrees. It can be done to the front with either or both legs elevated, or in a straddle split with one or both legs elevated.
Passive stretching (also called: static-passive stretching; assisted relaxed stretching) - 1. A static stretch (See: "static stretching") in which an external force (such as the floor or another person) holds the performer in the static position. 2. The practice of having a relaxed limb moved beyond its normal range of motion with the assistance of a partner. In "active stretching", in contrast, the limb is extended to its maximum range using only the muscles of that limb.
Pike - To be bend forward at the waist with the legs and trunk kept straight.
Pointe - In classical ballet, when a dancer uses special shoes (called pointe shoes or toe shoes) to dance en pointe (on their toes). The arch of the top of the foot is at its maximum when the dancer "pushes over", causing the heel of the foot to be almost directly over the toes. Difficult and often painful to learn, both men and women may benefit from studying pointe technique; however, most performance opportunities are for women only. Children do not begin to study pointe until they have years of experience and sufficient ankle strength, as well as being old enough to ensure that their bones are strong enough.
Rag doll act (also called: golliwogg act) - Circus act in which a contortionist, dressed in a loose-fitting clown costume, gives the appearance of being a limp, life-sized doll, as one or two assistants bend, roll, carry and pose the "doll" and then stuff him/her into a small box.
Rhythmic gymnastics (also called: rhythmic sportive gymnastics (RSG); rhythmics) - Olympic sport for one woman (or 5 women in group competition) consisting of a balletic floor exercise which demonstrates leaps, turns, balance and flexibility while moving and tossing hand-held apparatus: a ball, a rope, a hoop, two clubs, or a ribbon. Men's rhythmic gymnastics currently exists in Japan, and is gaining worldwide acceptance.
Rope act (also called: Spanish web) - Circus act in which an acrobat (usually female) performs exercises high above the floor while holding on to a long, vertically suspended rope, or hanging from a loop in the rope.
Scale - In acrobatics, when the leg is raised toward the back and may be held with one hand while standing.
Split (also called: the splits) - Any pose in which the legs are extended in opposite directions such that the angle of the legs is 180 degrees.
Straddle split (also called: side split; box split; Chinese split; cut split) - A split in which the legs are extended to the left and right, until a 180 degree angle between the legs is reached.
Tortoise position (also called: pancake) - A seated forward bend with the chest against the floor between the legs; the outstretched arms are also against the floor and underneath the knees.
Triple fold - A chest stand (see: "chest stand") in which the knees come all the way over to touch the floor, and the shins lie flat on the floor creating three 'layers'.
Twisting split - An exercise in which the performer changes from a split with the left leg forward, to a straddle split, and then to a split with the right leg forward, by rotating the legs, and without using the hands for support.
See also
Artistic gymnastics
Cirque du Soleil
Rhythmic gymnastics
Synchronised swimming
Yoga
References
External links
The contortionist's handbook
The Contortion Homepage
Contortionists Unite
Contortion Space
Circus skills
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] |
206824
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimmer%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Swimmer (disambiguation)
|
Swimmer most commonly refers to a participant in:
Swimming (sport) competition
Swimming
Swimmer or swimmers may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Films
The Swimmer (1968 film), an American surreal drama film based on John Cheever's story, starring Burt Lancaster
Swimmers (2005 film), an American independent drama film starring Sarah Paulson, Cherry Jones, and Shawn Hatosy
Swimmer (2012 film), a Scottish short film
The Swimmers (2022 film), an American drama film
Games
Swimmer (video game), a 1982 arcade game
Literature
"The Swimmer" (poem), an 1899 poem by Adam Lindsay Gordon
"The Swimmer" (short story), a 1964 short story by John Cheever
Music and dance
The Swimmers, a four-piece rock band from Philadelphia
SWMRS, an American punk band
Swimmer (ballet), a ballet by Yuri Possokhov based on the short story by John Cheever
Albums
Swimmer (Tennis album), a 2020 album
Swimmer (The Big Dish album), a 1986 album
Swimming (Mac Miller album), a 2018 album
Songs
"Swimmers", by Broken Social Scene from the 2005 album Broken Social Scene
"The Swimmer", by Sleater-Kinney from the 2000 album All Hands on the Bad One
"The Swimmer", by Jarrod Alonge from the 2015 album Beating a Dead Horse
People
Amanda Swimmer (1921–2018), American Cherokee potter
Darren Swimmer, American screenwriter and producer
Ross Swimmer (born 1943), former Special Trustee for American Indians at the U.S. Department of the Interior
Saul Swimmer (1936–2007), American documentary film director and producer
Technology
Swimmer (BEAM), a type of aquatic robot
See also
Swim (disambiguation)
Swimming (disambiguation)
List of swimmers
|
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] |
206826
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lysistrata%20Project
|
The Lysistrata Project
|
The Lysistrata Project may refer to:
The Lysistrata Project (protest), a 2003 peace protest in reaction to the Iraq disarmament crisis
The Lysistrata Project (radio drama), a contemporary adaptation of Aristophanes's play
See also
Lysistrata, the play by Aristophanes
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao%20Caves
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Mogao Caves
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The Mogao Caves, also known as the Thousand Buddha Grottoes or Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, form a system of 500 temples southeast of the center of Dunhuang, an oasis located at a religious and cultural crossroads on the Silk Road, in Gansu province, China. The caves may also be known as the Dunhuang Caves; however, this term is also used as a collective term to include other Buddhist cave sites in and around the Dunhuang area, such as the Western Thousand Buddha Caves, Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, Yulin Caves, and Five Temple Caves. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art spanning a period of 1,000 years. The first caves were dug out in AD 366 as places of Buddhist meditation and worship. The Mogao Caves are the best known of the Chinese Buddhist grottoes and, along with Longmen Grottoes and Yungang Grottoes, are one of the three famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites of China.
An important cache of documents was discovered in 1900 in the so-called "Library Cave", which had been walled-up in the 11th century. The contents of the library were subsequently dispersed around the world, and the largest collections are now found in Beijing, London, Paris and Berlin, and the International Dunhuang Project exists to coordinate and collect scholarly work on the Dunhuang manuscripts and other material. The caves themselves are now a popular tourist destination, with a number open for visiting.
Etymology
The caves are commonly referred to in Chinese as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas (), a name that some scholars have speculated to have come from the legend of its founding, when a monk Yuezun had a vision of a thousand Buddhas at the site. This name, however, may have come from the large number of Buddha figures at the site, or the miniatures figures painted on the walls of these caves as these figures are called "thousand Buddhas" colloquially. The name Mogao Caves () was used in the Tang dynasty, where 'Mogao' refers to an administrative district at the site during the Tang dynasty. Mogao may mean "peerless" (literally "none higher", where "mo" means "none", and "gao" means "high"); an alternative reading may be "high in the desert" if "mo" is read as a variant of the Chinese term for "desert". Mogao is also used as the name of a modern town that is administered by Dunhuang city: Mogao Town (). The Mogao Caves are also often referred to as the Dunhuang Caves after the nearest city Dunhuang, which means "blazing beacon" as beacons were used at the frontier outpost to warn of attacks by nomadic tribes. The term Dunhuang Caves however is also used in a broader sense as a collective term for all the caves found in or around the Dunhuang area.
History
Dunhuang was established as a frontier garrison outpost by the Han Dynasty Emperor Wudi to protect against the Xiongnu in 111 BC. It also became an important gateway to the West, a centre of commerce along the Silk Road, as well as a meeting place of various people and religions such as Buddhism.
The construction of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang is generally taken to have begun sometime in the fourth century AD. According to a book written during the reign of Tang Empress Wu, Fokan Ji (, An Account of Buddhist Shrines) by Li Junxiu (), a Buddhist monk named Lè Zūn (, which may also be pronounced Yuezun) had a vision of a thousand Buddhas bathed in golden light at the site in 366 AD, inspiring him to build a cave here. The story is also found in other sources, such as in inscriptions on a stele in cave 332; an earlier date of 353 however was given in another document, Shazhou Tujing (, Geography of Shazhou). He was later joined by a second monk Faliang (), and the site gradually grew, by the time of the Northern Liang a small community of monks had formed at the site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks, but developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling family of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand.
By the Sui and Tang dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. These caves were elaborately painted, the cave paintings and architecture serving as aids to meditation, as visual representations of the quest for enlightenment, as mnemonic devices, and as teaching tools to inform those illiterate about Buddhist beliefs and stories. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important clergy, local ruling elite, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants, military officers, and other local people such as women's groups.
During the Tang Dynasty, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious centre. A large number of the caves were constructed at Mogao during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zetian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. By then Islam had conquered much of Central Asia, and the Silk Road declined in importance when trading via sea-routes began to dominate Chinese trade with the outside world. During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally officially abandoned, and Dunhuang slowly became depopulated and largely forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned; the site, however, was still a place of pilgrimage and was used as a place of worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century when there was renewed interest in the site.
Discovery and revival
During late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Western explorers began to show interest in the ancient Silk Road and the lost cities of Central Asia, and those who passed through Dunhuang noted the murals, sculptures, and artifacts such as the Stele of Sulaiman at Mogao. There is an estimated half a million square feet of religious wall murals within the caves. The biggest discovery, however, came from a Chinese Taoist named Wang Yuanlu who had appointed himself guardian of some of these temples around the turn of the century and tried to raise funds to repair the statues.
Some of the caves had by then been blocked by sand, and Wang set about clearing away the sand and made an attempt at restoration of the site. In one such cave, on 25 June 1900, Wang followed the drift of smoke from a cigarette, and discovered a walled up area behind one side of a corridor leading to a main cave. Behind the wall was a small cave stuffed with an enormous hoard of manuscripts. In the next few years, Wang took some manuscripts to show to various officials who expressed varying level of interest, but in 1904 Wang re-sealed the cave following an order by the governor of Gansu concerned about the cost of transporting these documents.
Words of Wang's discovery drew the attention of a joint British/Indian group led by the Hungarian-born British archaeologist Aurel Stein who was on an archaeological expedition in the area in 1907. Stein negotiated with Wang to allow him to remove a significant number of manuscripts as well as the finest paintings and textiles in exchange for a donation to Wang's restoration effort. He was followed by a French expedition under Paul Pelliot who acquired many thousands of items in 1908, and then by a Japanese expedition under Otani Kozui in 1911 and a Russian expedition under Sergei F. Oldenburg in 1914. A well-known scholar Luo Zhenyu edited some of the manuscripts Pelliot acquired into a volume which was then published in 1909 as "Manuscripts of the Dunhuang Caves" ().
Stein and Pelliot provoked much interest in the West about the Dunhuang Caves. Scholars in Beijing, after seeing samples of the documents in Pelliot's possession, became aware of their value. Concerned that the remaining manuscripts might be lost, Luo Zhenyu and others persuaded the Ministry of Education to recover the rest of the manuscripts to be sent to Peking (Beijing) in 1910. However, not all the remaining manuscripts were taken to Peking, and of those retrieved, some were then stolen. Rumours of caches of documents taken by local people continued for some time, and a cache of documents hidden by Wang from the authorities was later found in the 1940s. Some of the caves were damaged and vandalized by White Russian soldiers when they were used by the local authority in 1921 to house Russian soldiers fleeing the civil war following the Russian Revolution. In 1924, American explorer Langdon Warner removed a number of murals as well as a statue from some of the caves. In 1939 Kuomintang soldiers stationed at Dunhuang caused some damage to the murals and statues at the site.
The situation improved in 1941 when, following a visit by Wu Zuoren to the site the previous year, the painter Zhang Daqian arrived at the caves with a small team of assistants and stayed for two and a half years to repair and copy the murals. He exhibited and published the copies of the murals in 1943, which helped to publicize and give much prominence to the art of Dunhuang within China. Historian Xiang Da then persuaded Yu Youren, a prominent member of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party), to set up an institution, the Research Institute of Dunhuang Art (which later became the Dunhuang Academy), at Mogao in 1944 to look after the site and its contents. In 1956, the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, Zhou Enlai, took a personal interest in the caves and sanctioned a grant to repair and protect the site; and in 1961, the Mogao Caves were declared to be a specially protected historical monument by the State Council, and large-scale renovation work at Mogao began soon afterwards. The site escaped the widespread damage caused to many religious sites during the Cultural Revolution.
Today, efforts are continuing to conserve and research the site and its content. The Mogao Caves became one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1987. From 1988 to 1995 a further 248 caves were discovered to the North of the 487 caves known since the early 1900s.
The Library Cave
Cave 17 discovered by Wang Yuanlu came to be known as the Library Cave. It is located off the entrance leading to cave 16 and was originally used as a memorial cave for a local monk Hongbian on his death in 862. Hongbian, from a wealthy Wu family, was responsible for the construction of cave 16, and the Library Cave may have been used as his retreat in his lifetime. The cave originally contained his statue which was moved to another cave when it was used to keep manuscripts, some of which bear Hongbian's seal. A large number of documents dating from 406 to 1002 were found in the cave, heaped up in closely packed layers of bundles of scrolls. In addition to the 1,100 bundles of scrolls, there were also over 15,000 paper books and shorter texts, including a Hebrew penitential prayer (selichah) (see Dunhuang manuscripts). The Library Cave also contained textiles such as banners, numerous damaged figurines of Buddhas, and other Buddhist paraphernalia. According to Stein who was the first to describe the cave in its original state:
The Library Cave was walled off sometime early in the 11th century. A number of theories have been proposed as the reason for sealing the caves. Stein first proposed that the cave had become a waste repository for venerable, damaged and used manuscripts and hallowed paraphernalia and then sealed perhaps when the place came under threat. Following this interpretation some suggested that the handwritten manuscripts of the Tripitaka became obsolete when printing became widespread, the older manuscripts were therefore stored away. Another suggestion is that the cave was simply used as a book storehouse for documents which accumulated over a century and a half, then sealed up when it became full.
Others, such as Pelliot, suggested an alternative scenario, that the monks hurriedly hid the documents in advance of an attack by invaders, perhaps when Xi Xia invaded in 1035. This theory was proposed in light of the absence of documents from Xi Xia and the disordered state in which Pelliot found the room (perhaps a misinterpretation because unbeknownst to him the room was disturbed by Stein months before). Another theory posits that the items were from a monastic library and hidden due to threats from Muslims who were moving eastward. This theory proposes that the monks of a nearby monastery heard about the fall of the Buddhist kingdom of Khotan to Karakhanids invaders from Kashgar in 1006 and the destruction it caused, so they sealed their library to avoid it being destroyed.
The date of the sealing of the cave continued to be debated. Rong (2000) provided evidence to support 1002 as the date for sealing the cave, while Huntington (1986) supported a closing around the early to mid-thirteen century. It is difficult to determine the state of the materials found since the chamber was not opened "under scientific conditions", so critical evidence to support dating the closure was lost. The latest date recorded in the documents found in the cave is believed to be 1002, and although some have proposed later dates for some of the documents, the cave was likely to have been sealed not long after that date.
Dunhuang manuscripts
The manuscripts from the Library Cave date from fifth century until early eleventh century when it was sealed. Up to 50,000 manuscripts may have been kept there, one of the greatest treasure troves of ancient documents found. While most of them are in Chinese, a large number of documents are in various other languages such as Tibetan, Uighur, Sanskrit, and Sogdian, including the then little-known Khotanese. They may be old hemp paper scrolls in Chinese and many other languages, Tibetan pothis, and paintings on hemp, silk or paper. The subject matter of the great majority of the scrolls is Buddhist in nature, but it also covers a diverse material. Along with the expected Buddhist canonical works are original commentaries, apocryphal works, workbooks, books of prayers, Confucian works, Taoist works, Nestorian Christian works, works from the Chinese government, administrative documents, anthologies, glossaries, dictionaries, and calligraphic exercises.
Many of the manuscripts were previously unknown or thought lost, and the manuscripts provide a unique insight into the religious and secular matters of Northern China as well as other Central Asian kingdoms from the early periods up to the Tang and early Song Dynasty. The manuscripts found in the Library Cave include the earliest dated printed book, the Diamond Sutra from 868, which was first translated from Sanskrit into Chinese in the fourth century. These scrolls also include manuscripts that ranged from the Christian Jingjiao Documents to the Dunhuang Go Manual and ancient music scores, as well as the image of the Chinese astronomy Dunhuang map. These scrolls chronicle the development of Buddhism in China, record the political and cultural life of the time, and provide documentation of mundane secular matters that gives a rare glimpse into the lives of ordinary people of these eras.
The manuscripts were dispersed all over the world in the aftermath of the discovery. Stein's acquisition was split between Britain and India because his expedition was funded by both countries. Stein had the first pick and he was able to collect around 7,000 complete manuscripts and 6,000 fragments for which he paid £130, although these include many duplicate copies of the Diamond and Lotus Sutras. Pelliot took almost 10,000 documents for the equivalent of £90, but, unlike Stein, Pelliot was a trained sinologist literate in Chinese, and he was allowed to examine the manuscripts freely, so he was able to pick a better selection of documents than Stein. Pelliot was interested in the more unusual and exotic of the Dunhuang manuscripts, such as those dealing with the administration and financing of the monastery and associated lay men's groups. Many of these manuscripts survived only because they formed a type of palimpsest whereby papers were reused and Buddhist texts were written on the opposite side of the paper. Hundreds more of the manuscripts were sold by Wang to Otani Kozui and Sergei Oldenburg. Efforts are now underway to reconstitute the Library Cave manuscripts digitally, and they are now available as part of International Dunhuang Project.
Art
The art of Dunhuang covers more than ten major genres, such as architecture, stucco sculpture, wall paintings, silk paintings, calligraphy, woodblock printing, embroidery, literature, music and dance, and popular entertainment.
Architecture
The caves are examples of rock-cut architecture, but unlike Longmen Grottoes and Yungang Grottoes, the local rock is a rather soft gravel conglomerate that is not suitable for either sculpture or elaborate architectural details. Many of the early caves were developed from earlier Buddhist rock-cut chaitya styles seen in places such as the Ajanta Caves in India, with a square-sectioned central column, with sculpture in niches, representing the stupa round which worshippers may circumambulate (parikrama) and gain blessings. Others are hall caves influenced by traditional Chinese and Buddhist temple architecture. These caves may have a truncated pyramidal ceiling sometimes painted to resemble a tent, or they may have a flat or gabled ceiling that imitates traditional buildings. Some of the caves used for meditation are adaptations of the Indian vihara (monastery) cave plan and contain side-chambers just large enough for one person to sit in.
Many of the caves originally had wooden porches or fore-temples built out from the cliff, but most of these have decayed or been lost in other ways, with only five remaining, the two earliest of which are rare surviving examples of Song dynasty wooden architecture. The most prominent wooden building at the site, first built during the Tang dynasty, houses the Great Buddha and was originally four storeys high, but it has been repaired at least five times and is no longer the original structure. A storey was added between 874 and 885, then repaired in the Guiyijun period, and two further storeys were added during a restoration in 1898. Two further restorations were carried out in the 20th century, and the building is now a 9-storey structure.
Murals
The murals in the caves date from a period of over a thousand years, from the 5th to the 14th century, and many earlier ones were repainted at later points within the period. The murals are extensive, covering an area of . The most fully painted caves have paintings all over the walls and ceilings, with geometrical or plant decoration filling the spaces not taken by figurative images, which are above all of the Buddha. Sculpture is also brightly painted. The murals are valued for the scale and richness of content as well as their artistry. Buddhist subjects are most common, however some have traditional mythical subjects and portraits of patrons. These murals document the changing styles of Buddhist art in China for nearly a thousand years. The artistry of the murals reached its apogee during the Tang period, and the quality of the work dropped after the tenth century.
Early murals showed a strong Indian and Central Asian influence in the painting techniques used, the composition and style of the paintings as well as costumes worn by the figures, but a distinct Dunhuang style began to emerge during Northern Wei Dynasty. Motifs of Chinese, Central Asian and Indian origin may be found in a single cave, and Chinese elements increased during the Western Wei period.
A common motif in many caves is the areas entirely covered by rows of small seated Buddha figures, after which this and other "Thousand Buddhas Caves" are named. These small Buddhas were drawn using stencils so that identical figures may be replicated. Flying apsaras, or celestial beings may be depicted in the ceiling or above the Buddhas, and figures of donors may be shown along the bottom of the walls. The paintings often depict jataka tales which are stories of the life of Buddha, or avadana which are parables of the doctrine of karma. The murals may also depict religious themes.
Bodhisattvas started appearing during the Northern Zhou period, with Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), which was originally male but acquired female characteristics later, the most popular. Most caves show Mahayana and Sravakayana (Theravada or Hinayana) influences, although Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant form during the Sui Dynasty. An innovation of the Sui-Tang period is the visual representation of the sutra – Mahayana Buddhist teachings transformed into large complete and detailed narrative paintings. One of the central features of Tang art in Mogao is the representation of the paradise of the Pure Land, indicating the increasing popularity of this school of Mahayana Buddhism in the Tang era. The iconography of Tantric Buddhism, such as the eleven-headed or thousand-armed Avalokitesvara, also started to appear in Mogao wall paintings during the Tang period. It became popular during the Tibetan occupation of Dunhuang and the subsequent periods, especially during the Yuan dynasty.
While Buddhist art is stylistically distinct from secular art, the style of paintings in the caves often reflects that of contemporary secular painting (insofar as we know of this), especially those depicting secular scenes. Donor figures are generally depicted in secular style, and may include secular events associated with them. For example, scenes depicting General Zhang Yichao, who ruled over Dunhuang in a quasi-autonomous manner during the Late Tang period, include a commemoration of his victory over the Tibetans in 848. The portraits of donors increased in size during the period ruled by the Cao family who succeeded the Zhang family. The Caos formed alliances with the Uyghurs (Uyghur Gansu Kingdom and Kingdom of Qocho) and the Saka Kingdom of Khotan and their portraits are featured prominently in some of the caves.
Many of the figures have darkened due to oxidation of the lead-based pigments from exposure to air and light. Many early figures in the murals in Dunhuang also used painting techniques originated from India where shading was applied to achieve a three-dimensional or chiaroscuro effect. However, the darkening of the paint used in shading over time resulted in heavy outlines which is not what the painters had originally intended. This shading technique is unique to Dunhuang in East Asia at this period as such shading on human faces was generally not done in Chinese paintings until much later when there were influences from European paintings. Another difference from traditional Chinese painting is the presence of figures that are semi-nude, occasionally fully nude, as figures are generally fully clothed in Chinese paintings. Many of the murals have been repaired or plastered over and repainted over the centuries, and older murals may be seen where sections of later paintings had been removed.
The Getty Conservation Institute has a dedicated page to the conservation of those wall paintings.
Sculptures
There are around 2,400 surviving clay sculptures at Mogao. These were first constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco, and finished with paint. The giant statues however have a stone core. The Buddha is generally shown as the central statue, often attended by boddhisattvas, heavenly kings, devas, and apsaras, along with yaksas and other mythical creatures.
The early figures are relatively simple and mainly of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The Buddhas of Northern Wei may have two attendant Bodhisattvas, and two further disciples were added in Northern Zhou, forming a group of five. Figures from the Sui and Tang periods may be present as larger groups of seven or nine, and some showed large-scale parinirvana scene with groups of mourners. The early sculptures were based on Indian and Central Asian prototypes, with some in the Greco-Indian style of Gandhara. Over time the sculptures showed more Chinese elements and became gradually sinicized.
The two giant statues represent Maitreya Buddha. The earlier and larger one in cave 96, at 35.5 m high, was constructed in 695 under the edicts from Empress Wu Zetian who instructed the constructions of monasteries in 689 and giant statues in 694. The smaller one is 27 m tall and was constructed in 713–41. The larger northern giant Buddha was damaged in an earthquake and had been repaired and restored multiple times, consequently its clothing, colour and gestures had been changed and only the head retains its original Early Tang appearance. The southern statue however is largely in its original form apart for its right hand. The larger Buddha is housed in a prominent wooden 9-storey structure.
One type of caves constructed during the Tibetan era is the Nirvana Cave, which features a large reclining Buddha that covers the entire length of the hall. Figures of mourners in murals or in sculptural forms are also depicted along the length of the hall behind the Buddha. The Buddha figure in cave 158 measures 15.6 m long.
The original function of the "Library Cave" was as a shrine commemorating Hong Bian, the 9th-century monk. His portrait statue, unusual here and among all surviving works in China, was removed to another spot when the cave was sealed up in the 11th century, but has been returned now the library has been removed. There is also a stone stele describing his life, and the wall behind the statue is painted with attendant figure; such blending of painted sculpture and wall paintings into a single composition is very common at the site.
Paintings on silk and paper
Before the discovery in the Library Cave, original paintings on silk and paper from the Tang dynasty, an influential period in Chinese art, were very rare, and most of the surviving examples were copies made in later periods. Over a thousand paintings on silk, banners, and embroideries were found in the Library Cave, none apparently dating before the late 7th century. The great majority of the paintings are anonymous, but many are of high quality, especially from the Tang. Most are sutra paintings, images of Buddha, and narrative paintings. The paintings show something of the contemporary Chinese style of the capital Chang'an, but many also reflect Indian, Tibetan and Uighur painting styles.
There are brush paintings in ink alone, some in just two colours, as well as many in full colour. Most common are single figures, and most paintings were probably donated by an individual, who is often portrayed on a diminutive scale. The donor figures become notably more elaborate in dress by the 10th century.
Printed images
The Library Cave is equally important as a source of rare early images and texts produced by woodblock printing, including the famous Diamond Sutra, the earliest printed book to survive. Other printed images were made to be hung, often with text below containing prayers and sometimes a dedication by the pious commissioner; at least two prints were commissioned by Cao Yuanzhong, Imperial Commissioner at Dunhuang in 947. Many of the images have colour added by hand to the printed outline. Several sheets contain repeated impressions of the same block with a Buddha image. Possibly these reflect stock for cutting when sold to pilgrims, but inscriptions in some examples show these were also printed out at different times by an individual as a devotion to acquire merit. It is unclear whether such people owned their own blocks, or visited a monastery to have the images printed.
Textiles
The textiles found in the Library Cave include silk banners, altar hangings, wrappings for manuscripts, and monks' apparel (kāṣāya). The monks normally used fabrics consisting of a patchwork of different scraps of cloth as a sign of humility; these therefore provide valuable insights into the various type of silk cloth and embroidery available at the time. Silk banners were used to adorn the cliff-face at the caves during festivals, and these are painted and may be embroidered. Valances used to decorate altars and temples had a horizontal strip at the top, from which hung streamers made from strips of different cloths ending in a V that look like a modern male necktie.
Caves
The caves were cut into the side of a cliff which is close to two kilometers long. At its height, during the Tang Dynasty, there were more than a thousand caves, but over time many of the caves were lost, including the earliest caves. 735 caves currently exist in Mogao; the best-known ones are the 487 caves located in the southern section of the cliff which are places of pilgrimage and worship. 248 caves have also been found to the north which were living quarters, meditation chambers, and burial sites for the monks. The caves at the southern section are decorated, while those at the northern section are mostly plain.
The caves are clustered together according to their era, with new caves from a new dynasty being constructed in different parts of the cliff. From the murals, sculptures, and other objects found in the caves, the dates of around five hundred caves have been determined. Following is a list of the caves by era, compiled in the 1980s (more have been identified since):
Sixteen Kingdoms (366–439) - 7 caves, the oldest dated to Northern Liang period.
Northern Wei (439–534) and Western Wei (535-556) - 10 from each phase
Northern Zhou (557–580) - 15 caves
Sui Dynasty (581–618) - 70 caves
Early Tang (618–704) - 44 caves
High Tang (705–780) - 80 caves
Middle Tang (781–847) - 44 caves (This era in Dunhuang is also known as the Tibetan period because Dunhuang was then under Tibetan occupation.)
Late Tang (848–906) - 60 caves (This and the subsequent periods until the Western Xia period are also known collectively as the Guiyijun period (, 848–1036) when Dunhuang was ruled by the Zhang and Cao families.)
The Five Dynasty (907–960) - 32 caves
Song Dynasty (960–1035)- 43 caves
Western Xia (1036–1226) - 82 caves
Yuan Dynasty (1227–1368) - 10 caves
Gallery
See also
List of World Heritage Sites in China
Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves
Bhadrakalpikasutra
Buddhism in China
Dunhuang Go Manual
International Dunhuang Project
Irk Bitig
Kizil Caves
Kumtura Thousand Buddha Caves
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Stele of Sulaiman
Tang performance arts in Dunhuang
Tianlongshan Grottoes
Footnotes
References
Duan Wenjie (editor-in-chief), Mural Paintings of the Dunhuang Mogao Grotto (1994) Kenbun-Sha, Inc. / China National Publications Import and Export Corporation,
Fan Jinshi, The Caves of Dunhuang. (2010) The Dunhuang Academy.
Hopkirk, Peter. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia (1980). Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press.
Murray, Stuart A.P. "The Library: An Illustrated History" 2012. Print.
Rong Xinjiang, translated by Valerie Hansen, "The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing," Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie (1999): 247–275.
Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route (1990), British Museum Publications,
Whitfield, Roderick, Susan Whitfield, and Neville Agnew. "Cave Temples of Mogao: Art and History on the Silk Road" (2000). Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute.
Wood, Frances, "The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Buddhism on the Silk Road" in "The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia" (2002) by Frances Wood. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Zhang Wenbin, ed. "Dunhuang: A Centennial Commemoration of the Discovery of the Cave Library" (2000). Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers.
Suemori Kaoru, "Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns" (2020). Kyoto: Hozokan.
Further reading
Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay: Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2 (1912). London: Macmillan.
Pelliot, Paul Les grottes de Touen-Houang 1920. Les grottes de Touen-Houang : vol.1 Les grottes de Touen-Houang : vol.2 Les grottes de Touen-Houang : vol.3 Les grottes de Touen-Houang : vol.4 Les grottes de Touen-Houang : vol.5 Les grottes de Touen-Houang : vol.6
External links
Dunhuang Academy
A large collections of images of murals and other artifacts from the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang
International Dunhuang Project
Mogao caves video
Harvard Art Museums, some murals and a statue removed from Dunhuang by Langdon Warner
British Museum The cave-temples at Dunhuang
Wisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on the Mogao Caves
New Yorker article "A Secret Library, Digitally Excavated
Buddhist grottoes in Gansu
Sites along the Silk Road
World Heritage Sites in China
Dunhuang
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in China
Buddhist libraries
Ancient Central Asian art
Chinese painting
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Gansu
Buddhist paintings
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] |
206834
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%20in%20the%20Hills
|
Man in the Hills
|
Man in the Hills is a reggae album by Jamaican musician Burning Spear (Winston Rodney), released in 1976 (see 1976 in music) on Island Records. Man in the Hills was follow-up to the seminal Marcus Garvey; Man in the Hills is usually considered a worthy follow-up, though less innovative and incendiary. produced by Jack Ruby, Man in the Hills is a simple and unadorned album, with songs that reminisce about Spear's childhood in St. Anne's Bay, Jamaica.
"Door Peep" was originally recorded in 1969 at Studio One after Spear ran into Bob Marley (also from St. Anne's Bay); Spear later quotes Marley "And Bob was going to his farm. The man was moving with a donkey and some buckets and a fork, and cutlass and plants. We just reason man-to-man and I-man say wherein I would like to get involved in the music business. And Bob say, 'All right, just check Studio One.' " The single was released but fared poorly on the Jamaican charts.
After Marcus Garvey, Spear's fame had grown considerably, and he was a star in Jamaica and cult sensation in the United Kingdom. Man in the Hills was a much quieter and more restrained album than its predecessor, and was more pastoral and dreamlike than militant and radical (though songs like "Is It Good" and "No More War" continue to address social issues).
"Man in the Hills", the titular album opener evokes the superiority of rural living over urban. In Jamaican history, the roots of radical protest, a national identity and the Rastafari movement, grew from communities formed by escaped slaves in the hills and (after emancipation in 1838) the so-called "Free Villages".
Track listing
"Man in the Hills" (Rodney) – 4:00
"It's Good" (Phillip Fullwood, Rodney) – 2:45
"No More War" (Rodney) – 3:19
"Black Soul" (Rodney) – 3:25
"Lion" (Rodney) – 3:14
"People Get Ready" (Rodney) – 3:22
"Children" (Rodney) – 3:44
"Mother" (Rodney) – 3:37
"Door Peep" (Rodney) – 2:40
"Groovy" (Rodney) – 3:53
Credits
Recorded at Randy's Recording Studio, North Parade; and Harry J Studio, Roosevelt Avenue, Kingston, Jamaica
Original album design and illustration: Neville Garrick
Musicians
Winston Rodney – lead vocals and percussion
Delroy Hines – harmony vocals
Rupert Willington – harmony vocals
Robbie Shakespeare – bass
Aston "Family Man" Barrett – bass
Leroy "Horsemouth" Wallace – drums
Bernard "Touter" Harvey – keyboards
Earl "Wire" Lindo – keyboards
Tyrone "Organ D" Downie – keyboards
Earl "Chinna" Smith – lead and rhythm guitar
Tony Chin – rhythm guitar
Bobby Ellis – trumpet
Richard "Dirty Harry" Hall – tenor saxophone
Herman Marquis – alto saxophone
Vincent "Trommie" Gordon – trombone
References
Burning Spear albums
1976 albums
Island Records albums
|
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] |
206836
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheldt%E2%80%93Rhine%20Canal
|
Scheldt–Rhine Canal
|
The Scheldt–Rhine Canal (Schelde-Rijnkanaal) in Belgium and the Netherlands connects Antwerp with the Volkerak, and thereby the Scheldt with the Rhine.
Route
The canal starts close to the Scheldt river, at the port of Antwerp, and generally runs north. After it passes the Dutch-Belgian border, it serves as the border between the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Zeeland. Just north of the international border ships have to pass the to enter the lower part of the canal. Just north of the sluices the canal enters the artificial and leaves this lake again as a canalised section of the former Eendracht strait, before terminating in the Volkerak estuary. Here, the provide access to the Rhine-Meuse Delta and the port of Rotterdam.
History
During the 1920s the Belgian government demanded a replacement for the Canal through Zuid-Beveland, to keep the port of Antwerp accessible for the lucrative Rhine trade. According to the original plan, the new canal was supposed to connect Antwerp directly to Moerdijk on the Hollands Diep, but after the Second World War and the North Sea flood of 1953 the Dutch government decided that the new canal should be part of the Delta Works and proposed a more westerly route, in fact it would take the same route as the ancient Striene river. After the Belgian government agreed in 1963, work on the canal began.
In order to keep the canal free of tides, two dams were built to separate the tidal Oosterschelde from the Scheldt-Rhine canal. These are the Oesterdam (resulting in the creation of the Zoommeer) and the Philipsdam (that turned the Volkerak estuary into a freshwater lake).
Bridges
It crosses the east of Zuid-Beveland, where it is crossed by a railroad bridge (between the stations Rilland-Bath on the west and Bergen op Zoom on the east) and three road bridges, and along Tholen, where it is spanned by three road bridges.
References
Map
International canals
Canals opened in 1975
Canals in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Canals in Flanders
Canals in Antwerp (province)
Canals in North Brabant
Canals in Zeeland
Geography of Antwerp
Transport in Antwerp
Transport in Bergen op Zoom
Transport in Reimerswaal
Steenbergen
Tholen
Zuid-Beveland
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteen%20Stone
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Sixteen Stone
|
Sixteen Stone is the debut studio album by English rock band Bush, released on 6 December 1994 by Trauma and Interscope Records. It became the band's most popular album, peaking at number four on the US Billboard 200 and boasting numerous successful singles. "Comedown" and "Glycerine" remain two of Bush's biggest hits to date, each reaching number one on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. "Comedown", "Machinehead", and "Glycerine" were the three songs from the album to enter the US Billboard Hot 100, reaching number thirty, number forty-three, and number twenty-eight, respectively.
To mark its twentieth anniversary, a remastered edition of the album was released on 14 October 2014.
Recording and background
Sixteen Stone was recorded in January 1994 at Westway Records in London, and produced by Clive Langer and Alan Winstanley. In 1999, Gavin Rossdale explained that the decision to have Langer produce the record was brought about by Langer simply being English, and by his work co-writing the song "Shipbuilding" with Elvis Costello. Rossdale initially wanted Steve Albini, who produced the 1996 follow-up Razorblade Suitcase, to work on Sixteen Stone. David Carson designed the album artwork and packaging for the album.
Guitarist Nigel Pulsford's father and Rossdale's stepfather died around the time the album was recorded. Sixteen Stone is dedicated to both.
Some time prior to release, the band, known previously as Future Primitive, became known as Bush after Carson convinced the band that a shortened name would be more suitable for a CD. Sixteen Stone was delivered to Trauma Records in early April 1994, and released on 6 December that year through the label. Rossdale has stated that the reason Sixteen Stones release through Trauma was delayed was the label's distributor, Hollywood Records, opining that the record contained "no singles" and "no album tracks".
Content
Style and influences
The music of Sixteen Stone has been characterized variously as grunge, hard rock, and post-grunge, and has been compared with the music of 90s Seattle-based bands including Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains and Soundgarden; the song "Bomb" in particular invited a description of "Nirvana-approximating" from Stereogum. Styles displayed on the record include the balladry of "Glycerine", the Ramones-indebted punk rock of "X-Girlfriend", and what Stereogum proclaimed as "groove-grunge" on "Comedown" and "Body".
Drummer Robin Goodridge told the publication Modern Drummer in 1996 that Sixteen Stone features percussion informed by the styles John Bonham of Led Zeppelin, Billy Cobham and Keith Moon of The Who.
Lyrics
The lyrical content of Sixteen Stone revolved around a variety of themes. "Testosterone" conveyed a take-down of machismo, while Stereogum analyzed "Monkey" to be a "sardonic statement about rock stardom" and to "attack the British sellout angle". "Bomb" is an anti-war song; Rossdale told American Songwriter in 2011 that the song had been "written about the Irish IRA presence where I grew up". Other songs relayed personal narratives, including "Little Things" which Rossdale claimed was written about "trying to be strong in the face of adversity".
Reception
Critical reception
Sixteen Stone received mostly positive feedback from music critics. Q wrote that Bush "make a carefully honed post-grunge sound that fits perfectly alongside American counterparts like Stone Temple Pilots or Live." In a four-and-a-half stars out of five review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic calls their sound impressive, but states that the band sounds too much like Seattle rockers Nirvana and Pearl Jam. Robert Christgau was more critical in The Village Voice, regarding it as a "not altogether unmusical howl of male pain" that glorified "despair".
Accolades
In April 2014, Rolling Stone placed the album at number thirty-nine on their 1994: The 40 Best Records From Mainstream Alternative's Greatest Year list. A month later, Loudwire placed Sixteen Stone at number eight on its "10 Best Hard Rock Albums of 1994" list. In July 2014 Guitar World placed the album on its "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list.
Remaster
Around the album's 20th anniversary, a remastered edition of its original recordings was released. When asked about also remixing the album for the anniversary edition, Rossdale stated "I did attempt to remix ... but it's really, like, you just can't do that. You can't mess with stuff. Those mixes, every single level of those songs is just ingrained in my DNA as it's probably in anybody's DNA who knows it. It just sounds really weird when you mess with it."
Track listing
All songs written by Gavin Rossdale.
Early pressings of the album do not list "Alien" on the back cover (there is a blank space where the title should be). "Monkey" is also missing from the inside cover, but both songs have lyrics printed and appear on the album.
Subsequent pressings also include an acoustic version of "Comedown" and a second CD of live tracks, "Swim", "Alien", "Bomb", and "Little Things". Rather than actually being acoustic, the bonus "Comedown" track is actually Rossdale singing and playing guitar with more effects. This version is also slower-paced, has violins added and has no drums.
PersonnelBushGavin Rossdale – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
Nigel Pulsford – lead guitar, backing vocals
Dave Parsons – bass
Robin Goodridge – drumsAdditional musiciansCaroline Dale – cello
Gavyn Wright – violin, viola
Vincas Bundza – harmonica
Jasmine Lewis – backing vocals
Alessandro Vittorio Tateo – backing vocals
Winston – backing vocalsTechnical personnel'''
Bush – producer, engineer
Clive Langer – producer, engineer, mixing
David J. Holman – mixing
Paul Palmer – mixing
Danton Supple – assistant engineer
Robert Vosgien – mastering
Alan Winstanley – producer, engineer, mixing
Debra Burley – co-ordination
Jackie Holland – co-ordination
Paul Cohen – photography, cover photo
Mark Lebon – photography
Gillian Spitchuk – paintings
Mixed at Cactus Studio Hollywood
Chart performanceSixteen Stone first entered the Billboard'' 200 at number 187 for week ending 28 January 1995, and eventually peaked at number four. In 2010 the album's US sales passed the six million mark.
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
References
Bibliography
Bush (British band) albums
Trauma Records albums
1994 debut albums
Albums produced by Clive Langer
Albums produced by Alan Winstanley
|
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206840
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction%20Level%20Event%3A%20The%20Final%20World%20Front
|
Extinction Level Event: The Final World Front
|
E.L.E. (Extinction Level Event): The Final World Front is the third studio album by American rapper Busta Rhymes. The album was released on December 15, 1998 by Flipmode and Elektra Records in North America. The album follows the apocalypse theme that was explored by Rhymes in his first two studio albums, The Coming (1996) and When Disaster Strikes (1997). Musically, the album is composed of East Coast, West Coast, horrorcore, and hardcore hip hop music.
Based on the "end of the world" motif and apocalypse themes that was displayed in Rhymes earlier albums The Coming (1996) and When Disaster Strikes (1997), the album was widely praised by critics and received three Grammy Award nominations for Best Rap Album, Best Rap Solo Performance and Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the 42nd Grammy Awards. E.L.E. also spawned three singles that attained Billboard chart success, including the Janet Jackson-featuring "What's It Gonna Be?!", which became Rhymes' highest-charting single on the US Billboard Hot 100 as a lead artist, reaching number three. In early 1999, E.L.E. was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling over one million copies.
Critical reception
The album received generally favorable reviews from most music critics. At the 42nd Grammy Awards, the album earned three nominations, one for the album itself in the category of Best Rap Album, a Best Rap Solo Performance nomination for "Gimme Some More" and a Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group nomination for "What's It Gonna Be?!" with Janet Jackson.
In August 2020, Busta Rhymes announced a sequel to the album, Extinction Level Event 2: The Wrath of God, which was released on October 30, 2020.
Commercial performance
The album debuted at number twelve on the official US Billboard 200 album chart, remaining on the chart for thirty-two weeks. E.L.E. peaked at the number two spot on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, peaking inside the top fifty for thirty-five weeks. In the United Kingdom, E.L.E. entered at number fifty-four on the official UK Albums Chart, charting for seven weeks. On January 8, 1999, the album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping 1,000,000 copies.
Album cover
The album, and cover were influenced by popular disaster movies around the time of the album's release in 1998, primarily Armageddon and Deep Impact. Busta Rhymes explained in an interview that the cover was inspired by the disaster movie Deep Impact, showing his image of an asteroid hitting New York City.
Track listing
Samples
• "Everybody Rise" contains a sample of "If Tomorrow Never Comes" by The Controllers.
. "This Means War contains a sample of "Iron Man" by Black Sabbath
Charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
1998 albums
Busta Rhymes albums
Horrorcore albums
Elektra Records albums
Albums produced by Swizz Beatz
Albums produced by Nottz
Albums produced by DJ Scratch
|
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] |
206841
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal%20through%20Zuid-Beveland
|
Canal through Zuid-Beveland
|
The Canal through Zuid-Beveland (Dutch: Kanaal door Zuid-Beveland) in the southwest Netherlands is the westernmost of two canals crossing the Zuid-Beveland peninsula. It connects the Western Scheldt (to the south of the canal) and the Eastern Scheldt (to the north).
It is crossed by a railroad bridge (between the railroad stations Kapelle-Biezelinge on the west and Kruiningen-Yerseke on the east), a road tunnel (the Vlake Tunnel) and two road bridges. Additionally, the canal has sluices that can carry road traffic.
Canals in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Canals opened in 1866
1866 establishments in the Netherlands
Canals in Zeeland
Transport in Reimerswaal
Kapelle
Zuid-Beveland
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antz
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Antz
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Antz is a 1998 American computer-animated adventure comedy film directed by Eric Darnell and Tim Johnson (in their feature directorial debuts) from a screenplay by Todd Alcott, Chris Weitz, and Paul Weitz. The film features the voices of Woody Allen, Sharon Stone, Jennifer Lopez, Sylvester Stallone, Christopher Walken, Dan Aykroyd, Anne Bancroft, Danny Glover and Gene Hackman. Some of the main characters share facial similarities with the actors who voice them. Antz was the first film from DreamWorks Animation, and the third feature-length computer-animated film after Disney and Pixar's Toy Story (1995) and NDR Filmes's Cassiopeia (1996).
During its production, a public feud erupted between DreamWorks co-founder Jeffrey Katzenberg, and Steve Jobs and John Lasseter of Pixar, due to the production of their similar film A Bug's Life, which was released a month later. This only worsened when Disney refused to avoid competition with DreamWorks' intended first animated release, The Prince of Egypt (1998).
Antz premiered on September 19, 1998, at the Toronto International Film Festival, and was released theatrically in the United States on October 2, 1998, by DreamWorks Pictures. It grossed $171.8 million worldwide on a budget of $42–105 million. The film received positive reviews, with critics praising the voice cast, animation, humor, and its appeal towards adults.
Plot
Z is an anxious worker ant who chafes at conformity and the fact that everyone, even his psychiatrist, reminds him he is insignificant. While at the colony's bar one night, Z falls in love with Princess Bala when she visits the bar to escape her suffocating royal life.
The ant colony declares war on an encroaching termite colony, and soldiers are sent to engage the invaders. To see Bala again, Z exchanges places with his soldier friend, Weaver, and joins the army, where he befriends staff sergeant Barbatus. The ants are unaware that General Mandible, the army's leader and Bala's fiancee, is secretly sending the soldiers loyal to the Queen to die so he can stage a coup d'état. In the battle, everyone except Z is killed by much-larger acid-shooting termite defenders. Before dying, Barbatus tells Z to think for himself instead of blindly following orders. Meanwhile, Weaver joins the digging crew and falls in love with Z's co-worker, Azteca.
Z returns home and is mistakenly hailed as a war hero. Secretly unsatisfied, Mandible congratulates him and introduces him to the Queen. There, Z meets Bala, who recognizes him as a worker. Z panics and pretends to take Bala hostage, causing him and Bala to fall out of the anthill via a garbage chute. Now a fugitive, Z decides to search for Insectopia, a legendary insect paradise. Bala attempts to return to the colony, but quickly rejoins Z after encountering a praying mantis.
Z' act of individuality inspires the workers and some soldier ants, halting productivity. To gain control, Mandible publicly portrays Z as a self-centered war criminal, promotes the glory of conformity and promises the workers rewards for completing a "Mega Tunnel" he designed. However, Mandible's second-in-command, a flying ant named Cutter, begins to doubt Mandible's constant reassurances that he's acting "for the good of the colony".
Z and Bala come upon a human picnic, which they mistake for Insectopia. They are baffled by the wrappings on the food, but Muffy and Chip, a married couple of liberal wasps, condescendingly befriend them and try to help break the wrappers. They are disrupted by the humans, who kill Muffy with a fly swatter and attempt to squish them with a shoe. Z rescues Bala from the sneaker, and the two ants at last find Insectopia, a trash can overfilled with decaying food. Bala begins to reciprocate Z' feelings.
After interrogating Weaver, Mandible learns that Z is looking for Insectopia and sends Cutter to find it. That night, Cutter arrives at Insectopia and forcibly flies Bala back to the colony while Z is away. Seeing Z' desperation at finding Bala gone, a drunken Chip, mourning over Muffy's death, generously flies him back to the colony.
When Z arrives, he encounters soldiers who forcibly direct him toward the Mega Tunnel. Along the way, he finds Bala held captive in Mandible's office. After he frees her, they both discover that Mandible's Mega Tunnel leads straight to the puddle next to Insectopia, which Mandible will use to drown the Queen Ant and the workers at the opening ceremony. Bala warns the Queen while Z attempts to stop the workers in time, but fails. Z and Bala unify the Queen and workers into building a ladder of themselves towards the surface as the water rises.
Meanwhile, Mandible gathers the soldiers on the surface and gloats he has created a new colony, where only the strong survive. When the worker ants break through the surface, Cutter turns on Mandible and rescues the worker ants "for the good of the colony". Enraged, Mandible attempts to tackle Cutter, but Z intervenes and takes the blow. He and Mandible fall back into the flooded tunnel, with Mandible striking a root and dying on impact. Z is nearly drowned, but is rescued by Cutter and resuscitated by Bala.
Z is praised for his heroism, and he and Bala become a couple. Together, they rebuild the colony, and Z narrates that he is finally content with his place in the world. The camera then zooms out to show the anthill is in Central Park in New York City.
Cast
Woody Allen as Z Marion-4195 "Z", an idealistic, but anxious, worker ant.
Gene Hackman as General Mandible, the sarcastic, unscrupulous and arrogant general officer of the ant military. He is also the fiancé of Princess Bala.
Sharon Stone as Princess Bala, the Queen Ant's daughter, Mandible's fiancée, and Z' love interest.
Sylvester Stallone as Corporal Weaver, a brave soldier ant and Z' best friend who becomes Azteca's boyfriend.
Jennifer Lopez as Azteca, another friend of Z' and a worker ant who becomes Weaver's girlfriend.
Christopher Walken as Colonel Cutter, a flying ant that serves as Mandible's patient and empathetic adviser who becomes disillusioned by the general's actions.
Danny Glover as Staff Sergeant Barbatus, a soldier ant who befriends Z during the fight against the termites.
Anne Bancroft as Queen Ant, Princess Bala's mother and the ruler of the ants.
Dan Aykroyd as Chip the Wasp, a wasp whom Z befriends.
Grant Shaud as The Foreman, the head of the worker ants.
John Mahoney as Grebs, a drunk ant scout who talked about Insectopia.
Jane Curtin as Muffin "Muffy" the Wasp, Chip's wife.
Paul Mazursky as Z' Psychiatrist.
Jerry Sroka as the Bartender, the unnamed bartender of the bar that Z and Weaver frequent.
Jim Cummings and April Winchell as additional voices
The cast features several actors from movies Allen wrote, starred in and directed, including Stone (Stardust Memories), Stallone (Bananas), Hackman (Another Woman), and Walken (Annie Hall). Aykroyd later co-starred in Allen's The Curse of the Jade Scorpion.
Production
Development and writing
In 1988, Walt Disney Feature Animation was pitched a movie called Army Ants, about a pacifist worker ant teaching lessons of independent thinking to his militaristic colony. Years later, Jeffrey Katzenberg, then chairman of Disney's film division, had left the company in a feud with CEO Michael Eisner over the vacant president position after the death of Frank Wells. Katzenberg would later go on to help co-found DreamWorks with Steven Spielberg and David Geffen, and the three planned to rival Disney with the company's new animation division. Katzenberg at DreamWorks began developing projects he tried to pursue or suggested while at Disney, including The Prince of Egypt, a collaboration with Aardman Animations which resulted in Chicken Run, Sinbad, and Army Ants.
Production began in May 1996, after production had already commenced on The Prince of Egypt. DreamWorks had contracted Pacific Data Images (PDI) in Palo Alto, California to begin working on computer-animated films to rival Pixar's features. Woody Allen was cast in the lead role of Z, and much of Allen's trademark humor is present within the film. Allen himself made some uncredited rewrites to the script, to make the dialogue better fit his style of comedic timing. An altered line from one of his early directed films, Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask) was included – "I was going to include you in my most erotic fantasies..."
Feud between DreamWorks and Pixar
After DreamWorks' acquisition of PDI, Pixar director John Lasseter, Steve Jobs, and others at Pixar were dismayed to learn from the trade papers that PDI's first project at DreamWorks would be another ant film, to be called Antz. By this time, Pixar's project, then similarly called Bugs, was well known within the animation community. In general, both Antz and A Bug's Life center on a young male ant, a drone with oddball tendencies, who struggles to win a princess's hand by saving their society. Lasseter and Jobs believed that the idea was stolen by Katzenberg. Katzenberg had stayed in touch with Lasseter after the acrimonious Disney split, often calling to check up. In October 1995, when Lasseter was overseeing postproduction work on Toy Story at the Universal Studios lot, where DreamWorks was also located, Lasseter and Andrew Stanton visited Katzenberg and they discussed their plans for Bugs in detail. Lasseter had high hopes for Toy Story, and he was telling friends throughout the tight-knit computer-animation business to get cracking on their own films. "If this hits, it's going to be like space movies after Star Wars" for computer-animation studios, he told various friends. "I should have been wary," Lasseter later recalled. "Jeffrey kept asking questions about when it would be released."
When the trades indicated production on Antz, Lasseter, feeling betrayed, called Katzenberg and asked him bluntly if it were true, Katzenberg confirming it. Katzenberg recalled Antz came from a 1991 story pitch by Tim Johnson that was related to Katzenberg in October 1994. Another source gives Nina Jacobson, one of Katzenberg's executives, as the person responsible for the Antz pitch. Lasseter refused to believe Katzenberg's story. Lasseter recalled that Katzenberg was under the impression that Disney was "out to get him" and that he realized that he was just cannon fodder in Katzenberg's fight with Disney. Eisner had decided not to pay Katzenberg his contract-required bonus, convincing Disney's board not to give him anything. Lasseter grimly relayed the news of Antz to Pixar employees but kept morale high. Privately, Lasseter told other executives that he and Stanton felt terribly let down.
Competition with Disney
At the time, the current Disney studio executives were starting a bitter competitive rivalry with Jeffrey Katzenberg and his new DreamWorks films. In 1995, Katzenberg announced The Prince of Egypt to debut in November 1998 as DreamWorks' first animated release. A year later, Disney scheduled Bugs to open on the same weekend, which infuriated Katzenberg. Katzenberg invited Disney executives to DreamWorks to negotiate a release date change for Bugs, but the company refused to budge. DreamWorks pushed Prince of Egypt to the Christmas season and the studio had decided not to begin full marketing for Antz until after Prince of Egypt was released. Disney afterward announced release dates for films that were going to compete with The Prince of Egypt, and both studios had to compete with Paramount Pictures, which was releasing The Rugrats Movie in November, based on Nickelodeon's animated series Rugrats. Katzenberg suddenly moved the opening of Antz from March 1999 to October 1998, in order to successfully beat A Bug's Life into cinemas.
David Price writes in his 2008 book The Pixar Touch that a rumor, "never confirmed", was that Katzenberg had given PDI "rich financial incentives to induce them to whatever it would take to have Antz ready first, despite Pixar's head start". Jobs furiously called Katzenberg to explain that there was nothing he could do to convince Disney to change the date. Katzenberg said to him that Jobs himself had taught him how to conduct similar business long ago, explaining that Jobs had come to Pixar's rescue from near bankruptcy by making the deal for Toy Story with Disney. He flat-out told Jobs that he had enough power with Disney to convince them to change specific plans on their films. Lasseter also claimed Katzenberg had phoned him with a final proposition to delay Antz if Disney and Pixar changed the date of A Bug's Life, but Katzenberg vehemently denied this. Jobs believed it was "a blatant extortion attempt".
Release fallout and comparisons
As the release dates for both films approached, Disney executives concluded that Pixar should keep quiet on Antz and the feud concerning DreamWorks. Regardless, Lasseter publicly dismissed Antz as a "schlock version" of A Bug's Life; however, Lasseter later admitted that he never saw the film. Lasseter claimed that if DreamWorks and PDI had made the film about anything other than insects, he would have closed Pixar for the day so the entire company could go see it. Jobs and Katzenberg would not back down and the rivaling ant films provoked a press frenzy. "The bad guys rarely win," Jobs told the Los Angeles Times. In response, DreamWorks’ head of marketing Terry Press suggested, "Steve Jobs should take a pill." Tensions would remain high between Jobs and Katzenberg for many years after the release of both films. According to Jobs, years later, Katzenberg approached him after the opening of Shrek, and insisted that he had never heard the pitch for A Bug's Life, reasoning that his settlement with Disney would have given him a share of the profits if that were so. In the end, Pixar and PDI employees kept up the old friendships that had arisen from working in computer animation for years before feature films.
The final product of both films are generally perceived to contrast one another in tone and certain plot points. Antz in the end seemed to be more geared towards older audiences, featuring moderate violence, mild sexual innuendoes, and profanity, as well as social and political satire. A Bug's Life was more family-friendly and lighthearted in tone and story. The two films especially differ in their artistic look: Antz played off more realistic aspects of ants and how they relate to other bugs, like termites and wasps, while A Bug's Life offered a more fanciful look at insects to better suit its story. PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III compared the two films and wrote, "The feud deepened with both teams making accusations and excuses and a release date war ensued. While Antz beat A Bug's Life to the big screen by two months, the latter film significantly out grossed its predecessor. Rip off or not, Antz'''s critical response has proven to be almost exactly as positive as what A Bug's Life has enjoyed."
Music
The original music for the film was composed by Harry Gregson-Williams and John Powell. The soundtrack was released on November 3, 1998 by Angel Records.
Initially, Jeffrey Katzenberg wanted Hans Zimmer to compose the music, but he was too busy with The Prince of Egypt among other projects. Instead, Zimmer suggested two composers from his studio — either Harry Gregson-Williams or John Powell — both of whom had already collaborated on Egypt.
Release
Theatrical
On December 23, 1997, a teaser trailer for Antz, depicting the opening scene with Z in an ant psychiatrist office, first played in theaters in front of select prints of As Good as It Gets. Anticipation was generally high with adult moviegoers rather than families and children.
Home media Antz was released to VHS and DIVX on February 9, 1999, and to DVD on March 23, 1999, becoming the first feature-length CGI-animated film to be available on DVD. The original release used a 35 mm print of the film, rather than an encoded version from the original files. A special edition version was released on February 14, 2003. The film was released on Blu-ray on October 16, 2018 for the film's 20th anniversary.
Reception
Box office
The film topped the box office in its opening weekend, earning $17,195,160 for a $7,021 average from 2,449 theatres. In its second weekend, the film held the top spot again, with a slippage of only 14% to $14.7 million for a $5,230 average and expanding to 2,813 sites. It held well also in its third weekend, slipping only 24% to $11.2 million and finishing in third place, for a $3,863 average from 2,903 theatres. The film's widest release was 2,929 theatres, and closed on February 18, 1999. The film altogether picked up $90,757,863 domestically, but failed to outgross the competition with A Bug's Life. The film picked up an additional $81 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $171.8 million.
According to DreamWorks, the film's budget was about $42 million, while the numbers $60 million and $105 million were also reported. According to Los Angeles Times, the first figure was doubted by the film industry, considering that other computer-animated films at the time cost twice of that amount, and that the budget did not include start-up costs of PDI.
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 92% based on 93 reviews and an average rating of 7.61/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Featuring a stellar voice cast, technically dazzling animation, and loads of good humor, Antz should delight both children and adults." Metacritic gave the film a score of 72 out of 100 based on 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert praised the film, saying that it is "sharp and funny". The variety of themes, interesting visuals, and voice acting were each aspects of the film that were praised. Ebert's partner, Gene Siskel, greatly enjoyed the film and preferred it over A Bug's Life. Siskel later ranked it No. 7 on his picks of the Best Films of 1998.
Accolades
Other media
Video games
Cancelled sequel
A direct-to-video sequel was in development at DreamWorks at the time of the release of Antz''. Like the first film, it was planned to be produced by Pacific Data Images, and was also considered for theatrical release. By early 1999, when DreamWorks closed its television animation unit and merged the direct-to-video unit with the feature animation, the sequel was still planned, but eventually the project was cancelled.
See also
List of films that depict class struggle
References
External links
1998 films
1998 computer-animated films
1998 comedy films
1990s adventure comedy films
1990s American animated films
1990s children's comedy films
1990s fantasy-comedy films
American adventure comedy films
American children's animated adventure films
American children's animated fantasy films
American films
American computer-animated films
American fantasy adventure films
Animated films about insects
DreamWorks Animation animated films
DreamWorks Pictures films
1990s English-language films
Fictional ants
Fictional Hymenoptera
Films directed by Eric Darnell
Films directed by Tim Johnson
Films scored by Harry Gregson-Williams
Films scored by John Powell
Films produced by Aron Warner
Films produced by Brad Lewis
Animated films set in New York City
Psychotherapy in fiction
Films with screenplays by Chris Weitz
Films with screenplays by Paul Weitz
Films with screenplays by Todd Alcott
1990s fantasy adventure films
1998 directorial debut films
Films about coups d'état
Films about ants
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] |
206846
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20Beggs
|
Nick Beggs
|
Nicholas Beggs (born 15 December 1961) is an English musician, noted for playing the bass guitar and the Chapman Stick; he is a member of the Mute Gods and Kajagoogoo, formerly also a part of Iona and Ellis, Beggs, & Howard and plays in the band of Steven Wilson. He is known for modifying a Chapman Stick into a fully MIDI-capable instrument triggering MIDI from both bass and melody strings; he calls it the Virtual Stick.
Early life
Beggs was born on 15 December 1961 in Winslow, Buckinghamshire. His parents were Herby and Joan Beggs, and he has a younger sister, Jacqueline. His father left when he was young but came back into his life at a later age. In November 1979, Beggs' mother died of cancer, leaving him to care for his sister, who was then 15. He took a job as a dustman upon leaving school.
Career
Beggs' first band Johnny and the Martians (formed when he was 10) consisted of two friends on trumpet and acoustic guitar and Beggs on drums. He went to Linslade Secondary School.
After attending art school, in 1978 Beggs formed the band Art Nouveau, with Steve Askew, Stuart Croxford Neale and Jez Strode. Chris Hamill (Limahl) joined the band in 1981 and at Beggs' suggestion it was renamed Kajagoogoo. The release of the first single "Too Shy" in January 1983 saw the band on a promotional tour as the record reached number 1 in the UK Singles Chart. The band went on to have four more UK top 40 hits throughout 1983 and 1984.
After firing lead singer Limahl in 1983 and, following a split with Strode in 1985, the three remaining band members reformed as Kaja, releasing the album Crazy People's Right to Speak and the single "Shouldn't Do That".
Between 1985 and 1987, Beggs concentrated on writing with various other songwriters and formed Ellis, Beggs, & Howard in March 1987. Ellis, Beggs and Howard split in 1989, and in 1990 Beggs joined the progressive folk band Iona. He recorded two albums with them: The Book of Kells and Beyond These Shores.
He continued working with various artists and bands, including Gary Numan, Alphaville, Belinda Carlisle, Emma Bunton (on her album Life in Mono) and Led Zeppelin's former bass player, John Paul Jones. In 1996, Beggs met Howard Jones on a flight from the United States, and Jones invited Beggs to tour as part of his band.
Beggs worked as a manager for Phonogram Records for eight months. He later became a contributor to various guitar publications, and he is a staff writer for Bass Guitar magazine. He is also a patron of London-based guitar and bass school Guitar-X.
He has recorded and released Stick Insect"(2002), The Maverick Helmsman (2004), and The Darkness Inside Mens Hearts.
Beggs and Askew have been heavily involved with a duo named Industrial Salt, which have been successful in Japan. They have written material for Claudia Mills, a finalist on the talent show Let Me Entertain You.
A reformed Kajagoogoo with Beggs, Askew and Croxford Neale toured in 2004. Limahl and Strode both rejoined in 2008, and the band toured extensively. The band released an EP of new material in 2011. In an interview with Cherry Red TV in 2018, Beggs talked about the reunion, stating "we reformed and we toured and we recorded an EP and remastered the back catalogue...and at that point I felt that we had done it all. It was a nice way to tie it up, put a bow on it and leave it alone and move on."
Since 2011, Beggs is a member of Steven Wilson's touring band, having also played on Wilson's albums Grace For Drowning, The Raven That Refused to Sing, Hand. Cannot. Erase., the EP 41/2, To the Bone and The Future Bites.
In February 2013, Beggs's project Lifesigns, with John Young and Frosty Beedle, released a self-titled album.
Beggs also became a member of the band Fish on Friday, which released an album named Godspeed at the end of 2014, and contributed to John Mitchell's solo project Lonely Robot, which released the album Please Come Home in February 2015.
Beggs's latest collaboration is named The Mute Gods, with Marco Minneman and Roger King. Their first album was released in January 2016, titled Do Nothing till You Hear from Me. This was followed up with Tardigrades Will Inherit The Earth in February 2017.
Personal life
From his first marriage to Eleni Gagoushi, which ended in 1994, he has one daughter named Lula who was born 29 May 1991. He has another daughter, Willow Beggs (b.2002) with his girlfriend Ann Staniford, whom he married in 2003. He is stepfather to his wife's three children, Olivia, Callum and Jake Keenan. Beggs currently lives in Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire.
Beggs was a pescetarian for a while and currently is a vegetarian as of January 2016 due to his rejection of the livestock industry.
Discography
Ellis, Beggs and Howard
Singles
"Big Bubbles No Troubles" – RCA PB 42089 – June 88 – # 59 UK
"Bad Times" – RCA PB 42041 – August 88
"Where Did Tomorrow Go?" – RCA PB42317 – November 1988
"Big Bubbles No Troubles" remix – RCA PB 42089 – February 89 – # 41 UK
"Big Bubbles No Troubles" remix – RCA PB 42788 – April 1989
Albums
Homelands – RCA – 1988
The Lost Years Volume One – available from Nick Beggs website
The Lost Years Volume Two – again, available from Nick Beggs website as of February 2010
Lifesigns
Lifesigns – Esoteric Antenna – 2013
Solo
Albums
Stick Insect, 2002 CD Stick Enterprises
The Maverick Helmsman, 2004 CD Stick Enterprises
The Darkness Inside Mens Hearts, 2014 Burning Shed: a compilation of the solo Chapman Stick pieces from his two albums Stick Insect (2002) and The Maverick Helmsman (2004)
Words Fail Me, 2019 CD Cherry Red Records
With other artists
With Steve Hackett
Out of the Tunnel's Mouth, 2009
Beyond the Shrouded Horizon, 2011
Live Rails, 2011
Genesis Revisited II, 2012
With Steven Wilson
Grace For Drowning, 2011
Catalog / Preserve / Amass (live), 2012
Get All You Deserve (live), 2012
The Raven that Refused to Sing, 2013
Drive Home, 2013
Hand. Cannot. Erase., 2015
4½, 2016
To the Bone, 2017
Home Invasion: In Concert at the Royal Albert Hall, 2018
The Future Bites, 2021
With Lonely Robot (i.e. John Mitchell)
Please Come Home, 2015
With The Mute Gods
Do Nothing till You Hear from Me (2016)
Tardigrades Will Inherit the Earth (2017)
Atheists and Believers (2019)
With Trifecta
Fragments (2021)
References
External links
Nick Beggs Official Website
KajaGooGoo Official Website
Official MySpace
KajaFax – The KajaGooGoo Fan Community
Facebook page for Lifesigns
The Mute Gods
1961 births
Living people
People from Winslow, Buckinghamshire
English bass guitarists
English male guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English new wave musicians
Chapman Stick players
Lifesigns members
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb%20Chop%27s%20Play-Along
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Lamb Chop's Play-Along
|
Lamb Chop's Play-Along! is a half-hour preschool children's television series that was shown on PBS in the United States from January 13, 1992 until September 22, 1995, with reruns airing on PBS until August 29, 1997, and on Qubo until 2009. It was created and hosted by puppeteer Shari Lewis, and featured her puppet characters Lamb Chop, Charlie Horse, and Hush Puppy. Lamb Chop's Play-Along! was followed by the short-lived spin-off series, The Charlie Horse Music Pizza.
Production
PBS commissioned the show from Shari Lewis in May 1991, and the show premiered in January 1992. This marked Lewis' return to television after about 15 years (following the BBC version of The Shari Lewis Show in 1975). Lamb Chop's Play-Along was shot in Canada, first in Burnaby, British Columbia and then at the CBC Studios in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The series honored Lewis' father, college professor Abraham Hurwitz - "the official magician of New York City".
Ellensburg Daily Record says: "each half hour is filled with jokes, games, songs, and tricks".
Philosophy
Shari Lewis explained her goal for the audience is "participation, not passive observance". She said: "our goal is, don't just sit there - come play with me". She wanted to "attack the shorter attention span of today's children with a fast-paced show using colorful electronic effects". She said in an interview with the Philadelphia Inquirer: "I know that when children watch TV, they go into a stupor. Parents think (their children) are interested, but what they really are is [bored]".
Lewis testified that making smart content for children was not that hard to produce and should be done with increasing frequency. She explained that if children are challenged, they will be productive members of society. She said, "I don't care if you tack a prosocial message at the end of the show. You have not done a quality show".
Synopsis
Lamb Chop is an anthropomorphic sheep; other characters are puppets of other farm animals, including Charlie Horse and Hush Puppy.
At the end of each show, Charlie Horse would try to sing The Song That Doesn't End, much to the annoyance of Shari.
Cast
Shari Lewis - Herself/Lamb Chop/Charlie Horse/Hush Puppy
Pat Brymer - head puppeteer
Gord Robertson - Buster the Bus, featured puppeteer
Norma McKnight - additional puppetry
Bonnie Martin - Big Lamb Chop
Mark Gamez - Big Charlie Horse
Lamb Chop's Playmates
Andrew Francis
Brian Ito
Amanda McAdam
Sabrina Sánchez
Kevin Yee
Rachel Sandor-Gough
Talia Gilboa
Bryan Robinson
Zack Moses
Phillip Boutte
Annick Obonsawin
John Creery
Ramon Choyce
Jade Schwartz
Emma Pollard
Maddie Lewis
Episodes
84 half-hour episodes produced.
Season 1 (1992)
Air Charlie (4 acts) [January 13, 1992]
Stop Biting Your Nails (4 acts) [January 14, 1992]
Too Sick to Go to the Circus (5 acts) [January 15, 1992]
The Bully (4 acts) [January 16, 1992]
Hiccups (3 acts) [January 17, 1992]
Charlie's Magic Show (2 acts) [January 20, 1992]
Lamb Chop Works Out (4 acts) [January 21, 1992]
The Charlie Horse Newspaper (4 acts) [January 22, 1992]
Robin Hoof (3 acts) [January 23, 1992]
Charlie's Toothache (4 acts) [January 24, 1992]
The Baseball Show (3 acts) [January 27, 1992]
The Planet Yzarc (4 acts) [January 28, 1992]
Maurice (3 acts) [January 29, 1992]
Charlie Horse Western (4 acts) [January 30, 1992]
Runaway (5 acts) [January 31, 1992]
The Lemonade Wars (4 acts) [February 3, 1992]
Have I Got A Girl For You (4 acts) [February 4, 1992]
The Ring (4 acts) [February 5, 1992]
Charlie Horse's Birthday (4 acts) [February 6, 1992]
Grown Up For A Day (4 acts) [February 7, 1992]
Charlie Horse For Class President (4 acts) [February 10, 1992]
Obedience School (4 acts) [February 11, 1992]
The Necklace (4 acts) [February 12, 1992]
The Chicken Show [February 13, 1992]
Lamb Chop's Allowance (4 acts) [February 14, 1992]
Talent-Less (3 acts) [February 17, 1992]
On Thin Ice (3 acts) [February 18, 1992]
Bigger Is Better (2 acts) [February 19, 1992]
The Lamb Chop Show [February 20, 1992]
Season 2 (1993)
So Long Freddy (3 acts) [February 8, 1993]
Shari Makes a Beanstalk [February 9, 1993]
School Daze (3 acts) [February 10, 1993]
The Circus (1 act) [February 11, 1993]
I'm Back! (2 acts) [February 12, 1993]
What's Your Name? (Shari Tells the Story of Tikki Tikki Tembo) [February 15, 1993]
Farnsworth (3 acts) [February 16, 1993]
A Cat By Any Other Name (3 acts) [February 17, 1993]
Born To Dance (3 acts) [February 18, 1993]
Super Angelo (3 acts) [February 19, 1993]
I Write The Songs (1 act) [March 8, 1993]
United We Stand (3 acts) [March 9, 1993]
Lucky Puppy (3 acts) [March 10, 1993]
The Wallet (3 acts) [March 11, 1993]
Twinkle Twinkle (3 acts) [March 12, 1993]
The Return of Zark (3 acts) [March 15, 1993]
Fear of Biking (3 acts) [March 16, 1993]
Segnorita Lamb Chop (3 acts) [March 17, 1993]
Forget It! (3 acts) [March 18, 1993]
Little Red Riding Hood (2 acts) [March 19, 1993]
Chicken Pox (3 acts) [March 22, 1993]
The Guys (3 acts) [March 23, 1993]
Get Up & Dance [March 24, 1993]
Trading Bases (4 acts) [March 25, 1993]
When You Grow Up (3 acts) [March 26, 1993]
Lamb Chop's Cold [March 29, 1993]
Musical Chopsticks (3 acts) [March 30, 1993]
Principal Swanson (3 acts) [March 31, 1993]
Gold Diggers (3 acts) [April 1, 1993]
The Emperor's New Clothes [April 2, 1993]
Peer Pressure (3 acts) [April 5, 1993]
Toulouse La Chop (3 acts) [April 6, 1993]
Anchor Desk (3 acts) [April 7, 1993]
The Dark (3 acts) [April 8, 1993]
Lamb Chop's Lullaby [April 9, 1993]
Season 3 (1994)
Horse of a Different Color (2 acts) [January 31, 1994]
Monopoly (3 acts) [February 1, 1994]
Tattletale! (3 acts) [February 2, 1994]
So Mad (3 acts) [February 3, 1994]
Lamb Chop's Pet (3 acts) [February 4, 1994]
Togetherless (3 acts) [February 7, 1994]
What A Mess (3 acts) [February 8, 1994]
Buster and Butch the Bully [February 9, 1994]
Busted-Up Buster (3 acts) [February 10, 1994]
Lamb Chop Practicing Violin [February 11, 1994]
Season 4 (1995)
Charlie Horse Tells a Lie (3 acts) [September 11, 1995]
Shari's Favorite? (3 acts) [September 12, 1995]
Lamb Chop's Art Embarrasses Charlie Horse (3 acts) [September 13, 1995]
A Yo-Yo for Hush Puppy (3 acts) [September 14, 1995]
Lamb Chop's Glasses (3 acts) [September 15, 1995]
Counting on Your Knuckles (Mother's Hubbard) [September 18, 1995]
Your Mitt or Mine (3 acts) [September 19, 1995]
Fighting Fair (3 acts) [September 20, 1995] (Note: This episode can be seen as a sketch of the importance of Fairness on the Kids for Character with Tom Selleck VHS.)
The Job (3 acts) [September 21, 1995]
Sea Creatures (3 acts) [September 22, 1995]
Specials
2 one-hour episode specials produced
Special: Lamb Chop's Special Chanukah [December 17, 1995]
Special: Shari's Passover Surprise [April 14, 1996]
Segments
Introduced in Season 1
At Home with Lamb Chop
Comedy Barn
Knock! Knock!
A Baby Lamb Chop Story
Betcha
Riddles
Funny Little Poem
Animals from the San Diego Zoo
Tongue Twisters
Story Time
Sing a Little Sing-Along Song
Playtime With Emma
More Playtime With Emma
Introduced in Season 2
Buster the Bus
Alpha-Toons
Something Unusual/Fascinating
A Baby Shari Lewis Story
A Teddy Bear Tale
A Baby Hush Puppy Story
Sing a Little Sing-Along Song
Introduced in Season 3
Any Kid Can Draw
Take a Look at a Book
Buster's Brain Busters
Magic is the Thing for You
You Can Do It
Introduced in Season 4
Clip from The Shari Lewis Show
Production notes
WTTW jointly distributed it with Paragon Entertainment Corporation to PBS stations across the country. The rights to the show are currently owned by Universal Television on behalf of DreamWorks Classics.
Opening and closing
Both the opening and closing songs were written by Broadway composer Norman Martin. Other songs were written by Square One TV songwriter, John Rodby. Two versions of the opening song with different lyrics have been used; one involves bouncing, the other strength. The ending theme song is "The Song That Doesn't End", as sung by the children and puppets while Lewis frantically attempts to stop them. The song eventually fades even before beginning a sixth verse. Finally, at the end of the song, Charlie Horse returns. He then tries to get to sing the song again, until Lewis successfully stops him (by putting her hand over his mouth). She (covering Charlie's mouth) orders him to go away. As Charlie leaves, he slams the door before Lewis could tell him to not to do so. Her only consolation is that everything is now silent (as a result of the puppets and the singing group "gone"). However, she glares at the viewers at fade-out.
An instrumental version of the show's theme song was used for a most recent show of Mallory Lewis and Lamb Chop.
Critical reception
The show received a rating of 8.0 based on 128 votes, at TV.com, and score of 7.8/10 at IMDb based on 407 ratings. Greensboro News & Record said of this show, "she (Lewis) made the sort of mischief that gave a vicarious thrill to millions of children watching at home".
Awards and nominations
External links
References
1992 American television series debuts
1995 American television series endings
1990s American children's television series
1992 Canadian television series debuts
1995 Canadian television series endings
1990s Canadian children's television series
American preschool education television series
American television shows featuring puppetry
Canadian preschool education television series
Canadian television shows featuring puppetry
1990s preschool education television series
English-language television shows
PBS Kids shows
PBS original programming
Television series by Universal Television
Television series by WTTW
Television shows filmed in Burnaby
Television shows filmed in Vancouver
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206864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonius
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Polonius
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Polonius is a character in William Shakespeare's Hamlet. He is chief counsellor of the play's ultimate villain, Claudius, and the father of Laertes and Ophelia. Generally regarded as wrong in every judgment he makes over the course of the play, Polonius is described by William Hazlitt as a "sincere" father, but also "a busy-body, [who] is accordingly officious, garrulous, and impertinent". In Act II, Hamlet refers to Polonius as a "tedious old fool" and taunts him as a latter day "Jephtha".
Polonius connives with Claudius to spy on Hamlet. Hamlet unknowingly kills Polonius, provoking Ophelia's descent into madness, ultimately resulting in her (probable) suicide and the climax of the play: a duel between Laertes and Hamlet.
Character
Father of Ophelia and Laertes, and counselor to King Claudius, he is described as a windbag by some and a rambler of wisdom by others. It has also been suggested that he only acts like a "foolish prating knave" to keep his position and popularity safe and to keep anyone from discovering his plots for social advancement. It is important to note that throughout the play, Polonius is characterised as a typical Renaissance "new man", who pays much attention to appearances and ceremonious behaviour. Some adaptations show him conspiring with Claudius in the murder of King Hamlet.
In Act 1, Scene 3, Polonius gives advice to his son Laertes, who is leaving for France, in the form of a list of sententious maxims. He finishes by giving his son his blessing, and is apparently at ease with his son's departure. However, in Act 2, Scene 1, he orders his servant Reynaldo to travel to Paris and spy on Laertes and report if he is indulging in any local vice.
Laertes is not the only character upon whom Polonius spies. He is fearful that Hamlet's relationship with his daughter will hurt his reputation with the king and instructs Ophelia to "lock herself from [Hamlet's] resort". He later suspects that Ophelia's rejection of Hamlet's attention has caused the prince to lose his wits, and informs Gertrude and Claudius of his suspicion, claiming that his reason for commanding Ophelia to reject Hamlet was that the prince was above her station. He and the king test his hypothesis by spying on and interrogating Ophelia.
In his last attempt to spy on Hamlet, Polonius hides himself behind an arras in Gertrude's room. Hamlet deals roughly with his mother, causing her to cry for help. Polonius echoes the request for help and is heard by Hamlet, who then mistakes the voice for Claudius' and stabs through the arras and kills him.
Polonius's death at the hands of Hamlet causes Claudius to fear for his own life, Ophelia to go mad, and Laertes to seek revenge, which leads to the duel in the final act.
Sources
The literary origins of the character may be traced to the King's counselor found in the Belleforest and William Painter versions of the Hamlet legend. However, at least since the 19th century scholars have also sought to understand the character in terms of Elizabethan court politics.
Polonius was first proposed as a parody of Queen Elizabeth's leading counsellor, Lord Treasurer, and Principal Secretary William Cecil, Lord Burghley in 1869. Israel Gollancz also suggested that Polonius might have been a satire on Burghley. The theory was often finessed with supplementary arguments, but also disputed. Arden Hamlet editor Harold Jenkins, for example, criticised the idea of any direct personal satire of Burghley as "unlikely" and "uncharacteristic of Shakespeare".
Name
Gollancz proposed that the source for the character's name and sententious platitudes was De optimo senatore, a book on statesmanship by the Polish courtier Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, which was widely read after it was translated into English and published in 1598 under the title The Counsellor. "Polonius" is Latin for "Polish" or "a/the Polish man." The English translation of the book refers to its author as a statesman of the "polonian empyre".
In the first quarto of Hamlet, Polonius is named "Corambis". It has been suggested that this derives from "crambe" or "crambo", derived from a Latin phrase meaning "reheated cabbage", implying "a boring old man" who spouts trite rehashed ideas. Whether this was the original name of the character or not is debated. Various suggestions have been made to explain this. G. R. Hibbard argues that the name was originally Polonius, but was changed because Q1 derives from a version of the play to be performed in Oxford and Cambridge, and the original name was too close to that of Robert Polenius, founder of Oxford University. Since Polonius is a parody of a pompous pseudo-intellectual, the name might have been interpreted as a deliberate insult. The title page of Q1 specifically states that the play was recently performed in London, Oxford and Cambridge.
Stage and film portrayals
In most productions of the 20th century, up to about 1980, Polonius was played as a somewhat senile, garrulous man of about 75 or so, eliciting a few laughs from the audience by the depiction. More recent productions have tended to play him as a slightly younger man, and to emphasise his shiftiness rather than pompous senility, harking back to the traditional manner in which Polonius was played before the 20th century. Until the 1900s there was a tradition that the actor who plays Polonius also plays the quick-witted gravedigger in Act V. This bit suggests that the actor who played Polonius was an actor used to playing clowns much like the Fool in King Lear: not a doddering old fool, but an alive and intelligent master of illusion and misdirection. Polonius adds a new dimension to the play and is a controlling and menacing character.
One key to the portrayal is a producer's decision to keep or remove the brief scene with his servant, Reynaldo, which comes after his scene of genial, fatherly advice to Laertes. He instructs Reynaldo to spy on his son, and even suggest that he has been gambling and consorting with prostitutes, to find out what he has really been up to. The inclusion of this scene portrays him in a much more sinister light; most productions, including Laurence Olivier's 1948 film version, choose to remove it. The respective productions starring Richard Burton and Kenneth Branagh both include it. Although Hume Cronyn plays Polonius mostly for laughs in the Burton production, Polonius is more sinister than comic in Branagh's version.
Famous lines
Polonius's most famous lines are found in Act 1 Scene 3 ("Neither a borrower nor a lender be"; "To thine own self be true") and Act 2 Scene 2 ("Brevity is the soul of wit"; and "Though this be madness, yet there is method in't") while others have become paraphrased aphorisms ("Clothes make the man"; "Old friends are the best friends"). Also, the line he speaks when he is killed by Hamlet in Act 3 scene 4 ("Oh, I am slain!") has been subject to parody and ridicule due to its obviousness.
Notable portrayals
Hume Cronyn won a Tony Award for playing Polonius opposite Richard Burton's Hamlet in John Gielgud's 1964 Broadway production. No other actor has ever won an award for playing Polonius in any professional American stage version of Hamlet, nor for playing him in a film version of the play.
In "The Producer", a 1966 episode of Gilligan's Island, Polonius' "Neither a borrower nor a lender be" speech is performed satirically, first by series regular Alan Hale Jr. as The Skipper playing the role of Polonius (with Dawn Wells as Mary Ann playing Laertes) in a musical production of Hamlet by the castaways, then by Phil Silvers guest-starring as a famous stage producer who finds himself on the island.
Actors who have played Polonius on film and television include Hans Junkermann, Ian Holm, Michael Redgrave, Ian Richardson, Oliver Ford Davies, Bill Murray, and Richard Briers.
References
Literary characters introduced in 1599
Characters in Hamlet
Fictional viziers
Fictional nobility
Fictional Danish people
Male Shakespearean characters
Fictional actors
Fictional murdered people
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] |
206865
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AtomAge
|
AtomAge
|
AtomAge magazine (later AtomAge International magazine) was a fetish magazine published in Britain by the clothes designer John Sutcliffe in the 1970s as an offshoot of his AtomAge fetish clothing business. The magazine has been called the "underground bible of leather, rubber and vinyl fetish wear throughout the 1970s" and documented Britain's S&M scene. The first AtomAge clothing catalogue was published in 1965 and it expanded into a magazine in 1972.
The magazine specialized in leather, rubber and PVC fetishism, with a heavy emphasis on rubber and leather catsuits, cloaks, and gasmasks. In 1981, the publication was split in two: AtomAge Rubberist (similar to the original AtomAge) and AtomAge Bondage (which contained more overtly S&M content). Sutcliffe made this decision because the Bondage material he began to introduce in the late 1970s issues of the original AtomAge bothered some rubber enthusiasts. Both magazines remained in print until 1985.
One of Sutcliffe's main goals was to dignify the popular perception of fetish. He is regarded as one of the patron saints of the worldwide Rubberist community as a result.
2010 saw the publication of Dressing For Pleasure, The Best Of AtomAge, a comprehensive hardback book celebrating both the magazine and company.
References
Pornographic magazines published in the United Kingdom
Fetish magazines
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1972
Magazines disestablished in 1980
|
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] |
206868
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnan
|
Minnan
|
Minnan or Banlam may refer to:
Minnan region, or southern Fujian
Southern Min, a variety of Chinese
Hokkien people
Hokkien and Teochew people in the loose definition
People
Denzil Minnan-Wong
Hsieh Min-Nan
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaScope
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CinemaScope
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CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, and less often later, for shooting widescreen films that, crucially, could be screened in theatres using existing equipment, albeit with a lens adapter. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras, the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal 2.55:1, almost twice as wide as the previously common Academy format's 1.37:1 ratio. Although the technology behind the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by later developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, CinemaScope's anamorphic format has continued to this day. In film-industry jargon, the shortened form, 'Scope, is still widely used by both filmmakers and projectionists, although today it generally refers to any 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.40:1, or 2.55:1 presentation or, sometimes, the use of anamorphic lensing or projection in general. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens.
Origins
French inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called Anamorphoscope in 1926. It was that process which later formed the basis of CinemaScope. Chrétien's process used lenses that employed an optical trick, which produced an image twice as wide as those that were being produced with conventional lenses. That was done using an optical system called Hypergonar, which compressed the image laterally when the film was being shot, and dilated it when the film was projected. Chrétien attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention but, at that time, the industry was not sufficiently impressed.
By 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival: television. Yet Cinerama and the early 3D films, both launched in 1952, succeeded in defying that trend, which in turn persuaded Spyros Skouras, the head of 20th Century Fox, that technical innovation could help to meet the television challenge. Skouras tasked Earl Sponable, head of Fox's research department, with devising a new, impressive, projection system, but something that, unlike Cinerama, could be retrofitted to existing theatres at a relatively modest cost. Herbert Brag, Sponable's assistant, remembered Chrétien's hypergonar lens.
The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype "anamorphoser" (later shortened to anamorphic) lens. Meanwhile, Sponable tracked down Professor Chrétien, whose patent for the process had expired, so Fox purchased his existing Hypergonars, and the lenses were flown to Fox's studios in Hollywood. Test footage shot with the lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process, based on Chrétien's invention, which was to be known as CinemaScope.
20th Century Studios's pre-production of The Robe, originally committed to Technicolor three-strip origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production (using Eastmancolor, but processed by Technicolor). The use of the CinemaScope technology became a key feature of the film's marketing campaign. Two other CinemaScope productions were also planned: How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef. So that production of the first CinemaScope films could proceed without delay, shooting started using the best three of Chrétien's Hypergonars, while Bausch & Lomb continued working on their own versions. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to respond to the challenge from television by providing a key point of difference.
Chrétien's Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects, primarily loss-of-squeeze at close camera-to-subject distances, plus the requirement of two camera assistants. Bausch & Lomb, Fox's prime contractor for the production of the lenses, initially produced an improved Chrétien-formula adapter lens design (CinemaScope Adapter Type I), and subsequently produced a dramatically improved and patented Bausch & Lomb formula adapter lens design (CinemaScope Adapter Type II).
Ultimately, Bausch & Lomb formula combined lens designs incorporated both the prime lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit (initially in 35, 40, 50, 75, 100 and 152 mm focal lengths, later including a 25 mm focal length). The combined lenses continue to be used to this day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers' lenses are often preferred for so-called production applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion, or a combination of both characteristics.
Early implementation
CinemaScope was developed to use a separate film for sound (see Audio below), thus enabling the full silent 1.33:1 aperture to be available for the picture, with a 2:1 anamorphic squeeze applied that would allow an aspect ratio of 2.66:1. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print, the ratio of the image was reduced to 2.55:1. This reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as fox-holes. Later still an optical soundtrack was added, further reducing the aspect ratio to 2.35:1 (1678:715). This change also meant a shift in the optical center of the projected image. All of Fox's CinemaScope films were made using a silent/full aperture for the negatives, as was this studio's practice for all films, whether anamorphic or not.
In order to better hide so-called negative assembly splices, the ratio of the image was later changed by others to 2.39:1 (1024:429). All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55:1 (special 'Scope aperture plate) or 2.66:1 (standard Full/Silent aperture plate, preferred by many producers and all optical houses), and 2.35:1 or 2.39:1 or 2.40:1 is simply a hard-matted version of the others.
Fox selected The Robe as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature. During its production, How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the 12-Mile Reef also went into Cinemascope production. Millionaire finished production first, before The Robe, but because of its importance, The Robe was released first.
20th Century Studios used its influential people to promote CinemaScope. With the success of The Robe and How to Marry a Millionaire, the process enjoyed success in Hollywood. Fox licensed the process to many of the major American film studios.
Walt Disney Productions was one of the first companies to license the CinemaScope process from Fox. Among the features and shorts they filmed with it, they created the live-action epic 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, considered one of the best examples of early CinemaScope productions. Walt Disney Productions' Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom, which won an Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) in 1953, was the first cartoon produced in Cinemascope. The first animated feature film to use CinemaScope was Lady and the Tramp (1955), also from Walt Disney Productions.
Due to initial uncertainty about whether the process would be adopted widely, a number of films were shot simultaneously with anamorphic and regular lenses. Despite early success with the process, Fox did not shoot every production by this process. They reserved CinemaScope as a trade name for their A productions, while B productions in black and white were begun in 1956 at Fox under the trade name, RegalScope. The latter used the very same optics as CinemaScope, but, usually, a different camera system (such as Mitchell BNCs at TCF-TV studios for RegalScope rather than Fox Studio Cameras at Fox Hills studios for CinemaScope).
Audio
Fox officials were keen that the sound of their new widescreen film format should be as impressive as the picture, and that meant it should include true stereophonic sound.
Previously, stereo sound in the commercial cinema had always employed separate sound films; Walt Disney's 1940 release Fantasia, the first film with stereophonic sound, had used Disney's Fantasound system, which utilized a three-channel soundtrack played from separate optical film. Early post-war stereo systems used with Cinerama and some 3-D films had used multichannel audio played from a separate magnetic film. Fox had initially intended to use three-channel stereo from magnetic film for CinemaScope.
However, Hazard E. Reeves' sound company had devised a method of coating 35 mm stock with magnetic stripes and designed a three-channel (left, center, right) system based on three stripes, one on each edge of the film outside the perforations, and one between the picture and the perforations in approximately the position of a standard optical soundtrack. Later it was found possible to add a narrower stripe between the picture and perforations on the other side of the film; this fourth track was used for a surround channel, also sometimes known at the time as an effects channel. In order to avoid hiss on the surround/effects channel from distracting the audience the surround speakers were switched on by a 12 kHz tone recorded on the surround track only while wanted surround program material was present.
This four-track magnetic sound system was also used for some non-CinemaScope films; for example Fantasia was re-released in 1956, 1963, and 1969 with the original Fantasound track transferred to four-track magnetic.
Rival processes
CinemaScope itself was a response to early realism processes Cinerama and 3-D. Cinerama was relatively unaffected by CinemaScope, as it was a quality-controlled process that played in select venues, similar to the IMAX films of recent years. 3-D was hurt, however, by studio advertising surrounding CinemaScope's promise that it was the "miracle you see without glasses." Technical difficulties in presentation spelled the true end for 3-D, but studio hype was quick to hail it a victory for CinemaScope.
In April 1953, a technique simply now known as wide-screen appeared and was soon adopted as a standard by all flat film productions in the US. In this process, a fully exposed 1.37:1 Academy ratio-area is cropped in the projector to a wide-screen aspect ratio by the use of an aperture plate, also known as a soft matte. Most films shot today use this technique, cropping the top and bottom of a 1.37:1 image to produce one at a ratio of 1.85:1.
Aware of Fox's upcoming CinemaScope productions, Paramount introduced this technique in March's release of Shane with the 1.66:1 aspect ratio, although the film was not shot with this ratio originally in mind. Universal-International followed suit in May with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio for Thunder Bay. By summer of 1953, Paramount, Universal, MGM, Columbia, Belarusfilm and even Fox's B-unit contractors, under the banner of Panoramic Productions had switched from filming flat shows in a 1.37:1 format, and used variable flat wide-screen aspect ratios in their filming, which would become the standard of that time.
By this time Chrétien's 1926 patent on the Hypergonar lens had expired while the fundamental technique that CinemaScope utilised was not patentable because the anamorphoscope had been known for centuries. Anamorphosis had been used in visual media such as Hans Holbein's painting, The Ambassadors (1533). Some studios thus sought to develop their own systems rather than pay Fox.
In response to the demands for a higher visual resolution spherical widescreen process, Paramount created an optical process, VistaVision, which shot horizontally on the 35 mm film roll, and then printed down to standard four-perforation vertical 35 mm. Thus, a negative with a finer grain was created and release prints had less grain. The first Paramount film in VistaVision was White Christmas. VistaVision died out for feature production in the late 1950s with the introduction of faster film stocks, but was revived by Industrial Light & Magic in 1975 to create high quality visual effects for Star Wars and ILM's subsequent film projects.
RKO used the Superscope process in which the standard 35 mm image was cropped and then optically squeezed in post-production to create an anamorphic image on film. Today's Super 35 is a variation of this process.
Another process called Techniscope was developed by Technicolor Inc. in the early 1960s, using normal 35 mm cameras modified for two perforations per (half) frame instead of the regular four and later converted into an anamorphic print. Techniscope was mostly used in Europe, especially with low-budget films.
Many European countries and studios used the standard anamorphic process for their wide-screen films, identical in technical specifications to CinemaScope, and renamed to avoid the trademarks of Fox. Some of these include Euroscope, Franscope, and Naturama (the latter used by Republic Pictures). In 1953, Warner Bros. also planned to develop an identical anamorphic process called Warnerscope but, after the premiere of CinemaScope, Warner Bros. decided to license it from Fox instead.
Technical difficulties
Although CinemaScope was capable of producing a 2.66:1 image, the addition of magnetic sound tracks for multi-channel sound reduced this to 2.55:1.
The fact that the image was expanded horizontally when projected meant that there could be visible graininess and brightness problems. To combat this, larger film formats were developed (initially a too-costly 55 mm for Carousel and The King and I) and then abandoned (both films were eventually reduction printed at 35 mm, although the aspect ratio was kept at 2.55:1). Later Fox re-released The King and I in the 65/70 mm format. The initial problems with grain and brightness were eventually reduced thanks to improvements in film stock and lenses.
The CinemaScope lenses were optically flawed, however, by the fixed anamorphic element, which caused the anamorphic effect to gradually drop off as objects approached closer to the lens. The effect was that close-ups would slightly overstretch an actor's face, a problem that was soon referred to as "the mumps". This problem was avoided at first by composing wider shots, but as anamorphic technology lost its novelty, directors and cinematographers sought compositional freedom from these limitations. Issues with the lenses also made it difficult to photograph animation using the CinemaScope process. Nevertheless, many animated short films and a few features were filmed in CinemaScope during the 1950s, including Walt Disney's Lady and the Tramp (1955).
CinemaScope 55
CinemaScope 55 was a large-format version of CinemaScope introduced by Twentieth Century Fox in 1955, which used a film width of 55.625 mm.
Fox had introduced the original 35 mm version of CinemaScope in 1953 and it had proved to be commercially successful. But the additional image enlargement needed to fill the new wider screens, which had been installed in theatres for CinemaScope, resulted in visible film grain. A larger film was used to reduce the need for such enlargement. CinemaScope 55 was developed to satisfy this need and was one of three high-definition film systems introduced in the mid-1950s, the other two being Paramount's VistaVision and the Todd-AO 70 mm film system.
Fox determined that a system that produced a frame area approximately 4 times that of the 35mm CinemaScope frame would be the optimal trade-off between performance and cost, and it chose the 55.625 mm film width as satisfying that. Camera negative film had larger grain than the film stocks used for prints, so there was a consistent approach in using a larger frame on the film negative than on prints. While the image area of a print has to allow for a soundtrack, a camera negative does not. CinemaScope 55 had different frame dimensions for the camera negative and struck prints.
The negative film had the perforations (of the CS Fox-hole type) close to the edge of the film and the camera aperture was 1.824" by 1.430" (approx. 46 mm x 36 mm), giving an image area of 2.61 sq. inch. This compares to the 0.866" by 0.732" (approx. 22 mm x 18.6 mm) frame of a modern anamorphic 35 mm negative, which provides a frame area of 0.64 sq. inch. On the print film, however, there was a smaller frame size of approximately 1.34" x 1.06" (34 mm x 27 mm) to allow space for the 6 magnetic soundtracks. Four of these soundtracks (two each side) were outside the perforations, which were further from the edges of the print film than in the negative film; the other two soundtracks were between the perforations and the image. The pull-down for the negative was 8 perforations, while for the smaller frame on the print film, it was 6 perforations. In both cases, however, the frame had an aspect ratio of 1.275:1, which when expanded by a 2:1 anamorphic lens resulted in an image of 2.55:1.
A camera originally built for the obsolete Fox 70 mm Grandeur film format more than 20 years before was modified to work with the new 55 mm film. Bausch & Lomb, the firm that created the original anamorphic CinemaScope lenses, was contracted by Fox to build new Super CinemaScope lenses that could cover the larger film frame.
Fox shot two of their Rodgers and Hammerstein musical series in CinemaScope 55: Carousel, and The King and I. But it did not make 55 mm release prints for either film; both were released in conventional 35 mm CinemaScope with a limited release of The King and I being shown in 70 mm.
The company substituted Todd-AO for its wide-gauge production process, having acquired a financial interest in the process from the Mike Todd estate.
Subsequent to the abandonment of CinemaScope 55, Century, which had made the 55/35mm dual-gauge projector for Fox (50 sets were delivered), redesigned this projector head into the present day 70/35mm Model JJ, and Ampex, which had made the 55/35mm dual gauge penthouse magnetic sound reproducer head specifically for CinemaScope 55, abandoned this product (but six-channel Ampex theater systems persisted, these being re-purposed from 55/35mm to 70mm Todd-AO/35mm CinemaScope).
Although commercial 55 mm prints were not made, some 55 mm prints were produced. Samples of these prints reside in the Earl I. Sponable Collection at Columbia University. Several 55/35mm projectors and at least one 55/35mm reproducer are in the hands of collectors.
Cinemascope 55 was originally intended to have a six-track stereo soundtrack. The premiere engagement of Carousel in New York did use one, recorded on magnetic film interlocked with the visual image, as with Cinerama. This proved too impractical, and all other engagements of Carousel had the standard four-track stereo soundtrack (sounded on the actual film) as was then used in all CinemaScope releases.
In 2005, both CinemaScope 55 films were restored from the original 55 mm negatives.
Decline
Lens manufacturer Panavision was initially founded in late 1953 as a manufacturer of anamorphic lens adapters for movie projectors screening CinemaScope films, capitalizing on the success of the new anamorphic format and filling in the gap created by Bausch and Lomb's inability to mass-produce the needed adapters for movie theaters fast enough. Looking to expand beyond projector lenses, Panavision founder Robert Gottschalk soon improved upon the anamorphic camera lenses by creating a new lens set that included dual rotating anamorphic elements which were interlocked with the lens focus gearing. This innovation allowed the Panavision lenses to keep the plane of focus at a constant anamorphic ratio of 2x, thus avoiding the horizontally-overstretched mumps effect that afflicted many CinemaScope films. After screening a demo reel comparing the two systems, many U.S. studios adopted the Panavision anamorphic lenses. The Panavision technique was also considered more attractive to the industry because it was more affordable than CinemaScope and was not owned or licensed-out by a rival studio. Confusingly, some studios, particularly MGM, continued to use the CinemaScope credit even though they had switched to Panavision lenses. Virtually all MGM CinemaScope films after 1958 are actually in Panavision.
By 1967, even Fox had begun to abandon CinemaScope for Panavision (famously at the demand of Frank Sinatra for Von Ryan's Express), although a significant amount of the principal photography was actually filmed using CinemaScope lenses. Fox eventually capitulated completely to third-party lenses. In Like Flint with James Coburn and Caprice with Doris Day, were Fox's final films in CinemaScope.
Fox originally intended CinemaScope films to use magnetic stereo sound only, and although in certain areas, such as Los Angeles and New York City, the vast majority of theaters were equipped for four-track magnetic sound (four-track magnetic sound achieving nearly 90 percent penetration of theaters in the greater Los Angeles area) the owners of many smaller theaters were dissatisfied with contractually having to install expensive three- or four-track magnetic stereo, and because of the technical nature of sound installations, drive-in theaters had trouble presenting stereophonic sound at all. Due to these conflicts, and because other studios were starting to release anamorphic prints with standard optical soundtracks, Fox revoked their policy of stereo-only presentations in 1957, and added a half-width optical soundtrack, while keeping the magnetic tracks for those theaters that were able to present their films with stereophonic sound. These so-called "mag-optical" prints provided a somewhat sub-standard optical sound and were also expensive to produce. It made little economic sense to supply those theaters which had only mono sound systems with an expensive striped print. Eventually Fox, and others, elected to supply the majority of their prints in standard mono optical sound form, with magnetic striped prints reserved for those theaters capable of playing them.
Magnetic-striped prints were expensive to produce; each print cost at least twice as much as a print with a standard optical soundtrack only. Furthermore, these striped prints wore out faster than optical prints and caused more problems in use, such as flakes of oxide clogging the replay heads. Due to these problems, and also because many cinemas never installed the necessary playback equipment, magnetic-sound prints started to be made in small quantities for roadshow screenings only, with the main release using standard mono optical-sound prints. As time went by roadshow screenings were increasingly made using 70 mm film, and the use of striped 35 mm prints declined further. Many CinemaScope films from the 1960s and 1970s were never released in stereo at all. Finally, the 1976 introduction of Dolby Stereo – which provided similar performance to striped magnetic prints albeit more reliable and at a far lower cost – caused the four-track magnetic system to become totally obsolete.
Modern references
The song "Stereophonic Sound" written by Cole Porter for the 1955 Broadway musical Silk Stockings mentions CinemaScope in the lyrics. The first verse is: "Today to get the public to attend the picture show/ It’s not enough to advertise a famous star they know/ If you wanna get the crowds to come around/ You gotta have glorious Technicolor/ Breathtaking CinemaScope and stereophonic sound." The musical was adapted for film in 1957 and was indeed filmed in CinemaScope. (Although the song refers to Technicolor, the film was actually made in Metrocolor.)
While the lens system has been retired for decades, Fox has used the trademark in recent years on at least three films: Down with Love, which was shot with Panavision optics but used the credit as a throwback to the films it references, and the Don Bluth films Anastasia and Titan A.E. at Bluth's insistence. However these films are not in true CinemaScope because they use modern lenses. CinemaScope's association with anamorphic projection is still so embedded in mass consciousness that all anamorphic prints are now referred to generically as 'Scope prints.
Similarly, the 2016 release La La Land was shot on film (not digitally) with Panavision equipment in a 2.55:1 widescreen format, but not true CinemaScope. However, the film's opening credits do say "Presented in CinemaScope" ("presented", not "shot") as a tribute to 1950s musicals in that format. This credit appears initially in black-and-white and in a narrow format. It then widens to widescreen and dissolves to the old-fashioned CinemaScope logo, in color.
In the 1963 Jean-Luc Godard film Contempt (Le Mepris), filmmaker Fritz Lang makes a disparaging comment about CinemaScope: "Oh, it wasn't meant for human beings. Just for snakes – and funerals." Ironically, Contempt was shot in Franscope, a process with a similar format to CinemaScope.
During the production of 1999's The Iron Giant, director Brad Bird wanted to advertise the film with the CinemaScope name and logo, but Fox wouldn't allow its use. A reference to Cinemascope was included during the end credits of the 2015 "Signature Edition" re-release.
In the 1988 film Hairspray and the 2007 remake, there are references to CinemaScope. In both instances, they are comments made in regard to Tracy Turnblad's weight, implying that she's too big to be seen on a television screen. In the 1988 version, a comment was said in dialogue by one of the current "coolest kids in town" during Tracy's audition. In the remake of 2007, also during Tracy's audition, it was a lyric sung by Amber von Tussle, singing, "This show isn't broadcast in CinemaScope!" in the song "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs".
In 2017, Fox used the trademark and credit once more on Logan Noir as a throwback to Fox's black-and-white films, despite neither the Noir version or theatrical version of the film being true CinemaScope.
See also
American Widescreen Museum (Cinemascope section)
Anamorphic widescreen
List of film formats
Super 35
CinemaScope 55
21:9 aspect ratio
References
External links
Ilias Chrissochoidis (ed.), CinemaScope: Selected Documents from the Spyros P. Skouras Archive (Stanford, 2013)
A wider view: Brad Stevens on CinemaScope today for Sight & Sound's website
ASC article about the restoration of "Carousel" and "The King and I"
Carousel - trivia, IMDb
Film and video technology
20th Century Studios
Motion picture film formats
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206871
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carfax%2C%20Oxford
|
Carfax, Oxford
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Carfax is the junction of St Aldate's (south), Cornmarket Street (north), Queen Street (west) and the High Street (east) in Oxford, England. It is considered to be the centre of the city. The name "Carfax" derives from the Latin quadrifurcus via the French carrefour, both of which mean "crossroads". The Carfax Tower, also known as St. Martin's Tower (it is the remaining part of what was the City Church of St. Martin of Tours) is a prominent landmark and provides a look-out over the town.
Tower
St Martin's Tower, popularly called "Carfax Tower", is on the northwest corner of Carfax. It is all that remains of the 12th-century St Martin's Church and is now owned by Oxford City Council. It was the official City Church of Oxford, where the Mayor and Corporation were expected to worship, between about 1122 and 1896, when the main part of the church was demolished to make more room for road traffic and All Saints' Church in the High Street became the City Church for 75 years. All Saints then became the library of Lincoln College, and St Michael at the North Gate became the City Church.
The tower is tall, and the City Council stipulates that no building in central Oxford may be built higher than it (a rule broken by the Blavatnik School of Government). It is a Grade II listed building.
The tower still has a ring of six bells: five recast from the original ring by Richard Keene of Woodstock in 1676 and one cast by Keene two years later. They are rung on special occasions by the Oxford Society of Change Ringers.
There is a clock that chimes the quarter hours on a pair of bells cast by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough in 1898. The clock's current dial and surroundings were designed by Sir TG Jackson and installed in 1898. In 1938–39 the clock mechanism was replaced with an electric one made by Gents' of Leicester.
One can climb to the top of the tower for a view of the Oxford skyline. The tower is open 10am–5.30pm Easter to October, and 10am–3.30pm October to Easter.
Events
The St Scholastica Day riot of 1355 began with an altercation in the Swindlestock Tavern (now the site of the Santander Bank on the southwest corner of Carfax, between St Aldate's and Queen Street) between two students and the taverner.
In 1865 William Henry Butler, who had been Mayor of Oxford in 1836, was buried in St Martin's churchyard in the grave of his first wife Elizabeth Briggs and their two infant daughters. In 1900 the church was demolished to make way for road improvements and as a consequence the grave and tombstone were forgotten. It is probable the tombstone was made by either John Gibbs of Oxford (father of Butler's second wife) or one of Gibbs's employees. The tombstone is still in situ and can be seen behind the tower. There is a campaign to protect the tombstone for posterity.
University regulations
Comparable to St Mary the Great for the University of Cambridge, Carfax plays a role in the disciplinary regulations of the University of Oxford. For example, the University requires some students to reside within of Carfax.
See also
Carfax Conduit
References
Sources and further reading
External links
Buildings and structures demolished in 1896
Former churches in Oxford
Grade II listed buildings in Oxford
History of Oxford
Road junctions in England
Squares in Oxford
Tourist attractions in Oxford
Towers in Oxford
Transport in Oxford
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] |
206872
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornmarket%20Street
|
Cornmarket Street
|
Cornmarket Street (colloquially referred to as Cornmarket or historically The Corn) is a major shopping street and pedestrian precinct in Oxford, England that runs north to south between Magdalen Street and Carfax Tower.
To the east is the Golden Cross arcade of small jewellery and craft shops in a courtyard, leading to the Covered Market. To the west is the indoor Clarendon Shopping Centre that connects in an L-shape to Queen Street.
Cornmarket was semi-pedestrianised and made a limited-access street in 1999. Cycling is allowed 6pm to 10am. In 2002, it was voted Britain's second worst street in a poll of listeners to the Today programme. The rating was largely due to a failed attempt to repave the street in 2001. The granite setts, which had been laid extensively, cracked and the contractor went into liquidation. In 2003, it was repaved again and new benches installed, amidst reports of budgetary problems.
History of shops
26–28 Cornmarket on the corner of Ship Street is a 14th-century timber-framed building. It is the surviving half of a building completed in about 1386 as the New Inn. It belongs to Jesus College and was investigated and restored in 1983.
Boswells of Oxford established what was the largest department store in Oxford at 50 Cornmarket Street in 1738. In 1928, the shop opened a new main entrance on Broad Street, but it still retained an entrance on Cornmarket Street. The store closed in 2020
The Victorian photographer Henry Taunt set up a shop at 33 Cornmarket Street in 1869. It was a small shop and in 1874 he moved to larger premises in Broad Street.
Woolworth's bought the Clarendon Hotel on the west side of the street in 1939 with the intention of demolishing it for the construction of a new store on the site. In earlier centuries, the Clarendon had been the Star Inn. It was a complex of 16th- and 17th-century buildings, one of which had a vaulted Norman cellar dating from the second half of the 12th century: possibly the oldest vaulted structure in Oxford. Thomas Sharp, in Oxford Replanned (1948) a report commissioned by Oxford City Council, warned that Oxford was already short of quality hotel accommodation and the Clarendon's demolition would be a mistake. Notwithstanding Sharp's conclusions, Woolworth's demolished the hotel in 1954–55. After demolition of all the buildings above the surface, parts of the 12th-century vault were destroyed to make way for one of the columns of Clarendon House built in its place.
Clarendon House was designed by William Holford and built in 1956–57. The façade is of coursed and squared rubble masonry with panels of blue-green slate, and Nikolaus Pevsner commended the building as tactful and elegant. The building is now part of the Clarendon Shopping Centre.
St Michael at the North Gate
The tower of the Church of England parish church of St Michael at the North Gate is the oldest building in Oxford. It is Saxon and dates from about 1000–1050. The church is named after the medieval gate of Oxford's city walls that spanned the north end of Cornmarket.
Near this church was the Bocardo Prison, where the Oxford Martyrs were imprisoned in 1555–56 before being burnt at the stake outside the town wall in what is now Broad Street nearby.
Adjoining streets
Broad Street
George Street
High Street
Magdalen Street
Market Street
Queen Street
St Aldate's
St Michael's Street
Ship Street
References
Sources and further reading
Streets in Oxford
Shopping streets in Oxford
Pedestrian streets in the United Kingdom
|
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206874
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YWCA%20USA
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YWCA USA
|
For other uses, including specific buildings and chapters, see Young Women's Christian Association (disambiguation).
YWCA USA is a nonprofit organization dedicated to eliminating racism, empowering women, and promoting peace, justice, freedom, and dignity for all. It is one of the "oldest and largest multicultural organizations promoting solutions to enhance the lives of women, girls and families."
History
YWCA USA was founded as the Young Women's Christian Association in New York City in 1858.
In 1905, the Harlem YWCA hired the first Black woman general secretary of a local YWCA branch, Eva del Vakia Bowles. Bowles joined the national association as the head of "colored programs" in 1913 and remained in that capacity until 1932.
Prior to the Civil Rights Movement, some YWCA facilities were segregated or operated as separate organizations. Advocates like Helen L. Seaborg in Washington, D.C., worked successfully to mediate mergers between the segregated groups. Mary Ingraham was president of the National Board of the YWCA from 1940 to 1946 and involved with the YWCA's war work and interracial efforts.
YWCA USA changed its corporate name from "Young Women's Christian Association of the United States of America, Inc." to "YWCA USA, Inc." in December 2015.
Structure
YWCA is a national organization with 215 local associations across the United States. At YWCA's annual meeting in May 2012, a transition from the prior regional structure to a national federated structure was approved, followed by the adoption of new bylaws in November 2012.
Alejandra Y. Castillo, Esq., is the CEO of YWCA USA.
Services
YWCA serves more than 2 million women, girls, and their families in the United States. It is also part of an international movement serving 25 million worldwide in 120 countries.
Each year, YWCAs help more than 535,000 women with safety services, which include sexual assault programs, domestic violence services such as emergency shelter, crisis hotlines, counseling and court assistance, and other community safety programs. We also help more than 122,000 women with economic empowerment programs, and more than 160,000 individuals participate each year in racial justice education and training programs.
YWCA of The City of New York
The YWCA of The City of New York, the oldest of all of the YWCAs in the United States, was founded in 1858. It is unique in that the organization is guided purely by human service-oriented programs rather than physical services. Such programs include their Early Learning Centers, Family Resource Center, Out-of-School Programs, Professional Development Programming, and Women's Employment Programming to name a few, and are still guided by the YW mission of eliminating racism and empowering women. YWCA of The City of New York services are a major component of the non-profit community in New York City.
The YWCA of The City of New York produces several fundraising events annually including the Salute to Women Leaders Luncheon, the YWCA-NYC Theatre Benefit (featuring the Broadway hit The Color Purple in 2005 and the revival of Michael Bennett's A Chorus Line in 2006).
During their annual Summer Soirée (held at the W Hotel in 2005 and Cipriani 23rd Street in 2006) they present their "W" award. This award is presented to a woman who is a visionary, an innovator, trend-setter, a woman who gives back to her community and helps those the YW serves daily: the women, girls and families of New York City. In 2005, this award was given to Marian McEvoy, and in 2006 to Star Jones-Reynolds.
YWCA Metropolitan Chicago
YWCA Metropolitan Chicago is the oldest and largest women's organization in the region, with a mission to eliminate racism and empower women. For more than 140 years, YWCA Metropolitan Chicago has been committed to serving the evolving needs of women and families.
The Monroe Gallery at the YWCA started in 1961. Originally located at the YWCA Loop Center at 59 E. Monroe St. until 1969. It then moved to the new YWCA location 37 S. Wabash Ave. Members include Diana Solis, Diana Avila, Malu Ortega y Alberro, Salima Rivera, Eleanor Boyer, Karen Peugh, and Judith Arcana.
The Women's Video Project at the YWCA was initially created to complete video projects related to the Loop YWCA's Lay Advocacy program, provide support to other YWCA groups and individuals to use, and teach video equipment usage and guiding video projects. Judy Hoffman made equipment recommendations early on, and by 1974 the first grant assistance had come in. At that time seven women led by video maker Eleanor Boyer went to work setting the equipment up, creating tapes, and providing support to other YWCA members. Countless tapes were made documenting workshops and lectures; workshops were given to provide hands-on experience in making small-format video, including planning, shooting, and editing; and YWCA members created their own tapes. Boyer herself created more than a dozen tapes with the program, including Street Interviews on Rape (1974) documenting attitudes and beliefs about rape held by men and women, Getting Strong: Self Defense for Women (1976) discussing the dimensions and politics of self-defense for women, Breast Cancer Tapes (1977) opening up the subject of breast cancer from the point of view of women who had undergone treatment, and Bonne Bell: 10,000 Meter Race for Women (1978) documenting Chicago's first 6.2-mile race for women which was organized and hosted by the YWCA. As technology shifted, the Women's Video Project at the YWCA started to seek out newer equipment that was lighter, was easier to use, and recorded in color. The members of the Video Project wrote letters of support for the newly founded and artist-run Chicago Editing Center, which later became known as the Center for New Television, and moved much of their work there.
See also
92nd Street Y
Jewish Community Center
The Y (disambiguation)
Y
YMCA
References
Sources
External links
World Young Women's Christian Association
YWCA Canada
Young Women's Christian Association of Cambridge (Mass.) Records, 1881-1981 — Schlesinger Library − Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
YWCA of the U.S.A. Records, 1860-2002 (Bulk: 1906-2000), Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections
USA
YWCA 01
YWCA 01
YWCA
Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Organizations established in 1858
1858 establishments in New York (state)
1858 establishments in the United States
cs:YWCA
de:Young Women's Christian Association
es:YWCA
ja:キリスト教女子青年会
no:Norges KFUK-KFUM
pl:YWCA
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anotia
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Anotia
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Anotia ("no ear") describes a rare congenital deformity that involves the complete absence of the pinna, the outer projected portion of the ear, and narrowing or absence of the ear canal. This contrasts with microtia, in which a small part of the pinna is present. Anotia and microtia may occur unilaterally (only one ear affected) or bilaterally (both ears affected). This deformity results in conductive hearing loss, deafness.
Ear development
Ear development begins in about the third week of human embryonic development. Beginning with the formation of the Otic Placodes which are an extension of the early hind brain. By the fourth week of development the otic placodes invaginate, or sink inward forming pits which close themselves off for the outer surface ectoderm and begin forming the inner ear labyrinthe on the inside.
Outer ear development begins in about the fifth week of human embryonic development. Upon the pharyngeal arches Auricle Hillocks begin to form. By the seventh week the three pairs of hillocks' have enlarged differentiated and fused together to start forming the Pinna, or out portion of the ear. Throughout fetal development the hillocks' will move from the sides of the neck to the sides of the head. simultaneously in the seventh week of development the auditory tube begins to form out of the tympanic membrane.
Processing sound
The human ear is divided into three sections. Each section has possesses its own specialized function.
1. The outer ear acts like a funnel and takes in the sound.
2. The middle ear holds the tympanic membrane, or ear drum and several little bones that are moved by the sound waves that have entered the ear via the canal. These movements are very small, like vibrations and are transmitted to the inner ear.
3. The inner ear contains a structure called the cochlea, which contains small hair- like cells that respond to sound information and transmits it via nerve impulses down the auditory nerve and to the brain, where they are processed.
Defects of the ear: anotia/microtia
The isolated cause, a cause not associated with a syndrome, of anotia or microtia is not known, though it is believed to be of genetic basis.
Developmentally anotia/microtia occurs when certain tissues associated with the auricle do not develop. This rare defect may occur as part of a syndrome or as an isolated abnormality.
Type I: External portion of the ear is small in size; auricle structure is normal
Type II: The auricle is in a hook or 'S' shape; external ear is only moderately abnormal.
Type III: Small amount of basic, soft tissue ear structure lacking cartilage; auricle is abnormal in appearance.
Type IV: Most severe type, Anotia; all external structures of the ears are absent.
Defects affecting the external ear such as the auricle results from malformation or suppression of the auricular hillocks, which are small swellings on the embryonic visceral arches or the beginnings of the external ears; the small swellings are derived from the first and second pharyngeal arches.
Because the ears and the kidneys develop simultaneously, children with ear defects are often checked for kidney defects at birth.
Related syndromes
"20% to 40% of children with microtia/anotia will have additional defects that could suggest a syndrome."
Treacher-Collins Syndrome: (TCS) A congenital disorder caused by a defective protein known as treacle, and is characterized by craniofacial deformities; malformed or absent ears are also seen in this syndrome. The effects may be mild, undiagnosed to severe, leading to death. Because the ear defects are much different in this disorder and not only affect the outer ear, but the middle ear as well, reconstructive surgery may not help with the child's hearing and in this case a Bone Anchored Hearing Aid would be best. BAHA will only work, however if the inner ear and nerve are intact.
Goldenhar Syndrome: A rare congenital birth defect that causes abnormalities of facial development. also known as Oculoauricular Dysplasia. The facial anomalies include underdeveloped, asymmetric half of the face. The defect is capable of affecting tissue, muscle, and the underlying bone structure of the side of the face with the abnormality.
Ablepharon macrostomia syndrome : (AMS) A rare genetic disorder characterized by various physical anomalies which affect the craniofacial area, the skin, the fingers, and the genitals.
Treatment
The treatment will vary with the different grades, but the most common is a surgical repair. The surgical option is cosmetic reconstruction of the external ear's normal shape and repair of the ear canal. In less severe cases the reconstruction will be sufficient to restore hearing. In grades of anotia/microtia that affect the middle ear the surgery with the use of a Bone Anchored Hearing Aid (BAHA) will likely restore the hearing. The BAHA may be surgically implanted onto the skull which would allow for some hearing repair by conduction through the skull bone. "This allows sound vibrations to travel through bones in the head to the inner ear."
BAHA: An implantable hearing device. It is the only hearing aid device that works via direct bone conduction.
References
External links
Congenital disorders of ears
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%20III%3A%20The%20Search%20for%20Spock
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Star Trek III: The Search for Spock
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Star Trek III: The Search for Spock is a 1984 American science fiction film, written and produced by Harve Bennett, directed by Leonard Nimoy, and based on the television series Star Trek. It is the third film in the Star Trek franchise, and is the second part of a three-film story arc that begins with Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982) and concludes with Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986). After the death of Spock (Nimoy), the crew of the USS Enterprise returns to Earth. When James T. Kirk (William Shatner) learns that Spock's spirit, or katra, is held in the mind of Dr. Leonard "Bones" McCoy (DeForest Kelley), Kirk and company steal the decommissioned USS Enterprise to return Spock's body to his homeworld. The crew must also contend with hostile Klingons led by Kruge (Christopher Lloyd) who are bent on stealing the secrets of a powerful terraforming device.
Paramount Pictures commissioned the film after the positive critical and commercial reaction to The Wrath of Khan. Nimoy directed the film, becoming the first Star Trek cast member to do so. Producer Harve Bennett wrote the script starting from the end and working back, and intended the destruction of the Enterprise to be a shocking development. Bennett and Nimoy collaborated with effects house Industrial Light & Magic to develop storyboards and new ship designs; ILM also handled the film's many special effects sequences. Aside from a single day of location shooting, the film was shot entirely on Paramount and ILM soundstages. Composer James Horner returned to expand his themes from the previous film.
The Search for Spock opened on June 1, 1984. In its first week of release, the film grossed over $16 million from almost 2,000 theaters across North America. It went on to gross $76 million at the domestic box office, with a total of $87 million worldwide. Critical reaction to The Search for Spock was generally positive, but notably less so than the previous film. Reviewers generally praised the cast and characters, while criticism tended to focus on the plot; the special effects were conflictingly received. Roger Ebert called the film a compromise between the tones of the first and second Star Trek films.
Plot
The Federation starship returns to Earth following a battle with the superhuman Khan Noonien Singh, who tried to destroy the Enterprise by detonating an experimental terraforming device known as Genesis. The casualties of the fight include Admiral James T. Kirk's Vulcan friend, Spock, whose casket was launched into space and eventually landed on the planet created by the Genesis Device. Upon arriving at Earth Spacedock, Doctor Leonard McCoy begins to act strangely and is detained. The commander of Starfleet, Admiral Morrow, visits the Enterprise and informs the crew the ship is to be decommissioned; the crew is instructed not to speak about Genesis due to political fallout over the device.
David Marcus (Merritt Butrick)—Kirk's son and a key scientist in Genesis's development—and Lieutenant Saavik (Robin Curtis) are investigating the Genesis planet on board the science vessel Grissom. Discovering an unexpected life form on the surface, Marcus and Saavik transport to the planet. They find that the Genesis Device has resurrected Spock in the form of a child, although his mind is not present. Marcus admits that he used unstable "protomatter" in the development of the Genesis Device, causing Spock to age rapidly and meaning the planet will be destroyed within hours. Meanwhile, Kruge (Christopher Lloyd), the commander of a Klingon Bird of Prey, intercepts information about Genesis. Recognizing the device's potential as a weapon, he takes his cloaked ship to the Genesis planet, destroys the Grissom, and searches the planet for survivors.
Spock's father, Sarek (Mark Lenard), confronts Kirk about his son's death. The pair learn that before he died, Spock transferred his katra, or living spirit, to McCoy. Spock's katra and body are needed to lay him to rest on his homeworld, Vulcan, and without help, McCoy will die from carrying it. Disobeying orders, Kirk and his officers spring McCoy from detention, disable the USS Excelsior, and steal the Enterprise from Spacedock to return to the Genesis planet to retrieve Spock's body.
On Genesis, the Klingons capture Marcus, Saavik, and Spock, and before Kruge can interrogate them, their ship signals that the Enterprise has arrived. Kruge beams back to the Bird of Prey.
In orbit, the undermanned Enterprise initially gains the upper hand in battle, but the Klingons return fire and disable the ship. In the standoff that follows, Kruge orders that one of the hostages on the surface be executed. Marcus is killed defending Saavik and Spock. Kirk and company feign surrender and activate the Enterprise self-destruct sequence, killing the Klingon boarding party while the Enterprise crew transports to the planet's surface. Promising the secret of Genesis, Kirk lures Kruge to the planet and has Kruge beam Kirk's crew to the Klingon vessel. As the Genesis planet disintegrates, Kirk and Kruge engage in a fistfight; Kirk emerges victorious after kicking Kruge off a cliff into a lava flow. Kirk and his officers take control of the Klingon ship and head to Vulcan.
There, Spock's katra is reunited with his body in a dangerous procedure called fal-tor-pan. The ceremony is successful and Spock is resurrected, alive and well, though his memories are fragmented. At Kirk's prompting, Spock recalls he would refer to Kirk as "Jim" and recognizes the crew as well. His friends joyfully gather around him.
Cast
William Shatner reprises the role of Admiral James T. Kirk, a Starfleet officer. Shatner remarked that being directed by Leonard Nimoy, his longtime co-star and friend, was initially awkward, although as the shoot went on, it became easier as Shatner realized how confident Nimoy was. To reduce weight, Shatner dieted before the start of production, but as filming continued, he tended to "slip"; the costume department had to make 12 shirts for him. In his book with Chris Kreski, Star Trek Movie Memories: The Inside Story of the Classic Movies, he believes that the scene where he learns of his son's death is "Kirk's finest celluloid moment ever".
Nimoy, in addition to his directing duties, appears towards the end of the film as Spock, but only appears in the opening credits as the director. Nimoy found that the most difficult scene to direct was one in which Leonard McCoy talks to the unconscious Spock in sickbay, en route to Vulcan. Nimoy recalled that not only was he in the scene, but his eyes are closed, making it difficult to judge the quality of the shot or the actor's performance: "It drove DeForest Kelley crazy. He swears that I was trying to direct him with the movement and flutter of my eyelids." Nimoy was thankful that the story required him to appear in a minimal number of scenes. The rapidly aging Spock, at the ages of 9, 13, 17, and 25, was portrayed successively by Carl Steven, Vadia Potenza, Stephen Manley, and Joe W. Davis. Frank Welker provided Spock's screams, and Steve Blalock doubled for Nimoy, so that a total of seven actors contributed to the role.
DeForest Kelley returns as Leonard McCoy, doctor and the carrier of Spock's living spirit. Kelley has the majority of the film's memorable scenes, but admitted to occasional difficulties in acting with and being directed by his longtime co-star. However, he has declared that he had no doubts about Nimoy's ability to direct the film. Responding to suggestions that Star Trek copied Star Wars, Kelley asserted that the opposite was true. Playing the other crew members are James Doohan, as Montgomery Scott, the chief engineer; George Takei, as Hikaru Sulu, Enterprises helmsman; Walter Koenig, as Pavel Chekov, navigation and acting science officer; and Nichelle Nichols, as Uhura, the ship's communications officer. Nichols had always insisted on wearing a skirt; although the standard female uniform used trousers, the costume designer created a skirted version specifically for her. Takei was dismayed to hear that his character was called "Tiny" by a guard at McCoy's cell during the film, and argued with the film's producer to have the line cut. When Takei saw the first screening of the film, he changed his mind and promptly apologized. He would later admit in his To the Stars: The Autobiography of George Takei that "without that snipe from [the guard], the scene [where Sulu eventually beats up that same guard] would not have played even half as heroically for Sulu."
At age 87, and at her nephew's urging, Dame Judith Anderson accepted the role of T'Lar—a Vulcan high priestess who restores Spock's katra to his body. Nimoy wanted someone with "power and magic" for the ethereal role. Anderson claimed to be tall, but her true height was closer to , which presented a problem when the designers needed to make her look appropriately regal. The solution was to dress her with an overlong hem and built-up shoes which, combined with a crown, added to her height. Kirstie Alley, who had played Saavik in The Wrath of Khan, did not return to reprise her role because she feared being typecast. Robin Curtis had arrived in Los Angeles in 1982; she became friends with the head of Paramount's casting department, who recommended her for the role. Nimoy met with Curtis, and gave her the assignment the next day.
Nimoy had admired Christopher Lloyd's work in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and Taxi, and was impressed by his ability to play powerful villains. Lloyd was given the role of Kruge, a Klingon interested in securing the powerful secrets of Genesis for use as a weapon. Nimoy said that Lloyd brought a welcome element of theatricality to the role. Mark Lenard plays Sarek, Spock's father and a Vulcan ambassador. Lenard had previously played the role in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Journey to Babel" and the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode "Yesteryear". Merritt Butrick reprises his role as David Marcus, Kirk's son and a scientist who had helped develop the Genesis Device, from The Wrath of Khan.
Other roles include Robert Hooks as Admiral Morrow, the commander of Starfleet; James B. Sikking as Captain Styles, the commanding officer of the Excelsior; Miguel Ferrer as the Excelsior's First Officer; and Phillip R. Allen as Captain J.T. Esteban, the captain of the ill-fated Grissom. John Larroquette plays Maltz, a member of Kruge's bridge crew whom Nimoy describes as "the thoughtful Klingon". Catherine Shirriff plays Valkris, Kruge's doomed lover. Grace Lee Whitney, who played Janice Rand in the original Star Trek series, made a cameo appearance (wearing a wig) as "Woman in Cafeteria". Scott McGinnis plays a young man whom Uhura forces into a closet at gunpoint.
Production
Development
The Wrath of Khan was a critical and commercial success, and Paramount Pictures quickly prepared for a third Star Trek film. The Wrath of Khans director, Nicholas Meyer, would not return; he had disagreed with changes made to his film's ending without his consent. Upon seeing The Wrath of Khan, Leonard Nimoy became "excited" about playing Spock again. When asked by Paramount if he wanted to reprise the role for the third feature, Nimoy agreed and told them, "You're damned right, I want to direct that picture!" Studio chief Michael Eisner was reluctant to hire Nimoy because he mistakenly believed that the actor hated Star Trek and had demanded in his contract that Spock be killed. Nimoy was given the job after he persuaded Eisner that this was not the case. Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry's first reaction to the news was that producer Harve Bennett had "hired a director you can't fire".
Paramount gave Bennett the green light to write Star Trek III the day after The Wrath of Khan opened, the fastest go-ahead the producer had received. He began writing the screenplay, noting that "seventeen other people could have written [it]" after the hints at Spock's resurrection in the previous film. Bennett and Nimoy used the open thread of Spock mind melding with McCoy at the end of The Wrath of Khan as a way to explain Spock's restoration. The idea and name of the Vulcan "katra" came from Bennett's discussions with Nimoy. The actor referred the producer to an episode of the television series, "Amok Time", that suggested to Bennett a high level of "spiritual transference" among the Vulcans. Bennett admitted that the idea of Kirk and company going back to the Genesis planet to recover Kirk's "noble self" stemmed from a poem he read in a Star Trek fan magazine. The film's production acknowledged certain expectations from fans—Nimoy remarked that if Spock had not been resurrected and, instead, "Captain Kirk turn[ed] to the camera and [said] 'Sorry, we didn't find him,' people would throw rocks at the screen." A major issue Bennett wrestled with was how to introduce the story for people who had not seen The Wrath of Khan. Bennett said that his television producer mentality "won out"; he added a "previously in Star Trek ..." film device, and had Kirk narrate a captain's log, describing his feelings and sense of loss. Aware of the story's predictability, Bennett decided to have the USS Enterprise destroyed, and intended this plot element be kept a secret.
Nimoy wanted The Search for Spock to be "operatic" in scope; "I wanted the emotions to be very large, very broad, life and death themes [...] and the [look of the film] and everything about it derives everything from sizable characters playing out a large story on a large canvas," he said. In addition, he wanted the characters to have significant scenes, however small, that made them grounded and real. Bennett started writing the script with the ending, where Spock says, "Your name is... Jim", and worked backwards from that point. Elements such as Kruge killing his lover were added to establish context and add drama and intrigue. Originally, the Romulans were the villains, but Nimoy preferred the more "theatrical" Klingons, feeling that their pursuit of Genesis was analogous to the Soviet race for nuclear weaponry. Bennett took the opportunity to flesh out the alien race, who he felt were ill-defined in the television series. The name of the class of the antagonists' ship, Bird of Prey, remained unchanged.
The script was completed in six weeks. The production's estimated budget of $16 million was slightly larger than that of The Wrath of Khan, but still much less than Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979). Since elements such as many sets and uniforms had been established, more money was available for special effects. Assistant producer Ralph Winter described the extra money as a "toybox" that allowed more leeway and "fun" in planning the scope of the film.
Design
Nimoy and Bennett worked with effects company Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) to produce special effects, models, and live-action scenes. ILM received a two-page story treatment in November 1982, titled "Return to Genesis". Production supervisor Warren Franklin said that the script they received in early 1983 was "one of the best scripts we read" out of the submissions that arrived weekly. Although ILM had provided the effects work for The Wrath of Khan, they had only been approached after effects storyboards had been completed. For The Search for Spock, ILM were brought in much earlier, meaning that visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston and his team were involved from the planning stages. Nimoy credited this early involvement with increasing the amount of creative input into the film's design and execution.
It became apparent to ILM that The Search for Spock script required more design and model work than had been necessary for The Wrath of Khan. A merchant ship destroyed by Kruge early in the film was a kitbash—a design made of combined model pieces. Effects cameraman Don Dow reasoned that since the ship was destroyed so quickly it did not make sense to spend a large amount of time building it. The USS Grissom was named for astronaut Virgil "Gus" Grissom; the same model would be used to depict other science vessels in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation.
The Excelsior was a new design that ILM felt was a better rendition of a Federation starship—sleeker and more modern than the Enterprise. The art department created concept sketches to show to Paramount, and at an art director's urging model maker William George submitted another design, based on what he thought the Enterprise would look like if designed by the Japanese. Nimoy picked George's angular and simplified take for production. While in the film, the Excelsior is supposed to be larger than its predecessor, the physical model was smaller than the Enterprise.
The Earth Spacedock was a design intended to expand the scope of Star Trek. After approving a small three-dimensional maquette of the final design, the effects team created an exterior Spacedock model measuring tall. Rather than painstakingly wiring thousands of small lights, ILM made the model out of clear Plexiglass and painted it; scratching off the finish created windows, and an inner core of neon lights illuminated the resulting holes. The inside of the dock was simulated by an additional model, long, with a removable center section. The interior illumination was generated by outside fiber optics and 2,000- to 5,000-watt lights.
Art directors Nilo Rodis and Dave Carson designed the Klingon Bird of Prey, while George constructed the model. Nimoy wanted the ship to be reminiscent of an attacking bird, with movable wings that changed depending on whether the ship was in a cruising or attack posture. George took design cues from sketches of bodybuilders and football players, incorporating the starship equivalents of down-stretched, threatening arms and muscular shoulders, together with what looked like shoulder pads and a chin guard on the ship's outstretched neck. Although the stolen Romulan ship thread was cut from the film, the Bird of Prey design had incorporated elements of Romulan design. "It has some of the basic bird shape, but it's more ominous", Ralston said. A graphic bird design was integrated into the ship's underside.
To save money, many sets, particularly interiors, were redresses of existing sets. The Enterprise bridge was reconfigured to stand in for the Grissom, with the chairs reupholstered and the central navigation console rotated to modify the floor plan. An Earth bar and the Klingon medical bay were redresses of the Enterprise sickbay. Nimoy even appropriated the Klingon bridge set from another production. Many blinking consoles were rented from a props company rather than being fabricated. The Enterprise bridge itself remained largely unchanged from the previous film, notably its black floor was repainted grey for photogenic reasons. The most drastic change was made to Spock's quarters. Nimoy had felt the previous grey color scheme did not express a Vulcan style, and had it brightened with yellows and oranges.
Adding local color to the Klingon bridge was a ragged doglike creature the effects team derisively called "Fifi Rebozo". Ken Ralston thought that giving the Klingon captain a pet would add atmosphere, and sculpted a reptilian dog worked into the script as Kruge's mascot. The animal's hair was made from cheap wig clippings; creature supervisor David Sosalla sprayed the material with adhesive and laid clumps of the distressed fur onto the painted puppet body to make the animal appear "beat-up and moth-eaten". During filming, Sosalla and crew sprinkled the creature with water to make it look more unpleasant. The animal was a hand puppet; Ralston operated the head and body by placing his arm into an opening on the creature's side while hidden inside Kruge's command chair. Three helpers operated cables that opened the animal's eyes and made it snarl; the creature's head was large enough for Ralston to fit his hand inside the spring-loaded jaw to operate it. Many of the animal's intended movements were minimized; the crew did not move its ears because it made the supposedly repulsive creature "cute". For the animal's demise during the Klingons' fight with the Enterprise, an additional "dead" puppet was created, but Ralston used the "live" one for the scene instead.
Many of the props in The Wrath of Khan had been reused from The Motion Picture, or scrounged from other productions, but for The Search for Spock Winter wanted to design uniquely Star Trek items. George and artist Phil Norwood collaborated on many of the prop designs, creating updated and sleeker versions of the original series communicators and phasers. Many props were created out of wood and embellished with small pieces from model kits. While the Federation tricorder was created using a model race car body, the Klingon props were intended to look dirtier, with sharp surfaces that looked uncomfortable to carry. George was insistent on using the shapes and materials, rather than blinking lights, to suggest the props were real and manufactured.
Costumes and makeup
Robert Fletcher, costume designer for the previous Star Trek films, was responsible for The Search for Spocks wardrobe. Fletcher's job was to sketch outfits, choose the necessary fabrics, and complete the fittings for principal characters. He collaborated with costumer Jim Linn, who clothed extras and managed the logistics of cleaning, repairing, and tracking costumes. Most of the Starfleet uniforms had already been designed for the previous film, but Fletcher wanted to dress the main characters in civilian clothes. Fletcher developed a mythology behind each outfit; the stone ornaments on Sarek's robe, for instance, were intended to be representative of a Vulcan's level of consciousness. The costumer had the advantage of access to Paramount's store rooms, which contained literal tons of expensive fabrics.
The designer and production staff were satisfied with the Klingon costume designs inspired by feudal Japanese dress, made by Fletcher for The Motion Picture, but they had to make new versions; of 12 original costumes, half had been destroyed during publicity tours. The remaining six were loaned out for an episode of Mork & Mindy and badly damaged; Fletcher spent three months salvaging what remained. Additions to established clothing included an officer's vest for Kruge, and jewelry.
In addition to his costume chores, Fletcher designed the Klingon and Vulcan makeup. Makeup artist Thomas R. Burman suggested that Fletcher was asked to help because the studio neglected to contract the work out; Burman received a contract only three weeks before the start of photography. Burman's bid of $160,000 was much higher than Paramount's $50,000 budget, but he secured the job when his competitor dropped out close to the start of production. "It didn't come down to money in the end but to who could do it quickly [...] we had a [reputation] for working fast and doing quality work," Burman explained. Fletcher and Burman agreed that the cragged foreheads of the Klingons in The Motion Picture were too prominent, obscuring the individuals' faces. "It was just too cartoonish, and I didn't want a Star Wars look in [the] movie. There had never been a good marriage between the forehead appliance and the actor's faces. We tried to keep them in character rather than have these obtrusive things on their heads," Burman said. The resulting Klingon makeup took two hours to apply.
Filming
To guard against leaks that had prefigured Spock's death during production of The Wrath of Khan, Paramount took precautions to secure the sets. Set designer Cameron Birnie noted that the production's security was highly unusual; sets were built out of sequence and the crew given only as many pages as they needed to fabricate each locale. Security guards checked the picture identification cards of production staff. Any mention of the production was removed from stationery and documents, and "Trois" (three, in French) was written as a code word. Offices and workshops were bereft of identifying signage, with doors double-locked for extra protection. The Search for Spocks scripts were chemically treated so that copies could be traced to the original; as a further canary trap, subtle changes in wording distinguished each copy. Nimoy's name never appeared on call sheets, and Spock was referred to in the script as "Nacluv" (Vulcan spelled backwards). Despite the precautions, word of the Enterprises destruction leaked out before the film's release.
Principal photography commenced on August 15, 1983. All but two days of production were filmed on Paramount soundstages, by cinematographer Charles Correll. The Search for Spock was one of the first major feature films to use Eastman 5294, a color high speed negative film stock. The film allowed Correll latitude in choosing a broad range of exposure indexes. Since The Search for Spock was shot with anamorphic lenses and many theatergoers would see widescreen 70 mm prints, Correll needed to produce a crisp depth of field, a difficult task on many sets. For scenes on the bridge, Correll pushed the exposure index above the Eastman recommendation to keep the image crisp at less than 50 foot-candles.
Many of The Search for Spocks dialogue sequences feature tight close-up shots. During Kirk and Sarek's mind meld, Nimoy chose cuts that focused on accentuating the dialogue; "Instead of watching people's faces, all you see is the mouth or the eyes and you have the tendency to hear better," Correll explained. Correll was unhappy that every scene save one was filmed on a soundstage. Feeling that recreating everything on set resulted in a fake look, the cinematographer suggested that Genesis be filmed on Kauai in Hawaii, and that Red Rock Canyon stand in for Vulcan. The production did not have the money to shoot on location, meaning that Nimoy was preoccupied with making sure the various outdoor settings felt believable. While the various vessel exteriors were handled by ILM, Correll was responsible for the look of the interior sets. He preferred to treat these as actual locations inside the ships; although the sets' ceilings were designed to be removed so that lights could be rigged in the rafters, Correll used other lighting methods. In the Bird of Prey, he used fluorescent tubes to pick up the walls' metallic paints, and kept the set smoky to convey a dirty atmosphere.
Before McCoy is arrested by security, he attempts to charter a spaceflight to Genesis in a bar. The scene opens with two officers playing a World War I-era dogfight video game. The wireframe biplanes were created using black lines on clear paper printouts placed on an overlay cell. "It was really just a gag shot", effects artist Charlie Mullen explained, "the idea that people in the future would be playing an old war game." To accommodate the effect, Correll had to use a large amount of exposure without making the bar appear overlit. Much of the lighting was provided by tables rigged with fluorescent tubes to provide an effect different from other parts of the film. Correll could not add smoke to the scene to enhance the bar "feel", because the disturbed atmosphere would have made ILM's game hard to insert. The scene was intended to end in a barroom brawl when security tried to take McCoy into custody; Nimoy decided that "it didn't feel right" and there was not enough time or money to achieve the scene successfully.
The Genesis planet was produced via matte paintings and soundstages on Paramount lots under art director John Edward Chilberg II. Much of the planet occupied Stage 15, known as the DeMille stage in honor of the director's Parting of the Red Sea on the stage during filming of The Ten Commandments (1956). The space measured . The perceived boundaries of the scenes were extended via matte paintings created by Chris Evans, Frank Ordaz, and Michael Pangrazio. Because parts of the set had to literally collapse during the planet's destruction, the set was built off the ground and featured trapdoors and pyrotechnics in the floor. The hundreds of 10,000-watt lights in the rafters were covered in silk for day scenes to soften the light, and fitted with blue filters for night; dimmers eased the transition between periods. Since the doomed planet was no longer a paradise, the art director, Nimoy, Bennett and Correll considered constant changes to the colors on the scenes, but decided not to get "fancy photographically". While many of the scenes appeared lit with minimal light sources such as flickering fires, Correll tried to use as much light as possible. To get the fire to reflect on the actor's faces, Correll used a variety of tricks with normal lights; using natural fire would not have provided the required intensity.
A significant feature of the Genesis planet are the alien worms that rapidly evolve from microbes on Spock's coffin. The creatures start as small, slimy crawlers, then grow to lengths of . The small worms were created by injecting molten "Hot-Melt" vinyl into epoxy polymer molds that were immediately put into cold water to create a translucent product. The resulting hundred or so creatures were painted and coated with methacyl, a slippery, slimy coating. Each worm was attached to an elevated platform by a piece of fishing line; the lines were tied to rods underneath the set. Offscreen helpers pushed the rods or pulled fishing line to create motion; the scene required many takes because the fishing line would periodically flash at the camera. The larger worms proved more problematic, with filming taking place at ILM and Paramount Stage 15. Similar to The Wrath of Khans parasitic Ceti eels, the worms featured cobra-like cowls and a ringed mouth of teeth. ILM built one of the worms with more articulation than the others; Ralston operated the creature through a hole in the set floor with his hand stuck inside the creature. The other worms were animated using pneumatic bladders that caused air to pass through hoses in sequence, creating an undulating motion. During the scene, the worms attack Kruge, who kills one of them. The usual method for achieving the effect of the creature wrapping itself around Kruge would have been to film the sequence in reverse, but this posed problems: the slime coating Kruge would have been out of place with reverse filming, and multiple takes would ruin the Klingon makeup Lloyd wore. ILM's solution involved rigging the worm with fishing lines that were pulled in a choreographed fashion by multiple off-screen helpers to simulate the wrapping movement. When small pieces of the Klingon uniforms caught or snapped the fishing lines, Ralston resorted to steel cables.
The fiery breakup of the Genesis planet involved fire, smoke, and earth upheaval. "The main part of the floor was rigged so that rocks would shoot up out of the ground [on catapults]. Trees were rigged to fall and start fires," Correll explained. Producing the shots required meticulous direction and between 20 and 30 helpers were on hand the day of shooting. Correll shot simultaneously on nine cameras; the hope was to get as many usable shots as possible in one take, in case all the trapdoors and pyrotechnics had to be reset for another round of filming. This entire sequence was completed in three weeks.
The Vulcan stairs were filmed at Occidental College—the production's only location shooting. To create the orange atmosphere, Correll used a large floodlight, created for the 1983 Peter Hyams film The Star Chamber, placed on the top of a crane. The location's blue-grey sky was replaced with a matte painting that covered the top half of the stairs shot. Many ornamental touches Nimoy wanted for the procession scene ultimately never materialized. The background of the set was simply a painted piece of canvas; Nimoy had the background out of focus in all the shots as a way to hide the shortcomings of the scenery. Elements removed from the Vulcan sequence included a procession through the "Vulcan Hall of Ancient Thought", a space dominated by large heads atop columns and a sculpture towering to a height of . The scene was cut because the procession dragged on for too long.
Production on the film was temporarily shut down after a fire destroyed several soundstages at Paramount Studios, one of which was adjacent to the set for the Genesis planet. Initially, the set's pyrotechnics were suspected of causing the fire, but the cause was ruled to be arson. Shatner was among the cast members who grabbed fire hoses to stop the flames. Correll hoped the place would burn down so that he would get his chance to film in Hawaii. While most of the set was undamaged, holes in the side of the building had to be covered with heavy black curtains to prevent outside light from leaking in.
Special effects
As with previous Star Trek films, time and money were major constraints for special effects. The effects artists were concerned about producing the right look no matter the time involved. While effects cameraman Scott Farrar and his assistants constantly traversed the separating ILM from Paramount, teams at the effects house organized post-production effects and photography. The constant travel took a toll on Ralston, who began to forget which airlines he was taking and what city he was in. As a pause in work meant wasted time, effects editors Bill Kimberlin and Jay Ignaszewski produced usable effects shots for the live-action editors at Paramount; these half-finished, monochromatic composites gave the editors an idea of scene pacing. ILM contributed 120 shots to the film. Like Correll, Ralston used Eastman 94 for all shots that did not require bluescreen.
ILM filmed starships using motion control for timed and computer-assisted model movement. The ship models required multiple camera passes because different parts of the ship and its lights were filmed at different exposure levels. The Excelsior required eight passes to supplement the main "beauty pass", the Enterprise six. ILM could have combined passes with multiple exposures, but not without risk; "If anything got out of synch, or somehow we dropped a frame, we would have to reshoot—and then you're stuck. You've ruined two pieces, two elements," Farrar said.
The Klingon Bird of Prey's cloaking device required a new effect. The original concept featured the layers of the ship forming up from the inside out, requiring a series of overlaid elements filmed with an Oxberry animation camera. ILM decided the effect appeared too "animated-looking", and defied common sense: "if there was a fanfare to decloaking, everyone would know the Klingons were coming and blow them out of the sky before they could even finish materializing," Ralston said. The supervisor decided on subtlety, throwing color separations out of sync to create a blurry ripple effect. While simple, the sequence was more effective than the elaborate planned scene. Effects such as the destruction of the merchant ship were created using projected explosions, a technique perfected during the production of Return of the Jedi. Simulated zero-gravity explosions were filmed and reflected onto a card using the same motion control program used for the models. The result was an explosion that moved with the model.
The most laborious effects sequences took place inside Spacedock; months were spent completing the station's interior shots. The effects crew tested different looks to make sure the dock interior seemed appropriately vast. "We found the interior demanded some degree of atmospheric haze, even though there probably wouldn't be any in space," Farrar said. To create a slightly degraded look, the crew used blue color gels for lights and shot through smoke for fill shots. They switched to diffusion filters for light passes, as using smoke for longer shots would have required time-consuming smoke level monitoring. Due to difference in the scales of the dock and ship models, it was impossible to film the Excelsior and Enterprise inside the set. Opening the dock's space doors was problematic because the lights illuminating the inside of the dock from the exterior had to be hidden from the camera to prevent lens flares. Massive fans were used to keep equipment cool and prevent the lights from melting or warping the dock's interior artwork. The realism of the dock scenes was heightened by live action footage of a cafeteria, with windows overlooking the dock interior. The cafeteria was a set built at ILM and filled with 40 extras in front of a bluescreen so that the dock and Enterprise could be composited in later; matte paintings extended the ceiling of the set.
Ralston, who considered the Enterprise ugly and the model hard to shoot, delighted in destroying the ship. Several shots were combined together for the complete destruction sequence; while Ralston would have preferred to take a mallet to the original $150,000 model, a variety of cheaper models were used. The first part of the ship to be destroyed was the bridge, a separate miniature with stars added to the background. The shot switches to the Bird of Prey moving away as the top of the saucer burns, where explosions (filmed upside down to simulate the absence of gravity) were superimposed over a motion control pass of the ship. The camera cuts to a closeup of the ship's registration number being eaten away by inner explosions. George created a light Styrofoam model that was dissolved by acetone dripped on the saucer from above. By shooting at less than one frame per second and keeping light off the model, the drips were not visible in the print. Burning steel wool on the inside of the saucer created a glowing ember effect from the ship's inner decks being destroyed. The saucer explosion was simulated by blowing up a talcum powder-covered plaster dish. Two- and four-ounce bombs and gasoline were used as pyrotechnics in live action scenes of the bridge being destroyed. Stuntmen used spring-loaded platforms to launch themselves in the air.
For the final destruction of the Genesis planet, footage from the Paramount set had to be carefully matched with ILM effects footage. ILM built scale miniatures cut into sections to portray parts of Genesis's upheaval (rock slides, fissures opening in the ground) that live-action scenes could not easily replicate. One of the largest miniatures, measuring , had trick trees and trapdoors that could be reset, propane jets for gusts of fire, and solenoid-triggered rockfalls. For scenes where Kirk and Kruge battle at a precipice over a pit of lava, the shot combined animated lava, clouds (really cotton daubs on black), lightning, and a matte painting. Overhead shots of the lava were created by lighting a piece of clear Plexiglass with colored gels and covering the plate with methacyl, vermiculite and charcoal; the mixture dripped off the surface and coated the crew underneath. ILM simulated Kruge's demise, a long plunge into the pool of lava, with the help of a stop-motion puppet. Lloyd fell a few feet onto a black mattress; during a lightning flash the actor was replaced by the puppet that fell the rest of the distance. Because the shot was filmed on black instead of the traditional bluescreen, the animators had to remove or rotoscope the black background around Lloyd one frame at a time. The transition between the footage of Lloyd and the puppet was hidden by a single-frame flash as a bolt of lightning struck Kruge. The scene of Kirk and Spock beaming away as the ground collapses was another created at ILM, as the level of destruction was simply not possible for the live-action crew.
Among the other effects ILM had to produce were the transporter beam and the warp speed effect. Mullen noted that the effects' look changed depending on who was directing the film; "everyone wants something distinctive, but nobody wants to get far enough away from the TV series to startle the Trekkies". The effect was produced by cutting out or rotomatting the individual to be transported, then making a vertical slot through which a high-intensity light was positioned. A computer-controlled move would cause the light to spread from the center and fade away, then reset its position and repeat the movement on the opposite side. Handmade acetate filters and gels were applied to give the transporter beam color and patterns, followed by small flickering animated highlights called "bugs" which appeared after the character had dematerialized. The Klingons' transporters were given a harsh red look to differentiate them from the smooth blue Federation effect. Whereas many of the multicolored rainbow warp trail shots from The Wrath of Khan were stock footage taken from the first film, the producers of the third film wanted something new. A streak effect, in which a beauty pass of the ship was combined with blurred passes for each light intensity, was tried first. The result was disappointing; as the Enterprise grew larger the streaks became distorted and out of place. Mullen rejected a straight animation of the warp drive as too bouncy, but the footage was cut in for editing while ILM went through six more approaches to the problem. The final effect, a "vaporous, colorful trail", came together only weeks before the film's release.
Music
Composer James Horner returned to score The Search for Spock, fulfilling a promise he had made to Bennett on The Wrath of Khan. While Nimoy considered hiring his friend Leonard Rosenman for the score, he was persuaded that Horner's return would grant continuity between The Wrath of Khan and the new film. Much like the content of the film, Horner's music was a direct continuation of the score he wrote for the previous film. When writing music for The Wrath of Khan, Horner was aware he would reuse certain cues for an impending sequel; two major themes he reworked were for Genesis and Spock. While the Genesis theme supplants the title music Horner wrote for The Wrath of Khan, the end credits were quoted "almost verbatim".
In hours-long discussions with Bennett and Nimoy, Horner agreed with the director that the "romantic and more sensitive" cues were more important than the "bombastic" ones. Horner had written Spock's theme to give the character more dimension: "By putting a theme over Spock, it warms him and he becomes three-dimensional rather than a collection of schticks," he said. The theme was expanded in The Search for Spock to represent the ancient alien mysticism and culture of Spock and Vulcan.
Among the new cues Horner wrote was a "percussive and atonal" theme for the Klingons which is represented heavily in the film. Jeff Bond described the cue as a compromise between music from Horner's earlier film Wolfen, Khan's motif from The Wrath of Khan, and Jerry Goldsmith's Klingon music from The Motion Picture. Horner also adapted music from Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet for part of the Enterprise theft sequence and its destruction, while the scoring to Spock's resurrection on Vulcan was lifted from Horner's Brainstorm ending.
Themes
Nimoy wrote that The Search for Spocks major theme is that of friendship. "What should a person do to help a friend? How deeply should a friendship commitment go? ... And what sacrifices, what obstacles, will these people endure? That's the emotion line of the film [and] its reason for existence," he recalled. While Spock's bodily resurrection was complete, his mind was a blank slate—The Search for Spock, Michele and Duncan Barrett argue, says that the important question is whether an individual's mind functions, as this is the key to a meaningful existence.
Brown University professor Ross S. Kraemer argues that The Search for Spock "became Star Treks first and most obvious exploration of Christian themes of sacrificial, salvific death and resurrection". According to Larry J. Kreitzer, The Wrath of Khan provided "its own versions of Good Friday and a hint of the Easter Sunday to come", with the hints fulfilled by Spock's bodily restoration in The Search for Spock. David and Saavik's discovery of Spock's empty coffin and burial robes parallels the evidence the Apostles found that pointed to Jesus' resurrection in the Gospel of Luke, asserts Kraemer. Spock's resurrection not only proves the Vulcan's belief in the existence of the katra, but also affirms these are not just a belief system but a certainty. Barrett points to the Star Trek feature films in general and The Search for Spock in particular as a turn away from the irreligious television series. In more practical terms, Jeffery A. Smith pointed to The Search for Spock as one of many Hollywood films culminating in a 1990s trend where death has little permanence (Ghost, Defending Your Life, What Dreams May Come, Meet Joe Black).
The Genesis planet became a doomed experiment partly for dramatic reasons; having a time limit for the characters to save Spock added tension. Nimoy was also interested in scientific ethics—how quickly can science move and what are the dangers of that movement. University of Houston professor Dr. John Hansen notes that while Spock's sacrifice in The Wrath of Khan is the "archetype of reason and rationality manifesting the archetype of human virtue", a selfless and freely-made choice, the death of Valkris (who has learned too much about the Genesis Device) in The Search for Spock is far different: the Klingon willingly accepts her death for the "common good" as determined by the state, relinquishing her liberty and life. Hansen contends that the issues of personal liberty and the exploitation of technology, in this case Genesis, are "intertwined". The Genesis Device was intended as a liberating technology, creating life from lifelessness, but in the Klingon view it is a tool for dominion (contrasting the contemporary views of how technology can promote or constrain liberty).
Release
The Search for Spock was not heavily marketed. Among the promotional merchandise created for the film's release were Search for Spock-branded calendars and glasses sold at Taco Bell. A novelization () was also released, and reached second place on The New York Times paperback bestsellers list. President Ronald Reagan screened the film for friends during a weekend away from the White House in 1984, spent with White House staff chief Mike Deaver and the president's own close friend Senator Paul Laxalt. Reagan wrote of the film: "It wasn't too good."
The Search for Spock opened June 1 in a record-breaking 1,996 theaters across North America; with competing films Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Gremlins, Ghostbusters and Top Secret! released at the same time, more than half of the nation's screens were filled by summer blockbusters. The Search for Spock grossed over $16 million in its opening weekend. In its second weekend the film's gross dropped 42 percent. The box office strength of The Search for Spock and Indiana Jones led Paramount to dominate early summer film business. The film made $76.5 million in North America, for a total of $87 million worldwide.
James Horner's soundtrack to the film was released on a 43-minute LP record by Capitol Records in 1984, and also contained a 12" single titled "The Search for Spock", composed by Horner and performed by Group 87, a band featuring composer Mark Isham and Missing Persons drummer Terry Bozzio. It was re-released on compact disc in 1989 by GNP Crescendo. Film Score Monthly released an expanded two-compact disc score June 1, 2010. The Expanded Edition included both the original Capitol Records release from 1984 and an all-new version which featured the complete soundtrack as heard in the film, including alternate versions as well as many cues heard for the first time outside of the film. The soundtrack would be Horner's final contribution to Star Trek.
Critical response
The Search for Spock received generally positive reviews from critics. Richard Schickel of Time praised the film as "perhaps the first space opera to deserve that term in its grandest sense". Janet Maslin of The New York Times and Newsweek wrote that while the film felt weighed down by the increasingly aged actors and television tropes, it was leavened by its dedication. Roger Ebert called the film "good, but not great" and a compromise between the special effects-dependent The Motion Picture and the character-driven The Wrath of Khan. Conversely, USA Today praised the film as the best of the three and the closest to the original spirit of the television series. An overwhelmingly negative view of the film was offered by The Globe and Mails Susan Ferrier Mackay, who summed the film up as "ba-a-a-d". In a 2010 retrospective of the film franchise, author Jill Sherwin suggests the aging Enterprise served as a metaphor for the aging Star Trek franchise. On Metacritic the film has a score of 56/100 based on reviews from 17 critics, indicating mixed to average reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 79% based on reviews from 48 critics.
Critics praised Nimoy's direction, to which USA Today attributed the film's success in capturing the essence of the television show. Newsweek wrote that due to Nimoy the film was the best-paced Trek film, and that his familiarity with these actors enabled him to bring out the best from them. Newsweek, and David Sterritt of the Christian Science Monitor, appreciated how the film slowed the action down to allow moments of reflection, comparing this with the focus of most contemporary action films on effects rather than actors. The Washington Posts Rita Kempley wrote that Nimoy's direction was competent, but his background in television showed—"the film feels made-for-TV", she summarized. Fellow Post critic Gary Arnold concurred with Kempley's television film assessment, but also wrote that Nimoy was smart to focus on the essentials of each scene; he "[concentrates] on the actors in ways that flatter and enhance their work."
The Search for Spocks plot solicited comment; Schickel called the film "overplotted" and filled with "heavy expository burdens", comparing it to real opera. Sterritt said that the script occasionally veered in "arbitrary" directions and contained missteps, such as how the Grissom and its crew are suddenly lost, but the plot disregards their fate. Arnold wrote that Shatner missed an opportunity to act on par with The Wrath of Khans revelation that Kirk was David's father. The critic considered David's death an attempt at a similar shock, but felt it was not a success. Harry M. Geduld, writing for The Humanist, criticized the film for what he called "contradictions and implausibilities", such as Scott's sabotage of the Excelsior and Spock's regeneration. Pauline Kael wrote that "this new film seems to take a churlish attitude toward its light-hearted, delicately self-mocking predecessor: almost vindictively, the new film requires that Genesis disintegrate."
The film's sense of self-seriousness and the camaraderie amongst the characters were generally cited as positive aspects. Maslin wrote that certain tacky elements of the film's television roots were outweighed by the closeness of the Enterprise crew and "by their seriousness and avidity about what seem to be the silliest minutiae [...] That's what longtime Trekkies love about the series, and it's still here—a little the worse for wear, but mostly untarnished." The Los Angeles Times wrote that despite its spectacle, the film's "humanity once again outweighs the hardware, and its innocence is downright endearing". Mackay offered an alternate view, calling the characters' actions and dialogue "wooden" and saying that the film's monsters had more life than the acting. Lloyd's portrayal of Kruge received praise from New York's David Denby and The Daily News's Hunter Reigler.
The film's effects were conflictingly appraised. Schickel wrote that the effects were "technically adroit" and occasionally "witty", and Ebert singled out the Bird of Prey as a "great-looking" ship. Sterritt felt that the settings always felt like they were on soundstages rather than out in space, and Denby wrote that more could have been done with Genesis, and that while it was an interesting concept its special effects execution was lacking. Kempley appreciated the sets' low values, writing that "the fakier the sets", the closer the film felt to its television origins.
Colin Greenland reviewed The Search for Spock for Imagine magazine, and stated that "Well, given that it's his directorial debut, on the messianic story of Spock's resurrection from the dead, the movie is quite fun, and nowhere near the pompous pageant of self-aggrandisement I'd been dreading."
In 2018, Popular Mechanics ranked the scene where the NCC-1701 Enterprise starship is destroyed, the 32nd-greatest scene in the science fiction film and television genre. In 2016, SyFy noted this film for actress Nichelle Nichols' presentation of Uhura, as having her second-best scene in Star Trek.
Home media
The Search for Spock was released on home video in the United States on February 1985. The initial retail offerings included VHS, Betamax, LaserDisc and CED formats with closed captioning. As part of a plan to support its push of 8mm video cassette, Sony partnered with Paramount Home Video to bring titles like The Search for Spock to the platform in 1986.
The film was given a "bare bones" DVD release on May 11, 2000, with no extra features—the release was several months earlier than the release of The Wrath of Khan. Two years later, a two-disc "Collector's Edition" was released with supplemental material and the same video transfer as the original DVD release. It featured a text commentary by Michael Okuda and audio commentary from Nimoy, Bennett, Correll, and Curtis.
The film was released on high-definition Blu-ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature, along with the other five films featuring the original crew in Star Trek: Original Motion Picture Collection. The Search for Spock was remastered in 1080p high-definition from the 2000 DVD transfer. All six films in the set have new 7.1 Dolby TrueHD audio. The disc features a new commentary track by former Star Trek: The Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, and Voyager television writers Ronald D. Moore and Michael Taylor. On July 7, 2021, it was announced that the first four films in the Star Trek franchise would be released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on September 7 of that year to commemorate the franchise's 55th anniversary, alongside individual remastered Blu-rays of the same films.
The film was briefly removed from Netflix in August 2013 because of inaccurately translated Klingon and Vulcan subtitles.
See also
List of Star Trek films
List of films featuring extraterrestrials
List of films featuring space stations
Notes
References
External links
1984 films
American films
English-language films
1980s science fiction action films
American science fiction action films
American space adventure films
American sequel films
Films set on fictional planets
Films set in the 23rd century
Films set in the future
Resurrection in film
Search for Spock
Paramount Pictures films
Films scored by James Horner
Films directed by Leonard Nimoy
Films produced by Harve Bennett
Films with screenplays by Harve Bennett
Articles containing video clips
Films about consciousness transfer
1984 directorial debut films
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206880
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetish%20magazine
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Fetish magazine
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A fetish magazine is a type of magazine originating in the late 1940s which is devoted to sexual fetishism. The content is generally aimed at being erotic rather than pornographic.
The most well-known early examples are Bizarre (1946-1959) published by John Willie and Leonard Burtman's Exotique, Masque, Connoisseur, Bizarre Life, High Heels, Unique World, and Corporal. Much of the content in fetish magazines (leather, rubber and latex clothing, cross-dressing, bondage, masochism, female domination, roleplaying, corporal punishment, etc.) is baffling to people who do not share the particular fetishes discussed and depicted.
An early study, The Undergrowth of Literature by Gillian Freeman (1967), concluded that such magazines provide a catharsis for those whose sexual needs are otherwise unsatisfied: she identified rubberwear magazines as the most popular at the time.
Rubberist magazines
AtomAge
Dressing for Pleasure
Marquis
«O»
Pussy Cat (UK, N.A. Burton, 1964-1989)
Shiny International
Skin Two
Bedeseme Magazine
Bondage magazines
Centurian Bondage
Bizarre
Bizarre Life (Consolidated Publishing Inc., 1966-1971)
Exotique
Bondage in the Buff (House of Milan, 1982 - 1999)
Bondage Photographer (House of Milan, 1982 - 2000)
Captured (House of Milan, 1975 - 1999)
Hogtie (House of Milan, 1972 - 1992)
Hogtied (House of Milan, 1993 - 1999)
Knotty (House of Milan, 1971 - 2002)
Secret (1991-2008)
Spanking magazines
Blushes (UK, c. 1980s)
Corporal (Consolidated Publishing/Eros-Goldstripe, 1960s-70s)
Februs (UK, 1994-2003)
Janus (UK, 1971-2007)
Kane (UK, 1982 to present, ed. Harrison Marks 1982–1997)
Over-The-Knee (Lyndon Distributors Ltd., 1980s-90s)
Phoenix (UK, 1980-1991)
Punished (House of Milan, 1978-2001)
Roué (UK, c. 1978-1988)
Spank Hard (Lyndon Distributors Ltd., 1990s)
Stand Corrected (Shadow Lane, 1990s)
Femdom magazines
Black and Blue
Capitulation
Cruella
Dominant Mystique
Domination Directory International
Fetish World
Forced Womanhood
Obey
The Vault
Whap!
Cultural magazines
Bizarre (UK, Dennis Publishing, 1997–2015)
Fet-X
Fetish Times (UK, editor Mark Ramsden, 1994–?)
KFS Magazine
Demasque Magazine
Other
Splosh! (UK, 1989–2001) – wet and messy fetishism
Girl in the Fishnet! – fishnet fetishism
Leash Magazine (Canada) – fetish and BDSM magazine
Whiplash (Canada) – fetish and BDSM magazine
Smoke Signals – smoking fetishism magazine
Wet Set Magazine (Australia) – omorashi magazine
Modern Dungeon Quarterly (Perverted Imp Productions, 2012– ) – fetish, kink and BDSM magazine
Von Gutenberg (Canada) – fetish fashion, fantasy and lifestyle magazine
Bedeseme Magazine (Spain, 2009) – alternative lifestyle, fetish and kink magazine
References
Magazines
Sex industry
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206881
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Riddlesden%20Hall
|
East Riddlesden Hall
|
East Riddlesden Hall is a 17th-century manor house in Keighley, West Yorkshire, England, now owned by the National Trust.
History
The hall was built in 1642 by a wealthy Halifax clothier, James Murgatroyd. The hall is a Grade I listed building. There is a medieval tithebarn in the grounds.
East Riddlesden Hall perches on a small plateau overlooking a bend in the River Aire on its way downstream from the town of Keighley. Interesting features include well-restored living accommodation on two floors, two Yorkshire Rose windows, walled garden, the ruined Starkie wing and several ghosts (reputedly).
The property was extended and re-built by James Murgatroyd and his wife Hannah, using local Yorkshire stone, in 1648. He also built other stone manor houses throughout the West Riding of Yorkshire. In the great hall, a small fireplace can be seen above the main fireplace, where the floor for the first floor accommodation was not built. James Murgatroyd was a Royalist and this can be seen in royalist symbols and graffiti on and in the building. For example, the Bothy (now the tea room and shop) has the heads of Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria of France carved in the topmost stone work.
According to a NODA National News feature in 2007, the Murgatroyd family are reputed to be the inspiration for the Murgatroyd Baronets in the comic opera Ruddigore by Gilbert and Sullivan, and the opera has been performed at the Hall. W. S. Gilbert is supposed to have often stayed at the Hall. The feature comments that the Murgatroyds became notorious "for their profanity and debauchery". A legend arose that the River Aire changed its course in shame, in order to flow further away from the hall and its occupants (the river sweeps into a wide U-bend to skirt the meadow, giving the building a wide berth). The feature continues "Members of the family were fined, imprisoned and excommunicated". It asserts that the character of Sir Despard Murgatroyd in Ruddigore is based on James Murgatroyd.
Filming location
East Riddlesden Hall has been used as a filming location for the 1992 film Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights and for the 2009 TV adaptation. It was also used in Sharpe's Justice episode from the Sharpe TV series in 1997. The BBC Television series 'Gunpowder' (2017) used East Riddlesden Hall as a location.
See also
Grade I listed buildings in West Yorkshire
Listed buildings in Keighley
References
External links
East Riddlesden Hall information at the National Trust
East Riddlesden Hall at Tour UK
Country houses in West Yorkshire
National Trust properties in West Yorkshire
Grade I listed buildings in West Yorkshire
Grade I listed houses
Historic house museums in West Yorkshire
Buildings and structures in Keighley
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapman%20Stick
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Chapman Stick
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The Chapman Stick is an electric musical instrument devised by Emmett Chapman in the early 1970s. A member of the guitar family, the Chapman Stick usually has ten or twelve individually tuned strings and is used to play bass lines, melody lines, chords, or textures. Designed as a fully polyphonic chordal instrument, it can also cover several of these musical parts simultaneously.
The Stick is available with passive or active pickup modules that are plugged into a separate instrument amplifier. With a special synthesizer pickup, it can be used to trigger synthesizers and send MIDI messages to electronic instruments.
Description and playing position
A Stick looks like a wide version of the fretboard of an electric guitar, but with 8, 10, or 12 strings. It is, however, considerably longer and wider than a guitar fretboard. Unlike the electric guitar, it is usually played by tapping or fretting the strings, rather than plucking them. Instead of one hand fretting and the other hand plucking, both hands sound notes by striking the strings against the fingerboard "behind" (in guitar parlance, this means a short distance towards the tuning machines) on the appropriate frets for the desired notes.
For this reason, it can sound many more notes at once than some other stringed instruments, making it more comparable to a keyboard instrument than to other stringed instruments. This arrangement lends itself to playing many lines at once, and many Stick players have mastered performing bass, chords, and melody lines simultaneously.
Typically, the Chapman Stick is held via a belt-hook and a shoulder strap. The player hooks the instrument onto the belt and places the head and dominant arm through the shoulder strap. The instrument then settles into a position approximately 30 to 40 degrees from vertical, which allows both of the player's hands to naturally and comfortably address the fretboard. The player then hammers onto the strings with the fingertips in the same way that one would strike a piano key. The technique is very similar to that of the piano inasmuch as the player covers both bass and melody notes together with both hands, and each note is struck with one finger of one hand. Typically, one hand plays the melody on the treble strings and the other plays rhythm on the bass strings.
A seated playing position (which keeps the Stick in a similar playing position relative to the player as the standing position) is also popular, wherein a cross-member is laid upon the knees of the seated player and the stick's belthook rests upon the crossmember.
Origins, history, and popular profile
In 1969, jazz guitarist Emmett Chapman developed the two-handed tapping technique (in which both hands play parallel to the frets) and applied it to his playing. At the time, Chapman was playing a 9-string long-scale guitar, but decided to develop a new instrument for use with "free hands" to use the method's full potential. The Chapman Stick took five years to develop, during which Chapman also opted to set up a business to sell it. The first production model of the Stick was launched in 1974. On October 10 of the same year, Chapman brought his instrument to public attention by demonstrating it on the game show What's My Line?
Former Weather Report bassist Alphonso Johnson was among the first musicians to introduce the Chapman Stick to the public. Session player Tony Levin was also an early user and was playing the instrument from the mid-1970s: he would bring it to sessions and tours with Peter Gabriel, and featured it in his work as a member of King Crimson from 1981 onwards. He would also use it with Liquid Tension Experiment and in sessions for bands including Pink Floyd and Yes. Levin formed the band Stick Men, consisting of one drummer and two Stick players.
Recordings that have been influential on Stick players, because of the prominent role the Stick plays, include the 1981 King Crimson album Discipline (played by Tony Levin) and Emmett Chapman's own album Parallel Galaxy. Amy Grant's hit single "Angels" also featured a Stick solo (played by Andy Widders-Ellis).
The Stick made a disguised appearance in David Lynch's film Dune as Gurney Halleck's baliset, although the scene where Halleck (played by Patrick Stewart) plays the instrument was removed from the theatrical version and can only be seen in the extended versions. The piece being played in the scene is from Emmett Chapman's recording of his original song "Back Yard" from a cassette recording.
Wayne Lytle, creator of Animusic, commented that on his piece "Stick Figures", his inspiration for the semi-anthropomorphic bass guitar was the Chapman Stick.
Technical details
Construction
Chapman Sticks have been made from many materials. The first were made from hardwoods, most from ironwood, but some from ebony and other exotic woods, until the early 1980s. The next group was made from an injection-molded polycarbonate resin through 1989. These were followed by one-piece hardwood structures with an adjustable truss rod, and for a time from 2001 to the mid-to-late 2000s (although not currently available), the "Stick XG" (Extended Graphite) was made of structural graphite, continuous strand carbon fiber. Today, they are made from laminated hardwoods (including padauk, Indian rosewood, tarara, maple, wenge, and mahogany), and laminated bamboo, as well as graphite.
In contrast to the guitar or bass, the Stick is set up with very little relief in the fretboard. It is very flat compared to a guitar, which has a slight bow. Combined with a long scale length, stainless steel pyramidal fret rails, very low string action, and very sensitive pickups, this setup is advantageous to the tapping style of play. The rear surface of the instrument is not curved like a guitar neck, but has deep-beveled edges (also a design trademark of the Stick).
Tuning
The original (now called "Classic") tuning consists of five bass strings (six on the Grand Sticks), tuned upwards in all-fifths tuning, with the low string in the middle of the fretboard, and five melody strings (6 on Grand Stick), tuned upwards (this means from lowest-pitched string to highest-pitched string) in all-fourths tuning, again with the low string in the middle of the fretboard.
The hardware is fully adjustable to accommodate any gauge string at any position. On the 36"-scale instrument, notes can range from low C (above B on a 5-string bass) to high D (a whole step below the high E string on guitar). On the two guitar-scale models (Alto Stick and Stick Guitar), the notes range from F below guitar low E to F# above guitar high E.
Tuning configurations may change depending on the player's style: a player playing as a lead instrument will choose an overall higher pitch tuning, with more separation or overlap between the melody and bass courses.
The stringing/tuning configuration of the Chapman Stick is advantageous to the player who wishes to play large, fully voiced chords with close inner-note relationships. In contrast to a standard guitar, where one tends to "run out of options" within a particular fingering, the Stick tuning results in up to four or even five octaves of note choices under each hand's fretting position.
The classic tuning shows another advantage as well: The regular tunings in fourths and fifths remain consistent in each of the two parts of the instrument; regular tunings facilitate learning by beginners, as well as transposition and improvisation by advanced players. Also, the bass/melody division allows microtonal tunings.
The manufacturer's website has more detailed information on tunings.
Electronics
The Stick is available with passive or active pickup modules. Customized Roland GK-3 pickups are available for the treble or bass side of the instrument, allowing the instrument to trigger or control one or two guitar synthesizers such as the Roland GR-20 or Axon AX-100, and also to drive other MIDI instruments or sequencers chained to the guitar synthesizer. The hammer-on style of playing produces a rising waveform transient that is easily tracked by this type of device.
Standard output is two-channel, through a TRS 1/4" phone connector, with bass and melody courses output separately. There are separate volume controls for bass and melody. The ACTV-2 and PASV-4 pickup modules also have mono operation modes.
The Stick can be plugged into any standard guitar amp or bass amplifier, to good effect. However, because of the very high impedance of the passive pickups, an instrument preamp is often employed, especially for full-range amplification systems (PA system, keyboard amps, etc.).
British musician Nick Beggs uses a Grand Stick, fully MIDI-capable of triggering from both bass and melody strings. He has named this modified instrument the "Virtual Stick".
Models
Currently, there are eight models of the Chapman Stick. Some string configurations are mentioned below, but current production models offer any tuning within physical limitations of stringing:
The Stick (10 strings, 5 melody & 5 bass/6 melody & 4 bass, other custom tunings and set-ups, 36" scale length)
The Railboard (10 strings, a 1-piece CNC-cut thru-neck aluminum beam with 9 pieces bolted-on including headstock, bridge, new R-Block pickup module, 34" scale)
Grand Stick (12 strings, 6 melody & 6 bass/7 melody & 5 bass, other custom tunings and set-ups, 36" scale length)
10-String Grand Stick (10 strings installed on a wooden or laminated bamboo "blanks" for the Grand Stick 12-string model, thus creating a wider fretboard & string spacing for a 10-string Stick. Center-to-center string spacing is 0.350" as opposed to 0.315" on standard 10-string Sticks. The space between the "melody" & "bass" groups of strings is also wider, at 0.500" instead of the standard 0.430". Same 5 melody & 5 bass/6 melody & 4 bass, custom tunings and set-ups & 36" scale length as the standard 10-string Stick)
Stick Bass (SB8) (8 strings, undivided "straight 4ths" B-Bb bass guitar or B-A electric guitar intervals tuning, standard Stick 4 melody & 4 bass, other custom tunings and set-ups, 36" scale length)
NS/Stick (8 strings set up for plucking, strumming, or tapping in standard bass or guitar intervals, standard Stick 5 melody & 5 bass, other custom tunings and set-ups; co-invented by Chapman & Ned Steinberger, 34" scale length)
Alto Stick (10 strings, 5 melody + 5 accompaniment, with shorter scale length for a more guitar-like range, 26.5" scale length)
Stick Guitar (12 strings, 2 groups of 6, with shorter scale length for a more guitar-like range, 26.5" scale length)
Currently, the Stick, Grand Stick, and Stick Bass are 36"-scale, but the older production models were 34" scale.
Stick Enterprises has also manufactured some custom and limited-run instruments:
SB7 Stick Bass – Original "Stick Bass" model with string-spacing close to the current 10-string Chapman Stick, which is narrower than the SB8 8-string Stick Bass. 2 Bartolini bass pickups (1 "Soapbar" & 1 "Single Coil"-sized: only 1 selectable at a time) with mono-only output as opposed to virtually all the previously built and current to the original & upgraded over time passive "Stickup", newer active EMG "ACTV-2" Block, passive Villex "PASV-4" and "R-Block" railboard pickup modules, all of which have stereo-or-mono output. Only one production run completed in 1996–97 until replaced by the more Stick-like SB8 in March 1998. Only 1 Production Run of this particular Stick model was built before being replaced by the SB8 Stick Bass.
The Acoustick – an acoustic version of the Chapman Stick made for Bob Culbertson.
StickXBL – A prototype Stick with body construction by BassLab using a hollow "tunable composite" material. Only a small number of these prototypes exist.
List of notable players and ensembles
Carlos Alonso, leader of Glueleg
Jeff Ament of Pearl Jam
John Balance of Coil and Current 93
Nick Beggs (Kajagoogoo, Ellis, Beggs & Howard, John Paul Jones, Nik Kershaw, Howard Jones, Iona, Steve Hackett, Steven Wilson, Lifesigns)
Blue Man Group
Zeta Bosio of Soda Stereo
Brian Bourne
Terry Burrows author and musician
Emmett Chapman inventor of the Chapman Stick Touchboard and the Free Hands Two-Handed Tapping Technique
Guillermo Cides solo Stick performer
Bob Culbertson solo Stick performer
Peter Gifford plays Chapman Stick on the tracks 'Sleep' and 'Who Can Stand in the Way' on the Midnight Oil album Red Sails in the Sunset and in concert
Trey Gunn played Chapman Stick with Robert Fripp, David Sylvian, Sunday All Over the World, King Crimson and UKZ
Paige Haley of Orgy
Greg Howard solo and on the Dave Matthews Band album Before These Crowded Streets
Alphonso Johnson Weather Report, Santana, Gregg Rolie Band
Tony Levin solo and with Peter Gabriel, King Crimson, Yes, Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (notably on live renditions of Close to the Edge), Pink Floyd, Stick Men, and Liquid Tension Experiment
Sean Malone of Cynic and Gordian Knot
Mark McCullough with Red Wanting Blue
John Myung of Dream Theater and Gordian Knot
Mike Oldfield plays Chapman Stick on his album The Songs of Distant Earth (and in some multimedia video clips on the extended CD) (although Oldfield plays with pick as opposed to two-hand technique)
Pino Palladino on Paul Young's No Parlez
Jeff Pearce solo and in concert with William Ackerman
Don Schiff solo and with Lana Lane and Rocket Scientists
Mauricio Sotelo from , Mexican progressive band
Akın Ünver, Solo Stick player from Ankara, Turkey
Fariz RM
See also
Left-handed tunings, which are called "inverse tunings" in the Chapman Stick community
Touch guitar
Warr Guitar
Megatar
References
External links
Stick.com - Official Site
Basic Information about the Stick in Spanish and English
Amplified instruments
Fretboard tapping instruments
1970s introductions
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program%20evaluation%20and%20review%20technique
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Program evaluation and review technique
|
The program (or project) evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a statistical tool used in project management, which was designed to analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project.
First developed by the United States Navy in 1958, it is commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method (CPM) that was introduced in 1957.
Overview
PERT is a method of analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project, especially the time needed to complete each task, and to identify the minimum time needed to complete the total project. It incorporates uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in those projects where time is the major factor rather than cost. It is applied on very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and on Research and Development projects.
PERT offers a management tool, which relies "on arrow and node diagrams of activities and events: arrows represent the activities or work necessary to reach the events or nodes that indicate each completed phase of the total project."
PERT and CPM are complementary tools, because "CPM employs one time estimation and one cost estimation for each activity; PERT may utilize three time estimates (optimistic, expected, and pessimistic) and no costs for each activity. Although these are distinct differences, the term PERT is applied increasingly to all critical path scheduling."
History
"PERT" was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was developed for the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office in 1957 to support the U.S. Navy's Polaris nuclear submarine project. It found applications all over industry. An early example is when it was used for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble which applied PERT from 1965 until the opening of the 1968 Games. This project model was the first of its kind, a revival for scientific management, founded by Frederick Taylor (Taylorism) and later refined by Henry Ford (Fordism). DuPont's critical path method was invented at roughly the same time as PERT.
Initially PERT stood for Program Evaluation Research Task, but by 1959 was already renamed. It had been made public in 1958 in two publications of the U.S. Department of the Navy, entitled Program Evaluation Research Task, Summary Report, Phase 1. and Phase 2. In a 1959 article in The American Statistician the main Willard Fazar, Head of the Program Evaluation Branch, Special Projects Office, U.S. Navy, gave a detailed description of the main concepts of the PERT. He explained:
Ten years after the introduction of PERT in 1958 the American librarian Maribeth Brennan published a selected bibliography with about 150 publications on PERT and CPM, which had been published between 1958 and 1968. The origin and development was summarized as follows:
For the subdivision of work units in PERT another tool was developed: the Work Breakdown Structure. The Work Breakdown Structure provides "a framework for complete networking, the Work Breakdown Structure was formally introduced as the first item of analysis in carrying out basic PERT/COST."
Terminology
Events and activities
In a PERT diagram, the main building block is the event, with connections to its known predecessor events and successor events.
PERT event: a point that marks the start or completion of one or more activities. It consumes no time and uses no resources. When it marks the completion of one or more activities, it is not "reached" (does not occur) until all of the activities leading to that event have been completed.
predecessor event: an event that immediately precedes some other event without any other events intervening. An event can have multiple predecessor events and can be the predecessor of multiple events.
successor event: an event that immediately follows some other event without any other intervening events. An event can have multiple successor events and can be the successor of multiple events.
Besides events, PERT also knows activities and sub-activities:
PERT activity: the actual performance of a task which consumes time and requires resources (such as labor, materials, space, machinery). It can be understood as representing the time, effort, and resources required to move from one event to another. A PERT activity cannot be performed until the predecessor event has occurred.
PERT sub-activity: a PERT activity can be further decomposed into a set of sub-activities. For example, activity A1 can be decomposed into A1.1, A1.2 and A1.3. Sub-activities have all the properties of activities; in particular, a sub-activity has predecessor or successor events just like an activity. A sub-activity can be decomposed again into finer-grained sub-activities.
Time
PERT has defined four types of time required to accomplish an activity:
optimistic time: the minimum possible time required to accomplish an activity (o) or a path (O), assuming everything proceeds better than is normally expected
pessimistic time: the maximum possible time required to accomplish an activity (p) or a path (P), assuming everything goes wrong (but excluding major catastrophes).
most likely time: the best estimate of the time required to accomplish an activity (m) or a path (M), assuming everything proceeds as normal.
expected time: the best estimate of the time required to accomplish an activity (te) or a path (TE), accounting for the fact that things don't always proceed as normal (the implication being that the expected time is the average time the task would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasions over an extended period of time).
standard deviation of time : the variability of the time for accomplishing an activity (σte) or a path (σTE)
Management tools
PERT supplies a number of tools for management with determination of concepts, such as:
float or slack is a measure of the excess time and resources available to complete a task. It is the amount of time that a project task can be delayed without causing a delay in any subsequent tasks (free float) or the whole project (total float). Positive slack would indicate ahead of schedule; negative slack would indicate behind schedule; and zero slack would indicate on schedule.
critical path: the longest possible continuous pathway taken from the initial event to the terminal event. It determines the total calendar time required for the project; and, therefore, any time delays along the critical path will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same amount.
critical activity: An activity that has total float equal to zero. An activity with zero free float is not necessarily on the critical path since its path may not be the longest.
lead time: the time by which a predecessor event must be completed in order to allow sufficient time for the activities that must elapse before a specific PERT event reaches completion.
lag time: the earliest time by which a successor event can follow a specific PERT event.
fast tracking: performing more critical activities in parallel
crashing critical path: Shortening duration of critical activities
Implementation
The first step for scheduling the project is to determine the tasks that the project requires and the order in which they must be completed. The order may be easy to record for some tasks (e.g., when building a house, the land must be graded before the foundation can be laid) while difficult for others (there are two areas that need to be graded, but there are only enough bulldozers to do one). Additionally, the time estimates usually reflect the normal, non-rushed time. Many times, the time required to execute the task can be reduced for an additional cost or a reduction in the quality.
Example
In the following example there are seven tasks, labeled A through G. Some tasks can be done concurrently (A and B) while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (C cannot begin until A is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate (o), the most likely or normal time estimate (m), and the pessimistic time estimate (p). The expected time (te) is computed using the formula (o + 4m + p) ÷ 6.
Once this step is complete, one can draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram.
Next step, creating network diagram by hand or by using diagram software
A network diagram can be created by hand or by using diagram software. There are two types of network diagrams, activity on arrow (AOA) and activity on node (AON). Activity on node diagrams are generally easier to create and interpret. To create an AON diagram, it is recommended (but not required) to start with a node named start. This "activity" has a duration of zero (0). Then you draw each activity that does not have a predecessor activity (a and b in this example) and connect them with an arrow from start to each node. Next, since both c and d list a as a predecessor activity, their nodes are drawn with arrows coming from a. Activity e is listed with b and c as predecessor activities, so node e is drawn with arrows coming from both b and c, signifying that e cannot begin until both b and c have been completed. Activity f has d as a predecessor activity, so an arrow is drawn connecting the activities. Likewise, an arrow is drawn from e to g. Since there are no activities that come after f or g, it is recommended (but again not required) to connect them to a node labeled finish.
By itself, the network diagram pictured above does not give much more information than a Gantt chart; however, it can be expanded to display more information. The most common information shown is:
The activity name
The expected duration time
The early start time (ES)
The early finish time (EF)
The late start time (LS)
The late finish time (LF)
The slack
In order to determine this information it is assumed that the activities and normal duration times are given. The first step is to determine the ES and EF. The ES is defined as the maximum EF of all predecessor activities, unless the activity in question is the first activity, for which the ES is zero (0). The EF is the ES plus the task duration (EF = ES + duration).
The ES for start is zero since it is the first activity. Since the duration is zero, the EF is also zero. This EF is used as the ES for a and b.
The ES for a is zero. The duration (4 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of four. This EF is used as the ES for c and d.
The ES for b is zero. The duration (5.33 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 5.33.
The ES for c is four. The duration (5.17 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 9.17.
The ES for d is four. The duration (6.33 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 10.33. This EF is used as the ES for f.
The ES for e is the greatest EF of its predecessor activities (b and c). Since b has an EF of 5.33 and c has an EF of 9.17, the ES of e is 9.17. The duration (5.17 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 14.34. This EF is used as the ES for g.
The ES for f is 10.33. The duration (4.5 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 14.83.
The ES for g is 14.34. The duration (5.17 work days) is added to the ES to get an EF of 19.51.
The ES for finish is the greatest EF of its predecessor activities (f and g). Since f has an EF of 14.83 and g has an EF of 19.51, the ES of finish is 19.51. Finish is a milestone (and therefore has a duration of zero), so the EF is also 19.51.
Barring any unforeseen events, the project should take 19.51 work days to complete. The next step is to determine the late start (LS) and late finish (LF) of each activity. This will eventually show if there are activities that have slack. The LF is defined as the minimum LS of all successor activities, unless the activity is the last activity, for which the LF equals the EF. The LS is the LF minus the task duration (LS = LF − duration).
The LF for finish is equal to the EF (19.51 work days) since it is the last activity in the project. Since the duration is zero, the LS is also 19.51 work days. This will be used as the LF for f and g.
The LF for g is 19.51 work days. The duration (5.17 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 14.34 work days. This will be used as the LF for e.
The LF for f is 19.51 work days. The duration (4.5 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 15.01 work days. This will be used as the LF for d.
The LF for e is 14.34 work days. The duration (5.17 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 9.17 work days. This will be used as the LF for b and c.
The LF for d is 15.01 work days. The duration (6.33 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 8.68 work days.
The LF for c is 9.17 work days. The duration (5.17 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 4 work days.
The LF for b is 9.17 work days. The duration (5.33 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 3.84 work days.
The LF for a is the minimum LS of its successor activities. Since c has an LS of 4 work days and d has an LS of 8.68 work days, the LF for a is 4 work days. The duration (4 work days) is subtracted from the LF to get an LS of 0 work days.
The LF for start is the minimum LS of its successor activities. Since a has an LS of 0 work days and b has an LS of 3.84 work days, the LS is 0 work days.
Next step, determination of critical path and possible slack
The next step is to determine the critical path and if any activities have slack. The critical path is the path that takes the longest to complete. To determine the path times, add the task durations for all available paths. Activities that have slack can be delayed without changing the overall time of the project. Slack is computed in one of two ways, slack = LF − EF or slack = LS − ES. Activities that are on the critical path have a slack of zero (0).
The duration of path adf is 14.83 work days.
The duration of path aceg is 19.51 work days.
The duration of path beg is 15.67 work days.
The critical path is aceg and the critical time is 19.51 work days. It is important to note that there can be more than one critical path (in a project more complex than this example) or that the critical path can change. For example, let's say that activities d and f take their pessimistic (b) times to complete instead of their expected (TE) times. The critical path is now adf and the critical time is 22 work days. On the other hand, if activity c can be reduced to one work day, the path time for aceg is reduced to 15.34 work days, which is slightly less than the time of the new critical path, beg (15.67 work days).
Assuming these scenarios do not happen, the slack for each activity can now be determined.
Start and finish are milestones and by definition have no duration, therefore they can have no slack (0 work days).
The activities on the critical path by definition have a slack of zero; however, it is always a good idea to check the math anyway when drawing by hand.
LFa – EFa = 4 − 4 = 0
LFc – EFc = 9.17 − 9.17 = 0
LFe – EFe = 14.34 − 14.34 = 0
LFg – EFg = 19.51 − 19.51 = 0
Activity b has an LF of 9.17 and an EF of 5.33, so the slack is 3.84 work days.
Activity d has an LF of 15.01 and an EF of 10.33, so the slack is 4.68 work days.
Activity f has an LF of 19.51 and an EF of 14.83, so the slack is 4.68 work days.
Therefore, activity b can be delayed almost 4 work days without delaying the project. Likewise, activity d or activity f can be delayed 4.68 work days without delaying the project (alternatively, d and f can be delayed 2.34 work days each).
Avoiding loops
Depending upon the capabilities of the data input phase of the critical path algorithm, it may be possible to create a loop, such as A -> B -> C -> A. This can cause simple algorithms to loop indefinitely. Although it is possible to "mark" nodes that have been visited, then clear the "marks" upon completion of the process, a far simpler mechanism involves computing the total of all activity durations. If an EF of more than the total is found, the computation should be terminated. It is worth saving the identities of the most recently visited dozen or so nodes to help identify the problem link.
As project scheduling tool
Advantages
PERT chart explicitly defines and makes visible dependencies (precedence relationships) between the work breakdown structure (commonly WBS) elements.
PERT facilitates identification of the critical path and makes this visible.
PERT facilitates identification of early start, late start, and slack for each activity.
PERT provides for potentially reduced project duration due to better understanding of dependencies leading to improved overlapping of activities and tasks where feasible.
The large amount of project data can be organized and presented in diagram for use in decision making.
PERT can provide a probability of completing before a given time.
Disadvantages
There can be potentially hundreds or thousands of activities and individual dependency relationships.
PERT is not easily scalable for smaller projects.
The network charts tend to be large and unwieldy, requiring several pages to print and requiring specially-sized paper.
The lack of a timeframe on most PERT/CPM charts makes it harder to show status, although colours can help, e.g., specific colour for completed nodes.
Uncertainty in project scheduling
During project execution, however, a real-life project will never execute exactly as it was planned due to uncertainty. This can be due to ambiguity resulting from subjective estimates that are prone to human errors or can be the result of variability arising from unexpected events or risks. The main reason that PERT may provide inaccurate information about the project completion time is due to this schedule uncertainty. This inaccuracy may be large enough to render such estimates as not helpful.
One possible method to maximize solution robustness is to include safety in the baseline schedule in order to absorb the anticipated disruptions. This is called proactive scheduling. A pure proactive scheduling is a utopia; incorporating safety in a baseline schedule which allows for every possible disruption would lead to a baseline schedule with a very large make-span. A second approach, termed reactive scheduling, consists of defining a procedure to react to disruptions that cannot be absorbed by the baseline schedule.
See also
Activity diagram
Arrow diagramming method
PERT distribution
Critical chain project management
Critical path method
Float (project management)
Gantt chart
GERT
Precedence diagram method
Project network
Project management
Project planning
Triangular distribution
PRINCE2
References
Further reading
External links
Network theory
Diagrams
Evaluation methods
Project management techniques
Systems engineering
Booz Allen Hamilton
Operations research
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic%20plate
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Photographic plate
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Photographic plates preceded photographic film as a capture medium in photography, and were still used in some communities up until the late 20th century. The light-sensitive emulsion of silver salts was coated on a glass plate, typically thinner than common window glass.
History
Glass plates were far superior to film for research-quality imaging because they were stable and less likely to bend or distort, especially in large-format frames for wide-field imaging. Early plates used the wet collodion process. The wet plate process was replaced late in the 19th century by gelatin dry plates.
A view camera nicknamed "The Mammoth" weighing was built by George R. Lawrence in 1899, specifically to photograph "The Alton Limited" train owned by the Chicago & Alton Railway. It took photographs on glass plates measuring × .
Glass plate photographic material largely faded from the consumer market in the early years of the 20th century, as more convenient and less fragile films were increasingly adopted. However, photographic plates were reportedly still being used by one photography business in London until the 1970s, and by one in Bradford called the Belle Vue Studio that closed in 1975. They were in wide use by the professional astronomical community as late as the 1990s. Workshops on the use of glass plate photography as an alternative medium or for artistic use are still being conducted.
Scientific uses
Astronomy
Many famous astronomical surveys were taken using photographic plates, including the first Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS) of the 1950s, the follow-up POSS-II survey of the 1990s, and the UK Schmidt survey of southern declinations. A number of observatories, including Harvard College and Sonneberg, maintain large archives of photographic plates, which are used primarily for historical research on variable stars.
Many solar system objects were discovered by using photographic plates, superseding earlier visual methods. Discovery of minor planets using photographic plates was pioneered by Max Wolf beginning with his discovery of 323 Brucia in 1891. The first natural satellite discovered using photographic plates was Phoebe in 1898. Pluto was discovered using photographic plates in a blink comparator; its moon Charon was discovered 48 years later in 1978 by U.S. Naval Observatory astronomer James W. Christy by carefully examining a bulge in Pluto's image on a photographic plate.
Glass-backed plates, rather than film, were generally used in astronomy because they do not shrink or deform noticeably in the development process or under environmental changes. Several important applications of astrophotography, including astronomical spectroscopy and astrometry, continued using plates until digital imaging improved to the point where it could outmatch photographic results. Kodak and other manufacturers discontinued production of most kinds of plates as the market for them dwindled between 1980 and 2000, terminating most remaining astronomical use, including for sky surveys.
Physics
Photographic plates were also an important tool in early high-energy physics, as they are blackened by ionizing radiation. Ernest Rutherford was one of the first to study the absorption, in various materials, of the rays produced in radioactive decay, by using photographic plates to measure the intensity of the rays. Development of particle detection optimised nuclear emulsions in the 1930s and 1940s, first in physics laboratories, then by commercial manufacturers, enabled the discovery and measurement of both the pi-meson and K-meson, in 1947 and 1949, initiating a flood of new particle discoveries in the second half of the 20th century.
Electron microscopy
Photographic emulsions were originally coated on thin glass plates for imaging with electron microscopes, which provided a more rigid, stable and flatter plane compared to plastic films. Beginning in the 1970s, high-contrast, fine grain emulsions coated on thicker plastic films manufactured by Kodak, Ilford and DuPont replaced glass plates. These films have largely been replaced by digitally imaging technologies.
Medical imaging
The sensitivity of certain types of photographic plates to ionizing radiation (usually X-rays) is also useful in medical imaging and material science applications, although they have been largely replaced with reusable and computer readable image plate detectors and other types of X-ray detectors.
Decline
The earliest flexible films of the late 1880s were sold for amateur use in medium-format cameras. The plastic was not of very high optical quality and tended to curl and otherwise not provide as desirably flat a support surface as a sheet of glass. Initially, a transparent plastic base was more expensive to produce than glass. Quality was eventually improved, manufacturing costs came down, and most amateurs gladly abandoned plates for films. After large-format high quality cut films for professional photographers were introduced in the late 1910s, the use of plates for ordinary photography of any kind became increasingly rare.
The persistent use of plates in astronomical and other scientific applications started to decline in the early 1980s as they were gradually replaced by charge-coupled devices (CCDs), which also provide outstanding dimensional stability. CCD cameras have several advantages over glass plates, including high efficiency, linear light response, and simplified image acquisition and processing. However, even the largest CCD formats (e.g., 8192 × 8192 pixels) still do not have the detecting area and resolution of most photographic plates, which has forced modern survey cameras to use large CCD arrays to obtain the same coverage.
The manufacture of photographic plates has been discontinued by Kodak, Agfa and other widely known traditional makers. Eastern European sources have subsequently catered to the minimal remaining demand, practically all of it for use in holography, which requires a recording medium with a large surface area and a submicroscopic level of resolution that currently (2014) available electronic image sensors cannot provide. In the realm of traditional photography, a small number of historical process enthusiasts make their own wet or dry plates from raw materials and use them in vintage large-format cameras.
Current production
The recent renewal of interest in alternative photographic processes has included interest in dry plates. In December 2017, Pictoriographica LLC, a small business located in the United States, began making dry plates commercially available for sale, giving photographers access to dry plates who lack the equipment or resources to make their own. The plates are produced in any size desired by the customer, with several formats in common use in the early 20th century listed as stock items. The initial line of plates, called J. Lane Dry Plates, were more sensitive to UV and blue light with a nominal speed of approximately ISO 2. They are intended to be similar to dry plates in common use during the early 1880s. In May 2019, Pictoriographica began offering a line of Orthochromatic ISO 25 dry plates called J. Lane Speed Plates. This product replicates the look of dry plates produced in the late 1890s.
Preservation
Several institutions have established archives to preserve photographic plates and prevent their valuable historical information from being lost. The emulsion on the plate can deteriorate. In addition, the glass plate medium is fragile and prone to cracking if not stored correctly.
Historical archives
The United States Library of Congress has a large collection of both wet and dry plate photographic negatives, dating from 1855 through 1900, over 7,500 of which have been digitized from the period 1861 to 1865.
The George Eastman Museum holds an extensive collection of photographic plates. In 1955, wet plate negatives measuring × were reported to have been discovered in 1951 as part of the Holtermann Collection. These purportedly were the largest glass negatives discovered at that time. These images were taken in 1875 by Charles Bayliss and formed the "Shore Tower" panorama of Sydney Harbour. Albumen contact prints made from these negatives are in the holdings of the Holtermann Collection, the negatives are listed among the current holdings of the Collection.
Scientific archives
Preservation of photographic plates is a particular need in astronomy, where changes often occur slowly and the plates represent irreplaceable records of the sky and astronomical objects that extend back over 100 years. The method of digitization of astronomical plates enables free and easy access to those unique astronomical data and it is one of the most popular approaches to preserve them. This approach was applied at the Baldone Astrophysical Observatory where about 22,000 glass and film plates of the Schmidt Telescope were scanned and cataloged. Another example of an astronomical plate archive is the Astronomical Photographic Data Archive (APDA) at the Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI). APDA was created in response to recommendations of a group of international scientists who gathered in 2007 to discuss how to best preserve astronomical plates (see the Osborn and Robbins reference listed under Further reading). The discussions revealed that some observatories no longer could maintain their plate collections and needed a place to archive them. APDA is dedicated to housing and cataloging unwanted plates, with the goal to eventually catalog the plates and create a database of images that can be accessed via the Internet by the global community of scientists, researchers, and students. APDA now has a collection of more than 404,000 photographic images from over 40 observatories that are housed in a secure building with environmental control. The facility possesses several plate scanners, including two high-precision ones, GAMMA I and GAMMA II, built for NASA and the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) and used by a team under the leadership of the late Dr. Barry Lasker to develop the Guide Star Catalog and Digitized Sky Survey that are used to guide and direct the Hubble Space Telescope. APDA's networked storage system can store and analyze more than 100 terabytes of data.
A historical collection of photographic plates from Mt. Wilson observatory is available at the Carnegie Observatories. Metadata is available via a searchable database, while a portion of the plates has been digitized.
See also
Camera
Film base
Photographic film
References
Further reading
Peter Kroll, Constanze La Dous, Hans-Jürgen Bräuer: "Treasure Hunting in Astronomical Plate Archives." (Proceedings of the international Workshop held at Sonneberg Observatory, March 4 to 6, 1999.) Verlag Herri Deutsch, Frankfurt am Main (1999),
Wayne Osborn, Lee Robbins: "Preserving Astronomy's Photographic Legacy: Current State and the Future of North American Astronomical Plates." Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 410 (2009),
Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI) Astronomical Photographic Data Archive (APDA) https://www.pari.edu/research/adpa/
External links
Carnegie Observatories
The Sonneberg Plates Archiv (Sonneberg Observatory)
The Harvard College Observatory Plate Stacks
APDA @ PARI
Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute Astronomical Photographic Data Archive (PARI APDA)(Archive from Aug 2012)
Capturing Oregon's Frontier Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
Video demonstration of collodion wet plate preparation and photographic image creation
Course on field wet-plate photography
Information on creation of wet-plate photographs
Plate
Particle detectors
X-ray instrumentation
Medical imaging
Radiography
Monochrome photography
|
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] |
206908
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounds%20Green%20tube%20station
|
Bounds Green tube station
|
Bounds Green is a London Underground station, located at the junction of Bounds Green Road and Brownlow Road in Bounds Green in the London Borough of Haringey, North London. The station is on the Piccadilly line, between Wood Green and Arnos Grove, and is on the boundary between Zone 3 and Zone 4.
History
Like all stations on the Cockfosters extension, Bounds Green, which opened on 19 September 1932, set new aesthetic standards not previously seen on London's Underground. During the planning period of the extension to Cockfosters, alternate names for this station, "Wood Green North" and "Brownlow Road" were considered but rejected.
Second World War
The station was used as an air-raid shelter and people slept on the stairs between the escalators here as well as on the platforms. On the night of 13 October 1940, during The Blitz, a lone German aircraft dropped a single bomb on houses to the north of the station. The destruction of the houses caused the north end of the westbound platform tunnel to collapse, killing and injuring many people amongst those sheltering from the air raid. The train service was disrupted for two months.
A memorial plaque (placed in the station in 1994, at the north end of the westbound platform) erroneously commemorates "sixteen Belgian refugees and ... three British citizens who died" in the attack. The records of the civilian deaths held by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission indicate that in fact sixteen people in total died at the scene – of whom three were Belgian refugees – with a seventeenth person dying of injuries in hospital the following day. Approximately twenty people were injured, but survived.
Design
Architecturally, this tube station, designed in the typical "Box-style" of the architect Charles Holden by his colleague C. H. James, is a well-preserved example of the modernist house style of London Transport in the 1930s. The octagonal frontage is flanked by a ventilation tower. The octagonal ticket hall is lit by four large windows with an imposing lattice of concrete beams in the ceiling; large London Underground roundels; and original bronze signs, ventilation grilles and information panel frames. The sub-surface areas of the station are finished in biscuit-coloured tiles lined with red friezes. Holden's designs emphasised functionality combined with balanced geometry and the use of modern materials, especially glass and reinforced concrete. The historical significance of the station is emphasised by its involvement in the World War II blitz.
Unlike others on this extension, the station was not previously nationally listed as of special architectural interest but in August 2008 an application was made to English Heritage for a listing recommendation and in January 2010 the station was listed as Grade II.
Layout
Two escalators and a central fixed stairway connect the ticket hall with the platforms. The escalators were installed in 1989 and 1991, replacing the 1932 originals. The current escalators are Otis MH-B type of 15.8 m vertical rise.
The station's platform tunnels have, in common with those of Southgate, a diameter of 21 feet (6.4 metres). In contrast, the much busier Wood Green, Turnpike Lane and Manor House have 23-foot (7-metre) diameter platform tunnels. The construction of "suicide pits" between the rails was also innovative; these were built in connection with a system of passageways under the platforms to give access to the track.
Improvements
The station was refurbished in 2007 as part of Transport for London's £10 billion Investment Programme. The works were carried out at night and in a series of weekend closures. This work involved the restoration of heritage features and included the upgrading of CCTV cameras, retiling and decorating the station, repairs to the roof and exterior, platform resurfacing and the installation of Help Points. New train indicators were installed. The station was restored to its original condition, complete with red tiled borders. The cable trays above the frieze level are grey. The ticket hall has been retiled light and dark grey with wooden doors to station accommodation revarnished.
Services and connections
Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 2–5 minutes between 06:53 and 00:59 eastbound, and between 05:27 and 00:09 westbound.
The station is served by London Bus routes 102, 184, 221 and 299, and also by night route N91.
Nearby places
Bounds Green
Bowes Park
Muswell Hill
Wood Green
References
Bibliography
External links
Piccadilly line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Haringey
Former London Electric Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1932
Charles Holden railway stations
World War II memorials in England
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Haringey
Bounds Green
Bounds Green Road
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom
|
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206913
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collingwood%20College%2C%20Durham
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Collingwood College, Durham
|
Collingwood College is a college of Durham University in England. It is the second largest of Durham's undergraduate colleges with around 1100 students. Founded in 1972 as the first purpose-built, mixed-sex college in Durham, it is named after the mathematician Sir Edward Collingwood (1900–70), who was a former Chair of the Council of Durham University.
History
Plans for Collingwood began in 1960, as part of a programme of expansion that included both Van Mildert College and Trevelyan College. By 1962 it was determined that the new college was to be built on the site of Oswald House, with Richard Sheppard (architect of Churchill College, Cambridge) being appointed the following year . The remnants of the Oswald House estate can be seen in the landscaped grounds and mature trees that surround the college. Over the following years a series of funding issues and debates over the student composition of the new college meant that building on the site did not begin until August 1971. It was determined that the new college should be called Collingwood College, a name chosen from a shortlist of three (the others being Cromwell College and Lumley College). With building not being complete until 1973, Collingwood's first cohort of 66 freshers were housed in Van Mildert from October 1972.
Buildings and facilities
The college is located to the south of Durham city centre, on South Road. The steep incline of this road leads to Collingwood and the surrounding colleges being commonly referred to as 'Hill' colleges. Extended in 1994, Collingwood now has over a thousand students allocated to it, and approximately 550 bed spaces within the college. Accommodation is provided within three main wings: the original Durham and Northumbria wings and the newer, en-suite Cumbria wing. A separate block, York, is located away from the others and consists of flats used by fellows of the College and of the Institute of Advanced Study. Not all students live in college during their time at the university, but all students in their first year and the majority of those in their final year are allocated a place.
Although most Durham colleges are not used for teaching purposes, the college is equipped with a moderate library, music practice rooms and public computing facilities. Other welfare and entertainment facilities exist, including a bar, student-run shop, gym, television room, several common rooms, various sports facilities and a coffee shop (Collingwood being the only Durham college to have one). During the summer of 2006, the music rooms were converted into a fully equipped recording studio, with a new JCR officer position being created to run it.
The college is also a popular venue for academic conferences and other commercial events, often arranged and marketed by Event Durham. The income from these is used by the Colleges' Division to maintain and enhance college bedrooms and other facilities.
In June 2011 contractors began building work on a new gymnasium on the college campus, known as the Mark Hillery Gym. It opened in October 2012.
In 2017, the first in a series of renovations was unveiled. Collingwood now sports its own Multi-Use Games Area (MUGA), informally referred to by students as the "Collingwood Crumb". This can be booked for college sports training sessions, or for casual kickabouts when not in use by one of Collingwood's many teams.
In November 2018, after almost 18 months’ worth of building work, an array of alumni-funded state-of-the-art facilities were unveiled to the Collingwood community. These include an expansion and equipment refresh of the Mark Hillery Gym and the replacement of the Bayley Room with the purpose-built Mark Hillery Performing Arts Centre. This performing arts space has a 150-person seated capacity, and offers premium technical equipment for developing skills and producing professional productions.
The common room was also fully renovated; it is now equipped with a cinema room, pool tables, multiple televisions, as well as a relocated and fully refitted coffee shop. The college's central social hub, The Stag's Head college bar, was also renovated, bringing a dedicated darts area, conservatory and revamped bar terrace. The green space on the college grounds has also been drastically landscaped with fresh flowers and plants planted across the site.
Collingwood has also recently invested in a high quality media suite to feed the growing appetite for film and photography production opportunities.
The latest project is a brand-new, purpose-built recording studio which is well into the developmental stage of project management and should be built very soon.
Organisation and administration
The Head of College is the Principal. The incumbent Principal is Joe Elliott.
List of Principals
Peter C. Bayley (1972–1978)
Anthony Tuck FRHistS (1978–1987)
Gerald Blake (1987–2001)
Jane Taylor (2001–2007)
F. Edward Corrigan, FRS (2008–2011)
Joe Elliott (2011 – present)
Student life
As with all colleges in Durham, the students organise and democratise themselves by creating and running a body known as the Junior Common Room, or more commonly JCR. All students of the college are JCR members unless they specifically request otherwise. The JCR is led by the Exec Committee, which consists of thirteen elected positions. Two of these positions, those of JCR President and Bar Steward, are sabbatical.
There is also a Middle Common Room for mostly Postgraduates, who are usually members of the JCR as well.
The college has a number of sports clubs and societies, for example:
The Woodplayers (Collingwood's Drama Society)
Collingwood College Arts Society
Collingwood College Music Society
Collingwood Choir
Collingwood College Fashion Show
Collingwood College Boat Club
Collingwood College Rugby Football Club
Collingwood College Cricket Club
Collingwood College Association Football Club
Collingwood College Dance Society
Notable alumni
Lieven Bertels, Musicologist and arts curator
James Cary, TV and radio writer
Benjamin Cook, Journalist and author
Joe Crabtree, drummer of the band Wishbone Ash
Stephen Davies, Children's Author
Oliver Eden, 8th Baron Henley, Conservative Politician, former Minister of State
Peter Elleray, Formula One and Le Mans Race Car Designer
Mark Elliott, Travel Author
Jonah Fisher, BBC Journalist
Tim FitzHigham, British comedian
Lorraine Heggessey, controller of BBC One 2000–2005
Rt. Rev Nick Holtham – BA Geog., MA Theol. – Bishop of Salisbury
Amjad Hussain, Rear Admiral Royal Navy
Alex Loudon, Warwickshire and England cricketer
David Kershaw, CEO of M&C Saatchi
Rt. Hon Lord Justice Andrew McFarlane – BA Hons Law (1975) – High Court Judge, Lord Justice of Appeal
Stephen Rowbotham, Olympic rower
Jonny Saunders, BBC Radio 2 Sports Presenter
Will Smith, Durham County Cricket Club cricketer
David Sproxton, Joint founder of Aardman Animations
Chris Terrill, documentary maker, writer and adventurer
Richard Watts, Leader of Islington Council
Gallery
See also
Colleges of Durham University
References
Further reading
Tuck, Anthony. (1997) Collingwood College, University of Durham: A Jubilee History 1972–1997.
External links
Collingwood College official website
Colleges of Durham University
1972 establishments in England
Educational institutions established in 1972
|
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206915
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20wren
|
New Zealand wren
|
The New Zealand wrens are a family (Acanthisittidae) of tiny passerines endemic to New Zealand. They were represented by six known species in four or five genera, although only two species survive in two genera today. They are understood to form a distinct lineage within the passerines, but authorities differ on their assignment to the oscines or suboscines (the two suborders that between them make up the Passeriformes). More recent studies suggest that they form a third, most ancient, suborder Acanthisitti and have no living close relatives at all. They are called "wrens" due to similarities in appearance and behaviour to the true wrens (Troglodytidae), but are not members of that family.
New Zealand wrens are mostly insectivorous foragers of New Zealand's forests, with one species, the New Zealand rock wren, being restricted to alpine areas. Both the remaining species are poor fliers and four of the five extinct species are known to be, or are suspected of having been, flightless (based on observations of living birds and the size of their sterna); along with the long-legged bunting from Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands, they are the only passerines known to have lost the ability to fly. Of the species for which the plumage is known, they are drab-coloured birds with brown-green plumage. They form monogamous pair bonds to raise their young, laying their eggs in small nests in trees or amongst rocks. They are diurnal and like all New Zealand passerines, for the most part, are sedentary.
New Zealand wrens, like many New Zealand birds, suffered several extinctions after the arrival of humans in New Zealand. Two species became extinct after the arrival of the Māori and the Polynesian rat and are known today only from fossil remains; a third, Lyall's wren, became extinct on the main islands, surviving only as a relict population on Stephens Island in the Cook Strait. This species and the bushwren became extinct after the arrival of Europeans, with the bushwren surviving until 1972. Of the two remaining species, the rifleman is still common in both the North and South Islands, while the New Zealand rock wren is restricted to the alpine areas of the South Island and is considered vulnerable.
Taxonomy and systematics
The taxonomy of the New Zealand wrens has been a subject of considerable debate since their discovery, although they have long been known to be an unusual family. In the 1880s, Forbes assigned the New Zealand wrens to the suboscines related to the cotingas and the pittas (and gave the family the name Xenicidae). Later, they were thought to be closer to the ovenbirds and antbirds. Sibley's 1970 study comparing egg-white proteins moved them to the oscines, but later studies, including the 1982 DNA-DNA hybridization study, suggested the family was a sister taxon to the suboscines and the oscines. This theory has proven most robust since then and the New Zealand wrens might be the survivors of a lineage of passerines that was isolated when New Zealand broke away from Gondwana 82–85 million years ago (Mya), though a pre-Paleogene origin of passerines is highly disputed and tends to be rejected in more recent studies.
As no evidence indicates passerines were flightless when they arrived on New Zealand (that apomorphy is extremely rare and unevenly distributed in Passeriformes), they are not required by present theories to have been distinct in the Mesozoic. As unequivocal Passeriformes are known from Australia some 55 million years ago, the acanthisittids' ancestors likely arrived in the Late Paleocene from Australia or the then-temperate Antarctic coasts. Plate tectonics indicate that the shortest distance between New Zealand and those two continents was roughly 1,500 km (1,000 miles) at that time. New Zealand's minimum distance from Australia is a bit more today – some 1,700 km/1,100 miles - whereas it is now at least 2,500 km (1,550 miles) from Antarctica.
The extant species are closely related and thought to be descendants of birds that survived a genetic bottleneck caused by the marine transgression during the Oligocene, when most of New Zealand was under water. The earliest known fossil is Kuiornis indicator from the Miocene Saint Bathans Fauna. Kuiornis is thought to be more closely related to Acanthisitta than to other Acanthisittids
The relationships between the genera and species were formerly poorly understood. The extant genus Acanthisitta has one species, the rifleman and the other surviving genus, Xenicus, includes the New Zealand rock wren and the recently extinct bushwren. Some authorities have retained Lyall's wren in Xenicus as well, but it is often afforded its own monotypic genus, Traversia. The stout-legged wren (genus Pachyplichas) was originally split into two species, but more recent research disputes this. The final genus was Dendroscansor, which had one species, the long-billed wren. A Mitochondrial DNA study in 2016 resolved much of the phylogeny, though the placement of Dendroscansor was unresolved due to lack of DNA testing due to the rarity of its remains. It was found that Xenicus was paraphyletic with respect to Pachyplichas, and that the stout legged wrens must have evolved from a gracile legged ancestor, and the paper suggested placing the Pachyplichas species within Xenicus. It was also found that the split between Lyall's wren and other acanthisittids probably took place during the Oligocene, over 30 million years ago so acanthisittids must have survived the Oligocene drowning. A cladogram is given below:
Species
Genus Acanthisitta
Rifleman: Acanthisitta chloris
Genus Xenicus
†Bushwren, Xenicus longipes
New Zealand rock wren or South Island wren, Xenicus gilviventris
Genus Traversia
†Lyall's wren or Stephens Island wren, Traversia lyalliGenus Pachyplichas †South Island stout-legged wren or Yaldwyn's wren, Pachyplichas yaldwyni
†North Island stout-legged wren or Grant-Mackie's wren, Pachyplichas jagmiGenus Dendroscansor †Long-billed wren, Dendroscansor decurvirostrisGenus Kuiornis' †Kuiornis indicator''
Description
New Zealand wrens are tiny birds; the rifleman is the smallest of New Zealand's birds. Their length ranges from 7 to 10 cm and their weight from as little as 5–7 g for the rifleman, to an estimated 50 g for the extinct stout-legged wren. The New Zealand rock wren (and probably the bushwren) weighs between 14 and 22 g and the extinct long-billed wren weighed around 30 g.
The plumage of the New Zealand wrens is only known for the four species seen by European scientists. All these species have dull green and brown plumage and all except Lyall's wren have a prominent supercilium above the eye. The plumage of males and females were alike in Lyall's wren and the bushwren; the New Zealand rock wren shows slight sexual dimorphism in its plumage and differences between the plumage of riflemen are pronounced, with the male having bright green upperparts and the female being duller and browner.
Both the New Zealand rock wren and the rifleman also show sexual dimorphism in size; unusually for passerines, the female is larger than the male. The female rifleman also exhibits other differences from the male, having a slightly more upturned bill than the male and a larger hind claw.
The New Zealand wrens evolved in the absence of mammals for many millions of years and the family was losing the ability to fly. Three species are thought to have lost the power of flight: the stout-legged wren, the long-billed wren and Lyall's wren. The skeletons of these species have massively reduced keels in the sternum and the flight feathers of Lyall's wren also indicate flightlessness. Contemporary accounts of the Lyall's wrens on Stephens Island describe the species as scurrying on the ground rather than flying.
Distribution and habitat
The New Zealand wrens are endemic and restricted to the main and offshore islands of New Zealand; they have not been found on any of the outer islands such as the Chatham Islands or the Kermadec Islands. Prior to the arrival of humans in New Zealand (about A.D. 1280), they had a widespread distribution across both the North and South Islands and on Stewart Island/Rakiura. The range of the rifleman and bushwren included southern beech forest and podocarp-broadleaf forest, with the range of the bushwren also including coastal forest and scrub, particularly the Stewart Island subspecies. The New Zealand rock wren is specialised for the alpine environment, in areas of low scrub and scree from 900 m up to 2,400 m. Contrary to its other common name (the South Island wren), fossil evidence shows it was more widespread in the past and once lived in the North Island. Lyall's wren was once thought to have been restricted to the tiny Stephens Island in Cook Strait, but fossil evidence has shown the species was once widespread in both the North and South Islands. The stout-legged wren was similarly found on both islands, but fossils of the long-billed wren have only been found in the South Island. Fossils of the long-billed wren are far less common than those of the other species, in fact, its bones are the rarest fossil finds in New Zealand.
After the wave of extinctions and range contractions caused by the arrival of mammals in New Zealand, the New Zealand wrens have a much reduced range. The New Zealand rock wren is now restricted to the South Island and is declining in numbers. The range of the rifleman initially contracted with the felling of forests for agriculture, but it has also expanded its range of habitats by moving into plantations of introduced exotic pines, principally the Monterey pine. It also enters other human-modified habitat when it adjoins native forest.
Like all New Zealand passerines, the New Zealand wrens are sedentary and are not thought to undertake any migrations. It is not known if the extinct species migrated, but it is considered highly unlikely, as three of the extinct species were flightless. The situation with the New Zealand rock wren is an ornithological mystery, as they are thought to live above the snow line where obtaining food during the winter would be extremely difficult. Searches have found no evidence that they move altitudinally during the winter, but they are also absent from their normal territories. They may enter a state of torpor (like the hummingbirds of the Americas or a number of Australian passerines) during at least part of the winter, but this has not yet been proved.
References
External links
Birds of New Zealand
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to New Zealand
|
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206917
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham%20Students%27%20Union
|
Durham Students' Union
|
Durham Students' Union, operating as Durham SU, is the students' union of Durham University in Durham, England. It is an organisation, originally set up as the Durham Colleges Students’ Representative Council in 1899 and renamed in 1969, with the intention of representing and providing welfare and services for the students of the University of Durham.
Location
The Students' Union occupies and manages Dunelm House, a university-owned building in the centre of Durham where a wide variety of student activities take place. Designed by Architects Co-Partnership, the Brutalist, angular concrete building was completed in 1966 under the supervision of architect Sir Ove Arup, whose Kingsgate Bridge, adjacent, opened two years earlier. Built into the steeply sloping bank of the River Wear, Dunelm House is notable internally for the fact that the main staircase linking all five levels of the building runs in an entirely straight line. This was intended by the building's architects to create the feeling of an interior street.
In 1968 Dunelm House won a Civic Trust award, though it has been described by students as "The ugliest building in Durham". On the other hand, Sir Nikolaus Pevsner, the noted architecture historian, considered the building, "Brutalist by tradition but not brutal to the landscape ... the elements, though bold, [are] sensitively composed." Durham City Council's Local Plan notes that the "powerful" building, together with Kingsgate Bridge, "provides an exhilarating pedestrian route ... out into open space over the river gorge".
Social events
During the late 1960s and the 1970s Dunelm House was a popular music venue, hosting bands including Pink Floyd, Wishbone Ash and Procol Harum. According to their drummer Simon Kirke, Free's most popular song All Right Now was written by bassist Andy Fraser and singer Paul Rodgers in their dressing room in Dunelm House, after a set of slower material had failed to excite the audience.
Relation to colleges
Durham University is a collegiate university and therefore the role of the central students' union is different from most other universities. Each of Durham's colleges has its own student representative body, known in most colleges as the Junior Common Room, which provides services and organises events within the college; while many decisions within the central Students' Union are made with the involvement of JCR SU Representatives. Recently, a small number of the JCRs have opted to disaffiliate from the students' union - including University College and Hild Bede - following the controversial 2020 officer and trustee elections.
Future
The announcement in early 2005 that Durham SU had been operating with a large annual loss has prompted serious debate on the future of the organisation and the building in which it is currently based. According to Durham's student newspaper, Palatinate, Durham SU's debt to the bank and its parent institution stood at £303,000 in June 2005. Restructuring of the organisation followed and resulted in a small surplus being posted for the year 2005/06. In 2007/08 a reorganisation took place, which resulted in the adoption of a new constitution. Governance of Durham SU was also updated with the introduction of a Board of Trustees consisting of the five student officers, four elected student trustees and five co-opted trustees.
On a number of occasions, some have suggested have that Durham SU might disaffiliate from the NUS, however until 2009 none of those opposed to affiliation had pushed the issue to a full student debate and vote. In 2009 however, a referendum took place proposing that Durham SU should stay affiliated to the NUS. Students voted convincingly in favour of affiliation with 80% (2564) of students who voted voting to stay affiliated and 20% (624) voting to disaffiliate.
Shortly after this, controversy arose regarding a planned debate, "Multiculturalism in Britain", at the Durham Union Society, which was to involve a recently elected BNP MEP, and which was subsequently cancelled over alleged fears for student safety, reopened the issue of NUS affiliation. A petition for a second referendum was put before the Union and on 12 March 2010, the referendum concluded with a majority of voting students voting to disaffiliate from the NUS, meaning that Durham Students' Union disaffiliated from the NUS after the end of the 2009-2010 academic year.
A third referendum on NUS affiliation was held in January 2011 with 60% of students voting to reaffiliate with NUS.
Currently, there is an ongoing controversy surrounding the results of the 2020 election, with 58% of votes for Re-Open Nominations being cast aside as a result of rule breaches by the Re-Open Nominations campaign. The Re-Open Nominations campaign faced accusations of racism and after the election has been cited as the cause of a spike in racist online abuse. Several college Common Rooms have chosen to 'disaffiliate', 'disassociate' or 'disengage' from the Students Union citing the decision to dismiss Re-Open Nominations.
Notable former officers
A number of notable figures have been involved in Durham Students' Union in the past. These include:
Andrew McFarlane (judge), former President
Michael Izza, former President
Mo Mowlam, former Deputy President (Education and Welfare)
Jeremy Vine, former Editor of Palatinate
George Alagiah, former Editor of Palatinate
Former Presidents
This list includes all presidents of the Durham Students' Union since being re-named in 1969/70.
1970-71 Richard J. Ayre, University
1971-72 Michael Eccles, St Cuthbert's
1972-73 Patrick Wolfe, St Chad's
1973-74 John Spens, Collingwood
1974-75 Adrian Dorber, St John's
1975-76 Andrew McFarlane, Collingwood
1976-77 John McGahan, University
1977-78 David J. Smith, Ushaw
1978-79 A.C. Jenkins, Van Mildert
1979-80 S.P.S. Weatherseed, St Cuthbert's
1980-81 Peter G. Gray, University
1981-82 Robert J. Beckley, University
1982-83 Michael D.M. Izza, St Cuthbert's
1983-84 Jacqui Mellor, Trevelyan
1984-85 Simon Pottinger, University
1985-86 Patrick J. Martin, Collingwood
1986-87 Katherine M. Ross, Van Mildert
1987-88 Nicholas V. Thorne, Grey
1988-89 Graeme N. Rainey, Van Mildert
1989-90 Jonathan S. Rich, Hild Bede
1990-91 Aidan W.G. Poole, St Aidan's
1991-92 Robert W. Groves, St John's
1992-93 Daniel Redford, St Cuthbert's
1993-94 Jon Walsh, Van Mildert
1994-95 Richard Taylor, Van Mildert
1995-96 Emily Baldock, Van Mildert
1996-97 Ewan Jenkins, St Cuthbert's
1997-98 Charlotte Nash-Wanklin, Collingwood
1998-99 Brian Ahearne, Hatfield
1999-00 Dave Park, Trevelyan
2000-01 Eddie Moore, Grey
2001-02 Emily Fieran-Reed, St Mary's
2002-03 Ben Wood
2003-04 Craig Jones
2004-05 Tom Page
2005-06 Nick Pickles
2006-07 Alex Duncan
2007-08 Flo Herbert
2008-09 Andrew Welch
2009-10 Natalie Crisp
2010-12 Mike King
2012-13 Archie Dallas
2013-15 Dan Slavin, Stephenson
2015-16 Millie Tanner, St Cuthbert's
2016-17 Alice Dee, St Aidan's
2017-18 Megan Croll, St Cuthbert's
2018-19 George Walker, Van Mildert
2019-20 Kate McIntosh, St Cuthbert's
2020-21 Seun Twins, Hild Bede
References
External links
Durham Students' Union
DUCK Home page
Students' unions in England
Students' Union
|
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